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muscle mechanics? | i was reading about this and it's really fascinating, there's just one thing i don't get. during cross bridging, the atp hydrolyses into adp and phosphate, what is the source of atp replenishment? how does it magically keep turning into atp? | the mitochondria of the cell are constantly at work generating atp by oxidative phosphorylation. the muscle also generates some atp directly via glycolysis. this is central cellular metabolism and keeps all of our cells running all of the time. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what keeps bullet drop from following the basic kinematic equation? | i was having an argument with my friend today about the numbers on bullet drop. i was saying that i could use d=d+vt+.5at^2. i tried to determine the time using muzzle velocity and distance then used the above equation to estimate bullet drop. i kept getting that the bullet drop is higher than it actually is (according to ballistic calculators.) i know that there is drag and spin drift but they would only increase the drop. what accounts for the difference in the formula and the actual drop? or am i just stupid? for example: for a 308 round shot at 1800fps (approximately 550m/s) at a distance of 300m what is the drop? the formula would state that the bullet is in the air for about .55 seconds. then you would take the formula above and solve for drop due to gravity which is about 1.4 meters. the ballistics tables say that is about .6 meters. where is the difference coming from? | i suspect that you neglected the zero range in your calculator. the sight of a weapon is calibrated to a certain distance. when you shoot at a target you do not want to calculate the bullet drop each time. so the sight already is adjusted for the bullet drop up to the sight range (e.g. 50m). if you shoot at a target which is closer, your bullet will hit above the target point, if your bullet is further away, your bullet will hit below. if your sight range is zero meter (makes little sense for most purposes) your bullet drop should be more or less what you calculated. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there skeletal markers to tell if a fossil had keratin quills? | 21st century scientists have been trying to figure out if all dinosaurs had feathers, as feathers (keratin-based) don't hold up well to fossilization. but i'm curious about hedgehog/porcupine-like quills, as it seems like there must be some specialized musculature to 'flex' and hold these quills aloft. does a quill adaptation come with skeletal marks such that we'd know if extinct species had quills or not? | in porcupines, quill flexion is controlled by the arrector muscles. these involuntary muscles, as far as i know, don't attach to any bones. something similar controls feather movement in birds. so the only way is really for the soft tissue to fossilize in very fine detail. in which case the quills would be preserved too. but - here's the thing - quills have in fact been preserved, on *psittacosaurus* smf r 4970. the only problem is that these were probably entirely stiffened, because their bases were embedded near the spine. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does the brain process measurements (i.e. distance or speed) . is it anything like the first person view in the terminator movies? | whenever i'm playing ball or driving or doing anything where my body is constantly making split second adjustments i imagine whirring numbers kinda like the first person view from the terminator movies. does the brain work in any way like that or is there a different mechanism all together at work? | it's rather too complex explain in one comment but the gist of it is that the brain takes the sensory information and integrates them in such a way to account for the difference in time and intensity of these signals (information from one eye and than the other for vision, inner-ear chambers for balance, ears for sound, tactile sensory from different 'patches' of skin, sensors in endocrine system, etc). autonomous centres in the brain make automatic adjustments to correct posture, blood pressure and a myriad of other things to maintain homeostasis. at the very basic level, think of brain cells as astronomers, looking trying to measure star speeds and orbits. point by point they evaluate what's changed in the 'picture' that they're looking at and come up with a meaningful explanation, "it's speeding up here and starts to move this way before it slows down to move this way". understanding these consciously at real-time? that is just conscioussness working its magic :) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how does hyperthermia kill you, biologically speaking? | looked a bit at the wiki page. it tells you what symptoms you get at various temperatures, and the maximum temperature you can survive in until you're likely to die. but it doesn't go into much detail in regards to the exact biological mechanism that hyperthermia kills you, only that it does. more curious than anything else. i'm intrigued by the fact that the human body seems to have a very 'narrow' temperature range it can survive in, in both directions. | denaturation of proteins such that life processes are unable to keep working. effectively why meat goes brown when you cook it - the haem molecule is misshapen by the heat and ceases to function the same way this can happen to all the proteins in your body and even if you return your body to normal temperature, the meat is still cooked, you still die. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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a few years ago noreena hertz gave a ted talk and said that a part of the brain 'shuts down' when listening to experts. is the anterior cingulate cortex what she was talking about? links in comments. i already asked neuroscience. | here's the link to the [video](_url_1_). this is a link to a paper on the [anterior cingulate cortex](_url_0_). i think it's relevant, but i'm not a neuroscientist so it's not incredibly easy to read. i thought it might be helpful. | the study she is referring to comes from greg burns's lab at emory university. it is published in an open-access journal, so you can read it here: _url_0_ the actual results of the study are considerably more complex than the description given in hertz's ted talk. please note that hertz is not a neuroscientist. what she said is "as they listened to the expert's voices, the independent decision-making parts of the brain switched off. it literally flatlined!" this is a pretty far-fetched statement, since in a healthy person parts of the brain do not suddenly "flatline", nor could fmri tell us such a thing. fmri measures relative changes in brain activity by comparing different psychological conditions to each other. there is no absolute "off" in fmri, rather what we find is relatively less indication of brain activity in one condition compared to another. in the study, people made financial decisions with or without expert advice. in the non-expert advice condition, a network of brain regions tracked along with the amount of money at risk in the financial decision. this makes sense given that people were concentrating on evaluating the risk. however, when expert advice was present, these brain regions no longer tracked with the amount of risk. this is not to say that they were "off" or unresponsive, but no longer appear to engage in the evaluation process. the interpretation is that people have "offloaded" the decision on to the experts. the set of brain regions that showed a changed in their relationship to the task included the anterior cingulate as you mention, but several other regions including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and insular cortex. citation: engelmann jb, capra cm, noussair c, berns gs (2009) expert financial advice neurobiologically “offloads” financial decision-making under risk. plos one 4(3): e4957. | 2 | [] | [
"http://psych.colorado.edu/~mbanich/p/anteriorcingulatecortex.pdf",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WNTk29zXl4A"
] | [
"http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0004957"
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how does a color test like this work? the answers i got were specifically directed at problems i'm aware of. uncanny, actually. | here's the quiz, it takes like 3 minutes. _url_0_ i read the little blurb about it... but i'd like some other thoughts please? | it's called the lüscher color test and [a study](_url_0_) to test its agreement with the very authoritative minnesota multiphasic personality inventory apparently found that they don't correlate very well together. for my part, i took it and felt that it "spoke to" me. i then took it three more times, with my eyes closed and clicking around the screen at random, and still felt that it spoke to me. i suspect it's one of those tests that gives vague results that can apply to just about anyone. | 7 | [] | [
"http://www.colorquiz.com/index.php"
] | [
"http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ299316&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ299316",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forer_Effect"
] | [
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what do the numbers and letter "452b" signify in the recently discovered planet kebler 452b? | the naming conventions are described on [this page](_url_0_) from the international astronomical union. the first part of the name -- here, *kepler* -- refers to the instrument/mission that has identified this system, unless the star already has a name in our existing catalogues. the number is the order in which the instrument identified this system; the first system kepler identified is kepler 1, the second is kepler 2, etc. the letter (always lower case) tells you the order in which the planets around that star were discovered, with the one caveat that the list begins with *b*. so the first planet around that star gets labeled *b*, the second gets labeled *c*, and so forth. note that the letters for planetary labels are in order of discovery, not in order of distance from the host star. if the planet is around a star already in catalogues or with a name, then the existing catalogue listing or name of the star is used, followed by *b*, *c*, *d*, etc. for the first, second, third, etc. planets discovered around that star. edit: typos fixed. | 19 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.iau.org/public/themes/naming_exoplanets/"
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] |
|
could you measure the hydration of your body through bracelet band? | i was wondering if it would be possible to somehow measure how hydrated your body is through a nike fuelband like bracelet? thanks! | based on this article: _url_0_ the answer is "no, not to any useful degree". you might be able to sense moderate to severe dehydration, but probably not. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.jacn.org/content/26/suppl_5/575S.long"
] | [
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] |
magnetic energy (free energy) question/discussion. | are these videos of perpetual energy (with magnets) i'm starting to notice on youtube and the likes actually a viable way to harvest energy? i see these magnetic wheels that have counter magnetic wheels around them that make the inside wheel spin in a certain direction. which i would assume you can put a generator to and start to harvest energy off of. what i want to know is, do these work?? [here's an example of what i'm talking about.](_url_0_) | no, these are various types of well-known hoaxes. at least as far as the newman machine is concerned, two fair overviews are here: _url_1_ and here: _url_0_ ; the latter text is pretty badly written (it looks like a set of personal notes/commentaries), but the information itself looks correct to me. unfortunately i don't have access to the guy's book. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=usBFNJSiU1g#t=133s"
] | [
"http://www.phact.org/articles/free/newman.php",
"http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/590/is-it-possible-to-build-a-machine-that-generates-more-power-than-it-uses",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laws_of_thermodynamics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_energy_suppression"
] | [
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[to mods] what is the policy re this subreddits quality? | recently, this subreddit suffers increasingly from nonsense posts like [this one](_url_0_). in order to maintain/restore the initial quality, can we make use of the [report] link so that you mods just send such threads into the digital nirvana? | i second this. i am not above answering a very elementary, yet earnest question, but some things do cross the line into assinine. | 15 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/ie02m/if_i_take_a_wire_on_one_hand_and_corn_on_the/"
] | [] | [
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determining volume of solutions? | say i have five cups of water, and one cup of salt. if i combine the two and stir, the final volume is definitely not two cups. why is this? is there any way to determine what the final volume would be? what if, instead of salt, i have sugar? | it is possible to predict the final volume if you weigh the salt, rather than measure a solid volumetrically, and refer to a previously measured density for the salt solution you are creating. same goes for sugar. volume = mass/density if you don't have an accurate density for the solution you are creating, then no, you will have to measure the final volume. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
do we use the same muscles for resting inhalation as we do for forced inhalation? | **the muscles we use during resting inhalation include (mostly thoratic muscles):** 1. diraphram 2. internal intercostals 3. external intercostals 4. costal elevators 5. serratus posterior inferior 6. serratus posterior superior i would assume we use the same for forced inhalation, but we use them manually or with more force? sorry for sounding a bit redundant... also, sorry if you are manually breathing. | the scalenes are used in normal breathing as well, the serratus however are certainly an accessory muscle, sternocleidomastid, pectoralis major and traps also come to mind off the top of my head. there's definitely some debate over some of these though, i don't think we have any good consesus on some of this. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would it be feasible to build a pressure cabin based on springs? | the pressure at the bottom of the mariana trench is over 16,000 psi which can crush all but the most masterfully engineered vessels. we've done it, but [not comfortably](_url_0_) in the least. the cockpit of the deapsea challenger is a 3 inch thick steel sphere 43 inches in diameter. building a vessel with a large enough hull to hold a full crew comfortable would prove much more difficult. instead of a rigid structure that fully resists the crushing force, could we build a vessel that can contract as more pressure is applied? it seems a vessel of this sort would put a lot less stress on the structure. looking ahead to the future, more pressure resistant vessels could come in handy should we explore the oceans of europa or other moons. | springs will focus all of the pressure wherever they are attached, transmitting it to the interior hull. they can't relieve pressure, only transmit it. the issue is that there is a massive pressure *differential* between the inside of the vessel and the outside. you're trying to keep 16,000 psi water from forcing its way into the 14 psi interior. changing the size of the exterior doesn't change the pressure differential. the metals themselves aren't going to collapse from the pressure, but seals and weak spots can be blown inward. | 4 | [] | [
"http://deepseachallenge.com/the-sub/pilot-sphere/"
] | [] | [
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how legitimate is satoshi kanazawa's new study citing that the more intelligent a woman is, the more likely she is to be childfree? | it's blowing up the blogosphere, but i can't find a link to the original study everywhere. [example](_url_0_) i'm childfree myself, but this strikes me as troll bait. and this is the guy who said black women are inherently less attractive, but if the study is legitimate, i'd like to know. (and then see a similar study undertaken for men). if anyone can link to the study, that would be awesome. or even a press release. i understand it's probably too soon for anyone to have an informed opinion on it. | the legitimacy is in the data, not the outcome. the study shows a correlation between intelligence and absence of offspring. it's not necessarily that intelligent women choose not to have children, or that women who do choose to have children are stupid. it's just an aggregation of several women's choices, showing a trend. there are other, widely-accepted studies connecting number of offspring to several other factors in a woman's life, like geography, income, education, life expectancy...etc. it all points to a trend which can be summed up in a blanket statement: women tend to have less children as their socioeconomic status increases (or vice-versa, as it isn't always clear whether children improve or detract from socioeconomic status and which of the two is cause/effect). | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/she-the-people/wp/2013/08/07/are-smarter-women-less-likely-to-want-children/"
] | [
"https://lesacreduprintemps19.files.wordpress.com/2012/08/intelligence-a-unifying-construct-for-the-social-sciences-richard-lynn-and-tatu-vanhanen.pdf"
] | [
