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4372390

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizophora

Rhizophora

Rhizophora is a genus of tropical mangrove trees, sometimes collectively called true mangroves. The most notable species is the red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) but some other species and a few natural hybrids are known. Rhizophora species generally live in intertidal zones which are inundated daily by the ocean. They exhibit a number of adaptations to this environment, including pneutomatophores that elevate the plants above the water and allow them to respire oxygen even while their lower roots are submerged and a cytological molecular "pump" mechanism that allows them to remove excess salts from their cells. The generic name is derived from the Greek words ριζα (rhiza), meaning "root," and φορος (phoros), meaning "bearing," referring to the stilt-roots. The beetle Poecilips fallax is a common pest of these trees, especially Rhizophora mucronata and Rhizophora apiculata. This beetle (related to carver beetles) lays its eggs in the hypocotyls. When they hatch, the larvae dig tunnels through the hypocotyl, distorting its shape, When the beetle pupates it leaves the plant, but the hypocotyl will no longer be able to develop normally. The red mangrove is the state tree of Delta Amacuro in Venezuela; a dark brown dye can be produced from it, which is used in Tongan ngatu cloth production. Species Hybrids Rhizophora × annamalayana Kathiresan (R. apiculata × R. mucronata) Rhizophora × lamarckii Montrouz. (R. apiculata × R. stylosa) Rhizophora × selala (Salvoza) P.B.Tomlinson (R. mangle × R. stylosa) Formerly placed here Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanco (as R. corniculata L.) Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Savigny (as R. gymnorhiza L.) Bruguiera parviflora (Roxb.) Wight & Arn. ex Griff. (as R. parviflora Roxb.) Bruguiera sexangula (Lour.) Poir. (as R. sexangula Lour.) Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B.Rob. (as R. tagal Perr.) See also Changes in global mangrove distributions Ecological values of mangrove References External links Malpighiales genera Mangroves

4372485

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicennia%20germinans

Avicennia germinans

Avicennia germinans, the black mangrove, is a shrub or small tree growing up to 12 meters (39 feet) in the acanthus family, Acanthaceae. It grows in tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas, on both the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts, and on the Atlantic Coast of tropical Africa, where it thrives on the sandy and muddy shores where seawater reaches. It is common throughout coastal areas of Texas and Florida, and ranges as far north as southern Louisiana and coastal Georgia in the United States. Like many other mangrove species, it reproduces by vivipary. Seeds are encased in a fruit, which reveals the germinated seedling when it falls into the water. Unlike other mangrove species, it does not grow on prop roots, but possesses pneumatophores that allow its roots to breathe even when submerged. It is a hardy species and expels absorbed salt mainly from its leathery leaves. The name "black mangrove" refers to the color of the trunk and heartwood. The leaves often appear whitish from the salt excreted at night and on cloudy days. It is often found in its native range with the red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) and the white mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa). White mangroves grow inland from black mangroves, which themselves grow inland from red mangroves. The three species work together to stabilize the shoreline, provide buffers from storm surges, trap debris and detritus brought in by tides, and provide feeding, breeding, and nursery grounds for a great variety of fish, shellfish, birds, and other wildlife. Habitat The black mangrove grows just above the high tide in coastal areas. It is less tolerant of highly saline conditions than certain other species that occur in mangrove ecosystems. It can reach in height, although it is a small shrub in cooler regions of its range. The seeds germinate in midsummer, but may be seen all year on the trees. The seeds can remain viable for over a year once released. Wood The heartwood is dark-brown to black, while the sapwood is yellow-brown. It has the unusual property of having less dense heartwood than sapwood. The sapwood sinks in water while the heartwood floats. The wood is strong, heavy, and hard, but is difficult to work due to its interlocked grain, and is somewhat difficult to finish due to its oily texture. Uses include posts, pilings, charcoal, and fuel. Despite growing in a marine environment, the dry wood is subject to attack by marine borers and termites. Like many species, it contains tannins in the bark and has been used to tan leather products. References Further reading External links Interactive Distribution Map of Avicennia germinans germinans Mangroves Halophytes Afrotropical realm flora Neotropical realm flora Tropical Atlantic flora Tropical Eastern Pacific flora Trees of Africa Trees of North America Trees of Central America Trees of South America Trees of the Caribbean Plants described in 1764 Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

4379235

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casimir%20Marie%20Gaudibert

Casimir Marie Gaudibert

Casimir Marie Gaudibert (4 March 1823 – 9 June 1901) was a French amateur astronomer and selenographer. Gaudibert produced a map of the Moon in 1887. Under the direction of Camille Flammarion, Emile Bertaux subsequently produced a globe of the moon based on Gaudibert's lunar map. The crater Gaudibert on the Moon is named after him. Sources Science Museum: Lunar globes Gaudibert was born into a Roman Catholic family in central France He was converted to Protestantism through a conversation with an itinerant Spanish evangelist. He moved to Belgium where he was a preacher involved with L'Église missionnaire but was evicted from his pulpit because some of his teaching was considered as unacceptable. From then on he was a teacher in the Plymouth Brethren assemblies in Belgium. Information from his grandson whom I knew in Switzerland in the 1970s. T C F Stunt External links Portrait of Casimir Marie Gaudibert from the Lick Observatory Records Digital Archive, UC Santa Cruz Library's Digital Collections 1823 births 1901 deaths 19th-century French astronomers Amateur astronomers Selenographers

4380391

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20record

World record

A world record is usually the best global and most important performance that is ever recorded and officially verified in a specific skill, sport, or other kind of activity. The book Guinness World Records and other world records organizations collates and publishes notable records of many. One of them is the World Records Union that is the unique world records register organization recognized by the Council of the Notariats of the European Union. Terminology In the United States, the form World's Record was formerly more common. The term The World's Best was also briefly in use. The latter term is still used in athletics events, including track and field and road running to describe good and bad performances that are not recognized as an official world record: either because it is not an event where the IAAF tracks the record (e.g. the 150 m run or individual events in a decathlon), or because it does not fulfill other rigorous criteria of an otherwise qualifying event (e.g. the Great North Run half-marathon, which has an excessive downhill gradient). The term is also used in video game speedrunning for the fastest achieved time in the game and category. Culture Malaysia is one country where world record-breaking has become something of a national fad. In India, the setting and breaking of records is also popular. Sports Some sports have world records recognised by their respective sports governing bodies: List of One Day International cricket records List of world records in athletics List of junior world records in athletics List of world records in masters athletics List of world youth bests in athletics List of IPC world records in athletics List of world records in canoeing List of world records in chess List of cycling records List of world records in track cycling List of world records in finswimming List of world records in juggling List of world records in rowing List of world records in speed skating List of world records in swimming List of IPC world records in swimming List of world records in Olympic weightlifting See also Lists of extreme points References Records (superlatives)

4380624

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20eclipses%20in%20fiction

Solar eclipses in fiction

This is a list of fictional stories in which solar eclipses feature as an important plot element. Mere passing mentions are not listed. Written works Novels Le Pays des Fourrures (The Fur Country) by Jules Verne (1873). Scientists witness a solar eclipse north of the Arctic Circle in the summer of 1860. King Solomon's Mines by Henry Rider Haggard (1885). A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court, by Mark Twain (1889). The protagonist predicts a solar eclipse in 528 CE. Pharaoh by Bolesław Prus (1895). A historical novel with a solar eclipse c. 1085 BCE (at the fall of Egypt's New Kingdom and 20th Dynasty) predicted by the priest Menes. The Secret Mountain by Enid Blyton. A group of children and their guardian, captives of a sun-worshipping African tribe, escape by threatening to kill the sun, having prior knowledge of an imminent solar eclipse. Voyage: A Novel of 1896 by Sterling Hayden (1976). Depicts a solar eclipse of the titular year, viewed from the South Pacific. Black Robe by Brian Moore (novelist) (1985). Jesuit missionaries in 17th century Quebec use their astronomical knowledge of the exact time of an eclipse to prevent their slaughter by Hurons. Nightfall by Isaac Asimov and Robert Silverberg (1990). Based on Asimov's 1941 short story of the same name. El Eclipse by Augusto Monterroso. Short story in which a Spanish missionary is captured by Mayans and tries to use his knowledge of a solar eclipse to scare them into releasing him. They sacrifice him anyway, already having calculated the infinite dates of upcoming eclipses. Gerald's Game and Dolores Claiborne by Stephen King (1992) depict the solar eclipse of July 20, 1963. Illegal Alien by Robert J. Sawyer (1997). Aliens visit Earth and observe a total solar eclipse. Their scientist host speculates that Earth may be the only planet in the entire universe whose moon covers its sun perfectly (with only transits or occultations occurring on other planets). Although it is not explicitly stated in the novel, Sawyer has noted that the eclipse was the historical eclipse of August 11, 1999, which allows the reader to ascertain the time the novel takes place. Eclipse of the Sun by Phil Whitaker (1997). Set in India and has at its center a dramatic attempt to organize a public viewing of the solar eclipse of October 24, 1995. Solar Eclipse by John Farris (1999). Sunwing by Kenneth Oppel (1999). The Eclipse of the Century by Jan Mark (1999). Pitch Black: Fight Evil with Evil by Frank Lauria and David Twohy (c. 2000). Eclipse (2000) and Shroud (2002) by John Banville. Interlinked novels set against the backdrop of a solar eclipse. Eclipse, by Erin Hunter (2008). Part of the Warriors series; the solar eclipse occurs during the battle between all the clans, foretold by a strange cat by the name of "Sol". Midnight Never Come by Marie Brennan (2008). The Strain by Guillermo del Toro and Chuck Hogan (2009). Every Soul A Star by Wendy Mass (2008). A Memory of Light by Robert Jordan and Brandon Sanderson (2013). Jade Dragon Mountain by Elsa Hart, (2015). A historical mystery centered around a solar eclipse in early Qing Dynasty China. The Eclipse by Willer de Oliveira. Trade winds to Meluhha by Vasant Davé (2012). A historical novel where the unique total lunar eclipse and total solar eclipse in Babylon in May 2138 BC set off a young Mesopotamian's adventures in the ancient Indus Valley civilization. Films There is a body of films featuring solar eclipses. Compared to other astronomical events featured in films, such as full moons and asteroid strikes, solar eclipses are less commonly seen. When they have featured in films, they often drive the plot and have a portentous presence. NPR's Glen Weldon said that films use eclipses "to signal to audiences that the normal rules have temporarily lifted, and things are about to get weird." The first film to feature a solar eclipse was the 1907 silent film The Eclipse, or the Courtship of the Sun and Moon, which featured a solar eclipse as a fantastical consummation between the Sun and the Moon. Eclipses have been seen as bad omens throughout history and filmmakers leverage that belief "as visual cues or key plot points", according to The Oregonians Amy Wang. Lisa Yaszek, a professor in the School of Literature, Media, and Communication at Georgia Tech, has remarked that the most accurate depiction of a solar eclipse she has seen in film was in the 1961 religious epic Barabbas, which included film of an actual solar eclipse during a crucifixion scene. Television An episode of the 1980s science fiction comedy/drama The Edison Twins, where the twin siblings foil a bank robbery attempt at a major city bank while employees are focusing on the solar eclipse. In the fourth arc of the Sailor Moon manga series by Naoko Takeuchi and the fourth season of its anime adaptation, two eclipses grant power to the group of antagonists known as Dead Moon Circus. Heroes features eclipses prominently within the continuity and symbolism of the show. The title card and logo, for example, both feature an eclipse. An eclipse occurs in the pilot episode, "Genesis", described as a "global event" and commonly understood to be the catalyst that activates the characters' abilities. Another eclipse appears in the first episode of season two, during which Hiro Nakamura teleports to 1671 feudal Japan. The two-part season three episode, "The Eclipse", deals with the consequences of a third eclipse which removes all the characters' abilities as well as the unknown connection between eclipses and evolved humans. The Recess episode, "Outcast Ashley", partly revolves around Gretchen's attempts to view the solar eclipse occurring that afternoon, and with whom she views it. In one of his cartoons, Bugs Bunny accidentally travels through time to the Middle Ages. While there, he tricks everyone into believing that he has put out the Sun with a spell. This was a parody of and homage to Mark Twain's novel, A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court. In an episode of Darkwing Duck, the titular character accidentally travels to the Middle Ages and is about to be executed as a warlock when he remembers that his execution is timed exactly with an eclipse. He threatens everyone that he will black out the sun unless released and begins to speak gibberish, pretending to put a spell on the Sun. However, he has misread the date of the solar eclipse by one day, and stands on the gallows for 24 hours, continuing the gibberish until the eclipse happens. In the 1993 first season of Mighty Morphin' Power Rangers, evil witch Rita Repulsa causes a solar eclipse to drain the Megazord's power in the five-part episode, "Green With Evil". Sineskwela (Solar and Lunar Eclipses episode) The opening credits of Star Trek: Voyager (1995–2001) feature a CGI-generated solar eclipse. The 2001 TNT miniseries The Mists of Avalon features a solar eclipse during the death of Viviane, suggesting the Mother Goddess' grief at the event. In the 2001-2004 Samurai Jack animated series, Aku is able to escape the tree he is sealed in due to an eclipse. In Heroes, on October 1, 2006, a solar eclipse is observed by several strangers around the world. Similar eclipses occur in 1671, 2007, and on June 13, 2014. The eclipse has an effect on people's abilities. In the 2007 Avatar: the Last Airbender episode, "The Day of Black Sun Part 2: The Eclipse", Aang and his allies plan for the day of the invasion of the Fire Nation capital on the day a solar eclipse would occur, leaving the firebenders without firebending for about 8 minutes. The plan was expected to end the war. The plan fails because Azula, the princess of the Fire Nation, learns of the upcoming invasion beforehand. The 2007 Sci-Fi channel miniseries Tin Man is centered on a "double eclipse" which will give power to one of the two princesses of the O.Z. The CSI: Miami episode "Sunblock" features a murder in which the killer struck during a solar eclipse due to an allergy to the sun. The final two episodes of Berserk, "The Great Eclipse" and "Time of Eternity", take place during a solar eclipse, which in the series universe happens only once every 216 years and marks the birth of a new member of the Godhand. During these episodes, Griffith, once the leader of the Band of the Hawk, betrays and sacrifices his men in order to become the fifth member of the Godhand, Femto. The Mad Men episode "Seven Twenty Three" features the solar eclipse that occurred in July 1963. In the final three episodes of Raven the Island, an eclipse allows the warriors to enter Nevar's fortress. In the finale of the first season of DuckTales "The Shadow War", an eclipse allows Magica de Spell to escape from Scrooge's Number One Dime and regain her magical powers. In the third season of House of Anubis, a ceremony to re-awaken someone cursed by Anubis to sleep for eternity can only be performed during a total solar eclipse. Robert Frobisher-Smythe, who is central to the series' backstory, has been cursed by Anubis in this manner. As an eclipse approaches, an attempt is made to re-awaken Robert. One of the people who performs the ceremony, Caroline Denby, is impure of heart and causes Robert to be re-awoken evil. Episode 61 "He Who Would Swallow God" in the anime series Fullmetal Alchemist: Brotherhood empowered stone fragments are activated by the eclipse's umbra. In the sixth season of The Vampire Diaries, from episode 2, "Yellow Ledbetter", to episode 15, "Let Her Go", an eclipse is present in the missing dimension in 1994 where Damon and Bonnie (later just Bonnie) are trapped. Comic books Tintin: Prisoners of the Sun by Hergé (1948). Tintin and his friends escape certain death deceiving the Incas with a solar eclipse. Other Album covers showing a solar eclipse include: The 1972 Tangerine Dream album, Zeit The 2000 Kitaro album Ancient In the "Prologue" to Borodin's opera Prince Igor (left unfinished at his death in 1887, completed by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov and Alexander Glazunov, and first performed in 1890) a solar eclipse takes place to general consternation, causing two soldiers, Skula and Yeroshka, to desert Prince Igor. Prisoners of the Sun (The Adventures of Tintin comic album by Hergé). Tintin uses a prediction of a solar eclipse to gain favor with the Quechua people who are about to kill him. The PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 game The Darkness includes a solar eclipse in the final chapter. The PlayStation game Heart of Darkness (game) features a solar eclipse when Andy and his dog, Whiskey, are walking in the park. In the game Castlevania: Aria of Sorrow, the story begins with a total solar eclipse in the year 2035 where is supposed to be sealed Dracula's castle. The game Terraria features a solar eclipse as a rare event that causes monsters inspired by popular horror fiction and films to attack the player. In Call of Duty: World at War and Call of Duty: Black Ops III, the Zombies maps Der Riese and The Giant feature a solar eclipse. The Japanese visual novels Zero Escape: Virtue's Last Reward and 12Riven: the Psi-climinal of Integral both use a solar eclipse as an important plot element. The Japanese Berserk manga features an eclipse. Love and Rockets features a solar eclipse in Palomar at the beginning of Gilbert Hernandez's "Heartbreak Soup", during which fraternal twins Israel and Aurora are playing and Aurora disappears. This affects the storyline of not only Gilbert's stories going forward but sheds light on a major character in Jaime Hernandez's work as well. In the graphic novel Batman: The Return of Bruce Wayne, eclipses play an important role, as it is usually during those events that Bruce Wayne jumps through time. The musical piece Night in the Afternoon was written by Hendrik Meurkens for Vera Donovan's solar-eclipse-viewing garden party scene in the 1995 film Dolores Claiborne. In the 2021 video game The Dark Pictures Anthology: House of Ashes, a solar eclipse occurs during the main characters escape from the temple, allowing the alien vampires to come out of their shelter and forcing the characters to hold out against one more attack from the vampires before the eclipse ends. In the 2022 video game Xenoblade Chronicles 3, a solar eclipse occurs when one of the main characters is sent off during their homecoming, which meant that they would never return to the cycle and are gone forever. References History of fiction Literature lists Science fiction themes Fiction Eclipses

4380782

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seal%20of%20Milwaukee

Seal of Milwaukee

The Seal of the City of Milwaukee is a civic seal that displays various symbols of the city of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The first version of Milwaukee's seal was developed around the time of the city's incorporation in 1846 and was used on land deeds. The original seal, depicting the city's first lighthouse, appears on at least one deed that predates the city's actual incorporation. The original now resides in the collection of the Milwaukee County Historical Society, having been donated by the "Old Settlers’ Club", a group formed in 1869 consisting of people who lived in Milwaukee prior to January 1839 and who were devoted to preserving the city's early history. The seal was later revised to include other elements. At the center of the current version is a lighthouse scene showing a sunrise over Lake Michigan. This image is surrounded by seven stars and an abbreviation for Wisconsin, WIS. Other images on the seal are a railroad train, the original city hall, a steamboat, and a house. The words CITY OF MILWAUKEE appear at the top of the outer circle, and INCORPORATED JAN. 31 1846 appears at the bottom. In 1939 a stained glass version of the seal was created by Conrad Schmitt Studios as part of the Works Progress Administration, and in 1978 this piece of public art was restored and placed inside the Common Council chamber. In 1944, Milwaukee's entry in the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League wore a uniform patch based on the city seal. References See also History of Milwaukee Coats of arms with buildings Coats of arms with suns Coats of arms with sunrays Coats of arms with trains Coats of arms with ships Coats of arms with clouds Seal Municipal heraldry of the United States Official seals of places in Wisconsin Symbols of Wisconsin

4384863

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat%20of%20arms%20of%20Namibia

Coat of arms of Namibia

The coat of arms of Namibia is the official heraldic symbol of Namibia. Introduced at the time of independence in 1990, it superseded the earlier coat of arms used by the South African administration of the territory. History The Constituent Assembly which drew up the Namibian Constitution in 1989 appointed a National Symbols Sub-Committee to produce a flag and coat of arms for the country. The committee enlisted the assistance of the South African Bureau of Heraldry. After approving the flag, the committee decided to use the same design as the coat of arms, with the addition of an African fish eagle (Haliaeetus vocifer) for a crest, and two gemsbok (Oryx) as supporters. The Welwitschia mirabilis on the compartment was taken over from the former arms of South-West Africa (see below). Blazon The arms are blazoned as follows: Shield: Tierced per bend sinister Azure, and Vert, a bend sinister Gules fimbriated Argent and in dexter chief a Sun with twelve straight rays Or charged with an annulet Azure (the design of the Flag of Namibia). Crest: Upon a traditional head-ring Vert charged with six lozenges conjoined Or, a fish eagle rising wings elevated and displayed proper. Supporters: Two oryx proper. Compartment: A Namib sand dune with a Welwitschia mirabilis on the foreground. Motto: Unity Liberty Justice. Earlier coats of arms Proposed arms 1914 In 1914, the German Empire government decided to assign coats of arms to German colonies, including South-West Africa. Arms were designed, but World War I broke out before the project was finalised, and the arms were never taken into use. The arms proposed for German South-West Africa depicted an Afrikaner bull's head, a diamond, and the German imperial eagle. In the 1920s, neo-colonialism, the proposed arms made a short public appearance, in a slightly modified form on postcards issued by the German Colonial Soldiers' League (German Deutscher Kolonialkrieger-Bund) and also as decoration on calendars. Arms 1963–80 In 1958, the South West African administration decided that the territory should have an official coat of arms. After obtaining the approval of the South African government, the administration engaged Dr Coenraad Beyers to design the arms. The design was finalised in 1961, taken into use in 1963, and registered at the Bureau of Heraldry in 1964. The arms were discontinued when South-West Africa was reconstituted into a three-tier system of government in 1980. The second-tier Representative Authority of the Whites (1980–89) took over the arms in 1981. The official blazon of the arms is : Per chevron ployé Argent and Gules, dexter a karakul ram's face caboshed Sable and sinister the head and neck of an Afrikander bull proper, in base two miner's hammers in saltire Or and there-under three triangular diamonds Argent 2 and 1; on a chief Gules a pale Argent charged with an eagle Sable langued and membered Gules, dexter a representation of Fort Namutoni and sinister a Portuguese padrao both Argent. Crest : A gemsbok statant gardant proper. Supporters: Dexter a springbok and sinister a kudu, both proper, resting on a desert-like knoll, with a growing Welwitschia mirabilis in the foreground proper. Motto : Viribus unitis (With United Forces). References External links The National Symbols of Namibia South African Bureau of Heraldry Namibia National symbols of Namibia South African heraldry Namibia Namibia Namibia Namibia Namibia

4386085

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roadway%20air%20dispersion%20modeling

Roadway air dispersion modeling

Roadway air dispersion modeling is the study of air pollutant transport from a roadway or other linear emitter. Computer models are required to conduct this analysis, because of the complex variables involved, including vehicle emissions, vehicle speed, meteorology, and terrain geometry. Line source dispersion has been studied since at least the 1960s, when the regulatory framework in the United States began requiring quantitative analysis of the air pollution consequences of major roadway and airport projects. By the early 1970s this subset of atmospheric dispersion models was being applied to real-world cases of highway planning, even including some controversial court cases. How the model works The basic concept of the roadway air dispersion model is to calculate air pollutant levels in the vicinity of a highway or arterial roadway by considering them as line sources. The model takes into account source characteristics such as traffic volume, vehicle speeds, truck mix, and fleet emission controls; in addition, the roadway geometry, surrounding terrain and local meteorology are addressed. For example, many air quality standards require that certain near worst-case meteorological conditions be applied. The calculations are sufficiently complex that a computer model is essential to arrive at authoritative results, although workbook-type manuals have been developed as screening techniques. In some cases where results must be refereed (such as legal cases), model validation may be needed with field test data in the local setting; this step is not usually warranted, because the best models have been extensively validated over a wide spectrum of input data variables. The product of the calculations is usually a set of isopleths or mapped contour lines either in plan view or cross sectional view. Typically these might be stated as concentrations of carbon monoxide, total reactive hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, particulate or benzene. The air quality scientist can run the model successively to study techniques of reducing adverse air pollutant concentrations (for example, by redesigning roadway geometry, altering speed controls or limiting certain types of trucks). The model is frequently utilized in an Environmental Impact Statement involving a major new roadway or land use change that will induce new vehicular traffic. History The logical building block for this theory was the use of the Gaussian air pollutant dispersion equation for point sources. One of the early point source air pollutant plume dispersion equations was derived by Bosanquet and Pearson in 1936. Their equation did not include the effect of ground reflection of the pollutant plume. Sir Graham Sutton derived a point source air pollutant plume dispersion equation in 1947 which included the assumption of Gaussian distribution for the vertical and crosswind dispersion of the plume and also addressed the effect of ground reflection of the plume. Further advances were made by G. A. Briggs in model refinement and validation and by D.B. Turner for his user-friendly workbook that included screening calculations which do not require a computer. In seeing the need to develop a line source model to approach the study of roadway air pollution, Michael Hogan and Richard Venti developed a closed-form solution to integrating the point source equation in a series of publications. While the ESL mathematical model was completed for a line source by 1970, model refinement resulted in a “strip source”, emulating the horizontal extent of the roadway surface. This theory would be the precursor of area source dispersion models. But their focus was roadway simulation, so they proceeded with the development of a computer model by adding to the team Leda Patmore, a computer programmer in the field of atmospheric physics and satellite trajectory calculations. A working computer model was produced by late 1970; then the model was calibrated with carbon monoxide field measurements targeting from traffic on U.S. Route 101 in Sunnyvale, California. The ESL model received endorsement from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the form of a major grant to validate the model using actual roadway tests of tracer gas sulfur hexafluoride dispersion. That gas was chosen since it does not occur naturally or in vehicular emissions and provides a unique tracer for such dispersion studies. Part of the Environmental Protection Agency’s motives may have been to bring the model into public domain. After a successful validation through the EPA research, the model was soon put to use in a variety of settings to forecast air pollution levels in the vicinity of roadways. The ESL group applied the model to the U.S. Route 101 bypass project in Cloverdale, California, the extension of Interstate 66 through Arlington, Virginia, the widening of the New Jersey Turnpike through Raritan and East Brunswick, New Jersey, and several transportation projects in Boston for the Boston Transportation Planning Review. By the early 1970s at least two other research groups were known to be actively developing some type to roadway air dispersion model: the Environmental Research and Technology group of Lexington, Massachusetts and Caltrans headquarters in Sacramento, California. The Caline model of Caltrans borrowed some of the technology from the ESL Inc. group, since Caltrans funded some of the early model application work in Cloverdale and other locations and was given rights to use parts of their model. The theory The resulting solution for an infinite line source is: where: x is the distance from the observer to the roadway y is the height of the observer u is the mean wind speed α is the angle of tilt of the line source relative to the reference frame c and d are the standard deviation of horizontal and vertical wind directions (measured in radians) respectively. This equation was integrated into a closed form solution using the error function (erf), and variations in geometry can be performed to include the full infinite line, line segment, elevated line, or arc made from segments. In any case one can calculate three-dimensional contours of resulting air pollutant concentrations and use the mathematical model to study alternative roadway designs, various assumptions of worst-case meteorology or varying traffic conditions (for example, variations in truck mix, fleet emission controls, or vehicle speed). The ESL research group also extended their model by introducing the area source concept of a vertical strip to simulate the mixing zone on the highway produced by vehicles turbulence. This model too was validated in 1971 and showed a good correlation with field test data. Example applications of the model There were several early applications of the model in somewhat dramatic cases. In 1971 the Arlington Coalition on Transportation (ACT) was the plaintiff in an action against the Virginia Highway Commission over the extension of Interstate 66 through Arlington, Virginia, having filed a suit in the federal district court. The ESL model was used to produce calculations of air quality in the vicinity of the proposed highway. ACT won this case after a decision by the U.S. Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals. The court paid special attention to the plaintiff's expert calculations and testimony projecting that air quality levels would violate Federal ambient air quality standards as set forth in the Clean Air Act. A second contentious case took place in East Brunswick, New Jersey where the New Jersey Turnpike Authority planned a major widening of the Turnpike. Again the roadway air dispersion model was employed to predict levels of air pollution for residences, schools and parks near the Turnpike. After an initial hearing in Superior Court where the ESL model results were set forth, the judge ordered the Turnpike Authority to negotiate with the plaintiff, Concerned Citizens of East Brunswick and develop air quality mitigation for the adverse effects. The Turnpike Authority hired ERT as its expert, and the two research teams negotiated a settlement to this case using the newly created roadway air dispersion models. More recent model refinements The CALINE3 model is a steady-state Gaussian dispersion model designed to determine air pollution concentrations at receptor locations downwind of highways located in relatively uncomplicated terrain. CALINE3 is incorporated into the more elaborate CAL3QHC and CAL3QHCR models. CALINE3 is in widespread use due to its user-friendly nature and promotion in governmental circles, but it falls short of analyzing the complexity of cases addressed by the original Hogan-Venti model. CAL3QHC and CAL3QHCR models are available in the Fortran programming language. They have options to model either particulate matter or carbon monoxide, and include algorithms to simulate queued traffic at signalized intersections . In addition, several more recent models have been developed that employ non-steady state Lagrangian puff algorithms. The HYROAD dispersion model has been developed through the National Cooperative Highway Research Program's Project 25-06, incorporating ROADWAY-2 model puff and steady-state plume algorithms (Rao et al., 2002). The TRAQSIM model was developed in 2004 as part of a Ph.D dissertation with support by the U.S. Department of Transportation's Volpe National Transportation Systems Center Air Quality Facility. The model incorporates dynamic vehicle behavior with a non-steady state Gaussian puff algorithm. Unlike HYROAD, TRAQSIM combines traffic simulation, second-by-second modal emissions, and Gaussian puff dispersion into a fully integrated system (a true simulation) that models individual vehicles as discrete moving sources. TRAQSIM was developed as a next generation model to be the successor to the current CALINE3 and CAL3QHC regulatory models. The next step in the development of TRAQSIM is to incorporate methods to model the dispersion of particulate matter (PM) and hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). Several models have been developed that handle complex urban meteorology resulting from urban canyons and highway configurations. The earliest such model development (1968-1970) was by the Air Pollution Control Office of the U.S. EPA in conjunction with New York City. The model was successfully applied to the Spadina Expressway in Toronto by Jack Fensterstock of the New York City Department of Air Resources,. Other examples include the Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center's Canyon Plume Box model, now in version 3 (CPB-3), the National Environmental Research Institute of Denmark's Operational Street Pollution Model (OSPM), and the MICRO-CALGRID model, which includes photochemistry, allowing for both primary and secondary species to be modeled. Cornell University's CTAG model, which resolves vehicle-induced turbulence (VIT), road-induced turbulence (RIT), chemical transformation and aerosol dynamics of air pollutants using turbulence reacting flow models. The CTAG model has also been applied to characterize highway-building environments and study effects of vegetation barriers on near-road air pollution. Recent applications in legal cases Recent health literature indicating that residents near major roads face elevated rates of several adverse health outcomes has prompted legal dispute over the responsibility of transportation agencies to use roadway air dispersion models to characterize the impacts of new and expanded roadways, bus terminals, truck stops, and other sources. Recently, the Sierra Club of Nevada sued the Nevada Department of Transportation and the Federal Highway Administration over its failure to assess the impact of the expansion of U.S. Route 95 in Las Vegas on neighborhood air quality. The Sierra Club asserted that a supplemental Environmental Impact Statement should be issued to address emissions of hazardous air pollutants and particulate matter from new motor vehicle traffic. The plaintiffs asserted that modeling tools were available, including the Environmental Protection Agency's MOBILE6.2 model, the CALINE3 dispersion model, and other relevant models. The defendants won in the U.S. District Court under Judge Philip Pro, who ruled that the transportation agencies had acted in a manner that was not "arbitrary and capricious," despite the agencies' technical arguments regarding the lack of available modeling tools being contradicted by a number of peer-reviewed studies published in scientific journals (e.g. Korenstein and Piazza, Journal of Environmental Health, 2002). On appeal to the U.S. Ninth Circuit, the Appeals Court stayed new construction on the highway pending the court's final decision. The Sierra Club and the defendants settled out of court, setting up a research program on the air quality impacts of U.S. Route 95 on nearby schools. A number of other high-profile cases have prompted environmental groups to call for dispersion modeling to be used to assess the air quality impacts of new transportation projects on nearby communities, but to date state transportation agencies and the Federal Highways Administration has claimed that no tools are available, despite models and guidance available through EPA's Support Center for Regulatory Air Models (SCRAM). Among the more contentious of cases the Detroit Intermodal Freight Terminal and Detroit River International Crossing (Michigan, USA), and the expansion of Interstate 70 East in Denver (Colorado, USA). In all of these cases, community-based organizations have asserted that modeling tools are available, but transportation planning agencies have asserted that too much uncertainty exists in all of the steps. A major concern for community-based organizations has been transportation agencies' unwillingness to define the level of uncertainty that they are willing to tolerate in air quality analyses, how that compares to the Environmental Protection Agency's guideline on air quality models, which addresses uncertainty and accuracy in model use. See also Air pollution dispersion terminology Atmospheric dispersion modeling Bibliography of atmospheric dispersion modeling Line source List of atmospheric dispersion models Point source (pollution) Volume source (pollution) References External links EPA Support Center for Regulatory Atmospheric Modeling EPA Preferred/Recommended Models EPA's Air Quality Modeling Group (AQMG) EPA's Air Toxics Risk Assessment (ATRA) Reference Library Atmospheric dispersion modeling Air pollution

4387132

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity%20of%20Earth

Gravity of Earth

The gravity of Earth, denoted by , is the net acceleration that is imparted to objects due to the combined effect of gravitation (from mass distribution within Earth) and the centrifugal force (from the Earth's rotation). It is a vector quantity, whose direction coincides with a plumb bob and strength or magnitude is given by the norm . In SI units this acceleration is expressed in metres per second squared (in symbols, m/s2 or m·s−2) or equivalently in newtons per kilogram (N/kg or N·kg−1). Near Earth's surface, the acceleration due to gravity, accurate to 2 significant figures, is . This means that, ignoring the effects of air resistance, the speed of an object falling freely will increase by about per second every second. This quantity is sometimes referred to informally as little (in contrast, the gravitational constant is referred to as big ). The precise strength of Earth's gravity varies with location. The agreed upon value for is by definition. This quantity is denoted variously as , (though this sometimes means the normal gravity at the equator, ), , or simply (which is also used for the variable local value). The weight of an object on Earth's surface is the downwards force on that object, given by Newton's second law of motion, or (). Gravitational acceleration contributes to the total gravity acceleration, but other factors, such as the rotation of Earth, also contribute, and, therefore, affect the weight of the object. Gravity does not normally include the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun, which are accounted for in terms of tidal effects. Variation in magnitude A non-rotating perfect sphere of uniform mass density, or whose density varies solely with distance from the centre (spherical symmetry), would produce a gravitational field of uniform magnitude at all points on its surface. The Earth is rotating and is also not spherically symmetric; rather, it is slightly flatter at the poles while bulging at the Equator: an oblate spheroid. There are consequently slight deviations in the magnitude of gravity across its surface. Gravity on the Earth's surface varies by around 0.7%, from 9.7639 m/s2 on the Nevado Huascarán mountain in Peru to 9.8337 m/s2 at the surface of the Arctic Ocean. In large cities, it ranges from 9.7806 m/s2 in Kuala Lumpur, Mexico City, and Singapore to 9.825 m/s2 in Oslo and Helsinki. Conventional value In 1901 the third General Conference on Weights and Measures defined a standard gravitational acceleration for the surface of the Earth: gn = 9.80665 m/s2. It was based on measurements done at the Pavillon de Breteuil near Paris in 1888, with a theoretical correction applied in order to convert to a latitude of 45° at sea level. This definition is thus not a value of any particular place or carefully worked out average, but an agreement for a value to use if a better actual local value is not known or not important. It is also used to define the units kilogram force and pound force. Calculating the gravity at Earth's surface using the average radius of Earth (), the experimentally determined value of the gravitational constant, and the Earth mass of 5.9722 kg gives an acceleration of 9.8203 m/s2, slightly greater than the standard gravity of 9.80665 m/s2. The value of standard gravity corresponds to the gravity on Earth at a radius of . Latitude The surface of the Earth is rotating, so it is not an inertial frame of reference. At latitudes nearer the Equator, the outward centrifugal force produced by Earth's rotation is larger than at polar latitudes. This counteracts the Earth's gravity to a small degree – up to a maximum of 0.3% at the Equator – and reduces the apparent downward acceleration of falling objects. The second major reason for the difference in gravity at different latitudes is that the Earth's equatorial bulge (itself also caused by centrifugal force from rotation) causes objects at the Equator to be further from the planet's center than objects at the poles. Because the force due to gravitational attraction between two bodies (the Earth and the object being weighed) varies inversely with the square of the distance between them, an object at the Equator experiences a weaker gravitational pull than an object on one of the poles. In combination, the equatorial bulge and the effects of the surface centrifugal force due to rotation mean that sea-level gravity increases from about 9.780 m/s2 at the Equator to about 9.832 m/s2 at the poles, so an object will weigh approximately 0.5% more at the poles than at the Equator. Altitude Gravity decreases with altitude as one rises above the Earth's surface because greater altitude means greater distance from the Earth's centre. All other things being equal, an increase in altitude from sea level to causes a weight decrease of about 0.29%. (An additional factor affecting apparent weight is the decrease in air density at altitude, which lessens an object's buoyancy. This would increase a person's apparent weight at an altitude of 9,000 metres by about 0.08%) It is a common misconception that astronauts in orbit are weightless because they have flown high enough to escape the Earth's gravity. In fact, at an altitude of , equivalent to a typical orbit of the ISS, gravity is still nearly 90% as strong as at the Earth's surface. Weightlessness actually occurs because orbiting objects are in free-fall. The effect of ground elevation depends on the density of the ground (see Slab correction section). A person flying at above sea level over mountains will feel more gravity than someone at the same elevation but over the sea. However, a person standing on the Earth's surface feels less gravity when the elevation is higher. The following formula approximates the Earth's gravity variation with altitude: Where is the gravitational acceleration at height above sea level. is the Earth's mean radius. is the standard gravitational acceleration. The formula treats the Earth as a perfect sphere with a radially symmetric distribution of mass; a more accurate mathematical treatment is discussed below. Depth An approximate value for gravity at a distance from the center of the Earth can be obtained by assuming that the Earth's density is spherically symmetric. The gravity depends only on the mass inside the sphere of radius . All the contributions from outside cancel out as a consequence of the inverse-square law of gravitation. Another consequence is that the gravity is the same as if all the mass were concentrated at the center. Thus, the gravitational acceleration at this radius is where is the gravitational constant and is the total mass enclosed within radius . If the Earth had a constant density , the mass would be and the dependence of gravity on depth would be The gravity at depth is given by where is acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the Earth, is depth and is the radius of the Earth. If the density decreased linearly with increasing radius from a density at the center to at the surface, then , and the dependence would be The actual depth dependence of density and gravity, inferred from seismic travel times (see Adams–Williamson equation), is shown in the graphs below. Local topography and geology Local differences in topography (such as the presence of mountains), geology (such as the density of rocks in the vicinity), and deeper tectonic structure cause local and regional differences in the Earth's gravitational field, known as gravitational anomalies. Some of these anomalies can be very extensive, resulting in bulges in sea level, and throwing pendulum clocks out of synchronisation. The study of these anomalies forms the basis of gravitational geophysics. The fluctuations are measured with highly sensitive gravimeters, the effect of topography and other known factors is subtracted, and from the resulting data conclusions are drawn. Such techniques are now used by prospectors to find oil and mineral deposits. Denser rocks (often containing mineral ores) cause higher than normal local gravitational fields on the Earth's surface. Less dense sedimentary rocks cause the opposite. There is a strong correlation between the gravity derivation map of earth from NASA GRACE with positions of recent volcanic activity, ridge spreading and volcanos: these regions have a stronger gravitation than theoretical predictions. Other factors In air or water, objects experience a supporting buoyancy force which reduces the apparent strength of gravity (as measured by an object's weight). The magnitude of the effect depends on the air density (and hence air pressure) or the water density respectively; see Apparent weight for details. The gravitational effects of the Moon and the Sun (also the cause of the tides) have a very small effect on the apparent strength of Earth's gravity, depending on their relative positions; typical variations are 2 µm/s2 (0.2 mGal) over the course of a day. Direction Gravity acceleration is a vector quantity, with direction in addition to magnitude. In a spherically symmetric Earth, gravity would point directly towards the sphere's centre. As the Earth's figure is slightly flatter, there are consequently significant deviations in the direction of gravity: essentially the difference between geodetic latitude and geocentric latitude. Smaller deviations, called vertical deflection, are caused by local mass anomalies, such as mountains. Comparative values worldwide Tools exist for calculating the strength of gravity at various cities around the world. The effect of latitude can be clearly seen with gravity in high-latitude cities: Anchorage (9.826 m/s2), Helsinki (9.825 m/s2), being about 0.5% greater than that in cities near the equator: Kuala Lumpur (9.776 m/s2). The effect of altitude can be seen in Mexico City (9.776 m/s2; altitude ), and by comparing Denver (9.798 m/s2; ) with Washington, D.C. (9.801 m/s2; ), both of which are near 39° N. Measured values can be obtained from Physical and Mathematical Tables by T.M. Yarwood and F. Castle, Macmillan, revised edition 1970. Mathematical models If the terrain is at sea level, we can estimate, for the Geodetic Reference System 1980, , the acceleration at latitude : This is the International Gravity Formula 1967, the 1967 Geodetic Reference System Formula, Helmert's equation or Clairaut's formula. An alternative formula for g as a function of latitude is the WGS (World Geodetic System) 84 Ellipsoidal Gravity Formula: where, are the equatorial and polar semi-axes, respectively; is the spheroid's eccentricity, squared; is the defined gravity at the equator and poles, respectively; (formula constant); then, where , . where the semi-axes of the earth are: The difference between the WGS-84 formula and Helmert's equation is less than 0.68 μm·s−2. Further reductions are applied to obtain gravity anomalies (see: Gravity anomaly#Computation). Estimating g from the law of universal gravitation From the law of universal gravitation, the force on a body acted upon by Earth's gravitational force is given by where r is the distance between the centre of the Earth and the body (see below), and here we take to be the mass of the Earth and m to be the mass of the body. Additionally, Newton's second law, F = ma, where m is mass and a is acceleration, here tells us that Comparing the two formulas it is seen that: So, to find the acceleration due to gravity at sea level, substitute the values of the gravitational constant, G, the Earth's mass (in kilograms), m1, and the Earth's radius (in metres), r, to obtain the value of g: This formula only works because of the mathematical fact that the gravity of a uniform spherical body, as measured on or above its surface, is the same as if all its mass were concentrated at a point at its centre. This is what allows us to use the Earth's radius for r. The value obtained agrees approximately with the measured value of g. The difference may be attributed to several factors, mentioned above under "Variations": The Earth is not homogeneous The Earth is not a perfect sphere, and an average value must be used for its radius This calculated value of g only includes true gravity. It does not include the reduction of constraint force that we perceive as a reduction of gravity due to the rotation of Earth, and some of gravity being counteracted by centrifugal force. There are significant uncertainties in the values of r and m1 as used in this calculation, and the value of G is also rather difficult to measure precisely. If G, g and r are known then a reverse calculation will give an estimate of the mass of the Earth. This method was used by Henry Cavendish. Measurement The measurement of Earth's gravity is called gravimetry. Satellite measurements See also References External links Altitude gravity calculator GRACE – Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment GGMplus high resolution data (2013) Geoid 2011 model Potsdam Gravity Potato Gravimetry of objects Earth Earth Geodesy

4390861

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20lunar%20craters%20named%20for%20space%20explorers

