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how standard solutions prepared in the industry? | the same way you do in the lab - mix up some reagents, test for the concentration or amount, slap a label on it and seal it up for storage. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how are standard solution and titrations prepared in industry? | i don't work for a standards manufacturer, but i was an analytical chemist and worked closely with the guy who made our standards. the analysis we did was measuring volatile organic compounds in blood. or standards had over 50 vocs at different concentrations ranging from the low ppt up to low ppb. when making the stock solutions the formulator chilled all the glassware to prevent volatilization of the compound and carefully weighed them out on a balance. the stock solutions were then diluted using volumetric flasks until they were the desired concentrations. generally you don't want to do more than three or so serial dilutions because you can end up with large inherent errors. then the formulator will run a validation test, gc/ms in our case, to verify that all of the compounds were there and that there wasn't contamination. the formulator would then provide us with certificates of composition with the calculated concentrations and their associated inherent error. some solutions can be titrated of quantified with other analytical techniques and then the formulator would give a certificate of analysis. finally, since nist standards didn't exist for our analysis we ordered another smaller batch of standards from another vendor to validate the first set against. if multiple standards give you the same answer, they were probably made correctly. hope that helps! | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the consensus on the validity of the katamatsu and hirai 1999 "monks serotonin" study? | i understand that this is a non-standard question and fully understand if it is removed. & nbsp; moreso, is there proof that the study ever took place? the study is often cited in international baccalaureate psychology textbooks and learning resources, but all attempts by my teacher, classmates, and i to track down the study or either of the alleged authors have been fruitless. i feel that someone with experiance in this field may be able to shed more light on this subject than my peers or i have. & nbsp; the information i have on the phantom study is as follows. & nbsp; aim - determine how the neurotransmitter serotonin can affect behavior method - researchers studied a group of buddhist monks which went on a 72-hour pilgrimage to a holy mountain in japan - monks did not consume food or water, did not speak, and were exposed to the cold in the late autumn weather - after about 48 hours, the monks began to experience hallucinations, often seeing ancient ancestors researchers took blood samples before the pilgrimage and immediately after the monks reported having hallucinations results - amount of serotonin had increased in the monk's brains conclusion - sensory deprivation triggered the release of serotonin & nbsp; thank you for any assistiance you may be able to provide. | it most likely doesn't exist. [kasamatsu and hirai](_url_0_) had an article published in 1966 where they studied the brains of monks meditating with eeg. it seems someone mismembered. i can find no reliable sources for this purported 1999 study. if it's included in your textbook, i would question its quality. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://is.muni.cz/www/178816/EEG_and_Zazen.pdf"
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is it okay to leave aspirin in my car's glove box during the summer? | will the heat cause the medicine to become dangerous or ineffective in any way? | dangerous? only if you need the aspirin to be effective and you're counting on that. ineffective? yes, but to what degree depends on the heat and humidity. it degrades from acetylsalicylic acid into salicylic acid and acetic acid. the salicylic acid from there can form a polymer as well. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i had an electric chain saw, and then accidentally sawed the electric cord, would i get shocked? | the short answer is yes, it is possible. in order to disable the chainsaw, you have to cut through either the live or neutral line. so there may be a brief or sustained period where the chainsaw housing becomes live. however, there are simply too many variables to be able to say whether you would receive an electric shock in a particular instance. is there a conductive path between the chain and housing? is the chain still in contact with the live side of the cut? what are the handles made of? is the user wearing gloves or boots? is one hand grounded and the other live? was the ground line severed? so in some instances the chainsaw will stop functioning, in others the safety switch will trip, in other cases the cut will be lethal to the user, etc. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do animals that use tools ever display some thought of "this tool *in particular* is the best of its kind" and keep them, or do they generally always just make a new one every time they need one? | like crows or primates that probe holes with sticks, for example. if they got a stick that was particularly well-suited for the task, do they recognize the difference and hold onto it for future use? if so, what does this say about their intelligence? | yes they do! chimpanzees use different tools in different contexts and manufacture their own tools. they'll also use multiple tools in different sequences, and they show others how to use them ([source](_url_1_) - paywall). bonobos and orangutans will save them to use again later, which indicates they planning for situations that could arise in the future ([source](_url_0_) - pdf). multiple studies on tool use have been performed on new caledonian crows. they been observed making tools and then carrying them from place to place. they've also been observed using different tools for different purposes, for example using sticks to get bugs out of logs and blades of grass to sweep the ground looking for bugs ([source](_url_4_) - pdf). simple tool use in itself isn't necessarily indicative of cognition (the above paper mentions fish carrying their eggs on a leaf as an example) but making them and identifying different tools for different uses allows scientists to use both observation and experimentation to test problem solving skills and whether these behaviors are instinctive or learned. new caledonian crows do use tools even if they're raised alone, so it's not entirely something learned socially. however, they learn more complex uses if they're demonstrated. in experimental conditions the crows who observed humans using tools were more likely to use them. chimps use a number of different types of material, including sticks and stones. in contrast, new caledonian crows only use plant material as tools, namely sticks. when presented with a narrow tube filled with water that has food floating on top just out of reach, they don't automatically think to drop a stone in to raise the water level ([source](_url_5_)). when they observe a stone fall in and raise the water level, they figure it out and start using stones to get to the food. they even show preference for using stones over sand or lightweight objects. however, they don't transfer the use of stone tools to other activities, which is something they do with sticks. it's not really understood why this is the case, but they don't take what they know about manipulating sticks for different purposes and apply it to using stones. one experiment showed they use tools more frequently to extract food next to a fake snake than a teddy bear ([source](_url_6_)). this indicates that they're evaluating risk and are more willing to lose their tool than put themselves directly in harm's way. it's not clear whether they were also using the tools to check out the snake or teddy bear. so we have multiple examples of both birds and primates using tools in complex ways, showing preferences for different tools in different situations, and hanging onto them to use them in the future. there are differences in choice of materials and in the way they learn, but it's not well understood what this means in terms of their cognition. edit: [a source](_url_3_) describing wild new caledonian crows making hooked tools. cool paper! also, [photos and video](_url_2_) of wild chimpanzees transporting tools. | 82 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.eva.mpg.de/psycho/pdf/Mulcahy&Call2006SCI.pdf",
"http://m.sciencemag.org/content/328/5978/579.summary",
"http://langint.pri.kyoto-u.ac.jp/ai/en/publication/SusanaCarvalho/Carvalho2012.html",
"http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/271/Suppl_3/S88.abstract",
"http://users.ox.ac.uk/~kgroup/publications/pdf/kenward_etal_2006_AnimBehav_ontogeny.pdf",
"http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0026887#pone.0026887-McGrew1",
"http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2011/09/06/rsbl.2011.0782.full.html"
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how did ancient humans track the equinoxes and solstices? | sure they could see the gradual lengthening shortening of daylight, but were they able to nail down the exact longest day and longest night? if so how? | the easiest method of figuring out the solstices, is to establish a circle. within that circle you have an observation post. from this post, you observe the exact spot on the circle where the sun rises and sets each day. you will notice that it shifts north and south according with the seasons. winter solstice in the northern hemisphere will be when the sun rises and sets in the southern-most markings. vice versa for the summer solstice. if the idea of this circle with a central observation post sounds familiar, then congratulations, you've imagined the basic premise of stonehenge. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone decode this paper for me? how can an occupation of being a mathematician correlate to higher birth defects in the baby? | [here is the paper](_url_0_) is it just one of those correlation != causation things? | speculation: paternal age is a known correlational factor for higher birth defects (older is worse). perhaps some of those occupations relate to people becoming parents at older ages? | 5 | [] | [
"http://oem.bmj.com/content/69/8/534.abstract"
] | [
"http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/248045.php"
] | [
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] |
is it possible that everyone could be seeing different colors but using the same terms? | this is actually a question better suited to /r/neurophilosophy or /r/askphilosophy in philosophy there is a field called epistemology (the study of knowledge). so the question is 'how do we know the colors are the same subjective experience for everybody?' we don't. not for absolute certain. however, the use of language to describe experiences of people is so consistent, that it would be hard to imagine a system of colors, subjective experiences and names where they just weren't the same. this is a special case of the philosophical problem called "[the problem of other minds](_url_0_)" | 17 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds",
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cne.902920402/abstract;jsessionid=D886E45EFBDD4A497BEC8C552E92ACA1.d03t03",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrachromacy#Possibility_of_human_tetrachromats",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_cortex",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod_cell",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cone_cell",
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/vision/rodcone.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualia"
] | [
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|
is a scientific theory speculation? | someone keeps telling me a theory is just speculation. i don't believe that is the case. can askscience weigh in? maybe with some credible sources? | in science, there is a really big difference between theory, as in scientific theory and theory which is what you'd use in everyday language. let me illustrate this: while the average joe, calls this his theory, it's what in science would be referred to has a hypothesis. there is an observational fact: the roof leaks, and an idea to explain that fact. this hypothesis can be easily tested. you can test a hypothesis with an experiment. for instance, does the roof leak when it rains only or does it do so at other times? if it's rained several times in the past few days and you only noticed it leaking when it rained, then you have evidence to back up your hypothesis. however this doesn't prove it. you can never prove a hypothesis, only gather an insurmountable pile of evidence. let's say you find a hole in your roof. now you have two striking pieces of evidence to support your hypothesis. but this still doesn't prove you right. the next day you find a copper pipe leaking water and you realize the hole was in the wrong place. suddenly your hypothesis was proven wrong, even with substantial evidence for it. you see in science, you can never prove anything, but only gather mountains of evidence for it. okay, with hypotheses properly defined we can move on to what a scientific theory is. in science, a scientific theory is a collection of hypotheses which agree with experiment and observed facts which are connected together with an overall narrative of sorts. theories are meant to be large, giant ideas. for instance: * cell theory * theory of general and special relativity * evolution * electromagnetism * plate tectonics * stellarnucleosynthesis there are literally hundreds of scientific theories which all are huge ideas which explain large chunks of natural phenomenon. to gain the title "theory" they must stand not only the test of time, but agree with as much observational facts as possible. scientific theories can in fact be completely wrong and scrapped, such as the theory of a geocentric solar system. however, usually scientific theories are so good at their jobs that even when proven wrong they need not be completely destroyed. newtonian classical mechanics is factually wrong. however, it is still used and given merit because it still works as long as you realize it's limitations. the limit of general/special relativity which is the modern description of gravity becomes classical mechanics at slow speeds and sizes. just as often, scientific theories can simply be "tweaked." it is highly unlikely that cell theory will meet it's demise because the evidence for it is nearly infinite. however, new evidence can come to light that may say challenge certain parts of it. instead of throwing out the whole theory you can simple add or modify certain parts into. the big bang theory had such an event when the idea of inflation had to be added to the theory. we didn't throw out the whole idea, but we simply added a new part to it. sorry this is long, but i really wanted to give you a good course in scientific literacy. speculation is reserved for hypotheses, which are specific and easily proved wrong. scientific theories are much larger ideas with many internal hypotheses and facts woven together. while a hypothesis can easily die, a scientific theory can either die, be limited, or modified. i suggest you read "the demon-haunted world" by carl sagan. he takes a very good approach to explaining what science is and what it isn't and why it's a collection of the best ideas anyone has ever had. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what actually happens when we "get used to something"? | say after you spend some time at the landfill, you stop smelling the foul odor, or you live next to a busy street and stop hearing the traffic, or you live in an area with higher metal contents in the water and stop tasting it. what is actually occurring when we stop smelling/hearing/tasting a frequent sensation? | all changes in the stimuli will result in neural adaptation. the smells or sounds will wane with time due to fatigue. the nerves get 'tired' or fatigued from firing in the same way in response to a stimulus, and eventually modulate their response to this stimulus such that they begin to fire less and less. otherwise, they'd run the risk of dying from excitotoxic stress. which can occur when taking certain drugs. in some cases, hearing loss can be caused by excitoxicity from overexposure to noises of sufficient length and loudness. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can someone explain to me the purpose and function of plates and refluxing in a distillation column? | so, i understand that when you heat a binary mixture the vapor contains some mole fraction of each component and the purpose is to increase the mole fraction of the component with the lower boiling point at the top and that with the higher bp at the bottom. how does the inclusion of plates and reflux help achieve this? edit: fixed mistake | just a small correction to your original post (probably just an innocent mistake on your part): the more volatile lower bp component will be enriched at the top of the column, while the high bp heavy key components remain at the bottom. the plates provide for a surface of contact for mass transfer between liquid and gaseous states to occur. the condensed cooler liquid traveling down the column (from reflux) will cool the vapour that is traveling up, causing the components at a higher boiling point to condense as well and collect on the plates. the hot vapour traveling up will heat the liquid on the plates and vapourize the light key components. this is how mass transfer occurs in reaching equilibrium. the reflux not only provides better distillation, but also a driving force for the column. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