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is time different at different points on the surface of psr j1748-2446ad? | was watching a video about neutron stars recently and the star psr j1748-2446ad came up with it's rather crazy spin rate (24% the speed of light). which got me to thinking since speed is determined by distance traveled and time would that not mean that if you could stand on the surface of this pulsar you'd experience time differently if you stood at the equator vs nearer the poles since you'd be traveling at different speeds? if that's the case then does that not mean that the star is ageing at different rates across it's own surface? this may be a nonsensical question but i can't exactly see why. | it's not nonsense, it's relativity. let us consider only the effects due to special relativity (i.e. relative motion of a point on the equator compared to the north pole) and ignore all the myriad reasons i can't stand on the surface of a neutron star. if i were to synchronize my watch to a clock on the north pole of this star and then make a round trip to the equator, my watch would be behind the clock when i return. now, if i include general relativity, things get way more complicated and the answer may change (the clock may be behind my watch or measure exactly the same interval). but it's certainly true that clocks moving relative to one another or in different places even on earth's surface must account for relativistic effects when comparing their measurements. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does electricity work differently in a zero g environment? | such as the space shuttle or the iss? does the wiring have to be worked different or in a way more efficient that would not work on earth? also does the system still have to be grounded when there is no such thing as down? | electricity is based on electromagnetic force. it is one of the four fundamental forces, along with gravity. now, electromagnetic force is 10^36 times stronger than gravity. so, the presence/absence of gravity will have no noticeable effect on electricity. [source](_url_0_) | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_forces#Overview"
] | [
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a question regarding aquaporins | i am an ap biology student who has a question regarding aquaporins and how their polarity allows only water molecules to move through them, and not ions. my question: if, say, a positively charged ion came near the aquaporin, it would at first be attracted to it because of its negative polarity, but would then be repelled by the positive polarity. would the ion be stuck in a cycle of attraction and repulsion in the aquaporin, or does it somehow repulse anything with a charge? i would greatly appreciate an answer to this. thank you! | so! a few things to start off with: aquaporins tend to share a few motifs that help them selectively allow water to pass. these are the npa (asparagine, proline, alanine) motif, which forces water through in a specific way to prevent a proton chain, and the ar/r (aromatic/arginine) motif. the npa filter actually has two positive charges, which repels positively charged ions. this is necessary so that the cell can maintain its membrane potential. the ar/r (in aqp-1, this is histidine/arginine) is thought to be the true work-horse behind the porin. because of the small size of this filter, single water molecules can bind and then pass through the pore. larger ions or molecules tend to not favor interacting with the arginine of this filter because it's energetically favorable to remain in the solvation shell. the polarity i think you're referring to is the work of the npa filters on the b and e (?) helices of the porin. since the helices run anti-parallel, the water molecule flips orientation halfway through the porin. this prevents water molecules lining up in the channel and shuttling hydrogen ions through, which would lead to a loss of membrane potential and a ph inside the cell that would denature proteins/stop pretty much every cellular function. not so great. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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"sound healing" - any studies on music with alpha waves or beta waves mixed in, placebo effect or proven effective? | there really isn't anything to it. "alpha, beta, or gamma brainwaves" mixed into music is just pseudoscientific mumbo-jumbo, so you're right to be skeptical. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
nir shaviv's climate skepticism --- what's the deal? | i've been going [name](_url_2_)-by-[name](_url_0_) through the signatories of [this wsj open letter](_url_1_) promoting climate skepticism. basically all are old crackpots with little to know relevant expertise, some recently employed by exxon and/or shell. nir shaviv, tho, has been harder to find dirt on ([best i could do, as a non-scientist](_url_3_)). is he legit? is the science he's claiming to rely on for his skepticism legit? love some help with this. thanks. | not every skeptic or denialist is an outright crackpot. some scientists do really think they found a different mechanism to explain global warming and they should be taken seriously. however, these skeptics' theories usually don't hold up to even the most cursory scrutiny. this is also the case for shaviv's theory on cosmic rays. he is not the only one propagating cosmic rays as the main cause for warming btw., there's also svensmark. their physics is not completely wrong, there is definitely a link between cosmic rays and cloud cover, which in turn influences the climate. the problem however is that the cosmic ray theory can't explain the warming over the last three decades, in which solar activity was decreasing. so why would these scientists still hold on to their theories despite a lack of evidence? i don't know, but i'm a scientist myself and i know how hard it is to let go of your ideas sometimes. especially when there's a big enough lobby happy to believe you and give you money to talk about this research of yours. according to [desmogblog](_url_1_), a great resource on climate denialism, shaviv at least doesn't deny anthropogenic warming completely, he just places our contribution at roughly 1/3 ([its more like 3/4](_url_0_)). so instead of a paid denier like many others i would say he's simply a mediocre scientist who won't let go of a disproven theory. | 7 | [] | [
"http://brutishandshort.com/2012/01/30/shocking-news-both-global-warming-denialists-and-the-wsjs-editorial-page-are-dishonest-pt-2/",
"http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970204301404577171531838421366.html?mod=googlenews_wsj",
"http://brutishandshort.com/2012/01/27/shock-news-global-warming-denialists-are-dishonest-pt-1/",
"http://brutishandshort.com/2012/01/31/shocking-news-both-global-warming-denialists-and-the-wsjs-editorial-page-are-dishonest-pt-3-nir-shaviv-edition/"
] | [
"http://www.nature.com/news/at-least-three-quarters-of-climate-change-is-man-made-1.9538",
"http://www.desmogblog.com/nir-shaviv"
] | [
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olympic records - how is it possible they continually get broken? | such as running, swimming, etc...are humans simply becoming faster ?? maybe it just seems this way... | i read some popular science article about this a long time ago. even if the general/average quality of athletes doesn't improve, over time the record performance will asymptotically approach some theoretical maximum performance. so, in this scenario, records will continue to be broken, just by smaller and smaller margins. edit: just googled, and this article discusses my point: _url_0_ | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.theledger.com/article/20060221/NEWS/602210305"
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is this any intuitive way to think about normal distribution function ? | normal distribution density function is given by: f(x) = (1/sqrt(2*pi*sig2)) * e(x-mi2 / 2mi2)) is there any way to visualize why there is pi,sqrt and esome stuff there ? i remember great answer for making sense out of euler formula some time ago here on askscience i wonder if there is similar way to make sense of normal distribution density function. one other thing... how do i go about arriving at the formula ? i am interested in arrival process, not proving that it's correct once given. i try to figure out how people figured to put e, pi and sqrt in there to describe normal distribution curve :) (i will probably understand most math thrown at me given time so even some "higher level" intuitions would be very useful). | the gaussian distribution is e^-x^2. it is the heart to the shape that is called the normal distribution. the pis, the sigmas, the various other values are just adjustments. the constant term in front of the exponential is just a multiplier to make the area under the curve equivalent to 1 (so that the sum of the probabilities is 100%.)) the x-a term in the exponent is to shift the function right or left. ie if you set a to 5, the function would peak at 5. the sigma is widening the curve. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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centripital accelerat | i am trying to figure this out. at the equator, we supposedly weigh less than at the north pole due to the centripital force of the earth's rotation. however, i can not figure out why we don't weigh more at the equator. at any moment at the equator, both gravity and the centripital acceleration are pointing toward the center of the earth. why are people calculating the weight as fgravity - fcentripital acceleration? shouldn't it be the force of gravity plus the force of centripital acceleration, since they point in the same direction? please help clear my confusion. | try thinking of centripetal force not as a force that exists, but as a force that you need. let's say it takes 1000 newtons of force for you to stay on a merry-go-round and the only force keeping you on it (let's say your arms) is 800 newtons. it's not enough and you go flying. similarly gravity is kind of like your arms pulling a person down, and the centripetal force is the force needed to keep the person flying off into space. they "act" in the same direction, but only because centripetal force arises from another force acting on an object to change its direction (i.e. keeping you on earth rather than flying off in a straight line) lastly as a spoiler, your weight does not decrease by that much due to the rotation of the earth. centripetal acceleration is 0.034 m/s^2, while the acceleration due to gravity is 9.81 m/s^2, so your weight (the net force in newtons) is still your mass times 9.77 (based on some rough calculations) | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do see-through materials tend to be more fragile, and vice versa? | it seems that everything that's see-through is (relatively) fragile compared to anything that's not see-through (which is often much more sturdy). for instance iron and glass. why is it that see-through materials tend to be fragile and tough materials tend to be opaque? | it's not really the case, as there are plenty of non-see through materials that are fragile, as well as see-through materials that aren't (plastics) most ceramics for example are quite fragile, including stuff like tungsten carbide. | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the human pineal gland have photoreceptors? | it's ok if they are 'nonvisual' but are they there? i'm slightly familiar with iprgcs (intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells) which detect 480 nm (blue) light and transmit signals to our pineal gland to regulate melatonin release..... but are there any actual receptors on the pineal gland itself? this "third eye" idea... | photoreceptors -- no. iprgcs, by definition, are *retinal*. however, there is a more general question we can ask, which is: can cells outside of the retina be stimulated by light (without some sort of genetic or chemical modification)? the answer is nuanced -- yes, you can cause the depolarization of neurons with light, but it's not that they are "responding" to light in the same way as photoreceptors. some cells can be activated by light in the uv ([allegre, arvillier, and albe-fressard 1994](_url_7_)) and ir range (arvanitaki and chalazonitis 1961; [fork 1971](_url_0_); [hirase et al. 2012](_url_4_); [izzo et al. 2006](_url_1_)). an interesting thing about the hirase et al. study is that while they used fluorophores for imaging, they found similar depolarization even without them, suggesting that the effects were due to some endogenous mechanism. they identify two possible mechanisms: low intensity light might interact with endogenous [chromophores](_url_3_) on the neuronal membrane -- this might produce h*_2_*o*_2_* which would lead to a depolarization ([hockberger et al. 1999](_url_10_)) and a second mechanism, but they aren't quite sure what it might be. the earlier studies suggest that it's the presence of [carotenoids](_url_11_) that might be responsible. (note that these experiments are tricky because high intensity irradiation damages the neurons.) see also [wells et al. 2005](_url_9_) and [cayce et al. 2014](_url_8_). some studies found that ion channels were activated ([lugo et al. 2012](_url_5_)), but in the hirase study, they found activation even when sodium channels were blocked. so what's the actual mechanism? it seems that ir pulses are absorbed by water, increasing the temperature and thereby changing the capacitance of the plasma membrane, depolarizing the cell ([shapiro et al. 2012](_url_2_); see also [beier et al. 2014](_url_6_) who suggest that heating leads to nanoporation of the plasma membrane). so i would say that it's possible to cause the depolarization of neurons with (ir) light, but it's not at all the same mechanism that is responsible for the activation of photoreceptors (it's heating instead!) and it is therefore misleading to say that they are "light sensitive". | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://science.sciencemag.org/content/171/3974/907",
"http://research.vuse.vanderbilt.edu/srdesign/2010/group20/docs/Izzo2006.pdf",
"http://www.nature.com/ncomms/journal/v3/n3/abs/ncomms1742.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromophore",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/neu.10056/pdf",
"https://www.osapublishing.org/view_article.cfm?gotourl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww%2Eosapublishing%2Eorg%2FDirectPDFAccess%2FF42BB52C%2DCB74%2D9740%2DD3A6B4A58D3B92C2%5F227543%2Fboe%2D3%2D3%2D447%2Epdf%3Fda%3D1%26id%3D227543%26seq%3D0%26mobile%3Dno&org=",
"http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1741-2560/11/6/066006/meta",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0304394094905347",
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"https://www.osapublishing.org/ol/abstract.cfm?uri=OL-30-5-504",
"http://proceedings.spiedigitallibrary.org/proceeding.aspx?articleid=977354",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carotenoid"
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] |
are there any evolutionary psychology hypotheses that explain royal incest as practiced by the ancient egyptians or other cultures? | i know evo psych gets a lot of flack for being untestable/just-so-stories, but i'm curious what evolutionary psychologists would have to say this phenomenon. | i'm not an evolutionary psychologist, but i am a psychology graduate student and have taken a graduate-level course in evolutionary psychology. as it sounds like you already know, evolutionary psychology proposes an inherited aversion towards incest called the [westermarck effect](_url_0_). despite there being common and widespread revulsion towards incestuous relationships, this is not nearly as universal as one would expect from the [hypothesized evolutionary mechanisms](_url_4_). there is a lot of historical evidence that contradicts the universality of this effect and incest aversion (e.g., [this study](_url_3_)). so, your question seems to go beyond what has occurred in royals and other high status families. when such incestuous relationships were condoned and more common, they were seen as being appeasing to the gods or being otherwise supernaturally beneficial. as is clear by the prevalence of incest in the common era (and [differences in what is considered incest](_url_2_)), if such an evolutionary aversion mechanism does actually exist, it is not universal or perfect. as far as i can tell, there is no clear information as to why incestuous relationships may have gained acceptance at certain periods of time. however, it may be as simple as those small percentage of people not averse to incest gained political/religious influence at certain times and espoused their acceptance/perceived benefits. these cultural effects are very likely to be able to override the fairly weak evolutionary aversion (for example, consider the new preference towards slim women while evolution would predict a preference towards thicker women). one thing to note is that in royal families, the incidence of brother-sister/parent-child relationships was [very low](_url_1_) and these couplings rarely inherited the throne. very frequently, these types of relationships occurred in eras/cultures where this type of incest was [not considered acceptable](_url_2_). one of the most well known examples was that of caligula who married his sister in a time where rome had laws limiting marriages to between relations of at least four to six degrees of separation. with this, it is more likely that these types of relationships in royal families were more frequent because of political motivations (e.g., marriage to family means that power/resources are not further diffused) than any psychological mechanism. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westermarck_effect",
"http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00224498209551152#.Ub08bOfVB8E",
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00924434",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016230959600074X",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1525/aa.1948.50.3.02a00020/pdf"