List of lunar craters named for space explorers

Fourteen craters on the Moon have been named after astronauts and cosmonauts who have died as part of a space mission. Most craters are on the far side of the Moon. Four craters were named after the Apollo 1 astronauts and a Soviet cosmonaut of the Soyuz 1 mission, all four of whom died in 1967: Gus Grissom Ed White Roger B. Chaffee Vladimir Komarov Subsequently, three craters were named after the Soyuz 11 cosmonauts, who died June 30, 1971: Vladislav Volkov Georgi Dobrovolski Viktor Patsayev Since then, seven craters have been named after the Space Shuttle Challenger astronauts who died on the January 28, 1986 launch of that orbiter. Dick Scobee Gregory Jarvis Ronald McNair Ellison Onizuka Judith Resnik Michael J. Smith Christa McAuliffe The astronauts of the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster are memorialized in the Columbia Hills on the planet Mars, with names expected to be approved by the IAU. Several of the internal craters in the Apollo crater have been named after the crew. Rick Husband William C. McCool Michael P. Anderson Kalpana Chawla David M. Brown Laurel Clark Ilan Ramon See also List of people with craters of the Moon named after them Lists of places named after people

4391376

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Ghost%20in%20the%20Invisible%20Bikini

The Ghost in the Invisible Bikini

Ghost in the Invisible Bikini is a 1966 American fantasy comedy film. It is the seventh and last of American International Pictures' beach party films. The film features the cast cavorting in and around a haunted house and the adjacent swimming pool. Besides the usual bikini-clad cast, random singing, silly plot line, musical guests, and ridiculous chases and fight scenes, the continuity linking this to the other beach films is the Rat Pack motorcycle gang led by Eric Von Zipper (Harvey Lembeck), as well as the appearance of previous beach party alumni Tommy Kirk, Deborah Walley, Bobbi Shaw, Jesse White, Aron Kincaid, Quinn O'Hara and Boris Karloff. Pop singer Nancy Sinatra, who was on the rise at the time just before the film was released, has a supporting role and performs one song written for the film; and The Bobby Fuller Four appear as themselves and sing two songs. Claudia Martin, daughter of Dean Martin, co-stars in the film as Lulu. The Italian starlet Piccola Pupa appears as herself and sings a song. Plot The ghost of recently dead Mr. Hiram Stokeley (Boris Karloff) finds that he has 24 hours to perform one good deed to get into Heaven. He enlists the help of his long-dead girlfriend, Cecily, to stop his lawyer, Reginald Ripper (Basil Rathbone), and a henchman from claiming the estate for themselves. The real heirs, Chuck, Lili, Hiram's cousin Myrtle, and her son bring their beach party friends to the mansion for a pool party while Reginald Ripper also employs his daughter Sinistra, and J. Sinister Hulk's slow-witted associates Chicken Feather and Yolanda to help them terrorize the teens, while dopey biker Eric Von Zipper and his Malibu Rat Pack bikers also get involved in pursuing Yolanda for a share of the Stokely estate. Principal cast Tommy Kirk as Chuck Phillips Deborah Walley as Lili Morton Aron Kincaid as Bobby Quinn O'Hara as Sinistra Ripper Jesse White as J. Sinister Hulk Nancy Sinatra as Vicki Claudia Martin as Lulu Francis X. Bushman as Malcolm Benny Rubin as Chicken Feather Bobbi Shaw as Princess Yolanda George Barrows as Monstro Basil Rathbone as Reginald Ripper Patsy Kelly as Myrtle Forbush Boris Karloff as Hiram Stokely Susan Hart as Cecily the Ghost Piccola Pupa as Piccola Luree Holmes as Luree Ed Garner as Ed Frank Alesia as Frank The Rat Pack Harvey Lembeck as Eric Von Zipper Andy Romano as J.D. Alberta Nelson as Puss Myrna Ross as Boots Jerry Brutsche as Jerome Bob Harvey as Bobby Sam Page as Chauncey John Macchia as Joey Allen Fife as Beard Production notes Development The project originated as Pajama Party in a Haunted House being first announced by AIP in January 1965. It was part of a line up of Beach Party-linked projects from the studio, the others including Beach Blanket Bingo, How to Stuff a Wild Bikini, Ski Party, Sergeant Deadhead, The Chase Jet Set Party, and a Beach Party TV series. (The last two of those announced were never made.) It was also known in development as The Girl in the Glass Bikini and was originally to star Annette Funicello and Frankie Avalon, and be directed by William Asher. The title of Girl in the Glass Bikini can be seen in the promo in the end credits for Dr. Goldfoot and the Bikini Machine, an AIP spy spoof loosely affiliated with the Beach Party series (with "beach" alumni Avalon, Walley, Dwayne Hickman, and Susan Hart). By June 1965, Don Weis was announced as director. He had made Pajama Party for AIP, and did it under a two-picture deal with the studio. Louis M. Heyward, who had also worked on Pajama Party, wrote the script. During filming, the movie was also called Bikini Party in a Haunted House. Casting Although Avalon and Funicello had been announced as the stars originally, neither appeared in the final film (it remains the only movie in the series to not feature either.) Walley signed in June 1965, and was soon followed by Nancy Sinatra and Claudia Martin. Beach Party regulars Jody McCrea, Harvey Lembeck and John Ashley were also originally announced in the cast with Buster Keaton signing to reprise his role as a comic Indian. Keaton bowed out, due to illness (decd. February 1966) and his role was taken by Ben Rubin. Ashley and McCrea did not appear in the final film, the male leads being played by Tommy Kirk and Aron Kincaid, both of whom had worked for AIP before. Other veteran actors who appeared were Francis X. Bushman, Basil Rathbone and Patsy Kelly. The movie was reportedly Bushman's 435th. Elsa Lanchester was originally announced to be playing a small role but did not appear in the final film. Actress and singer Piccola Pupa was a 13-year-old discovery of Danny Thomas. The movie marked her film debut. Filming The shoot began in September 1965. Aron Kincaid, who was forced to participate in the film under his long-term contract with AIP, was supposed to perform two musical numbers, but these scenes were dropped. After filming was completed, a number of the cast went to the Golden Oak Ranch to film the opening number, Bikini Party in a Haunted House, sung by Kincaid and Piccola Pupa. The stunt scene of Eric Von Zipper crashing his motorcycle into a pond was used again in the first Billy Jack film, The Born Losers (1967), also produced by AIP. Addition of Karloff/Hart sequences James H. Nicholson and Samuel Z. Arkoff of AIP were not happy with the original cut of the film and subsequently ordered reshoots several weeks after the completion of principal photography, including addition of a new plot involving an old man who has to perform a good deed in order to gain eternal youth, and a sexy ghost in an invisible bikini who helps him. The old man was played by Boris Karloff and the ghost by Nicholson's wife Susan Hart. The movie was retitled Ghost in the Invisible Bikini. Hart shot her scenes wearing a blonde wig and black velvet bathing suit, shot against a black velvet backdrop. They were directed by editor Ronnie Sinclair. Hart worked for two weeks on her own, then for a week with Boris Karloff. Karloff's scenes were all filmed in a one-room mausoleum set on a separate soundstage. For his scenes, Karloff is clearly standing in a bottomless coffin, rather than sitting up in it, a necessity given his chronic back problems and leg brace. Neither Hart or Karloff worked with any members of the original cast; their scenes were edited into the existing footage. Music Les Baxter composed and conducted the musical score. Al Simms was the musical supervisor, and Albert Harris composed some additional music and served as the film's orchestrator. Guy Hemric and Jerry Styner wrote five songs that appear in the film: "Geronimo" performed by Nancy Sinatra "Don't Try to Fight It Baby" performed by Quinn O'Hara "Stand Up and Fight" performed by Piccola Pupa "Swing A-Ma Thing" performed by The Bobby Fuller Four "Make the Music Pretty" performed by The Bobby Fuller Four Reception The film was released in April 1966. Critical Margaret Harford of the Los Angeles Times said the film "has little to distinguish itself from its predecessors beyond the rumour that this beach party romp in a haunted house will be the last in AIP's long proliferating series", further noting, "Old timers give the picture some class." Variety wrote, "All in all, a good try but short on script and inspiration." Box office The film's theatrical releases was a commercial disappointment. Vincent Canby in the New York Times described it as "a flop". However, it did gross 1.5 million against a budget of $600,000. AIP made no further Beach Party films, as the genre was changing and grew into drag racing and motorcycle-themed storylines. Philip Bent, who had a small role, died in a plane crash in July 1966 shortly after the film's release. In the same month, Bobby Fuller was also found dead near his home in LA. DVD Under its 'Midnite Movie' line, Ghost in the Invisible Bikini was released on Region 1 DVD February 15, 2005 by MGM Home Entertainment. Ghost of Dragstrip Hollow was on Side Two of the disc, emulating AIP's theatrical release double features of the 1960s. See also List of American films of 1966 References External links The Ghost in the Invisible Bikini at Brian's Drive in Theatre 1966 films 1960s fantasy comedy films 1960s teen films American International Pictures films American sequel films American fantasy comedy films 1960s English-language films Beach party films Films directed by Don Weis Films scored by Les Baxter Films set in California American ghost films American haunted house films Bikinis 1966 comedy films 1960s American films

4396171

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s%20rotation

Earth's rotation

Earth's rotation or Earth's spin is the rotation of planet Earth around its own axis, as well as changes in the orientation of the rotation axis in space. Earth rotates eastward, in prograde motion. As viewed from the northern polar star Polaris, Earth turns counterclockwise. The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is the point in the Northern Hemisphere where Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface. This point is distinct from Earth's North Magnetic Pole. The South Pole is the other point where Earth's axis of rotation intersects its surface, in Antarctica. Earth rotates once in about 24 hours with respect to the Sun, but once every 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4 seconds with respect to other distant stars (see below). Earth's rotation is slowing slightly with time; thus, a day was shorter in the past. This is due to the tidal effects the Moon has on Earth's rotation. Atomic clocks show that the modern day is longer by about 1.7 milliseconds than a century ago, slowly increasing the rate at which UTC is adjusted by leap seconds. Analysis of historical astronomical records shows a slowing trend; the length of a day increased by about 2.3 milliseconds per century since the 8th century BCE. Scientists reported that in 2020 Earth had started spinning faster, after consistently spinning slower than 86,400 seconds per day in the decades before. On June 29, 2022, Earth's spin was completed in 1.59 milliseconds under 24 hours, setting a new record. Because of that trend, engineers worldwide are discussing a 'negative leap second' and other possible timekeeping measures. This increase in speed is thought to be due to various factors, including the complex motion of its molten core, oceans, and atmosphere, the effect of celestial bodies such as the Moon, and possibly climate change, which is causing the ice at Earth's poles to melt. The masses of ice account for the Earth's shape being that of an oblate spheroid, bulging around the equator. When these masses are reduced, the poles rebound from the loss of weight, and Earth becomes more spherical, which has the effect of bringing mass closer to its centre of gravity. Conservation of angular momentum dictates that a mass distributed more closely around its centre of gravity spins faster. History Among the ancient Greeks, several of the Pythagorean school believed in the rotation of Earth rather than the apparent diurnal rotation of the heavens. Perhaps the first was Philolaus (470–385 BCE), though his system was complicated, including a counter-earth rotating daily about a central fire. A more conventional picture was supported by Hicetas, Heraclides and Ecphantus in the fourth century BCE who assumed that Earth rotated but did not suggest that Earth revolved about the Sun. In the third century BCE, Aristarchus of Samos suggested the Sun's central place. However, Aristotle in the fourth century BCE criticized the ideas of Philolaus as being based on theory rather than observation. He established the idea of a sphere of fixed stars that rotated about Earth. This was accepted by most of those who came after, in particular Claudius Ptolemy (2nd century CE), who thought Earth would be devastated by gales if it rotated. In 499 CE, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata suggested that the spherical Earth rotates about its axis daily, and that the apparent movement of the stars is a relative motion caused by the rotation of Earth. He provided the following analogy: "Just as a man in a boat going in one direction sees the stationary things on the bank as moving in the opposite direction, in the same way to a man at Lanka the fixed stars appear to be going westward." In the 10th century, some Muslim astronomers accepted that Earth rotates around its axis. According to al-Biruni, al-Sijzi (d. c. 1020) invented an astrolabe called al-zūraqī based on the idea believed by some of his contemporaries "that the motion we see is due to the Earth's movement and not to that of the sky." The prevalence of this view is further confirmed by a reference from the 13th century which states: "According to the geometers [or engineers] (muhandisīn), the Earth is in constant circular motion, and what appears to be the motion of the heavens is actually due to the motion of the Earth and not the stars." Treatises were written to discuss its possibility, either as refutations or expressing doubts about Ptolemy's arguments against it. At the Maragha and Samarkand observatories, Earth's rotation was discussed by Tusi (b. 1201) and Qushji (b. 1403); the arguments and evidence they used resemble those used by Copernicus. In medieval Europe, Thomas Aquinas accepted Aristotle's view and so, reluctantly, did John Buridan and Nicole Oresme in the fourteenth century. Not until Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543 adopted a heliocentric world system did the contemporary understanding of Earth's rotation begin to be established. Copernicus pointed out that if the movement of Earth is violent, then the movement of the stars must be very much more so. He acknowledged the contribution of the Pythagoreans and pointed to examples of relative motion. For Copernicus this was the first step in establishing the simpler pattern of planets circling a central Sun. Tycho Brahe, who produced accurate observations on which Kepler based his laws of planetary motion, used Copernicus's work as the basis of a system assuming a stationary Earth. In 1600, William Gilbert strongly supported Earth's rotation in his treatise on Earth's magnetism and thereby influenced many of his contemporaries. Those like Gilbert who did not openly support or reject the motion of Earth about the Sun are called "semi-Copernicans". A century after Copernicus, Riccioli disputed the model of a rotating Earth due to the lack of then-observable eastward deflections in falling bodies; such deflections would later be called the Coriolis effect. However, the contributions of Kepler, Galileo and Newton gathered support for the theory of the rotation of Earth. Empirical tests Earth's rotation implies that the Equator bulges and the geographical poles are flattened. In his Principia, Newton predicted this flattening would amount to one part in 230, and pointed to the pendulum measurements taken by Richer in 1673 as corroboration of the change in gravity, but initial measurements of meridian lengths by Picard and Cassini at the end of the 17th century suggested the opposite. However, measurements by Maupertuis and the French Geodesic Mission in the 1730s established the oblateness of Earth, thus confirming the positions of both Newton and Copernicus. In Earth's rotating frame of reference, a freely moving body follows an apparent path that deviates from the one it would follow in a fixed frame of reference. Because of the Coriolis effect, falling bodies veer slightly eastward from the vertical plumb line below their point of release, and projectiles veer right in the Northern Hemisphere (and left in the Southern) from the direction in which they are shot. The Coriolis effect is mainly observable at a meteorological scale, where it is responsible for the opposite directions of cyclone rotation in the Northern and Southern hemispheres (anticlockwise and clockwise, respectively). Hooke, following a suggestion from Newton in 1679, tried unsuccessfully to verify the predicted eastward deviation of a body dropped from a height of , but definitive results were obtained later, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, by Giovanni Battista Guglielmini in Bologna, Johann Friedrich Benzenberg in Hamburg and Ferdinand Reich in Freiberg, using taller towers and carefully released weights. A ball dropped from a height of 158.5 m departed by 27.4 mm from the vertical compared with a calculated value of 28.1 mm. The most celebrated test of Earth's rotation is the Foucault pendulum first built by physicist Léon Foucault in 1851, which consisted of a lead-filled brass sphere suspended from the top of the Panthéon in Paris. Because of Earth's rotation under the swinging pendulum, the pendulum's plane of oscillation appears to rotate at a rate depending on latitude. At the latitude of Paris the predicted and observed shift was about clockwise per hour. Foucault pendulums now swing in museums around the world. Periods True solar day Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (solar noon to solar noon) is its true solar day or apparent solar day. It depends on Earth's orbital motion and is thus affected by changes in the eccentricity and inclination of Earth's orbit. Both vary over thousands of years, so the annual variation of the true solar day also varies. Generally, it is longer than the mean solar day during two periods of the year and shorter during another two. The true solar day tends to be longer near perihelion when the Sun apparently moves along the ecliptic through a greater angle than usual, taking about longer to do so. Conversely, it is about shorter near aphelion. It is about longer near a solstice when the projection of the Sun's apparent motion along the ecliptic onto the celestial equator causes the Sun to move through a greater angle than usual. Conversely, near an equinox the projection onto the equator is shorter by about . Currently, the perihelion and solstice effects combine to lengthen the true solar day near by solar seconds, but the solstice effect is partially cancelled by the aphelion effect near when it is only longer. The effects of the equinoxes shorten it near and by and , respectively. Mean solar day The average of the true solar day during the course of an entire year is the mean solar day, which contains 86,400 mean solar seconds. Currently, each of these seconds is slightly longer than an SI second because Earth's mean solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to tidal friction. The average length of the mean solar day since the introduction of the leap second in 1972 has been about 0 to 2 ms longer than 86,400 SI seconds. Random fluctuations due to core-mantle coupling have an amplitude of about 5 ms. The mean solar second between 1750 and 1892 was chosen in 1895 by Simon Newcomb as the independent unit of time in his Tables of the Sun. These tables were used to calculate the world's ephemerides between 1900 and 1983, so this second became known as the ephemeris second. In 1967 the SI second was made equal to the ephemeris second. The apparent solar time is a measure of Earth's rotation and the difference between it and the mean solar time is known as the equation of time. Stellar and sidereal day Earth's rotation period relative to the International Celestial Reference Frame, called its stellar day by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), is seconds of mean solar time (UT1) , ). Earth's rotation period relative to the precessing mean vernal equinox, named sidereal day, is of mean solar time (UT1) , ). Thus, the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about . Both the stellar day and the sidereal day are shorter than the mean solar day by about . This is a result of the Earth turning 1 additional rotation, relative to the celestial reference frame, as it orbits the Sun (so 366.24 rotations/y). The mean solar day in SI seconds is available from the IERS for the periods and . Recently (1999–2010) the average annual length of the mean solar day in excess of 86,400 SI seconds has varied between and , which must be added to both the stellar and sidereal days given in mean solar time above to obtain their lengths in SI seconds (see Fluctuations in the length of day). Angular speed The angular speed of Earth's rotation in inertial space is ± . Multiplying by (180°/π radians) × (86,400 seconds/day) yields , indicating that Earth rotates more than 360 degrees relative to the fixed stars in one solar day. Earth's movement along its nearly circular orbit while it is rotating once around its axis requires that Earth rotate slightly more than once relative to the fixed stars before the mean Sun can pass overhead again, even though it rotates only once (360°) relative to the mean Sun. Multiplying the value in rad/s by Earth's equatorial radius of (WGS84 ellipsoid) (factors of 2π radians needed by both cancel) yields an equatorial speed of . Some sources state that Earth's equatorial speed is slightly less, or . This is obtained by dividing Earth's equatorial circumference by . However, the use of the solar day is incorrect; it must be the sidereal day, so the corresponding time unit must be a sidereal hour. This is confirmed by multiplying by the number of sidereal days in one mean solar day, , which yields the equatorial speed in mean solar hours given above of 1,674.4 km/h. The tangential speed of Earth's rotation at a point on Earth can be approximated by multiplying the speed at the equator by the cosine of the latitude. For example, the Kennedy Space Center is located at latitude 28.59° N, which yields a speed of: cos(28.59°) × 1,674.4 km/h = 1,470.2 km/h. Latitude is a placement consideration for spaceports. The peak of the Cayambe volcano is the point of Earth's surface farthest from its axis; thus, it rotates the fastest as Earth spins. Changes In rotational axis Earth's rotation axis moves with respect to the fixed stars (inertial space); the components of this motion are precession and nutation. It also moves with respect to Earth's crust; this is called polar motion. Precession is a rotation of Earth's rotation axis, caused primarily by external torques from the gravity of the Sun, Moon and other bodies. The polar motion is primarily due to free core nutation and the Chandler wobble. In rotational speed Tidal interactions Over millions of years, Earth's rotation has been slowed significantly by tidal acceleration through gravitational interactions with the Moon. Thus angular momentum is slowly transferred to the Moon at a rate proportional to , where is the orbital radius of the Moon. This process has gradually increased the length of the day to its current value, and resulted in the Moon being tidally locked with Earth. This gradual rotational deceleration is empirically documented by estimates of day lengths obtained from observations of tidal rhythmites and stromatolites; a compilation of these measurements found that the length of the day has increased steadily from about 21 hours at 600 Myr ago to the current 24-hour value. By counting the microscopic lamina that form at higher tides, tidal frequencies (and thus day lengths) can be estimated, much like counting tree rings, though these estimates can be increasingly unreliable at older ages. Resonant stabilization The current rate of tidal deceleration is anomalously high, implying Earth's rotational velocity must have decreased more slowly in the past. Empirical data tentatively shows a sharp increase in rotational deceleration about 600 Myr ago. Some models suggest that Earth maintained a constant day length of 21 hours throughout much of the Precambrian. This day length corresponds to the semidiurnal resonant period of the thermally driven atmospheric tide; at this day length, the decelerative lunar torque could have been canceled by an accelerative torque from the atmospheric tide, resulting in no net torque and a constant rotational period. This stabilizing effect could have been broken by a sudden change in global temperature. Recent computational simulations support this hypothesis and suggest the Marinoan or Sturtian glaciations broke this stable configuration about 600 Myr ago; the simulated results agree quite closely with existing paleorotational data. Global events Some recent large-scale events, such as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, have caused the length of a day to shorten by 3 microseconds by reducing Earth's moment of inertia. Post-glacial rebound, ongoing since the last ice age, is also changing the distribution of Earth's mass, thus affecting the moment of inertia of Earth and, by the conservation of angular momentum, Earth's rotation period. The length of the day can also be influenced by man-made structures. For example, NASA scientists calculated that the water stored in the Three Gorges Dam has increased the length of Earth's day by 0.06 microseconds due to the shift in mass. Measurement The primary monitoring of Earth's rotation is performed by very-long-baseline interferometry coordinated with the Global Positioning System, satellite laser ranging, and other satellite geodesy techniques. This provides an absolute reference for the determination of universal time, precession and nutation. The absolute value of Earth rotation including UT1 and nutation can be determined using space geodetic observations, such as very-long-baseline interferometry and lunar laser ranging, whereas their derivatives, denoted as length-of-day excess and nutation rates can be derived from satellite observations, such as GPS, GLONASS, Galileo and satellite laser ranging to geodetic satellites. Ancient observations There are recorded observations of solar and lunar eclipses by Babylonian and Chinese astronomers beginning in the 8th century BCE, as well as from the medieval Islamic world and elsewhere. These observations can be used to determine changes in Earth's rotation over the last 27 centuries, since the length of the day is a critical parameter in the calculation of the place and time of eclipses. A change in day length of milliseconds per century shows up as a change of hours and thousands of kilometers in eclipse observations. The ancient data are consistent with a shorter day, meaning Earth was turning faster throughout the past. Cyclic variability Around every 25–30 years Earth's rotation slows temporarily by a few milliseconds per day, usually lasting around five years. 2017 was the fourth consecutive year that Earth's rotation has slowed. The cause of this variability has not yet been determined. Origin Earth's original rotation was a vestige of the original angular momentum of the cloud of dust, rocks and gas that coalesced to form the Solar System. This primordial cloud was composed of hydrogen and helium produced in the Big Bang, as well as heavier elements ejected by supernovas. As this interstellar dust is heterogeneous, any asymmetry during gravitational accretion resulted in the angular momentum of the eventual planet. However, if the giant-impact hypothesis for the origin of the Moon is correct, this primordial rotation rate would have been reset by the Theia impact 4.5 billion years ago. Regardless of the speed and tilt of Earth's rotation before the impact, it would have experienced a day some five hours long after the impact. Tidal effects would then have slowed this rate to its modern value. See also Allais effect Diurnal cycle Earth's orbit Earth orientation parameters Formation and evolution of the Solar System Geodesic (in mathematics) Geodesics in general relativity Geodesy History of Earth History of geodesy Inner core super-rotation List of important publications in geology Nychthemeron Rossby wave Spherical Earth World Geodetic System Notes References External links USNO Earth Orientation new site, being populated USNO IERS old site, to be abandoned IERS Earth Orientation Center: Earth rotation data and interactive analysis International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) If the Earth's rotation period is less than 24 hours, why don't our clocks fall out of sync with the Sun? Dynamics of the Solar System Rotation Rotation

4397259

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working%20Environment%20%28Air%20Pollution%2C%20Noise%20and%20Vibration%29%20Convention%2C%201977

Working Environment (Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration) Convention, 1977

Working Environment (Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration) Convention, 1977 is an International Labour Organization Convention. It was established in 1977, with the preamble stating: Ratifications As of 2022, the convention had been ratified by 47 states. External links Text. Ratifications. International Labour Organization conventions Occupational safety and health treaties Environmental treaties Treaties concluded in 1977 Treaties entered into force in 1979 1977 in labor relations 1979 in the environment Air pollution Noise pollution Treaties of Azerbaijan Treaties of Belgium Treaties of Bosnia and Herzegovina Treaties of the military dictatorship in Brazil Treaties of Costa Rica Treaties of Croatia Treaties of Cuba Treaties of Czechoslovakia Treaties of the Czech Republic Treaties of Denmark Treaties of Ecuador Treaties of Egypt Treaties of Finland Treaties of France Treaties of Germany Treaties of Guatemala Treaties of Ghana Treaties of Guinea Treaties of Hungary Treaties of Ba'athist Iraq Treaties of Italy Treaties of Kazakhstan Treaties of Kyrgyzstan Treaties of Latvia Treaties of Lebanon Treaties of Luxembourg Treaties of Malta Treaties of Montenegro Treaties of Niger Treaties of Norway Treaties of Poland Treaties of Portugal Treaties of the Soviet Union Treaties of San Marino Treaties of Yugoslavia Treaties of Serbia and Montenegro Treaties of Seychelles Treaties of Slovakia Treaties of Slovenia Treaties of Spain Treaties of Sweden Treaties of Tajikistan Treaties of Tanzania Treaties of North Macedonia Treaties of the United Kingdom Treaties of Uruguay Treaties of Zambia Treaties extended to Anguilla Treaties extended to Montserrat Treaties extended to the Isle of Man Treaties extended to Jersey Treaties extended to Guernsey

4398216

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount%20Penglai

Mount Penglai

Penglai () is a legendary land of Chinese mythology. It is known in Japanese mythology as Hōrai. Location According to the Classic of Mountains and Seas, the mountain is located at the eastern end of Bohai Sea. According to the pre-Qin mythology which retells the legend of Xu Fu presenting a memorial to the Qin Emperor in order to seek for the elixir of life, there are three godly mountains which are found in the Bohai sea where immortals reside; these mountains are Penglai, Fāngzhàng (), and Yíngzhōu (/). Other islands where immortals reside are called Dàiyú () and Yuánjiāo (). In the Illustrated Account of the Embassy to Goryeo in the Xuanhe Era (; Xuanhe fengshi Gaoli tujing), written in 1124 by Xu Jing (徐兢), Mount Penglai is located on an inhabited island which is found within the boundaries of Changguo prefecture and can be reached "after crossing thirty thousand leagues of the Weak Water". Various theories have been offered over the years as to the "real" location of these places, including Japan, Nam-Hae (), Geo-Je (), Jejudo () south of the Korean Peninsula, and Taiwan. Penglai, Shandong exists, but its claimed connection is as the site of departures for those leaving for the island rather than the island itself. In his work (lit. "A Guide to Select Villages"), Yi Chung-hwan, a Joseon-period geographer, associated Mount Penglai with Korea's Mount Kumgang. In Chinese mythology In a legend originating in the state of Qi during the pre-Qin period, immortals live in a palace called the Penglai Palace which is located on Mount Penglai. In Chinese mythology the mountain is often said to be the base for the Eight Immortals (or at least where they travel to have a ceremonial meal), as well as the illusionist Anqi Sheng. Supposedly, everything on the mountain appears pure white, while its palaces are made from gold and silver, and jewels grow on trees. There is no agony and no winter; there are rice bowls and wine glasses that never become empty no matter how much people eat or drink from them; and there are enchanted fruits growing in Penglai that can heal any ailment, grant eternal youth, and even resurrect the dead. Historically, Qin Shi Huang, in search of the elixir of life, made several efforts to find the landmass where the mountain is located, to no benefit. Legends tell that Xu Fu, one servant sent to find the island, found Japan instead, and named Mount Fuji as Penglai. In Japanese mythology From the medieval periods onwards, Mount Penglai was believed by some Japanese people to be located in Japan where Xu Fu and Yang Guifei arrived and eventually decided to stay there for the rest of their lives. The presentation of Mt. Hōrai in Lafcadio Hearn's Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things differs from the earlier Chinese legend. This version rejects much of the fantastic and magical properties of Hōrai. In this version of the myth, Hōrai is not free from sorrow or death, and the winters are bitterly cold. Hearn's conception of Hōrai holds that there are no magical fruits that cure disease, grant eternal youth or raise the dead, and no rice bowls or wine glasses that never become empty; rather, Hearn's incarnation of the myth of Hōrai focuses more on the atmosphere of the place, which is said to be made up not of air but of "quintillions of quintillions" of souls. Breathing in these souls is said to grant one all of the perceptions and knowledge of these ancient souls. The Japanese version also holds that the people of Hōrai are small fairies who they have no knowledge of great evil, and therefore their hearts never grow old. In the Kwaidan there is some indication that the Japanese hold such a place to be merely a fantasy. It is pointed out that "Hōrai is also called Shinkiro, which signifies Mirage—the Vision of the Intangible". See also Avalon Dilmun, paradise-island in the Epic of Gilgamesh Luggnagg, the island of the immortal struldbrugs in Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels Tír na nÓg Shangri-La References Locations in Chinese mythology Penglai Penglai Locations in Japanese mythology Mythical utopias Asia in mythology

4400374

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface%20runoff

Surface runoff

Surface runoff (also known as overland flow or terrestrial runoff) is the unconfined flow of water over the ground surface, in contrast to channel runoff (or stream flow). It occurs when excess rainwater, stormwater, meltwater, or other sources, can no longer sufficiently rapidly infiltrate in the soil. This can occur when the soil is saturated by water to its full capacity, and the rain arrives more quickly than the soil can absorb it. Surface runoff often occurs because impervious areas (such as roofs and pavement) do not allow water to soak into the ground. Furthermore, runoff can occur either through natural or human-made processes. Surface runoff is a major component of the water cycle. It is the primary agent of soil erosion by water. The land area producing runoff that drains to a common point is called a drainage basin. Runoff that occurs on the ground surface before reaching a channel can be a nonpoint source of pollution, as it can carry human-made contaminants or natural forms of pollution (such as rotting leaves). Human-made contaminants in runoff include petroleum, pesticides, fertilizers and others. Much agricultural pollution is exacerbated by surface runoff, leading to a number of down stream impacts, including nutrient pollution that causes eutrophication. In addition to causing water erosion and pollution, surface runoff in urban areas is a primary cause of urban flooding, which can result in property damage, damp and mold in basements, and street flooding. Generation Surface runoff is defined as precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, or hail) that reaches a surface stream without ever passing below the soil surface. It is distinct from direct runoff, which is runoff that reaches surface streams immediately after rainfall or melting snowfall and excludes runoff generated by the melting of snowpack or glaciers. Snow and glacier melt occur only in areas cold enough for these to form permanently. Typically snowmelt will peak in the spring and glacier melt in the summer, leading to pronounced flow maxima in rivers affected by them. The determining factor of the rate of melting of snow or glaciers is both air temperature and the duration of sunlight. In high mountain regions, streams frequently rise on sunny days and fall on cloudy ones for this reason. In areas where there is no snow, runoff will come from rainfall. However, not all rainfall will produce runoff because storage from soils can absorb light showers. On the extremely ancient soils of Australia and Southern Africa, proteoid roots with their extremely dense networks of root hairs can absorb so much rainwater as to prevent runoff even with substantial amounts of rainfall. In these regions, even on less infertile cracking clay soils, high amounts of rainfall and potential evaporation are needed to generate any surface runoff, leading to specialised adaptations to extremely variable (usually ephemeral) streams. Infiltration excess overland flow This occurs when the rate of rainfall on a surface exceeds the rate at which water can infiltrate the ground, and any depression storage has already been filled. This is also called Hortonian overland flow (after Robert E. Horton), or unsaturated overland flow. This more commonly occurs in arid and semi-arid regions, where rainfall intensities are high and the soil infiltration capacity is reduced because of surface sealing, or in urban areas where pavements prevent water from infiltrating. Saturation excess overland flow When the soil is saturated and the depression storage filled, and rain continues to fall, the rainfall will immediately produce surface runoff. The level of antecedent soil moisture is one factor affecting the time until soil becomes saturated. This runoff is called saturation excess overland flow, saturated overland flow, or Dunne runoff. Antecedent soil moisture Soil retains a degree of moisture after a rainfall. This residual water moisture affects the soil's infiltration capacity. During the next rainfall event, the infiltration capacity will cause the soil to be saturated at a different rate. The higher the level of antecedent soil moisture, the more quickly the soil becomes saturated. Once the soil is saturated, runoff occurs. Therefore, surface runoff is a significantly factor in the controlling of soil moisture after medium and low intensity storms. Subsurface return flow After water infiltrates the soil on an up-slope portion of a hill, the water may flow laterally through the soil, and exfiltrate (flow out of the soil) closer to a channel. This is called subsurface return flow or throughflow. As it flows, the amount of runoff may be reduced in a number of possible ways: a small portion of it may evapotranspire; water may become temporarily stored in microtopographic depressions; and a portion of it may infiltrate as it flows overland. Any remaining surface water eventually flows into a receiving water body such as a river, lake, estuary or ocean. Human influence Urbanization increases surface runoff by creating more impervious surfaces such as pavement and buildings that do not allow percolation of the water down through the soil to the aquifer. It is instead forced directly into streams or storm water runoff drains, where erosion and siltation can be major problems, even when flooding is not. Increased runoff reduces groundwater recharge, thus lowering the water table and making droughts worse, especially for agricultural farmers and others who depend on the water wells. When anthropogenic contaminants are dissolved or suspended in runoff, the human impact is expanded to create water pollution. This pollutant load can reach various receiving waters such as streams, rivers, lakes, estuaries and oceans with resultant water chemistry changes to these water systems and their related ecosystems. As humans continue to alter the climate through the addition of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere, precipitation patterns are expected to change as the atmospheric capacity for water vapor increases. This will have direct consequences on runoff amounts. Urban runoff Industrial runoff Effects of surface runoff Erosion and deposition Surface runoff can cause erosion of the Earth's surface; eroded material may be deposited a considerable distance away. There are four main types of soil erosion by water: splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion and gully erosion. Splash erosion is the result of mechanical collision of raindrops with the soil surface: soil particles which are dislodged by the impact then move with the surface runoff. Sheet erosion is the overland transport of sediment by runoff without a well defined channel. Soil surface roughness causes may cause runoff to become concentrated into narrower flow paths: as these incise, the small but well-defined channels which are formed are known as rills. These channels can be as small as one centimeter wide or as large as several meters. If runoff continue to incise and enlarge rills, they may eventually grow to become gullies. Gully erosion can transport large amounts of eroded material in a small time period. Reduced crop productivity usually results from erosion, and these effects are studied in the field of soil conservation. The soil particles carried in runoff vary in size from about .001 millimeter to 1.0 millimeter in diameter. Larger particles settle over short transport distances, whereas small particles can be carried over long distances suspended in the water column. Erosion of silty soils that contain smaller particles generates turbidity and diminishes light transmission, which disrupts aquatic ecosystems. Entire sections of countries have been rendered unproductive by erosion. On the high central plateau of Madagascar, approximately ten percent of that country's land area, virtually the entire landscape is devoid of vegetation, with erosive gully furrows typically in excess of 50 meters deep and one kilometer wide. Shifting cultivation is a farming system which sometimes incorporates the slash and burn method in some regions of the world. Erosion causes loss of the fertile top soil and reduces its fertility and quality of the agricultural produce. Modern industrial farming is another major cause of erosion. Over a third of the U.S. Corn Belt has completely lost its topsoil. Switching to no-till practices would reduce soil erosion from U.S. agricultural fields by more than 70 percent. Environmental effects The principal environmental issues associated with runoff are the impacts to surface water, groundwater and soil through transport of water pollutants to these systems. Ultimately these consequences translate into human health risk, ecosystem disturbance and aesthetic impact to water resources. Some of the contaminants that create the greatest impact to surface waters arising from runoff are petroleum substances, herbicides and fertilizers. Quantitative uptake by surface runoff of pesticides and other contaminants has been studied since the 1960s, and early on contact of pesticides with water was known to enhance phytotoxicity. In the case of surface waters, the impacts translate to water pollution, since the streams and rivers have received runoff carrying various chemicals or sediments. When surface waters are used as potable water supplies, they can be compromised regarding health risks and drinking water aesthetics (that is, odor, color and turbidity effects). Contaminated surface waters risk altering the metabolic processes of the aquatic species that they host; these alterations can lead to death, such as fish kills, or alter the balance of populations present. Other specific impacts are on animal mating, spawning, egg and larvae viability, juvenile survival and plant productivity. Some research shows surface runoff of pesticides, such as DDT, can alter the gender of fish species genetically, which transforms male into female fish. Surface runoff occurring within forests can supply lakes with high loads of mineral nitrogen and phosphorus leading to eutrophication. Runoff waters within coniferous forests are also enriched with humic acids and can lead to humification of water bodies Additionally, high standing and young islands in the tropics and subtropics can undergo high soil erosion rates and also contribute large material fluxes to the coastal ocean. Such land derived runoff of sediment nutrients, carbon, and contaminants can have large impacts on global biogeochemical cycles and marine and coastal ecosystems. In the case of groundwater, the main issue is contamination of drinking water, if the aquifer is abstracted for human use. Regarding soil contamination, runoff waters can have two important pathways of concern. Firstly, runoff water can extract soil contaminants and carry them in the form of water pollution to even more sensitive aquatic habitats. Secondly, runoff can deposit contaminants on pristine soils, creating health or ecological consequences. Agricultural issues The other context of agricultural issues involves the transport of agricultural chemicals (nitrates, phosphates, pesticides, herbicides, etc.) via surface runoff. This result occurs when chemical use is excessive or poorly timed with respect to high precipitation. The resulting contaminated runoff represents not only a waste of agricultural chemicals, but also an environmental threat to downstream ecosystems. Pine straws are often used to protect soil from soil erosion and weed growth. However, harvesting these crops may result in the increase of soil erosion. Economic Issues Surface run-off results in a significant amount of economic effects. Pine straws are cost effective ways of dealing with surface run-off. Moreover, Surface run-off can be reused through the growth of elephant mass. In Nigeria, elephant grass is considered to be an economical way in which surface run-off and erosion can be reduced. Also, China has suffered significant impact from surface run-off to most of their economical crops such as vegetables. Therefore, they are known to have implemented a system which reduced loss of nutrients ( nitrogen and phosphorus) in soil. Flooding Flooding occurs when a watercourse is unable to convey the quantity of runoff flowing downstream. The frequency with which this occurs is described by a return period. Flooding is a natural process, which maintains ecosystem composition and processes, but it can also be altered by land use changes such as river engineering. Floods can be both beneficial to societies or cause damage. Agriculture along the Nile floodplain took advantage of the seasonal flooding that deposited nutrients beneficial for crops. However, as the number and susceptibility of settlements increase, flooding increasingly becomes a natural hazard. In urban areas, surface runoff is the primary cause of urban flooding, known for its repetitive and costly impact on communities. Adverse impacts span loss of life, property damage, contamination of water supplies, loss of crops, and social dislocation and temporary homelessness. Floods are among the most devastating of natural disasters. The use of supplemental irrigation is also recognized as a significant way in which crops such as maize can retain nitrogen fertilizers in soil, resulting in improvement of crop water availability. Mitigation and treatment Mitigation of adverse impacts of runoff can take several forms: Land use development controls aimed at minimizing impervious surfaces in urban areas Erosion controls for farms and construction sites Flood control and retrofit programs, such as green infrastructure Chemical use and handling controls in agriculture, landscape maintenance, industrial use, etc. Land use controls. Many world regulatory agencies have encouraged research on methods of minimizing total surface runoff by avoiding unnecessary hardscape. Many municipalities have produced guidelines and codes (zoning and related ordinances) for land developers that encourage minimum width sidewalks, use of pavers set in earth for driveways and walkways and other design techniques to allow maximum water infiltration in urban settings. An example of a local program specifying design requirements, construction practices and maintenance requirements for buildings and properties is in Santa Monica, California. Erosion controls have appeared since medieval times when farmers realized the importance of contour farming to protect soil resources. Beginning in the 1950s these agricultural methods became increasingly more sophisticated. In the 1960s some state and local governments began to focus their efforts on mitigation of construction runoff by requiring builders to implement erosion and sediment controls (ESCs). This included such techniques as: use of straw bales and barriers to slow runoff on slopes, installation of silt fences, programming construction for months that have less rainfall and minimizing extent and duration of exposed graded areas. Montgomery County, Maryland implemented the first local government sediment control program in 1965, and this was followed by a statewide program in Maryland in 1970. Flood control programs as early as the first half of the twentieth century became quantitative in predicting peak flows of riverine systems. Progressively strategies have been developed to minimize peak flows and also to reduce channel velocities. Some of the techniques commonly applied are: provision of holding ponds (also called detention basins or balancing lakes) to buffer riverine peak flows, use of energy dissipators in channels to reduce stream velocity and land use controls to minimize runoff. Chemical use and handling. Following enactment of the U.S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) in 1976, and later the Water Quality Act of 1987, states and cities have become more vigilant in controlling the containment and storage of toxic chemicals, thus preventing releases and leakage. Methods commonly applied are: requirements for double containment of underground storage tanks, registration of hazardous materials usage, reduction in numbers of allowed pesticides and more stringent regulation of fertilizers and herbicides in landscape maintenance. In many industrial cases, pretreatment of wastes is required, to minimize escape of pollutants into sanitary or stormwater sewers. The U.S. Clean Water Act (CWA) requires that local governments in urbanized areas (as defined by the Census Bureau) obtain stormwater discharge permits for their drainage systems. Essentially this means that the locality must operate a stormwater management program for all surface runoff that enters the municipal separate storm sewer system ("MS4"). EPA and state regulations and related publications outline six basic components that each local program must contain: Public education (informing individuals, households, businesses about ways to avoid stormwater pollution) Public involvement (support public participation in implementation of local programs) Illicit discharge detection & elimination (removing sanitary sewer or other non-stormwater connections to the MS4) Construction site runoff controls (i.e. erosion and sediment controls) Post-construction (i.e. permanent) stormwater management controls Pollution prevention (e.g. improved chemical handling, including management of motor fuels and oil, fertilizers, pesticides and roadway deicers) and "good housekeeping" measures (e.g. system maintenance). Other property owners which operate storm drain systems similar to municipalities, such as state highway systems, universities, military bases and prisons, are also subject to the MS4 permit requirements. Measurement and mathematical modeling Runoff is analyzed by using mathematical models in combination with various water quality sampling methods. Measurements can be made using continuous automated water quality analysis instruments targeted on pollutants such as specific organic or inorganic chemicals, pH, turbidity etc. or targeted on secondary indicators such as dissolved oxygen. Measurements can also be made in batch form by extracting a single water sample and conducting any number of chemical or physical tests on that sample. In the 1950s or earlier hydrology transport models appeared to calculate quantities of runoff, primarily for flood forecasting. Beginning in the early 1970s computer models were developed to analyze the transport of runoff carrying water pollutants, which considered dissolution rates of various chemicals, infiltration into soils and ultimate pollutant load delivered to receiving waters. One of the earliest models addressing chemical dissolution in runoff and resulting transport was developed in the early 1970s under contract to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). This computer model formed the basis of much of the mitigation study that led to strategies for land use and chemical handling controls. Increasingly, stormwater practitioners have recognized the need for Monte Carlo models to simulate stormwater processes because of natural variations in multiple variables that affect the quality and quantity of runoff. The benefit of the Monte Carlo analysis is not to decrease uncertainty in the input statistics, but to represent the different combinations of the variables that determine potential risks of water-quality excursions. One example of this type of stormwater model is the stochastic empirical loading and dilution model (SELDM) is a stormwater quality model. SELDM is designed to transform complex scientific data into meaningful information about the risk of adverse effects of runoff on receiving waters, the potential need for mitigation measures, and the potential effectiveness of such management measures for reducing these risks. SELDM provides a method for rapid assessment of information that is otherwise difficult or impossible to obtain because it models the interactions among hydrologic variables (with different probability distributions) that result in a population of values that represent likely long-term outcomes from runoff processes and the potential effects of different mitigation measures. SELDM also provides the means for rapidly doing sensitivity analyses to determine the potential effects of different input assumptions on the risks for water-quality excursions. Other computer models have been developed (such as the DSSAM Model) that allow surface runoff to be tracked through a river course as reactive water pollutants. In this case the surface runoff may be considered to be a line source of water pollution to the receiving waters. See also Flash flood – U.S. Research program Safe water References Further reading Gebert, W. A., D.J. Graczyk, and W.R. Krug. (1987). Average annual runoff in the United States, 1951-80 [Hydrologic Investigations Atlas HA-710]. Reston, Va.: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. Shodor Education Foundation (1998)."Surface Water Runoff Modeling." External links USDA NRCS National Engineering Handbook, Stage Discharge Relationships, Ch. 14 NutrientNet, an online nutrient trading tool developed by the World Resources Institute, designed to address water quality issues related to surface runoff and other pollution. See also the PA NutrientNet website designed for Pennsylvania's nutrient trading program. Bioretention as a low impact development method of treating surface runoff Stormwater Model USGS Stochastic Empirical Loading and Dilution Model (SELDM) Aquatic ecology Earth phenomena Environmental chemistry Soil erosion Hydrology Irrigation Soil contamination Water pollution Ocean pollution