why does this interesting water effect occur? | i just stumbled upon [this slow motion water droplet video](_url_0_) and my question is: is the next ball (water sphere), say *x* times smaller than the previous one? would the water consistency have any influence? why does this even happen (bouncing on surface)? | the property that is most meaningful here is the [surface tension](_url_0_) of the liquid. cohesion (attraction between water molecules) pulls them together, but some are "stuck" on the outside with less interaction with other water molecules--molecules on the outside are of a slightly higher energy. getting this effect to occur requires some fairly careful control of the parameters involved (as the video caption notes), including droplet size and height. the energy of deforming the droplet and surface (which you can think of like compressing a spring) pushes the two apart more than interactions between molecules of the two surfaces pull them together (because the area of contact between a plane is very small), so the two are pushed apart before either can deform enough to remove the surfaces. each time, however, the interaction pulls some of the molecules from the droplet into the surface. | 9 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pbGz1njqhxU"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_tension"
] | [
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is there a usage of quantum physics in our body? | maybe. known quantum effects in biology include long-range coherence during photosynthesis and [the magnetic field detection that birds use to navigate](_url_1_). it's possible that [smell uses quantum effects](_url_0_) to identify individual molecules, but from what i've read this is still a speculative hypothesis. there was a [recent paper](_url_2_) arguing that entanglement of phosphorus in the brain is responsible for cognition, but this is not accepted. | 20 | [] | [] | [
"http://aip.scitation.org/doi/full/10.1063/1.4767067",
"https://arxiv.org/pdf/1204.6528.pdf",
"https://arxiv.org/pdf/1508.05929.pdf",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19480428",
"http://www.columbia.edu/cu/chemistry/groups/berne/papers/jacs_126_8501_2004.pdf"
] | [
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|
alright so i am a real noob, i am interested in astronomy and mostly black holes, but i have a few questions even after research and re-reading things. (questions inside) | well i have a slight understanding of spacetime and general relativity but when i hear some things i get really confused. how can spacetime "bend" and more importantly what does it really mean or what happens if spacetime is "bent"? what technically is a singularity? (this one i am really stumped on) btw i plan to read some books and watch some tv shows they always seem to make it sound more simple but i want to have a bit more understanding of this phenomena before watching or reading. thank you for answering, as i know these questions might seem easily research-able but i couldn't much on it. | first off, general relativity is very confusing, so don't be disheartened if you don't understand it the first time around. i am a second year physics undergrad and i pretty much covered the basics of this a couple of months ago. the explanation i'm about to give you is probably a dumbed down version they teach us so we can remotely grasp what's going on. someone with a higher education can obviously give a better explanation, but i think this will satisfy the first question. the whole idea that matter "bends spacetime" opposes the classical understanding of gravity, where two objects attract one another. in gr, they don't. instead, objects with matter have a gravitational field that bends spacetime and manipulate the path of other matter moving within the field. think of a flat grid. now look at [this image](_url_0_). what you're seeing is a 2 dimensional representation of 4 dimensions (aka spacetime). in the image, the presence of the earth has "bent" spacetime. we know moving objects take the path of least resistance. an object traveling near the earth will follow the path of the field lines and orbit the planet, not because the earth is pulling on it, but because the object is traveling along the path of least resistance through the earth's gravitational field. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://3.bp.blogspot.com/_-A8Z9niGdTw/TBnuGAYDqiI/AAAAAAAAAIY/qEf_A4gPI0s/s320/fabric5.jpg"
] | [
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] |
how do s-waves react upon non-newtonian substances? | if shear waves have a difficulty traveling through liquids, and non-newtonian fluids solidify upon application of pressure, what happens when the two meet? do the shear waves travel through undisturbed? does the wave make it some way without failing? or does it just not cause enough stress for the fluid to solidify in the first place? | just saying 'non-newtonian' is really too broad of a term, as there are many different behaviors that fluids can have in response to shear that are not newtonian. when you say 'non-newtonian fluids solidify on application of pressure', that actually doesn't really make sense. whether a fluid is non-newtonian or not depends upon its response to the application of *shear*, not pressure. since liquids are all essentially incompressible, applying static pressure to a container of fluid won't tell you anything about its rheology. as explained in the [wikipedia article](_url_1_), there are 7 different classes of behaviors that a fluid can have when stress is applied, only one of those is a newtonian behavior. if you are referring to a shear-thickening or dilatant fluid, then application of s-waves would most likely cause the fluid to increase its viscosity, causing weird effects like [this](_url_0_). | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3zoTKXXNQIU",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-newtonian#Types_of_non-Newtonian_behaviour"
] | [
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how does codominance work? | in biology today, we learned about codominance in relation to genetics. the example my teacher used was that if you took a black chicken and a white chicken and you bred them together, you would get a speckled chicken with both black and white feathers. i was wondering, what determines a fathers color on an individual basis? | when discussing dominance in a genetics context, what we really mean is that the genotype (some variable allele encoded in dna) is phenotypic (something you can observe or measure, like chicken feather colour). as you probably learned, most animal species are diploid - meaning you carry two copies (or alleles) of every gene - one inherited from your mother, the other from your father. dominant/recessive/codominant describes the relationship between those two alleles. other than a handful of imprinted and sex-linked genes, you always expect to express *both* alleles. often recessive alleles are mechanistically loss-of-function. this might be clearest through a few quick examples 1. say you had two alleles at a given chicken feather colour gene: b = express black pigment b = ~~express black pigment~~ (broken) a chicken with genotype **bb** will express black pigment. a chicken with genotype **bb** will not express black pigment. perhaps the chicken will be white. it will not be black. a chicken with genotype **bb** will express black pigment from one allele, but the end result is still a black chicken. black+nothing = black. *in this example, b is dominant to b.* 2. again, two alleles at a chicken feather colour gene: b = express black pigment b = express white pigment as before, chicken **bb** will be black. this time, chicken **bb** will definitely be white, since white pigment is being produced as opposed to "no pigment". now, chicken **bb** will express both black pigment and white pigment. depending on other details, you may have a chicken that is grey (both black and white in equal measure), or you may have a chicken that is speckled (both black and white). *the result of both alleles can be observed in the phenotype, so b and b are codominant.* | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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hope this isn't in the wrong subreddit, but can anyone explain the chomsky hierarchy? | i'm a linguistics student, studying syntax within the framework of transformational grammar. i took a class on language and cognition and chomsky's hierarchy of formal grammars was discussed, but i didn't quite understand. the wikipedia articles seem to use a lot of undefined computer science terminology that i don't quite get. thanks! | your question is a little open-ended. usually, compsci majors will spend a semester working with the math that defines these languages. in addition say "i don't quite understand" doesn't really give me a guide as to what you didn't understand. however, let me take a stab at the basics: chomsky's hierarchy of languages actually describes a hierarchy of mathematical objects. these objects can be expressed in terms of machines of a certain "power", grammars with ever more general parsing mechanism, or sets of (sequences) lists of symbols of ever greater complexity (or subtlety). i think chomsky might label his hierarchy from type 1, rather than type 0, but it doesn't really matter. the most class is type 0, which are recursively enumerable. in order to "process" (recognize) strings that belong to this language you need a machine that is turing complete. an idealized form of your computer is turing complete. the next class down is type 1, or the 'context sensitive' languages. in this case 'context sensitive' is a very technical term that refers to the way rules are processed with respect to a grammar --- it has nothing to do with the popular notion of "context sensitivity" which we would call "domain dependence" or some such term. context sensitive languages are not as powerful as recursively enumerable languages, but are boorishly difficult to work with, and are thus not studied at the undergraduate level very often. there are important examples of context sensitive languages, though. the next class is type 2, or the 'context free' languages. such languages are producable by a grammar which follows much more restricted set of rules. the context free languages are studied a great deal by undergraduates as they map well to the set of easily taught parsing technologies that are often used. in general, most problems are what i would call "just context free", ie, mostly type 3 (regular), but need "just a touch" of type 2. most (computer) language designers prefer type 2 languages, but actual practice makes this unlikely. the weakest class is type 3, or the 'regular' languages. regular languages are perhaps the most common languages; anyone who uses a computer uses 'regular' languages on a daily basis. this is because many "searching" technologies are implemented as regular recognizers. the next thing to discuss is what we *mean* by a language. in the formal analysis of languages, we prefer (to start with) to map languages to a specific mathematical object. the wiki article is actually quite good in this, but just to give you a little bit of leverage on the jargon: a language is a set (a group of things where no two elements are repeated) of strings (lists or sequences) of symbols (letters). one of the symbols you can include is "space" so that we can build strings that *look like*, for instance, english. we usually begin by considering *every possible string of symbols of any [finite] length* and call this something like sigma-star (or some such thing). a specific language, then, is a subset of sigma-star. for instance, one such language is the string that just consists of each symbol by itself. there's all sorts of ways to define a subset of sigma-star; most of them are 'uninteresting' because they have no structure. however, if we allow certain specific (and useful) rules to be used in constructing a language, we can get languages that consist of more or less complex subsets of sigma-star. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chomsky_hierarchy"
] | [
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is there an equation predicting the hooke's law constant for a simple spiral spring based on: the material and the spring geometry? | i have been using my 3d printer to print simple springs \(the common spiral kind, not sure of the name\). and i can test them to work out the \[k constant\]\([_url_2_](_url_0_)\) \(k\*displacement = force\). is there a general equation where you just put in \(i assume\): a material property, the height, the width, the thickness of the spring coil, and the number of coils. edit: thank you u/[nastienate15](_url_1_) for catching my typo. | have you tried doing an online search for a spring constant calculator? there are many of them online; [here](_url_0_), for example, | 9 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hooke%27s_law#Formal_definition",
"https://www.reddit.com/user/nastienate15",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hooke%27s\\_law#Formal\\_definition"
] | [
"https://www.acxesspring.com/espanol/spring-constant-calculator.html"
] | [
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co-worker thinks that citric acid from limes react with copper mugs, exchanging electrons, and therefore improving the taste of a moscow mule. he's full of crap, right? | i can't find anything on the google that's concise enough to show him that he's clearly incorrect. can someone familiar with chemistry offer some insight? | the low ph of the citrus juice can help speed corrosion and citrate readily complexes copper. so putting lime juice on copper can definitely result in some copper going into solution. the copper will be oxidized which is a transfer of electrons. how that affects taste is beyond the scope of what i know. it seems plausible, but it would be hard to prove. it's hard to separate the mug from the drink in a double blind test if putting your mouth on the copper is part of the experience. there's plenty of research on how metals affect food taste if you are curious. here's a limited example, but you can find more if you search: tasting spoons: assessing how the material of a spoon affects the taste of the food _url_0_ > this study investigated the effect that the taste of certain metals has on the perception of food. four spoons plated with different metals (gold, copper, zinc, and stainless steel) were used to taste cream samples having different tastes: sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and plain. the results revealed that the zinc and copper spoons, in addition to transferring a somewhat metallic and bitter taste, enhanced to a greater or lesser extent, each cream’s dominant taste. contrary to our expectations, the metallic taste of the copper and zinc spoons did not seem to affect the pleasantness of the samples significantly. these findings reveal that the effect that the metals from which cutlery can be made have on food perception differs from that found when the metal salts are added to the composition of the food itself. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0950329311001765"
] | [
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] |
with the advent of predictive statisticians like nate silver, have we achieved psychohistory? | for those who aren't familiar, psychohistory is a fictional science in isaac asimov's foundation universe which combines history, sociology, etc., and mathematical statistics to make general predictions about the future behavior of very large groups of people. [wikipedia](_url_0_ | no. psychohistory was about predicting the future. nate silver just came up with a way to do better analysis of data for a single election. he didn't actually predict the future in a meaningful sense, like psychohistory, he predicted the results of a single election with polling data. psychohistory is a fake science that's far more fake than it is science. it made for a good story, but it certainly isn't reality. | 6 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychohistory_(fictional)"
] | [
"http://election.princeton.edu",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virial_expansion"
] | [
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why does 16 psyche have such a low density? | i read that asteroid 16 psyche was composed mostly of pure iron and nickel. however, it only has a density of around 3.3 grams per cubic centimeter. how is this possible? if it's really pure iron/nickel shouldn't its density be way higher, like at least double? | it is very porous. it was probably never completely molten, and its gravitational attraction is not strong enough to get rid of those empty spaces inside either. ["macroporosity of 30-40%"](_url_0_) - meaning 30-40% is empty space. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1134%2FS0038094606030051"