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explanation of hyatt regency walkway collapse. specifically, why does adding bolts increase the load? | the original design had a beam, with a bolt at the end, with the nut connected at the bottom. the constructed structure had a beam with two bolts, the bolt closest the the center had a nut connected at the top, and the bolt at the end had a bolt connected at the bottom. here is the image if my explanation was hard to follow: _url_0_ | the issue with the hyatt regency collapse was more complex than just two bolts. in the original design, a single support beam ran all the way to the roof. one walkway hung about halfway down, and the other at the bottom of that beam. each nut only held the weight of its own walkway. thus, in the left diagram, you see each nut only supporting 1p. when they determined that plan was infeasible construction wise, they decided to mount the middle walkway to the roof beam(no change) and mount the bottom walkway to the middle walkway. this meant that the nuts holding the middle walkway now had to support themselves **and** all of the weight of the second walkway, or 2p. the stress on those nuts doubled. to put this in perspective, imagine two people hanging on a rope, one at the halfway point and one at the bottom. the rope supports both people, but each person supports themselves. now, move them so that the middle person is hanging onto the rope and the bottom person is holding onto their ankle. the rope holds the same weight, but the middle person now has to hold double the weight. | 11 | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/HRWalkway.svg"
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thought experiment: i'm holding the end of a thin pole many light-years long. despite its length, i can still twist it. could this twisting be used as a form of faster-than-light communication with someone at the other end of the pole? | short answer: no. long answer: keep in mind what it means to "twist" something, and note that no physical object is perfectly rigid. by twisting, what you're doing is rotating the molecule on one end of the rod, which then (using the chemical bonds, which are in turn based on electric forces) rotate other molecules, and so on until the twist is transmitted all the way to the other end. the key point is that the twisting is transmitted using an electrical force, which travels at the speed of light. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what conditions or assumptions are required for there to be a non-constant, time-dependent surface concentration in a diffusion system? | let's say that i have a perfect sphere, and i surround it with a fluid with concentration c1 that will diffuse into it. when solving the diffusion equation for the concentration profile "c", it is normal to assume that the concentration at the surface of the sphere is constant at the value of c1, which will be the boundary condition at the surface. what conditions are necessary for this to be true or a reasonable argument? what dimensional quantities/arguments allow for this assumption to be made? i believe it has to do with the size of the sphere, relative value of the diffusion constant d, and mass transfer resistance, but i want to understand more the technical aspects of the physical system that one should think about when approaching the boundary conditions of a problem like this. how would one make the argument, and what conditions would be necessary, that c1 itself was a function (of time) and not a constant at the surface? | could you please clarify your question? it's not clear what the "perfect sphere" is made of (i.e., is it empty or is it a material), what you mean by "fluid with concentration c1" (e.g., concentration within another material? density?), what the context is when you say "it is normal", or whether you're talking about the boundary condition just outside of the sphere or just inside it. what is the actual problem you're trying to solve? for example, if i have a gold sphere and surround it with a certain amount of oxygen, then over time some of the oxygen will diffuse into the gold. the amount of oxygen outside and inside the sphere will change over time. the equilibrium condition is when the [chemical potential](_url_0_) of oxygen inside and outside the sphere is equal (not when the concentrations are equal). depending on the conditions, we might approximate the amount of oxygen outside and inside the sphere as constant and zero, respectively, for example. i'm not sure if this is what you're asking about, however. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_potential"
] | [
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how do 3dpcr and quantitativepcr work? | these are techniques used in my lab and i understand the concept behind pcr. is there someone who could generalize the idea behind how these techniques work and what they're used to elucidate. thanks askscience! | qpcr is useful for quantitating gene expression. regular pcr can give you a qualitative idea of gene expression: isolate mrnas from an organism, convert to cdna, then run a pcr reaction. then check the dna concentration with a spectrophotometer. the problem is, pcr amplifies the dna exponentially- even cdna that's present in small amounts will be exponentially amplified by the time the pcr runs its course. so the amount of dna present after doing pcr won't accurately represent how much cdna was present before the pcr. qpcr monitors the amount of double stranded dna present in real time- after every pcr cycle. the dna won't get amplified exponentially until a certain number of pcr cycles have elapsed, after which it will be amplified exponentially- this is called the "threshold cycle". samples that have a larger amount of cdna in them to begin with have a lower threshold cycle than samples with less cdna to begin with. you can prepare an internal standard by doing serial dilutions of dna of known concentration and making a standard curve that relates fluorescence of a sample to dna concentration. you can use this standard curve to quantitate how much dna was in your sample when it reached its threshold cycle. by comparing expression of a gene you're interested in to expression of a gene whose expression level stays constant (a "housekeeping" gene), you can monitor how a gene's expression changes in different cell types, under different chemical conditions, or a multitude of other things. there are also lots of other cool things you can do with qpcr like monitoring environmental samples for the proportion of certain species of microorganisms. one of my projects uses qpcr so i would be glad to answer any questions about it! | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a constant of proportionality that describes the relationship between the size of the eye, the distance to an object and the percieved change in size of the object? | i was in work last night and we have several screens and monitors around the premises. i was looking at a 17" screen about 6m away and a 42" screen about 15m away (massively approximated values!) and even with the further distance the 42" screen still appeared larger, so i began to wonder if there is a constant that describes the change. i think that the size of the eye (or more accurately the aperture diameter and the quantity of rods and cones in the eye) will probably have an effect on the perception. another thing i was stuck with is measureing the percieved size. say if you held a ruler at a distance of 15cm from your eye and used that to measure relative size, would the ruler also be affected by the effect of perception? | the size of the eye doesn't really matter here. what you can do is calculate the angular size of the object from the distance you view it from. first convert the inches to metres. so we have 0.43 m and and 1.07 m. then we use some trigonometry to figure out the angle. think of a right triangle where your eye is in one corner, the right angle is in the middle of the screen, and the last corner is in one of the corners of the screen. one side of the triangle is half of the diagonal of the screen, one side is the distance to the screen and the hypotenuse we don't really care about here. the angle at your eye is then given by arctan(opposite side / adjacent side) or arctan(diagonal of the screen / 2 / distance to the screen), and this is half of the apparent angle of the diagonal of the screen. so for 17" at 6m away we get 2 * arctan(0.43m/2/6m)= 4.10 degrees and 42" at 15m away we get 2 * arctan(1.07m/2/15m)= 4.08 degrees so they should appear pretty much the same size, and if you say that your distances were massive approximations then we can't really say which one would have really appeared bigger. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is it possible that we could discover some place deeper than challenger's deep? | the ocean floor has been mapped out completely at low resolution- you can [view it on google earth](_url_0_). it's a relatively shallow slope down to the deepest point on earth, but it wasn't hard to find it. that said, as we continue to map the ocean floor in higher resolutions, we may find some small points that are deeper than the the valley itself, or we may find something like a cave system that goes much further down. | 63 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.google.com/earth/download/"
] | [
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|
how is the effect of ekman forcing on upwelling zones affected by the milankovitch cycles?" | i've never heard of such a connection. the time-scales are so different. if there were a link it would be part of the larger question of how the strength of surface winds varied over glacial/interglacial cycles. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can being stressed offer any beneficial applications? | so this may be strange to ask but let me explain. i have never been one to stress out on obstacles i face in life. this would seem fantastic but i have notice a critical flaw in it. my motivation for school work, self improvement, pursing relationships, and challenging life dilemmas, all seem to fly over my head. to put it as simple as i can. i don't care about much and i often wonder if i could stress out these subjects, i would in theory be more pressured hence (motivated) to try my best to provide relief from the stress. i'd just like to know is being stressed in some cases actually beneficial and how can i induce a sense of urgency to motivate myself to accomplish more things? | # short answer: yes! certain types of stress can be beneficial to your mental and physical health. the concept of stress can be further broken down into two subtypes. you are likely familiar with the first one: it is **distress**, and it is commonly considered to be synonymous with stress. this is the bad stress you experience: the test coming up that you're not prepared for, the bills you can't pay, the break-up you can't seem to get over. the second subtype, and one surprisingly less discussed, is [**eustress**](_url_0_)**.** this is the anticipatory feeling of something good about to happen: a first date, a delicious meal, that warm fuzzy feeling you get around the holidays. it can also result from giving something difficult the old college try and succeeding: passing that big test you didn't think you were prepared for, getting into the dream college you thought was a pipe dream, being hired at that dream job. eustress is important because it can keep up one's motivation, stave off depression, and increase self-confidence. it can also help combat some of the negative physical effects of distress, such as high blood pressure, decreased immune response, and the like. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C44&q=eustress&btnG="
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i couldn't find a /r/askastrology. why do we only see a cone shaped universe on both sides? (image link inside). | _url_0_ edit: not astrology, astronomy. i meant /r/askastronomy | the plane of the milky way goes up-down through that image. we can't see through all the dust & gas in the milky way - we have to look "above" and "below" the disc, hence the pattern. | 20 | [] | [
"http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_CiRP0UZPhGY/S0YV5mRcLnI/AAAAAAAAAgQ/qvD2dZmraNU/s1600-h/Known_universe.jpg"
] | [] | [
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how am i able to think about two things at the same time? | for example: if i am counting money, i can think about a completely different topic while doing so and not lose track of my counting. if i am singing a song, i can also think about how the song is making me feel simultaneously without missing a lyric. sometimes i will even be reading something but another part of my mind is thinking about something else, yet i seem to not miss anything about what i am reading and i am consciously thinking about other things. | althoguh not an entirely scientific response, people can generally "focus" on one intensive thought process while also being able to perform a more "automatic" thing. take your example of singing the song: if you know the song very well, the words just come naturally and doesn't cost a lot of brain processing, but thinking critically about how a song makes you feel is much more intensive and requires some concentration. generally people can't actually think of two engaging things at once, but instead will rapidly switch from one thought to the other. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there a physical limit to how much we can "know"? | in case the title isn't clear enough: i'm curious as to what limits the brain has on retaining ideas/memories/skills/knowledge. is there a point where the brain simply can't store any new information? if so, roughly when is that? | scientists have determined that are short-term memory have a limit of about 7 things. it is reasonable to assume that the long-term memory also has a limit but said limit is unknown currently. this is mostly because we do not live long enough to reach said limit and the limit (in my conjecture) is irrelevant because by the time we have the technology to live long enough to reach it, we should be able to expand our memory by connecting our brains to computers. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what phonon modes are occupied at temperatures above the debye temperature? | my understanding of the debye frequency is that it's the highest energy lattice vibration. molecular solids have low debye temperatures (~10^1 k). if there is a process that needs significantly more energy than the debye frequency, where does it get the energy? multiple phonons at the debye frequency? i'm specifically thinking about spin-phonon interactions, where excitations in the spin manifold are (*can be) on the order of 10^2 k and the debye temperature is 10^1 k. more general discussion and references are definitely welcome. | the debye frequency/temperature is an arbitrary parameter introduced so that the total number of phonon modes is the same as what you would expect classically. its also roughly the temperature above which classical statistical mechanics is valid. it is by no means the 'highest energy lattice vibration'. optical phonons, which are ignored in the debye model, are typically much higher in energy than the acoustic phonons. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how would viscity effect vibrations in a fluid? would a lower or higher viscocity be more effective in dampening them? | that's extremely dependent on the specifics of the vibrations and whether you mean dynamic or bulk viscosity. the two affect damping in opposite ways. in the simplest situations, viscosity isn't really important to vibrations, but in other situations it can be the dominant effect (like in non-newtonian fluids or shock absorbers). [i had an older comment about related phenomena here](_url_2_) that goes over transient behavior (how sound is created in viscous fluids), but you seem to be asking more about steady-state behavior like a damper or sound being transmitted through a fluid. bulk viscosity is directly proportional to damping sound. higher bulk viscosity means more damping. typically this only really applies to gases, since they can lose energy adiabatically. this is what people talk about when they describe attenuation in fluids, but it's rarely described as damping. high bulk viscosity usually implies gas-like behavior, which usually implies low dynamic viscosity. normally viscosity means dynamic/shear viscosity. this kind of viscosity is essentially absent in plane waves (when the source of vibration is far away), but dominant around point sources. when adjacent parts of the fluid are moving in different directions you get shear. that's what happens when sound comes from a point source, since the sound [moves outward, away from all the other sound](_url_1_). for sound, shear stress and therefore energy loss to viscosity is proportional to the characteristic acoustic impedance of the fluid. acoustic impedance is the ratio of flow to pressure. sound/vibrations in general are pressure waves, which push material back and forth, and amount of fluid that moves at a given pressure is the flow. normally when you consider sound you'll neglect the fact that fluid particles are actually flowing- it's typically pretty unimportant for bulk vibration transmission. it does still exist, though, and since there's flow there's an accompanying loss of energy through viscosity. the thing is... shear viscosity can increase local impedance, and in a highly nonlinear way. for simple sources and low-medium viscosity, increasing the viscosity will just increase loss. for very high viscosity fluids the resistance to shear will be so great that it just prevents shear and everything gets very weird and nonlinear. it's a bit simpler if you've got an orifice or a transducer like a shock absorber, where it depends almost totally on the geometry. the piston on a shock absorber [has a bunch of small holes](_url_0_) which increase the area that shear acts on, so in that case it doesn't matter much what the acoustic impedance of the fluid is. if the viscosity is too high it'll choke those holes and decrease the area for shear to act on, which actually lowers damping. more often viscosity comes into play for how sound is created. things like splashing and whatnot. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.gkn.com/globalassets/global-images/divisions/powder-metallurgy-product-tool-780x780/5.1-automotive-body-chasis-shock-absorber-piston-780x780-min.jpg",
"https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Marwan_Jaber/publication/221915498/figure/fig15/AS:305170027171844@1449769612260/Point-source-of-sound-reflecting-from-a-plane-surface.png",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/5z4wer/why_does_the_sound_of_cold_water_hitting_steel/devlukp/"
] | [
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|