4401244

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crater%20depth

Crater depth

The depth of an impact crater in a solid planet or moon may be measured from the local surface to the bottom of the crater, or from the rim of the crater to the bottom. The diagram above shows the full (side) view of a typical crater. Depth "A" measures from the surface to the bottom of the crater. Depth "B" measures from the mean height of the rim to the bottom of the crater. Concepts and Measurement Using the following concepts, a crater is measured: Measurement Scales Geometry Graphing data Drawing conclusions A method of measuring a crater is to find the length of the shadow cast by the crater's rim and the angle at which the light source enters. In this measurement, use the geometry of triangles to calculate d (shadow depth) using L (shadow length) and Ø (shadow angle). So, tan Ø = d/L and L * tan Ø = d References impact craters ca:Cràter d'impacte#Profunditat

4401864

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirgan

Tirgan

Tirgan (, Tirgān), is a mid summer ancient Iranian festival, celebrated annually on Tir 13 (July 2, 3, or 4). It is celebrated by splashing water, dancing, reciting poetry, and serving traditional foods such as spinach soup and sholezard. The custom of tying rainbow-colored bands on wrists, which are worn for ten days and then thrown into a stream, is also a way to rejoice for children. Overview Tirgan is an ancient Iranian tradition which is still celebrated in various regions of Iran, including Mazenderan, Khorasan, and Arak. It is widely attested by historians such as Gardezi, Biruni, and Masudi, as well as European travelers during the Safavid era. The celebration is dedicated to Tishtrya, an archangel who appeared in the sky to generate thunder and lightning for much needed rain. Legend says that Arash the Archer was a man chosen to settle a land dispute between the leaders of the lands Iran and Turan. Arash was to loose his arrow, on the 13th day of Tir, and where the arrow landed, would lie the border between the two kingdoms. Turan had suffered from the lack of rain, and Iran rejoiced at the settlement of the borders, then rain poured onto the two countries and there was peace between them. It is stated in Biruni's chronology that "by the order of God, the wind bore the arrow away from the mountains of Amol and brought the utmost frontier of Khorasan between Fergana and Tapuria." Gardizi has given a similar description, although he notes that "the arrow of Arash fell in the area between Fargana and Bactria." Ceremony Tirgan is celebrated every year in Mazandaran Province and Amol in northern Iran, the capital Tehran, Karaj, and the central and southern cities of Yazd, Meybod, Ardakan, Kerman, Bam, Shiraz, Isfahan, Ahvaz, and Farahan. Iranians of the Zoroastrian faith also celebrate this outside Iran, in Europe and the US. See also Tirgan Festival Summer solstice Notes Ancient Iranian religion Festivals in Iran July observances Observances set by the Solar Hijri calendar Persian words and phrases Religious festivals in Iran Summer events in Iran Zoroastrian festivals Summer solstice

4403422

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congelation%20ice

Congelation ice

Congelation ice is ice that forms on the bottom of an established ice cover. Seawater On seawater, congelation ice is ice that forms on the bottom of an established sea ice cover, usually in the form of platelets which coalesce to form solid ice. Only the water freezes to ice, the salt from the seawater is concentrated into brine, some of which is contained in pockets in the new ice. Due to the brine pockets, congelation ice on seawater is neither as hard nor as transparent as fresh water ice. Fresh water On the surface of lakes, or other bodies of still freshwater, congelation ice is often called black Ice. This ice has frozen without many air bubbles trapped inside, making it transparent. Its transparency reveals the colour, usually black, of the water beneath it, hence the name. This is in contrast to snow ice, sometimes called slush ice, which is formed when slush (water saturated snow) refreezes. Snow ice is white due to the presence of air bubbles. Black ice grows downward from the bottom of the existing ice surface. The growth rate of the ice is proportional to the rate that heat is transferred from the water below the ice surface to the air above the ice surface. The total ice thickness can be approximated from Stefan's equation. Black ice is very hard, strong and smooth, which makes it ideal for ice skating, skate sailing, ice yachting and some other ice sports. Thin, clear ice also has acoustic properties which are useful to tour skaters. Skating on clear ice radiates a tone whose frequency depends on the thickness of the ice. References Water ice Sea ice

4403919

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night%20Work%20Conventions

Night Work Conventions

Night Work Conventions are International Labour Organization Convention conventions regulating the rights of night workers. They were specifically aimed at young persons, women or people in specific types of employment (industrial, non-industrial or bakeries) and conceived between 1919 and 1948. A more general instrument (not addressing young people however) was signed in 1990. Ratifications An overview of ILO conventions and ratifications is shown below: External links www.ilo.org/ official ILO site. International Labour Organization conventions Working time Treaties concluded in 1919 Treaties concluded in 1925 Treaties concluded in 1934 Treaties concluded in 1946 Treaties concluded in 1990 Treaties entered into force in 1921 Treaties entered into force in 1928 Treaties entered into force in 1950 Treaties entered into force in 1995 Treaties entered into force in 1951 Night

4409787

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%20Priam

King Priam

King Priam is an opera by Michael Tippett, to his own libretto. The story is based on Homer's Iliad, except the birth and childhood of Paris, which are taken from the Fabulae of Hyginus. The premiere was on 29 May 1962, at Coventry. The opera was composed for an arts festival held in conjunction with the reconsecration of the rebuilt Coventry Cathedral, for which Benjamin Britten also wrote his War Requiem, which was first performed in the Cathedral the day after the premiere of King Priam. The first Covent Garden performance was on 5 June, conducted by John Pritchard. It was premiered in Germany at the Badisches Staatstheater in 1963 (in a translation by Walter Bergmann), in Greece at the 1985 Athens Festival, in France at the Opéra de Nancy et de Lorraine in 1988, in Italy at Batignano in 1990, and in the United States San Francisco Opera Center Showcase in 1994. In 2014 the work was revived by English Touring Opera, with a reduced orchestration by Iain Farrington, the first performance of this version being given at the Linbury Studio Theatre at the Royal Opera House on 13 February 2014. As epigraph to the score Tippett placed the German words "Es möge uns das Schicksal gönnen, dass wir das innere Ohr von dem Munde der Seele nicht abwenden," or, "May Fate grant that we never turn our inner ear away from our soul's lips." These words conclude a 1912 essay on the paintings of Arnold Schoenberg by Wassily Kandinsky. Roles Synopsis Act 1 King Priam takes a private view of the events of the Trojan War, focusing on individual moments of moral choice. The opera begins soon after the birth of Paris, when an Old Man prophesies that the baby will grow up to cause his father's death. Queen Hecuba immediately declares that her child must be killed. Priam hesitates, but reflects, "What means one life when the choice involves a whole city?" and gives the baby to the Young Man to be abandoned on a mountainside. Left alone, the Old Man, the Young Man, and the child's Nurse discuss Priam's choice. These three characters will return throughout the opera to comment on the action from their differing perspectives. Sensing Priam's true feelings the Young Man does not kill the baby, but gives him to shepherds to raise as their own. Years later, Priam is hunting on the mountain with his eldest son, Hector. Hector attempts to subdue a wild bull, but a strange child leaps onto its back and rides away. The child returns, asks to join Hector among the heroes of Troy, and says his name is Paris. Priam is filled with joy that his secret wish was fulfilled, and he welcomes Paris back to Troy as its prince, whatever the consequences may be. The Nurse and the Old and Young Man observe this reversal with foreboding, but are interrupted by revellers at the wedding of Hector and Andromache. The guests gossip that Hector and Paris never became friendly, and that Paris has left Troy for the court of Menelaus in Sparta. In Sparta, Paris and Helen have already become lovers. Paris wonders if there is any choice in life at all - he feels pulled irresistibly toward Helen by a force greater than himself. As if in answer to his question, the god Hermes appears, and instructs him to choose between three goddesses: Athene, Hera, and Aphrodite, whose roles are sung by Hecuba, Andromache, and Helen. Athene/Hecuba offers Paris glory in war, Hera/Andromache offers domestic peace, but Aphrodite/Helen simply says his name, and he responds with hers, his choice made unconsciously. The other two goddesses curse him, foretelling the doom he will bring to Troy. Act 2 Troy is under siege. In the city, Hector taunts Paris with cowardice for having run away from Menelaus in battle. Scolded by Priam, the brothers return to the fight together. The Old Man, fearful for Troy, calls on Hermes and asks to be shown Achilles, hero of the Greeks. Achilles has withdrawn from battle, and the scene in his tent is a peaceful one, as he sings to his friend Patroclus a lyrical song of their home, "O rich soiled land," accompanied by solo guitar. But Patroclus is ashamed that Achilles will not fight, and asks to be allowed to go into battle wearing Achilles' armor, so that the Greeks will take hope from the sight of their greatest warrior. Achilles agrees, and offers a libation to the gods for Patroclus' safety. Watching invisibly under the protection of Hermes, the Old Man begs the god to warn Priam of the danger, but in Troy, Paris is already announcing to the king that Hector has slain Patroclus in single combat. The father and sons sing a trio of thanks for the victory, but they are interrupted by the chilling sound of Achilles' war-cry, taken up and echoed by the Greek army. Greece's greatest warrior has returned to the field in a berserk fury. Act 3 In Hector's bedchamber, Andromache sits and waits for her husband. She remembers with terror the day Achilles killed her father and brothers. Queen Hecuba enters and tells her to save Hector by going to the walls of Troy and calling him out of battle. Andromache refuses, asking why Priam will not end the war by returning the stolen Helen to her own husband. Hecuba scoffs that no war was fought for a woman: Helen may be the pretext, but the great city of Troy is the Greek's real prize. Helen herself now enters, and Andromache relieves her feelings with a volley of insults. Helen responds with a virtuoso aria claiming that erotic passion is greater than either morality or politics, that her love "touches Heaven, because it stretches down to Hell." Finding no comfort in sisterhood, the three women make separate prayers, each to the goddess she represented in the first act. Helen and Hecuba go, and a serving-woman enters to ask if she should light the fire for Hector's evening bath. Denying her instinctive knowledge of his death, Andromache answers "Yes...yes," but her slave mockingly echoes "No...no," as the servants are first to hear all the bad news. Andromache runs out in despair, and the serving-woman is joined by a chorus of slaves who comment cynically: "We could tell the story too, the pathetic story of our masters, viewed from the corridor." Paris brings King Priam the news of Hector's death. Priam curses his surviving son, wishing him dead as well, and Paris goes, swearing not to return until he has killed Achilles in revenge. Alone, Priam weeps that the Old Man years ago spoke only of his own death, not of Hector's. The Old Man, the Young Man, and the Nurse appear and question the king: "One son to live by another's death, is that the law of life you favour?" Priam weakly tries to answer "Yes...yes," but an unseen chorus replies "No...no": his heart's answer. Hermes guides Priam to Achilles' tent. In a quiet scene, Priam kisses Achilles' hands, "the hands of him who slew my son" and begs to be given Hector's body for burial. Achilles agrees, and the two look ahead to their own deaths: Achilles to be killed by Paris, and Priam to be killed by Neoptolemus, Achilles' son. Troy is in ruins. Priam refuses to leave his city, and one by one his family leaves him. His last farewell is with Helen, to whom he speaks gently. There is a moment of stillness before Achilles' son appears to strike the killing blow and Hermes, the drama over, departs for Olympus. Recordings 1980: Norman Bailey (Priam), Heather Harper (Hecuba), Thomas Allen (Hector), Felicity Palmer (Andromache), Philip Langridge (Paris), Yvonne Minton (Helen), Robert Tear (Achilles), Stephen Roberts, Ann Murray, David Wilson-Johnson, Peter Hall, Kenneth Bowen, recorded by Decca Records (LDR 73006), with the London Sinfonietta conducted by David Atherton. The recording won the Gramophone magazine's award for contemporary music recordings that year and was re-released on compact disc by Chandos (CHAN 9406/7) in 1995. 1985: Rodney Macann (Priam), Janet Price (Hecuba), Omar Ebrahim (Hector), Sarah Walker (Andromache), Howard Haskin (Paris), Anne Mason (Helen), and Neil Jenkins (Achilles), with Kent Opera production directed by Nicholas Hytner conducted by Roger Norrington. Directed for Channel 4 by Robert Lough; released on VHS by Virgin Classics in 1990 and the Kultur label in 1997, and on DVD by Arthaus Musik in 2007. References External links Meiron Bowen, "Michael Tippett's King Priam: Genesis, Achievement and Interpretation" on meirion-bowen.com English-language operas 1962 operas Operas by Michael Tippett Operas Priam Works based on the Iliad Operas based on works by Homer

4410085

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate%20eXperimental%20Vehicle

Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle

The Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle (IXV) is a European Space Agency (ESA) experimental suborbital re-entry vehicle. It was developed to serve as a prototype lifting body orbital return vehicle to validate the ESA's work in the field of reusable orbital return vehicles. The European Space Agency has a program called Future Launchers Preparatory Programme (FLPP), which made a call for submissions for a reusable spaceplane. One of the submissions was by the Italian Space Agency, that presented their own Programme for Reusable In-orbit Demonstrator in Europe (PRIDE program) which went ahead to develop an initial test vehicle, Pre-X, followed the prototype named Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle (IXV) and the consequential Space Rider that inherits technology from its prototype IXV. On 11 February 2015, the IXV conducted its first 100-minute suborbital space flight, successfully completing its mission upon landing intact on the surface of the Pacific Ocean. The vehicle is the first ever lifting body to perform full atmospheric reentry from orbital speed. Past missions have flight tested either winged bodies, which are highly controllable but also very complex and costly, or capsules, which are difficult to control but offer less complexity and lower cost. Development Background During the 1980s and 1990s, there was significant international interest in the development of reusable launch platforms and reusable spacecraft, particularly in respect to spaceplanes, perhaps the most high-profile examples of these being the American Space Shuttle and Soviet Buran programmes. The national space agencies of European nations, such as France's Centre National d'Études Spatiales (CNES) and Germany's German Aerospace Center (DLR), worked on their own designs during this era, the most prominent of these to emerge being the Hermes spaceplane. Development of the Hermes programme, which was backed by the European Space Agency (ESA) for several years, was ultimately terminated in 1992 prior to any flights being performed in favour of a partnership arrangement with the Russian Aviation and Space Agency (RKA) to use the existing Soyuz spacecraft instead. While work on the development of the Hermes vehicle was cancelled during the early 1990s, the ESA maintained its strategic long-term objective to indigenously develop and eventually deploy similar reusable space vehicles. Accordingly, in support of this goal, the ESA embarked upon a series of design studies on different experimental vehicle concepts as well as to refine and improve technologies deemed critical to future reentry vehicles. In order to test and further develop the technologies and concepts produced by these studies, there were clear needs to accumulate practical flight experience with reentry systems, as well as to maintain and expand upon international cooperation in the fields of space transportation, exploration, and science. Out of these desires emerged the Future Launchers Preparatory Programme (FLPP), an ESA-headed initiative conceived and championed by a number of its member states, which provided a framework for addressing the challenges and development of the technology associated with reentry vehicles. It was recognised that, in order for significant progress to be made, FLPP would require the production and testing of a prototype reentry vehicle that drew on their existing research, technologies, and designs. By adopting a step-by-step approach using a series of test vehicles prior to the development of a wider series of production vehicles, this approach was seen to reduce the risk and to allow for the integration of progressively more sophisticated developments from the early relatively-low-cost missions. In line with this determination, during early 2005, the Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle (IXV) project was formally initiated by the Italian Space Agency and the Italian Aerospace Research Centre under an Italian programme named PRIDE (Programme for Reusable In-orbit Demonstrator in Europe) Their main industrial contractor was Next Generation Launcher Prime SpA (NGLP) in Italy. The latter organisation is a joint venture entity comprising two major European aerospace companies, Astrium and Finmeccanica. The PRIDE programme had the support of various national space agencies, including the European Space Research and Technology Centre, Italian Space Agency (ASI), French space agency CNES, and Germany's DLR; by November 2006, the IXV was supported by 11 Member States: Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the Netherlands. Of these, Italy emerged as the principal financial backer of the IXV programme. Selection and pre-launch testing The IXV project benefitted from and harnessed much of the research data and operational principles from many of the previously conducted studies, especially from the successful Atmospheric Reentry Demonstrator (ARD), which was test-flown during 1998. Early on, during the mission definition and design maturity stages of the project, thorough comparisons were conducted again between existing ESA and national concepts against shared criteria, aimed at evaluating the experiment requirements (technology and systems), programme requirements (technology readiness, development schedule and cost) and risk mitigation (feasibility, maturity, robustness, and growth potential). The selected baseline design, a slender lifting body configuration, drew primarily upon the CNES-led Pre-X the ESA's ARD vehicles. Development work quickly proceeded through the preliminary design definition phase, reaching a system requirements review by mid-2007. On 18 December 2009, the ESA announced the signing of a contract with Thales Alenia Space, valued at , to cover 18 months of preliminary IXV work. In 2011, the total estimated cost for the IXV project was reportedly . During late 2012, the IXV's subsonic parachute system was tested at the Yuma Proving Ground in Arizona, United States. Shortly thereafter, a series of water impact tests were conducted at Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche's INSEAN research tank near Rome, Italy. On 21 June 2013, an IXV test vehicle was dropped from an altitude of in the Salto di Quirra range off Sardinia, Italy. The purpose of this test-drop was to validate the vehicle's water-landing system, including the subsonic parachute, flotation balloons, and beacon deployment. A small anomaly was encountered during the inflation of the balloons; however, all of the other systems performed as expected. Following the drop-test, the vehicle was retrieved for further analysis. On 23 June 2014, the recovery ship Nos Aries conducted a training exercise involving a single IXV test article off the coast of Tuscany. During June 2014, the IXV test vehicle arrived at the ESTEC Technical Centre in Noordwijk, The Netherlands, to undergo a test campaign to confirm its flight readiness in anticipation of a flight on a Vega rocket, which was by that point scheduled to occur during November of that year. Design The Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle (IXV) is a prototype uncrewed reusable spaceplane —and the precursor of the next model called Space Rider. According to the ESA, the Intermediate part of its name is due to the shape of the vehicle not necessarily being representative of the envisioned follow-on production spacecraft. It possesses a lifting body arrangement which lacks wings of any sort, resulting in a lift to drag ratio (L/D) of 0.7 during the reentry. The size and shape is balanced between the need to maximise internal volume to accommodate experimental payloads while keeping within the mass limits of the Vega launcher and favourable centre of gravity. The vehicle purposefully includes several key technologies of interest to the ESA, including its thermal protection system and the presence of active aerodynamic control surfaces. Control and manoeuvrability of the IXV is provided by a combination of these aerodynamic surfaces (comprising a pair of movable flaps) and thrusters throughout its full flight regime, which includes flying at hypersonic speeds. A key role for the IXV is the gaining of data and experience in aerodynamically controlled reentry, which has been claimed by the ESA to represent significant advances on earlier ballistic and quasi-ballistic techniques previously employed. Throughout each mission, representative reentry performance data is recorded in order to investigate aerothermodynamic phenomena and to validate system design tools and ground verification methods, which in turn supports future design efforts. Reentry is accomplished in a nose-high attitude, similar to the NASA-operated Space Shuttle; during this phase of flight, manoeuvring of the spaceplane is accomplished by rolling out-of-plane and then lifting in that direction, akin to a conventional aircraft. Landing is accomplished by an arrangement of parachutes, which are ejected during the descent through the top of the vehicle; additionally, seconds prior to landing, a series of airbags are inflated to soften the landing. Another key ESA objective for the IXV was the verification of both its structure and its advanced thermal protection measures, specifically their performance during the challenging conditions present during reentry. The underside is covered by ceramic thermal protection panels composed of a blend of carbon fiber and silicon carbide directly fixed to the spaceplane's structure, while ablative materials comprising a cork and silicon-based composite material coat the vehicle's upper surfaces. The airframe was based on a traditional hot-structure/cold-structure arrangement, relying upon a combination of advanced ceramic and metallic assemblies, insulating materials, as well as the effective design of assorted attachments, junctions and seals; the role played by advanced navigation and control techniques was also deemed to be of high importance. The IXV is supported on-orbit by a separate manoeuvring and support module, which is largely similar to the Resource Module that had been intended for use by the cancelled Hermes shuttle. The avionics of the IXV are controlled by a LEON2-FT microprocessor and are interconnected by a MIL-STD-1553B serial bus. As an experimental vehicle primarily intended to gather data, various assorted sensors and monitoring equipment were present and operational throughout the full length of the flight in order to gather data to support the evaluation effort, including the verification of the vehicle's critical reentry technologies. The recorded data covered various elements of the IXV's flight, including its guidance, navigation, and control systems, such as Vehicle Model Identification (VMI) measurements for post-flight reconstruction of the spacecraft's dynamic behaviour and environment, as well as the mandatory core experiments regarding its reentry technologies. Additionally, the IXV will typically carry complementary passenger experiments which, while not having been directly necessary to its mission success, serve to increase the vehicle's return on investment; according to the ESA, in excess of 50 such proposals had been received from a mixture of European industries, research institutes and universities, many having benefits to future launcher programmes (such as potential additional methods for guidance, navigation, control, structural health monitoring, and thermal protection), space exploration, and scientific value. Throughout each mission, telemetry is broadcast to ground controllers to monitor the vehicle's progress; however, phenomenon such as the build-up of plasma around the spaceplane during its re-entry has been known to block radio signals. The IXV is the precursor of the next model named Space Rider, also developed under the Italian PRIDE programme for ESA. Flight Test During 2011, it was reported that the IXV was planned to conduct its maiden flight as early as 2013; however, the vehicle was later rescheduled to perform its first launch using the newly developed Vega launcher during late 2014. This initial launch window was ultimately missed due to unresolved range safety concerns. Following some delays, on 11 February 2015 the IXV was successfully launched into a suborbital trajectory by a Vega rocket on the VV04 mission. Having launched at 08:40am local time, the vehicle separated from the Vega launch vehicle at 333 km altitude and ascended to 412 km, after which it commenced a controlled descent towards beginning its reentry at 120 km altitude, travelling at a recorded speed of 7.5 km/s, identical to a typical re-entry path to be flown by low Earth orbit (LEO) spacecraft. Following re-entry, the IXV glided over the Pacific Ocean prior to the opening of its landing parachutes, which were deployed in order to slow down the craft's descent, having flown over 7300 km from the beginning of its reentry. The vehicle descended to the surface of the Pacific Ocean, where it was subsequently recovered by the Nos Aries ship; analysis of both the spacecraft itself and recorded mission data took place. Jean-Jacques Dordain, then-director general of the ESA, stated of the mission: "It couldn't have been better, but the mission itself is not yet over... it will move the frontiers of knowledge further back concerning aerodynamics, thermal issues, and guidance and navigation of such a vehicle – this lifting body". Future Plans Following on from the completion of the reportedly 'flawless' test flight, ESA officials decided that an additional test flight should be performed during the 2019-2020 timeframe. During this mission, the IXV had been envisioned to land in a different manner, descending directly onto a runway instead of performing a splashdown landing as before; this approach is to be achieved either via the installation of a parafoil, or by the adoption of landing gear. The planning for the second spaceflight was originally to begin during March 2015, while design work on the modified vehicle was to commence during mid 2015. Transition to Space Rider In the ESA December 2016 Science Budget funding was approved by the Ministerial Council for the next IXV flight in the form of the commercialised Space Rider orbital vehicle. Following design reviews in 2018 and 2019, a full size mockup was to be dropped from a balloon in 2019 and will have a first flight atop a Vega-C in 2020/2021. It will then conduct approximately 5 science flights at 6 to 12-month intervals before becoming commercially available from 2025 at a cost of $40,000 per kg of payload for launch, operation, and return to Earth. The Space Rider mini shuttle will have a length of between 4 and 5 meters, a payload capacity of 800 kg, a total mass of 2,400 kg, and endurance of 2 to 6-month missions at a 400 km orbit before returning to Earth and being reflown within 4 months. The Vega-C rocket's 4th stage payload dispenser AVUM acts as the service module for the shuttle, providing orbital manoeuvring and braking, power, and communications before being jettisoned for re-entry. The AVUM service module replaces the integrated IXV Propulsion Module and frees 0.8 m3 of internal space in the vehicle for a payload bay. The Space Rider is similar in operation to the US X-37B but half the X37's length and a fifth the X37's mass and payload capacity, which will make it the smallest and lightest spaceplane to ever fly. Payload doors will be opened on achieving orbit exposing instruments and experiments to space before being closed for landing. In December 2020, ESA signed contracts with co-prime contractors Thales Alenia Space and Avio for delivery of the Space Rider flight model. The first flight is now scheduled in late 2023. Specifications See also 2015 in spaceflight Atmospheric Reentry Demonstrator (ARD) - ESA reentry testbed flown in 1998 European eXPErimental Re-entry Testbed (EXPERT) - research programme developing materials used in IXV, never flown Future Launchers Preparatory Programme - parent programme for IXV Hopper - an earlier ESA project for a crewed spaceplane, cancelled HYFLEX (Hypersonic Flight Experiment) - equivalent Japanese spaceplane demonstrator for HOPE-X developed and flown by NASDA in 1996 RLV-TD - Indian reusable technology validation test bed, in development by ISRO Space Rider - orbital spaceplane developed from IXV technologies Aurora programme References Further reading External links Official IXV website IXV Twitter profile Full replay from liftoff to splashdown for IXV reentry mission, ESA Multimedia Gallery (11 February 2015) IXV first results press conference, ESA Space in Videos (16 June 2015) ESA's IXV reentry vehicle mission, ESA Multimedia Gallery (2012 animation) IXV: learning to come back from Space, IXV Video News Release VNR ESA's Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle, ESA Multimedia Gallery (2008 animation) ESA Euronews: "Splashdown – the re-entry test" (2013-08-22). CNES reusable atmospheric re-entry vehicle: PRE-X Atmospheric entry CNES European Space Agency satellites Hypersonic aircraft 2010s international experimental aircraft Spacecraft launched in 2015 Spaceplanes Suborbital spaceflight Spacecraft launched by Vega rockets Technology demonstrations

4414312

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun%20chart

Sun chart

A Sun chart is a graph of the ecliptic of the Sun through the sky throughout the year at a particular latitude. Description Most sun charts plot azimuth versus altitude throughout the days of the winter solstice and summer solstice, as well as a number of intervening days. Since the apparent movement of the Sun as viewed from Earth is nearly symmetrical about the solstice, plotting dates for one half of the year gives a good approximation for the rest of the year. Thus, to simplify the diagram, some sun charts show days for different months as the same, e.g. March 21 equals September 21. The accompanying sun chart for Berlin accounts for deviations in symmetry between the two halves of the year through the use of the analemma, represented by each figure eight on the chart. The graph may show the entire horizon or only that half of the horizon closest to the equator. Sky view obstructions can be superimposed upon a Sun chart to obtain the insolation of a location. See also Sun path References External links Tool for Calculation of Sun’s Position How Many Jupiter's Can Fit in the Sun? Sun

4414339

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanns%20H%C3%B6rbiger

Hanns Hörbiger

Johannes "Hanns" Evangelist Hörbiger (29 November 1860, in Atzgersdorf – 11 October 1931, in Mauer) was an Austrian engineer from Vienna with roots in Tyrol. He took part in the construction of the Budapest subway and in 1894 invented a new type of valve essential for compressors still in widespread use today. He is also remembered today for his pseudoscientific Welteislehre ("World Ice doctrine"). Early life Hanns Hörbiger was born in Atzgersdorf, a suburb of Liesing, Vienna, and studied engineering at the local Technical College. In 1894 Hörbiger had an idea for a new design of blast furnace blowing engine: he replaced the old and easily damaged leather flap valves with a steel valve. Opening and closing automatically, and light and frictionless guided, the disk valve eliminated all the drawbacks of previous valve designs. Hörbiger registered a patent for his invention, which smoothed the way for efficient steel production and greater productivity in mining. High-pressure chemistry and the global network of gas exchange – none of these would be possible without the Hörbiger Valve. In 1900, Hanns Hörbiger and the engineer Friedrich Wilhelm Rogler founded an engineer’s office in Budapest, which was moved to Vienna in 1903. By 1925 it had developed into the Hörbiger & Co. company. Alfred Hörbiger, one of Hörbiger’s sons, joined the company in 1925 and assumed the management, while Hanns Hörbiger devoted himself to scientific study until his death in 1931. Two other sons, Attila and Paul became actors. The company developed rapidly under Alfred Hörbiger’s management: a production facility was taken into service in Vienna and an affiliated company was set up in Düsseldorf. Hörbiger expanded into England and concluded numerous licensing agreements with leading manufacturers of piston blowers, compressors and ships’ Diesel engines in Europe and North America. The success was driven by originality and inventive genius. The disk valve became more sophisticated: Hörbiger developed highlift or high-pressure valves, compressor control systems and damper plates. By 1937, 98% of production was destined for export. The name Hörbiger had become a dependable trademark in valve and control technology for compressors. As of 2017, the engineering company founded by Hanns Hörbiger still exists as HOERBIGER and is a major supplier of compression technology. Welteislehre Hörbiger is nowadays chiefly remembered for his Welteislehre ("World Ice Doctrine"), which he first put forward in the 1913 book, Wirbelstürme, Wetterstürze, Hagelkatastrophen und Marskanal-Verdoppelungen, written in collaboration with amateur astronomer Philipp Fauth. According to this theory, ice comprised most of the matter of the universe. Hörbiger's theories were later popularized by H.S. Bellamy, and influenced Hans Robert Scultetus, head of the Pflegestätte für Wetterkunde (Meteorology Section) of the SS-Ahnenerbe, who believed that Welteislehre could be used to provide accurate long-range weather forecasts. Occidental Hörbiger was an early supporter and financial backer of the planned language Occidental, now officially known as Interlingue. His financial support was instrumental in allowing Occidental's main publication Cosmoglotta to "gain a circle of readers despite the economic crisis" during the period when its redactorial office was located in Vienna. Family Two of Hörbiger's sons, Paul and Attila, were matinée idols in the interwar years, and Paul Hörbiger's granddaughter Mavie Hörbiger also went on to become a celebrated actress. His two other sons devoted themselves to promoting their father's theory. Best known of the present Hörbiger generations is Attila's daughter Christiane. Honors The Deslandres crater on the Moon was designated Hörbiger by Philipp Fauth on his private lunar chart; it subsequently received the official name of Deslandres, following a 1942 suggestion by E. M. Antoniadi in 1942, which was approved at the International Astronomical Union's 1948 General Assembly. The name Hörbiger is still seen on the Hallwag moonmap made by Hans Schwarzenbach. References Related articles German science fiction literature 1860 births 1931 deaths Engineers from Vienna Austrian inventors Catastrophism Cosmologists People from Liesing Interlingue Interlingue speakers Engineers from Austria-Hungary

4416431

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10370%20Hylonome

10370 Hylonome

10370 Hylonome (; prov. designation: ) is a minor planet orbiting in the outer Solar System. The dark and icy body belongs to the class of centaurs and measures approximately in diameter. It was discovered on 27 February 1995, by English astronomer David C. Jewitt and Vietnamese American astronomer Jane Luu at the U.S. Mauna Kea Observatory in Hawaii, and later named after the mythological creature Hylonome. Classification and orbit Centaurs are a large population of icy bodies in transition between trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs) and Jupiter-family comets (JFCs), their orbits being unstable due to perturbations by the giant planets. Currently, Uranus controls Hylonomes perihelion and Neptune its aphelion. Hylonome is a carbonaceous C-type body that orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 18.9–31.4 AU once every 126 years and 2 months (46,073 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.25 and an inclination of 4° with respect to the ecliptic. It is a Neptune-crosser, and an outer-grazer of the orbit of Uranus, which it hence does not cross. Its minimum orbital intersection distance with Neptune and Uranus is 0.35854 and 0.52875 AU, respectively. It is estimated to have a relatively long orbital half-life of about 6.37 million years. In the year 3478, it will pass within approximately 85 gigameters of Uranus and its semi-major axis will be reduced from 25.1 to 23.5 AU. Naming This minor planet was named for Hylonome, a female centaur in Greek mythology. In the epic tragedy, she lost her very much beloved husband, the handsome centaur Cyllarus, who was accidentally killed by a spear. Heartbroken, she then took her own life to join him by throwing herself on the spear. The official was published on 26 July 2000 (). A symbol derived from that for 2060 Chiron, , was devised in the late 1990s by German astrologer Robert von Heeren. It replaces Chiron's K with a Greek capital upsilon (Υ) for Hylonome (Ὑλονόμη). Physical characteristics Observations with the infrared Spitzer Space Telescope indicate a diameter of kilometers, whereas the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous bodies of 0.057, giving it a diameter of 75.1 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 9.35. A study in 2014, using data from Spitzers Multiband Imaging Photometer (MIPS) and Herschels Photodetector Array Camera and Spectrometer, gave a low albedo and a diameter of kilometers, based on an absolute magnitude of . The study concluded that among the observed population of centaurs, there is no correlation between their sizes, albedos, and orbital parameters. However, the smaller the centaur, the more reddish it is. See also References External links as seen around 08 Sept 2009 by the new Hubble WFC3. List Of Centaurs and Scattered-Disk Objects, Minor Planet Center Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (10001)-(15000) – Minor Planet Center AstDyS – (10370) Hylonome Ephemerides Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info ) Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Geneva Observatory, Raoul Behrend Centaurs (small Solar System bodies) Discoveries by David C. Jewitt Discoveries by Jane Luu Named minor planets 19950227

4420711

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CLaMS

CLaMS

CLaMS (Chemical Lagrangian Model of the Stratosphere) is a modular chemistry transport model (CTM) system developed at Forschungszentrum Jülich, Germany. CLaMS was first described by McKenna et al. (2000a,b) and was expanded into three dimensions by Konopka et al. (2004). CLaMS has been employed in recent European field campaigns THESEO, EUPLEX, TROCCINOX SCOUT-O3, and RECONCILE with a focus on simulating ozone depletion and water vapour transport. Major strengths of CLaMS in comparison to other CTMs are its applicability for reverse domain filling studies its anisotropic mixing scheme its integrability with arbitrary observational data its comprehensive chemistry scheme CLaMS gridding Unlike other CTMs (e.g. SLIMCAT, REPROBUS), CLaMS operates on a Lagrangian model grid (see section about model grids in general circulation model): an air parcel is described by three space coordinates and a time coordinate. The time evolution path that an air parcels traces in space is called a trajectory. A specialised mixing scheme ensures that physically realistic diffusion is imposed on an ensemble of trajectories in regions of high wind shear. CLaMS operates on arbitrarily resolved horizontal grids. The space coordinates are latitude, longitude and potential temperature. CLaMS hierarchy CLaMS is composed of four modules and several preprocessors. The four modules are a trajectory module a box chemistry module a Lagrangian mixing module a Lagrangian sedimentation scheme Trajectory module Integration of trajectories with 4th order Runge-Kutta method, integration time step 30 minutes. Vertical displacement of trajectories is calculated from radiation budget. Box chemistry module Chemistry is based on the ASAD chemistry code of the University of Cambridge. More than 100 chemical reactions involving 40+ chemical species are considered. Integration time step is 10 minutes, species can be combined into chemical families to facilitate integration. The module includes a radiative transfer model for the determination of photolysis rates. The module also includes heterogeneous reactions on NAT, ice and liquid particle surfaces. Lagrangian mixing Mixing is based on grid deformation of quasi uniform air parcel distributions. The contraction or elongation factors of the distances to neighboring air parcels are examined: if a critical elongation (contraction) is reached, new air parcels are introduced (taken away). This way, anisotropic diffusion is simulated in a physically realistic manner. Lagrangian sedimentation Lagrangian sedimentation is calculated by following individual nitric acid trihydrate (NAT) particles that may grow or shrink by the uptake or release of HNO3 from/to the gas phase. These particle parcels are simulated independently from the Lagrangian air parcels. Their trajectories are determined using the horizontal winds and their vertical settling velocity that depends on the size of the individual particles. NAT particles are nucleated assuming a constant nucleation rate and they evaporate where temperatures grow too high. With this, a vertical redistribution of HNO3 (denitrification and renitrification) is determined. CLaMS data sets A chemical transport model does not simulate the dynamics of the atmosphere. For CLaMS, the following meteorological data sets have been used European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), Predictions, Analyses, ERA-15, ERA-40 United Kingdom Met Office (UKMO) European Centre Hamburg Atmospheric Model (ECHAM4), in the DLR version To initialize the chemical fields in CLaMS, data from a large variety of instruments have provided data. on satellite (CRISTA, MIPAS, MLS, HALOE, ILAS, ...), on aircraft and balloons (HALOX, FISH, Mark IV, BONBON...) If no observations are present, the chemical fields can be initialised from two-dimensional chemical models, chemistry-climate models, climatologies, or from correlations between chemical species or chemical species and dynamical variables. See also Forschungszentrum Jülich Ozone depletion Meteorology External links CLaMS at Forschungszentrum Jülich Current field campaign SCOUT-O3 References The details of the model CLaMS are well documented and published in the scientific literature. Formulation of advection and mixing by McKenna et al., 2002a Formulation of chemistry-scheme and initialisation by McKenna et al., 2002b Comparison of the chemistry module with other stratospheric models by Krämer et al., 2003 Calculation of photolysis rates by Becker et al., 2000 Extension to 3-dimension model version by Konopka et al., 2004 Lagrangian sedimentation by Grooß et al., 2005 Numerical climate and weather models Ozone depletion

4431077

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterope%20%28Pleiad%29

Sterope (Pleiad)

In Greek mythology, Sterope (; Ancient Greek: Στερόπη, , from , steropē, lightning), also called Asterope (Ἀστερόπη), was one of the seven Pleiades. Biography Asterope was the daughter of Atlas and Pleione, born to them at Mount Cyllene in Arcadia. She was the wife of King Oenomaus of Pisa, or according to some accounts, his mother by Ares. Sterope was also credited to be the mother of Evenus (father of Marpessa) by the said Olympian god. Other Use USS Sterope (AK-96) was a United States Navy Crater class cargo ship named after the star. Asterope is a name of the double star 21 Tauri and 22 Tauri in the Pleiades cluster of stars. 233 Asterope is a T-type main belt asteroid Notes References Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus, Moralia with an English Translation by Frank Cole Babbitt. Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press. London. William Heinemann Ltd. 1936. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Pleiades (Greek mythology) Nymphs Women of Ares Elean mythology