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[random thought] oxygen ventilators as performance enhancers? | hey guys, i'm a 22yr male runner. i was in the shower today and started thinking about oxygen intake. i know the air we breathe outside is saturated only with 30% oxygen or something like that. i was wondering (and i'm sure it has been wondered before) if they've come out with any sort of portable ventilator that releases a dose of high oxygen air. i was also wondering if this would actually do anything, or are our bodies incapable of processing that much oxygen? any other random info is also awesome. thanks! | we hooked a few elite amateur cyclists to oxygen tanks with nasal cannulas and had them go for different hard or long ride for a few weeks and saw that they had slight increases in power and endurance in some cases but we concluded that it was more due to the stimulant/neurological effects of oxygen. you can't just dump more oxygen into people and have them perform better unless they have adapted their mechanisms for transporting and utilizing that oxygen at the cellular level. this is still a somewhat controversial topic but the researchers who claim otherwise aren't very highly regarded. the exception is if you are in an environment in which there is less oxygen than you are used to (altitude). | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is the lowest/smallest unit of matter at which variances or imperfections are discernible? | i guess my question could go in a couple of different directions since i don't really know where to start. how distinguishable are multiple atoms and molecules from each other under the same/similar conditions (i.e. are they all made of the exact same 'stuff' (which i guess begs the same question for neutrons, protons, and electrons) and in the exact same manner or are there individual variances)? more on my scientific level: are small units like atoms/molecules/etc. 'snowflakes' or are they identical (at least, as best as we can tell)? if there is a level where there doesn't seem to be individual variance among units of matter, where is that boundary? (though, it seems this leads to the question of how well are able to perceive or discern these things in the first place) i'm only asking about atoms and molecules specifically because those are the basic units of matter with which i am most familiar with, so certainly don't limit yourself to discussion of these alone. sorry if this is getting too far afield into theoretical physics and phenomenology. | as far as i'm aware electrons, protons and nutrons are identical. an electron is a fundemental particle it's self, protons consist of two up quarks and a single down quark, and a neutron has two down quarks with a single up quark. these particles always consist of the same sub-atomic particles, however the arrangement in space of the quarks can differ. similar to how electrons associated with an atom have an average orbit, resulting in a "cloud" of electrons. so atoms are always made of the same "stuff", there is no variation other than the instantanious position of particles and sub-atomic particles making up the atom in space. moving on, in a moleule there can be many instantanious variances. bond length, bond angles etc. these vary due to oscillations in the bonds. for example when ozone absorbs uv radiation, the energy absorbed results in an increased frequencey of oscillation in the bonds, breaking the ozone molecule into o2 and an oxygen radical. so if you were to freeze a molecule, different molecules would have slightly varying bond lengths, angles, position of electrons in orbit etc. however all would average to be almost exactly the same. induced diapoles as well, this can shift the average position of the electron cloud based on the surrounding atoms. molecules also have e/z isomerism, where the molecule has a different arragement of atoms in space. this is created by double, tripple bonds etc. most of this is chemistry, but i hope i helped. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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good (text)book(s) on introduction to neuroscience? | also, how does one approach the field? what are the common perspectives and what are the benefits/failings of each? edit: the text(s) would preferably be approachable by someone with a non-medical background but with a science background. | kandel, principles of neural science, is a pretty standard intro textbook, if that's what you're looking for. as far as perspectives, you would really have to narrow it down to a specific field/subfield depending on what you're interested in. in general there aren't really any over-arching theories that are applicable to the entire field of neuroscience. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there any error-correcting code that do better than hadamard encoding? | i was reading up on hadamard error correction and i was surprised to find that a 32x32 hadamard matrix can correct a 32 bit vector for up to 7 mistakes. can any other code do better than this? | yes. easily. error correction codes are usually specified by two degrees of freedom, the message length (k) and the block length (n). the rate of the code is then defined as the message length / block length. a hadamard code has a rate of k/2^(-k). the code you are describing then, can only send 5 bits of information. in other words most of those bits are redundant. now this does not necessarily mean that the code is bad per se. the measure of a code is generally by how close that code is to [channel capacity](_url_0_). you may have heard of channel capacity before in regards to the [shannon-hartley theorem](_url_2_), which is indeed a very special case of channel capacity. unfortunately the hadamard error correction code fails here to. the channel capacity (or maximum rate) for a binary symmetric channel with crossover probability p (bsc(p)) is 1 - h(p), where h(p) is the shannon entropy function, defined as -p log(p) - (1-p) log(1-p), and the logs are base 2. in this case, being generous to the hadamard code, we can view the crossover probability as 7/32 (7 bits out of 32 bits may be seen in error). the capacity of this channel is then around .24, giving 32*.24 approx 7 bits of information. thus the hadamard code is about 2 bits of information off from capacity. that is a huge drop. in fact though, short codes can not really ever reach channel capacity. one of the hot topics in information theory right now is dispersion, a concept really introduced by [polyanskiy, poor and verdu (pdf)](_url_1_) recently. for instance, figure 1 in the pdf i sent shows the maximum rate of a bsc with crossover .11. in particular, the red line (marked converse) is the maximum possible rate at that block length and error probability. only by going to larger and larger block lengths can we actually reach capacity. in that sense, the hadamard ecc is actually really really bad. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_capacity",
"https://www.princeton.edu/~verdu/reprints/PolPooVerMay2010.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shannon%E2%80%93Hartley_theorem"
] | [
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cmb, recombination, and red shifting | in pondering an article on the recent planck results, i stumbled upon an interesting idea/conclusion that i would like help verifying. after the big bang, the universe was opaque due to plasma, with to much energy for stable atoms to form. expansion led to the formation of stable atoms, "clarifying" the universe and turning space transparent. this is also the point at which the currently measured cmb radiation gets emitted. originally, the photons released were in the uv end of the spectrum, and now they deep ir. at some point, they must have passed through our visible spectrum, and the night sky would seem a brighter background to the coalescing of the solar system! do we have a plot of the anticipated frequency / "color" of cmb radiation over time? | actually, the cmb was emitted when the universe was 3000 kelvin, so the peak wavelength would have been around 1 micron, which is in the near infrared. it is currently ~3 kelvin, so its current peak is out past the far ir and is in the millimeter-wave regime. at the time of emission, the high-energy tail of the [planck function](_url_0_) would still be in the optical regime. very quickly, though, the cmb would have been redshifted out of the optical. the peak temperature of the cmb is given by 3k x (1+z), where z is the redshift. since it's a very good black body, you can get an accurate measurement of the spectrum from its temperature. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck's_law"
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thermic exchange factor: does something like this exist ? | hello everyone, i did thermodynnamics a little time ago, and i kind of remember that there exists some sort of "thermic exchange" factor that controls the rate at which object a and object b would exchange thermic energy. i have got 3 questions about this factor: - does something like this exist ? or is it just me inventing things - is it possible to put between a and b, a third object c that would slow down the thermic exchange between a and b, beyond the effect that would be expected from the fact that you have an object of intermediate temperature - can you also put an object that would accelerate the transfer of temperature between a and b ? thank you very much | yes: two bodies in contact with each other at different temperatures will conduct "heat" (molecular kinetic energy) from the warmer body to the colder body. the rate of transfer depends on a few things, one is the thermal conductivity of the material, another is the surface area of the two materials in contact with each other. some materials are excellent thermal conductors, such as metals -- that's why they feel cool to the touch; it is rapidly conducting the heat away from your skin. others, such as rubber, are poor conductors of heat, and will rapidly come to the same temperature as your hand. so placing a thick sheet of rubber between two metal blocks of different temperature would vastly slow the rate of energy exchange via conduction between the two bodies. accelerating the rate of exchange is not quite as easy because the rate of energy flow from the warmer block to anything colder is also determined by the thermal gradient inside the block itself. imagine block a is a really long cylinder, and block b is also a really long cylinder, but they only touch at the ends -- there will be a thermal gradient along the lengths of both cylinders, as the temperatures of the two attempt to equilibrate. the best (only?) way to passively accelerate this process is to increase the surface area with a material with a higher thermal conductivity than the two blocks. this is how "thermal paste" works, it creates a larger thermally connected surface area using a high thermal conductivity paste. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would it take for the theory of evolution to become a law? | there's no category of names for concepts where "theory" sits below "law" until something comes along that promotes it. it does exist in math, where things can go from conjecture to theorem (for example, that of poincare), but not in science. theory isn't a bad word in science. the best synonym for it is "framework." regarding evolution, there's no lack of evidence: observations from biology fit well into its framework. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what sight problem might be causing me to see lines blurred on united airlines tail logo for a while before properly focus them? haven't really noticed this happen with anything else but that logo! | this is just a wild guess, but if you have uncorrected astigmatism you might be developing coping mechanisms for how to properly focus on vertical lines that look blurry next to horizontal lines that are sharp or vice versa. if you look at the swoops in the logo, you'll notice it has just that sort of look -- wide lines perpendicular to sharp thin lines. your brain might be trying to adjust focus as if the wide lines are blurry and are result of astigmatism when they are actually wide and not blurry. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
does wrapping a spliced wire create a solenoid effect? | when you splice two wires together, i know a lot of people will twist them around each other and solder the wires. when current hits the twisted wire, does it create a solenoid effect and change the amps/voltage? or can it have an effect on polarity? | no. there's no insulation between the two wires to force the current to flow in a loop. the whole idea is to increase the area of contact between the wires. when you see an inductive coil where it looks like the wire is touching from loop to loop, there's actually a very thin layer of insulation keeping the turns insulated from each other. also, if you're seeing this in mains wiring, the frequencies involved are so low that it would take much more than a couple turns around an air core to cause any significant effect. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are there any truly spontaneous events? | are there any events that can be considered to be truly without cause? if not, if every event in the past and future is causal, was there ever a "first" event? | you're mixing up some terms here, something that is spontaneous doesn't mean it isn't caused by something. in our universe, as far as we can tell, all things have causal relationships stemming from the physical laws. perhaps things break down as you approach the beginning of the universe, so there we simply don't know. as for spontaneity, it's used in two different ways in science. 1. it's any process that evolves dynamically without input. if i let go of a ball on the side of a hill, it spontaneously begins rolling down the hill without further manipulation from me. 2. a spontaneous event is one which cannot be predicted, whether by immense complexity (like the weather) or the fundamental physical laws (atomic decay). the latter, certain have *cause*--they were atoms generated or excited into an unstable potential, but the individual decay events cannot be predicted and are truly random events. therefore, their causes do not determine when the effect occurs except in aggregate, like a statistical half-life. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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in a dye sensitized solar cell, why doesn't the redox shuttle "short out" the cell between the anode and the cathode? | imagine this dye-sensitized solar cell: anode | dye a | ion a | ion c | dye c | cathode when the anode dye absorbs a photon, it gives an electron to the anode and becomes positively charged. the ion a steals that positive charge (reducing the dye) and migrates to ion c which it reacts with to become neutral again. all of these things happen in reverse for the cathode. the important thing to note is that this process is not favorable in reverse. the ion c is chosen such that it cannot or does not easily react with the anode material or the anode dye and take the electron the other way (or a barrier, such as a [salt bridge](_url_0_) is introduced to keep it away). the same goes for keeping the ion a away from or poorly reacting with dye c and the cathode. as long as it is more favorable for the electron and hole to go through the circuit rather that recombine, the solar cell will work okay. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_bridge"
] | [
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|
r/science, how close are we to having jetpacks? | better question: how close are we to having jetpacks that can sustain flight for an hour or more? i'm going to go with: not very. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://cassiechapman.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/downer.jpg"
] | [
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|
for a physics project i've experimented with a basic metal detector. can someone explain what's happening and help me make sense of my results? | the basic set-up is a function generator connected to a search coil and oscilloscope, with a few capacitors, resistors and a diode also in the circuit. when the search coil comes near metal, the voltage (measured by the oscilloscope) decreases. i got sheets of metal that were roughly identical apart from their increasing size and recorded the value of the circuits voltage. larger area meant a lower voltage. so i have area/volume of metal plotted against the voltage with a clear negative correlation, but i don't know how to link them in theory and with mathematics. i have a very rough idea of what's going on - an ac current through the coil creates an eddy current in the metal sheet and is then picked up by the coil. i don't get how the coil picks up the eddy current and presumably increases its resistance, which i presume causes the lower voltage detected. so can someone can explain exactly what's going on and/or help me link the increasing area of the metal to the change in voltage? i can post more info if i've been too vague with the details of the experiment. | i believe that in a single-coil design, the field generated by the induced eddy currents in the detected metal create a back emf ("[counter electromotive force](_url_0_)") in the coil. not sure how to relate the area of the detected metal to this; for the same material and thickness i suspect it should be proportional to the area. is your correlation linear with area? | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-electromotive_force"
] | [
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] |
why do some of us put so much emotional investment in to people we barely know, i.e. celebrities? | i'm on my phone so i can't tag it but if i could i'd probably use biology or anthropology, maybe.... | [ humans are social creatures, psychologists say, and we evolved — and still live — in an environment where it paid to pay attention to the people at the top. celebrity fascination may be an outgrowth of this tendency, nourished by the media and technology.](_url_0_) | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://m.livescience.com/18649-oscar-psychology-celebrity-worship.html"
] | [