which famous scientist do you most admire? | living or dead? my list'll be heavy on the guys who applied science beyond pure research and made their science important beyond just people within their field. * [vannevar bush](_url_2_) - arguably did more than anyone to make science important to the us. at one time, two-thirds of all the nation’s physicists were working under bush’s direction. he's also largely responsible for the mass production of penicillin and sulfa drugs. accurately [predicted today's internet](_url_4_) back before the silicon transistor was invented. * [fred terman]( _url_0_) - made science important to california. this student of vannevar bush who's occasionally credited with intentionally "engineering silicon valley". through his proteges shockley, hewlett and packard and 'his' business park that he got ge, kodak and varian to join - he created most of the us's semiconductor industry; and then moved on to transform stanford's chem department to become a biotech powerhouse, bringing syntex's us operations there, leading to the creation of syva, zoecon, alza, and dynapol. * [jacques cousteau](_url_3_) - a great mix of field research on the ocean (porpoises have sonar), inventing (breathing apparatus and submersibles) and perhaps most of all communication skills as noted in wikipedia: "*his work also created a new kind of scientific communication, criticised at the time by some academics. the so-called "divulgationism", a simple way of sharing scientific concepts, was soon employed in other disciplines and became one of the most important characteristics of modern television broadcasting.*" if i had to pick a still living one: * [aldo vieira da rosa](_url_1_) - great speaker and deep knowledge of everything from chemistry, aeronautics, physics, and electrical engineering. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://forum.stanford.edu/forum-staff/carolyn/terman.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldo_da_Rosa",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vannevar_Bush",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques-Yves_Cousteau",
"http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1945/07/as-we-may-think/3881/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cecilia_Payne",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89milie_du_Ch%C3%A2telet",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ole_Roemer",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Kepler",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhacen"
] | [
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|
why does the defeated elephant seal male give up after a fight? | i recently read in richard dawkins' book "the ancestor's tale" how elephant seals fight for harems, creating sexual dimorphism. essentially one male wins many females. why, then, does the defeated seal give up, leave the territory, and let the winner get it all? why not copulate with the females, behind the triumphant seal's back? surely it is more worthwhile than risking no offspring. | to be clear, sexual dimorphism refers to the morphological differences between males and females of a species. typically the term is used to describe obvious phenotypic differences, like larger or more colorful males (and sometimes females). in the case of elephant seals, it's being argued that mating competition leads to larger males. it's a common example because the dimorphism is so pronounced in this species (males 5 to 6 times larger). now, you're question is about what happens to the loser males? _url_0_ there are a few things to think about here. first, it's important to point out that the loser males don't just accept defeat; the winner has to stay and protect his harem all the time. losers will try, and sometimes succeed, to mate with the females. sometimes, though, a male will decide to retreat. this might not seem optimal from a fitness standpoint, but it could be for a few reasons. that male could be endangering itself by risking a fight, preventing any future opportunities to mate. even if he's not in danger, he'd be expending significant resources (calories and time) on a likely futile endeavor. instead, he could be feeding and getting larger, or looking for other groups of females without such a large male. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_selection#Example:_intrasexual_selection"
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is there a particular word that refers to the physical space occupied by an ecosystem? | the problem with delineating "an ecosystem" is that any sharp boundaries between ecosystems are ultimately arbitrary. the whole planet can be considered an ecosystem, in which case its spatial aspect is referred to as the ecosphere. smaller areas that are naturally defined are watersheds. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is laser dressing? | for example, used in context: "laser dressing of the electronic bands in semiconductors." | the presence of the laser light alters the state of the material. the electronic eigenstates of an atom are changed in the presence of an intense laser field, in which case you can think of it as one "atom-plus-laser-field" system which has its own eigenstates. for whatever reason (perhaps someone else can help me out) these are called "dressed" states. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is "survival of the fittest" unfalsifiable? | pondering evolution there's a question that keeps appearing into my mind: can we falsify the idea of "survival of the fittest"? i mean, fittest can be defined as needed and if it fails, well you can argue you just defined "fittest" wrongly for that scenario. hope i'm being clear enough. i'm not arguing creationism or any other crazy idea like that i just want to understand how this particular corner of evolutionary theory is defended (epistemologically). | here's the funny thing about that aspect of evolution: it isn't the theoretical part. it's the mathematical part (statistics, to be exact). and math is just logic. the thing with statistical models is that they cannot make hard and fast predictions. we can perform an experiment where the statistical prediction never happens 100 trials in a row; it's just unlikely. and we *know* that, so we can't make any predictions that can be falsified. instead, we use a notion of confidence. anyway, that was more background than anything. the point is that "survival of the fittest" is not the part of the theory of evolution that should be falsified because selection isn't a special thing; it just logically follows. the portion that would falsify the theory would be if genetics was wrong (offspring did not inherit traits, random mutation did not occur, etc.) or if an outside force was *actively preventing* selection. **tl;dr** it doesn't *need* to be defended because it's the externally consistent part of the theory. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survival_of_the_fittest"
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do biochemical processes have binary on/off switches? | i have a vague perception that biochemical processes don't generally have a binary on/off switch, but tend to occur on a gradient according to concentrations of precursors, enzymes, and other factors affecting the rate at which they occur. for example, the simple biology 101 story is that insulin is produced when blood sugar is high and glucagon is produced when blood sugar is low. but my sense is that insulin would still be produced, albeit at reduced levels, even in a hypoglycemic state. is this correct? if so, are there any notable exceptions? edit: thanks for the answers so far, everyone. you've given me a lot to read up on. to clarify, i'm mostly asking about what's happening on a systemic or at least tissue level, but the stuff about how switches work at a molecular level is still interesting. | you're right that many processes occur on a gradient, but some do have reasonably well defined on/off states. i think this kind of depends on the scale at which you view most biochemical processes. as mentioned by u/dagl1, individual enzymes definitely can have on/off switches. if however you looked at all copies of a particular enzyme in a signalling pathway that was "off", there's always a probability that there will be some residual enzyme in the "on" state. yet these residual enzymes are insufficient to propagate the signal, and in every practical sense the signalling pathway remains "off". as you increase your scope, your going to see more of a gradient in a biological process. a individual beta cell won't release it's insulin granules until high blood sugar produces a rise in ca2+, but if you monitored an individual beta cell long enough or a large enough population of beta cells, the probability of a degranulation event caused by a local region of high glucose or accidental depolarization increases. * neuronal signalling is an clear on/off process. ~~depolarization~~ action potentials causes a clear "on" signal, and as far as i know you can't have a partial ~~depolarization~~ action potential. * dna methylation can turn genes "off" by preventing their transcription. * with regard to the cell cycle, a cell in g0 doesn't undergo low level dna replication. the cell is completely "off" in terms of replication. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the maximum theoretical efficiency of a dehumidifier? | existing small ones can extract 4 l/kwh. would it be possible to make one which extracted 40 or 400 l/kwh? | most dehumidifiers operate on the same principle as a refrigerator or air conditioner, using a compressor and expansion valve to create a cold "pool" by removing the heat from the incoming air and transferring it to the refrigerant (in an air conditioner, the heat is then rejected from the refrigerant to the air outside, in a dehumidifier the heat is used to warm the dried air before blowing it back into the room). a refrigeration cycle is a heat pump, so its theoretical maximum efficiency is determined by something called its "carnot efficiency," though in the case of heat pumps, it's usually called the "coefficient of performance." the equation for it is: cop = tc/(th-tc) where tc and th are the hot and cold temperatures in degrees kelvin or rankine. the temperatures achievable depend on the refrigerant and compressor being used, but most commercially available heat pumps have a refrigeration cop of between 2 and 4. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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aubre de grey's sens program. real science or pure speculation? | some of you might be familiar with aubrey de grey's talks and his research via the sens foundation. he is a gerontologist and basically claims that it can be possible in the next decades to develop therapies that will reverse the effect of aging, making everyone live a lot longer (maybe 1000s of years) as people will mostly not die of cancer or alzheimers or other diseases of old age. there's been many crackpots claiming things like this through history but aubrey has explained his methods in detail in his book **ending aging**, he's a respectable scientist and there's even been an open contest to disproof his theories, to the result of "this stuff is not impossible but looks difficult". so there's at least some plausibility and credentials behind the whole effort. here's an introduction to his "7 step" program to cure all effect of aging. therapies that address all 7 can potentially revert the body to a younger state (his claim). _url_1_ the question is, especially for other gerontologists and biologists in the hall. how crazy is all this? i've heard before that although not impossible, some of the claims behind some of those specific "7 steps" are wildly optimistic and not likely to happen in 100s of years. for example, one of those steps seems to be basically similar to "cure cancer". is that accurate? i'm 100% disinterested in the moral/ethical angle of all this (where would we put all people? wouldn't just the rich live forever? etc.). i'm just interested in the question, is it possible? likely? sens foundation is woefully underfunded so even if there's a remote possibility that this could all work it stands to reason we should all donate them money to find out. a video of him explaining his methods (there's hundreds in youtube, also interviews and debates) _url_0_ his foundation: _url_2_ his book _url_3_ | it isn't *crazy* in the sense that it is mostly rooted in peer-reviewed biology. yeah, that is my take on it. for example, oncosens wants to remove telomerase from our genome, and then periodically replenish our adult stem cell reserves (in all tissues i guess) every decade or so to get over the hayflick limit issue. that is mind-numbingly far down the road. not only would we need to have approved, safe, and effective genetic engineering, we'd also need stem cell research to be at a degree of development and adoption that we can replenish *all* of the niches with the relevant stem cells in a safe and relatively frequent manner. -mitosens might not biologically make sense. -lysosens involves adding exogenous enzymes to the lysosome in the hope that it'll get better at digesting things... pretty speculative. -amylosens is basically "cure alzheimer's and prion diseases". -replenisens is probably the most reasonable right now -- this is basically just stem cell therapy and tissue/organ engineering. i'm not saying this is easy, just that it is the most feasible in the upcoming decades. -apoptosens involves killing useless cells (through some sort of complex targeting) so that new cells can get their work done (through stem cell therapy probably). i'm not sure how they'd target senescent cells specifically for apoptotic clearance, but this may be doable in the mid-term. -glycosens involves remodeling the extracellular matrix, which in my opinion would largely get done with tissue engineering and stem cell therapy, though they want to do it with small molecule drugs and therapeutic enzymes. if they discover these things, then i suppose treatment would be as easy as injecting them into the site of aberrant ecm. i'd say it is possible, and i'd probably even go so far as to say that on a long enough time scale, many of these ideas are likely. however, the time scale does get *pretty long* for a lot of these ideas, and sens doesn't strike me as the only game in town as far as funding these sorts of ideas is concerned. there are *many* institutes involved in regenerative engineering, tissue engineering, stem cell therapies, etc. it is entirely possible that sens is too focused on big promises, and isn't focused enough on properly funding research on the countless intermediate steps. so i wouldn't say that their ideas being interesting and possible makes them worthy of monetary support. but i don't have extensive knowledge of their funding of research. | 10 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qMAwnA5WvLc",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategies_for_Engineered_Negligible_Senescence",
"http://www.sens.org/",
"https://www.amazon.com/Ending-Aging-Rejuvenation-Breakthroughs-Lifetime/dp/0312367074"
] | [] | [
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do scale-prevention devices based on quartz crystals work? if so, what is the scientific basis? | i've come across this product called [scalehound](_url_0_) that claims to prevent scale buildup, using nothing but quartz crystals. electricity is not provided, the quartz just sits there. quartz crystals, allegedly, "emit low end frequencies" which break up scale and prevent it from forming. it sounds like pseudoscientific nonsense to me, am i wrong? | quartz is piezoelectric, but it won't oscillate unless there is oscillating voltage applied or it is part of an oscillator circuit. the amplitude of motion for a tiny crystal is very tiny. the frequency of the crystal goes up with decreasing size, so tiny crystals oscillate at very high frequencies, not low. in fact, typically megahertz frequencies, not acoustic frequencies, so its not "sound waves" there shouldn't be any significant voltage differences in your pipes unless they are actively corroding, in which case you've got a very different water problem. quartz crystals are nothing more than beach sand. it's abrasive, like sandpaper, which could dislodge thin flakes of scale. however, it appears the device contains the crystals and they are not being washed through the plumbing. quartz is hydrophillic, it produces a concave meniscus when contacting water, because the surface is capable of hydrogen bonding. this could be the source of the claim that water reorganizes itself around the crystal, and may have some surfactant property. this is a similar claim to some of those plastic soapless laundry soap balls that have been debunked. any "water restructuring" that occurs only pertains to molecules in immediate contact with the crystals, and is lost when they flow away. there is no "permanent restructuring" as the site claims. otherwise, beaches on the ocean would have already changed all the water in the world forever. because the surface of quartz is terminated with hydrogens, it does have a pka value, so it could be considered slightly acidic compared to hard water. it could be claimed that it buffers the water, somewhat like the ion exchange resin in a water softener. i do not know what the buffer capacity would be or if it is enough to have an impact on the ph or the redissolution of lime scale. water softener exchangers need to be regenerated frequently since the active surface sites are consumed. and they are rather large appliances. it is unlikely there is enough ph buffering capacity in this small device to last very long. the surface will adjust its hydrogen concentration to be in equilibrium with the ph of the water. reading more carefully, it says "a plumber is not required for installation" it just clamps on the outside of the pipes, therefore it isn't even in contact with the water. it claims that "without radiation" just being in the vicinity of water it can physically alter it, permanently. "once the scalehound is installed on your home if it is an older tank 3 years or older, blow down your hot water tank once a week until no visible scale exits in the tank." quite simply, 100% of their claims of scale reduction is due to the instruction to descale your water heater manually every week. paying them for the useless little blue clamp on thing is just the cost of that piece of advice. if i was that unscrupulous, i would be rich too. | 3 | [] | [
"http://scalehoundwater.com/"