4432667

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HiRISE

HiRISE

High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment is a camera on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter which has been orbiting and studying Mars since 2006. The 65 kg (143 lb), US$40 million instrument was built under the direction of the University of Arizona's Lunar and Planetary Laboratory by Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. It consists of a 0.5m (19.7 in) aperture reflecting telescope, the largest so far of any deep space mission, which allows it to take pictures of Mars with resolutions of 0.3m/pixel (1ft/pixel), resolving objects below a meter across. HiRISE has imaged Mars exploration rovers on the surface, including the Opportunity rover and the ongoing Curiosity mission. History In the late 1980s, of Ball Aerospace & Technologies began planning the kind of high-resolution imaging needed to support sample return and surface exploration of Mars. In early 2001 he teamed up with Alfred McEwen of the University of Arizona to propose such a camera for the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO), and NASA formally accepted it November 9, 2001. Ball Aerospace was given the responsibility to build the camera and they delivered HiRISE to NASA on December 6, 2004 for integration with the rest of the spacecraft. It was prepared for launch on board the MRO on August 12, 2005, to the cheers of the HiRISE team who were present. During the cruise phase of MRO, HiRISE took multiple test shots including several of the Moon and the Jewel Box cluster. These images helped to calibrate the camera and prepare it for taking pictures of Mars. On March 10, 2006, MRO achieved Martian orbit and primed HiRISE to acquire some initial images of Mars. The instrument had two opportunities to take pictures of Mars (the first was on March 24, 2006) before MRO entered aerobraking, during which time the camera was turned off for six months. It was turned on successfully on September 27, and took its first high-resolution pictures of Mars on September 29. On October 6, 2006 HiRISE took the first image of Victoria Crater, a site which was also under study by the Opportunity rover. In February 2007 seven detectors showed signs of degradation, with one IR channel almost completely degraded, and one other showing advanced signs of degradation. The problems seemed to disappear when higher temperatures were used to take pictures with the camera. As of March, the degradation appeared to have stabilized, but the underlying cause remained unknown. Subsequent experiments with the Engineering Model (EM) at Ball Aerospace provided definitive evidence for the cause: contamination in the analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) which results in flipping bits to create the apparent noise or bad data in the images, combined with design flaws leading to delivery of poor analog waveforms to the ADCs. Further work showed that the degradation can be reversed by heating the ADCs. On October 3, 2007, HiRISE was turned toward Earth, and took a picture of it and the Moon. In the full-resolution color image, Earth was 90 pixels across and the Moon was 24 pixels across from a distance of 142 million km. On May 25, 2008, HiRISE imaged NASA's Mars Phoenix Lander parachuting down to the surface of Mars. It was the first time that one spacecraft imaged the final descent of another spacecraft onto a planetary body. By 2010, HiRISE had imaged only about one percent of Mars's surface and by 2016 the coverage was around 2.4%. It was designed to capture smaller areas at high resolution—other instruments scan much more area to find things like fresh impact craters. MRO's Context Camera (CTX) captured two fresh impact craters (>130 meter each) formed on Mars in late 2021, the largest discovered by MRO. These seismic events were also detected by Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport (InSight). The crater in Amazonis Planitia was discovered independently by both missions, while the crater in Tempe Terra was first observed by Insight and then searched for with CTX images. On April 1, 2010, NASA released the first images under the HiWish program in which the public suggested places for HiRISE to photograph. One of the eight locations was Aureum Chaos. The first image below gives a wide view of the area. The next two images are from the HiRISE image. The following three images are among the first images taken under the HiWish program. The first is a context image from CTX to show where the HiRISE is looking. Examples of HiRISE images The following group of images show some significant images taken by the instrument. Some of these hint at possible sources of water for future colonists. The following set of pictures show first a full image of a scene and then enlargements from parts of it. A program called HiView can be used to produce more detailed views. Some pictures are in color. HiRISE takes a color strip down the middle only. Purpose The HiRISE camera is designed to view surface features of Mars in greater detail than has previously been possible. It has provided a closer look at fresh Martian craters, revealing alluvial fans, viscous flow features and ponded regions of pitted materials containing breccia clast. This allows for the study of the age of Martian features, looking for landing sites for future Mars landers, and in general, seeing the Martian surface in far greater detail than has previously been done from orbit. By doing so, it is allowing better studies of Martian channels and valleys, volcanic landforms, possible former lakes and oceans, sand dune fields such as Hagal and Nili Patera, and other surface landforms as they exist on the Martian surface. The general public is allowed to request sites for the HiRISE camera to capture (see HiWish). For this reason, and due to the unprecedented access of pictures to the general public, shortly after they have been received and processed, the camera has been termed "The People's Camera". The pictures can be viewed online, downloaded, or with the free HiView software. Design HiRISE was designed to be a high resolution camera from the beginning. It consists of a large mirror, as well as a large CCD camera. Because of this, it achieves a resolution of 1 microradian, or 0.3 meter at a height of 300 km. (For comparison purposes, satellite images on Google Mars are available to 1 meter.) It can image in three color bands, 400–600 nm (blue-green or B-G), 550–850 nm (red) and 800–1,000 nm (near infrared or NIR). HiRISE incorporates a 0.5-meter primary mirror, the largest optical telescope ever sent beyond Earth's orbit. The mass of the instrument is 64.2 kg. Red color images are at 20,048 pixels wide (6 km in a 300 km orbit), and blue-green and NIR are at 4,048 pixels wide (1.2 km). These are gathered by 14 CCD sensors, . HiRISE's onboard computer reads out these lines in time with the orbiter's ground speed, meaning the images are potentially unlimited in height. Practically this is limited by the onboard computer's () memory capacity. The nominal maximum size of red images (compressed to 8 bits per pixel) is about 20,000 × 126,000 pixels, or 2520 megapixels and 4,000 × 126,000 pixels (504 megapixels) for the narrower images of the B-G and NIR bands. A single uncompressed image uses up to 28Gbit. However, these images are transmitted compressed, with a typical maximum size of 11.2 gigabits. These images are released to the general public on the HiRISE website via a new format called JPEG 2000. To facilitate the mapping of potential landing sites, HiRISE can produce stereo pairs of images from which the topography can be measured to an accuracy of 0.25 meter. Images naming conventions HiRISE images are available to the public, are named according to the following rules: Name: ppp_oooooo_tttt_ffff_c.IMG ppp = Mission Phase: INT = Integration and Testing CAL = Calibration Observations ATL = ATLO Observations KSC = Kennedy Space Center Observations SVT = Sequence Verification Test LAU = Launch CRU = Cruise Observations APR = Mars Approach Observations AEB = Aerobraking Phase TRA = Transition Phase PSP = Primary Science Orbit (nov 2006-nov 2008) REL = Relay phase E01 = 1st Extended Mission Phase if needed Exx = Additional extended Missions if needed oooooo = MRO orbit number tttt = Target code ffff Filter/CCD designation: RED0-RED9 - Red filter CCDs IR10-IR11 – Near-Infrared filter CCDs BG12-BG13 – Blue-Green filter CCDs c = Channel number of CCD (0 or 1) The target code refers to the latitudinal position of the center of the planned observation relative to the start of orbit. The start of orbit is located at the equator on the descending side (night side) of the orbit. A target code of 0000 refers to the start of orbit. The target code increases in value along the orbit track ranging from 0000 to 3595. This convention allows the file name ordering to be time sequential. The first three digits refers to the number of whole degrees from the start of orbit, the fourth digit refers to the fractional degrees rounded to the nearest 0.5 degrees. Values greater than 3595 identify observations as off-Mars or special observations. Examples of target code: 0000 – planned observation at the equator on descending side of orbit. 0900 – planned observation at the south pole. 1800 – planned observation at the equator on the ascending side (day side) of the orbit. 2700 – planned observation at the north pole. Off-Mars and Special Observations Values: 4000 – Star Observation 4001 – Phobos Observation 4002 – Deimos Observation 4003 – Special Calibration Observation Footnotes See also Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (Telescope imager on New Horizon probe) External links HiRISE official website BeautifulMars Tumblr from HiRISE Help NASA categorize images taken by HiRISE Browse Map of Images from ASU How HiRISE Works - Lesson One: Camera Basics How HiRISE Works - Lesson Two: Resolution and Binning Multimedia created with HiRISE imagery/data by Seán Doran and Kevin Gill; see also Seán Doran's Flickr album #1 and #2 and Kevin Gill's Flickr album and a longer YouTube videos by S.D. (Red Planet Rise) and K.G. (Flights of Desolation) Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter University of Arizona Mars imagers

4433225

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaidun%20meteorite

Kaidun meteorite

Kaidun is a meteorite that fell on 3 December 1980 on a Soviet military base near what is now Al-Khuraybah in Yemen. A fireball was observed travelling from the northwest to the southeast, and a single stone weighing about was recovered from a small impact pit. It has been suggested that Kaidun originated from the Martian moon of Phobos, but this is disputed. Composition It contains a uniquely wide variety of minerals, causing debate about its origin. It is largely carbonaceous chondrite material of type CR2, but also contains fragments of other types, such as C1, CM1, and C3. Of the nearly 60 minerals found in the meteorite, several have not been found elsewhere in nature, such as florenskyite, which has the chemical formula FeTiP. Origin In March 2004 it was suggested that the meteorite originated from the Martian moon Phobos. The reason Phobos has been suggested is the existence of two extremely rare alkaline-rich clasts visible in the meteorite, each of which entered the rock at different times. This suggests that the parent body would have been near a source of an alkaline-rich rock, which is almost wholly produced by deep differentiation. This points to Mars and one of its moons, and Phobos is more likely than Deimos because it is closer to Mars. However, mineralogical and noble gas work do not tie the lithic fragments to Mars, as they have other proven Martian meteorites, and this hypothesized link is tenuous at best. In support of the Phobos hypothesis, in 2017 two scientists at the Western University found that meteorites originating from Phobos (and even Deimos) can travel to Earth. See also Glossary of meteoritics References External links Kaidun: A Meteorite with Everything but the Kitchen Sink, written by Linda M. V. Martel, Hawai‘i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology Phobos (moon) 1980s in Yemen 1980 in Asia 1980 in science Meteorites found in Yemen

4434873

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llaqtapata

Llaqtapata

Llaqtapata (Quechua) llaqta place (village, town, city, country, nation), pata elevated place / above, at the top / edge, bank (of a river), shore, pronounced 'yakta-pahta', Hispanicized Llactapata) is an archaeological site about east of Machu Picchu. The complex is located in the Cusco Region, La Convención Province, Santa Teresa District, high on a ridge between the Ahobamba and Santa Teresa drainages. Discovery and mapping It appears to be the site originally reported by Hiram Bingham as having this name. Although the site was little explored by Bingham, it was more extensively explored and mapped by the Thomson and Ziegler expedition of 2003. Bingham first discovered Llaqtapata in 1912. "We found evidence that some Inca chieftain had built his home here and had included in the plan ten or a dozen buildings." Bingham locates the site "on top of a ridge between the valleys of the Aobamba and the Salcantay, about 5,000 feet above the estate of Huaquina." "Here we discovered a number of ruins and two or three modern huts. The Indians said that the place was called Llacta Pata." Bingham did not investigate the ruins thoroughly, however, and they were not studied again for another 70 years. Role as a roadside shrine A mid-2003 study of the site conducted by Hugh Thomson and Gary Ziegler concluded that the location of Llaqtapata along the Inca trail suggested that it was an important rest stop and roadside shrine on the journey to Machu Picchu. This and subsequent investigations have revealed an extensive complex of structures and features related to and connected with Machu Picchu by a continuation of the Inca Trail leading onward into the Vilcabamba. Llaqtapata may have been a member of the network of interrelated administrative and ceremonial sites which supported the regional center at Machu Picchu. It probably played an important astronomical function during the solstices and equinoxes. References and notes 1912 archaeological discoveries Inca Archaeological sites in Peru Archaeological sites in Cusco Region Solstices it:Llactapata

4435025

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-return%20trajectory

Free-return trajectory

In orbital mechanics, a free-return trajectory is a trajectory of a spacecraft traveling away from a primary body (for example, the Earth) where gravity due to a secondary body (for example, the Moon) causes the spacecraft to return to the primary body without propulsion (hence the term free). Many free-return trajectories are designed to intersect the atmosphere; however, periodic versions exist which pass the moon and Earth at constant periapsis, which have been proposed for cyclers. Earth–Moon The first spacecraft to use a free-return trajectory was the Soviet Luna 3 mission in October 1959. It used the Moon's gravity to send it back towards the Earth so that the photographs it had taken of the far side of the Moon could be downloaded by radio. Symmetrical free-return trajectories were studied by Arthur Schwaniger of NASA in 1963 with reference to the Earth–Moon system. He studied cases in which the trajectory at some point crosses at a right angle the line going through the center of the Earth and the center of the Moon, and also cases in which the trajectory crosses at a right angle the plane containing that line and perpendicular to the plane of the Moon's orbit. In both scenarios we can distinguish between: A circumlunar free-return trajectory around the Moon. The spacecraft passes behind the Moon. It moves there in a direction opposite to that of the Moon, or at least slower than the Moon in the same direction. If the craft's orbit begins in a normal (west to east) direction near Earth, then it makes a figure 8 around the Earth and Moon when plotted in a coordinate system that rotates as the Moon goes around the Earth. A cislunar free-return trajectory. The spacecraft goes beyond the orbit of the Moon, returns to inside the Moon's orbit, moves in front of the Moon while being diverted by the Moon's gravity to a path away from the Earth to beyond the orbit of the Moon again, and is drawn back to Earth by Earth's gravity. (There is no real distinction between these trajectories and similar ones that never go beyond the Moon's orbit, but the latter may not get very close to the Moon, so are not considered as relevant.) In both the circumlunar case and the cislunar case, the craft can be moving generally from west to east around the Earth (co-rotational), or from east to west (counter-rotational). For trajectories in the plane of the Moon's orbit with small periselenum radius (close approach of the Moon), the flight time for a cislunar free-return trajectory is longer than for the circumlunar free-return trajectory with the same periselenum radius. Flight time for a cislunar free-return trajectory decreases with increasing periselenum radius, while flight time for a circumlunar free-return trajectory increases with periselenum radius. The speed at a perigee of 6555 km from the centre of the Earth for trajectories passing between 2000 and 20 000 km from the Moon is between 10.84 and 10.92 km/s regardless of whether the trajectory is cislunar or circumlunar or whether it is co-rotational or counter-rotational. Using the simplified model where the orbit of the Moon around the Earth is circular, Schwaniger found that there exists a free-return trajectory in the plane of the orbit of the Moon which is periodic. After returning to low altitude above the Earth (the perigee radius is a parameter, typically 6555 km) the spacecraft would start over on the same trajectory. This periodic trajectory is counter-rotational (it goes from east to west when near the Earth). It has a period of about 650 hours (compare with a sidereal month, which is 655.7 hours, or 27.3 days). Considering the trajectory in an inertial (non-rotating) frame of reference, the perigee occurs directly under the Moon when the Moon is on one side of the Earth. Speed at perigee is about 10.91 km/s. After 3 days it reaches the Moon's orbit, but now more or less on the opposite side of the Earth from the Moon. After a few more days, the craft reaches its (first) apogee and begins to fall back toward the Earth, but as it approaches the Moon's orbit, the Moon arrives, and there is a gravitational interaction. The craft passes on the near side of the Moon at a radius of 2150 km (410 km above the surface) and is thrown back outwards, where it reaches a second apogee. It then falls back toward the Earth, goes around to the other side, and goes through another perigee close to where the first perigee had taken place. By this time the Moon has moved almost half an orbit and is again directly over the craft at perigee. Other cislunar trajectories are similar but do not end up in the same situation as at the beginning, so cannot repeat. There will of course be similar trajectories with periods of about two sidereal months, three sidereal months, and so on. In each case, the two apogees will be further and further away from Earth. These were not considered by Schwaniger. This kind of trajectory can occur of course for similar three-body problems; this problem is an example of a circular restricted three-body problem. While in a true free-return trajectory no propulsion is applied, in practice there may be small mid-course corrections or other maneuvers. A free-return trajectory may be the initial trajectory to allow a safe return in the event of a systems failure; this was applied in the Apollo 8, Apollo 10, and Apollo 11 lunar missions. In such a case a free return to a suitable reentry situation is more useful than returning to near the Earth, but then needing propulsion anyway to prevent moving away from it again. Since all went well, these Apollo missions did not have to take advantage of the free return and inserted into orbit upon arrival at the Moon. The atmospheric entry interface velocity upon return from the Moon is approximately whereas the more common spacecraft return velocity from low Earth orbit (LEO) is approximately . Due to the lunar landing site restrictions that resulted from constraining the launch to a free return that flew by the Moon, subsequent Apollo missions, starting with Apollo 12 and including the ill-fated Apollo 13, used a hybrid trajectory that launched to a highly elliptical Earth orbit that fell short of the Moon with effectively a free return to the atmospheric entry corridor. They then performed a mid-course maneuver to change to a trans-Lunar trajectory that was not a free return. This retained the safety characteristics of being on a free return upon launch and only departed from free return once the systems were checked out and the lunar module was docked with the command module, providing back-up maneuver capabilities. In fact, within hours after the accident, Apollo 13 used the lunar module to maneuver from its planned trajectory to a circumlunar free-return trajectory. Apollo 13 was the only Apollo mission to actually turn around the Moon in a free-return trajectory (however, two hours after perilune, propulsion was applied to speed the return to Earth by 10 hours and move the landing spot from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean). Earth–Mars A free-return transfer orbit to Mars is also possible. As with the Moon, this option is mostly considered for crewed missions. Robert Zubrin, in his book The Case for Mars, discusses various trajectories to Mars for his mission design Mars Direct. The Hohmann transfer orbit can be made free-return. It takes 250 days (0.68 years) in the transit to Mars, and in the case of a free-return style abort without the use of propulsion at Mars, 1.5 years to get back to Earth, at a total delta-v requirement of 3.34 km/s. Zubrin advocates a slightly faster transfer, that takes only 180 days to Mars, but 2 years back to Earth in case of an abort. This route comes also at the cost of a higher delta-v of 5.08 km/s. Zubrin writes that faster routes have a significantly higher delta-v cost and free-return duration (e.g. transfer to Mars in 130 days takes 7.93 km/s delta-v and 4 years on the free return), and so he advocates for the 180-day transfer. A free return is also the part of various other mission designs, such as Mars Semi-Direct and Inspiration Mars. There also exists the option of two- or three-year free-returns that do not rely on the gravity of Mars, but are simply transfer orbits with periods of 2 or 1.5 years, respectively. A two-year free return means from Earth to Mars (aborted there) and then back to Earth all in 2 years. The entry corridor (range of permissible path angles) for landing on Mars is limited, and experience has shown that the path angle is hard to fix (e.g. +/- 0.5 deg). This limits entry into the atmosphere to less than 9 km/s. On this assumption, a two-year return is not possible for some years, and for some years a delta-v kick of 0.6 to 2.7 km/s at Mars may be needed to get back to Earth. NASA published the Design Reference Architecture 5.0 for Mars in 2009, advocating a 174-day transfer to Mars, which is close to Zubrin's proposed trajectory. It cites a delta-v requirement of approximately 4 km/s for the trans-Mars injection, but does not mention the duration of a free return to Earth. See also Gravity turn in orbital redirection Patched conic approximation Distant retrograde orbit References External links Gravitational n-body simulation of a lunar free-return trajectory Three-body orbits Earth orbits Apollo program Apollo 13 Human missions to Mars

4436865

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter%20Indiges

Jupiter Indiges

According to the Roman historian Livy, Jupiter Indiges is the name given to the deified hero Aeneas. In some versions of his story, he is raised up to become a god after his death by Numicus, a local deity of the river of the same name, at the request of Aeneas' mother Venus. The title Pater Indiges or simply Indiges is also used. The Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus notes that when the body of Aeneas was not found after a battle between his group of Trojan exiles in Italy and the native Rutulians, it was assumed that he had been taken up by the gods to become a deity. He also presents the alternative explanation that Aeneas may have simply drowned in the river Numicus and that a shrine in his memory was built there. The term "Indiges", thought by some to be from the same root as "indigenous", may reflect the fact that these minor deities (collectively, the Di indigetes) originated locally in Italy. An alternate explanation is that they were individuals who were raised to the status of gods after mortal life. Compare for example Sol Indiges. References Roman gods Jupiter (mythology)

4447377

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian%20Milton

Brian Milton

Brian Milton is a British journalist, adventurer and aviation historian who made the first circumnavigation of the world in an ultralight aircraft in 1998. In the face of significant political, geographical, personal and physical hardships, he completed the 24,000 mile flight in 80 flying days, taking 120 days in total. Milton's first major expedition took place in 1968 when he drove a 1937 Austin 7 Ruby across the Sahara Desert to meet his fiancée. Milton has won multiple awards as an ultralight (microlight) and hang glider pilot. His interest in microlights grew from a love of hang gliding. He was the Founder of the British National League in 1976, designing a competition format and gathering together the top 54 hang glider pilots in the UK. In October 1978 at Chattanooga, Tennessee, Milton captained the British hang gliding team to victory in the America Cup. The following month he planned another feat: to fly across the English Channel to Paris in one of the first motorized gliders. On 13 November 1978, he was practicing in the prototype over Wiltshire, England. At a height of 250 feet, the wings of the glider collapsed and Milton, unable to open his parachute in time, plummeted to the ground. Miraculously, he survived with severe bruising and some broken bones. The story of Milton's brush with death was covered on the BBC Nine O'Clock News that evening, where newscaster Angela Ripon described Milton as "the luckiest man alive." His flight in the Dalgety Flyer (a Shadow 3-axis microlight) in 1987 from London to Sydney in 59 days was, at the time, the longest, fastest microlight flight in history but he is better known for his adventure in 1998 when he made the first circumnavigation of the world in the Global Flyer - a Pegasus Quantum (912) weightshift flexwing ultralight (microlight) trike - travelling 24,000 miles in 120 days, at the time the Guinness World Record for the fastest ultralight or microlight circumnavigation. Chris Bonington devoted a chapter to this feat in his book Quest for Adventure: Remarkable Feats of Exploration and Adventure 1950-2000. Bonnington described Milton's flight around the world as "an amazing achievement, of dogged bloody-minded tenacity and the taking of some huge risks.." In 2001 Milton attempted to cross the Atlantic non-stop in a Mainair Blade (912) weight shift microlight fitted with a massive 438 litre fuel tank - an adventure that didn't quite go as planned. On 23 May 2009 issue of the UK newspaper The Daily Telegraph, Milton was named as one of the "Top 20 great British adventurers" still living. Awards and achievements Prince of Wales Trophy – Royal Aero Club (RAeC) – from Prince Charles in 1979 for leading the British hang gliding team to victory in the First American Cup Meet in the USA. British Hang Gliding Association (BHGA) National Trophy – Royal Aero Club (RAeC) – from Queen Elizabeth II in 1985, for his outstanding services to British hang gliding in its first 10 years. The BHGA is now known as the British Hang Gliding and Paragliding Association. 1987 - At the time the longest ultralight (microlight) flight in history, from London to Sydney - 59 days - in the Dalgety Flyer (a Shadow 3-axis microlight). Guinness World Record in 1998 for first and fastest ultralight circumnavigation of the world in the Global Flyer - a Pegasus Quantum (912) weightshift microlight - travelling 24,000 miles in 120 days. Diamond Colibri Award in 1998 for first ultralight flight around the world. Milton was one of the first 3 Britons to win this award. United States Ultralight Association Ultralight Flying! Magazine Flight of the Year Award in 1998 in recognition of Milton's extraordinary accomplishment to circumnavigate the globe in a Pegasus 912 trike. Air League Salute Certificate – from Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh in 1999 for Milton's record breaking microlight flight around the world. Segrave Trophy – Royal Automobile Club – from Prince Michael of Kent in 1999 for the first microlight flight around the world in 1998. Britannia Trophy – Royal Aero Club (RAeC) – presented by Prince Andrew, Duke of York in 1999 for the first microlight flight around the world. FLYER Magazine gave Milton the ‘Flight of the Year’ award in 2000. Norton-Griffiths Trophy – Royal Aero Club (RAeC) – from Prince Michael of Kent in 2009 for Milton's co-pilot role to blind adventurer Miles Hilton-Barber flying a microlight from England to Australia. The trophy was jointly awarded to Miles Hilton-Barber and his co-pilots, Richard Meredith-Hardy and Brian Milton. Career in Journalism 1964-65: Copy Boy, then Editorial Assistant and Strip Cartoon Editor, San Francisco Examiner, San Francisco, California. 1968-89: Freelance Reporter, Irish Independent, Dublin, Ireland, writing articles about his journey from London across the Sahara to the north-eastern Congo in a 1937 Austin 7 Ruby. He later become not only the Irish Independent’s South Africa Correspondent but also staff Science Feature Writer for the Rand Daily Mail in Johannesburg. Milton's articles criticizing Apartheid in the Irish Independent led to his expulsion from South Africa in 1969. 1970-71: Assistant Press Officer, Liberal Party (UK). 1972-82: Reporter, BBC Radio London, then Editor of Rush Hour, Radio London's current affairs breakfast show. Milton also contributed stories to the BBC World Service and BBC national radio, including producing and presenting two series for BBC Radio 3. 1982-87: Producer, then Industrial Reporter and later Financial Correspondent, TV-am, a national breakfast TV channel in Britain. As Financial Correspondent, Milton presented and produced four live daily slots on world money markets. Milton left TV-am to carry out an arduous, record-breaking microlight flight from London to Australia as part of the country's bicentennial celebrations. 1989-91: Founder, Producer and Co-presenter of European Business Today, a half-hour daily financial television show about European markets broadcast by NHK (Japan), British Sky Broadcasting (Europe) and Financial News Network (USA). Based in London, Milton created a format consisting of market updates interspersed with in-depth reports and analysis by experts on the most important business stories of the day. This format became the standard for financial programming. 1992-95: Managing Director, Euromoney TV, selling modular financial program internationally. 1995: Editor, Business Sunday on Sky Broadcasting (now Sky UK), a half-hour live weekly television show devoted to business. 1996-97: Journalist, Financial News, London. Milton left to organize and carry out the first microlight flight around the world. 1998 to the present: Nonfiction author and ghostwriter, mainly specializing in aviation history and accounts of adventures. Works Dalgety Flyer (1990) – Bloomsbury – . Account of a microlight flight to Australia in 1987/8, despite being wrecked in Greece, and falling into the Persian Gulf on Christmas Day 1987 during the Iran/Iraq War. Global Flyer (1998) – Mainstream – . Milton's 1998 first round the world flight by microlight. Led to A Microlight Odyssey on National Geographic TV. Chasing Ghosts (2002) – NEP Travel – . Milton's story of the failed attempt at the Atlantic by microlight in 2001. Featured as Escape by Microlight on National Geographic TV. Alexa: The Life and Death of an Austin 7 Ruby (2009) – Burning Daylight Publications – . About a drive in a 1937 Austin 7 from London across the Sahara Desert and the Congo in 1968-69 to marry a girl at the other end of Africa. The Last Jobber: A Biography of Brian Winterflood (2009) - Burning Daylight Publications – . Lancaster: The Biography (2009) – Andre Deutsche – . History of the famous Lancaster bomber co-written with Dambuster Squadron pilot Tony Iveson DFC. Hurricane: The Last Witnesses (2010) – Andre Deutsche – . Story of the Hawker Hurricane in WWII. The Lancaster and the Tirpitz (2014) – Andre Deutsche – . History of the legendary WWII Lancaster bomber and how it sank Germany's biggest battleship. Co-written with Dambuster Squadron pilot Tony Iveson DFC. References External links Official website Travel Channel Milton,Brian Britannia Trophy winners English aviators British aviation record holders Circumnavigators of the globe British male journalists British non-fiction writers 1942 births Living people

4453559

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploration%20of%20the%20Moon

Exploration of the Moon

The physical exploration of the Moon began when Luna 2, a space probe launched by the Soviet Union, made an impact on the surface of the Moon on September 14, 1959. Prior to that the only available means of exploration had been observation from Earth. The invention of the optical telescope brought about the first leap in the quality of lunar observations. Galileo Galilei is generally credited as the first person to use a telescope for astronomical purposes; having made his own telescope in 1609, the mountains and craters on the lunar surface were among his first observations using it. NASA's Apollo program was the only program to successfully land humans on the Moon, which it did six times. The first landing took place in 1969, when Apollo 11 astronauts Buzz Aldrin and Neil Armstrong left scientific instruments and returned lunar samples to Earth. The first soft landing on the far side of the Moon was made by the Chinese robotic spacecraft Chang'e 4 in early 2019, which successfully deployed the Yutu-2 robotic lunar rover. The first soft landing on the South Pole of the Moon was made by the Indian lander Vikram of Chandrayaan-3 in 2023, which successfully deployed the Pragyan rover. Before spaceflight The ancient Greek philosopher Anaxagoras, whose non-religious view of the heavens was one cause for his imprisonment and eventual exile, reasoned that the Sun and Moon were both giant spherical rocks, and that the latter reflected the light of the former. Plutarch, in his book On the Face in the Moon's Orb, suggested that the Moon had deep recesses in which the light of the Sun did not reach and that the spots are nothing but the shadows of rivers or deep chasms. He also entertained the possibility that the Moon was inhabited. Aristarchus attempted to compute the Moon's size and distance from Earth, although his estimated distance of 20 times Earth's radius (which had been accurately determined by his contemporary Eratosthenes) proved to be about a third the actual average distance. Chinese philosophers of the Han Dynasty believed the Moon to be energy equated to qi but recognized that the light of the Moon was a reflection of the Sun. Mathematician and astrologer Jing Fang noted the sphericity of the Moon. Shen Kuo of the Song Dynasty created an allegory equating the waxing and waning of the Moon to a round ball of reflective silver that, when doused with white powder and viewed from the side, would appear to be a crescent. Indian astronomer Aryabhata stated in his fifth-century text Aryabhatiya that reflected sunlight is what causes the Moon to shine. Persian astronomer Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi conducted various observations at the Al-Shammisiyyah observatory in Baghdad between 825 and 835. Using these observations, he estimated the Moon's diameter as 3,037 km (equivalent to 1,519 km radius) and its distance from the Earth as . In the 11th century, the Islamic physicist Alhazen investigated moonlight through a number of experiments and observations, concluding it was a combination of the moon's own light and the moon's ability to absorb and emit sunlight. By the Middle Ages, before the invention of the telescope, an increasing number of people began to recognise the Moon as a sphere, though many believed that it was "perfectly smooth". In 1609, Galileo Galilei drew one of the first telescopic drawings of the Moon in his book and noted that it was not smooth but had mountains and craters. Later in the 17th century, Giovanni Battista Riccioli and Francesco Maria Grimaldi drew a map of the Moon and gave many craters the names they still have today. On maps, the dark parts of the Moon's surface were called maria (singular mare) or seas, and the light parts were called terrae or continents. Thomas Harriot, as well as Galilei, drew the first telescopic representation of the Moon and observed it for several years. His drawings, however, remained unpublished. The first map of the Moon was made by the Belgian cosmographer and astronomer Michael van Langren in 1645. Two years later a much more influential effort was published by Johannes Hevelius. In 1647, Hevelius published Selenographia, the first treatise entirely devoted to the Moon. Hevelius's nomenclature, although used in Protestant countries until the eighteenth century, was replaced by the system published in 1651 by the Jesuit astronomer Giovanni Battista Riccioli, who gave the large naked-eye spots the names of seas and the telescopic spots (now called craters) the name of philosophers and astronomers. In 1753, the Croatian Jesuit and astronomer Roger Joseph Boscovich discovered the absence of atmosphere on the Moon. In 1824, Franz von Paula Gruithuisen explained the formation of craters as a result of meteorite strikes. The possibility that the Moon contains vegetation and is inhabited by selenites was seriously considered by major astronomers even into the first decades of the 19th century. In 1834–1836, Wilhelm Beer and Johann Heinrich Mädler published their four-volume and the book in 1837, which firmly established the conclusion that the Moon has no bodies of water nor any appreciable atmosphere. Space Race The Cold War-inspired "space race" and "Moon race" between the Soviet Union and the United States of America accelerated with a focus on the Moon. This included many scientifically important firsts, such as the first photographs of the then-unseen far side of the Moon in 1959 by the Soviet Union, and culminated with the landing of the first humans on the Moon in 1969, widely seen around the world as one of the pivotal events of the 20th century and of human history in general. The first artificial object to fly by the Moon was uncrewed Soviet probe Luna 1 on January 4, 1959, and went on to be the first probe to reach a heliocentric orbit around the Sun. Few knew that Luna 1 was designed to impact the surface of the Moon. The first probe to impact the surface of the Moon was the Soviet probe Luna 2, which made a hard landing on September 14, 1959, at 21:02:24 UTC. The far side of the Moon was first photographed on October 7, 1959, by the Soviet probe Luna 3. Though vague by today's standards, the photos showed that the far side of the Moon almost completely lacked maria. The first American probe to fly by the Moon was Pioneer 4 on March 4, 1959, which occurred shortly after Luna 1. It was the only success of eight American probes that first attempted to launch for the Moon. In an effort to compete with these Soviet successes, U.S. President John F. Kennedy proposed the Moon landing in a Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs: Now it is time to take longer strides – time for a great new American enterprise – time for this nation to take a clearly leading role in space achievement, which in many ways may hold the key to our future on Earth. ...For while we cannot guarantee that we shall one day be first, we can guarantee that any failure to make this effort will make us last. ...I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important in the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish. ...let it be clear that I am asking the Congress and the country to accept a firm commitment to a new course of action—a course which will last for many years and carry very heavy costs... Ranger 1 launched in August 1961, just three months after President Kennedy's speech. It would be three more years and six failed Ranger missions until Ranger 7 returned close up photos of the Lunar surface before impacting it in July 1964. A number of problems with launch vehicles, ground equipment, and spacecraft electronics plagued the Ranger program and early probe missions in general. These lessons helped in Mariner 2, the only successful U.S. space probe after Kennedy's famous speech to congress and before his death in November 1963. U.S. success rates improved greatly from Ranger 7 onward. In 1966, the USSR accomplished the first soft landings and took the first pictures from the lunar surface during the Luna 9 and Luna 13 missions. The U.S. followed Ranger with the Surveyor program sending seven robotic spacecraft to the surface of the Moon. Five of the seven spacecraft successfully soft-landed, investigating if the regolith (dust) was shallow enough for astronauts to stand on the Moon. On December 24, 1968, the crew of Apollo 8—Frank Borman, James Lovell and William Anders—became the first human beings to enter lunar orbit and see the far side of the Moon in person. Humans first landed on the Moon on July 20, 1969. The first human to walk on the lunar surface was Neil Armstrong, commander of the U.S. mission Apollo 11. The first robot lunar rover to land on the Moon was the Soviet vessel Lunokhod 1 on November 17, 1970, as part of the Lunokhod programme. To date, the last human to stand on the Moon was Eugene Cernan, who as part of the Apollo 17 mission, walked on the Moon in December 1972. Moon rock samples were brought back to Earth by three Luna missions (Luna 16, 20, and 24) and the Apollo missions 11 through 17 (except Apollo 13, which aborted its planned lunar landing). Luna 24 in 1976 was the last Lunar mission by either the Soviet Union or the U.S. until Clementine in 1994. Focus shifted to probes to other planets, space stations, and the Shuttle program. Before the Moon race, the U.S. had pre-projects for scientific and military moonbases: the Lunex Project and Project Horizon. Besides crewed landings, the abandoned Soviet crewed lunar programs included the building of a multipurpose moonbase "Zvezda", the first detailed project, complete with developed mockups of expedition vehicles and surface modules. After 1990 Japan In 1990, Japan visited the Moon with the Hiten spacecraft, becoming the third country to place an object in orbit around the Moon. The spacecraft released the Hagoromo probe into lunar orbit, but the transmitter failed, thereby preventing further scientific use of the spacecraft. In September 2007, Japan launched the SELENE spacecraft, with the objectives "to obtain scientific data of the lunar origin and evolution and to develop the technology for the future lunar exploration", according to the JAXA official website. European Space Agency The European Space Agency launched a small, low-cost lunar orbital probe called SMART 1 on September 27, 2003. SMART 1's primary goal was to take three-dimensional X-ray and infrared imagery of the lunar surface. SMART 1 entered lunar orbit on November 15, 2004, and continued to make observations until September 3, 2006, when it was intentionally crashed into the lunar surface in order to study the impact plume. China China has begun the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program for exploring the Moon and is investigating the prospect of lunar mining, specifically looking for the isotope helium-3 for use as an energy source on Earth. China launched the Chang'e 1 robotic lunar orbiter on October 24, 2007. Originally planned for a one-year mission, the Chang'e 1 mission was very successful and ended up being extended for another four months. On March 1, 2009, Chang'e 1 was intentionally impacted on the lunar surface completing the 16-month mission. On October 1, 2010, China launched the Chang'e 2 lunar orbiter. China landed the rover Yutu and the Chang'e 3 lander on the Moon on December 14, 2013, became the third country to have done so. Chang'e 3 is the first spacecraft to soft-land on lunar surface since Luna 24 in 1976. Since the Chang'e 3 mission was a success, the backup lander Chang'e 4 was re-purposed for the new mission goals. China launched on 7 December 2018 the Chang'e 4 mission to the lunar farside. On January 3, 2019, Chang'e 4 landed on the far side of the Moon. Chang'e 4 deployed the Yutu-2 Moon rover, which subsequently became the current record distance-holder for lunar surface travel. Among other discoveries, Yutu-2 found that the dust at some locations of the far side of the Moon is up to 12 meters deep. China planned to conduct a sample return mission with its Chang'e 5 spacecraft in 2017, but that mission was postponed due to the failure of the Long March 5 launch vehicle. However, after a successful return of flight by the Long March 5 rocket in late December 2019, China targeted its Chang'e 5 sample return mission for late 2020. China completed this mission on December 16, 2020, with the return of approximately 2 kilograms of lunar sample. India India's national space agency, the Indian Space Research Organisation, launched Chandrayaan-1, an uncrewed lunar orbiter, on October 22, 2008. The lunar probe was originally intended to orbit the Moon for two years, with scientific objectives to prepare a three-dimensional atlas of the near and far side of the Moon and to conduct a chemical and mineralogical mapping of the lunar surface. The orbiter released the Moon Impact Probe which impacted the Moon at 15:04 GMT on November 14, 2008, making India the fourth country to reach the lunar surface. Among Chandrayaan's many achievements was the discovery of the widespread presence of water molecules in the lunar soil. This mission was followed up by Chandrayaan-2, which launched on July 22, 2019, and entered lunar orbit on August 20, 2019. Chandrayaan-2 also carried India's first lander and rover, but due to a last minute technical glitch in the landing system, these crash landed. Chandrayaan-2 was followed by Chandrayaan-3 the third lunar exploration mission by the Indian Space Research Organisation. It also carried the lander named Vikram and the rover named Pragyan, and completed the first soft landing on the south polar region of the moon. United States The Ballistic Missile Defense Organization and NASA launched the Clementine mission in 1994, and Lunar Prospector in 1998. NASA launched the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, on June 18, 2009, which has collected imagery of the Moon's surface. It also carried the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS), which investigated the possible existence of water in Cabeus crater. GRAIL is another mission, launched in 2011. Russia On 10 August 2023, Russia launched the Luna 25 mission, its first mission to the Moon since 1976. On August 20 it crashed into the moon after a guidance error that resulted in an anomalous orbit lowering maneuver. Commercial missions In 2007, the X Prize Foundation together with Google launched the Google Lunar X Prize to encourage commercial endeavors to the Moon. A prize of $20 million was to be awarded to the first private venture to get to the Moon with a robotic lander by the end of March 2018, with additional prizes worth $10 million for further milestones. As of August 2016, 16 teams were reportedly participating in the competition. In January 2018 the foundation announced that the prize would go unclaimed as none of the finalist teams would be able to make a launch attempt by the deadline. In August 2016, the US government granted permission to US-based start-up Moon Express to land on the Moon. This marked the first time that a private enterprise was given the right to do so. The decision is regarded as a precedent helping to define regulatory standards for deep-space commercial activity in the future. Previously, private companies were restricted to operating on or around Earth. On 29 November 2018, NASA announced that nine commercial companies would compete to win a contract to send small payloads to the Moon in what is known as Commercial Lunar Payload Services. According to NASA administrator Jim Bridenstine, "We are building a domestic American capability to get back and forth to the surface of the moon.". The first commercial mission to the Moon was accomplished by the Manfred Memorial Moon Mission (4M), led by LuxSpace, an affiliate of German OHB AG. The mission was launched on 23 October 2014 with the Chinese Chang'e 5-T1 test spacecraft, attached to the upper stage of a Long March 3C/G2 rocket. The 4M spacecraft made a Moon flyby on a night of October 28, 2014, after which it entered elliptical Earth orbit, exceeding its designed lifetime by four times. The Beresheet lander operated by Israel Aerospace Industries and SpaceIL impacted the Moon on April 11, 2019, after a failed landing attempt. Plans Following the abandoned US Constellation program, plans for crewed flights followed by moonbases were declared by Russia, ESA, China, Japan and India. All of them intend to continue the exploration of Moon with more uncrewed spacecraft. India is planning and it is studying a potential collaboration with Japan to launch the Lunar Polar Exploration Mission in 2026–28. Russia also announced plans to resume its previously frozen project Luna-Glob, an uncrewed lander and orbiter, which was slated to launch in 2021 but did not manifest. In 2015, Roscosmos stated that Russia plans to place an astronaut on the Moon by 2030, leaving Mars to NASA. The purpose is to work jointly with NASA and avoid a space race. A Russian Lunar Orbital Station has been proposed to orbit around the Moon after 2030. In 2018, NASA released plans to return to the Moon with commercial and international partners as part of an overall agency Exploration Campaign in support of Space Policy Directive 1, giving rise to the Artemis program and the Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS). NASA plans to start with robotic missions on the lunar surface, as well as the crewed Lunar Gateway. As of 2019, NASA is issuing contracts to develop new small lunar payload delivery services, develop lunar landers, and conduct more research on the Moon's surface ahead of a human return. Artemis program involves several flights of the Orion spacecraft and lunar landings from 2022 to 2028. On November 3, 2021, NASA announced it had picked a landing site in the lunar south polar region near the crater Shackleton for an uncrewed spacecraft that included NASA's Polar Resources Ice-Mining Experiment-1. The precise location was termed the Shackleton Connecting Ridge, which features the advantage of near-continuous solar exposure and line-of-sight with Earth for communication. ESA's Moonlight initiative aims to create a small network of communication and navigation satellites orbiting the Moon to support the Artemis landings. These would enable communication with Earth even when out of direct line-of-sight. They would also provide navigation signals similar to the Global Positioning System on Earth, requiring precision timekeeping. Moonlight planners have proposed creating a new time zone for the Moon for this purpose. Due to the lower gravity and relative motion, time passes more quickly on the Moon, making every 24-hour period elapse 56 microseconds early when measured from Earth. See also Artemis program Colonization of the Moon Tourism on the Moon Lunar outpost (NASA) International Lunar Exploration Working Group List of artificial objects on the Moon List of Apollo astronauts List of lunar probes Lunar resources Moon landing Timeline of Solar System exploration References External links An interactive web documentary about the Moon – ESA Lunar mission timeline – NASA Exploration of Moon Spaceflight Lunar science

4454365

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oshadhiparvata

Oshadhiparvata

Oshadhiparvata () is a mythological mountain featured in the Ramayana. It is described to possess a number of medicinal plants growing upon its summit. In the Ramayana, the bear-king Jambavan requests the vanara Hanuman to travel to Oshadhiparvata and carry the medicinal herbs that grow on its southern summit to the battlefield in Lanka for healing the army of Rama. Literature In the Ramayana, observing the serious injuries afflicting the army of Rama, Jambavan urged Hanuman to fly to the Himalayas, and locate the Oshadhiparvata, the peak present between the mountains of Kailasha and Meru. He informed the vanara that he would be able to identify the mountain by the luminescence of the healing herbs growing upon them in the dark. He instructed him to collect four herbs, known as the mritasanjivini, vishalyakarani, savarnyakarani, and the santanakarani. These four herbs are stated to heal all wounds, no matter how grievous. Hanuman flew towards the mountain, but realised that the glimmering plants appeared to vanish when he ventured close to them. Growing to massive proportions, Hanuman uprooted the mountain and carried it upon his palm to Lanka. The herbs were used to heal and restore the lives of the fallen warriors on the side of Rama. After his forces were healed, the deity asked Hanuman to restore the mountain to its original location, which he swiftly performed. References Sources Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend () by Anna Dallapiccola Places in the Ramayana Mythological mountains

4457419

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Nicolaus%20Copernicus%20University%20Press

The Nicolaus Copernicus University Press

The Nicolaus Copernicus University Press (Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika, Wydawnictwo Naukowe UMK, Wydawnictwo UMK) is a book publisher founded in 1967. NCU Press is an official department of Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń (Poland). The Nicolaus Copernicus University Press was set up in 1967. It publishes scientific journals, monographs and textbooks and books written by the university scientists. See also Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń External links Official site of the publisher in English Official site of the University Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń 1967 establishments in Poland Publishing companies established in 1967 University presses of Poland Mass media in Toruń Nicolaus Copernicus University Press, The Press

4457595

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus%20Copernicus%20University%20Library

Nicolaus Copernicus University Library

The Nicolaus Copernicus University Library was established on August 24, 1945, alongside the Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland. The Library is the coordinator of Kujawsko-Pomorska Digital Library. Ranking of the State Committee for Scientific Research (KBN) Based on the results of the evaluation of scientific achievements, the State Committee for Scientific Research granted the NCU Library category 3, which places it in the company of other university libraries in Kraków, Poznań and Warsaw. Awards and recognitions In 2002, the NCU Library was honoured with the medal of "Bibliotheca Magna Perennisque" for its "contribution to Polish librarianship." In December 2002, the NCU Library webpage won third place in a competition for the best Polish library websites, in a research libraries category, organised under the auspices of the Polish Librarians Association. See also Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń The Nicolaus Copernicus University Press Open access in Poland External links Official website of the Library, available in English Official website of the University Buildings and structures in Toruń Academic libraries in Poland Library Libraries established in 1945