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why is it we feel the need to share the success/good news with other people? | and why does it feel so much better than not sharing our success/good news? | from a purely evolutionary standpoint, we share good news in order to become more desirable to mate with. let's say that i have recently gotten a job: within the context of our society, i am now financially more stable, which means i'd be able to provide for a family. i'd be more desirable to start a family with (hypothetically) than my jobless counterparts. my parents' may brag to their friends about it, showing that they are on the path to being reproductively successful for the same reasons as above. by telling others, we have socially let others know how fit we are. while we still acknowledge biological cues (facial symmetry, hla/mhc smelling, etc.), we are very social creatures who rely heavily on verbal cues. from a more psychological standpoint, sharing good news can be a prompt for others to give us compliments or positive interactions. "hey susie, i got a job!" "that is so great, i knew you could do it! congrats!" everyone loves the feeling of positive reinforcement. this releases oxytocin into our bodies, which make us feel good! more on the psychological side in this article: _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-couch/201406/is-there-right-way-brag"
] | [
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why are 2 langrange points stable, and the other 3 meta-stable? | i am at work, so i'm just going to quote the part you are questioning straight from the [wikipedia article](_url_0_): "l2 and l3 are slightly unstable because small changes in position upset the balance between gravity and inertia, allowing one or the other force to dominate, so that the spacecraft either flies off into space or spirals in toward the barycenter. stability at l4 and l5 is explained by gravitational equilibrium: if the object were moved into a tighter orbit, it would orbit faster which would counteract the increase in gravity; if the object moves into a wider orbit, the gravity is lower, but it loses speed. the net result is that the object appears constantly to hover or orbit around the l4 or l5 point. the easiest way to understand the resulting stability is to say l1, l2, and l3 positions are as stable as a ball balanced on the tip of a wedge would be stable: any disturbance will toss it out of equilibrium. the l4, and l5 positions are stable as a ball at the bottom of a bowl would be stable: small perturbations will move it out of place, but it will drift back toward the center of the bowl." | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrangian_point#Intuitive_explanation"
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|
is it in theory possible to 3d print a joint? | **short answer:** blunt objects are incredibly easy to 3d print. movable parts, such as joints and gear bearings, are a little more complicated, and occasionally require assembly after the fact. if you are specifically interested in printing replacement joints (such as a knee or shoulder), it's an ongoing area of research. **longer answer:** 3d printers are really cool- they take a filament of plastic on spool, like a wound up thread, and melt very small amounts and extrude them through a nozzle, so that they cool and freeze rapidly into the desired shape. things are printed by laying down layer after layer of this plastic. the printer is like an cake icing nozzle, but instead of laying down icing to make cakes, it lays down plastic to make the future. blunt and rounded objects are easy to make. most modern 3d printers generally have micron-scale resolution. [this, for example, is a 3d printed ball bearing- no assembly required.](_url_2_) you'll notice the parts come out quite smooth, and in one piece. by layering the plastic and building things from the bottom up they can make solid pieces intertwined with other solid pieces that would otherwise be impossible to connect without a seam or other assembly. my favorite example of it is [*this planetary gear system*](_url_4_) which is effectively a ball bearing. you can see one being printed in action [here](_url_1_). you'll notice that the gears are actually helical, so that they can't actually be taken apart - the gears won't slide past each other, so it can handle an axial load! [check this video.](_url_6_) this is pretty fantastic- you can 3d print gadgets with working, moving parts all with the push of a button. but you asked, specifically, about [joints.](_url_5_) i don't know if i've seen many designs that allow you to print the joint pre-assembled, but the 'snap and click' kind of joints are very easy to print as separate pieces, and are really quite robust. for example, this [chess set](_url_0_) is designed to have joints in place so that the pieces can be assembled into fighting robots. of course, that's all plastic 'toy' joints. what about the medical applications? it turns out that recently doctors were able to successfully design and print a [replacement knee joint.](_url_3_) it's basically a biodegradable scaffolding that is inserted surgically into the joint. the doctors were even able to make them custom to the individual by basing the size of the joint off mri images. admittedly, these tests were done in sheep, and human trials are the next step. we're quickly entering a time when 3d printers can make things beyond plastic toys, and the possibilities are limited only by your imagination. | 925 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.thingiverse.com/thing:19733",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-s_Y5GVGr3o",
"https://colourthecanvas.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/pa241751.jpg",
"http://www.medicaldaily.com/doctors-3d-print-knee-joints-regenerate-torn-meniscus-reduce-risk-arthritis-314594",
"http://www.abc.net.au/reslib/201306/r1129428_13902587.jpg",
"https://www.shapeways.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/674x501_813543_718960_1356062085.jpg",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=ZghwSBiM0sU#t=21"
] | [
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|
what happens if you send dc into a computer power supply or a wall adapter? | my guess is that the device would run just fine, and the ac adapter would actually be more energy efficient and produce less heat, since it wouldn't have to work to "smooth out" the waves of ac; it would just send the "line" of dc straight through. am i right, am i kinda wrong, or am i laughably wrong? any answers are much appreciated! | depends on how the power supply is put together. if the first thing the input power hits is a [diode bridge](_url_0_), that will accept a dc input with negligible losses. but some designs (especially older ones) pass the input ac through a transformer before converting to dc. transformers don't work at dc, so a transformer-based device will do nothing with a dc input except possibly overheat. | 16 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode_bridge"
] | [
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can you explain me the electroweak interaction in a simple way? | can one of you guys please explain me how does the electroweak interaction work and in which way do electromagnetic and weak force interact? | the electroweak interaction is a theory that describes the weak force and the electromagnetic force in a coherent description. it "unifies" both theories in a way. (though, i dont like this definition of unification, i would rather speak of a "rotation" of those sectors into each other). it means electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force (and the higgs by the way) can be described in terms of a single symmetry called su(2)xu(1). right now our understanding is that those theories have been 'unified' once in the earlier universe at higher temperatures. the "electroweak symmetry was unbroken", as people call it. the gauge bosons of that interaction were not photons, w and z bosons, but rather massless superpositions of it with different namings. later, when cooling took place, the higgs decided to tunnel into his vacuum expectation value. yeah, the higgs is embedded in that electroweak sector (not in the su(3) sector, so not in the strong sector!). then, after the higgs tunnelled, it broke this unified theory by a complicated mechanism. this "breaking" gave mass to the w and z bosons. this lead to the distinct theories of the weak force and electromagnetism. now, electromagnetic and weak force are different theories and do not interact, which means that fermions have different charges with respect to those two forces. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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physicists: what are the fundamental "free variables" that are set to arbitrary constants in our universe? | so a variable is a [free variable](_url_0_) if it is not defined internally as a function of the other variables within a system. so [there are a bunch of fundamental physical constants](_url_2_) in physics, but i also don't know nearly enough about physics to be sure how these things work. i'm pretty sure light speed, planck's constant, and the gravity constant are as basic as they come. but beyond that, i'm not so sure. there's a lot of equations in those tables on wikipedia . . . if you could you build a "universe" with all the core rules of relativity and quantum mechanics, but with completely different constants, how many different variables would you have to play with? [the tales of mr. tompkins](_url_1_) examines this a bit. i independently had a very similar idea which is what got this all started. | ok, i will disagree with adamsolomon on his take on the role of "h,c,g". in fundamental theories, there are three proportionality constantes: "h, c and the boltzmann constant k" that are just related to the fact that we measure things with the wrong units. you can set them to 1 without changing anything, their value is not meaningful at all. now come the rest of the actual parameters, these parameters are really just numbers, they do not have a dimensionality, they just set the strength of interactions: "the electromagnetic coupling const, electroweak and strong", then we have in the higgs sector the self-coupling constant - that defines the mass of the higgs, and also all the other coupling constants of the higgs to the fermions. then there are also some other parameters that give neutrino oscillations and quark mixing. these parameters can be either arbitrary or justified by some anthropic principle or they can come from a more fundamental theory at high-energies and then run down by renormalization group procedures. no one really knows. but most likely you have a conformal theory next thing we have actual energy scales: energy scales actually define the energy of some fundamental excitation in your theory. we have only 1 mass scale in the standard model, which is the higgs vacuum expectation value. whether it is arbitrary or comes from a fundamental theory, no one knows. but most likely it cannot be arbitrary, otherwise we would have naturalness issues: "the hierarchy problem", you can google it. we actually have some other scales appearing through dimensional transmutation, and that's the coolest thing. you start with a theory that has no reference energy and its solutions has a mass scale. this happens in qcd, for instance, and this gives you other mass scale in the standard model - the qcd scale, that gives you the mass of the lightest glueballs (literally balls made out of gluons). in the gravity sector, we have the planck mass. unlike the other interactions, what sets the strength of gravity is not a dimensionless parameter, it's a mass scale. the newton's constant g has dimension of inverse mass squared, and this mass is the planck mass. it means that the actual dimensionless number that sets the strength of gravity is some typical energy in your system e^2 times g. this is probably the most challenging scale to explain, but most likely in a fundamental theory the planck scale is the only scale and all the other ones appear by renormalization. the cosmological constant / vacuum energy is another one, and this one, no one has any idea why it is like that. string theorists blame the vacuum landscape and use anthropic principle. most serious physicists actually modify gravity to introduce this scale dynamically. but it's really a big mystery. | 12 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_variables",
"http://boomeria.org/physicslectures/secondsemester/relativity/tompkins.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_constant#Table_of_universal_constants"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_model#Theoretical_aspects"
] | [
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the least-intuitive question in physics: how does gryoscopic precession work? (e.g. helicopter blades) | this isn't a casual question for me, it's something i've tried to understand for some time now. not sure what concept i'm missing. but the outright weirdness of how gyroscopes work still bugs me, the fact that placing a torque on a gyroscope produces a force that is 90° off-axis is freaking bizarre, and i'm not the only one that thinks so! does anyone, anyone have a great explanation for how this concept works? here's a video by veritaseum if anyone wants an introduction to the problem: _url_0_ | the way i think of it, is when you place force on a rotating object, it's important to note that you are applying acceleration, not velocity or position. and the object still has all the same rotational inertia as before. to simplify the problem, imagine you on a spaceship orbiting earth around the equator, and you have a booster jet that can boost towards the north pole. now imagine what you think will happen to your orbit when you activate that booster. your new orbit will be as if you deflected your orbit. if you are looking at your orbital path, it's as if you are rotating the orbit around you. [here's a bad drawing, with you as a red spaceship with a green orbit](_url_0_). no matter how much acceleration you provide, you can't instantaneously move where you are that instant, acceleration can only move where you will eventually be. and because you are in orbit, as if an invisible rod is connecting you to the earth, you still eventually come back down to the southern hemisphere, so it's effectively as if you rotated your orbit around where you are. and if you notice where it looks like the force is being applied, it's 90 degrees away from where the force was actually applied, the spot where you activated the thrusters made no movement on the orbit, but instead caused the orbit to move 90 degrees away. and a wheel or similar example of a gyroscopic procession is no different from orbiting, orbiting behaves similarly as if there was a giant rod between your ship and the center of the earth in this case, and if you have a bunch of spaceships all doing the same thing, it becomes a wheel. then how it applies to a classic gyroscopic procession example of a bicycle wheel on a rope, is the wheel wants the top to flop over, just imagine doing the experiment without the wheel spinning. when the wheel starts spinning, that force (acceleration) making it try to flop over, is instead deflecting the angle of the wheel, just like the spaceship's thrusters deflected the angle of the orbit, and the top of the wheel doesn't actually move, causing instead the wheel to rotate around that point. | 6 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ty9QSiVC2g0"
] | [
"https://imgur.com/Pd0U25A"
] | [
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sit/standing while eating | my mum is adamant that i should sit down while i eat as i often eat standing up and staring out the kitchen window. apparently, sitting down "aids digestion", is there some truth in this or is it just an old wive's tale? | eat upside down if you want - it truly does not matter. sounds like your mom just wants you to sit at the table. chewing is the only mechanical process in eating. once you swallow, the bolus of food is propelled down the esophagus by peristalsis which is an autonomic response (completely involuntary). the peristalsis action is also so strong that it works while standing, sitting, upside down. consider this: astronauts eat in space (without gravity to help bring down food) - it is peristalsis that moves food down to the stomach. as for digestion, you can sit, stand doesn't really matter. during digestion, blood flow is directed towards the stomach, si, li to aid the digestive process. you use energy to breakdown the food molecules and store them. with the blood flow directed to your digestive system, this means less blood flow to muscles which might make it more uncomfortable, difficult to stand - like the 'itis' after a turkey dinner. this is why you don't really want to eat immediately before a sporting event. | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how well do we know physical constants? | it depends on the constant. the gravitational constant for instance is relatively poorly known because it is so weak. it's only known to about 5 decimal places. atomic constants (elementary charge, atomic masses, boltzmanns constant, etc.) can be much more accurately measured because they relate to atomic transitions and those can be measured accurately to 1 in 10^12 or more. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_SI_definitions#The_proposals",
"http://pdg.lbl.gov/2011/tables/contents_tables.html"
] | [
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|
why is living in the sea so conducive to having omega 3? | i am talking about fish and squid and so on. all seem to contain omega 3, but not many land creatures do. why is this? this is not a silly question about humans living in the sea. i didn't know how else to phrase it... | it's the type of fat or fatty acid chain. since sea creatures live in a colder environment and they need their fat to be in a liquid state at a lower temperature. omega 3 is a type fatty acid that has more kink in the carbon chain thus it is harder to be solidify. fish in colder climate have more omega 3 than warm climate one so that they don't freeze. this is what remember from biochemistry class 4 years ago. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what does the (ii) mean in chemistry? | can someone please explain in depth what the (i) means in chemistry? i know it stands for oxidation state, but what is an oxidation state exactly? does every element have the same amount of oxidation states? if not can someone link a chart or table with every possible element/oxidation state combination. | as an example, copper atoms with the same amount of electrons as protons, would be considered cu(0). once it has lost an electron, it has one positive charge and an oxidation state of +1, cu(+1) or cu(i), if it loses another electron, it becomes cu(+2) or cu(ii). oxidation is loss of electrons. [oilrig](_url_0_). | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.acronymfinder.com/Oxidation-Is-Loss-Reduction-Is-Gain-%28mnemonic%2Facronym-for-how-electrons-are-lost-or-gained-in-reactions%3B-chemistry%29-%28OILRIG%29.html",