] | [] | [
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what can layers and swrils in rock indicate? | i drive by this out cropping everyday and i've always noticed the curves and waves in the rock. what causes bending like this? i know it probably took a billion years for it to show on the side of the highway in ne tennessee, but what can you tell from looking at it? _url_0_ | let's start at the most basic level. certain types of rocks have layers, mostly people think of [sedimentary rocks](_url_4_) in this case, which have ['bedding'](_url_7_) that was formed during deposition, i.e. individual events that caused sediment to deposit or changes in the type of sediment being deposited leave behind clear changes in the grain size, grain shape, minerals, or all of the above. these layers are initially flat (or nearly flat, in some places they might be angled at a few degrees over large distance depending on how they are deposited). other types of rocks have layers as well, [metaphoric rocks](_url_3_), which are rocks that have experienced elevated temperatures, pressure, or both sufficient to cause some amount of recrystallization of minerals, can have layers (['foliation'](_url_5_)), but these layers have been formed by preferential crystallization of minerals in orientations either parallel to a shearing force or perpendicular to a compressional force that the rock experienced. ([igneous rocks](_url_8_) can also have layering in some cases, but this is a little more rare and not relevant for the outcrop you've linked to). if you have an undeformed sedimentary rock or a metamorphic rock that has experienced one deformation event (to form a foliation) you would expect the layering present to be largely planar (though not necessarily horizontal). when you have 'curvy' layers, this is most often due to [folding](_url_6_). there are lots of styles and formation mechanisms for folds, but at the most basic level, folding is another response to deformation (at the introductory geology level, we usually think of folding as a result of compressional deformation, but you can get it in pretty much every style of deformation as there are local areas of compression that occur in broadly transform and extensional settings). as rocks experience more deformation events, you can have very complicated histories (e.g. folded original bedding, then a foliation from metamorphism at a different orientation, then another folding event that folds everything, etc etc). now to your outcrop, from the picture it's safe to say that there is a fold (or a series of folds) but whether those folds are folding original bedding, a foliation, or some combination is hard to tell from a picture like this (this is why if you see geologists working, you'll see us looking at things at a variety of scales from standing back to get the overall geometry, like this photo, to having our noses against the outcrop to try to tell if layerings are a foliation or bedding). as best i can tell, you are looking at the side view of at least one fold with the [axial plane](_url_1_) oriented roughly horizontal (axial plane might be inclined a bit 'into' the outcrop, again, would have to climb all over it to tell), the hinge is to the left side of the picture, and the hinge line (refer to the same diagram for both hinge and hinge line meaning) would be going into the outcrop (or coming out at you if you projected it). this would classify the fold as a ['recumbent fold'](_url_2_). as an aside, in ne tennessee, [the rocks are likely upper paleozoic (the blue rocks, ~350-250 million years old) or lower paleozoic (the pink rocks, ~540-440 million years old) in age](_url_0_). exposure history is harder to know, but definitely a fair bit younger than a billion years old! | 11 | [] | [
"https://imgur.com/3tdjgJu"
] | [
"http://podcast.sjrdesign.net/images/040_USAGeologicMap.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fold_(geology\\)#/media/File:Flank_%26_hinge.PNG",
"http://slideplayer.com/slide/4204167/14/images/13/Recumbent+Fold.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphic_rock",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentary_rock",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foliation_(geology\\)",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fold_(geology\\)",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bed_(geology\\)",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igneous_rock"
] | [
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is swimming through glowing plankton safe? | i swim in greece and out of curiosity decided to swim after the sun set, and to my surprise i found myself swimming and leaving what looked like fairydust behind each stroke. you ever seen tinkerbell? that's how much and what color. it appears and disappears almost as rapidly as sparks during welding. my guess is it's probably plankton whose phosphorus ignites when it's stirred in darkness, but it really looks like i'm leaving trails of fireworks behind me :) the effect seems to be stronger (more floating sparks) the darker it gets, yesterday the sun had set for two hours and it was simply dazzling, when just after the sun sets you can barely see more than ten sparks each stroke. is it safe though? i've swam in it for five nights now, and haven't felt any burning or itching or anything, but is glowing plankton an indicator of pollution or something? let me say in advance that the waters look very clean, it's a semi-rocky shore (numerous little sandy beaches and rocks in-between), and there's a lot of fish and urchins around. i'm guessing it's clean but i'd like to get a second opinion please. plankton is my best guess, but if you have any other suggestions i'd be interested in reading them. | what you are seeing are bioluminescent dinoflagellates. definitely safe to swim in. the med is, in general, super clean in terms of water quality, especially further out. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinoflagellate#Life_cycle"
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] |
does turning a cfl on and off use more electricity than leaving it on for a few minutes? what's the general rule of thumb? | my father-in-law installed some new cfl lamps in his home. i noticed some rooms where they were still on even though we hadn't been in that room for over 30 minutes. he responded to this by saying something like : "cfl lamps use much less energy if you leave them on for an hour than turning them off and on". | yes it does take more energy to start up that to run, but not a lot more. the initial startup lasts between 1/1000th and 1/100th of a second, and depending on the bulb can by up to 250 times the current demand of normal running, so worst case scenario is that the startup uses the same amount of energy as about 2.5 seconds of running. [source](_url_0_) however, there are a couple of other factors to consider. firstly, but probably less important, is the wear and tear aspect. turning a cfl on and off to frequently will reduce its lifespan slightly, but not by a huge amount. secondly it can take a cfl up to 3 minutes to reach full brightness, depending on the model, and it is more from this second point that the leave it on for a bit advice comes from. in terms of how long, i have seen rules of thumb for "you should turn it over are leaving the room for more than:" vary between five minutes and fifteen minutes, but never an hour. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.electrical-installation.org/enwiki/Electrical_characteristics_of_lamps",
"https://energy.gov/energysaver/when-turn-your-lights"
] | [
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when can i find phase diagrams for common oxides? | i need some guidance. i am trying to find the key points on the phase diagram (triple and critical points) for some common oxides, such as sio2, al2o3, mgo, fe2o3, etc... i can find resources on pure elements all over the internet, and plenty of example phase diagrams for h2o and co2, but not much else. can anybody here point me to a resource that could help me find this information? thanks :-) edit: title should have been "where" not "when". | metal oxides usually have multiple crystal phases, so their phase diagrams are more complicated. each solid phase may have it's own melting point, and most oxides are solid up to over a thousand degrees. check out this page on [silica polymorphs](_url_0_) for an overview of how weird things can get. wish i could be more help with actual phase diagrams, though. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.quartzpage.de/gen_mod.html"
] | [
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] |
is it possible to classically condition a function of the autonomic nervous system? | the [autonomic nervous system] (_url_0_), for those who do not know, is what controls all the involuntary functions of the body, such as breathing, digestion, etc. by [classical conditioning] (_url_1_) from psychology, is it possible, or have there been any examples of, organisms having a specific function of the autonomic nervous system triggered by an neutral stimulus? | almost every example of classical conditioning involves the autonomic nervous system. a fear response is autonomic (sympathetic), pavlov's original experiment was autonomic (salivation is parasympathetic), etc. coming up with entirely non-autonomic examples is more difficult. one example may be a taste aversion response, for example when you feel nauseous just from smelling alcohol if you learn to associate alcohol with vomiting by repeatedly over-drinking. but the parasympathetic nervous system still plays a role in nausea and vomiting, so this isn't a fully non-autonomic conditioned response. somatomotor conditioning is also usually associated with an autonomic response, for example a fear response (autonomic) may be conditioned together with putting your hands up in front of your face to protect you (somatomotor). [here is a good article on the difference between somatomotor and autonomic conditioning.](_url_0_) (i can access it through my university, not sure if you have access) | 6 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning"
] | [
"https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F0-306-46897-2_11"
] | [
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at the atomic level, how can silly putty reform, but stones and wood not? | as title inquires; i have been studying in my first university chemistry course that when you smash- oh i dunno- a rock, the force you apply is enough to cause the +'ve -'ve attraction of the ions to become unaligned, and therefore they break apart. this is the part i don't quite understand, why cant they be realigned perfectly again? i mean on a visible level you can see the rock might be able to fit back together and the two parts would become one for the duration of your holding them together, but fall apart after. can anyone clear this up for me? and also what makes it different from putty... is it because water is incorporated and if putty dried up it would be the same as a rock? thanks in advancd! | the main component of silly putty is a material called poly(dimethylsiloxane), or pdms. [wikipedia](_url_0_) this material is what is referred to as a viscoelastomer. this means that over short time periods the material will behave as an elastomer - you will notice that you can bounce a ball of silly putty, but it can be smooshed as if it was a very slow moving liquid over longer time scales. this includes creep deformation over time if for example you were to leave it sitting in one spot for a while. rocks are usually made of silicate minerals, which form lattice structures based on their components. one of the easiest to understand structurally is quartz (fused silica, sand, etc.) which is made up of silicon dioxide (sio2). [wikipedia](_url_1_) the point i will try to make here is that if you have a perfect piece of quartz, the any atom in the center of the chunk you're holding is fully connected to the adjacent atoms. when you break this chunk of quartz in half you are breaking chemical bonds. when you break these bonds in an open atmosphere, the sites at which the bonds were broken are extremely reactive, and react with water vapor in the air to form silanols (si-oh's). this reaction is effectively instantaneous so as soon as the quartz gets cut, you can't just mash it back together, even if you lined it up right, because there are new atoms in the way that will keep it from rejoining. i suppose it would be possible in an absolute vacuum. wood is another type of polymer; the biopolymer cellulose (mostly). wood also has a very large lignin component. cellulose is essentially a glucose polymer, but lignin is a large branching organic framework very similar to phenol-formaldehyde resins (bakelite plastic). the lignin acts as a crosslinked network that gives wood its strength. if you break these crosslinks, you run into a similar problem as before. i hope this helps. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydimethylsiloxane",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz"
] | [
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what methods did the media use to estimate that 6 million people attended the pope's visit to the philippines? | one very common and simple method is: #people = (total occupied space) / (average occupied space per person). you can determine how large the total occupied space is using pictures. the average occupied space per person can be determined using a sample of some locations of that event, or by using theoretical values. the maximum occupied space that people tolerate was found in previous studies to be around 4 person/m^2 [1]. note that these numbers in the media are mostly used for marketing purposes and should be taken with a grain of salt. if i use [this picture](_url_0_) and calculate the area where people stand [see here](_url_2_), the occupied area is about 450m by 150 m. this corresponds to 450 x 150 x 4 = 270.000 people, which is far lower than the official number. maybe people left early, the photograph was not complete or people were standing closer to each other, but 6 million people is in my opinion an unreasonable estimate. [1] khalidur rahman, noraida abdul ghani, anton abdulbasah kamil, adli mustafa weighted regression method for the study of pedestrian flow characteristics in dhaka, bangladesh _url_1_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nrc.nl/inbeeld/files/2015/01/1901WEBAPP6-980x654.jpg",
"http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/mas/article/view/24404",
"http://tinyurl.com/p5p5jrs"
] | [
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|
so was the faster-than-light travel discovery a few months back a mistake? | mistake isn't the right way to put it, but they found the source of the error. it appears that a loose fiber optic connector caused a delay and the incorrect measurement. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
i used some menthol crystals for a cold, and after about an hour this thing formed. what happened? | i'd used some of [these](_url_1_) crystals in boiling hot water, and they'd seemingly dissolved but i came back to find [this thing](_url_0_) floating in the water. i'm curious as to how it formed. thanks! | menthol has lower density than water. so it floats. it is not soluble in water, so it separates. it also has a crystallization point that allows it to crystallize at reasonable temps. so, when the water cooled, the menthol floated to a bit in the middle, crystallized. that's all. | 58 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/fHSDl.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/825OH.jpg"
] | [] | [
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could someone explain this quantum physics experiment? | [click](_url_0_) [original paper](_url_1_) i'm assuming that it doesn't actually allow passing information to the past. but what's stopping alice and bob from combining their measurements and predicting victor's actions? | i don't think my answer will be satisfactory to you, but it is the answer best that i know: this experiment does not violate any physical principles and while it makes us "uncomfortable" that entanglement can travel backwards in time, nothing in physics dis-allows this from happening. this is because of two things: a wavefunction is not a physical thing, but an abstract concept which describes a particle, and a wavefunction contains both past and present information about that particle, because we can predict how the wavefunction will evolve. secondly, einstein's theory only doesn't allow physical things to move faster than light- it has no such requirements about abstract concepts. a wavefunction collapse caused by measurement which will instantaneously affect particles separated by any arbitrary distance is weird, but a wavefunction is not a physical thing, it is an abstract concept (important note: information is a "physical thing" and can never be transmitted faster than light). so, about your last question: nothing is preventing bob and alice from combining their measurements to predict what victor did, but for bob and alice to combine their measurements, they would have to do so over a classical channel, since quantum entanglement can not be used to transmit information between parties. thus, by the time they combined information, no causality has been violated, and everything will have taken place "in the proper order." if this makes you uncomfortable, know you are in good company. einstein called this "spooky action at a distance." while his concern was over instantaneous wavefunction collapse, once things happen instantaneously, these sorts of "causality violations" (and i use quotes, because by the physical definition of causality, nothing has been violated here- no physical item or information has been transmitted back in time or faster than light) are bound to come up. after the results of [bell's theorem](_url_0_), however, you are left to choose between two "equally uncomfortable" choices- either wavefunctions are allowed to collapse instantaneously across arbitrary distances, or there must be some sort of global variables which determine local entanglements. neither of these things make many people happy, but it is where we currently stand. | 3 | [] | [
"http://arstechnica.com/science/news/2012/04/decision-to-entangle-effects-results-of-measurements-taken-beforehand.ars",