4462117

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partnership%20for%20a%20New%20Generation%20of%20Vehicles

Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles

The Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles was a co-operative research program between the US government and the three major domestic auto corporations that was aimed at bringing extremely fuel-efficient (up to vehicles to market by 2003. The partnership, formed in 1993, involved eight federal agencies, the national laboratories, universities, and the United States Council for Automotive Research (USCAR), which comprises DaimlerChrysler, Ford Motor Company, and General Motors Corporation. "Supercar" was the unofficial description for the research-and-development program. On track to achieving its objectives, the program was canceled by the George W. Bush administration in 2001 at the request of the automakers, with some of its aspects shifted to the much more distant FreedomCAR program. Objectives The main purposes of the program were to develop technologies to reduce the impact of cars and light trucks on the environment and to decrease the US dependency on imported petroleum. The program was to make working vehicles achievimg up to triple the contemporaryng fuel efficiency as and further minimizing emissions but without sacrificing affordability, performance, or safety. The common term for the vehicles was "supercar" because of the technological advances. The goal of achieving the target with a family-sized sedan included using new fuel sources, powerplants, aerodynamics, and lightweight materials. The program was established in 1993 to support the domestic US automakers (GM, Ford, and Chrysler) develop prototypes of a safe, clean, and affordable car the size of the Ford Taurus but tripling its fuel efficiency. Results The program "overcame many challenges and has forged a useful and productive partnership of industry and government participants" by "resulting in three concept cars that demonstrate the feasibility of a variety of new automotive technologies" with diesel-electric transmission. The three domestic automakers (GM, Ford, and Chrysler) developed fully-operational concept cars. They were full-sized five-passenger family cars and achieved at least . General Motors developed the 80 mpg Precept, Ford designed the 72 mpg Prodigy, and Chrysler built the 72 mpg ESX-3. They featured aerodynamic lightweight aluminum or thermoplastic construction and were hybrid-powered by using 3- or 4-cylinder diesel engines and NiMH/lithium batteries. Researchers for the PNGV identified a number of ways to reach 80 mpg, including reducing vehicle weight, increasing engine efficiency, combining gasoline engines and electric motors in hybrid vehicles, implementing regenerative braking, and switching to high-efficiency fuel cell powerplants. Specific new technology breakthroughs achieved under the program included the following: Development of carbon foam with extremely high heat conductivity (2000 R&D 100 Award) Near frictionless carbon coating, many times slicker than Teflon (1998 R&D 100 Award) Oxygen-rich air supplier for clean diesel technology (1999 R&D 100 Award) Development of a compact microchannel fuel vaporizer to convert gasoline to hydrogen for fuel cells (1999 R&D 100 Award) Development of aftertreatment devices to remove nitrogen oxides from diesel exhaust with efficiencies greater than 90 percent when used with diesel fuel containing 3 ppm of sulfur Improvement of the overall efficiency and power-to-weight ratios of power electronics to within 25 percent of targets while reducing the cost by 86 percent to $10/kW since 1995 Reduction in cost of lightweight aluminum, magnesium, and glass-fiber-reinforced polymer components to less than 50% of the cost of steel Reduction in the cost of fuel cells from $10,000/kW in 1994 to $300/kW in 2000 Substantial weight reduction to within 5-10% of the vehicle weight reduction goal Criticisms Ralph Nader called the program "an effort to coordinate the transfer of property rights for federally funded research and development to the automotive industry." The program was also criticized by some groups for a focus on diesel solutions; the fuel is seen by some as having inherently high air pollutant emissions. Elizabeth Kolbert, a staff writer at The New Yorker, described that renewable energy is the main problem: "If someone, somewhere, comes up with a source of power that is safe, inexpensive, and for all intents and purposes inexhaustible, then we, the Chinese, the Indians, and everyone else on the planet can keep on truckin'. Barring that, the car of the future may turn out to be no car at all." Notes External links DOE vehicle technologies homepage USCAR Website Energy policy Air pollution

4462637

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azhar%20Mansor

Azhar Mansor

Dato' Azhar Mansor is the first Malaysian to sail solo around the world. He made his trip in 1999, sailing the ship Jalur Gemilang. His round the world trip, with stops, took 190 days, 6 hours 57 minutes and 2 seconds Successes Datuk Azhar has managed to set a new world record via an East about route, attempted by no-one and has been verified by the WSSRC (World Speed Sailing Record Council) as an official record. Azhar is currently based in Langkawi managing Telaga Harbour Park, one of Malaysia's finest marinas. Footnotes Living people People from Perlis Malaysian sailors Single-handed circumnavigating sailors Malaysian people of Malay descent Malaysian Muslims 1958 births

4462942

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worlds%20in%20Collision

Worlds in Collision

Worlds in Collision is a book by Immanuel Velikovsky published in 1950. The book postulates that around the 15th century BC, the planet Venus was ejected from Jupiter as a comet or comet-like object and passed near Earth (an actual collision is not mentioned). The object allegedly changed Earth's orbit and axis, causing innumerable catastrophes that are mentioned in early mythologies and religions from around the world. The book has been heavily criticized as a work of pseudoscience and catastrophism, and many of its claims are completely rejected by the established scientific community as they are not supported by any available evidence. Publication Worlds in Collision was first published on April 3, 1950, by Macmillan Publishers. Macmillan's interest in publishing it was encouraged by the knowledge that Velikovsky had obtained a promise from Gordon Atwater, Director of the Hayden Planetarium, for a sky show based on the book when it was published. The book, Velikovsky's most criticized and controversial, was an instant New York Times bestseller, topping the charts for eleven weeks while being in the top ten for 27 straight weeks. Despite this popularity, overwhelming rejection of its thesis by the scientific community forced Macmillan to stop publishing it and to transfer the book to Doubleday within two months. Core ideas In the book's preface, Velikovsky summarizes his arguments: Worlds in Collision is a book of wars in the celestial sphere that took place in historical times. In these wars the planet Earth participated too. [...] The historical-cosmological story of this book is based in the evidence of historical texts of many people around the globe, on classical literature, on epics of the northern races, on sacred books of the peoples of the Orient and Occident, on traditions and folklore of primitive peoples, on old astronomical inscriptions and charts, on archaeological finds, and also on geological and paleontological material. The book proposes that Venus formed inside of Jupiter, and that around the 15th century BCE, it was ejected from Jupiter as a comet or comet-like object and subsequently passed near Earth, though an actual collision with the Earth is not mentioned. In doing so it changed Earth's orbit and axial inclination, causing innumerable catastrophes which were identified in early mythologies and religious traditions from human civilizations around the world. Fifty-two years later, it again made a close approach, stopping the Earth's rotation for a while and causing more catastrophes. Then, in the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, Mars (itself displaced by Venus) made close approaches to the Earth; this incident caused a new round of disturbances and disasters. After that, the current "celestial order" was established. The courses of the planets stabilized over the centuries and Venus gradually became a "normal" planet. These events led to several key statements: Venus must be still very hot as young planets radiate heat. Venus must be rich in petroleum and hydrocarbon gases. Venus has an abnormal orbit in consequence of the unusual disasters stemming from its planetary origins. Velikovsky suggested some additional ideas that he said derived from these claims, including: Jupiter emits radio noises. The magnetosphere of the Earth reaches at least up to the Moon. The Sun has an electric potential of approximately 1019 volts. The rotation of the Earth can be affected by electromagnetic fields. Velikovsky arrived at these proposals using a methodology which would today be called comparative mythology – he looked for concordances in the myths and written histories of unconnected cultures across the world, following a literal reading of their accounts of the exploits of planetary deities. He argues on the basis of ancient cosmological myths from places as disparate as India and China, Greece and Rome, Assyria and Sumer. For example, ancient Greek mythology asserts that the goddess Athena sprang from the head of Zeus. Velikovsky identifies Zeus (whose Roman counterpart was the god Jupiter) with the planet Jupiter and Athena (the Roman Minerva) with the planet Venus. This myth, along with others from ancient Egypt, Israel, Mexico, etc. are used to support the claim that "Venus was expelled as a comet and then changed to a planet after contact with a number of members of our solar system" (Velikovsky 1972:182). Critical reaction Contemporary reactions The plausibility of the theory was summarily rejected by the physics community, as the cosmic chain of events proposed by Velikovsky contradicts basic laws of physics. Velikovsky's ideas had been known to astronomers for years before the publication of the book, partially by his writing to astronomer Harlow Shapley of Harvard, partially through his 1946 pamphlet Cosmos Without Gravitation, and partially by a preview of his work in an article in the August 11, 1946, edition of the New York Herald Tribune. An article about the upcoming book was published by Harper's Magazine in January 1950, which was followed by additional articles in Newsweek (Bauer 1984:3–4) and Reader's Digest in March 1950. Shapley, along with others such as astronomer Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin (also at Harvard), instigated a campaign against the book before its publication. Initially, they were highly critical of a publisher as reputable as Macmillan publishing such a pseudoscientific book, even as a trade book. Their disapproval was re-invigorated when Macmillan included Worlds in Collision among other trade books of possible interest to professors listed under the category "Science" in the back of a textbook catalog mailed to college professors. Within two months of the book's initial release, the publishing of the book was transferred to Doubleday, which has no textbook division. The fundamental criticism against the book from the astronomy community was that its celestial mechanics were irreconcilable with Newtonian mechanics, requiring planetary orbits which could not be made to conform to the laws of conservation of energy and conservation of angular momentum (Bauer 1984:70). Velikovsky conceded that the behavior of the planets in his theories is not consistent with Newton's laws of motion and universal gravitation. He proposed that electromagnetic forces could be the cause of the movements of the planets, although such forces between astronomical bodies are known to be essentially zero. Velikovsky tried to protect himself from criticism of his proposed celestial mechanics by removing the original Appendix on the subject from Worlds in Collision, hoping that the merit of his ideas would be evaluated on the basis of his comparative mythology and use of literary sources alone. This strategy did not protect him: the Appendix was an expanded version of the Cosmos Without Gravitation monograph, which he had already distributed to Shapley and others in the late 1940s — and they had regarded the physics within it as egregiously in error. Carl Sagan In his 1979 science book Broca's Brain: Reflections on the Romance of Science, astronomer Carl Sagan wrote that the high surface temperature of Venus was known of prior to the publication of Worlds in Collision, and that Velikovsky misunderstood the mechanism for this heat. Velikovsky believed that Venus was heated by its close encounter with the Earth and Mars. He also did not understand the greenhouse effect caused by Venus' atmosphere, which had earlier been elucidated by astronomer Rupert Wildt. Ultimately, Venus is hot due to its proximity to the Sun; it does not emit more heat than it receives from the Sun, and any heat produced by its celestial movements would have long since dissipated. Sagan concludes: "(1) the temperature in question was never specified [by Velikovsky]; (2) the mechanism proposed for providing this temperature is grossly inadequate; (3) the surface of the planet does not cool off with time as advertised; and (4) the idea of a high surface temperature on Venus was published in the dominant astronomical journal of its time and with an essentially correct argument ten years before the publication of Worlds in Collision" (p. 118). Sagan also noted that "Velikovsky's idea that the clouds of Venus are composed of hydrocarbons or carbohydrates is neither original nor correct." Sagan notes that the presence of hydrocarbon gases (such as petroleum gases) on Venus was earlier suggested, and abandoned, again by Rupert Wildt, whose work is not credited by Velikovsky. Also, the 1962 Mariner 2 probe was erroneously reported in the popular press to have discovered hydrocarbons on Venus. These errors were subsequently corrected, and Sagan later concluded that "[n]either Mariner 2 nor any subsequent investigation of the Venus atmosphere has found evidence for hydrocarbons or carbohydrates" (p. 113). Regarding Jupiter's radio emissions, Sagan noted that "all objects give off radio waves if they are at temperatures above absolute zero. The essential characteristics of the Jovian radio emission — that it is nonthermal, polarized, intermittent radiation, connected with the vast belts of charged particles which surround Jupiter, trapped by its strong magnetic field — are nowhere predicted by Velikovsky. Further, his 'prediction' is clearly not linked in its essentials to the fundamental Velikovskian theses. Merely guessing something right does not necessarily demonstrate prior knowledge or a correct theory." Sagan concluded that "there is not one case where [Velikovsky's] ideas are simultaneously original and consistent with simple physical theory and observation." He also noted that it was Athena and not Venus who was born from the head of Zeus – two utterly different goddesses. Athena was never identified with a planet. Later reactions Tim Callahan, religion editor of Skeptic, presses the case further in claiming that the composition of the atmosphere of Venus is a complete disproof of Worlds in Collision. "...Velikovsky's hypothesis stands or falls on Venus having a reducing atmosphere made up mainly of hydrocarbons. In fact, the atmosphere of Venus is made up mainly of carbon dioxide—carbon in its oxidized form—along with clouds of sulfuric acid. Therefore, it couldn't have carried such an atmosphere with it out of Jupiter and it couldn't be the source of hydrocarbons to react with oxygen in our atmosphere to produce carbohydrates. Velikovsky's hypothesis is falsified by the carbon dioxide atmosphere of Venus." Astronomer Philip Plait has pointed out that Velikovsky's hypothesis is also falsified by the presence of the Moon with its nearly circular orbit, for which the length of the month has not changed sensibly in the more than 2,000 years the Hebrew calendar has been in use. "If Venus were to get so close to the Earth that it could actually exchange atmospheric contents [i.e., closer than from the surface of the Earth]," as Velikovsky claimed, ". . . the Moon would have literally been flung into interplanetary space. At the very least its orbit would have been profoundly changed, made tremendously elliptical... Had Venus done any of the things Velikovsky claimed, the Moon's orbit would have changed." Controversy By 1974, the controversy surrounding Velikovsky's work had reached the point where the American Association for the Advancement of Science felt obliged to address the situation, as it had done in relation to UFOs, and devoted a scientific meeting to Velikovsky. The meeting featured, among others, Velikovsky himself and Carl Sagan. Sagan gave a critique of Velikovsky's ideas and attacked most of the assumptions made in Worlds in Collision. His criticism is published in Scientists Confront Velikovsky (Ithaca, New York, 1977), edited by Donald Goldsmith, and presented in a revised and corrected version in his book Broca's Brain: Reflections on the Romance of Science and is much longer than that given in the talk. Sagan further critiqued Velikovsky's ideas in his PBS television series Cosmos. In Cosmos, Sagan also criticizes the scientific community for their attitude toward Velikovsky, stating that while science is a process in which all ideas are subject to a process of extensive scrutiny before any idea can be accepted as fact, the attempt by some scientists to suppress outright Velikovsky's ideas was "the worst aspect of the Velikovsky affair." In November 1974, at the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association held at the University of Notre Dame, Michael W. Friedlander, professor of physics at Washington University in St. Louis, confronted Velikovsky in the symposium "Velikovsky and the Politics of Science" with examples of his "substandard scholarship" involving the "distortion of the published scientific literature in quotations that he used to support his theses". For example, contrary to Velikovsky, R.A. Lyttleton did not write "the terrestrial planets, Venus included, must [emphasis added] have originated from the giant planets…" Rather, Lyttleton wrote "…it is even possible…" As Friedlander recounts, "When I gave each example, [Velikovsky's] response was 'Where did I write that?'; when I showed a photo copy of the quoted pages, he simply switched to a different topic." A thorough examination of the original material cited in Velikovsky's publications, and a severe criticism of its use, was published by Bob Forrest. Earlier in 1974, James Fitton published a brief critique of Velikovsky's interpretation of myth, drawing on the section "The World Ages" and the later interpretation of the Trojan War, that was ignored by Velikovsky and his defenders whose indictment began: "In at least three important ways Velikovsky's use of mythology is unsound. The first of these is his proclivity to treat all myths as having independent value; the second is the tendency to treat only such material as is consistent with his thesis; and the third is his very unsystematic method." A short analysis of the position of arguments in the late 20th century was given by Velikovsky's ex-associate C. Leroy Ellenberger, a former senior editor of Kronos (a journal to promote Velikovsky's ideas) (Bauer 1995:11), in his essay. Almost ten years later, Ellenberger criticized some Velikovskian and neo-Velikovskian qua "Saturnist" ideas in an invited essay. The storm of controversy that was created by Velikovsky's works, especially Worlds in Collision, may have helped revive the Catastrophist movements in the last half of the 20th century; it is also held by some working in the field that progress has actually been retarded by the negative aspects of the so-called Velikovsky Affair. The assessment of Velikovsky's work by tree-ring expert Mike Baillie is instructive: "But fundamentally, Velikovsky did not understand anything about comets … As if to comfort his readers, at one point he says that no planet at present has a course which poses a danger to this planet: '…only a few asteroids—mere rocks, a few kilometres in diameter—have orbits which cross the path of the earth.' … He did not know about the hazard posed by relatively small objects, and, just in case there is any doubt about his mistake, he repeats the notion by noting that a possibility exists of some future collision between planets, 'not a mere encounter between a planet and an asteroid'. This failure to recognize the power of comets and asteroids means that it is reasonable to go back to Velikovsky and delete all the physically impossible text about Venus and Mars passing close to the earth." More recently, the absence of supporting material in ice core studies (such as the Greenland Dye-3 and Vostok cores), bristlecone pine tree ring data, Swedish clay varves, and many hundreds of cores taken from ocean and lake sediments from all over the world has ruled out any basis for the proposition of a global catastrophe of the proposed dimension within the Late Holocene age. Also, the fossils, geological deposits, and landforms in Earth in Upheaval, which Velikovsky regards as corroborating the hypothesis presented in Worlds in Collision have been, since their publication, explained in terms of mundane non-catastrophic geologic processes. So far, the only piece of the geologic evidence which has shown to have a catastrophic origin is a "raised beach" containing coral-bearing conglomerates found at an elevation of 1,200 feet above sea level within the Hawaiian Islands. The sediments, which were misidentified as a "raise beach", are now attributed to megatsunamis generated by massive landslides created by the periodic collapse of the sides of the islands. In addition, these conglomerates, as many of the items cited as evidence for his ideas in Earth in Upheaval, are far too old to be used as valid evidence supporting the hypothesis presented in Worlds in Collision. In popular culture The book is referenced in the 1978 version of Invasion of the Body Snatchers. See also Ages in Chaos Catastrophism Celestial mechanics Comparative mythology Plasma cosmology Ragnarok: The Age of Fire and Gravel Theia (planet) William Comyns Beaumont List of topics characterized as pseudoscience References Bauer, Henry H. (1995). Velikovsky's place in the history of science: A lesson on the strengths and limitations of science. Skeptic, 3 (4), 52–56. <http://www.henryhbauer.homestead.com/Skeptic1996.pdf> Cochrane, Ev (1995). Velikovsky still in collision. Skeptic, 3 (4), 47–48. <http://groups.google.com/group/talk.origins/msg/2dbf25802eeecaac?oe=UTF8&output=gplain>. Ellenberger, Leroy (1995). An Antidote to Velikovskian Delusions. Skeptic, 3 (4), 49–51. <http://groups.google.com/group/talk.origins/msg/bc31349d10f8e205>. Morrison, David (2001). Velikovsky at fifty: Cultures in collision at the fringes of science. Skeptic, 9 (1), 62–76; reprinted in Shermer, Michael (editor) (2002). The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience. Santa Barbara, Calif. . 473–488. Linse, Pat (1995). Velikovsky's believe it or not: Some basic claims of Velikovsky. Skeptic, 3 (4), 46. Forrest, Robert (1983). Venus and Velikovsky: The original sources. Skeptical Inquirer, 8 (2), Winter 1983–84, 154–164. Frazier, Kendrick (1980). The distortions continue. Skeptical Inquirer, 5 (1), Fall 1980, 32–38. Reprinted in Paranormal Borderlands of Science, edited by Kendrick Frazier, Prometheus Books. Oberg, James (1980). Ideas in collision. Skeptical Inquirer, 5 (1), Fall 1980, 20–27. Reprinted in Paranormal Borderlands of Science, edited by Kendrick Frazier, Prometheus Books . Abell, George O. (1981). Scientists and Velikovsky, in Paranormal Borderlands of Science, edited by Kendrick Frazier, Prometheus Books Bauer, Henry H. (1984). Beyond Velikovsky. The History of a Public Controversy. University of Illinois, Urbana Friedlander, Michael W. (1995). At the Fringes of Science, Westview Press, , 9-16. Gardner, Martin (1957). Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science, chapter 3, Dover . Goldsmith, Donald (Ed.) (1977). Scientists confront Velikovsky. Norton. Proceedings of a symposium at the 1974 meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Miller, Alice (1977). Index to the Works of Immanuel Velikovsky. Glassboro State College, Glassboro. Payne-Gaposchkin, Cecilia (1952). Worlds in collision. in Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 96, Oct. 15, 1952. Pensée (1972-1975). Immanuel Velikovsky Reconsidered. I - X. Student Academic Freedom Forum, Portland. Ransom, C.J. (1976). The Age of Velikovsky. Delta, New York. Rohl, David (1996). A Test of Time. Arrow Books. Editors of Pensée (1976). Velikovsky Reconsidered. Doubleday, New York. External links 1950 non-fiction books Books by Immanuel Velikovsky Catastrophism English-language books Macmillan Publishers books Pseudohistory Pseudoscience literature de:Immanuel Velikovsky#Welten im Zusammenstoß

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Tale%20of%20Mr.%20Jeremy%20Fisher

The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher

The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher is a children's book, written and illustrated by Beatrix Potter. It was published by Frederick Warne & Co. in July 1906. Jeremy's origin lies in a letter she wrote to a child in 1893. She revised it in 1906, and moved its setting from the River Tay to the English Lake District. The tale reflects her love for the Lake District and her admiration for children's illustrator Randolph Caldecott. Jeremy Fisher is a frog that lives in a "slippy-sloppy" house at the edge of a pond. During one rainy day, he collects worms for fishing and sets off across the pond on his lily-pad boat. He plans to invite his friends for dinner if he catches more than five minnows. He encounters all sorts of setbacks to his goal, and escapes a large trout who tries to swallow him. He swims for shore, decides he will not go fishing again, and hops home. Potter's tale pays homage to the leisurely summers her father and his companions passed sport fishing at rented country estates in Scotland. Following the tale's publication, a child fan wrote to Potter suggesting Jeremy find a wife. Potter responded with a series of miniature letters on the theme as if from Jeremy and his pals. Following Potter's death in 1943, licences were issued to various firms to produce the Potter characters. Jeremy and his friends were released as porcelain figurines, plush toys, and other merchandise. Plot Jeremy Fisher is a frog that lives in a damp little house amongst the buttercups at the edge of a pond. His larder and back passage are "slippy-sloppy" with water, but he likes getting his feet wet; no one ever scolds and he never catches cold. One day, Jeremy finds it raining and decides to go fishing. Should he catch more than five minnows, he would invite his friends to dinner. He puts on a mackintosh and shiny galoshes, takes his rod and basket, and sets off with "enormous hops" to the place where he keeps his lily-pad boat. He poles to a place he knows is good for minnows. Once there, the frog sits cross-legged on his lily-pad and arranges his tackle. He has "the dearest little red float". His rod is a stalk of grass and his line a horsehair. An hour passes without a nibble. He takes a break and lunches on a butterfly sandwich. A water beetle tweaks his toe, causing him to withdraw his legs, and rats rustling about in the rushes force him to seek a safer location. He drops his line into the water and immediately has a bite. It is not a minnow but little Jack Sharp, a stickleback. Jeremy pricks his fingers on Jack's spines and Jack escapes. A shoal of little fishes come to the surface to laugh at Jeremy. Jeremy sucks his sore fingers. A large trout rises from the water and seizes him with a snap (Mr. Jeremy screams, "OW-OW-OW!!!"). The trout dives to the bottom, but finds the mackintosh disgusting and spits Jeremy out, swallowing only his galoshes. Jeremy bounces "up to the surface of the water, like a cork and the bubbles out of a soda water bottle", and swims to the pond's edge. He scrambles up the bank and hops home through the meadow, having lost his fishing equipment but quite sure he will never go fishing again. In the last few pages, Jeremy has put sticking plaster on his fingers and welcomes his friends, Sir Isaac Newton, a newt; and Alderman Ptolemy Tortoise, a tortoise that eats salad. Isaac wears a black and gold waistcoat and Ptolemy brings a salad in a string bag. Jeremy has prepared roasted grasshopper with ladybird sauce. The narrator describes the dish as a "frog treat", but thinks "it must have been nasty!" Background In addition to the pet frogs of Potter's youth, influences on Jeremy include Potter's sport fishing father Rupert William Potter and illustrator Randolph Caldecott. Margaret Lane, author of The Magic Years of Beatrix Potter, notes, "Mr. Potter was fond of taking his friends fishing and Beatrix ... from an early age had been familiar with [the] hazards and excitements of angling and dry-fly fishing ... as a girl [she] had often enough had to endure her father and his friends relating their fishing adventures, and the picture of Mr Jeremy Fisher retailing his mishap to Sir Isaac Newton is so rich in observation, both of amphibians and elderly gentlemen, that one is ever afterwards prone to confuse them in memory". Mr. Potter not only fished for sport but collected the works of Randolph Caldecott. In Jeremy Fisher, Potter tried to copy Caldecott but felt she had failed. "I did try to copy Caldecott," she stated, "but ... I did not achieve much resemblance." Biographer Linda Lear writes Potter declared, "I have the greatest admiration for his work – a jealous appreciation; for I think that others, whose names are commonly bracketed with his, are not on the same plane at all as artist-illustrators". Potter biographer Linda Lear and author of Beatrix Potter: A Life in Nature writes: [Potter] wanted to do a frog story for some time, because it was amusing and offered the opportunity for the naturalist illustrations she delighted in ... The story of a fisherman down on his luck reminded Beatrix of the 'fish stories' her father's friends had told in Scotland, as well as her brother's travails with rod and reel. She also recreated the gentlemen's club atmosphere absorbed from her father's reports of evenings spent at the Reform and the Athenaeum ... The text and illustrations for this story are some of the most balanced and compatible of all her writing. Nature is described and illustrated truthfully: beautifully tranquil as well as unpredictably aggressive ....Its carefully coloured botanical backgrounds of water plants, a frog with anatomically correct turned-out feet, a trout that any self-respecting fisherman would enjoy snagging, and a rather frighteningly rendered water-beetle who tweaks Jeremy's dainty toes, all made it a delight to look at as well as to read. Production The origin of The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher lies in a story letter Potter wrote to a child in September 1893 while summering on the River Tay. The following year, she created nine sketches called "A Frog he would a-fishing go" and sold them to publisher Ernest Nister. They were released with verses by Clifton Bingham in 1896. Energized by the success of The Tale of Peter Rabbit in 1902, Potter considered expanding the frog tale and bought back her drawings and the publisher's printer's blocks. She wrote her editor Norman Warne, "I should like to do Mr. Jeremy Fisher ... I think I can make something of him". The tale was set aside while Potter and Warne developed other projects, but in 1905 he approved the frog tale. As Potter biographer Daphne Kutzner writes of Potter's illustrations for Jeremy: "When she finally did the illustrations for the book, she changed the original background from the River Tay in Scotland to Eswaithe Water in the Lakes. The illustrations are indeed lovely, showing Potter's skill both as a naturalist and a fantasist". In August 1905, Norman Warne died, and his brother Harold became Potter's editor. She wrote to him indicating Norman had approved the frog project: "We had thought of doing ... "Mr. Jeremy Fisher" to carry on the series of little [books]. I know some people don't like frogs! but I think I had convinced Norman that I could make it a really pretty book with a good many flowers & water plants for backgrounds". Warne decided to put Jeremy Fisher into print. In July 1906, 20,000 copies of The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher were released in paper boards at a shilling and in decorated cloth at one shilling six pence in a small format. Another 5,000 copies were published in September 1906 and another 5,000 in September 1907. The book was dedicated to Stephanie Hyde Parker, the daughter of Potter's cousin Ethel, Lady Hyde Parker: "For Stephanie from Cousin B". Jeremy sold as profitably as other Potter productions. Themes and style M. Daphne Kutzer, Professor of English at State University of New York at Plattsburgh and author of Beatrix Potter: Writing in Code, observes that the social positions of Jeremy and his friends are established through the clothing they wear. Although Potter sharply critiqued the upper class elsewhere, Kutzer observes that in Jeremy Fisher her tone is more moderate. She suggests that Potter's relocation to Sawrey and Hill Top Farm may have produced in her a willingness "to accept the silliness of the aspiring middle class as well as the eccentricities of the upper classes". Ruth K. MacDonald, Professor of English at New Mexico State University and author of Beatrix Potter points out that although Potter regarded the lives of her father and his friends as comical and even beneath notice, yet she clearly respected and valued their outdoor pursuits from the bemused treatment she accorded them in Jeremy Fisher. She valued nature untouched by humans even more, MacDonald notes, as evidenced by the careful observation in the illustrations. Jeremy Fisher was written without the many revisions typical of Potter's other productions, and the pictures appear effortless in their execution. MacDonald writes, "Her ability to show human society without also implying its damaging effects on flora and fauna further underscores the book's felicitous composition and success". Literary scholar Humphrey Carpenter writes in Secret Gardens: The Golden Age of Children's Literature the basis for Potter's writing style can be found in the Authorized King James Version of the Bible. Jeremy Fisher reflects the characteristic cadence and "employs a psalm-like caesura in the middle of [a] sentence". Carpenter sees in Potter's work thematic shifts from the early work onward. In the first stage of her work, he sees in stories such as The Tale of Peter Rabbit a type of Jack-the-Giant-Killer theme, in which a small creature confronts a large creature that he believes culminates in The Tale of Jeremy Fisher. Potter places Jeremy Fisher in a dangerous world, according to Carpenter. The fishing experience is frightening: the bank-side creatures worry him, the stickleback threatens him directly, and the trout tries to swallow him. But Potter makes the point that all creatures are prey, ending the story with Jeremy Fisher himself eating a grasshopper smothered in lady-bird sauce. Miniature letters About 1907 Potter created miniature letters delivered to child fans in either a miniature mail bag or a miniature mail box. "Some of the letters were very funny," Potter wrote, "The defect was that inquiries and answers were all mixed up." Four Jeremy letters were written at about 1910 to Drew Fayle who thought Jeremy should marry. In one letter, Sir Isaac promises Master Fayle a piece of wedding cake should Jeremy marry and, in another letter, Ptolemy writes that Jeremy's parties "would be much more agreeable if there were a lady to preside at the table." Jeremy writes in the third letter: "When I bought my sprigged waistcoat & my maroon tail-coat I had hopes ... but I am alone ... if there were a 'Mrs. Jeremy Fisher' she might object to snails. It is some satisfaction to be able to have as much water & mud in the house as a person likes." Mrs. Tiggy-winkle, a hedgehog washerwoman in another Potter tale, writes Master Fayle in the fourth letter:Dear Master Drew, If you please Sir I am a widow; & I think it very wrong that there is not any Mrs. Fisher, but I would not marry Mr. Jeremy not for worlds, the way he does live in that house all slippy-sloppy; not any lady would stand it, & not a bit of good starching his cravats. Merchandise The characters from Jeremy Fisher have appeared as porcelain figurines, plush toys, and other merchandise. In 1950, Beswick Pottery issued a porcelain figurine of Jeremy and figurines of Isaac and Ptolemy in the 1970s. Other figurines of Jeremy have been produced over the years as well as a Jeremy mug. Jeremy was one of the first eight plush toys released by Eden Toys, Inc. of New York in 1973. The following year, he was released as a "Giant" intended for store displays, and during the Beanie Baby era as a beanbag. Isaac Newton was on store shelves for two years. Jeremy Fisher was one of the first ten character music boxes released by Schmid & Co. in 1977. Ptolemy and Isaac boxes were released in the 1980s. Ceramic Christmas ornaments of Jeremy have been released by Schmid. Other merchandise includes a variety of Crummles enamelled boxes, an ANRI wood carving and ANRI Toriart figurines and ornaments, and Huntley & Palmer biscuit tins. Reprints and translations As of 2010, all 23 of Potter's small format books remain in print, and are available as complete sets in presentation boxes, and as a 400-page omnibus edition. The English language editions of the tales still bore the Frederick Warne imprint in 2010 though the company was bought by Penguin Books in 1983. Penguin remade the printing plates in 1985, and all 23 volumes were released in 1987 as The Original and Authorized Edition. Although sold to Penguin Books in 1984 as a subsidiary company, Frederick Warne continues to publish Potter's books. A 2002 Publishers Weekly article, written for the centennial of the publication of The Tale of Peter Rabbit, reported that Potter was considered one of the top most popular classic writers, that anniversary editions of her work were published in 1993 and 2002, and the artwork has been "re-scanned to make the illustrations look fresher and brighter". The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher was published in French in 1940 as Jérémie Pêche-à-la-Ligne, and in Dutch as Jeremais de Hengelaar in 1946. The tale was republished in Dutch in 1970 as Het Verhaal van Jeremais Hengelaar and was published in the Initial Teaching Alphabet in 1965. In 1984, the tale was again translated into French by M.A. James as L’histoire de Monsieur Jérémie Peche-a-la-Ligne. In 1986 MacDonald wrote that Potter's books had become a "traditional part of childhood in most only English-speaking countries and in many of the countries into whose languages Potter's books have been translated". References Works cited External links The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher at Internet Archive Victoria and Albert Museum: Beatrix Potter Randolph Caldecott's A Frog He Would A-Wooing Go 1906 children's books British picture books Mr. Jeremy Fisher, The Tale of Children's books adapted into films Children's books adapted into television shows English-language books Cultural depictions of Isaac Newton Children's books about frogs Children's books about turtles Works about fishing Children's books set in forests Mr. Jeremy Fisher, The Tale of Frederick Warne & Co books

4475256

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukang%20meteorite

Fukang meteorite

The Fukang meteorite is a meteorite that was found in the mountains near Fukang, China in 2000. It is a pallasite—a type of stony–iron meteorite with olivine crystals. It is estimated to be 4.5 billion years old. History In 2000, near Fukang, China, a Chinese dealer obtained a mass from Xinjiang Province, China, with a weight of . He removed about from the main mass, and in February 2005, the meteorite was taken to the Tucson Gem and Mineral Show, where it was seen by Dr. Dante Lauretta, a professor of Planetary Science and Cosmochemistry at the University of Arizona. Subsequently, the mass was investigated at the Southwest Meteorite Center, Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, University of Arizona in Tucson, Arizona by Dr. Lauretta and a team of research scientists including Dolores Hill, Marvin Killgore, Daniella DellaGiustina, and Dr. Yulia Goreva, and joined by Dr. Ian Franchi of Open University. Classification and composition The Fukang pallasite contains large, gem quality olivine, or peridot, in a nickel-iron matrix. The olivines vary in shape from rounded to angular, many are fractured and they range in size from less than five millimetres to several centimetres. The main mass contains several regions of massive olivine clusters up to eleven centimetres (4.3 inches) in diameter with thin metal veins. Fo86.4 with molar Fe/Mg = 0.1367, Fe/Mn = 40.37, and Ni = 0.03 wt%. The metal matrix is mostly kamacite with an average nickel content of 6.98 wt%. Vermicular sulfide (troilite) is present in some olivine. Oxygen isotopes: δ18O 2.569 ‰, δ17O 1.179 ‰, ∆1 7O = −0.157 ‰. Specimens A section weighing of type specimen is on deposit at the University of Arizona. Marvin Killgore holds an additional section weighing the same amount, as well as the balance of the main mass. In April 2008, Bonhams offered the main mass for auction at their Manhattan auction. Bonhams expected to fetch US$2,000,000, but the lot remained unsold. A "window" area of was cut and polished to provide a view into the gem areas of the meteorite. See also Glossary of meteoritics References External links Southwest Meteorite Laboratory - Fukang Pallasite Meteorites found in China Stony-iron meteorites Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture 2000 in science 2000 in China

4478080

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter%20and%20Io

Jupiter and Io

Jupiter and Io is a painting by the Italian High Renaissance artist Antonio da Correggio around 1530. It now hangs in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, Austria. History The series of Jupiter's Loves was conceived after the success of Venus and Cupid with a Satyr. Correggio painted four canvasses in total, although others had been programmed perhaps. In the first edition of his Lives, late Renaissance art biographer Giorgio Vasari mentions only two of the paintings, Leda and the Swan (today at the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin) and one Venus (presumably the Danae currently in the Borghese Gallery of Rome), although he knew them only from descriptions provided by Giulio Romano. Vasari mentions that the commissioner, Duke Federico Gonzaga II of Mantua, wanted to donate the works to emperor and King of Spain Charles V: that the other two works, Ganymede Abducted by the Eagle and Jupiter and Io, were in Spain during the 16th century implies that they were part of the same series. British art historian Cecil Gould suggested that Federico had commissioned the Io and Ganymede for himself, and that they were ceded to Charles V only after the duke's death in 1540, perhaps on occasion of the marriage of the king's son, Philip; other hypothesized that Federico ordered them for the Ovid room in his Palazzo Te. The canvas was in Vienna since as early as the 1610s, when it is mentioned in the Habsburg imperial collections together with Ganymede. Description The scene of Jupiter and Io is inspired by Ovid's classic Metamorphoses. Io, daughter of Inachus, the first king of Argos, is seduced by Jupiter (Zeus in Greek), who hides behind the dunes to avoid hurting the jealous Juno (Hera in Greek). Jupiter was often tempted by other women and took on various disguises in order to cover his various escapades, one time taking the form of a swan, another time of an eagle, and in this painting he is not becoming something else so much as enveloping himself in a dark cloud, even though it is bright daylight. He is embracing the nymph, his face barely visible above hers. She is pulling Jupiter's vague, smoky hand towards herself with barely contained sensuality; this is a sensual painting, depicting one of the many loves of the god. Indeed, the Duke of Mantua, Federico Gonzaga, wanted to place the painting and its companion pieces in a room dedicated to the loves of Jupiter. Noteworthy is the contrast between the evanescent figure of the immaterial Jupiter, and the sensual substance of Io's body, shown lost in an erotic rapture which anticipates the works of Bernini and Rubens. References Sources External links Loves of Jupiter 1530s paintings Paintings in the Kunsthistorisches Museum Nude art Paintings of Jupiter (mythology) Gonzaga art collection Paintings based on Metamorphoses Paintings formerly in the Orleans Collection

4482090

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger%20stripes%20%28Enceladus%29

Tiger stripes (Enceladus)

The tiger stripes of Enceladus consist of four sub-parallel, linear depressions in the south polar region of the Saturnian moon. First observed on May 20, 2005 by the Cassini spacecraft's Imaging Science Sub-system (ISS) camera (though seen obliquely during an early flyby), the features are most notable in lower resolution images by their brightness contrast from the surrounding terrain. Higher resolution observations were obtained by Cassini's various instruments during a close flyby of Enceladus on July 14, 2005. These observations revealed the tiger stripes to be low ridges with a central fracture. Observations from the Composite Infrared Spectrometer (CIRS) instrument showed the tiger stripes to have elevated surface temperatures, indicative of present-day cryovolcanism on Enceladus centered on the tiger stripes. Names The name tiger stripes is an unofficial term given to these four features based on their distinctive albedo. Enceladean sulci (subparallel furrows and ridges), like Samarkand Sulci and Harran Sulci, have been named after cities or countries referred to in The Arabian Nights. Accordingly, in November 2006, the tiger stripes were assigned the official names Alexandria Sulcus, Cairo Sulcus, Baghdad Sulcus and Damascus Sulcus (Camphor Sulcus is a smaller feature that branches off Alexandria Sulcus). Baghdad and Damascus sulci are the most active, while Alexandria Sulcus is the least active. Appearance and geology Images from the ISS camera onboard Cassini revealed the 4 tiger stripes to be a series of sub-parallel, linear depressions flanked on each side by low ridges. On average, each tiger stripe depression is 130 kilometers long, 2 kilometers wide, and 500 meters deep. The flanking ridges are, on average, 100 meters tall and 2–4 kilometers wide. Given their appearance and their geologic setting within a heavily tectonically deformed region, the tiger stripes are likely to be tectonic fractures. However, their correlation with internal heat and a large, water vapor plume suggests that tiger stripes might be the result of fissures in Enceladus' lithosphere. The stripes are spaced approximately 35 kilometers apart. The ends of each tiger stripe differ in appearance between the anti-Saturnian and sub-Saturnian hemisphere. On the anti-Saturnian hemisphere, the stripes terminate in hook-shaped bends, while the sub-Saturnian tips bifurcate dendritically. Virtually no impact craters have been found on or near the tiger stripes, suggesting a very young surface age. Surface age estimates based on crater counting yielded an age of 4–100 million years assuming a lunar-like cratering flux and 0.5-1 million years assuming a constant cratering flux. Composition Another aspect that distinguishes the tiger stripes from the rest of the surface of Enceladus are their unusual composition. Nearly the entire surface of Enceladus is covered in a blanket of fine-grained water ice. The ridges that surround the tiger stripes are often covered in coarse-grained, crystalline water ice. This material appears dark in the Cassini camera's IR3 filter (central wavelength 930 nanometers), giving the tiger stripes a dark appearance in clear-filter images and a blue-green appearance in false-color, near-ultraviolet, green, near-infrared images. The Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS) instrument also detected trapped carbon dioxide ice and simple organics within the tiger stripes. Simple organic material has not been detected anywhere else on the surface of Enceladus. The detection of crystalline water ice along the tiger stripes also provides an age constraint. Crystalline water ice gradually loses its crystal structure after being cooled and subjected to the Saturnian magnetospheric environment. Such a transformation into finer-grained, amorphous water ice is thought to take a few decades to a thousand years. Cryovolcanism Observations by Cassini during the July 14, 2005 flyby revealed a cryovolcanically active region on Enceladus centered on the tiger stripe region. The CIRS instrument revealed the entire tiger stripe region (south of 70° South latitude) to be warmer than expected if the region were heated solely from sunlight. Higher resolution observations revealed that the hottest material near Enceladus' south pole is located within the tiger stripe fractures. Color temperatures between 113–157 kelvins have been obtained from the CIRS data, significantly warmer than the expected 68 kelvins for this region of Enceladus. Data from the ISS, Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer (INMS), Cosmic Dust Analyser (CDA) and CIRS instruments show that a plume of water vapor and ice, methane, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen emanates from a series of jets located within the tiger stripes. The amount of material within the plume suggests that the plume is generated from a near-surface body of liquid water. Over 100 geysers have been identified on Enceladus. Alternatively, Kieffer et al. (2006) suggest that Enceladus' geysers originate from clathrate hydrates, where carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrogen are released when exposed to the vacuum of space by the fractures. Relation to E-Ring of Saturn Plumes from the moon Enceladus, which seems similar in chemical makeup to comets, have been shown to be the source of the material in the E Ring. The E Ring is the widest and outermost ring of Saturn (except for the tenuous Phoebe ring). It is an extremely wide but diffuse disk of microscopic icy or dusty material. The E ring is distributed between the orbits of Mimas and Titan. Numerous mathematical models show that this ring is unstable, with a lifespan between 10,000 and 1,000,000 years, therefore, particles composing it must be constantly replenished. Enceladus is orbiting inside this ring, in a place where it is narrowest but present in its highest density, raising suspicion since the 1980s that Enceladus is the main source of particles for the E ring. This hypothesis was confirmed by Cassini's first two close flybys in 2005. References External links Fountains of Enceladus – Moon of Saturn at Cosmic Secrets Surface features of Enceladus