"http://periodictablefinalzh.wikispaces.com/file/view/jfksdnf.jpg/77356285/1719x1212/jfksdnf.jpg"
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] |
how do the thermoreceptors in the skin work? | temperature is just a manifestation of the vibrational energy of an atom or a molecule, so what's the mechanism of these thermoreceptors and what makes them work? | very simply, proteins are sensitive to temperature changes and can undergo different conformations/3d organization dependent on the temperature. the channels which cause action potential in your sensory neurons specialized for heat are extremely sensitive to temperature changes. thus, if the temperature changes (let's say from warm to hot), then the protein channels undergo a conformational change and "open", allowing your body to sense that it is hot, causing vasodilation and sweating. likewise, that's how you sense cold. interestingly, certain ligands/molecules can bind to these channels and induce a similar reaction without a change in temperature, which is why minty substances can make you feel cool and spicy substances can make you sweat. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how do thermoreceptors in our body work? | normal thermometers work by measuring the height of a liquid, some electric thermometers work by measuring the resistance of an electric circuit; how do our ‘thermometers’ work? | thermoreceptors are a specialized type of neuron that can sense changes in temperature. the signals are then sent through the dorsal root ganglia into the spinal cord, where the signal crosses to the opposite side and travels up the lateral spinothalamic tract to the thalamus and the sensory homunculus of the cerebral cortex. hopefully that’s helpful to you! | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are quadriplegics able to feel emotions such as 'the sinking feeling' or butterflies in the stomach? | i understand that the enteric nervous system is responsible for the feeling of butterflies and i can only assume feelings like the sinking feeling one gets when something bad happens or the soft and fuzzy feeling one gets when falling in love are created by the nervous system below the neck, if not the enteric. so i was wondering if people who have become totally paralysed from the neck down lose the ability to feel these things. | cranial nerve x (vagus) reaches from the brain stem to the gut all the way to the descending colon. damage to the spinal cord would not affect the vagus. | 104 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetraplegia",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterflies_in_the_stomach",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/todayilearned/comments/1fg98f/til_there_is_an_ancient_second_brain_in_the/"
] | [
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what are interferons and how does learning about them aid in the study of neurological disorders? moreover, have there been any recent breakthroughs in the same? | i came across the following sentence: "one of the most promising fields of research involve interferons. advances in neuroscience across the world and ongoing research are culminating in better remedies for multiple sclerosis. " what does this mean? i checked up interferons but wikipedia became bit difficult to decrypt. thanks. | interferons (ifn for short) are proteins made by immune cells. the are part of the antiviral response and are secreted by several different cell types, including natural killer cells and certain t cell subtypes. at a basic level there are three different ifns; alpha, beta, and gamma. ifn beta is a treatment for ms. its antiinflammatory effects seem to be the main cause for its efficacy. if you can get past the paywall: _url_0_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18694361"
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] |
can someone explain the cause of these "out of nowhere" sparks??? not my video, but youtubers leave more to be desired in their poor answers | i was just downstairs putting wood in the fire and remembered that sometimes if i bang the charred wood/coals it'll cause this. so i got curious and did it a few times and thought to try and find out what causes it. found this youtube video which shows a pretty good example in my search, but a less then proper explaination of the cause. _url_0_ it's pretty interesting to see, i've had them start going off all around me out to about 5 feet from the door opening and up to about 5 seconds after the initial poker attack on the coals and wood. | particles of combustible material floating in the air of the stove are igniting when they hit the higher-oxygen air in the room. they don't burn in the stove because you have the intake vents and flue closed, forming an oxygen-poor "reducing" atmosphere. btw, in this configuration your stove is basically a carbon monoxide and creosote machine. make sure you have the vents professionally cleaned at least once a year, and get a co alarm. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fC6elbPe1ig"
] | [] | [
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] |
what is the core technology or innovation that allowed hp to create the machine? | i've seen mention of memristors, but if that's all it is, i don't really understand how they can so drastically change the computing game. | i may be wrong since i'm generally a software guy instead of a hardware guy but from what i understand the thing that makes it so much faster is the lack of a bus needed to move data from storage to the processor's cores. i read somewhere (~~i'll try to find it again~~ edit: sources below) that the machine is really designed for fast data management (think big, fast database) instead of fast data processing (like a super computer) so you could kinda think of it like a really big solid state drive that also has the ability to search itself extremely quickly. they sped this up by having memristors which both can store data without power but also branch the circuit based on the stored value. this speeds up a search because in a normal computer, the io device needs to find the bits of data being requested (probably an index of some kind that tells where the data actually is), send that data along a bus connection (this is the bottle neck) *edit: forgot about the intermediate step of the ram, the processor pulls data from the ram instead of directly from the io device buffer* to the processor to determine if it matches what the user is searching for by branching a circuit in the processor. in the machine, the circuit is already branched so you skip the time needed to move the data being searched into the correct structure to search it. this one kind of touches on it. _url_0_ this one explains why it speeds up the systems a little better. _url_1_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www8.hp.com/hpnext/posts/discover-day-two-future-now-machine-hp#.U6SIX_ldUWI",
"http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-06-11/with-the-machine-hp-may-have-invented-a-new-kind-of-computer"
] | [
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can we say that young's modulus of a material is equal to the pressure required to deform a sheet of that material? i ask this because the dimensions of ym and pressure are the same. | it depends on exactly what you mean by a sheet and "deform" but in general the answer is no. young's modulus is the amount of force per unit area you need to apply to produce a particular amount of compression or extension per unit length, also known as strain, (usually tested in tension - technically the tensile and compressive moduli can be different but they're close to identical for most engineering materials) for vanishingly small strain. for nontrivial stresses and multidimensional geometries there is always at the very minimum a geometric factor that must be used to correct the results. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can you change the shape of an object but keep both the area and perimeter constant? | a few of my friends and i were pondering this and we concluded that this was not possible. however, we aren't well versed in this type of geometry, and we would like to know if we are right or wrong. initially the question was to transform a rectangle (bound by a piece of string) into a circle (bound by the same string) with the same area such that the area of the enclosed region (by the string) **does not** change during the **entire transformation**. in calculus friendly terms: da/dt =0 and dp/dt =0. for clarification purposes, this is a **2d** problem. also, the string cannot be cut, folded over, passed through itself, shortened, lengthened, etc. eventually, we couldn't find any way to change the shape of a rectangle (perimeter constant) without changing the area. can this be done? | i had to think about it a bit, but it is certainly possible. after all, a time-dependent parametrized closed curve has, in a certain sense, an infinite number of degrees of freedom, while you only have two restrictions. it would be highly unreasonable if it were impossible to do. i tried some ascii art but i suck, so here's a photo taken on my potato. _url_1_ i hope the idea comes across, and you can see that the intermediate steps are clearly of different shapes, but the area and perimeter are preserved (poor drawing skills aside). it's less clear how to do this beginning with a rectangle, but here's an option. _url_0_ you get how it works, i hope. | 18 | [] | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/l5kGKGs.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/g020kJu.jpg"
] | [
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how does rope based depth sounding work? | i'm referring to the physics of it. to measure the challenger deep, the hms challenger would have had to use a rope almost 7 *miles* long. this would have had to resist getting waterlogged, and support a weight at the end. how does a rope soaked in water that long hold itself together? how in the world did they haul it up from that depth? how much would that whole arrangement weigh? every resource i can find, even previous answers in this sub, just say they did it, as if that's no big deal. but it seems mind boggling to me. am i missing something? | [dyneema or nylon fishing line](_url_0_) for example is pretty strong and has a certain specific gravity. you can calculate the volume/weight for 10km of it, with 1-2-3mm(whatever) diameter, the buoyancy (or lack thereof), and the weight needed to pull it down to the bottom plus the rope's strength to pull it up again. edit: 1) put brain into gear :-) 2) calculate above with alternating 100m nylon and 200m dyneema(-ish). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.marlowropes.com/material-properties"
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can anyone help explain a particle-in-box question? | it can be shown in a 2-d particle in a box by finding commutators, that the quantities x, py and y, px (px is momentum in x) can be measured simultaneously to arbitrary precision. that is [x,py]=[y,px]= 0. i'm having trouble figuring out what this means. does it mean that the position in x can be known while the momentum in y is also know? that's really weird when comparing to the uncertainty principle([x,px]=ih). i understand the difference between the two, but it's still weird. any explanation or advice on grasping this is appreciated. | yes, that's pretty much exactly what it means. one thing that might help is to think about the uncertainty principle in terms of fourier transforms between the position and momentum domains. when you fourier transform a gaussian, you get another gaussian with standard deviation inversely proportional to the original. if you think of the standard deviation as the uncertainty, then it's easy to see that this is an example of the uncertainty principle. then, since the fourier transforms between x and px and y and py are independent, it makes sense that the uncertainty principles in these directions would be independent as well. i don't know if this will help or not. it might be easier if you could explain what about this you find unintuitive. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what causes the shape of the 'interference' displayed in this video? | i know basically nothing, so a sort of 'eli15' style reply would be appreciated- though if that isn't possible i'd be happy to learn more. thank you. _url_0_ | [this is someone's doctoral thesis which contains information on the vibration of flat plates. on page 38 of the pdf (31 of the document), you will see some vibrational modes drawn for a flat plate. the higher-frequency aa mode ought to look familiar.](_url_0_) while this is water and not a flat plate, the behavior is similar enough for this to give you an idea of what's happening. basically, the ice cube tray has a certain resonant frequency (its natural characteristics cause it to respond to vibration much more strongly at one particular frequency). the knocking on the sink provides an impulse - which generates waves of all frequencies - and that vibrates the ice cube tray. it just so happens for this particular tray that, like the flat plate in the diagram i linked, its natural frequency vibrates the water such that grid-like waves are formed. this should seem at least a little natural to you, since the walls of the tray are indeed rectangular. | 3 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6jNpC5s2tTM"
] | [
"http://eprints.lib.hokudai.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2115/32630/1/1518.pdf"
] | [
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why do we use different units for the same thing? | hey guys. in richard feynman's book the character of physical law he says that if you want to embarrass a physicist, ask them why they use different units to measure different kinds of energy when they could use one for all energy and make it less confusing, since energy is everything. do you actually think this would make the subject less complicated, and if so, why don't we do this? thank you for any insight. | i do not think using one unit of energy would necessarily simplify the matter (sorry for the pun). sometimes, using a specific unit of energy allows one to quickly gauge the relative energy of the system one is investigating. for example, consider the unit of electron volts, which is equal to the energy change of an electron accelerated through a potential difference of one volt. when dealing with particles and their interactions, having the energy given in terms of ev makes relative particle energies immediately clear and makes it easy to determine how much energy it takes to break a given bond or induce another change. if one were designing an instrument for analyzing compounds (a mass spectrometer) with an electron impact ionization source, it's trivial to find the energy of the electrons at different voltages when the units are in ev, whereas otherwise, calculations are more involved. the order of magnitude is also convenient, since there are not excessive digits or decimal places. obviously, when dealing with higher energy phenomena, ev is often inappropriate. as another example, consider heating 1l of water by 1 degree celsius. how much energy does this process take? using ev in this case would be very cumbersome, so instead units of calories would be easiest. based on how the calorie is defined, the aforementioned heating simply takes 1000cal. now consider work done by an electrical system. how much energy does a fully operating 50 watt solar panel provide per minute? using the joule = watt x second relation, the answer is quickly found to be 3000j (or 3kj). if one were using this solar-derived energy to heat water, there is no perfect way to avoid conversions and make all calculations as trivial as before. however, while working with exclusively one type of process, using a specific unit allows easy comparisons and calculations. returning to the electron example, an electron accelerated through 20 volts has an energy of 20ev. what if one wanted to use joules instead of ev for this measurement? well, 20ev is about equal to 3.2 × 10^-18 joules. clearly, using joules makes comparing energies significantly more challenging, and increases the likelyhood of calculation errors because of the unwieldy number of decimal places (which also necessitates scientific notation). *edit: fixed a few typos | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is something we think we know could be disproven in the near future? | the thing is, if we are confident enough to say that we know it, then it is likely that we are not just going to come out of nowhere and say "hey! completely wrong guys, oops!". at the point where there is a large scientific consensus on something, we usually have large amounts of experimental data at hand to back up the theory. we may find that some of our theories are just limiting cases of more advanced theories, like classical mechanics is a everyday size/speed approximation of quantum mechanics and relativity. however, nobody would really say that newtons laws are incorrect at the macroscopic scale, that would just be pedantic and pointless. here are some areas in which science/engineering could make some significant advances in the next few decades. with more time we will probably be able to make more and more observations about climate change, and how much it is affected by human activity (or isn't). the evidence is pretty solid that human activity is a driving force, but the more evidence the stronger the case. experiments to detect gravitational waves, like ligo, may become sensitive enough to detect the waves (or detect nothing accurately enough to cast doubt on gravitational waves). when the lhc is restarted and running at full power, who knows what will come out of it. maybe it will put more constraints on supersymmetry, or manage to create micro black holes, or some other particle stuff. i'm not very up to date on what experiments are going to be running when the lhc restarts at full power. in computational biology, david baker's lab has been publishing some exciting stuff on protein design. some big stuff may come from that field in the near future, especially with increasing computer power. microchip tech is approaching a point where transistors will not be able to be shrunk anymore. in addition, it might also reach a stage where there the mainstream markets wants more efficient or cooler microchips, as they might get faster than 95% of people could ever want. in both cases, it will be interesting to see how microchip technology advances in terms of efficiency, or heterogeneous computing, or what happens when transistors cannot be shrunk anymore. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how much thrust is produced by the average stream of urine? | well, i don't feel like looking up papers for the exact parameters of urine ejection (which i'm sure exist) so i'm just going to fermi it. feel free to throw in your own values or look up accurate ones. my legs are, let's say, 80 cm tall, and if i peed horizontally i figure i could probably get like a 2-to-1 distance to height ratio on the pee arc. falling 80 cm takes sqrt(0.8/4.9) = 0.4 seconds. 1.6/0.4 = 4 m/s for the ejected urine, which is about average running speed so that sounds reasonable, but we're losing a lot of speed to air resistance so let's bump it to 5 m/s. flow rates vary a lot, but let's say i could fill a half-liter bottle in like half a minute, so that's a liter per minute--assuming 1 kg/liter density, mass flow is 0.017 kg/s. thrust is exhaust velocity times mass flow, so 5 * 0.017 = 0.085 n. that, by coincidence, is about the same thrust as the ion engines on the dawn probe. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do centrifugal governors regulate speed to a constant rather then oscillating speed? | shouldn't a centrifugal governor constantly be oscillating around a stable point but not actually achieve it? if that were the case why don't tractor engines that use these sound like engines that are revving and releasing? & #x200b; [_url_0_](_url_1_) | usually these systems have a lot of internal inertia (often by design) so sudden changes in input do not result in sudden changes in output. for example, the original steam engines that used these governors almost always had large flywheels because most of them were single piston engines. otherwise you'd have very jerky power output: you'd get power on the push of the piston, and no power on the draw of the piston. the power takeoff was done from the flywheel, which keeps spinning at about the same speed regardless of whether the engine is pushing or not. the governor is linked to and concerned with the speed of the flywheel, not the speed of the piston. the flywheel changes speed slowly, so the state of the governor also necessarily changes slowly. you can and do have oscillatory behavior in this situation (especially if the engine loading varies), but the oscillations are slow. these oscillations can still cause problems, though. see the answer by [davyjonesbitlocker](_url_0_) as well. | 16 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrifugal\\_governor",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrifugal_governor"
] | [
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/ahd38o/how_do_centrifugal_governors_regulate_speed_to_a/eedq1wm/",
"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=7569049"
] | [
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[biology](oncology) why is ca-125/muc16 not reliable during the menstrual cycle? | hello scientists of r/askscience. i would like to know why is the tumor biomarker ca-125 protein elevated during some parts of the menstrual cycle, i've been looking for some articles regarding this subject but it seems i suck at finding the right info. you don't have to use layman's terms. thanks in advance! | muc16 encodes a (very) large transmembrane glycosylated protein called mucin which plays a role lubricating surfaces hence its expression in female reproductive organs (fros), airways etc. screening of an ovarian cancer cell line (ovca433) with a panel of monoclonal antibodies picked up the epitope of a protein within a fraction which is typically where high weight heavily glycosylated mucin family proteins are found. this epitope was designated ca 125. mucin is expressed in different amounts depending on the tissue types within the fros with a 20-fold increase in the endometrium (lining tissue) relative to ovarian tissue. like you said, this fluctuates greatly depending on the phase of the cycle with higher ca 125 levels typically seen during the menstration phase. there is little research into the actual mechanism of this but its highly postulated that its simply that cells in the endometrium which have very high levels of cytosolic ca 125 have 'easier access' to the circulatory system hence why ca 125 in the serum is elevated. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does classical conditioning occur at a physiological level? | hypothetical situation: over the course of the the last year i have had a cup of caffeinated coffee every morning. the same contents/temperature/flavour/serving size each day. i always feel the physiological effects of the caffeine after consuming the coffee. after a year of this consistent behaviour, i unknowingly consume a decaffeinated coffee. i am completely naive to this change. for what i know i am consuming the exact same kind of coffee that i have for the previous 364 days. after consumption is it possible for my body to physiologically respond to the coffee as if there was caffeine in it? psychologically i know the placebo effect is powerful, but does this occur at the physiologically level too? | you may experience some of the effects of caffeine even though your coffee was swapped for decaf. expectations can have profound influenced on people. there is a long line of research which finds that people will mimic some of the effects of alcohol, for example, if they think they are drinking a beverage which contains alcohol, [but is in fact a placebo](_url_0_). that being said, you are not actually getting the caffeine that your body expected to receive, so you will also experience whatever effects withdrawal has. just a side note that what you describe is not classical conditioning. in classical conditioning a previously neutral cue like a tone or light or image comes to predict some biologically relevant stimulus (pain, reward, whatever). it is the predictive power and change in the neutral stimulus that classical conditioning is concerned with. if you had a cup of coffee every day, but before you consumed the coffee and experienced it's effects you were cued by some neutral stimulus (a blue light), then we'd be talking classical pavlovian conditioning. conditioning would be said to have occurred if we could see physiological responses if you were then shown the blue light and demonstrated a response that is similar to what would happen after drinking coffee but you didn't drink any. to answer the question in your title, you most certainly can see physiological changes as a response to conditioning. a nobel prize was given for demonstrating neural change as a function of conditioning, and we can easily see physiological changes in people as a function of conditioning. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3035442.stm"
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is there such thing as a "floor particle"? | everything in the universe is made of something smaller than itself, but is there a point where the smallest possible particle simply starts making itself out of itself or does everything have different smaller particles going infinitely downwards in scale? | there are particles we know of now - electrons, quarks, neutrinos, photons, etc. - which we believe are "as small as it gets," or in physicist language, are "fundamental particles." they're listed [here](_url_0_). we don't know for sure that they're fundamental, of course, but they arise in theories which don't contain smaller particles - theories which are very well tested - and no experiment to date has found evidence that any of these can be broken up into smaller particles. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg"
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if i were to extrude a perfectly straight bar, would it go around the earth or out to space? | let's propose we have a fantastical material that doesn't bend, stretch, compress, shear, whatever. i have a machine which if i were to point directly up, would extrude a continuous bar of material straight up. if i position it parallel to the ground, would the extruded bar wrap around the surface of the planet, as gravity warps space so as to be flat all the way around, or would it eventually leave the atmosphere due to the relative curvature of the earth? | if you set it down flat on the ground it would going _almost_ straight out into space, but it would be very very very _very_ slightly bowed like a saddle "downwards". it would be the same effect as bent the light here _url_1_ there's no such thing as a straight line in general relativity, instead we have geodesics _url_0_ | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodesics_in_general_relativity",
"http://www.wired.com/2009/05/dayintech_0529/"
] | [
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why are we so clumsy? | it may just be my imagination, but it seems to me that the majority of animals are a lot less clumsy than humans are. we often trip/lose our balance/fall and hurt ourselves, but i don't recall such misjudgements regularly happening within other species. is there a reason for this? | animals [often](_url_0_) make misjudgments. one small thing that might contribute to clumsiness is a lack of experiencing unstable footing - people spend most of their time nowadays on perfectly flat surfaces, and usually have no need to keep practice in balance on unsteady footing. thus, when suddenly introduced to an unstable position, many people will fall. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=00_YBgo1LrA"
] | [
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what are the major causes of, what seems like, an intensifying deterioration of relations between russia and the west? | it seems to me that we are on a steady downward spiral towards another cold war. could this be the case? why so many acts of provocation from both sides? | i'm not even sure reddit has an active political science sub where you can ask questions. putin is very ambitious and very dangerous. he would like to restore russia to its former soviet glory, and he has the world's eighth largest military and arguably some of the finest and most effective conspiracy-theory-based propaganda ever created. you could write more about it but that's the gist of what's happening. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would you compare the viscosity of lava to? | also the texture | three shadowbanned accounts have commented in this thread. wow. according to [this wired article](_url_0_), lava has three times the density and 1,000,000 times the viscosity of water. if you fell into lava, it would be like falling on a water bed made of silly putty that tasted like burning. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wired.com/2011/12/the-right-and-wrong-way-to-die-when-you-fall-into-lava/"
] | [
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the houseman at my work was using a powermop/floor buffer next to the pool. he got it as close to the edge as possible, if he was to accidently drop it in would the resulting electricity kill everyone? | seems unsafe... | the [national electrical code](_url_0_) generally requires wet areas to have outlets protected by a ground fault circuit interrupter (gfci). these significantly reduce the chances of electrocution due to accidental ground. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Electrical_Code"
] | [
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] |
how can we tell the difference between an "ancient" globular cluster and one that is not ancient? | obviously this is more directed towards the astronomers if reddit, but i always see clusters described as "ancient", how can we tell that they're ancient? is it even possible to have a non ancient cluster? | determining the age of clusters is quite a big field in itself. one of the "easy" methods is done by fitting what is called isochrones to the colour-magnitude diagram (cmd) of the cluster. a cmd is created by observing a cluster in various colours (filters) and then creating a diagram like [this](_url_0_) - on this graph the x-axis is comprised of a difference in two of the hubble space telescope's filter systems while the y-axis is one of the two filter systems. the details in shape and various slopes found in the cmd of a cluster is dependent on the age of the stars (assuming all stars in the cluster have the same age). once such a diagram has been constructed theoretical isochrones (lines for same age but different mass stars) are overplotted and the best fit to the observations is found. [here](_url_2_) you can see another cluster's cmd overplotted with isochrones of ages 8 to 16 billion years. as a first estimate one simply finds the best match by eye. now, there are two different types of clusters: globular clusters and open clusters. globular clusters are significantly older than the open clusters. actually, a couple of decades back some globular clusters had age determinations older than the universe itself - of course that cannot be so the observations have been redone and now they fit the age of the universe. all of the above assumes that all the stars in a given cluster were created at the same time and are simply different in mass. this is what is called a simple stellar population (ssp) and is in fact wrong. globular clusters show observational evidence of multiple populations which would mess up a lot of the science they're currently used for. [here](_url_1_) you can see a split in the red giant branch (rgb) of this cluster suggesting that there might be two distinct populations of different age. i work with globular clusters so feel free to ask away. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://hermes.aei.mpg.de/lrr/2006/2/M3HSTBSS.png",
"http://relativity.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrr-2013-4/NGC288_age_spread.png",
"http://astrowww.phys.uvic.ca/astrocourses/a120/A120/47tuc.gif"
] | [
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is it possible to replace the actuator arm with a device that spans the whole width of the platter, to read/write faster? | i was thinking about how hard drives work, and found myself thinking that the actuator arm/assembly seems like it could be improved. i was imagining something that can read and write data without having to rely on the speed of the actuator arm to do so. would such a task be possible? like one larger device that spans the diameter of the platter(s) that reads and writes data. | this was done back in the olden days, it was called a [drum memory](_url_1_). i'll wait for the official answer from a hard drive engineer, but i would imagine it's not done these days is because of density of the heads would interfere with each other, along with the fact that you have to run a wire to each head, and there's about 100,000+ tracks on a modern hard drive. also on this subject is [the story of mel](_url_0_), who took advantage of drum memory in a rather unique way. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://catb.org/jargon/html/story-of-mel.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_drum"
] | [
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how much water does it take to infiltrate the water table? | if i were to dump a gallon of water onto a bare patch of dirt, would that water eventually work its way down into the water table or would it just absorb into the dirt and evaporate? if it would just evaporate, how much water does it actually take to get absorbed and infiltrate the water table? does the amount of water it takes depend on the different types of soil? | it depends on the soil, the sub soil structure, the temperature and humidity of the air, the slope, etc. also it can only absorb so much water so fast, so a lot of that gallon is going to run off or evaporate, but if you poured a smaller amount, or poured the gallon over a long period of time, more of it will be absorbed. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