"http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1203/1203.4834.pdf"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%27s_theorem"
] | [
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how does voluntary movement happen? | being a medical student (graduating in 1 year), i feel really embarassed to ask this question. i have neurology exam in 1 week and i have learned all about the pyramidal and extrapyramidal tract, alpha-gamma coactivation, motor control etc. but still i haven't been able to answer the question : where does this process originate? where does the first action potential occur, and mainly - how? ; given the fact that action potential is a merely a response to an adequate stimulus. what is this stimulus, then? a thought? are there then "thought receptors" ? i know this sounds ridiculous, but the more i think about it, the more puzzled i feel. | as far as i know, the answer to your question about 'what is the original stimulus' (the thought about moving) is unknown and goes into the 'do we really have free will' and 'neural correlates of consciousness' territory. you might like to look into libet's experiments: _url_0_ the brain is more than a series of action potentials - that would probably be a reflex arc. there are no thought receptors, and the origins of thoughts are not well understood. you can look at pathways and connections in the brain - such as areas of the prefrontal cortex, primary motor cortex and then move it down to the midbrain to basal ganglia. what you may be interested in looking up is the 'direct pathway of movement' and indirect pathway of movement' as they deal with the execution of voluntary movement. understanding these helps you to understand conditions such as parkinson's (direct p/w disorder) and huntington's (indirect p/w disorder). information can be found in any good neurology textbook which deals with the basal ganglia. a quick google and this looks okay on a skim read: _url_1_ you shouldn't at all be embarrassed to ask such a question. you seem to be thinking about it and questioning it instead of trying to memorize pathways and tracts for your exam. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Libet",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10847/"
] | [
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in network theory is their any simple way to be able to tell if you can create the network without having links overlapping each other? | basically i was wondering if it would be possible to recreate this network _url_0_ without having the branches over lapping (as it is kind of annoying my ocd) ps: as someone who doesnt spend to much time in this subreddit (and thus doesnt have alot of karma) having to wait 8 minutes to repost my question because the 1st time i forgot a question mark, is kind of annoying | this issue is unrelated to network theory. it is the determination of the crossing number, the lowest number of edge crossings of a plane drawing of a graph. as you might've gathered, this is an important problem because graphs with fewer crossings are easier for humans to understand. the problem is [np-hard](_url_1_). however, it is [fixed-parameter tractable](_url_4_). for certain graphs, their crossing number has a [lower bound](_url_3_). your graph unfortunately does not fall in one of the categories for whic ha lower bound would be easy to compute from the crossing number inequality. however, it is one you can chop a few vertices off and obtain an answer to your question; see [this subgraph](_url_2_) (made 2 minor rank tweaks so that dot's algorithm avoids crossings). see that there is no arrangement for the vertex "_targetrangecheck_" for which a crossing can be avoided: either the vertex is placed to the left of the graph, in which case a crossing must occur for `targetrangecheck - the wikipedia page for the crossing number and graphviz's [theory page](_url_0_) contain references to relevant bibliography, which is too large to summarise here. | 7 | [] | [
"https://i.imgur.com/pOIwe3L.png"
] | [
"https://graphviz.gitlab.io/theory/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NP-hardness",
"https://dreampuf.github.io/GraphvizOnline/#digraph%20G%20%7B%0A%20%20concentrate%3Dtrue%3B%0A%20%20attack%20-%3E%20finessecheck%3B%0A%20%20finessecheck%20-%3E%20nosneak%3B%0A%20%20finessecheck%20-%3E%20sneakusedcheck%3B%0A%20%20scoutcheck%20-%3E%20sneakusedtargetcheck%3B%0A%20%20scoutcheck%20-%3E%20nosneak%3B%0A%20%20sneakusedcheck%20-%3E%20advantagecheck%3B%0A%20%20sneakusedcheck%20-%3E%20scoutcheck%20%3B%0A%20%20sneakusedtargetcheck%20-%3E%20sneak%3B%0A%20%20sneakusedtargetcheck%20-%3E%20nosneak%3B%0A%20%20sneakusedtargetcheck%20-%3E%20advantagecheck%3B%0A%20%20advantagecheck%20-%3E%20sneak%3B%0A%20%20advantagecheck%20-%3E%20rangecheck%3B%0A%20%20rangecheck%20-%3E%20incapacitatedcheck%3B%0A%20%20rangecheck%20-%3E%20swashbucklercheck%3B%0A%20%20swashbucklercheck%20-%3E%20inquisitivecheck%3B%0A%20%20%23swashbucklercheck%20-%3E%20targetrangecheck%3B%0A%20%20%23targetrangecheck%20-%3E%20nosneak%3B%0A%20%20%23targetrangecheck%20-%3E%20disadvantagecheck%3B%0A%20%20inquisitivecheck%20-%3E%20nosneak%3B%0A%20%20inquisitivecheck%20-%3E%20insightfulfightingcheck%3B%0A%20%20insightfulfightingcheck%20-%3E%20nosneak%3B%0A%20%20insightfulfightingcheck%20-%3E%20disadvantagecheck%20%5Bconstraint%20%3D%20false%5D%3B%0A%20%20incapacitatedcheck%20-%3E%20swashbucklercheck%20%5Bconstraint%20%3D%20false%5D%3B%0A%20%20incapacitatedcheck%20-%3E%20disadvantagecheck%3B%0A%20%20disadvantagecheck%20-%3E%20sneak%3B%0A%0A%20%20%7Brank%20%3D%20same%3B%20sneakusedcheck%3B%20scoutcheck%3B%7D%0A%20%20%7Brank%20%3D%20same%3B%20targetrangecheck%3B%20swashbucklercheck%3B%7D%0A%7D",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossing_number_inequality",
"https://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?doid=1250790.1250848"
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why do we work so hard to keep dandelions out of our yards in america? are they harmful somehow? | when i was a kid, i always associated dandelions with those really prickly weeds that were a pain in the ass to step on, so it made sense to me... but really, what do dandelions do? | dandelions are generally just removed because they are considered unsightly. for most americans it breaks up the uniformity of the lawn and thus ruins their beautiful lawns. that's mainly just everyone's opinion though | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dandelion#As_a_beneficial_weed"
] | [
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how are valves used in space applications? with the low pressure and low temperature, my intuition tells me o-rings can't be used with the valves. | so how is the flow of a fluid controlled? | the pressure inside of the craft must be positive if there is fluid or gas being kept there. o-rings and other gaskets can function well in that situation because the positive pressure inside the craft will push the gasket onto whatever surface is being sealed due to the extreme negative pressure outside. you should read up on the [challenger disaster](_url_0_) which was believed to be caused by a bad o-ring. temperature loss is not usually a concern on space-craft (in fact getting rid of heat is a large concern), but they have methods to keep a working temperature around the gaskets to avoid them becoming brittle and breaking in situations where it they experience temperature drops. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster"
] | [
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this awesome storm is happening outside my apartment right now. could any meteorologists explain the formation process for us redditors. | air currents, temperatures, etc. anything interesting about how these storms form. here's my backyard _url_0_ | it appears to be a [single cell thunderstorm](_url_1_). they are often called air mass thunderstorms because they form inside air masses and not on frontal boundaries. the cloud itself is called a cumulonimbus. they are usually triggered by differential heating. this heating causes an upward movement of air in the low levels and is called convection. this convection causes instability and the lifting mechanism to brings all that hot humid air up from the lower levels of the troposphere. they are not typically a very hazardous storm, as they do not move to any large extend and they lack the energy frontal systems or[ derechos](_url_0_). other than the lightning and hail the only other hazard they pose is when they die. when the storm runs out of energy (convection) the cooled air in the storm will collapse rapidly and hits the surface of the earth in what is know as a down burst. this down burst will spread out horizontally into an "out flow boundary" or gust front. these are typically weak and are only a hazard if they occur near an airfield. source: i was a weather forecaster in the military. | 9 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/n4cZn.jpg"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derecho",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air-mass_thunderstorm"
] | [
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will the cables laying along the bottom of the sea ever deteriorate or even decompose? | i mean there must be an estimate of if we ever need to replace them! | it might surprise you to know that the first under-sea cables were laid in the mid-1800s - we've been doing this for over 150 years now. and yes, they do have a life-span. there's no "if" we ever need to replace them, we *do* replace them regularly (as in every few decades). the cables are subject to wear and other damage too - if they are severed then they can be repaired in sections (but this leaves a weak point in the system and is not desirable). but otherwise there comes a point where repair wouldn't even be practical, so you get our your ship and lay down a new cable! nothing humans make tends to last indefinitely - electrical wiring, gas and water pipes, roads, etc. all have a life-span. we often use things way beyond what their original rated life-span was, but there's not really anything that we make under the assumption it will last indefinitely. there's always an idea of when we'll need to replace something at the point when it's first made. | 234 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wikiwand.com/en/2008_submarine_cable_disruption",
"http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/aug/14/google-undersea-fibre-optic-cables-shark-attacks",
"http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/floridacurrent/background.php"
] | [
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what occurs in the brain during an out of body experience? | the current understanding of neurophysiology is that the parietal lobe is the part of our brain that gives us our sense of self and physical body-ness. things that that disrupt the function of that part (permanent traumatic injuries or temporary effects of drugs like ketamine) are able to induce out of body experiences. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=imaging+out+of+body+experience&btnG=&as_sdt=1%2C11&as_sdtp="
] | [
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|
how long is the day/night cycle on europa? | europa is tidally locked to jupiter, meaning the same side of europa always faces jupiter (just like earth's moon). this also means that europa's orbital period around jupiter is also its rotational period. this period is about 3.55 earth days, or a bit more than 85 hours. so a day on europa is about 85 hours. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
seahorse in amber - how could this be possible or authentic? | my wife and i are selling off her collection of fossils (just some trilobite and shark teeth and stuff) and one of the items in her collection was a little amber pendant. at first the real question was whether or not it is real amber. we did the rubbing test to see if it smells like pine (it did, faintly), we rubbed to see if it held a static charge (it does), floated it in salt-water, and we tested it with a black light and it seems to glow, and it did glow the correct color (a neonish green). so once determining that it is amber, we started trying to figure out how to price it and ran in to a number of questions. the biggest one is **how *does* a fish get encased in amber naturally?** we did extensive searches and could find no other similar specimens. any input would be greatly appreciated, we're really curious if what we have is special or if it is merely faked in some way. [here's a picture of it.](_url_0_) edit: so i tried twisting off the jewelery hook and the amber broke, so i decided that it didn't matter much if i did the destructive test of heating the chunk that fell off, and it did smell somewhat plasticy but not much (i'm not sure how it would smell) the smoke was also gray and not black which was in something i saw but can't find now. also i tried using alcohol and nail-polish remover and neither of them damaged the surface. my guess is i've ruined it anyway (the crack goes all the way through and part of the seahorse is exposed). | related (may or may no be a fake) - _url_0_ - lizard in amber, sold for over 70,000 $ i can imagine ways how seahorse may end in amber (catched by animal, hauled to land, left on/under tree), but anyway due to sheer potential value of this thing i am almost certain that it is a fake. | 3 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/P0Auw.jpg"
] | [
"http://www.ambericawest.com/lizard.html",
"http://www.rockhounds.com/rockshop/trueamber.shtml"
] | [
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is there any scientific proof that baltic amber necklace 's do anything? | if you search on pubmed (_url_0_) for any combination of the words baltic, amber, treatment/therapy, or succinate, there are no relevant results. so there doesn't seem to be any literature that documents any sort of effect. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/"
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|
how to compare experimental data with theory? | i've got experimental data from a that shows the intensity of light against position for a diffraction pattern and a theoretical curve by imputing parameters into a function. i want to compare how good a fit the theoretical curve is to the experimental data. my demonstrator suggested a chi-square test but when i researched this it seemed to be for observed and expected frequency of results. any help would be much appreciated. | the chi-square test helps to determine whether the function has correlation with the data. remember, that there tons of types of functions and they vary in their progression. for example you won't adapt a linear function to an exponential one. what you should do is to do a graph and choose your x, y. you do one group with theoretical x,y determined by equations and then do the same for the same x,y obtained in the lab. then, you will only have a group of points. you will need to adapt a function like y=mx+b or log(x) or e\^x. when adapting the data to a function you should run the chi-squared test. if you have a chi-squared equal to 1, therefore you have a perfect correlation between the data and the function. if chi-quared < < 1 then you should try another function. afterwards, you can study the functions and conclude why the theoretical and experimental curve differs. i know, it might be unclear. sorry & #x200b; edit: you can do this all easily in excel. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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“the only way to get alcohol out of your system is time”, what about exercise? | all my health and drivers ed classes have told me that the only way to become sober once your intoxicated is time. but wouldn’t aerobic exercise increase blood flow and purge the alcohol form you blood faster? now actually running 2 miles after half a bottle of whisky is another story but theoretically would exercise help purge alcohol from your blood to the point where you are more sober than you were before? | alcohol is metabolized in what's called pseudo-zero order kinetics. that means at most concentrations, your body is metabolizing it at peak capacity already. the _average_ rate of elimination is around 0.02 % bac (around one standard drink) per hour. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the history & how did scientists derive the equations of kinetic energy and potential energy? | i've been searching for a while now, and i honestly can't find anything except that coriolis first "'described' kinetic energy in its modern sense" and that william rankine coined potential energy. but i cannot for the life of me find or understand how the equations came about. how did newton know energy was conserved (given a space without entropy) if he didn't derive any equations with proof? i've been able to find einstein's work on energy, where he was able to derive e=mc^2 and also e = 1/2 mv^2 with the same equation, but i don't know anything before that. did work equations come first, perhaps? how were those "discovered"? thank you a ton. i particularly enjoy the history of physics but can't seem to find any good sources on this. :( | the original derivation of the kinetic energy came from leibniz who gave it as mv^2 and called it "vis viva". i believe he obtained it as a first integral of the motion while he was developing calculus. coriolis was the one to add the 1/2 factor to it some 200 years later. there's a pretty good historical account of the kinetic energy given in the wiki for the conservation of energy: _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_of_energy"