4485161

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deserts%20of%20Australia

Deserts of Australia

The deserts of Australia or the Australian deserts cover about , or 18% of the Australian mainland, but about 35% of the Australian continent receives so little rain, it is practically desert. Collectively known as the Great Australian desert, they are primarily distributed throughout the Western Plateau and interior lowlands of the country, covering areas from South West Queensland, Far West region of New South Wales, Sunraysia in Victoria and Spencer Gulf in South Australia to the Barkly Tableland in Northern Territory and the Kimberley region in Western Australia. By international standards, the Great Australian desert receives relatively high rates of rainfall or around on average, but due to the high evapotranspiration it would be correspondingly arid. No Australian weather stations situated in an arid region record less than of average annual rainfall. The deserts in the interior and south lack any significant summer rains. The desert in western Australia is well explained by the little evaporation of the cold sea current of the West Australian Current, of polar origin, which prevents significant rainfall in the interior of the continent. About 40% of Australia is covered by dunes. Australia is the driest inhabited continent, with the least fertile soils. In addition to being mostly uninhabited, the Great Australian Desert is diverse, where it consists of semi-desert grassy or mountainous landscapes, xeric shrubs, salt pans, gibber (stony) deserts, red sand dunes, sandstone mesas, rocky plains, open tree savannahs and bushland with a few rivers and salt lakes, which are mostly seasonally dry and often have no outflow in the east. The 3 million km2 desert is among the least modified in the world. The Australian desert has the largest population of feral camels in the world. History Geological The area's geology spans a geological time period of over 3.8 billion years, therefore featuring some of the oldest rocks on earth. There are three main cratonic shields of recognised Archaean age within the Australian landmass: The Yilgarn, the Pilbara and the Gawler cratons. Several other Archaean-Proterozoic orogenic belts exist, usually sandwiched around the edges of these major cratonic shields. The history of the Archaean cratons is extremely complex and protracted. The cratons appear to have been accumulated to form the greater Australian landmass in the late Archaean to meso-Proterozoic, (~2400 Ma to 1,600 Ma). Chiefly the Capricorn Orogeny is partly responsible for the assembly of the West Australian landmass by connecting the Yilgarn and Pilbara cratons. The Capricorn Orogeny is exposed in the rocks of the Bangemall Basin, Gascoyne Complex granite-gneisses and the Glengarry, Yerrida and Padbury basins. Unknown Proterozoic orogenic belts, possibly similar to the Albany Complex in southern Western Australia and the Musgrave Block, represent the Proterozoic link between the Yilgarn and Gawler cratons, covered by the Proterozoic-Palaeozoic Officer and Amadeus basins. Aboriginal Indigenous Australians have lived in the desert for at least 50,000 years and occupied all Outback regions, including the driest deserts, when Europeans first entered central Australia in the 1800s. Many Indigenous Australians retain strong physical and cultural links to their traditional country and are legally recognised as the traditional owners of large parts of the Outback under Commonwealth Native Title legislation. Aboriginal tribes and clans have been nomadic in the desert areas for thousands of years. They subsisted on the local flora and fauna, now known as bush food, and made sure that their sources of drinking water remained intact. The nomads moved in clearly demarcated tribal areas. For example, important tribes living in the desert areas include the Arrernte, Luritja and Pitjantjatjara. The latter tribe's sphere of influence extended from Uluṟu to the Nullarbor Plain. The Dieri tribe lives in a large area of the Simpson, Strzelecki and Tirari deserts. The rock art and archaeological site at Karnatukul was, until recently, estimated to have been inhabited for up to 25,000 years, and known as the site of the oldest continuous recorded occupation in the Western Desert cultural region. Karnakatul shows one of the earliest uses of firewood, and habitation continued through times of extreme climate change, when the desertification occurred as the polar ice sheets expanded. The oldest examples of rock art, in Western Australia's Pilbara region and the Olary district of South Australia, are estimated to be up to around 40,000 years old. The oldest firmly dated evidence of rock art painting in Australia is a charcoal drawing on a small rock fragment found during the excavation of the Narwala Gabarnmang rock shelter in south-western Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory. The isolated desert areas remained undeveloped for a long time. For example, the Spinifex People first had contact with whites in the 1950s, when they were expelled from their tribal lands because of nuclear weapons testing (1950–1963) by the British and Australian governments. The Pintupi Nine, a group of nine Aboriginal people of the Pintupi tribe, lived in the Stone Age area of the Gibson Desert until October 1984, when they first encountered whites as they left the desert. Both discoveries were sensations at the time. Large parts of the Australian desert areas are part of the Desert Cultural Area. For Aboriginal people, the Uluṟu in the desert area and the Kata Tjuṯa with their Dreamtime stories have great cultural significance. Aboriginal Australians of the desert produced many important artists, one of the first and most famous being Albert Namatjira, who was born in Hermannsburg in the Great Sandy Desert. About a third of Australia's deserts are now Aboriginal lands. A very large part of it is managed by them as a nature reserve. A number of tribes have land use rights for almost all other desert regions. Today, numerous Aboriginal peoples live in settlements in the deserts. European The Strzelecki Desert was named in 1845 by explorer Charles Sturt after Polish explorer Paul Edmund Strzelecki. The first European to cross the Great Sandy Desert was Peter Egerton Warburton. He arrived on the Western Australian coast badly exhausted and blind in one eye. He owed his survival to Charley, an Aboriginal tracker. The British explorer Ernest Giles, who crossed the desert in 1875, gave it the name Great Victoria Desert. It is dedicated to Queen Victoria. From 1858 onwards, the so-called "Afghan" cameleers and their beasts played an instrumental role in opening up the Outback and helping to build infrastructure. The Sturt Stony Desert was named by Charles Sturt in 1844, while he was trying to find the inland sea which he believed lay at the centre of Australia. In 1866 Peter Egerton Warburton's expedition reached the Tirari desert from the west. The Overland Telegraph line was constructed in the 1870s along the route identified by Stuart. In 1865 the surveyor George Goyder, using changes in vegetation patterns, mapped a line in South Australia, north of which he considered rainfall to be too unreliable to support agriculture. British explorer Ernest Giles named the Gibson Desert in memory of Alfred Gibson, who went missing during an 1873–74 expedition. The Tanami Desert was named by explorer and prospector Allan Davidson. He only assigned the name on his second expedition to this desert region, which ended in 1900. "Tanami" was the original Aboriginal name for two rock caves with clear drinking water. The Simpson Desert got its name from Allen Simpson, a geographer who ventured into this desert in 1845. The name was suggested by explorer and geologist Cecil Madigan. In 1936, Edmund Colson became the first white man to cross the Simpson Desert. Before that, the great Australian explorers Charles Sturt and David Lindsay had failed. While the early explorers used horses to cross the Outback, the first woman to make the journey riding a horse was Anna Hingley, who rode from Broome to Cairns in 2006. The nuclear weapons trials carried out by the United Kingdom at Maralinga and Emu Field in the 1950s and early 1960s have left areas contaminated with plutonium-239 and other radioactive material. Regions A large contiguous desert area is formed by the Tanami, Greater Sands, Lesser Sands, Gibson and Greater Victoria Sands in western Australia and a smaller one by the Simpson, Sturt, Strzelecki and Tirari Deserts in the east. Spatially isolated between Great Victoria Sand and Simpson lies the small Pedirka Desert, which spreads out over the geological Pedirka Sedimentary Basin. The Small Sandy Desert connects to the Great Sandy Desert and is similar in terms of landscape and vegetation. The Western Desert, which describes a cultural region of Australia's indigenous people, includes the Gibson, Great Victoria, Great Sand and Small Sand deserts in the states of Northern Territory, South Australia and Western Australia. Most of the inhabitants of the area are Indigenous Australians. There are other areas in Australia designated as desert that are not related to the Australian deserts mentioned above. On Kangaroo Island off the coast of South Australia is an area of two square kilometers called the Little Sahara, a formation of several sand dunes on its south coast. In Victoria, about 375 km west of Melbourne, there is still the Little Desert National Park. The Painted Desert is 121 kilometers northwest of Coober Pedy in South Australia. The almost treeless Nullarbor Plain in southern Australia, made of limestone, are also known as the Nullarbor Desert. Geography There are four known types of terrestrial deserts: continental (or remote) deserts tropical (or zonal) deserts shelter deserts coastal deserts Australian deserts generally meet the first three criteria, although some coastal desert areas exist in Western Australia. The great ocean circulation in the south of the continent and the cold sea currents in the southern zone play the fourth crucial role, indirectly at the origin of the long periods of continental drought by imposing high atmospheric pressures. As for the fifth hypothesis of cold or frozen deserts, as absurd as this assertion may appear in present-day Australia, they existed several million years ago. Geomorphologists thus explain a number of spectacular rock formations, from the Mount Olga or Uluru to the over-deepened wave of the wind rocks, by involving a thaw of (peri)glacial formations followed by wind action over a long period. The sand ridges have a trend of SSE-NNW and continue parallel for great distances. Areas of the formerly desert outback, deserts such as the Simpson Desert from west to east or mountainous regions such as the Arckaringa Hills are characterized by ocean landscapes of charred rocks, called gibberss. As noted by early Australian explorers such as Ernest Giles large portions of the desert are characterized by gravel-covered terrains covered in thin desert grasses and it also contains extensive areas of undulating red sand plains and dunefields, low rocky/gravelly ridges and substantial upland portions with a high degree of laterite formation. The sandy soil of the lateritic buckshot plains is rich in iron in the Gibson Desert. Several isolated salt-water lakes occur in the centre of the region and to the southwest a system of small lakes follow paleo-drainage features. The desert proper is uninhabitable and the environment remains unmarred, while the greener fringe is used for sheep grazing. Waterbodies Lakes in the regions (most of which are dried up saline lakes), include: Menindee Lakes Willandra Lakes Region Lake Mungo Peery Lake Lake Amadeus Lake Mackay Lake Neale Numby Numby Lake Sylvester Tarrabool Lake Lake Woods Lake Yamma Yamma Lake Bumbunga Lake Dey Dey Lake Dutton Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre Lake Frome Lake Gairdner Lake Gilles Goyder Lagoon Lake Gregory Lake Hope Sleaford Mere Lake Torrens Serpentine Lakes Lake Maitland Lake Carnegie Lake Way Lake Macleod Lake Anneen Lake Barlee Lake Breaden Lake Burnside Lake Carey Lake Dora Dumbleyung Lake Lake Nabberu Serpentine Lakes Kumpupintil Lake Lake Ballard Lake Lefroy Lake Gregory Rivers and creeks, which are sparse and generally ephemeral, in the Australian desert include: Darling River Alberga River Finke River Georgina River Hale River Alligator Rivers Mary River Todd River Diamantina River Gawler River Macumba River Warburton River Fitzroy River Leichhardt River Biodiversity Vegetation Two types of semi-desert, referred to as "grassland" in Australia, occur in the Australian deserts: Tussock – or Mitchell grasslands are found in the desert areas of the Northern Territory, South Australia and western Queensland. The annual precipitation that falls on these marl and alluvial soils covered with grasses of the Astrebla genus ranges from 150 to 500 mm. Trees cannot take root on the heavy clay soils, and they are riddled with bushfires. Spinifex or hummock semi-desert grows spiny- headed grasses (Spinifex) in clumps, next to free areas as green Triodia pungens and blue-grey Triodia basedowii. Zygochloa dominates on the sand dunes of the Simpson, Strzelecki and Tirari deserts. In large areas of desert, semi-desert grasslands with mulga bushes (Acacia aneura) predominate. Semi-desert savannas with low-growing acacia species cover large areas in the south of the arid zone, where 200 to 500 mm of precipitation falls in winter and summer. The acacia species, called mulga, grow on the plains, mountain slopes and hills of the deserts. In connection with the bushfires, which are mainly ignited by the spinifex grasses, the non-resistant mulga bushes burn, which then no longer grow back. There is evidence that Aboriginal people did not start bushfires in mulga landscapes. The desert areas covered by mulga are also threatened by deforestation, extensive livestock farming and fuel wood production. At the eastern end of the arid zone is the so-called Witchetty Bush. This area is home to the endemic species of acacia, Acacia kempeana, which feeds the wood borer larva, the witchetty maggot, up to three inches in size. It is high in protein and was an important part of the Aboriginal diet. Eucalyptus woodland thrives along the dry riverbeds. Grasses grow on the soil under the eucalypts. Chenopodiaceae shrubs, which usually do not exceed 1.5 meters in height, are found in the southern desert areas. They are salt plants that grow on both dry and saline soils. In the deserts there are permanent or percolating patches of freshwater formed in rocky areas or in sandstone canyons. Bluebush and saltbush species grow in heavier soils. Between the sand ridges, the areas of wooded steppe consist of Eucalyptus gongylocarpa, Eucalyptus youngiana, and Acacia aneura (mulga) shrubs scattered over areas of resilient spinifex grasses, particularly Triodia basedowii. Most of the area is covered by hummock grasslands (Triodia spp.), with a few eucalypts, acacias, grevilleas, and bloodwoods (Corymbia chippendalei and Corymbia opaca) are found on sand hills. The vegetation of the dunefields of the Tirari Desert is dominated by either Sandhill Wattle (Acacia ligulata) or Sandhill Cane-grass (Zygochloa paradoxa) which occur on the crests and slopes of dunes. Tall, open shrubland also occurs on the slopes. In drier areas, species including Old Man Saltbush (Atriplex nummularia), Cottonbush (Maireana aphylla) and Queensland Bluebush (Chenopodium auricomum) form a sparse, open shrubland, whereas swamps and depressions are frequently associated with Swamp Cane-grass (Eragrostis australasica) and Lignum (Muehlenbeckia florulenta). The intermittent watercourses and permanent waterholes associated with tributaries of Cooper Creek support woodland dominated by River Red Gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) and Coolibah (Eucalyptus coolabah). Numerous salt lakes form after heavy rainfall and at times fill the underlying salt flats. The salt lakes occupy relatively small areas in the desert areas. For example, a major salt lake is Lake Eyre, which spans areas of the Gibson and Tirari deserts and fills up completely and then dries up about once every 25 years. Seventeen headwaters have formed in the deserts as a result of the subsurface Great Artesian Basin, one of the largest freshwater basins in the world. The water coming out of the springs is rich in minerals. The springs partially form the habitat of endemic fish and the spring area is overgrown with rare plants. Numerous springs have dried up due to extensive agricultural use in the last 100 years. Threats to biodiversity include wildfires, feral animals, weeds, and uncontrolled grazing. Wildlife Significantly fewer animals live in the Australian deserts than in the Australian coastal regions. The most common creatures in Australia's arid regions are insects, such as termites and ants, which are of great importance to the ecology. Animals in the desert include feral camels, dingoes, goannas (including the large perentie) and numerous species of lizards and birds. Mammals include bilbies, mulgara, common brushtail possum, rufous hare-wallaby, burrowing bettong, the black-flanked rock-wallaby, marsupial moles, rufous hare-wallabies, yellow-footed rock wallaby, western grey kangaroos, and red kangaroos. Some of the bird-life found within the desert include the rare Alexandra's parrot, wedge-tailed eagles, Australian bustard, the mulga parrot, the scarlet-chested parrot and the chestnut-breasted whiteface (Aphelocephala pectoralis) found on the eastern edge of the Great Victoria Desert and the malleefowl of Mamungari Conservation Park. About 103 species of mammals lived there at the time of European colonization, of which 19 are extinct, such as the desert bandicoot (Perameles eremiana), the numbat (Myrmecobius fasciatus) and the long-tailed bouncy mouse (Notomys longicaudatus). The main survivors are small rodents, insectivorous bats, marsupials, kangaroos and wallabies. A major threat to vegetation are the free-roaming camels in the desert. Over 300 species of birds live in the desert areas, including emus, ratites, parrots, cockatoos, owls and raptors. The desert includes many types of lizards, including the vulnerable great desert skink (Egernia kintorei), the Central Ranges taipan (discovered in 2007), and a number of small marsupials, including the endangered sandhill dunnart (Sminthopsis psammophila) and the crest-tailed mulgara (Dasycercus cristicauda). One way to survive here is to burrow into the sands, as a number of the desert's animals, including the southern marsupial mole (Notoryctes typhlops), and the water-holding frog do. Reptiles live in large numbers in the deserts, for example the woma python, thorny devil, bearded dragon, monitor lizard, frilled dragon and geckos. Frog species that have adapted to drought, such as the Desert Trilling Frog (Neobatrachus centralis) and the Desert Tree Frog (Litoria rubella), can also occur. The most numerous species of lizards in the world can be found in the Australian desert, there are over 40 species of them there. In addition to fish, the few permanent freshwater holes are also home to mussels, crustaceans and insects. 34 species of fish occur in Lake Eyre and others at the artesian springs (e.g. at Dalhousie Springs in South Australia). Over 40 species of frogs have been observed after heavy rains. The Dingo Fence was built to restrict movements of dingoes and wild dogs into agricultural areas towards the south east of the continent. Predators of the desert include the dingo (as the desert is north of the Dingo Fence) and two large monitor lizards, the perentie (Varanus giganteus) and the sand goanna (Varanus gouldii). Many introduced species have affected the fauna and flora of Australia's desert regions. The Australian feral camel affects native vegetation, partly because Australian desert vegetation evolved without any major herbivores present. Uncontrolled access to more sensitive areas by four-wheel-drive vehicles is also an issue. Feral cats have reduced the populations of bilbies and mulgara. Climate Australia's climate is mostly determined by the hot, sinking air of the subtropical high-pressure belt (i.e. Australian High). Dry conditions are associated with an El Niño–Southern Oscillation in Australia. Vegetation in arid areas is primarily dependent upon soil type. The average annual rainfall in the Australian desert ranges from 81 to 250 mm (3 to 10 in), which would make it a semi-arid climate. But a massive evaporation rate makes up for the higher than normal desert rainfall. Central Australia is arid, with the driest areas averaging of rainfall each year. Thunderstorms are relatively common in the region, with an annual average of 15 to 20 thunderstorms. Summer daytime temperatures range from 32 to 40 °C (90 to 104 °F); winter maximum temperatures average between 18 and 23 °C (64 to 73 °F), though will be more warmer in the north. Extensive areas are covered by longitudinal dunes. The northwestern region of the desert is one which gives rise to the heat lows which help drive the NW monsoon. There, almost all rain comes from monsoon thunderstorms or the occasional tropical cyclone rain depression. Frost does not occur in most of the area in the far north. The regions bordering the Gibson Desert in the far southeast may record a light frost or two every year, with frost being more prevalent in the Tanami region. Away from the coast winter nights can still be chilly in comparison to the warm days. Minimum winter temperatures dip to in most parts of the desert. Tourism Tourism is a major industry across the Great Australian desert, and commonwealth and state tourism agencies explicitly target Outback Australia as a sought after destination for domestic and international travelers. Tourism Australia explicitly markets nature-based and Indigenous-led experiences to tourists. In the 2015–2016 financial year, 815,000 visitors spent $988 million while on holidays in the Northern Territory alone. At Katjarra, there are two camping spots, with shed tanks and long-drop toilets, and Indigenous rangers are available to show tourists the part of the range that is open to the public. Riversleigh, in Queensland, is one of Australia's most renowned fossil sites and was recorded as a World Heritage site in 1994. The 100 km2 (39 sq mi) area contains fossil remains of ancient mammals, birds and reptiles of Oligocene and Miocene age. There are several popular tourist attractions in the desert, which include: Arkaroola and Wilpena Pound in the Flinders Ranges Australian Stockman's Hall of Fame Devils Marbles Kakadu National Park Kata Tjuta (The Olgas) Katherine Gorge Kings Canyon (Watarrka) MacDonnell Ranges Monkey Mia Mount Augustus National Park Uluru (Ayers Rock) Willandra Lakes Region Lake Mungo Gawler Ranges National Park Gawler Ranges Conservation Park Great Victoria Desert Nature Reserve Lake Gairdner National Park Mamungari Conservation Park Munga-Thirri National Park Karlamilyi National Park Mount Willoughby Indigenous Protected Area Nullarbor Regional Reserve Pureba Conservation Park Queen Victoria Spring Nature Reserve Tallaringa Conservation Park Watarru Indigenous Protected Area Yellabinna Regional Reserve Yellabinna Wilderness Protection Area Yumbarra Conservation Park Black Rock Conservation Park Bon Bon Station Conservation Reserve Bunkers Conservation Reserve Caroona Creek Conservation Park Coongie Lakes Ramsar Site Danggali Wilderness Protection Area Ediacara Conservation Park Elliot Price Conservation Park Gawler Ranges National Park Hiltaba Nature Reserve Ikara-Flinders Ranges National Park Ironstone Hill Conservation Park Kanku-Breakaways Conservation Park Kati Thanda-Lake Eyre National Park Kinchega National Park Lake Frome Regional Reserve Lake Gairdner National Park Lake Gilles Conservation Park Lake Torrens National Park Mount Brown Conservation Park Mount Willoughby Indigenous Protected Area Munyaroo Conservation Park Mutawintji National Park Nantawarrina Indigenous Protected Area Pandappa Conservation Park Pinkawillinie Conservation Park Pualco Range Conservation Park Simpson Desert Regional Reserve Strzelecki Regional Reserve Sturt National Park The Dutchmans Stern Conservation Park Vulkathunha-Gammon Ranges National Park Wabma Kadarbu Mound Springs Conservation Park Whyalla Conservation Park Winninowie Conservation Park Witchelina Nature Reserve Witjira National Park Yalpara Conservation Park Yellabinna Regional Reserve Yellabinna Wilderness Protection Area Yumbarra Conservation Park Mining Other than agriculture and tourism, the primary economic activity in the vast and sparsely settled desert is mining. Owing to the almost complete absence of mountain building and glaciation since the Permian (in many areas since the Cambrian) ages, the outback is extremely rich in iron, aluminum, manganese and uranium ores, and also contains major deposits of gold, nickel, copper, lead and zinc ores. Because of its size, the value of grazing and mining is considerable. Major mines and mining areas in the Outback include opals at Coober Pedy, Lightning Ridge and White Cliffs, metals at Broken Hill, Tennant Creek, Olympic Dam and the remote Challenger Mine. Oil and gas are extracted in the Cooper Basin around Moomba. The Tanami Desert features The Granites gold mine and Coyote Gold Mine. In Western Australia the Argyle diamond mine in the Kimberley is the world's biggest producer of natural diamonds and contributes approximately one-third of the world's natural supply. The Pilbara region's economy is dominated by mining and petroleum industries. Most of Australia's iron ore is also mined in the Pilbara and it also has one of the world's major manganese mines. Transport The outback is reticulated by historic tracks with excellent bitumen surface and well-maintained dirt roads. The Stuart Highway runs from north to south through the centre of the continent, roughly paralleled by the Tarcoola-Darwin railway line. There is a proposal to develop some of the roads running from the south-west to the north-east to create an all-weather road named the Outback Highway, crossing the continent diagonally from Laverton, Western Australia (north of Kalgoorlie), through the Northern Territory to Winton, in Queensland. Air transport is relied on for mail delivery in some areas, owing to sparse settlement and wet-season road closures. Most outback mines have an airstrip and many have a fly-in fly-out workforce. Roads in the desert include: Birdsville Track Burke Developmental Road Canning Stock Route Colson Track Connie Sue Highway French Line Gary Highway Gibb River Road Great Central Road Gunbarrel Highway Kalumburu Road Kidman Way Lasseter Highway Oodnadatta Track Peninsula Developmental Road Plenty Highway Sandover Highway Strzelecki Track Talawana Track Tanami Track Towns Although the desert covers about three-quarters of the continent, it only supports around 800,000 residents – less than 5% of the Australian population. In addition, there are approximately 1,200 small Indigenous communities, of which almost half have a population of fewer than 100 people. The Royal Flying Doctor Service (RFDS) started service in 1928 and helps people who live in the outback of Australia. In former times, serious injuries or illnesses often meant death due to the lack of proper medical facilities and trained personnel. Young Indigenous adults from the Gibson Desert region work in the Wilurarra Creative programs to maintain and develop their culture. Indigenous Australians in the desert regions include the Kogara, the Mirning and the Pitjantjatjara. Aboriginal populations have been increasing in this region. Inhabited areas within the Great Australian desert include many towns and as well as some cities, such as: Northern Territory Yulara Alice Springs Elliot Tennant Creek New South Wales/Victoria Broken Hill Cobar Wilcannia Bourke Mildura Wentworth Tibooburra Western Australia Dampier Kalgoorlie Wiluna Carnarvon Karratha Paraburdoo Port Hedland Halls Creek Fitzroy Crossing Newman Exmouth Meekatharra Eucla Wyndham Queensland Mount Isa Cloncurry Cunnamulla Longreach South Australia Whyalla Coober Pedy Ceduna Renmark Port Augusta Port Pirie Oodnadatta Roxby Downs Andamooka Languages and people The Aboriginal languages with the most speakers today in the desert include Upper Arrernte, Walmajarri, Warlpiri, and the Western Desert languages within the Western Desert cultural bloc, such as the Wati languages, the Panyjima language, Wangkatha, Noongar language, the Yankunytjatjara dialect and the Pitjantjatjara dialect. There is also the Adnyamathanha language in South Australia. Other (extant) language clusters include the Kalkatungic languages, Ngarna languages Arandic languages, Ngumpin–Yapa languages, Warumungu languages, Ngayarda languages, Kanyara-Mantharta languages and Thura-Yura languages. Most of these languages belong in the Pama–Nyungan language family. Ethnic groups include the Kartudjara, Warumungu people, Pitjantjatjara, Panyjima people, Kuyani, Yankunytjatjara, Kunapa, Manjiljarra, Ayerrereng, Yuruwinga, Yulparija and the Maduwongga. Popular culture Popular movies set or filmed in the Australian desert include: Kangaroo (1952) Wake in Fright (1971) Walkabout (1971) Mad Max (1979) The Road Warrior (1981) Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome (1985) Crocodile Dundee (1986) Crocodile Dundee II (1988) Evil Angels (1988) Quigley Down Under (1990) The Rescuers Down Under (1990) The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert (1994) Napoleon (1995) Welcome to Woop Woop (1997) Rabbit-Proof Fence (2002) The Tracker (2002) Kangaroo Jack (2003) Wolf Creek (2005) The Proposition (2005) Rogue (2007) Australia (2008) Bran Nue Dae (2009) Last Ride (2009) Samson and Delilah (2009) Red Dog (2012) Satellite Boy (2012) Blinky Bill the Movie (2015) Sweet Country (2017) Bilby (2018) High Ground (2020) See also Bushland Irrigation in Australia Outback The bush References Further reading Johnson, John & Catherine de Courcy.(1998) Desert Tracks Port Melbourne, Vic. Lothian Books. External links The Australian Landscape, A Cultural History – A four-part program exploring the way Europeans and Aboriginal people have engaged with the desert, through art, science and religion, from ABC Radio National Encarta (Archived 2009-10-31) World Book Rural geography Regions of Australia Australian outback Deserts and xeric shrublands Physiographic provinces Geography of Australia Biogeography of Australia Vegetation of Australia

4486552

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar%20Infrastructure%20for%20Exploration

Lunar Infrastructure for Exploration

The Lunar Infrastructure for Exploration (LIFE) is a project to build a space telescope on the far side of the Moon, and is actively promoted by EADS Astrium Space Transportation of Germany and the Netherlands Foundation for Research in Astronomy ASTRON/LOFAR. The project was presented for the first time publicly at the 2005 IAF Congress in Fukuoka. The 1.3 billion euro project would involve a radio telescope to be located on the polar region of the far side of the Moon. It is proposed to start the program at the ESA January 2008 ministerial council. Launched between 2013 and 2015, the radio telescope could look for exoplanets and detect signals in the 1-10 MHz range. Such signals cannot be detected on Earth because of ionosphere interference. The radio telescope would consist of a lander vehicle that would deploy dipoles across a 300-400 m area. The dipoles, which receive the cosmic radio signals, would be deployed either by a dispenser or by a team of small mobile robots. The South Polar location would ensure permanent sunlight and direct communication with Earth. The telescope lander would also carry geophones, which could listen to meteorite impacts on the Moon's surface. Another German aerospace consortium, OHB-System, is also promoting a lunar lander concept called Mona Lisa, showing that there is a strong push in Europe for a lunar lander in the medium term. Models of both concepts were displayed at ILA in 2006. See also List of space telescopes References Astron - EADS press release LIFE on Moon Space telescopes Proposed spacecraft Exploration of the Moon

4487597

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mylswamy%20Annadurai

Mylswamy Annadurai

Mylswamy Annadurai, popularly known as Moon Man of India, is an Indian scientist working as vice president for Tamil Nadu State Council for Science and Technology (TNSCST), Chairman, Board of Governors, National Design and Research Forum(NDRF. He was born on 2 July 1958, in a village called Kothavadi near Pollachi in Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu state of India). Prior to taking this assignment he was with Indian Space Research Organisation and served as Director, ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC), Bangalore. During his 36 years of service in ISRO, he had some of the major contributions, including two of the major missions of ISRO, namely Chandrayaan-1 and Mangalyaan. Annadurai has been listed among 100 Global thinkers of 2014 and topped the innovators list. His works are mentioned in textbooks of Tamil Nadu Board of Secondary Education Early life and education Annadurai had his schooling in his native village Kodhavady and nearby town Pollachi. He obtained a bachelor's degree in engineering (Electronics and Communication) in 1980 from Government College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India, and completed his master's degree in engineering during 1982 from PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore and PhD from Anna University of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu in India. He joined ISRO in 1982. As the mission director of INSAT missions, he made some of the original contributions to the INSAT systems maintenance. Mars Orbiter Mission India's first mission to Mars, the Mars Orbiter Mission, or Mangalyaan, reached the planet on 24 September 2014 completing its 300-day journey. While ISRO has been researching a Mars mission for many years, the project was only approved by the government in August 2012. ISRO took over a year to work on the spacecraft and bring the project to implementation stage. The Mars Orbiter Mission was launched on 5 November 2013 from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh, on the country's east coast. After travelling 670 million kilometres, Mangalyaan is now set to study the surface features, morphology, mineralogy and Martian atmosphere to better understand the climate, geology, origin, evolution and sustainability of life on the planet. It is the most cost effective of all the missions sent to the planet by any other country costing India about $74 million. Chandrayaan I & II Chandrayaan-1 was India's first mission to the Moon launched by India's national space agency, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). The uncrewed lunar exploration mission included a lunar orbiter and an impactor. India launched the spacecraft by a modified version of the PSLV C11 on 22 October 2008 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota, Nellore District, Andhra Pradesh about 80 km north of Chennai at 06:22 IST (00:52 UTC). The mission was a major boost to India's space program, and India joined a band of Asian nations (China and Japan) in exploring the Moon. The vehicle was successfully inserted into lunar orbit on 8 November 2008. During the period 2004–2008, as the project director for Chandrayaan I, he led a team of engineers and scientists that designed and developed the project to carry instrumentation from ISRO and from NASA, ESA, and Bulgaria to accomplish simultaneous chemical, mineralogical, resource and topographic mapping of the entire lunar surface at high spatial and spectral resolutions. The project was realised within the time frame stipulated and the budget granted. He has paved the way for the future of Indian planetary missions and set an example for international cooperation bringing international organisations like NASA, ESA, and JAXA to work under the leadership of ISRO. Chandrayaan I has received many national and international awards including, the Space Pioneers award for science and engineering at the 28th International conference on Space development, in Florida USA in 2009. Director, ISRO Satellite Centre From 2015 to 2018 Annadurai was heading ISRO Satellite Centre, Bangalore as director. The centre is responsible for building satellites for communication, remote sensing, navigation, space science and interplanetary missions. In his tenure as Director of the centre he has overseen making, launching and operationalisation of 30 state of the art satellites. Post retirement from ISRO In 2019 Mylswamy Annadurai was appointed as vice president for Tamil Nadu State Council for Science and Technology. In the same year he has been also nominated as chairman, Board of Governors, National Design and Research Forum (NDRF) He uses both positions effectively for the development of science and technology both at the state and national level, starting from science outreach at school level to guiding some high-end collaborative research of social relevance by bringing together research labs, academia, industry and policymakers, Films In the movie Mission Mangal based on India's Mars mission, the character of Akshay Kumar is inspired from Annadurai In the feature film Chandrayaan based on India's first Moon mission Chandrayaan-1 directed and produced by Santhosh George Kulangara, his and his family members' roles were enacted by south Indian cine artists. Previous assignments During his 36 years of service in ISRO Dr Annadurai held various responsibilities. Prior to becoming the Centre Director, he served as programme director for IRS&SSS (Indian Remote Sensing & Small, Science and Student Satellites) that include Chandrayaan-1, Chandrayaan-2, ASTROSAT, Aditya-L1, Mars Orbiter Mission and many Indian Remote Sensing missions. He also contributed to India's National Communication satellite (INSAT) missions as the Mission Director. He was the member secretary of the task team that prepared Chandrayaan I project report. He is the author of several research papers in his specialization. Annadurai's career profile is as follows, 1982 : Joined ISRO 1985-88 : Team leader to develop S/W satellite Simulator 1988-92 : Spacecraft operations manager, IRS-1A 1992-96 : Spacecraft operations manager, INSAT-2A 1993-96 : Spacecraft operations manager, INSAT-2B 1994-96 : Deputy project director, INSAT-2C 1996-01 : Mission director, INSAT-2C 1997-98 : Mission director, INSAT-2D 1999-12 : Mission director, INSAT-2E 2000-10 : Mission director, INSAT-3B 2001-02 : Mission director, GSAT-1 2003-11 : Mission director, INSAT-3E 2003-05 : Associate project director, EDUSAT 2004-09 : Project director, Chandrayaan-1 2008-13 : Project director, Chandrayaan-2 2011-15 : Programme director, IRS & SSS (Indian Remote Sensing & Small, Science and Student Satellites) 2015-18 : Director, ISRO Satellite Centre, Bangalore 2019 - : Vice president, Tamil Nadu State Council for Science and Technology 2019 - : Chairman, board of governors, National Research and Design Forum During his holidays, Annadurai tours across the country to meet and interact with the students to encourage them to study science. Awards and achievements Annadurai has received more than a hundred awards, including, Awards from government Padma Shri, 2016, one of the highest civilian awards in India. The government of Karnataka awarded him the Rajyotsava Prashasti for Science (2008). Awards from universities and academia Doctor of Science, DSc (Honoris Causa) conferred by Pondicherry University(2009) Doctor of Science, DSc (Honoris Causa) conferred by Anna University, Chennai(2009) Doctor of Science, DSc (Honoris Causa) conferred by University of Madras, Chennai (2009) Doctor of Science, DSc (Honoris Causa) conferred by MGR University, Chennai (2008) Eminent Scientist Award from 76th Indian Science Congress – Madurai Kamaraj University Endowment. Distinguished Alumni Award, PSG College of Technology, 2009. Sir CV Raman Award-2010 from Periyar University, Salem Jewel of GCT(Government College of Technology, Coimbatore) by GCT Alumni Personality of the year Awarded by St. Johns International School, Chennai Hikal Chemcon Distinguished Speaker Award 2010, the 63rd Annual Session of Indian Institute of Chemical Engineers, Annamalai University. National Science and Technology Award, 2011, Sathyabama University, Chennai. Distinguished Scientist Award, KC College, Mumbai, Diamond Jubilee Award Awards from ISRO Annadurai is the recipient of the Hariom Ashram pretit Vikram Sarabhai Research Award for his outstanding Contributions to Systems analysis and Space systems management(2004). He is also the recipient of a citation from ISRO for his contribution to the INSAT systems Mission management(2003) Team Excellence award for his contribution to the Indian Space Program (2007). ISRO Merit Award 2009 Team Excellence Award 2010 as team leader of Chandrayaan-1 team ISRO Outstanding Achievement award, 2014 National and international awards from professional bodies Laurels for Team Achievement Chandrayaan-1, International Academy of Astronautics,2013, Beijing China Certificate of Appreciation from Boeing Asian – American professional Association, Houston, USA Space Systems award, 2009 from American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, US. National Aeronautical Award-2008 from Aeronautical Society of India in recognition of his contributions in the field of satellites/spacecraft Fellow, International Academy of Astronautics Fellow, Institution of Engineers, India(FIE) Fellow, Institution of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering, India (IETE) Fellow, Indian Society for Remote Sensing (ISRS) Fellow, Society for shock wave research, Dept. of Aerospace Eng, Indian Institute of Science (IISC), Bangalore Fellow, Chennai Science Academy(Formerly Tamil Nadu Science Academy) NIQR Bajaj Award for "Outstanding Quality Man 2009" H K Firodia awards, 2009 for Science and Technology IEI-IEEE Engineering Excellence award 2016 for Contributions and Leadership in Space Technology in service of Humanity BHASKARA Award 2016 for his outstanding Scientific Leadership SIES (South Indian Education Society) Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswati National Eminence Award, 2009 for Science and Technology "Lifetime Contribution Award" AISYWC-18 Listed in the TNIE-Uninor Achiever of the year 2009, Listed in the Dinamalar-Uninor Achiever of the year 2009, Pearl Ratna,2020 by Pearl Education Foundation Best Conference paper in the Innovations and Entrepreneurship, Annual Intl Conference by Industry Studies Association, USA, 3-4 Jun 2021 that carried US$500 cash prize and an award plaque Dr APJ Abdulkalam memorial Science and technology Achievement award,2023 by Indian Science Forum Oman at National University for Science and Technology, Oman Awards from social and public forums Vivekananda Award for Human Excellence by Rama Krishna Mission Kongu Achiever Award 2009 From NIA Trust, Pollachi. Best Tamil Scientist Award, Makkal Viruthu, Makkal TV, 2009 Amara Bharathi National Eminence Award for Science and Technology, 2010 Karmaveerar Kamaraj Award,2010 from Chennai Mhahajana sabha Dr Rajah Sir Muthiah Chettiar Birthday Commemoration Award for 2012. "Listed among 100 Global thinkers of 2014 and topped the innovators list " Lifetime achievement award, 2015, SRV Schools, Trichy Tamilan Award 2016, for Science and Technology by Puthiya Thalaimurai TV Global Indian for Science, 2017 awarded by ICICI and Times Group Life Time Achievement Award in the field of science and technology by Union Bank of India C.Pa.Aditanar Literary Award 2013 Poorna Chandra award from Rotary Club, Coimbatore. Tamil Ma-mani award, from Tirupur Tamil Sangam. Tamil Achiever Award,2011 by Bharathi Tamil Sangam, Kolkata. Example to Youth Award. Kalingarayar Award -2016, by Kongu Charitable Trust, Tamil Nadu Citizen Extraordinary Award-2014, by Rotary Club Bangalore Lifetime Achievement – Muthamizh Award-2108, Muthamizh Peravai "Mars Man", by Front liners- 2018, Kuwait, Lifetime Achievement Award, 2019, Rotary International Pollachi Life Time Achievement Award, 2019, by Govt Higher Secondary School Alumni, Velandampalayam, Tamil Nadu Mahatma Gandhi Award, 2019, Gandhi World Foundation, Lifetime Achievement award, 2019, Muscat Tamil Sangam, Sri Adhi Sankara Award, 2019, Shri Adhi Sankara Peravai, Sony YAY award,2020, Senthamiz Award, 2021, Gandhi World Peace Foundation Manavai Mustafa Memorial Award for Science, 2021 Annadurai's publications and works are being widely referred by satellite operators, one of his works has been referred in a US patent. He has written six books in Tamil namely, 1.Kaiyaruke Nila 2.Siragai virikkum Mangalyaan 3.Valarum Ariviyal 4.Ariviyal Kalanjiyam and 5.Vinnum Mannum. 6. India-75 The Book" Kaiyaruke Nila" has won S. P. Adithanar Literary award for the year 2013. The book, " Vinnum Mannum" has won Manvai Mustafa Memorial Science Award for the year 2021 References External links Website on Dr Mylswamy Annadurai's Biography Video on Mylswamy Annadurai's life Speeches and Videos of Dr. Mylswamy Annadurai Mylswamy Annadurai in the electronic media Chat with India's Moon man Mylswamy Annadurai in Tamil Media Moon Man A Star is born The man who will give India the moon MOM in Mission Mode How ISRO mission gave India the moon it asked for Annadurai,M Annadurai,M Annadurai,M Annadurai,M Space programme of India Annadurai,Mylswamy Indian lunar exploration programme Indian aerospace engineers Recipients of the Padma Shri in science & engineering 20th-century Indian engineers Recipients of the Rajyotsava Award 2008

4487635

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dee%20Caffari

Dee Caffari

Denise "Dee" Caffari MBE (born 23 January 1973) is a British sailor, and in 2006 became the first woman to sail single-handedly and non-stop around the world "the wrong way"; westward against the prevailing winds and currents. In February 2009, Caffari completed the Vendée Globe race and set a new record to become the first woman to sail solo, non-stop, around the world in both directions. Early life Descended from a Maltese sea captain, Caffari grew up in Rickmansworth, Hertfordshire and attended St. Clement Danes School. Caffari studied at Leeds Metropolitan University and became a PE teacher for 5 years before beginning her sailing career. Caffari trained at UKSA (based in Cowes, Isle of Wight) completing her Yachtmaster course and a range of ocean qualifications. Caffari then worked for Formula 1 Sailing, first as a skipper and then as the manager of their fleet of Farr 65s in the UK and the Caribbean. Awards On 2 December 2006, she was a runner up for BBC South Sports Personality of the Year. She did win the Tenon Yachtsperson of the Year award. In 2007 she was awarded an MBE for service to sailing. Shortlisted in 2011 for the World Sailing – Rolex World Sailing of the Year Award Sailing career Highlight Background Her initial professional sailing career was spent working for both Sir Robin Knox-Johnson and Sir Chay Blyth sailing adventure companies, so her progression into being a round the world sailing pioneer was not a surprise. Her first round the world voyage came as skipper of Imagine It. Done in the 2004 Global Challenge Round the World Yacht Race. The Global Challenge was an amateur crew who paid to race around the world with a professional skipper in matching Challenge 72 yachts. The only similar race is Clipper Round the Race but the challenge race went against the prevailing wind conditions and traded under the term "The World Toughest Yacht Race" for this reason. Dee managed one serious situation when a crewmember needed to be airlifted off in the Southern Ocean by the New Zealand Rescue Service due to an abdominal infection. On 20 November 2005, she set off on her attempt to single-handedly circumnavigate the world against the prevailing winds and currents. She finished on 18 May 2006, at 17:55pm, after 178 days at sea. Her voyage was sponsored by Aviva. In January 2007 Caffari announced that she would be taking part in the 2008/09 – Vendée Globe singlehanded round the world yacht race, again sponsored by Aviva. In March 2007 she announced a technical partnership with Mike Golding to allow both the British entries in the Vendée Globe to work together. In December 2007 she had to be rescued by Royal Navy frigate HMS Northumberland after dismasting in severe weather off northwest Spain whilst competing singlehanded in the Transat Ecover B2B Race. She was a guest skipper on Maiden'''s global voyage in 2018 in support of The Maiden Factor Foundation. Role within the Community Dee has been an enthusiastic supporter of charities such as Toe in The Water (using competitive sailing to re-inspire injured servicemen), and Sail 4 Cancer. In October 2011, Dee Caffari accepted the role as the new patron for the charity Gosport and Fareham Inshore Rescue Service which is an independent lifeboat station based in Stokes Bay local to where Dee Caffari lives. Dee Caffari sits on the Operations Board of the Royal National Lifeboat Institution, and is an Honorary Commander in the Royal Navy. In 2018 she became the first Chair the World Sailing Trust a World Sailing initiative looking at Marine Health, Youth Development and Access. In 2021 she was BRIT Ambassador championing the BRIT 2021 Challenge a mental health charity. Publications In September 2007, Caffari's autobiography Against the Flow was published by Adlard Coles Nautical. In March 2009, Caffari's autobiography Against the Flow'' was re-published in paperback with an additional chapter charting the lead up to her Vendee Globe entry and subsequent world record achievement. References External links 1973 births Living people People educated at St. Clement Danes School English female sailors (sport) People from Rickmansworth Members of the Order of the British Empire Alumni of Leeds Beckett University English people of Maltese descent Volvo Ocean 65 class sailors Volvo Ocean Race sailors IMOCA 60 class sailors British Vendee Globe sailors 2008 Vendee Globe sailors Vendée Globe finishers Single-handed circumnavigating sailors