what is the cutoff point for the number of atoms or molecules needed to declare their state of matter? | for example, how many water molecules must there be in a chamber to declare them a gas? at what point can you declare them a liquid? solid? | there doesn't really exist a sharp cutoff. rather the issue is that you can't really apply thermodynamics to systems of just a few particles. the reason has to do with fluctuations. for example when you allow a system to exchange energy and particles with a reservoir you are in what is called the [grand canonical ensemble](_url_0_). in this situation the fluctuation of a thermodynamic quantity like the temperature scales as ~ 1/n^(1/2), where n is the average number of particles. that means that for small numbers of particles the fluctuations will be so huge that thermodynamic quantities become meaningless. so for example if you wanted to look at the thermodynamic properties of say 3 particles, the quantities would have such high uncertainties that you wouldn't get anything useful out of talking about them. for this reason we generally talk about thermodynamics in the limit where we have a lot of particles, a situation reasonably called the [thermodynamic limit](_url_1_). there is no exact cutoff for this limit and it will depend about the specific situation at hand. it is in this limit that fluctuations in the thermodynamic properties vanish, making these values robust. so to reiterate there is no cutoff for reaching this thermodynamic limit, but the more you move away from this limit but shrinking the number of particles the more meaningless thermodynamic quantities become. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_canonical_ensemble",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_limit"
] | [
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an accurate helium thought experiment? | i was going to explain to my kids why hydrogen/helium balloons float, but thought i should vet the example here first, to make sure it flies (heh). here `tis: "imagine that i have a handful of helium atoms and a jar that's totally empty, let's say in a vacuum. if i put the helium atoms in the jar, they should settle down to the bottom, since they are light but still have mass. now if i slowly let go of the vacuum, the jar will begin to fill with atmospheric gasses and they helium atoms will start to float on top of these other gasses, since they're lighter and get displaced. so helium floats only because there are other gasses around us that are heavier than helium and helium balloons, for example, are just trying to float to the top of these other gasses." does this sound factually accurate? | an "ideal" gas is one which doesn't really interact with other particles accept during collisions. so imagine a bunch of tiny little bouncy balls flying around in a vacuum so no wind resistance. next you must remember that the bouncy balls on average don't lose any energy during collisions. so you've no got a room filled with bouncy balls flying all over the place completely random and if you change the size of the room they will just bounce further extending their range to whatever size of room you put them in. i will finish my explanation in about 20 minutes brb. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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my friend claims that he and his sister cannot wear mechanical watches. apparently they simply stop working after a week or two, despite trying different brands and taking perfect care of them. is this a legitimate phenomenon, and if so, what the hell is causing it? | just a thought...do they think to wind them? i've seen stranger things happen. otherwise, "perfect" care is a bit of an opinion based description. so... i suspect they're doing something that they don't think would damage it but actually does. a good example of this would be the stresses imparted by sudden movements. imparting momentum to, and then suddenly stopping is not good for the otherwise sensitive, soft and fairly precise internals of a watch. and it doesn't have to be an off the counter drop... simply swinging your arm around in the air can effect your mechanical timekeeper. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
i have two identical digital watches. one i wear for work, and the other one i wear around the house. after a couple days/weeks they are off by a couple minutes. why? | i have put new batteries in both and have synchronized them to the second at the same time. does the fact that one travels in a car affect the times being off? | digital clocks are timed by a quartz resonator, cut into the shape of a tuning fork, which vibrates at 2^15 hz, at least theoretically. in practice, this crystal is expensive to machine to precise tolerances, so manufacturers have a certain allowable margin of error that corresponds to +/- so many seconds per day. its probably just that your two watches keep slightly different time, and it takes a few weeks for the difference to be noticeable. what you're doing with them might have nothing to do with it. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz_clock"
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can capillary action be used to draw water 'uphill'? | i was reading about capillary action and was curious to understand this effect more. could it be used to draw water from a lower pool of water, to a higher elevation pool where you could then create a waterfall that deposits the water back into the lower pool? & nbsp; the reason i was picturing this is if you could put a turbine by the waterfall to capture the water falling via gravity, thereby creating an endless cycle of water flowing up, water flowing down, and generating electricity from the whole system & nbsp; here is a graphic to help convey what my brain was picturing - _url_0_ | i think the problem with your machine is that your capillaries are sucking the water that is in the upper end back in with the same force with they are pumping the water up in the first place. so getting a droplet to separate from the straw requires a stronger force than gravity else it wouldn't have been sucked up in the first place. | 3 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/HhchN9v.jpg"
] | [] | [
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how do we keep stably anchored dry platforms in the deep sea? | this may be more of an engineering question but i am interested in the forces that must be overcome to keep a permanent mooring at sea and what solutions we've found. i've seen spar buoys and things like oil rigs that are permanently moored at sea but i don't understand how they actually manage to resist the stress of constant battering by wind and wave. say i have a platform anchored at sea by a tether to the sea floor, i would imagine that the wind and currents would pull the tether taut in the direction they predominantly blow. so then what happens when a large wave comes along (or, say, a storm)? the platform is going to be shifted from the lowest point right in front of the wave up to the crest, stressing the tether further. how does this not break tether? the alternative is that the platform temporarily comes underwater which i'm assuming we manage to avoid. somehow oil rigs don't sink below the waves even for a bit, right? i get that they might avoid this by being elevated from the actual surface, such that it's the column sticking out that becomes partially submerged never actually reaching the platform on top. i'm interested in platforms floating on the surface directly and having some guarantees that they won't become submerged or have waves wash over their surface. have we found any way to do this? is it impossible to have that guarantee without having electrical systems that regulate bouyancy or slack on the anchors? what are other things that degrade the tether? do we have to throw down new ones every so often? do we use multiple tethers? if so how do we resist the added dimension of torsion that would be caused by the wind? how do we keep platforms that don't use spars from flipping over? just making them broad? i've seen things like at-sea fishing farms where the farms and houses are all just floating tethered together, how do these overcome these forces? what about algae and barnacles and other things that naturally grow on flotsam and add weight and drag to buoys, how do we deal with that? do we just have to clean it up periodically? what i actually want to know about is how can we construct a platform floating directly on the water on the deep ocean that will stay put, not flip over, not be pulled underwater but allowing for water to crash over the platform if necessary. i'm especially interested in simple mechanical solutions that don't really depend on fancy materials engineering or on actively monitoring the slack on the tether or buoyancy. how do we do things like this for research and/or industry? | there are usually an array of anchors to keep them stable. the array will cover every direction the vessel might try to drift. either way, as you can possibly imagine, the cables will never be truly straight, but will actually hang in a [catenary](_url_0_). the tension on catenaries is a well-studied problem and quite predictable. as such, you can both predict the expected drift area of your vessel and how safe the cables will be in relation to the expected waves. usually such predictions allow for passive stability, though there are a few production vessel that do have active positioning. funnily enough, the oil risers are usually a lot more under stress, design-wise, than the mooring cables, since they aren't hinged on both ends and are, as such, a lot more sensitive to relative movements, even though they only support their own weight. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catenary"
] | [
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is it possible to make glass frosted on one side but see-through on the other? | i wear glasses and when i leave them in the bathroom for a shower, i get out and put them on and see how cool they look fogged up and white. i always wished that it'd be possible to wear glasses that looked like that—basically white sunglasses—but i never thought that it was possible. before i wrote it off as something that could never happen, though, i decided to askscience. | no. if you trace any 'light ray' and plot it as a line, it will follow the line exactly no matter which way it travels that line, it's one of the founding principles of optics. so that basically means, anything that scrambles light scrambles it either direction. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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askscience ama series: i'm max welling, a research chair in machine learning at university of amsterdam and vp of technology at qualcomm. i've over 200 scientific publications in machine learning, computer vision, statistics and physics. i'm currently researching energy efficient ai. ama! | prof. dr. max welling is a research chair in machine learning at the university of amsterdam and a vp technologies at qualcomm. he has a secondary appointment as a senior fellow at the canadian institute for advanced research (cifar). he is co-founder of "scyfer bv" a university spin-off in deep learning which got acquired by qualcomm in summer 2017. in the past he held postdoctoral positions at caltech ('98-'00), ucl ('00-'01) and the u. toronto ('01-'03). he received his phd in '98 under supervision of nobel laureate prof. g. 't hooft. max welling has served as associate editor in chief of ieee tpami from 2011-2015 (impact factor 4.8). he serves on the board of the nips foundation since 2015 (the largest conference in machine learning) and has been program chair and general chair of nips in 2013 and 2014 respectively. he was also program chair of aistats in 2009 and eccv in 2016 and general chair of midl 2018. he has served on the editorial boards of jmlr and jml and was an associate editor for neurocomputing, jcgs and tpami. he received multiple grants from google, facebook, yahoo, nsf, nih, nwo and onr-muri among which an nsf career grant in 2005. he is recipient of the eccv koenderink prize in 2010. welling is in the board of the data science research center in amsterdam, he directs the amsterdam machine learning lab (amlab), and co-directs the qualcomm-uva deep learning lab (quva) and the bosch-uva deep learning lab (delta). he will be with us at 12:30 et (et, 17:30 ut) to answer your questions! | how do you juggle your life while having multiple positions that sound like they could be full-time? are you extremely good at multi-tasking, or do you go after small amounts of work at each place? | 194 | [] | [] | [
"https://arxiv.org/pdf/1711.08244.pdf",
"https://arxiv.org/abs/1401.4082",
"https://arxiv.org/abs/1312.6114",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/science/comments/7yegux/aaas_ama_hi_were_researchers_from_google/duglcrh",
"https://www.quantamagazine.org/to-build-truly-intelligent-machines-teach-them-cause-and-effect-20180515",
"https://www.amazon.com/Book-Why-Science-Cause-Effect/dp/046509760X",
"https://arxiv.org/abs/1704.07575",
"https://www.numenta.org/implementations/"
] | [
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] |
can someone in mid indiana, go outside, look up, take a picture of the giant ring around the moon. what the hell is that? | perhaps you are looking at a [22-degree halo](_url_0_) around the moon? they are formed by [randomly oriented ice crystals](_url_1_) in thin clouds (usually high up in the sky) refracting light from the moon at approximately a 22-degree angle. [they often form around the sun too](_url_2_). | 21 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.atoptics.co.uk/halo/circmoon.htm",
"http://www.atoptics.co.uk/halo/circ2.htm",
"http://www.atoptics.co.uk/halo/22phots.htm"
] | [
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|
what kind of experiments could you do to find the effect of temperature on a commercial lipase? | googled [lipase assay](_url_0_). this provides a variety of qualitative/quantitative protocols. for a temperature-based readout, simply repeat over a range of temperatures. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nshtvn.org/ebook/molbio/Current%20Protocols/CPFAC/fac0301.pdf"
] | [
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|
do we know whether advertisements featuring "real people" work better or worse than advertisements featuring models? | i think it really depends on what you're advertising. if you're going to use the women from dove's "real beauty" commercials to promote a luxury product, you're probably going to fail. but for dove it works. even if you might attract costumers on some level by using some known models or actors, there will always be a question in the back of the clients head - is she really looking this good because she's using dove, or is it the fact that she spends huge amounts of money on products i can't even afford to think about? so, product for the masses - using this kind of "real people" commercials - gets a bit more credibility. if you're promoting some luxury product you want to show that those using it are special. not everyone can afford it - and that is why you buy it - it makes you stand out. so you don't want to use "real people". | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what process causes joule-thomson heating? | my current understanding is that gasses that are allowed to expand into a vacuum adiabatically are subject to the joule-thomson effect. for most gasses at room temperature, this results in cooling because these gasses have a joule-thomson inversion temperature well above room temperature. i think i have a decent understanding of the mechanism of the cooling effect. (real) gasses have attractive forces to each other. when gases expand the distance between each particle increases - work must be done against the attractive force and the gas cools. what is the mechanism that explains how/why a gas increases in temperature through joule-thomson expansion above the inversion temperature? | you are right about the cooling effect. at higher temperatures, the intermolecular attraction is weak compared to kinetic energy, and the potential is essentially negligible except for molecules instantaneously in collision (i.e. at their closest point). this means that molecular potential energy is almost independent of average distance between molecules, but now depends strongly on collision rate. as the gas expands, the collision rate decreases, the total potential energy goes down, while the kinetic energy and temperature increase. basically this is approaching the limit of an ideal gas. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how many people would need to march together to cause the ground to tremble? | in the movie 300, they say that when the prussian army matches you can feel the earth trembling like an earthquake. so how many people marching togetjer would it take to make it feel like the geound is trembling? also would they have to march in unison for.the effect to hold, or could they all walk out of step and create the same resonance? | just one person marching produces a vibration that can be read using a seismograph. the more people marching *in synch* the stronger the vibrations. to find how many people it would take, you would have to figure out what the minimum amplitude vibration that a human can feel, and then divide that by the amplitude of the vibration of a human step. assuming that each person steps perfectly in synch. in fact, people would have to step slightly out of synch to get proper amplification. the phase difference (delay between person 1 and person 2's step) would have to be equal to the time it takes for sound to travel from one persons foot to the other in the specific medium they are walking on. since sound travels quite fast through solids, this time is negligible and perfect synchronization will work almost as well. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does the color of a parasol affect its effectiveness? is white more effective than black or vice versa? | it would depend more on the nature of the material (thickness, how large the holes are if it's a fiber based material, etc.). in general, black will *block* sunlight considerably better, because light won't scatter through it as well (with white cloths, light that gets part-way through can reflect and scatter off the material to pass all the way through, while a black cloth would absorb it, rather than let it though). however, a black material will absorb considerably more heat from the sun (rather than reflect it) and therefore will become noticeably *warmer*, and that heat will pass through and warm anything below the parasol (both through convective and radiative heating), so if the goal is to remain cool, black can be worse. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