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what a gpu overheats, why does it cause artifacts to occur? | i assume the general idea of this is that when the microprocessor in the gpu gets too hot, it starts making bad calculations and this results in weird things showing up on screen. what is the heat physically doing to the chip to cause the wrong bits to be produced? | **so some background first:** in microprocessors, transistors act like electronic switches to change voltage values. how fast the voltage values can change is determined by the parasitic capacitance of the circuit and the drive current of the transistor. this allows us to consider how long it takes for an input signal applied to a circuit to result in a valid output signal. in an synchronous (i.e. clock based) circuit, there are data storage blocks called registers which act like the source or destination of a computation. at the start of every clock cycle, the registers 'clock in' the output of some logic circuit. because the speed of signal propagation through a logic circuit is finite, there must be a minimum amount of time required for the the output of the logic to become valid. by finding this delay required, we know the maximum frequency we can clock this circuit. if we go above this frequency, the registers will likely store junk instead of valid data. a gpu is a very large circuit made up of synchronous logic so therefore there is an maximum frequency we can clock the gpu. since max frequency is dependent on analog factors in the circuit, it stands to reason that we can hold the frequency constant and vary the factors to produce a functional or non-functional gpu. **back to your question:** one of the factors is temperature. as you increase the temperature, the drive current in the transistor decreases. propagation speed is decreased and maximum frequency goes down. if your gpu is clocked at a higher frequency than this new maximum, then the computations will go wrong. edit: correction | 36 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if the door of an in flight commercial airplace was opened, would everything be sucked out a la hollywood films? | going even further, if somehow there was a small hole in the passenger section of the plane, would the suction immediately cause it to grow bigger and bigger eventually sucking out the passengers (again, as seen in hollywood films)? thanks in advance! edit - commercial airplane* | it is impossible for the door to open in flight while the cabin is pressurized. the pressure differential keeps it sealed shut. and being sucked out through a small hole is a myth. the real danger in an uncontrolled decompression is from hypoxia and hypothermia. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncontrolled_decompression",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Airlines_Flight_811"
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how was this video made? | very nice, but how it was done? _url_0_ | the video shows a variant of the [harmonograph](_url_3_) called a *blackburn pendulum*. the general idea of a harmonograph is that of a pendulum that is allowed to oscillate *independently* in two orthogonal directions. a [classic harmonograph](_url_4_) is an apparatus in which a pen or marker is held fixed and a canvas is swung underneath it, and so the pen traces out the path of the canvas. a [blackburn pendulum](_url_5_) is a variant of the harmonograph which more or less reverses the role of the pen and the canvas. the pen (or pitcher of sand) is allowed to swing and the canvas is held fixed. this is achieved by attaching the bob of the pendulum is attached to a y-shaped string, which is attached to the ceiling. (see the given links for photographs.) --- the sand obviously allows us to see the curve traced out by the bob. so what's the deal with the pattern you see in the video? first consider a one-dimensional pendulum. if the amplitude (the maximum angular deviation of the pendulum from equilibrium) is small, then the period of the pendulum is independent of the amplitude, and, in fact, depends only on the length of the pendulum. if a simple pendulum is allowed to oscillate in one direction, then the angle of the pendulum follows simple harmonic motion: where *a* is some constant called the angular frequency. multiplying this equation by *l*, the length of the pendulum, and again invoking the small angle approximation, we find that the *x*-coordinate of the bob satisfies simple harmonic motion as well: a blackburn pendulum, however, is allowed to oscillate independently in two orthogonal directions. in other words, both the *x*- and the *y*-coordinates of the bob undergo simple harmonic motion. but since these oscillations are independent, they may be out of phase with one another and their frequencies may be different as well! (the frequency for such a pendulum is a bit more complicated than just some function of the length of the pendulum.) so the *x*- and *y*-coordinates generally satisfy the parametric equations the curve that is traced out is called a *lissajous curve*. [here is an example](_url_2_) of such a curve. [here is another](_url_0_), in which the curve closes, i.e., the curve comes back to its original point and then retraces the same curve repeatedly. [here is another](_url_7_), in which the curve does not close, i.e., the the curve does not retrace itself. a given lissajous curve is bounded by some rectangle, whose dimensions are determined by the amplitudes x*_0_* and y*_0_*. the ratio *a*/*b* is the primary determinant of what the curve actually looks like. for instance, if *a*/*b* = 1, then the curve is actually an ellipse (which includes both circles and line segments as degenerate cases). if *a*/*b* = 2 and 𝛿 = π/4, the curve is a segment of a parabola. the curve is closed if and only if *a*/*b* is rational. so what exactly is seen in the video? from inspection, it seems that x*_0_*/y*_0_* = 1, *a*/*b* is very close to 1 but not quite (maybe about 16/15 by counting the loops), and 𝛿 = π/2. [here is a graph](_url_1_) of the lissajous curve with those parameters. but wait! that's not all. all of what i have described so far neglects dampening effects like air resistance or internal friction. for a real pendulum, the amplitude decays over time. such dampening can be approximated by a simple exponential factor. so the relevant parametric equations are for some 0 < d < 1. the dampening in the video is not very large. (look at the relative sizes of the most eccentric ellipses traced out by the pendulum.) it looks like there is about a 80% dampening every quarter-period. so let's put d = (0.8)^(1/4), or about 0.95. in other words, the curve traced in the video has parametric equations approximately given by the following: [here is a graph of that curve](_url_6_) which seems to match the curve in the video pretty nicely. | 11 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kesRiQbm9V0"
] | [
"https://tinyurl.com/y7u2onnz",
"https://tinyurl.com/ybqecup9",
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during a titration, some unexpected things happened. can you explain why? | in my chemistry class, we had to titrate 1ml 3% hydrogen peroxide and 5ml 6m hydrochloric acid, with 0.02m potassium permanganate. water was added as a medium for the reaction. here is a picture of what happened when one drop of potassium permanganate was added: _url_0_ for some reason, the solution is pink until the flask is stopped spinning. when i took the flask off the stir plate, it turned clear and i could continue the titration. is there a reason as to why this happened? | sometimes a reaction takes time, and especially for very intensely coloured reagents, it can take some time before the colour disappears, even though you're not near the end point. a general rule i instruct first years for determining end point is if a colour change persists for 30 seconds. | 2 | [] | [
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company claims it can create "rain on demand" is this possible? | it reminds me of the haarp thing that was going around a while ago. _url_0_ | cloud seeding is a thing: _url_0_ so i read the page, it sounds like complete and absolute bullshit. even if their towers did produce local nucleation (which is dubious and they don't even explain *how*!), the system is absolutely useless in situations of low humidity and cloud seeding which has *some* usefulness requires get planes into high altitude zones where the air is supersaturated so the powder drop is effective. | 5 | [] | [
"https://www.indiegogo.com/projects/rain-on-request-make-it-rain"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_seeding"
] | [
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] |
what colour is the sky on phobos? why? | would it change colour and how often? | the color of the sky on phobos is black, because phobos is very small and can't retain an atmosphere. the reason our sky is blue is because there are molecules in our atmosphere that scatter blue light back to us preferentially over red light. phobos has no atmosphere, and therefore no scattering of light, so the sky would look like the night sky on earth, or the earth's moon's sky -- just black and transparent. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is it possible to alter the epigenetic structure of a zygote? | theres 3 different is it possibles to this situation; 1. is it theoretically possible; it is _url_0_ 2. is it ethical; unclear, changing epigenetics can directly influence major factors in a human. its the old designer baby dilemma ( _url_1_) 3. is it safe? unclear due to lack of studies | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigenetics#Medicine",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jAhjPd4uNFY"
] | [
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|
what is missing from the standard model in physics? | i hear about the standard model and how it is the "theory of almost everything". what is missing from it that we don't know yet? | the standard model does a very good job explaining electromagnetism, the weak force, and the strong force. it does not include gravity and certain physics yet has no explanation like neutrino oscillations and why they have mass. otherwise, the standard model has been exceptionally successful as a physics model. another caveat is the standard model has a lot of "free parameters" like the electron's mass or the higgs mass. these need to be put in by hand and we assume are explained by a deeper more finer theory we don't know yet. | 18 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can pancreatic beta cell regenerate or be restored? | in the case of diabetic people, are there any studies indicating that beta cell damage as a result of hyperinsulinemia can be reversed? even more, can beta cells regenerate themselves, if a patient controls his diet and exercises the way he's supposed to, thus controlling his blood sugar? | there are studies that show that in type 2 they can maybe regenerate when controlled through diet depending on the amount of damage done previously meanwhile people are looking into restoring beta cells in vivo and in vitro either through altering someone's immune system, through gene therapy and stem cells "when switched to a low-glucose environment (about 15 mg/dl), most of them recovered normal insulin production. the longer the cells had stayed in the sugary solution, the longer it took them to recover. the researchers said that the damage might be irreversible after too much time in the glucose bath. they couldn’t say how long that time would be." _url_2_ "in 2009, researchers in pittsburgh led by dr. andrew stewart found that, in humans, the proteins cdk-6 and cyclin d1 caused beta cells to regenerate after they had been destroyed by diabetes. cdk-6 is not easily measurable in rodents (where most of the research is done), so it had not been previously studied." _url_1_ "extensive tissue injury and treatment with certain gastrointestinal hormones, like gastrin and growth factors from the egf-family can stimulate beta cell regeneration. whereas a slow rate of beta cell mass expansion can result from beta cell replication, more robust regeneration depends largely on neogenesis from precursor cells. precursor cells can be derived from stem cells or from pancreatic exocrine cells which are known to retain phenotypic plasticity and can transdifferentiate into, amongst others, endocrine cells. identifying the conditions involved in the regulation of cellular plasticity and regenerative growth may lead to new pharmacological strategies for the treatment of diabetes. " _url_0_ _url_3_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ben/cdr/2006/00000002/00000001/art00002",
"http://www.healthcentral.com/diabetes/c/651280/59002/regeneration",
"http://www.diabetesselfmanagement.com/blog/can-beta-cells-be-healed/",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16306347"
] | [
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do xanax or similar drugs effect people who need them differently than people who do not need them? | if so, why? | the term "people that do not need them" implies that there are people who do need them. while there are people who find benefit from them, they do not *need* them. compare this with diabetes, for example. in this case, people *need* insulin, because their pancreas does not produce enough. xanax and other benzodiazepines are gaba-agonists. people with anxiety do not necessarily have a gaba deficiency. i've actually never heard of anyone suggesting at gaba deficiency in the same way that serotonin deficiency has been suggested (though with little to no research support) in depression. in addition, other pharmacological treatments, such as serotonin reuptake inhibitors, and psychological treatments, such as cognitive behavioral therapy, can also help reduce anxiety. to answer the rest of your question, gaba agonists (e.g., benzodiazepines and alcohol) do indeed affect people the same way at the neural level. on the subjective level, a person with anxiety is likely find that their anxiety decreases, while a person without anxiety will feel relaxed, kind of like they'd drank a couple beers. you can try this experiment yourself by having a couple drinks when you're feeling stressed out and comparing that to drinking when you're not stressed out. in either case there is a tendency toward continued use (addiction, if you find that word fits for you in this case) through reinforcement learning. a person with anxiety will find that benzodiazepines remove the negative feeling of anxiety, which leads to negative reinforcement, while a person without anxiety will find that the benzodiazepines create a pleasant feeling, leading to positive reinforcement. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why was caesium picked to define the second on? | what's special about caesium? wouldn't it make more sense to define the second based on an element more abundant and commonly found around the universe? (hydrogen, helium, carbon - easily found on/in the person who needs it) | in a nutshell, reproducibility. standards need to be reproducible, so that any lab anywhere can re-create the standard on their own. caesium has a few properties regarding its hyperfine transition that give it advantages over other elements. additionally, nearly 100% of the caesium found in nature is a single isotope, which nearly eliminates isotopic purity concerns. | 27 | [] | [] | [
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/acloc.html"
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how do we know whether a structure is vestigial or its purpose is unknown? | it could always be both. vestigial doesn't mean "useless", but rather that a structure that is so reduced in size or form that it no longer functions in the way that it evolved to function. a vestigial structure might still have a function but still be considered vestigial. the human tailbone (or coccyx) is clearly not functioning as a full tail as in monkeys and is much reduced, but still functions as an attachment for several muscles of the pelvic floor. now if we find evidence that our hominid ancestors had lost their coccyx completely and our modern coccyx is a newly evolved structure to provide attachments for muscles, then our coccyx would no longer be homologous to the tails of our monkey ancestors and thus would no longer be considered vestigial. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what would happen if observable actions and reactions were to reverse? | well, to make this happen, the three laws of thermodynamics would have to function reverse... which would mean, perpetual motion machines are possible, a ball of wool could spontaneously knit itself into a sock and water begins to freeze when being positioned on a hot stove... | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do the nodes and the anti-nodes in a stationary wave have equal energy or is energy non uniformly distributed? | the nodes of a standing wave are the points that never move. they have zero energy density. the anti-nodes are the points that move the most. they have the most energy. it really depends on what kind of wave you are talking about (wave on a string, electromagnetic wave, sound wave, etc.). typically, the energy density of a wave is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the wave. so if you have a perfect sine shaped standing wave with the form a sin(k x) sin(ω t), the average energy density will be proportional to sin^2 (k x). | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is a post-scarcity society possible? | i always hear this mentioned by transhumanists or futurists in general, but i'm not quite sure what factors would bring about a post-scarcity society, or if it's even possible. how would it develop? | let's frame this in terms of thee factors: the amount of stuff available (s), the number of people (n), and the amount of stuff that each person would like to have (a). to eliminate scarcity in a particular type of stuff, s needs to be greater than n x a. so if you are trying to imagine a future in which everyone's cup runneth over with pretty much everything they want, you need to either (a) produce a crapload more stuff, (b) have many fewer people, (c) get people to desire way less, or (d) some combination of the above. all of these things have serious problems. with a human population projected to peak around 9 billion, making enough stuff to satisfy everyone's every whim would quickly exhaust the planet given what human whims are like. but another of the most serious of the problems is that to be producing tons and tons of stuff per person, you need average productivity to be incredibly high (by definition). it's not clear whether it would be possible to maintain crazy stellar productivity if you had a drastically reduced population. unless you have advanced ai systems that can creatively solve problems across many areas of the economy and design their own machines to fix them, there is probably a trap out there where it's just not possible for a cohort of humans small enough to live like gods on one little planet to keep such an apparatus running. so you'd probably be left with trying to modify humans to want less (including to want to reproduce less, if you're trying to keep the population down). this is a pretty tricky thing. one avenue that gets discussed is a *matrix*- or *vanilla sky* -style world in which the things and experiences we desire are delivered directly to our brains without actually having to be built, drastically cutting down on the resources it takes to provide them. (so, materially speaking, we "want less" and our wants compete with others only to the extent that, say, electricity and vr/computer parts are scarce). outside of that still-very-far-fetched scenario, i don't think the prospects are very good for seeing this species become one that has a small number of very uniform material and experiential desires that can be delivered very cheaply and that are satisfying enough that there is little or no interest in using time or resources to find anything better. that scenario describes pretty much the opposite of what human beings are like right now. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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okay, after watching the olympics its hard not to see the racial pattern in different events. is there a scientific explanation for this? | the swimming events are mostly white and the running events are mostly black. is there scientific evidence to support that either race is better at that sport. i heard that white people tend to be oilier and black people have a extra tendon. is that true? | you are partially correct, there is a racial divide between the sports, however, it doesn't have to do with any of your assumptions. a couple years ago, scientists found that the divide had to do with centre of mass of each individual. now i can't find the actual study, however i can show you two articles written about the study. [discovery](_url_0_) [the telegraph](_url_1_) i tried running some terms through google scholar however i couldn't find the study, if some one could that would be great. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://news.discovery.com/human/belly-buttons-sports-athletes.html",