4502075

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasi%27

Nasi'

Nasiʾ (, an-Nasīʾ, "postponement"), also spelled Nasii, or Nasie, was an aspect of the pre-Islamic Arabian calendar, mentioned in the Quran in the context of the "four forbidden months". In pre-Islamic Arabia, the decision of "postponement" had been administered by the Banu Kinanah, by a man known as the al-Qalammas (pl. qalāmisa). Different interpretations of its meaning have been proposed. Postponement unrelated to a fixed-season calendar Some scholars maintain that the pre-Islamic calendar used in Central Arabia was a purely lunar calendar similar to the modern Islamic calendar. According to this view, nasīʾ is related to the pagan practices of the Meccan Arabs, where they would alter the distribution of the forbidden months within a given year without implying a calendar manipulation. This interpretation is supported by Arab historians and lexicographers, like Ibn Hisham, Ibn Manzur, and the corpus of tafsir. Thus the Encyclopaedia of Islam concludes, "The Arabic system of [Nasīʾ] can only have been intended to move the Hajj and the fairs associated with it in the vicinity of Mecca to a suitable season of the year. It was not intended to establish a fixed calendar to be generally observed." This interpretation is also corroborated by an early Sabaean language inscription, where a religious ritual was "postponed" (ns'ʾw) due to war. According to the context of this inscription, the verb ns'ʾ has nothing to do with intercalation, but only with moving religious events within the calendar itself. The similarity between the religious concept of this ancient inscription and the Qur'an suggests that non-calendaring postponement is also the Qur'anic meaning of Nasīʾ. As lunisolar intercalation Others concur that the pre-Islamic calendar was originally a lunar calendar, but suggest that about 200 years before the Hijra it was transformed into a lunisolar calendar containing an intercalary month added from time to time to keep the pilgrimage within the season of the year when merchandise was most abundant. This interpretation was first proposed by the Muslim astrologer and astronomer Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi (787–886), and later by al-Biruni (973 – after 1050), al-Mas'udi (c. 896–956), and some Western scholars. This view was also held by the Quran scholar and translator Abdullah Yusuf Ali (1872–1953). This interpretation considers Nasīʾ to be a synonym to the Arabic word for "intercalation" (kabīsa). It also suggests that every second or third year the beginning of the year was postponed by one month. The intercalation doubled the month of the pilgrimage, that is, the month of the pilgrimage and the following month were given the same name, postponing the names and the sanctity of all subsequent months in the year by one. The first intercalation doubled the first month Muharram, then three years later the second month Safar was doubled, continuing until the intercalation had passed through all twelve months of the year and returned to Muharram, when it was repeated. The Arabs, according to one explanation mentioned by Abu Ma'shar, learned of this type of intercalation from the Hebrew calendar used by the Jews, since intercalation was announced by the Nasi, meaning "prince", or "ruler". The Hebrew calendar as commanded in Exodus 12, is necessarily lunisolar, because the lunar new year is fixed to the month of Aviv, or spring, and cannot rotate through the year. Prohibition under Islam In the tenth year of the Hijra, according to chapter 9:36–37, a prohibition of Nasīʾ was enacted: The prohibition of Nasīʾ would presumably have been announced when the intercalated month had returned to its position just before the month of Nasīʾ began. If Nasīʾ meant intercalation, then the number and the position of the intercalary months between 1 AH and 10 AH are uncertain; Western calendar dates commonly cited for key events in early Islam such as the Hijra, the Battle of Badr, the Battle of Uhud and the Battle of the Trench, should be viewed with caution as they might be in error by one, two or even three lunar months. This prohibition was mentioned by Muhammad during the Farewell Sermon which was delivered on 9 Dhu al-Hijjah 10 AH (Julian date Friday March 6, 632) on Mount Arafat during the Farewell Pilgrimage to Mecca. The three successive forbidden months mentioned by Muhammad (months in which battles are forbidden) are Dhu al-Qi'dah, Dhu al-Hijjah, and Muharram, months 11, 12, and 1. The single forbidden month is Rajab, month 7. These months were considered forbidden both within the new Islamic calendar and within the pre-Islamic Meccan calendar. See also Islamic calendar Lunisolar calendar References Islamic calendar Pre-Islamic Arabia Quranic words and phrases

4503560

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gleink%20Abbey

Gleink Abbey

Gleink Abbey (Stift or Kloster Gleink) was a Benedictine monastery located in the town of Steyr in Austria. The monastery was founded in the early 12th century by Arnhalm I of Glunich with monks from Garsten Abbey. Upon its dissolution in 1784, the abbey church became the church for the parish. From 1832 to 1977, the monastery housed a girls' academy. Benedictine abbey It was founded in the early 12th century, shortly after the foundation of Garsten Abbey, by the local nobleman, Arnhalm I of Glunich, who gave his castle for conversion to a monastery. The premises, dedicated to Saint Andrew, were ready for occupation in the 1120s. Gleink was settled from Garsten Abbey, from where the first abbot, Ulrich, came. The family of the original founder, after running short of money, were obliged to pass the position of Vogt (lord protector) to Leopold the Strong, Margrave of Styria, who also issued the foundation charter in 1125 and endowed the abbey with property, notably around the present Gleinkersee. He then gave the abbey to Bishop Otto of Bamberg. The abbey suffered fire damage in 1220, 1275 and 1313, but narrowly escaped destruction at the hands of the invading Hungarians in the late 15th century and the marauding Turks in 1532, although they caused devastation in the surrounding area. Later in the 16th century the Reformation and the spread of Lutheranism caused more difficulties. In 1561, Emperor Ferdinand wrote, in discussing the ecclesiastical situation in the archduchy of Upper and Lower Austria, "...the conventuals at Gleink were all married and lived in drunkenness and gluttony." The trend began to reverse from 1575 with the appointment of Abbot Georg Andreas (1575–1585) from Niederaltaich Abbey. The abbey also suffered damage during the Thirty Years' War. From the later 17th century however more favourable circumstances allowed the development and refurbishment of the premises in the Baroque style, principally associated at Gleink with Abbot Rupert II Freysauf von Neudegg (1709–1735). Abbot Wolfgang Hofmayr, well known as a preacher and a professor in the University of Salzburg, took office in 1762. He was the last abbot: the monastery was dissolved under Joseph II on 21 May 1784. The former monastery church became the a parish church and is dedicated to the Apostle Andreas. From 1625 until its dissolution the abbey was a member of the Benedictine Austrian Congregation. Library The continuing difficulties faced by the abbey were reflected in the depleted state of its library, which in 1599 contained only 110 printed books and 150 manuscripts. However, in the relative prosperity of the period from the mid-17th century onwards, the library grew, acquiring among other things the manuscript of the Gleinker Weltchronik (see below). At the dissolution, the library contents were divided between the Studienbibliothek (now the Linz University Library) and the Linz Diocesan Library. Perhaps the best-known item from the former abbey library is the illuminated manuscript known as the Gleinker Weltchronik, a history of the world based on the Bible. Produced in the mid-14th century, it contains an inscription placing it at Gleink in 1712. This manuscript is now Codex 472 of the Linz University Library. Convent of the Salesian Sisters After a short period of use as a barracks, the buildings were given to the Bishop of Linz as a summer residence. In 1832, at the invitation of the then bishop, Gregorius Thomas Ziegler, a community of Salesian Sisters from Vienna took up residence. The sisters turned the monastery into an academy for young women. The parish church served as the convent chapel. No new novices entered the community however after about 1950, and the convent was eventually closed in 1977. Missionaries of the Heart of Jesus Since the dissolution the parochial duties had been carried out by parish priests, but from 1950 were undertaken by the Missionary Order of the Heart of Jesus, who settled and run a boys' home here ever since. Steyr-Gleink Stiftsmuseum The premises today also accommodate a museum of religious objects, ecclesiastical embroidery and so on. Dwarf Garden Among the curiosities of the abbey was a set of Baroque stone dwarves, or garden gnomes, of the 18th century. They were removed in the 1970s to Schloss Lamberg in Steyr. Similar sets of the same period are to be found in Lambach Abbey, among other places. References External links Steyr-Gleink Stiftsmuseum History of the Abbey The Dwarves of Gleink Gleinker Weltchronik Benedictine monasteries in Austria Christian monasteries established in the 12th century Dwarves (folklore) Monasteries in Upper Austria Tourist attractions in Upper Austria Museums in Upper Austria Religious museums in Austria

4503806

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceroessa

Ceroessa

In Greek mythology, Ceroessa (Ancient Greek: Κερόεσσα Keroessa means "the horned") was a heroine of the foundational myth of Byzantium. She was the daughter of Io and Zeus; elder sister of Epaphus; and mother of Byzas, founder of Byzantium, with her uncle, Poseidon. Story According to the historian Hesychius of Miletus, as Io, changed into a heifer and being chased by a gadfly on behalf of the jealous Hera, was passing through Thrace, she gave birth to a girl, Keroessa, on the banks of the Golden Horn, by the altar of the nymph Semystra. According to legend, Keroessa's birthplace is called Semystra (today Eyüp district), where the rivers Kydaros (today Alibeyköy Stream) and Barbyses (today Kağıthane Stream) flow into the sea at the end of Chrysokeras (Golden Horn or Haliç). Semystra takes its name from the Semystra Altar, where today Eyyub El Ensari's tomb is located, and its water is believed to have healing powers. Keroessa was reared by Semystra and grew up surpassing other local maidens in beauty. She had intercourse with Poseidon and in due course gave birth to a son, whom she named Byzas. He became the founder of Byzantium (today Sarayburnu, where Topkapı Palace was built) and named the Golden Horn (Greek Χρυσόκερας) after his mother. Ceroessa also had another son named Strombos. Strombos fought with his brother and the Byzantines. According to Nonnus, Keroessa's birthplace was the same as that of her brother Epaphus, i. e. Egypt. References External links History of Istanbul and Keroessa by Prof. Dr. Erendiz Ozbayoglu (in English) Turkish Numismatic Society Bulletin No: 33 (in Turkish; Keroessa and History of Istanbul explained, together with the Istanbul Mint) Foundation of Istanbul, Virtual Istanbul Loves of Zeus (in English) History of Istanbul, Istanbul Life (in English) Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism (in English) Children of Zeus Constantinople Women of Poseidon

4504648

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active%20asteroid

Active asteroid

Active asteroids are small Solar System bodies that have asteroid-like orbits but show comet-like visual characteristics. That is, they show comae, tails, or other visual evidence of mass-loss (like a comet), but their orbit remains within Jupiter's orbit (like an asteroid). These bodies were originally designated main-belt comets (MBCs) in 2006 by astronomers David Jewitt and Henry Hsieh, but this name implies they are necessarily icy in composition like a comet and that they only exist within the main-belt, whereas the growing population of active asteroids shows that this is not always the case. The first active asteroid discovered is 7968 Elst–Pizarro. It was discovered (as an asteroid) in 1979 but then was found to have a tail by Eric Elst and Guido Pizarro in 1996 and given the cometary designation 133P/Elst-Pizarro. Orbits Unlike comets, which spend most of their orbit at Jupiter-like or greater distances from the Sun, active asteroids follow orbits within the orbit of Jupiter that are often indistinguishable from the orbits of standard asteroids. Jewitt defines active asteroids as those bodies that, in addition to having visual evidence of mass loss, have an orbit with: semi-major axis a < aJupiter (5.20 AU) Tisserand parameter with respect to Jupiter TJ > 3.08 Jewitt chooses 3.08 as the Tisserand parameter to separate asteroids and comets instead of 3.0 (the Tisserand parameter of Jupiter itself) to avoid ambiguous cases caused by the real Solar System deviating from an idealized restricted three-body problem. The first three identified active asteroids all orbit within the outer part of the asteroid belt. Activity Some active asteroids display a cometary dust tail only for a part of their orbit near perihelion. This strongly suggests that volatiles at their surfaces are sublimating, driving off the dust. Activity in 133P/Elst–Pizarro is recurrent, having been observed at each of the last three perihelia. The activity persists for a month or several out of each 5-6 year orbit, and is presumably due to ice being uncovered by minor impacts in the last 100 to 1000 years. These impacts are suspected to excavate these subsurface pockets of volatile material helping to expose them to solar radiation. When discovered in January 2010, P/2010 A2 (LINEAR) was initially given a cometary designation and thought to be showing comet-like sublimation, but P/2010 A2 is now thought to be the remnant of an asteroid-on-asteroid impact. Observations of 596 Scheila indicated that large amounts of dust were kicked up by the impact of another asteroid of approximately 35 meters in diameter. P/2013 R3 P/2013 R3 (Catalina–PanSTARRS) was discovered independently by two observers by Richard E. Hill using the Catalina Sky Survey's 0.68-m Schmidt telescope and by Bryce T. Bolin using the 1.8-m Pan-STARRS1 telescope on Haleakala. The discovery images taken by Pan-STARRS1 showed the appearance of two distinct sources within 3" of each other combined with a tail enveloping both sources. In October 2013, follow-up observations of P/2013 R3, taken with the 10.4 m Gran Telescopio Canarias on the island of La Palma, showed that this comet was breaking apart. Inspection of the stacked CCD images obtained on October 11 and 12 showed that the main-belt comet presented a central bright condensation that was accompanied on its movement by three more fragments, A,B,C. The brightest A fragment was also detected at the reported position in CCD images obtained at the 1.52 m telescope of the Sierra Nevada Observatory in Granada on October 12. NASA reported on a series of images taken by the Hubble Space Telescope between October 29, 2013, and January 14, 2014, that show the increasing separation of the four main bodies. The Yarkovsky–O'Keefe–Radzievskii–Paddack effect, caused by sunlight, increased the spin rate until the centrifugal force caused the rubble pile to separate. Dimorphos By smashing into the asteroid moon of the binary asteroid 65803 Didymos, NASA's Double Asteroid Redirection Test spacecraft made Dimorphos an active asteroid. Scientists had proposed that some active asteroids are the result of impact events, but no one had ever observed the activation of an asteroid. The DART mission activated Dimorphos under precisely known and carefully observed impact conditions, enabling the detailed study of the formation of an active asteroid for the first time. Observations show that Dimorphos lost approximately 1 million kilograms after the collision. Impact produced a dust plume that temporarily brightened the Didymos system and developed a -long dust tail that persisted for several months. The DART impact is predicted to have caused global resurfacing and deformation of Dimorphos's shape, leaving an impact crater several tens of meters in diameter. The impact has likely sent Dimorphos into a chaotically tumbling rotation that will subject the moon to irregular tidal forces by Didymos before it will eventually return to a tidally locked state within several decades. Composition Some active asteroids show signs that they are icy in composition like a traditional comet, while others are known to be rocky like an asteroid. It has been hypothesized that main-belt comets may have been the source of Earth's water, because the deuterium–hydrogen ratio of Earth's oceans is too low for classical comets to have been the principal source. European scientists have proposed a sample-return mission from a MBC called Caroline to analyse the content of volatiles and collect dust samples. List Identified members of this morphology class (TJup>3.08) include: Exploration Castalia is a proposed mission concept for a robotic spacecraft to explore 133P/Elst–Pizarro and make the first in situ measurements of water in the asteroid belt, and thus, help solve the mystery of the origin of Earth's water. The lead is Colin Snodgrass, from The Open University in the UK. Castalia was proposed in 2015 and 2016 to the European Space Agency within the Cosmic Vision programme missions M4 and M5, but it was not selected. The team continues to mature the mission concept and science objectives. Because of the construction time required and orbital dynamics, a launch date of October 2028 was proposed. On January 6, 2019, the OSIRIS-REx mission first observed episodes of particle ejection from 101955 Bennu shortly after entering orbit around the near-Earth asteroid, leading it to be newly classified as an active asteroid and marking the first time that asteroid activity had been observed up close by a spacecraft. It has since observed at least 10 other such events. The scale of these observed mass loss events is much smaller than those previously observed at other active asteroids by telescopes, indicating that there is a continuum of mass loss event magnitudes at active asteroids. See also Centaur (minor planet) Extinct comet References External links Proper elements of active asteroids at Asteroid Families Portal Henry Hsieh's Main-Belt Comets page has extensive details on Main-belt comets David Jewitt. The Active Asteroids Planetary Society article on MBCs Discussion of possible differences in characteristics of the water in MBCs and other comets YouTube Interview with David Jewitt (discussion on main-belt comets starts around 9 minutes into video) Impact trigger mechanism diagram by David Jewitt Comet-like appearance of (596) Scheila Project T3: Finding Comets in the Asteroid Population New Comet: P/2012 T1 (PANSTARRS) (Remanzacco Observatory : 16 Oct 2012) P/2013 R3: a Main Belt Comet that is breaking apart. J. Licandro New images obtained with the GTC Asteroids Comets

4505461

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern%20Rift%20mountains

Eastern Rift mountains

The East African mountains are a mountain region in the African Great Lakes, within Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Burundi. Location and description The mountains are related to the East African Rift, and are in two chains, the Western Rift includes the Virunga Mountains, Mitumba Mountains, and the Rwenzori Range, while the mountains to the east include the largest peaks in Africa: the snow-covered Mount Kilimanjaro (5,895m, 19,340 ft), and Mount Kenya (5,199m, 17,058 ft). Other mountains in the Eastern Rift area include Mount Elgon in Kenya and Uganda. All but the Ruwenzori are of volcanic origin. The weather at the highest elevations is often cold and wet. Fauna The mountains are rich in wildlife, including animals who migrate to higher altitudes during the hot season in the surrounding savanna. The mountains are home to a number of endemic bird species such as Hinde's babbler which lives only on Mount Kenya. Threats and preservation The lower elevations of the mountains have been extensively used for forestry and for growing tea and coffee and much of the original forest has been lost, including the cloud forest that once covered much of Kilimanjaro. Climbing these mountains is a major attraction and Kilimanjaro National Park attracts hundreds of visitors each year, many of whom access the mountain from the coffee-growing town of Moshi. Exploration The mountains were discovered by Europeans in order of distance from the coast, which also happens to be in decreasing order of height. They were also explored and climbed in this order. References Afromontane Montane grasslands and shrublands Ecoregions of Africa Great Rift Valley Mountain ranges of Kenya Mountain ranges of Uganda Mountain ranges of Tanzania Mountain ranges of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Mountain ranges of Rwanda Mountain ranges of Burundi sv:Eastern Highlands (berg)

4507703

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seola

Seola

Seola is an antediluvian novel published in 1878, written by Ann Eliza Smith. The publishers of the novel are Boston: Lee and Shepard, New York: Charles T. Dillingham. The majority of the novel purports to be a translation of an ancient scroll diary written by a woman named Seola, who is identified as the wife of Japheth. The Book of Genesis indicates that Noah had three sons named Ham, Shem and Japheth. In the appendix section of the novel, Ann Smith describes how she was inspired to write the fantasy. She writes: "Seola is a fantasy, revealed to the writer while listening to the performance of an extraordinary musical composition. It was sudden and unforeseen as the landscape which sometimes appears to a benighted traveller, for one instant only, illumined by the lightning's flash. It does not therefore pretend to be either history or theology, but yet the theory upon which the story is founded is in strict accordance with the sacred writings of the Hebrews and traditions of other ancient nations." Some of her research into the ancient traditions of these nations can be found in her first published work, From Dawn to Sunrise. The appendix and notes section at the end of the novel Seola explain certain passages within the story and how they are supported by real ancient texts. Portions of the story can be perceived as extrapolations from the Haggada, the Mahabharata, The Book of Enoch and the creation myths of Greek mythology. Plot The greatest discovery of the nineteenth century is found by accident. A team of archaeologists uncover one of the most ancient burial tombs of all time. Inside the tomb they find something far greater than gold or gems, they find a diary of a person who lived more than four thousand years ago. The team pool all their knowledge together in order to translate the scroll diary before it disintegrates in the foreign air. The diary of Seola is about a girl's struggle to resist a wicked world. Her resolve to remain loyal to God is so strong she influences a fallen angel to repentance. The diary is unique because it gives a detailed account on how the Great Deluge started. One of the planets in the solar system becomes unstable and its destruction causes the waters above the expanse to fall. The beginning entry of the journal gave no doubt as to the era the individual claims to come from. The entry reads, “West Bank of the Euphrates, first moon-evening, after Adam, four cycles”. The author of the journal identifies herself as Seola, daughter of Aleemon and Lebuda. Her father was the son of Lamech and his father was Methuselah. Aleemon had a passion for study and the preservation of historical records. This desire kept him near a grand city which contained a wealth of knowledge on the history of the world written down on scrolls. The city's name was Sippara and it was also known as the city of the Sun. This desire also endangered the lives of his family. It so happened that the city was the royal seat of the one who ruled the planet. This ruler was known as Lucifer the Light Bearer, King of the Sun. He and his kind were ruling the earth for over 1100 years, since the days of Jared. These beings were known as the Devas. The Devas were angelic spirit beings that materialized into human form. Their superior powers enabled them to dominate and instill fear into the human race. They sought after the most beautiful women of mankind and took them as wives. Through the union of the mortal female and the angelic being came male children of large stature. These offspring were known as the Darvands. The Darvands were ruthless bullies with strength that none could match. Seola begins her journal at the request of her father. Her first entries are common and uneventful because the family has been relocated to an isolated section of the forest away from Sippara and their life is peaceful with the isolation. The tranquility eventually comes to an end because the Devas discover their private sanctuary. The threat to the family is neither by wealth or possession but by way of beauty. Derivative works In 1924, an anonymous author published a revision of Seola under the title Angels and Women Most names and places in the book were changed. In Angels and Women, Seola and Lucifer are named Aloma and Satanas, and the city of Sippara is called Balonia. The Golden Age Journal (now Awake magazine, published by Jehovah's Witnesses via the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania) of July 30, 1924, p. 702, recommended that its readers purchase a copy of Angels and Women: In 1977, in his Secrets of the Lost Races, Rene Noorbergen claims that in 1950, a certain "Dr. Philip Gooch" gave information about an ancient diary written on a scroll which told of the events leading up to the deluge to Aaron J. Smith, leader of the Oriental Archaeological Research Expedition to the supposed location of Noah's Ark on top of Mount Ararat. Gooch supposedly wrote: "The diary was written by Noah's daughter-in-law. The author of the Journal called herself Amoela and she claims to have been a student of Methuselah. He taught her about the history that transpired from the creation of Adam to the deluge. Her youngest son Javan placed the completed scroll diary in his mother's tomb after she died in the 547th year of her life. The diary was placed in a crystal quartz case, with tempered gold hinges and clasps. The crystal case was then found by a high ranking Mason in the latter part of the nineteenth century. The original and the translation of the diary were stored in an unknown Masonic Lodge." It is apparent that these details were derived by some means from either Seola or Angels and Women. An original first edition of Seola has sold for more than $3000 US Dollars on ebay.com. A first edition version of the 1924 Angels and Women has sold for more than $400 US Dollars on the addall.com book search website. Notes External links Full text of Seola (uncorrected) Good Company: Sunday Afternoon -a book review (on page 574) published in 1878 1878 American novels American Christian novels Novels based on the Bible Lucifer Sippar

4513764

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astra%201E

Astra 1E

Astra 1E is one of the Astra communications satellites in geostationary orbit owned and operated by SES. It was launched in October 1995 to the Astra 19.2°E orbital slot initially to provide digital television and radio for direct-to-home (DTH) across Europe. Astra 1E was the first Astra satellite to be dedicated to digital television broadcasting and it carried many of the first digital television channels from networks broadcasting to France, Germany, and other European countries in the 1990s. The satellite originally provided two broadcast beams, of horizontal and vertical polarisation, for Fixed Service Satellite (FSS) (10.70-10.95 GHz) and for Broadcast Satellite Service (BSS) (11.70-12.10 GHz) frequency bands. The FSS beams provide footprints that cover essentially the same area of Europe – northern, central and eastern Europe, including Spain and northern Italy – while the BSS horizontal beam excludes Spain and extends further east, and the BSS vertical beam includes Spain and more of southern Italy but does not extend so far east. Within the footprints, television signals are usually received with a 60–80 cm dish. History In October 2007, following the successful deployment of Astra 1L at 19.2° East, Astra 1E was moved to Astra's new DTH orbital position, 23.5° East where it provided capacity for the transmission of new services including the ASTRA2Connect two-way satellite broadband Internet service which provides high speed internet access and Voice over IP (VoIP) without landline connection at up to 2 Mbit/s download speeds and 128 kbit/s upload using four Ku-band transponders for both forward and return paths from the user's remote terminal. In May 2010, Astra 3B was launched to the 23.5° East position, coming into service in June 2010, at which time the services using Astra 1E were transferred to the new craft. In August 2010, Astra 1E left the 23.5° East position moving westwards, to the Astra 5°E position to provide backup for Astra 4A pending the launch of Astra 4B to that position in 2011. At 5° East, Astra 1E carried very little television traffic. Following the launch of Astra 4B (renamed to SES-5) in February 2012, Astra 1E was moved to 108.2° East, in inclined orbit and with no traffic, and then to 31.5° East in Summer 2013. It returned to 23° East in February 2015. in June 2015, the satellite was retired and was moved into a graveyard orbit above the geostationary belt, moving 5.4° West per day. See also Astra 3B Astra 4A SES satellite operator Astra satellite family ASTRA2Connect Internet service previously carried References External links official SES website SES fleet information and map SES Astra website SES guide to channels broadcasting on Astra satellites (archived) Astra 1E FSS Horizontal beam footprint on SatBeams Astra 1E FSS Vertical beam footprint on SatBeams Astra 1E BSS Horizontal beam footprint on SatBeams Astra 1E BSS Vertical beam footprint on SatBeams Astra satellites Communications satellites in geostationary orbit Satellites using the BSS-601 bus Satellite Internet access Spacecraft launched in 1995 1995 in Luxembourg Satellites of Luxembourg

4513773

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astra%201F

Astra 1F

Astra 1F is one of the Astra communications satellites in geostationary orbit owned and operated by SES. It was launched in April 1996 to the Astra 19.2°E orbital slot initially to provide digital television and radio for direct-to-home (DTH) across Europe. The satellite originally provided two broadcast beams, of horizontal and vertical polarisation, for Fixed Service Satellite (FSS) (10.70-10.95 GHz) and for Broadcast Satellite Service (BSS) (11.70-12.10 GHz) frequency bands. The FSS beams provide footprints that cover essentially the same area of Europe – northern, central and eastern Europe, including Spain and northern Italy – while the BSS horizontal beam excludes Spain and extends further east, and the BSS vertical beam includes Spain and more of southern Italy but does not extend so far east. Within the footprints, television signals are usually received with a 60–80 cm dish. See also Astra satellite family SES satellite operator SES Broadband Internet service References External links official SES website SES fleet information and map SES Astra website SES guide to channels broadcasting on Astra satellites (archived) Astra satellites Communications satellites in geostationary orbit Satellites using the BSS-601 bus Satellite Internet access Spacecraft launched in 1996 1996 in Luxembourg Satellites of Luxembourg

4513778

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astra%201G

Astra 1G

Astra 1G was one of the Astra communications satellites owned and operated by SES. History SES ordered its Hughes 601HP satellite, in 1994 for Astra 1G. Astra 1G was retired to a graveyard orbit in 2023. Launch Astra-1G was launched on 2 December 1997 at 23:10:37 UTC, by a Proton-K / DM-2M launch vehicle, from Site 81/23 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. It was maneuvered into a geostationary orbit and at 19.2° East of longitude. See also SES (satellite operator) Astra (satellite family) References External links Official SES website SES fleet information and map SES guide to channels broadcasting on Astra satellites (archived) Astra satellites Satellites of Luxembourg Spacecraft launched in 1997 1997 in spaceflight 1997 in Luxembourg Satellites using the BSS-601 bus

4513806

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astra%201H

Astra 1H

Astra 1H is one of the Astra communications satellites owned and operated by SES. History SES ordered its Hughes 601HP satellite, in 1995 for Astra 1H. Launch Astra-1H was launched on 18 June 1999 at 01:49:30 UTC, by a Proton-K / DM-2M launch vehicle, from Site 81/23 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. It was maneuvered into a geostationary orbit at 19.2° East of longitude. References Astra satellites Satellites of Luxembourg Spacecraft launched in 1999 1999 in spaceflight 1999 in Luxembourg Satellites using the BSS-601 bus

4513824

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astra%202A

Astra 2A

Astra 2A is one of the Astra communications satellites owned by Société Européenne des Satellites. Launched in 1998 into the 28.2° East orbital position, half its expected end-of-life capacity of 28 transponders were pre-booked by BSkyB, who utilised it to launch their new Sky Digital service. In March 2015, the satellite has been deactivated and relocated to 113.5° East. History The satellite suffered pre-launch technical issues with its apogee motors and was moved to a launch by the Proton-K / DM-03 rather than the Ariane 5, as the Proton can inject directly in geostationary orbit (GEO). When positioned at 28.2 East, it joined DFS Kopernikus-1, which served mainly Eastern Europe. The satellite was the first of Astra's craft to never carry analogue television services (with the exception of a solitary test card in 1999 ), and as of 2006, carried standard definition digital television, digital radio, and high-definition digital television, as well as Sky Interactive streams and the AVC Broadband and Silvermead satellite Internet services. Two beams "2A North" and "2A South" transmit on horizontal and vertical polarisation. The South beam covers almost all of Europe, with the North beam covering only Northern Europe at a high power. In March 2015, two years beyond Astra 2A's projected lifespan, and following the launches of Astra 2E in 2013, Astra 2F in 2012, and Astra 2G in 2014 to 28.2° East, all remaining traffic was transferred from Astra 2A to the newer satellites. From 25 March 2015, Astra 2A remained at 28.2° East, inactive, and was expected to be moved to Astra 23.5°E to operate as a backup satellite to Astra 3B but in the summer of 2016 it was instead moved to 113.5°E. In July 2018, Astra 2A started moving west at approximately 0.6°/day to arrive at its new position of 100° East in August 2018. In May 2020, Astra 2A started moving west at approx 0.8°/day. and in the autumn 2020, it was back at 28.2°E. The satellite was moved to 57.2°E in 2022 See also Astra 2E Astra 2F Astra 2G Astra 2B Astra 2C Astra 2D Astra 28.2°E main lifetime orbital position References External links SES fleet information and map Official SES site Astra satellites Communications satellites in geostationary orbit Satellites using the BSS-601 bus Spacecraft launched in 1998 1998 in Luxembourg Satellites of Luxembourg

4513828

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astra%202B

Astra 2B

Astra 2B is one of the Astra communications satellites owned and operated by Société Européenne des Satellites. Launched in September 2000 to join Astra 2A at the Astra 28.2°E orbital position providing digital television and radio broadcast services to the United Kingdom and Ireland, the satellite has also served at the Astra 19.2°E and the Astra 31.5°E positions. History The satellite provides two broadcast beams, each with horizontal and vertical polarisation, across two footprints - 2B North (covering Central Europe and Scandinavia) and 2B South (covering Central Europe and the Iberian Peninsula and Canary Islands). While at 28.2° East, television signals could be received with a 43 cm dish across the majority of the British Isles with a 60 cm dish required in the extreme north and west, although the official footprint maps now show a 60 cm dish as required across all of Western Europe. At 28.2° East, 17 transponders on Astra 2B were used by BSkyB to provide the Sky Digital television services of standard and high-definition television (HDTV) and digital radio. Astra 2B could also provide backup capacity, substituting for one or more transponders across the whole 10.70-12.75 GHz range used by Astra satellites in the Astra 19.2°E and Astra 28.2°E orbital positions. A third, steerable beam provides 8 transponders in the 12.50-12.75 GHz range for Internet and telecommunications services in West Africa. This aspect of the satellite was originally the commercial responsibility of SES New Skies (now incorporated into SES S.A.). Following the launch of Astra 2F to 28.2° East, in February 2013, Astra 2B started its planned move from that position to Astra 19.2°E, to serve alongside Astra 1KR, Astra 1L, Astra 1M, and Astra 2C, arriving in position by 27 February 2013. In January 2014, Astra 2B moved to the Astra 31.5°E orbital position, pending the delayed launch of Astra 5B to that position and stayed there as back-up until it was moved back to 19.2° East in December 2016. In June 2017, it was moved west at approximately 0.6°/day to arrive alongside NSS-7 at 20° West in August 2017. From April 2018 to July 2018, Astra 2B was moved east at 0.6°/day to Astra 19.2°E. Since June 2021, Astra 2B has been non-operational and moving west at approximately 4.9°/day. See also Astra 19.2°E previous orbital position Astra 31.5°E previous orbital position Astra 28.2°E previous orbital position Astra 2A Astra 2C Astra 2D Astra 2E Astra 2F Astra 2G SES satellite owner Astra satellite family References External links SES fleet information and map Official SES site Astra satellites Communications satellites in geostationary orbit Spacecraft launched in 2000 2000 in Luxembourg Satellites of Luxembourg Satellites using the Eurostar bus

4513837

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astra%202C

Astra 2C

Astra 2C is one of the Astra communications satellites owned and operated by Société Eurpéenne des Satellites. Designed to join Astra 2A and Astra 2B at the Astra 28.2°E orbital position providing digital television and radio broadcast services to the United Kingdom and Ireland, the satellite was first used after launch in 2001 at 19.2° East for pan-European coverage. The satellite provides one broadcast beam with horizontal and vertical polarisation, across a single footprint covering the areas of Central and Eastern Europe, Scandinavia, the Iberian Peninsula and Canary Islands. TV signals can be received with a 50 cm dish across the majority of the British Isles with a 60 cm dish required in the extreme north and west. Astra 2C can also provide backup capacity, substituting for one or more transponders across the 10.70-12.20 GHz broadcast range used by Astra satellites in the Astra 19.2°E and Astra 28.2°E orbital positions. History Although originally intended for Astra 28.2° East, the satellite has spent little of its life in that orbital position, stationed at Astra 19.2° East and Astra 31.5°E for some 11 years for pan-European coverage. Positioned at 28.2° East for just 19 months from August 2007 and for 16 months from March 2014, Astra 2C was then moved to 60.5° East in August 2015 In April–May 2018, it was moved for the first time to the Astra 23.5°E slot. Temporary use at 19.2°E Astra 2C was first positioned at 19.2° East after launch in 2001, to provide pan-European capacity at the primary Astra position pending the launch of Astra 1L (in May 2007) and was moved to 28.2° East in August 2007, transmitting digital TV and interactive services for Sky Digital and Freesat. Only two transponders were active during this time. The satellite was returned to 19.2° East in September 2010 while Astra 1N, which was intended for positioning at Astra 19.2° East, was used at Astra 28.2° East. As of July 2012, there are 16 transponders active, in particular six for the Spanish Canal+ pay-TV platform and five for Sky Deutschland. Astra 2C was returned to its originally intended position at Astra 28.2° East after the relocation of Astra 1N from 28.2° East to 19.2° East in March 2014. Temporary use at 31.5° East In March 2009, SES announced that in April 2009, Astra 2C was to be moved from 28.2° East to Astra 31.5°E to temporarily replace the failed Astra 5A until Astra 3B was launched to Astra 23.5°E, when another craft currently there could be released to Astra 31.5° East. The move of Astra 2C was started in early May 2009 and completed on 11 May 2009, with the first transponders coming into use at the new position in the subsequent two weeks. In June 2010, Astra 3B (launched May 2010) came into operation at Astra 23.5° East and Astra 1G was moved from that position to Astra 31.5° East, where it could release take over all broadcasting activity from Astra 2C. Astra 2C left 31.5° East in September 2010. See also Astra 23.5°E – current orbital position Astra 28.2°E – previous orbital position Astra 19.2°E – previous orbital position Astra 31.5°E – previous orbital position Astra 2A Astra 2B Astra 2D Astra 2E Astra 2F Astra 2G SES satellite operator Astra satellite family References External links SES fleet information and map Official SES site Astra satellites Communications satellites in geostationary orbit Satellites using the BSS-601 bus Spacecraft launched in 2001 2001 in Luxembourg Satellites of Luxembourg

4513852

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astra%203A

Astra 3A

Astra 3A is one of the Astra communications satellites owned and operated by Société Européenne des Satellites, launched in March 2002 to the Astra 23.5°E orbital position to provide digital television and radio for direct to home (DTH) and cable, multimedia and interactive services, corporate networks, and occasional and other business services to Europe. The satellite provides two broadcast beams, of horizontal and vertical polarisation, across two footprints that covered essentially the same areas of Europe – principally the countries of central Europe. History Astra 3A was launched to provide follow-on capacity to replace the DFS Kopernikus-3 satellite and deliver additional capacity for the Benelux countries and central Europe, to create SES-Astra's third major European satellite hotspot after Astra 19.2°E and Astra 28.2°E with access to channels at both positions using a single dish fitted with a monoblock Duo LNB. In that role, television signals could be received with a 50 cm dish across Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, the Czech Republic, most of Denmark, and in parts of France, Italy, Poland, Slovenia, and Slovakia. Reception was even possible as far afield as Scotland, Sweden and Serbia when a larger dish (around 110 cm) was used. In addition to contribution feeds and individual television channels, Astra 3A carried pay television networks including Kabel Deutschland (Germany), Canal Digitaal (Netherlands), TV Vlaanderen (Belgium), CS Link (Slovakia and Czech Republic) and Skylink (Slovakia and Czech Republic). On 1 February 2012 Kabel Deutschland left Astra 3A and during 2012 other services were transferred off the satellite. As of October 2012, Astra 3A was in an inclined orbit at 23.7° East with all services carried by the adjacent Astra 3B satellite. In November 2013, Astra 3A was moved to 176.9° West where it remained, in inclined orbit, to provide backup to SES' NSS-9 satellite. In June 2016, Astra 3A was moving east at approximately 1.5°/day and was subsequently positioned at 86.5° West. In November 2016 it started moving east at approx 0.5°/day until positioned at 47° West in mid-February 2017 alongside SES' NSS-806 satellite (replaced by SES-14 in January 2018). Towards the end of October 2019, Astra 3A started moving west at approx 0.8°/day until returned to 86.5° West in December 2019. The satellite was retired to a graveyard orbit in January 2023 See also Astra 23.5°E former orbital position SES satellite operator Astra satellite family Astra 3B replacement satellite DFS-Kopernikus previous position holder References External links SES - Official SES site SES fleet information Astra satellites Communications satellites in geostationary orbit Spacecraft launched in 2002 2002 in Luxembourg Satellites of Luxembourg Satellites using the HS-376 bus

4515540

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/60558%20Echeclus

60558 Echeclus

60558 Echeclus is a centaur, approximately in diameter, located in the outer Solar System. It was discovered by Spacewatch in 2000 and initially classified as a minor planet with provisional designation (also written 2000 EC98). Research in 2001 by Rousselot and Petit at the Besançon observatory in France indicated that it was not a comet, but in December 2005 a cometary coma was detected. In early 2006 the Committee on Small Bodies Nomenclature (CSBN) gave it the cometary designation 174P/Echeclus. It last came to perihelion in April 2015, and was expected to reach about apparent magnitude 16.7 near opposition in September 2015. Name Echeclus is a centaur in Greek mythology. 60558 Echeclus is only the second comet (after Chiron) that was named as a minor planet, rather than after the name of its discoverer. Chiron is also a centaur; other centaurs are being observed for signs of a cometary coma. Besides Echeclus, eight other objects are cross-listed as both comets and numbered minor planets: 2060 Chiron (95P/Chiron), 4015 Wilson–Harrington (107P/Wilson–Harrington), 7968 Elst–Pizarro (133P/Elst–Pizarro), 118401 LINEAR (176P/LINEAR), (282P/2003 BM80), (288P/2006 VW139), (362P/2008 GO98), and (433P/2005 QN173). Chunk On 30 December 2005, when 13.1 AU from the Sun, a large chunk of Echeclus was observed to break off, causing a great cloud of dust. Astronomers have speculated this could have been caused by an impact or by an explosive release of volatile substances. Outbursts Echeclus appears to have outburst again around June 2011 when it was 8.5 AU from the Sun. On 24 June 2011, follow up imaging with the 2 meter Haleakala-Faulkes Telescope South showed the coma of Echeclus to be very close to the sky background limit. Echeclus outburst again around 7 December 2017 when it was 7.3 AU from the Sun, and was 4 magnitudes brighter than expected. Presence of gas In 2016, carbon monoxide was detected in Echeclus in very small amounts, and the derived CO production rate was calculated to be sufficient to account for the observed coma. The calculated CO production rate from Echeclus is substantially lower than what is typically observed for 29P/Schwassmann–Wachmann, another distantly active comet often classified as a centaur. Orbit Echeclus came to perihelion in April 2015. Centaurs have short dynamical lives due to strong interactions with the giant planets. Echeclus is estimated to have an orbital half-life of about 610,000 years. See also References External links Elements and Ephemeris for 174P/Echeclus (IAU Minor Planet Center) BAA Comet Section : Comets discovered in 2006 60558 - 0174P/ Echeclus (2011 June 8) Comet 174P Echeclus chased by Asteroid 2716 Tuulikki (Animation by Joseph Brimacombe on 30 May 2011) Comet 174P/ Echeclus during its 2016 outburst (Virtual Telescope Project) Centaurs (small Solar System bodies) 060558 0174 060558 Named minor planets 20000303 Chiron-type comets