circuit resistance question | hi, i have a question. is it possible to come up with a formula in terms of 'n', to work out the total resistance of a cascading circuit, for example, in something like this.... _url_0_ i didnt know where else to ask this, so i thought this would be my best bet | yes. the solutions are as follows: 2r/1 5r/3 13r/8 34r/21 89r/55 ... if you look at the lower then upper number of each fraction in sequence, you get this: 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, ... this is the [fibonacci sequence](_url_0_). the individual terms of the fibonacci sequence have a closed form solution that involve powers of the golden ratio. it's going to look a bit messy, but that's everything you need to get your solution. | 6 | [] | [
"http://i.imgur.com/pg12aeM.png"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number"
] | [
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] |
will the redbull jumper experience heat as a result of the freefall? | i was curious if the friction with the air would actually cause the skydiver to experience heat during his descent? for those who are unaware there is a live jump from 23 miles, 37 km, above the surface of the earth. watch live [here](_url_0_) | yes but not much. first of all the heat of 're-entry' is primarily caused by the compression of gas in front of the object not friction. regardless though the jumper is not traveling at speeds nearly that of interstellar objects or orbital velocity so they will experience heat from it just not too much. | 3 | [] | [
"http://www.redbullstratos.com/live/"
] | [] | [
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how do kinetochore microtubuli take chromatides with them when depolymerising? | so i know that it happens: kinetochore microtubuli bind to the kinetochores on the chromosome, then they start depolymerising and they take the chromatides with them. i can find all of this on the internet, what i can't find, however, is how it happens. why does the chromatide go along with the depolymerising microtubulus? what sort of attraction is there? i'd think that as soon as the microtubulus starts depolymerising, the bond with the chromatide would break and the chromatide would get left behind, but that isn't the case. so why? | if you can [see this figure](_url_0_) i think it might help you understand. the kinetochore of the chromatid is not attached to the *end* of the microtubule. it is attached a little further 'in', on the side of the microtubule. imagine a rope with a ring loosely fitted *near* one end, but not directly on the end. if you start unwinding the rope on that nearby end, you sort of 'push' the ring along toward the other end. now, factor in the fact that the ring (dam1 complex) is associated with kinesins that can walk (instead of being passive, like the ring in my analogy), and you can see how the problem you bring up in the op is not really an issue anymore. edit: another caveat to my analogy -- i don't want you to get the wrong idea. when you're pulling apart the strands of the rope, you're using energy to pull. that isn't really analogous to microtubules depolymerizing. the analogy is just to help you visualize what it sort of looks like. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nrm/journal/v9/n1/fig_tab/nrm2310_F5.html"
] | [
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if octopi are entirely soft-bodied all the way through; where do their muscles anchor that they can still pull and push with their arms? | this is a super insightful question. the two researchers i've found [discussing this topic](_url_0_) have studied the microscopic physiology of octopus and squid muscle. they concluded that the muscles themselves contract in a multi-directional way so as to provide a type of pseudo-skeletal support system. this gives them the rigidity they need to contract muscles. it actually gives them superior limb control, according to these researchers. | 19 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nbclearn.com/portal/site/k-12/flatview?cuecard=5706"
] | [
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|
instead of going to the gym and doing bicep curls, can a person just contract their bicep with the same force they would while holding an actual dumbbell and still see the same results as they would at the gym? | i believe the resistance of pulling up your arm with weight in it is what causes your biceps to "tear" and rebuild, not the force required to move your arm up. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what is the small, round bone at the base of your skull (seemingly where the brainstem meets the skull) called? | i'm pretty sure we all have one, and i've been trying to google it but everyone seems to be convinced they've got brain cancer. it's that same bone that came with the old adage, "the bigger the lump, the smarter the man." what's the scientific name for that small, round, bony lump at the base of my skull called? | it's an outcropping of the occipital bone, called the [external occipital protuberance](_url_0_). outcroppings in bone like this typically provide purchase for ligaments and muscles allowing them to act on the bone. in this case, it's where the [ligamentum nuchae](_url_1_) attaches, which is a large broad ligament which runs vertically down your neck. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_occipital_protuberance",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuchal_ligament"
] | [
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what's the difference between a prediction made with a model and one made through simple pattern recognition? | inspired by a question in [this thread](_url_1_). > please explain to me how those two things (pattern recognition and prediction) are functionally distinct? i'm not asking sarcastically, i just think that one begets the other and i feel as though you may have a different understanding of the terms. i attempted to respond as [best i understood it](_url_0_), but i'd love to have a better answer as i'm not sure if that's correct, and my limit of hard science exposure is mostly restricted to minimal required undergrad classes taken as a cs major several years ago. (as i'm unsure of what to tag this as, i'm going with mathematics under the justification that the question handles abstract logic and numbers) | both are examples of [inductive reasoning](_url_1_) and you could very well say that pattern recognition is a simple model. model usually suggests that there is more rigor and some [deductive reasoning](_url_0_) behind what is happening but there is nothing inherent about it. as an example i recently had to model the error of stochastic system, after measuring the error a few series of data and observing the general shape of the error i modeled it as additive [gaussian noise](_url_2_). that is i created a model based on recognizing a pattern. | 14 | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/japan/comments/24lw5u/shaky_around_takayama/ch9vewi",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/japan/comments/24lw5u/shaky_around_takayama/ch9un2a"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deductive_reasoning",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductive_reasoning",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_noise"
] | [
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how do we know the indeterminacy principle is not illusory? | with sub atomic particles "appearing and disappearing" or "disappearing then appearing else where" or "existing then not existing". is it possible they simply move so fast that it appears to us there was no time between the particle moving from point 'a' to 'b'? so when we say that sub atomic particles do not occupy a definate space or time when perhaps our senses even our machines are simply not fine tuned enough to detect these particles "having a linear existence"? i feel perhaps i am missing a big piece of the puzzle and hoping someone might help clear this up for me, thanks | so at its heart, this is the same question (or philosophically very similar to it) that einstein was asking in the [epr paradox](_url_2_): is quantum uncertainty (or indeterminacy) _real_ or is it just an artifact of the measuring problem? that is, even accepting that the limits on our perception of the information in question are hard-limited by qm, does one have to believe that the information ontologically does not exist in an ultimate, philosophical sense? einstein really was unhappy with uncertainty — he believed the universe should, in theory, be knowable, even if only by some kind of omnipotent being. he had long debates with niels bohr about this very issue, and went to his grave believing that the copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics just couldn't be right, that it just wasn't satisfying enough to be a final theory. the epr paradox was basically thought up to try and prove that the unknown information _had_ to be there, _somewhere_, even if we couldn't possibly detect it. for a long time people thought maybe it was just a philosophical distinction, not an empirical difference. but john bell [actually figured out a way to test it empirically](_url_0_) in 1964, and since then [many "bell tests" have been run](_url_1_). the tests themselves, and their interpretation, are hard to explain without really getting into the nuts and bolts of it (and even then, i've found it difficult to explain them in a lay fashion that still made any sense), but the main interpretations of the results suggest that einstein was wrong. the information just isn't there. there are probably others who can explain the tests and their relevancy (assuming they are relevant, but they seem so to me) to your question, but the basic answer seems to be: actually, the indeterminacy, and the uncertainty, are _physically real_, not just artifacts of our inability to measure things or mathematical tools. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%27s_Theorem",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_test_experiments",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPR_paradox"
] | [
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do we still use real mode for anything? | does this happen or everything is in virtual mode nowadays? | can you explain? [real mode](_url_0_) usually refers to the 16 bit mode of x86 processors. in that sense, any x86 machine that is not using efi will boot into real mode (and rapidly switch to 32 or 64 bit protected mode). | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_mode"
] | [
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] |
is there enough information available to evaluate this weinstein proposal, and if so, what do you think of it? | [for instance see coverage here.](_url_0_) i saw a snarky, dismissive response from a physicist in an article that basically said "if he's so ready to talk why didn't he invite the physicists" when it turned out that he had actually invited them, so that was a bit of a faceplant, response-wise. but at this point the issue really seems to be that there are no specifics to analyze and therefore no meaningful way to critique or evaluate anything he's saying, except for this secondhand discussion among people who have seen the work, or parts of it. so it seems like this is a very large claim that so far has no meaningful public basis for discussion - is that right, or am i missing some relevant detail? | he hasn't published anything yet so it's hard to judge if the idea has any merit. there appears to be no small amount of contention over the talk as many of the particle physicists at oxford were unaware of his presentation , and that the lack of hard mathematical details available doesn't inspire much confidence. [an article in newscientist](_url_0_) by one such physicist doesn't mince words: e:derp. hit enter. so even given the mixup over publicizing the talk i don't really see how it could have been enlightening. the real test of any theory is to first make sure it doesn't contradict experimental evidence and nobody can do that until he publishes the math. unless the physicists could spot a fatal flaw after only being exposed to it in a few short hours the talk is pretty superfluous. | 2 | [] | [
"http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/blog/2013/may/23/roll-over-einstein-meet-weinstein"
] | [
"http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn23595-weinsteins-theory-of-everything-is-probably-nothing.html"
] | [
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] |
what happens in mules' reproductive organs (when their bodies attempt to create gametes)? | the question also applies to any other hybrids with an odd number of chromosomes. | the short answer is that meiosis fails because the parent species each have a different number of chromosomes and when the chromosomes try to pair up in the mule the corresponding chromosomes are missing. _url_0_ | 43 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.biolbull.org/content/30/1/1.abstract"
] | [
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what is the ads/cft correspondence? | i know it deals with quantum gravity and quantum field theory, but can someone elaborate on this? as of 2015, juan maldacena's 1997 paper on the subject had over 10,000 citations, becoming the most highly cited article in the field of high energy physics. what was/is the significance of his paper? | to oversimplify, the ads/cft correspondence is a mathematical duality between two different kinds of theories -- it formally relates the physical quantities that appear in an [anti-de sitter space](_url_1_) (ads) of *n+1* dimensions to the physical quantities that appear in a [conformal field theory](_url_3_) (cft) in *n* dimensions. so it relates one kind of theory to another kind of theory with an extra dimension. this correspondence between theories is useful -- for example, it means means that problems which are challenging to solve in the context of one theory can be translated into problems that may be easier to solve in the other theory (perhaps because the reduced number of dimensions simplifies the equations, for example), and then translated back, expanding the tool kit that is available to solve problems that appear in either type of theory. the ads/cft correspondence is considered to be a successful demonstration of the more general [holographic principle](_url_0_), which relates higher-dimensional theories with gravity to lower-dimensional theories without gravity, and provides a resolution to the [black hole information paradox](_url_2_) in string theory. the overall significance is large because it ties together some otherwise-separate avenues of study in gravitational physics and string theory, and provides some deep mathematical insights about the similarities and differences between these theories, plus opens up new tools to potentially explore them. hope that oversimplified summary helps; apologies in advance for any technicalities i glossed over. cheers! | 14 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holographic_principle",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-de_Sitter_space",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole_information_paradox",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformal_field_theory"
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"72% of americans this...", ""25% of americans that..." where do these statistics come from, who checks them? no one ever asked me anything... | also what if lets say the surveys are optional, those people who take the surveys are statistically more open minded, etc? is there a "department of facts"? | i worked for statistics canada for a while as a student job. i would assume in the u.s. data is collected in a similar way. they either randomly phone somebody or send an in-person interviewer. with a large enough sample size you can make reasonable valid extrapolations as to the larger population. in canada certain surveys are mandated by law. you can be prosecuted for non-compliance. such legally mandated surveys include the labor force survey, which produces public information like the unemployment rate, and the national census. these are fairly reliable and valid, i think ... (stats-can has to my knowledge only ever turned one person over for prosecution. that was a quebec woman who took a very public stance against doing the census. usually what they do is just call you endlessly until you're battered into complying, which isn't harassment at all since they have the legal right :p. almost everyone complies ...) i will say that there is a whole range of "optional" surveys that ask a lot more personal things, which the news media report on i'm sure, including stuff like sexual history, mental health, really nearly anything you can imagine. i wonder just how valid the results of these really are, since the participants are all people who decided themselves to be in the survey (rather than being truly random). same would go for any private survey from a company or public interest group, which i doubt would have the force of law behind them ... edit: **i was told that there are certain mathematical formulas used to correct for expected biases and such or problems with the data, but i do not know what these are or how they work. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.gallup.com/home.aspx"
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