"http://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/science-news/7884135/Centre-of-gravity-theory-for-dominance-of-black-sprinters-and-white-swimmers.html"
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are there monoceps in the human body? | since there are **bi**ceps, **tri***ceps, and ****quad**riceps, i was wondering if there were monoceps in the human body (following the prefix ordering) | the names refer to the number of points of origin, or "heads" of the muscles. bi, tri, and quad meaning 2,3, and 4, and "cep" from "cephalic" meaning head. we actually have 2 sets of muscles called the "biceps", the biceps brachii or the arm and the biceps femoris of the leg. most muscles only have one origin, and are as such "monoceps" muscles. we give them all different names though, because having 100 "monoceps" would be silly. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are biosynthesis pathways forced to evolve "forward", with each intermediate reaction-step reaching fixation as its own useful trait? | example: the function of adrenaline on its receptor (activating the sympathetic nervous system) seems more "basic"—like it would be a beneficial adaptation to relatively simpler, "lower" organisms—than the effect of dopamine or noradrenaline. but you have to go "through" both of those to get to adrenaline. it's easy to imagine the whole catecholamine biosynthesis pathway as having evolved "for the sake of" just producing adrenaline, with the intermediates at first being useless, and then later *some* of the intermediates getting their own receptors when it turned out their production and non-consumption correlated with useful environmental cues. as far as i understand evolution, though, it seems like there should have been one ancestor species that evolved the reaction to convert phenylalanine into tyrosine, and stopped there, because it had a use for tyrosine directly and that trait reached fixation; and then another later species that evolved a reaction to convert the tyrosine into l-dopa, and had a use for just that; and so on. | here is a relevant portion of a book chapter from microbial biochemistry (g.n. cohen, 2nd ed): from the chapter [evolution of biosynthetic pathways](_url_0_) | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://rd.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-90-481-9437-7_40"
] | [
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i see this all over the place, but what does "reverse engineering" actually mean? | like when people say that hackers "reverse engineer" a product to figure out this and that... thank you! | to engineer is to take an idea, create drawings, models, circuit maps and software designs, then go get these things made. to reverse engineer is to take the final made product and get back to the drawings, models etc. the idea being that its easier to copy someone elses work rather than do all that thinking yourself. to reverse engineer something mechanical, usually you get one and take it apart. you can use precise measurement arms, old school calipers/tape measures or lasers to scan individual parts in 3 dimensions to get their cad models and drawings. to reverse engineer something electrical is even easier. all circuit board chips, capacitors, resistors have model and serial # or otherwise identifying features on them and tracing those little circuit wires from pin to pin gives you the electrical schematic of the board. to reverse engineer software is a little more tricky. it used to be easy - the patterns of cpu byte code that map to higher level languages were easy to recognize, like < stream of bytes > = printf("hello"); nowadays software is obfuscated and encrypted even while it runs in computer memory. all software has interfaces - maybe one for communicating over a network, one for user interface, another in how it read/writes files, another for read/writing to a database.... and these avenues might let you infer some algorithms, but if its using proper modern software protection its a bit difficult. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"simple.wikipedia.org"
] | [
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what is the scientifically optimal way to "shake well", and why? | you want the most turbulence to get the best (fastest) mixing. that's why those protein milkshake bottles have coils or bars in them, they provide obstructions for the liquid to flow around. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can you map every portion of the complex plain onto the reals? | title says it all, i can't remember if there's a one to one relationship with **z** and **r** or how to show it. bear in mind my last complex analysis course was several years ago. | first, **z** is the set of integers; you want **c**. second, yes, there is a 1-1 correspondence between **r** and **c**. write z = x + iy for z in **c**. write x = x1.x2 and y = y1.y2. now interleave the integer parts and the decimal parts separately. for example, if you have x = 32.467 and y = 0.5698, we get 3020.5466978 similarly, given a real number we can read off the corresponding complex number. for example 34785.964327 - there are some subtleties due to the fact that decimal expansions aren't unique (in order to make this rigorous you might need to take a detour through (0,1]x(0,1] and (0,1]), but the point is there are definitely bijections between **c** and **r**. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much data could i put on a rubiks cube scramble? | for example, if there was a way to encrypt (not sure if that's the right word) text into a scrambled rubiks cube like a qr code or bar code, how much text could i place onto a rubiks cube so that someone else could still "read" what was encrypted on it? | wikipedia says that the number of positions in a rubik's cube is about 43\*10^(18). take base 2 logarithm of that and you get 65.2. that's how many bits of information you can encode in the cube. if you want to encode text and include only basic alphabet and a handful of punctuation, then you can just about make do with 32 different characters. that's 5 bits per character so your cube can encode about 13 characters. with text compression you could cram in a bit more, at least if you allow for the decompression algorithm to be stored outside of the cube. normal english language text has been estimated to be roughly one bit of information per character. this would then allow about 65 characters to be stored in the cube. that's on average for typical english, the exact figure would depend on the text. if you allow for the cube to be taken apart and then put together arbitrarily, you can get to states not included in the previous figures. then you have about 520\*10^(18) distinct positions for the cube. and the information content would be 68.8 bits, so only a little bit more, not enough to even allow an additional letter to be encoded without compression. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubik's_Cube"
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use of giant kelp | i recently watched a documentary in which it was mentioned that giant kelp can grow up to half a metre a day,in the summer.does giant kelp have a genetic advantage when it comes to growth?if so,could the gene be spliced into crops to enhance growth and crop yield,or would it be simpler to just cultivate large amounts of kelp for fertilizing crops or for animal feed?thanks to anyone who can answer. | well, kelp are basically algae, so they are quite different from land plants in pretty much every way except photosynthesis. although their holdfasts resemble, and may be a primitive form of, plant roots, kelp are fundamentally different. in most land plants, while very limited photosynthesis may occur in the stalk of the plant, most of its photosynthetic activity is in the leaves. kelp, in contrast, photosynthesize in every part of the organism (although different parts have different levels of photosynthetic ability depending on age), allowing for more and making light less of a limitation than it is in land plants. the environment the kelp lives in is also a big factor. since it is under water, light is attenuated differently than above water. due to the large amount of particulates, blue light is attenuated rapidly in coastal waters, and blue light is much more valuable than red light that can penetrate deeper at a higher intensity. while there are products out there that purport to use kelp in them to make plants grow faster, i'm thinking this is only because of the nutrients, not any special property that is linked to kelp growth. i cannot think of any way at present to genetically transfer this quality to land plants; their limitations are different, their environments are different, and they are just fundamentally different organisms. kelp would be much better used as fertilizer, as you suggest, than as a source of genetic information, although in the future that may change. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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please explain what the hell i just watched in this bizarre leg amputation surgery video? (xpost from /truereddit; graphic) | i found this video quite captivating. 1. [the video](_url_1_) is in russian, which doesn't help my understanding. (again, graphic) 2. the [original r/truereddit post](_url_0_) with some context. for those afraid to watch, the leg is in a state of necrosis. they're swabbing the foot with something in the beginning. then there is some sort of acid bath(?) they wrap the leg in to cleanly dissolve the skin to the bone. and then they saw the bone off. i'm fascinated by this not for the gross factor, per se, but mostly because it's one of those reminders that our body is less a mystery than it is an automobile; removable and interchangeable parts installed by the qualified surgeon at the salvage yard. i was part of a volunteer ems team during college, and the frequency of roadside wreckage (man and machine) is admittedly desensitizing. if we picked this guy up in the ambulance, we'd just apply a tourniquet and dope him up for the ride. i want to know: 1. what are they swabbing on the foot prior to the amputation? if it's just alcohol (though it appears darker than that), why even swab the foot? 2. what's involved in that chemical treatment, and how did they contain it within the wrapping? 3. why did they saw the bone about four inches below the "stump"? feel free to be as technical as you'd like, o! wise, credentialed eggheads. | this video is actually of a person who has used krokodil, or desomorphine, a horrible home-made opiate that is common in russia. its made from codeine (from over the counter pain meds), lighter fluid, industrial oil, iodine, and some other things too i think. its boiled up and injected. it pretty much eats away at the body and users have ulcers develop almost immediately on starting to use this drug. the tissue just rots away. what you are seeing in this video is the lower portion of the leg being taken off before surgery to amputate the leg. it will be easier to work with the leg without the bottom hanging off. it is common for users of krokodil to have their flesh rot and leave bones exposed. this article has a good overview of the drug and its use in russia, especially among the poor there. it is said to have a 'high' of 90mins and takes 30mins to make, with users having an average lifespan of 1 year after starting to use the drug. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/Foodforthought/comments/ipwge/dont_watch_this_video_if_youre_squeamish/",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EZGkO2xYcEU"
] | [
"http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/krokodil-the-drug-that-eats-junkies-2300787.html"
] | [
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does anyone know of any animated examples showing how fast light moves? | an example i can think of would be showing the earth and the moon, or the earth and the sun, and a line moving between them representing the speed of light. that would be sweet. | if you go to the site "if the moon were a pixel" ( _url_0_ ) you can press the button on the bottom right that is a "c" with lines around it. that'll take you through the solar system at the speed of light in that scale. it's really crazy how slow light really is. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://joshworth.com/dev/pixelspace/pixelspace_solarsystem.html",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-fSqFWcb4rE"
] | [
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unit analysis of miles/gallon. isn't that an inverse area? | fuel efficiency is often measured in miles/gallon but since miles is a length and gallons is a cubed length, couldn't you divide out one length and get an inverse area? a professor of mine sort of mentioned one time what that inverse area actually means, but i didn't really understand it at the time, and now i've pretty much completely forgotten what he said. edit: i think wnoise has it right. the inverse area is > the cross-sectional area of a trough of gasoline that a tankless car would consume while traveling along said trough. | no, the miles and gallons are in different contexts. you are not physically spreading a gallon of gasoline over a distance, in which case yes, you would be left with an area. the actual units are: gallons of gasoline, and miles driven on asphalt. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is going on in this picture? a bunch of ants are standing in a circle around two ants. | _url_0_ are the two in the middle a different species or from a different colony? is there something else wrong with them? | it is a very unclear photo, but ants usually surround droplets of sugar water or plain water like this ([as can also be seen here](_url_0_)). the ants in the middle likely got sucked in the droplet and are floating on top. | 14 | [] | [
"http://i2.kym-cdn.com/photos/images/original/000/611/679/736.jpg"
] | [
"http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/these-rainbow-colored-transparent-ants-are-what-they-eat-25521112/?no-ist"
] | [
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] |
is there a material man mad or otherwise that camera's have trouble recording? | i'm curious if there is a material that is not easily photographed; something that might show up as a lens flare or dark spot etc. anything that might confuse digital cameras. film camera's are not used as much these day so i think it is safe to exclude those. also why is everything in pirate speak? i really didn't want to click that "hoist" button, its kinda sketchy. | [striped shirts](_url_0_) tend to cause problems with video recording and, if the pattern is fine enough, photos. it is due to the creation of a [moire](_url_1_) pattern where 2 sets of parallel lines that are not quite parallel (the lines on the shirt and the pixels on the sensor) create a illusion of density waves in the final image. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jXEgnRWRJfg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moiré_pattern",
"http://www.talklikeapirate.com/piratehome.html"
] | [
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where do you see your field of study/work heading in 5 years and again in 50 years? | in the next five years, my field (combustion) will probably do the following. 1. on the applied side, we'll develop more eco-friendly fuels and techniques, mostly involving biofuels. we'll also develop new techniques that will allow for faster supersonic travel, mostly for military applications. 2. on the fundamental science side, we'll continue to measure reaction rates more accurately until computer simulations can become accurate enough to remove the need for prototypes. faster computers will help a lot here. in 50 years, my field will probably be gone. renewable energy will supply most of our needs except for military and airlines. the military will still need us, and airline engine technology will probably stagnate with some biofuel. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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