4515987

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20effects%20of%20H5N1

Social effects of H5N1

See Influenza pandemic for government preparation for an H5N1 pandemic The social impact of H5N1 is the effect or influence of H5N1 in human society, especially the financial, political, social, and personal responses to both actual and predicted deaths in birds, humans, and other animals. Billions of dollars are raised and spent to research H5N1 and prepare for a potential avian influenza pandemic. Over ten billion dollars were lost, and over two hundred million birds were killed to contain H5N1. People reacted by buying less chicken causing poultry sales and prices to fall. Many individuals stockpiled supplies for a possible flu pandemic. Financial On November 1, 2005, US President George W. Bush unveiled the National Strategy To Safeguard Against The Danger of Pandemic Influenza backed by a request to Congress for $7.1 billion to begin implementing the plan. On January 18, 2006, donor nations pledged two billion US dollars to combat bird flu at the two-day International Pledging Conference on Avian and Human Influenza held in China. Over ten billion dollars were spent, and over two hundred million birds were killed to try to contain H5N1. According to The New York Times, due to the H5N1 threat, as of March 2006: "governments worldwide have spent billions planning for a potential influenza pandemic: buying medicines, running disaster drills, [and] developing strategies for tighter border controls." Investment strategies are being altered to manage the effects of H5N1. This changes the valuations of trillions of dollars worth of stocks worldwide as investors move assets in accordance with both fears and hopes. Poultry farming practices have changed due to H5N1: killing millions of poultry vaccinating poultry against bird flu vaccinating poultry workers against human flu limiting travel in areas where H5N1 is found increasing farm hygiene reducing contact between livestock and wild birds reducing open-air wet markets limiting workers contact with cock fighting reducing purchases of live fowl improving veterinary vaccine availability and cost. For example, after nearly two years of using mainly culling to control the virus, the Vietnam government in 2005 adopted a combination of mass poultry vaccination, disinfecting, culling, information campaigns and bans on live poultry in cities. The cost of poultry farming has increased, while the cost to consumers has gone down due to fears from H5N1 driving demand below supply, resulting in devastating losses for many poultry farmers. Poor poultry farmers can't afford mandated measures keeping their bird livestock from contact with wild birds (and other measures) thus risking losing their livelihood altogether. Multinational poultry farming is increasingly becoming a profit loser as H5N1 achieves status as endemic in wild birds worldwide. Financial ruin for poor poultry farmers, that can be as severe as threatening starvation, has caused some to commit suicide and many others to stop cooperating with efforts to deal with H5N1; further increasing the human toll, the spread of the disease and the chances for a pandemic mutation. Political US HHS Secretary Michael O. Leavitt has said "Everything you say in advance of a pandemic is alarmist; anything you do after it starts is inadequate." H5N1, like many other topics, is subject to political spin; wherein every interest group picks and chooses among the facts to support their favorite cause resulting in a distortion of the overall picture, the motivations of the people involved and the believability of the predictions. Donald Rumsfeld, formerly United States Secretary of Defense, is a past board member and current minor shareholder of Gilead Sciences which owns intellectual property rights to Oseltamivir (also called "Tamiflu"). In November 2005, George W. Bush urged Congress to pass 7.1 billion in emergency funding to prepare for the possible bird flu pandemic, of which one billion is solely dedicated to the purchase, and distribution of Tamiflu. Some believe H5N1 is a problem of industrial poultry practices. Others have a more nuanced position. According to the CDC article H5N1 Outbreaks and Enzootic Influenza by Robert G. Webster et al.: "Transmission of highly pathogenic H5N1 from domestic poultry back to migratory waterfowl in western China has increased the geographic spread. The spread of H5N1 and its likely reintroduction to domestic poultry increase the need for good agricultural vaccines. In fact, the root cause of the continuing H5N1 pandemic threat may be the way the pathogenicity of H5N1 viruses is masked by cocirculating influenza viruses or bad agricultural vaccines." Dr. Robert Webster explains: "If you use a good vaccine you can prevent the transmission within poultry and to humans. But if they have been using vaccines now [in China] for several years, why is there so much bird flu? There is bad vaccine that stops the disease in the bird but the bird goes on pooping out virus and maintaining it and changing it. And I think this is what is going on in China. It has to be. Either there is not enough vaccine being used or there is substandard vaccine being used. Probably both. It's not just China. We can't blame China for substandard vaccines. I think there are substandard vaccines for influenza in poultry all over the world." In response to the same concerns, Reuters reports Hong Kong infectious disease expert Lo Wing-lok saying that "The issue of vaccines has to take top priority", and Julie Hall, in charge of the WHO's outbreak response in China, saying that China's vaccinations could be "masking" the virus. The BBC reported that Dr Wendy Barclay, a virologist at the University of Reading, UK said: "The Chinese have made a vaccine based on reverse genetics made with H5N1 antigens, and they have been using it. There has been a lot of criticism of what they have done, because they have protected their chickens against death from this virus but the chickens still get infected; and then you get drift - the virus mutates in response to the antibodies - and now we have a situation where we have five or six 'flavours' of H5N1 out there." Some have called for tax breaks due to H5N1. A May 7, 2006 report from India E-News states that: "Pakistani poultry farmers have sought a 10-year tax exemption to support their dwindling business after the detection of the H5N1 strain of bird flu triggered a fall in demand and prices, a poultry trader said. "We have asked the government to give us tax exemption on income from the poultry business for at least 10 years to meet losses caused by the bird flu scare", Abdul Basit told DPA. Basit, vice president of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry (LCCI) in the country's commercial hub of Lahore, was part of a delegation of the Pakistan Poultry Association, which met food ministry officials to present their demand. The federal poultry board of the food ministry is to meet on May 9 to consider the tax-cut demand for the poultry business in the upcoming national budget due in mid-June." Social Reuters reported that WHO expert Hassan al-Bushra said: Even now, we remain unsure about Tamiflu's real effectiveness. As for a vaccine, work cannot start on it until the emergence of a new virus, and we predict it would take six to nine months to develop it. For the moment, we cannot by any means count on a potential vaccine to prevent the spread of a contagious influenza virus, whose various precedents in the past 90 years have been highly pathogenic. However, it is crucial that countries in the Middle East invest and start developing their own research and technical facilities, where they can produce their own drugs when the time comes rather than wait to import expensive medicines from abroad at the risk of their population. If a pandemic occurs, local response will be more important than national or international response, as every community will have its own resources swamped dealing with its own problems. International groups, nations, local governments, corporations, schools, and groups of all kinds have made plans and run drills to prepare for an H5N1 pandemic. Online avian flu forums have received increasing attention. Self-help groups have organized to provide news and information about resources, aid and relief efforts in preparation for avian flu. British reports warn that in response to an influenza pandemic local groups will not be able to rely on the armed forces, widespread infection could occur in days not months, an effective vaccine can not be counted on, and the huge death toll could swamp mortuaries so "A key point for local planning is likely to be the identification of potential sites for the location of facilities for the temporary storage of bodies". Personal Many individuals have stockpiled supplies (Tamiflu, food, water, etc.) for a possible flu pandemic. Individuals have started web sites and companies using interest and ignorance in H5N1 to sell information, cures, and advertising space. Some even use concern over H5N1 to find victims for their malware. A significant effect of H5N1 has been personal fear concerning the unknown, even by those most in-the-know. Dr. David Nabarro, chief avian flu coordinator for the United Nations, describes himself as "quite scared"; says avian flu has too many unanswered questions; and if the disease starts spreading to humans, borders will close, airports will shut down, and travelers everywhere will be stranded. With evaluations of the threat ranging from those who say it is a hoax to those who warn of billions of humans dying, uncertainty and fear motivate personal behaviors around the world affecting many people even before the threat becomes reality. Pop culture The 1998 chart-topping hit song "One Week" by Barenaked Ladies includes the lines "Chickity China the Chinese chicken / Have a drumstick and your brain stops tickin'", a reference to the outbreaks of H5N1 in Hong Kong around the time the song was written. Compared to annual flu season The annual flu season deaths and costs caused by viruses other than H5N1 provide a point of contrast - something to compare against. According to the United States Government, the annual flu in the United States: results in approximately 36,000 deaths and more than 200,000 hospitalizations each year. In addition to this human toll, influenza is annually responsible for a total cost of over $10 billion in the United States. A pandemic, or worldwide outbreak of a new influenza virus, could dwarf this impact by overwhelming our health and medical capabilities, potentially resulting in hundreds of thousands of deaths, millions of hospitalizations, and hundreds of billions of dollars in direct and indirect costs. The New England Journal of Medicine reported that: "A study by the Congressional Budget Office estimates that the consequences of a severe pandemic could, in the United States, include 200 million people infected, 90 million clinically ill, and 2 million dead. The study estimates that 30 percent of all workers would become ill and 2.5 percent would die, with 30 percent of workers missing a mean of three weeks of work — resulting in a decrease in the gross domestic product of 5 percent. Furthermore, 18 million to 45 million people would require outpatient care, and economic costs would total approximately $675 billion." One study concludes that a pandemic that reduced the available dock workers by 28% would cut the throughput capacity for containers arriving at American ports on the West coast by 45%. See also Bird flu in India Fatal Contact: Bird Flu in America (2006 film) Fujian flu Influenza Genome Sequencing Project International Partnership on Avian and Pandemic Influenza Disease surveillance Pandemic Severity Index References Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Global health Poultry farming

4517499

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer%2017

Explorer 17

Explorer 17 (also known as Atmosphere Explorer-A (AE-A) and S6) was a NASA satellite, launched at Cape Canaveral from LC-17B on a Delta B launch vehicle, on 3 April 1963, at 02:00:02 GMT, to study the Earth's upper atmosphere. It was the first satellite of five "Atmosphere Explorer". Mission The successful launch and operating of Explorer 17 allowed scientists for the first time to obtain instantaneous atmospheric density measurements using several independent measuring systems, to measure the atmosphere during a single day under nearly constant local time conditions and geomagnetic activity, and to compare direct measurements of density with those inferred from measurements of perturbations in the satellite period orbit. Spacecraft Explorer 17 was a spin-stabilized sphere in diameter. The spacecraft was vacuum sealed in order to prevent contamination of the local atmosphere. Instruments Explorer 17 carried four pressure gauges for the measurement of total neutral particle density, two mass spectrometers for the measurement of certain neutral particle concentrations, and two electrostatic probes for ion concentration and electron temperature measurements. Battery power failed on 10 July 1963. Three of the four pressure gauges and both electrostatic probes operated normally. One spectrometer malfunctioned, and the other operated intermittently. Experiments Langmuir Probes The Explorer 17 experiment payload included two independent Langmuir probe systems. One of the sensors was used to provide measurements of the positive ion density, and the other measured electron temperature. Each system used a two-element sensor consisting of an outer cylindrical guard electrode long which was concentric with an inner collector electrode in diameter and long. The potentials of the electrodes were varied with respect to the satellite shell. The electron temperature probe was swept at a rate of 10 sweeps per second over two different voltage intervals, 0 to 0.75 V and 0 to 1.5 V. The ion density probe was swept from -3 to +2 Volts in 2 seconds. The currents to the collectors were measured and telemetered. The ion concentration and electron temperature could be determined from the current versus voltage information. The experiment operated normally from launch until 10 July 1963, when the spacecraft batteries failed. Mass Spectrometers Two identical double-focusing magnetic mass spectrometers were used to measure the concentrations of the major neutral particle constituents of the upper atmosphere, namely, atomic and molecular oxygen, atomic and molecular nitrogen, helium, and water vapor. These neutral particles were ionized by electron bombardment. Measurements of the six different ion currents and the total current were made sequentially for 4 seconds in high sensitivity and 4 seconds in low sensitivity. A period of 64 seconds was required for the entire measurement cycle. Included in the cycle was an operation to correct any DC drift of the zero voltage level in the output signal. One spectrometer produced useless data due to a malfunction. The other detector system experienced intermittent degeneration of the amplifier output, and, consequently, the data were good only during certain periods. This degeneration was not a result of instrument malfunction but of an unexpected spacecraft attitude which oriented the sensor toward the Sun and caused it to overheat. Pressure Gauges Two Redhead (cold cathode) and two Bayard-Alpert (hot filament) ionization vacuum gauges were used to measure the neutral particle density and ambient pressure of the upper atmosphere between and . The pressure gauges were operated for 4-minutes periods when the satellite was within range of a ground telemetry station. The neutral particles were ionized by electron bombardment, and the resulting ion currents were detected and converted to voltages suitable for telemetry. These two types of sensors together were capable of measuring over the pressure range 10.E-4 torr (10.E12 molecules/cc) to 10.E-11 torr. One Bayard-Alpert gauge suffered a loss in sensitivity, and no useful data were obtained from it. The remaining three gauges operated normally. Orbital decay The spacecraft decayed from orbit after 1,325 days on 24 November 1966. See also Explorer 32 Explorer program References External links NASA's Explorer Missions Gunter's Space Page - information on Explorer 17 Space History Notes Spacecraft launched in 1963 Satellites formerly orbiting Earth Explorers Program

4517619

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CUTE-1.7%20%2B%20APD

CUTE-1.7 + APD

CUTE-1.7 + APD (Cubical Tokyo Tech Engineering satellite 1.7 plus Avalanche Photodiode) or CO-56 (Cubesat-Oscar-56) or just OSCAR 56 was an amateur radio satellite in the form of a double CubeSat. The satellite used commercial off-the-shelf components extensively, in particular, it used the Hitachi NPD-20JWL PDA as a control computer, and it used a USB hub for sensor communications. At the end of its mission, the satellite was supposed to deploy an electrodynamic tether to help it deorbit. The satellite failed early into its mission, so the electrodynamic tether experiment probably did not happen. It was launched on February 21, 2006 on board a Japanese launcher M-V. On 16 March 2006, the communication system malfunctioned so that it was transmitting unmodulated carrier wave and unable to communicate. The satellite decayed from orbit on 25 October 2009. A follow-up mission, CUTE-1.7 + APD II, was launched in April 2008 and remains operational. See also List of CubeSats References External links Official homepage Summary article Telemetry (in Czech) Amateur radio satellites Spacecraft which reentered in 2009 Satellites of Japan Student satellites Spacecraft launched in 2006 CubeSats Tokyo Institute of Technology

4517642

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunrise%20equation

Sunrise equation

The sunrise equation or sunset equation can be used to derive the time of sunrise or sunset for any solar declination and latitude in terms of local solar time when sunrise and sunset actually occur. Formulation It is formulated as: where: is the solar hour angle at either sunrise (when negative value is taken) or sunset (when positive value is taken); is the latitude of the observer on the Earth; is the sun declination. Principles The Earth rotates at an angular velocity of 15°/hour. Therefore, the expression , where is in degree, gives the interval of time in hours from sunrise to local solar noon or from local solar noon to sunset. The sign convention is typically that the observer latitude is 0 at the equator, positive for the Northern Hemisphere and negative for the Southern Hemisphere, and the solar declination is 0 at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes when the sun is exactly above the equator, positive during the Northern Hemisphere summer and negative during the Northern Hemisphere winter. The expression above is always applicable for latitudes between the Arctic Circle and Antarctic Circle. North of the Arctic Circle or south of the Antarctic Circle, there is at least one day of the year with no sunrise or sunset. Formally, there is a sunrise or sunset when during the Northern Hemisphere summer, and when during the Southern Hemisphere winter. For locations outside these latitudes, it is either 24-hour daytime or 24-hour nighttime. Expressions for the solar hour angle In the equation given at the beginning, the cosine function on the left side gives results in the range [-1, 1], but the value of the expression on the right side is in the range . An applicable expression for in the format of Fortran 90 is as follows: omegao = acos(max(min(-tan(delta*rpd)*tan(phi*rpd), 1.0), -1.0))*dpr where omegao is in degree, delta is in degree, phi is in degree, rpd is equal to , and dpr is equal to . The above expression gives results in degree in the range . When , it means it is polar night, or 0-hour daylight; when , it means it is polar day, or 24-hour daylight. Hemispheric relation Suppose is a given latitude in Northern Hemisphere, and is the corresponding sunrise hour angle that has a negative value, and similarly, is the same latitude but in Southern Hemisphere, which means , and is the corresponding sunrise hour angle, then it is apparent that , which means . The above relation implies that on the same day, the lengths of daytime from sunrise to sunset at and sum to 24 hours if , and this also applies to regions where polar days and polar nights occur. This further suggests that the global average of length of daytime on any given day is 12 hours without considering the effect of atmospheric refraction. Generalized equation The equation above neglects the influence of atmospheric refraction (which lifts the solar disc — i.e. makes the solar disc appear higher in the sky — by approximately 0.6° when it is on the horizon) and the non-zero angle subtended by the solar disc — i.e. the apparent diameter of the sun — (about 0.5°). The times of the rising and the setting of the upper solar limb as given in astronomical almanacs correct for this by using the more general equation with the altitude angle (a) of the center of the solar disc set to about −0.83° (or −50 arcminutes). The above general equation can be also used for any other solar altitude. The NOAA provides additional approximate expressions for refraction corrections at these other altitudes. There are also alternative formulations, such as a non-piecewise expression by G.G. Bennett used in the U.S. Naval Observatory's "Vector Astronomy Software". Complete calculation on Earth The generalized equation relies on a number of other variables which need to be calculated before it can itself be calculated. These equations have the solar-earth constants substituted with angular constants expressed in degrees. Calculate current Julian day where: is the number of days since Jan 1st, 2000 12:00. is the Julian date; 2451545.0 is the equivalent Julian year of Julian days for Jan-01-2000, 12:00:00. 0.0008 is the fractional Julian Day for leap seconds and terrestrial time (TT). TT was set to 32.184 sec lagging TAI on 1 January 1958. By 1972, when the leap second was introduced, 10 sec were added. By 1 January 2017, 27 more seconds were added coming to a total of 69.184 sec. 0.0008=69.184 / 86400 without DUT1. The operation rounds up to the next integer day number n. Mean solar time where: is an approximation of mean solar time at integer expressed as a Julian day with the day fraction. is the longitude (west is negative, east is positive) of the observer on the Earth; Solar mean anomaly where: M is the solar mean anomaly used in the next three equations. Equation of the center where: C is the Equation of the center value needed to calculate lambda (see next equation). 1.9148 is the coefficient of the Equation of the Center for the planet the observer is on (in this case, Earth) Ecliptic longitude where: λ is the ecliptic longitude. 102.9372 is a value for the argument of perihelion. Solar transit where: Jtransit is the Julian date for the local true solar transit (or solar noon). 2451545.0 is noon of the equivalent Julian year reference. is a simplified version of the equation of time. The coefficients are fractional days. Declination of the Sun where: is the declination of the sun. 23.4397° is Earth's maximum axial tilt toward the sun Hour angle This is the equation from above with corrections for atmospherical refraction and solar disc diameter. where: ωo is the hour angle from the observer's meridian; is the north latitude of the observer (north is positive, south is negative) on the Earth. For observations on a sea horizon needing an elevation-of-observer correction, add , or to the −0.833° in the numerator's sine term. This corrects for both apparent dip and terrestrial refraction. For example, for an observer at 10,000 feet, add (−115°/60) or about −1.92° to −0.833°. Calculate sunrise and sunset where: Jrise is the actual Julian date of sunrise; Jset is the actual Julian date of sunset. Example of implementation in Python #!/usr/bin/python3 import logging from datetime import datetime, timedelta, timezone, tzinfo from math import acos, asin, ceil, cos, degrees, fmod, radians, sin, sqrt from time import time log = logging.getLogger() def _ts2human(ts: int | float, debugtz: tzinfo | None) -> str: return str(datetime.fromtimestamp(ts, debugtz)) def j2ts(j: float | int) -> float: return (j - 2440587.5) * 86400 def ts2j(ts: float | int) -> float: return ts / 86400.0 + 2440587.5 def _j2human(j: float | int, debugtz: tzinfo | None) -> str: ts = j2ts(j) return f'{ts} = {_ts2human(ts, debugtz)}' def _deg2human(deg: float | int) -> str: x = int(deg * 3600.0) num = f'∠{deg:.3f}°' rad = f'∠{radians(deg):.3f}rad' human = f'∠{x // 3600}°{x // 60 % 60}′{x % 60}″' return f'{rad} = {human} = {num}' def calc( current_timestamp: float, f: float, l_w: float, elevation: float = 0.0, *, debugtz: tzinfo | None = None, ) -> tuple[float, float, None] | tuple[None, None, bool]: log.debug(f'Latitude f = {_deg2human(f)}') log.debug(f'Longitude l_w = {_deg2human(l_w)}') log.debug(f'Now ts = {_ts2human(current_timestamp, debugtz)}') J_date = ts2j(current_timestamp) log.debug(f'Julian date j_date = {J_date:.3f} days') # Julian day # TODO: ceil ? n = ceil(J_date - (2451545.0 + 0.0009) + 69.184 / 86400.0) log.debug(f'Julian day n = {n:.3f} days') # Mean solar time J_ = n + 0.0009 - l_w / 360.0 log.debug(f'Mean solar time J_ = {J_:.9f} days') # Solar mean anomaly # M_degrees = 357.5291 + 0.98560028 * J_ # Same, but looks ugly M_degrees = fmod(357.5291 + 0.98560028 * J_, 360) M_radians = radians(M_degrees) log.debug(f'Solar mean anomaly M = {_deg2human(M_degrees)}') # Equation of the center C_degrees = 1.9148 * sin(M_radians) + 0.02 * sin(2 * M_radians) + 0.0003 * sin(3 * M_radians) # The difference for final program result is few milliseconds # https://www.astrouw.edu.pl/~jskowron/pracownia/praca/sunspot_answerbook_expl/expl-4.html # e = 0.01671 # C_degrees = \ # degrees(2 * e - (1 / 4) * e ** 3 + (5 / 96) * e ** 5) * sin(M_radians) \ # + degrees(5 / 4 * e ** 2 - (11 / 24) * e ** 4 + (17 / 192) * e ** 6) * sin(2 * M_radians) \ # + degrees(13 / 12 * e ** 3 - (43 / 64) * e ** 5) * sin(3 * M_radians) \ # + degrees((103 / 96) * e ** 4 - (451 / 480) * e ** 6) * sin(4 * M_radians) \ # + degrees((1097 / 960) * e ** 5) * sin(5 * M_radians) \ # + degrees((1223 / 960) * e ** 6) * sin(6 * M_radians) log.debug(f'Equation of the center C = {_deg2human(C_degrees)}') # Ecliptic longitude # L_degrees = M_degrees + C_degrees + 180.0 + 102.9372 # Same, but looks ugly L_degrees = fmod(M_degrees + C_degrees + 180.0 + 102.9372, 360) log.debug(f'Ecliptic longitude L = {_deg2human(L_degrees)}') Lambda_radians = radians(L_degrees) # Solar transit (julian date) J_transit = 2451545.0 + J_ + 0.0053 * sin(M_radians) - 0.0069 * sin(2 * Lambda_radians) log.debug(f'Solar transit time J_trans = {_j2human(J_transit, debugtz)}') # Declination of the Sun sin_d = sin(Lambda_radians) * sin(radians(23.4397)) # cos_d = sqrt(1-sin_d**2) # exactly the same precision, but 1.5 times slower cos_d = cos(asin(sin_d)) # Hour angle some_cos = (sin(radians(-0.833 - 2.076 * sqrt(elevation) / 60.0)) - sin(radians(f)) * sin_d) / (cos(radians(f)) * cos_d) try: w0_radians = acos(some_cos) except ValueError: return None, None, some_cos > 0.0 w0_degrees = degrees(w0_radians) # 0...180 log.debug(f'Hour angle w0 = {_deg2human(w0_degrees)}') j_rise = J_transit - w0_degrees / 360 j_set = J_transit + w0_degrees / 360 log.debug(f'Sunrise j_rise = {_j2human(j_rise, debugtz)}') log.debug(f'Sunset j_set = {_j2human(j_set, debugtz)}') log.debug(f'Day length {w0_degrees / (180 / 24):.3f} hours') return j2ts(j_rise), j2ts(j_set), None def main(): logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG) latitude = 33.00801 longitude = 35.08794 elevation = 0 print(calc(time(), latitude, longitude, elevation, debugtz=timezone(timedelta(hours=3), 'fake-zone'))) if __name__ == '__main__': main() See also Day length Equation of time References External links Sunrise, sunset, or sun position for any location – U.S. only Sunrise, sunset and day length for any location – Worldwide Rise/Set/Transit/Twilight Data – U.S. only Astronomical Information Center Converting Between Julian Dates and Gregorian Calendar Dates Approximate Solar Coordinates Algorithms for Computing Astronomical Phenomena Astronomy Answers: Position of the Sun A Simple Expression for the Equation of Time The Equation of Time Equation of Time Long-Term Almanac for Sun, Moon, and Polaris V1.11 Evaluating the Effectiveness of Current Atmospheric Refraction Models in Predicting Sunrise and Sunset Times Equations Time in astronomy Dynamics of the Solar System

4517782

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer%2052

Explorer 52

Explorer 52, also known as Hawkeye-1, Injun-F, Neutral Point Explorer, IE-D, Ionospheric Explorer-D, was a NASA satellite launched on 3 June 1974, from Vandenberg Air Force Base on a Scout E-1 launch vehicle. Mission The primary mission objective of Explorer 52 (Hawkeye-1) was to conduct particles and fields investigations of the polar magnetosphere of the Earth out to 21 Earth radii. Secondary objectives were to make magnetic field and plasma distribution measurements in the solar wind, and to study Type-3 radio emissions caused by solar electron streams in the interplanetary medium. To accomplish these objectives, the spacecraft was instrumented with following instruments: A plasma wave receivers; A fluxgate magnetometer; A low energy proton-electron differential energy analyzer. Experiments Extremely low frequency (ELF) / Very low frequency (VLF) Receivers This experiment measured electric and magnetic fields using a electric dipole (tip-to-tip) and a search coil antenna deployed from the spacecraft. The electric field spectrum measurements were made in 16 logarithmically spaced frequency channels extending from 1.78 Hz to 178 kHz, and DC electric fields were also measured. The bandwidth of these channels varied from 7.5% to 30% depending on center frequency. Channel sensitivity and dynamic range were 1E-6 V/m and 100 dB, respectively. A wideband receiver was also used, with two selectable bandwidth ranges: 0.15 to 10-kHz or 1 to 45-kHz. The magnetic field spectrum was measured in eight discrete, logarithmically spaced channels from 1.78 Hz to 5.62 kHz. The bandwidth of these channels varied from 7.5% to 30% depending on frequency. The dynamic range was 100 dB, and the sensitivity ranged from 0.1-nT at 1.78 Hz to 3.4E-4 nT at 5.62-kHz. The wideband receiver described above could be used with the magnetic antenna. Each discrete channel was sampled once every 11.52-seconds. Low-Energy Proton and Electron Differential Energy Analyzer (LEPEDEA) This particle spectrometer (LEPEDEA) employed two electrostatic analyzers to measure protrons and electrons simultaneously. A GM tube was an additional detector sensitive to protons above 600 keV and electrons above 45 keV. The sensors were mounted normal to the spacecraft spin axis. Angular distributions of particles were determined with a sector resolution of 50° for analyzer voltage steps and 10° for analyzer voltage sweeps of its whole range. The electrostatic analyzers had a field of view of 8° by 30° and measured protons and electrons from 0.05 to 40-keV. The Geiger–Müller tube had a conical field of view of 15° half-angle. Two modes of operation were used: one instrument cycle of 156 intensity measurements every 46-seconds, or one cycle of 312 intensity measurements every 92-seconds. Triaxial Fluxgate Magnetometer A four-range, triaxial fluxgate magnetometer mounted on a boom, was used to measure the ambient magnetic field. The three axes were sampled sequentially three times each 5.72-seconds. Sensitivities and accuracies of the four ranges were ± 150 and 1.2, 450 and 3.5, 1500 and 11.7, and 25,000 and 195.3-nT, respectively. The sensitivity was switched by ground command. Frequency response was DC to 1-Hz (flat); down 3-dB at 10-Hz; then falling at 6-dB per octave at higher frequencies. Satellite stray fields were constrained to be less than 0.1 nT, which was also the rms instrument noise level. Inflight calibration was performed once every 98-minutes. Spacecraft The spacecraft was spin-stabilized satellite with a nominal rotational period of 11-seconds. In celestial coordinates, the positive spin axis coordinates were right ascension 299.4° (± 1.1°) and declination 8.6° (± 1.5°). There was no onboard orientation or spin rate control, but the orientation of the spin axis was stable. An optical aspect system operated from launch until 3 September 1974 at which time the optical aspect system was turned off and failed to turn back on. After this period, aspect had to be determined by observing the effect of optical illumination from the Sun on a plasma measurement system. Using the sharp peak observed in this data, corrected orientation information was obtained and rewritten to the data records. The complete spacecraft with instruments had a mass of . Power of 36 watts, depending on solar aspect, was obtained from solar cells. Explorer 52 participated in the International Magnetospheric Study (IMS) and during the first half of 1977 data acquisition was confined to IMS special intervals. Data were obtained in real time only, at frequencies of 136 and 400-MHz at 100 bit/s (or 200 bit/s with convolutional coding) plus wideband Very low frequency (VLF) data. It was designed, built, and tracked by personnel at the Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Iowa whose sports teams are the Iowa Hawkeyes. The spacecraft was launched on 3 June 1974 into a polar orbit with an apogee over the North Pole and re-entered on 28 April 1978 after 667 orbits or nearly four years of continuous operation. The spacecraft apogee was of with perigee. The orbital period was 51.3 hours. During its lifetime, the orbital inclination of the plane of the spacecraft's orbit to the Earth's equator was of 89.80°. The spacecraft's axis of rotation at launch was inertially fixed in its orbital plane, directed towards a constant right ascension and declination, and nearly parallel to the Earth's equatorial plane. Results In 1992, Dr. James Van Allen (the Hawkeye Project Scientist) and the other Hawkeye principal investigators provided the National Space Science Data Center (NSSDC) with the high resolution digital data (referred to as Master Science Files) from Explorer 52 (Hawkeye-1). Recognizing the uniqueness of these data, the NSSDC has placed the entire Hawkeye data set in its on-line archive. See also Explorer 20 Explorer 25 Explorer 40 Explorer program References External links NASA's Explorer Missions Satellites formerly orbiting Earth Explorers Program Spacecraft launched in 1974

4525066

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narmada%20Valley%20dry%20deciduous%20forests

Narmada Valley dry deciduous forests

The Narmada Valley dry deciduous forests are a tropical dry forest ecoregion of central India. The ecoregion lies mostly in Madhya Pradesh state, but extends into portions of Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh states. Setting The Narmada Valley dry deciduous forests cover an area of of the lower Narmada River Valley and the surrounding uplands of the Vindhya Range to the north and the western end of the Satpura Range to the south. The Narmada Valley is an east-west flat-bottomed valley, or graben, that separates the two plateaus. The Vindhya Range separates the valley from the Malwa plateau and Bundelkhand upland to the north. The Satpura Range reaches a height of 1,300m and encloses the valley on the south separating it from the Deccan plateau. The ecoregion includes the western portion of the Satpuras, and also extends to the southeast along the eastern flank of the Western Ghats' range. The uplands of this ecoregion are the northern limits of the Indian peninsula. Rainfall in the ecoregion is highly seasonal; a seven- to eight-month dry season is followed by the June-to-September southwest monsoon, which brings 1,200–1,500 mm of rainfall in an average year. Many trees lose their leaves during the long dry season to conserve moisture. The ecoregion lies between moister forests to the northeast, southeast, and southwest, which receive greater rainfall from the southeast monsoon, and the drier forests and scrublands of the Deccan to the south and Malwa and Gujarat to the west and northwest. The lowland Upper Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests lie to the northeast, on the alluvial plain of the Ganges River and its tributaries below the eastern Vindhyas and the Bundelkhand upland. The Chota-Nagpur dry deciduous forests lie on the Chota Nagpur plateau to the east. The Eastern highlands moist deciduous forests, which receive more annual moisture from the Bay of Bengal, lie to the southeast. To the southwest, along the spine of the Western Ghats range, lie the wetter North Western Ghats moist deciduous forests, which receive more moisture from the southwest monsoon winds off the Arabian Sea. To the south, the Deccan Plateau of Maharashtra lies in the rain shadow of the Western Ghats, and is home to the Central Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests of Vidarbha and the drier Deccan thorn scrub forests of Kandesh. The Khathiar-Gir dry deciduous forests cover most of Malwa to the northwest and the lowlands of Gujarat to the west. Flora The natural vegetation of the region is a three-tiered forest adapted to the monsoon and dry season climate. The forests typically have an upper canopy at 15–25 meters, a 10–15 meter understory of smaller trees and large shrubs, and a 3–4 meter undergrowth. Teak (Tectona grandis) is the dominant canopy tree, in association with coromandel ebony (Diospyros melanoxylon), dhaora (Anogeissus latifolia), Lagerstroemia parviflora, Terminalia tomentosa, Lannea coromandelica, Hardwickia binata, and Boswellia serrata. Riparian areas along the regions rivers and streams, which receive year-round water, are home to moist evergreen forests, whose dominant tree species are Terminalia arjuna, Syzygium cumini, Syzygium heyneanum, Salix tetrasperma, Homonoia riparia, and Vitex negundo. Fauna The ecoregion is home to 76 species of mammals, none of which are endemic, although several of which, including the Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), along with gaur (Bos gaurus), packs of dhole or Asiatic wild dog (Cuon alpinus), sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), chousingha (Tetracerus quadricornis), and blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), are threatened. The ecoregion is home to 276 bird species, none of which are endemic. Large threatened birds include the lesser florican (Eupodotis indica) and Indian bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps). Conservation This area is densely populated and only about 30% of the ecoregion is covered in relatively intact vegetation, but this does include some large blocks of habitat in the amarkantak, Vindhya and Satpura ranges which are important for the preservation of the tiger. Protected areas As of 1997, about 5% of the ecoregion (7,500 km²) lies within protected areas, the largest of which are Melghat Tiger Reserve and Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary while others include Bandhavgarh, Panna, and Sanjay national parks. Plans to dam the Narmada River will impact on the wildlife of the ecoregion. Aner Dam Wildlife Sanctuary, Dhule district, Maharashtra (70 km²) Bagdara Wildlife Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh (540 km²) Bandhavgarh National Park , Umaria district, Madhya Pradesh (360 km²) Achanakmar Wildlife Sanctuary, Bilaspur District, Chhattisgarh (305 km² Kheoni Wildlife Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh (80 km²) Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh (1,380 km²) Melghat Tiger Reserve, Amravati district, Maharashtra. Includes Melghat Wildlife Sanctuary (1,490 km²) and Gugamal National Park (1974 km²) Panna National Park, Panna and Chhatarpur districts, Madhya Pradesh (820 km²) Panpatha Wildlife Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh (300 km²) Ratapani Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh (490 km²) Sanjay-Dubri Tiger Reserve (831 km²), which includes Sanjay National Park, Chhattisgarh, and Dubri Wildlife Sanctuary. Sardarpur Wildlife Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh (120 km²) Singhori Wildlife Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh (220 km²) Son Gharial Wildlife Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh (210 km²) Yawal Wildlife Sanctuary, Jalgaon district, Maharashtra (100 km²) See also Ecoregions of India References External links Official Website of NVDA - Narmada Valley Development Authority Ecoregions of India Environment of Maharashtra Environment of Uttar Pradesh Flora of Madhya Pradesh Forests of India Geography of Chhattisgarh Geography of Madhya Pradesh Geography of Malwa Indomalayan ecoregions Narmada River Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests

4526198

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20panels%20on%20spacecraft

Solar panels on spacecraft

Spacecraft operating in the inner Solar System usually rely on the use of power electronics-managed photovoltaic solar panels to derive electricity from sunlight. Outside the orbit of Jupiter, solar radiation is too weak to produce sufficient power within current solar technology and spacecraft mass limitations, so radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) are instead used as a power source. History The first practical silicon-based solar cells were introduced by Russell Shoemaker Ohl, a researcher at Bell Labs in 1940. It was only 1% efficient. In April 25, 1954 in Murray Hill, New Jersey. They demonstrated their solar panel by using it to power a small toy Ferris wheel and a solar powered radio transmitter. They were initially about 6% efficient, but improvements began to raise this number almost immediately. Bell had been interested in the idea as a system to provide power at remote telephone repeater stations, but the cost of the devices was far too high to be practical in this role. Aside from small experimental kits and uses, the cells remained largely unused. This changed with the development of the first US spacecraft, the Vanguard 1 satellite in 1958. Calculations by Dr. Hans Ziegler demonstrated that a system using solar cells recharging a battery pack would provide the required power in a much lighter overall package than using just a battery. The satellite was powered by silicon solar cells with ≈10% conversion efficiency. The success of the Vanguard system inspired Spectrolab, an optics company, to take up the development of solar cells specifically designed for space applications. They had their first major design win on Pioneer 1 in 1958, and would later be the first cells to travel to the Moon, on the Apollo 11 mission's ALSEP package. As satellites grew in size and power, Spectrolab began looking for ways to introduce much more powerful cells. This led them to pioneer the development of multi-junction cells that increased efficiency from around 12% for their 1970s silicon cells to about 30% for their current gallium arsenide (GaAs) cells. These types of cells are now used almost universally on all solar-powered spacecraft. Uses Solar panels on spacecraft supply power for two main uses: Power to run the sensors, active heating, cooling and telemetry. Power for electrically powered spacecraft propulsion, sometimes called electric propulsion or solar-electric propulsion. For both uses, a key figure of merit of the solar panels is the specific power (watts generated divided by solar array mass), which indicates on a relative basis how much power one array will generate for a given launch mass relative to another. Another key metric is stowed packing efficiency (deployed watts produced divided by stowed volume), which indicates how easily the array will fit into a launch vehicle. Yet another key metric is cost (dollars per watt). To increase the specific power, typical solar panels on spacecraft use close-packed solar cell rectangles that cover nearly 100% of the Sun-visible area of the solar panels, rather than the solar wafer circles which, even though close-packed, cover about 90% of the Sun-visible area of typical solar panels on Earth. However, some solar panels on spacecraft have solar cells that cover only 30% of the Sun-visible area. Implementation Solar panels need to have a lot of surface area that can be pointed towards the Sun as the spacecraft moves. More exposed surface area means more electricity can be converted from light energy from the Sun. Since spacecraft have to be small, this limits the amount of power that can be produced. All electrical circuits generate waste heat; in addition, solar arrays act as optical and thermal as well as electrical collectors. Heat must be radiated from their surfaces. High-power spacecraft may have solar arrays that compete with the active payload itself for thermal dissipation. The innermost panel of arrays may be "blank" to reduce the overlap of views to space. Such spacecraft include the higher-power communications satellites (e.g., later-generation TDRS) and Venus Express, not high-powered but closer to the Sun. Spacecraft are built so that the solar panels can be pivoted as the spacecraft moves. Thus, they can always stay in the direct path of the light rays no matter how the spacecraft is pointed. Spacecraft are usually designed with solar panels that can always be pointed at the Sun, even as the rest of the body of the spacecraft moves around, much as a tank turret can be aimed independently of where the tank is going. A tracking mechanism is often incorporated into the solar arrays to keep the array pointed towards the sun. Sometimes, satellite operators purposefully orient the solar panels to "off point," or out of direct alignment from the Sun. This happens if the batteries are completely charged and the amount of electricity needed is lower than the amount of electricity made; off-pointing is also sometimes used on the International Space Station for orbital drag reduction. Ionizing radiation issues and mitigation Space contains varying levels of great electromagnetic radiation as well as ionizing radiation. There are 4 sources of radiations: the Earth's radiation belts (also called Van Allen belts), galactic cosmic rays (GCR), solar wind and solar flares. The Van Allen belts and the solar wind contain mostly protons and electrons, while GCR are in majority very high energy protons, alpha particles and heavier ions. Solar panels will experience efficiency degradation over time as a result of these types of radiation, but the degradation rate will depend strongly on the solar cell technology and on the location of the spacecraft. With borosilicate glass panel coverings, this may be between 5-10% efficiency loss per year. Other glass coverings, such as fused silica and lead glasses, may reduce this efficiency loss to less than 1% per year. The degradation rate is a function of the differential flux spectrum and the total ionizing dose. Types of solar cells typically used Up until the early 1990s, solar arrays used in space primarily used crystalline silicon solar cells. Since the early 1990s, Gallium arsenide-based solar cells became favored over silicon because they have a higher efficiency and degrade more slowly than silicon in the space radiation environment. The most efficient solar cells currently in production are now multi-junction photovoltaic cells. These use a combination of several layers of indium gallium phosphide, gallium arsenide and germanium to harvest more energy from the solar spectrum. Leading edge multi-junction cells are capable of exceeding 39.2% under non-concentrated AM1.5G illumination and 47.1% using concentrated AM1.5G illumination. Spacecraft that have used solar power To date, solar power, other than for propulsion, has been practical for spacecraft operating no farther from the Sun than the orbit of Jupiter. For example, Juno, Magellan, Mars Global Surveyor, and Mars Observer used solar power as does the Earth-orbiting, Hubble Space Telescope. The Rosetta space probe, launched 2 March 2004, used its of solar panels as far as the orbit of Jupiter (5.25 AU); previously the furthest use was the Stardust spacecraft at 2 AU. Solar power for propulsion was also used on the European lunar mission SMART-1 with a Hall effect thruster. The Juno mission, launched in 2011, is the first mission to Jupiter (arrived at Jupiter on July 4, 2016) to use solar panels instead of the traditional RTGs that are used by previous outer Solar System missions, making it the furthest spacecraft to use solar panels to date. It has of panels. The InSight lander, Ingenuity helicopter, Tianwen-1 orbiter, and Zhurong rover all currently operating on Mars also utilize solar panels. Another spacecraft of interest was Dawn which went into orbit around 4 Vesta in 2011. It used ion thrusters to get to Ceres. The potential for solar powered spacecraft beyond Jupiter has been studied. The International Space Station also uses solar arrays to power everything on the station. The 262,400 solar cells cover around of space. There are four sets of solar arrays that power the station and the fourth set of arrays were installed in March 2009. 240 kilowatts of electricity can be generated from these solar arrays. That comes to 120 kilowatts average system power, including 50% ISS time in Earth's shadow. Future uses For future missions, it is desirable to reduce solar array mass, and to increase the power generated per unit area. This will reduce overall spacecraft mass, and may make the operation of solar-powered spacecraft feasible at larger distances from the sun. Solar array mass could be reduced with thin-film photovoltaic cells, flexible blanket substrates, and composite support structures. Solar array efficiency could be improved by using new photovoltaic cell materials and solar concentrators that intensify the incident sunlight. Photovoltaic concentrator solar arrays for primary spacecraft power are devices which intensify the sunlight on the photovoltaics. This design uses a flat lens, called a Fresnel lens, which takes a large area of sunlight and concentrates it onto a smaller spot, allowing a smaller area of solar cell to be used. Solar concentrators put one of these lenses over every solar cell. This focuses light from the large concentrator area down to the smaller cell area. This allows the quantity of expensive solar cells to be reduced by the amount of concentration. Concentrators work best when there is a single source of light and the concentrator can be pointed right at it. This is ideal in space, where the Sun is a single light source. Solar cells are the most expensive part of solar arrays, and arrays are often a very expensive part of the spacecraft. This technology may allow costs to be cut significantly due to the utilization of less material. Gallery See also For solar arrays on the International Space Station, see ISS Solar Arrays or Electrical system of the International Space Station Ingenuity Mars 2020 helicopter runs on batteries powered by solar panels Nuclear power in space Photovoltaic system Solar cell Space-based solar power References Spacecraft components Solar power Photovoltaics Solar power and space

4528170

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun%20sign%20astrology

Sun sign astrology

Sun sign astrology, or star sign astrology, is a modern simplified system of Western astrology which considers only the position of the Sun at birth, which is said to be placed within one of the twelve zodiac signs, rather than the positions of the sun and the other six 'planets'. This sign is then called the sun sign or star sign of the person born in that twelfth-part of the year. Sun sign astrologers take this basic twelve-fold division and relate all the current movements of all the planets to each other, using traditional rules to divine meanings for each sign separately. Because the Moon has the fastest apparent movement of all the heavenly bodies, it is often used as the main indicator of daily trends for sun sign astrology forecasts. Sun sign astrology is a pseudoscience and the form of astrology most commonly found in many newspaper and magazine columns. Scientific investigations of the theoretical basis and experimental verification of claims have shown it to have no scientific validity or explanatory power. History Although William Lilly in the 17th century was the first newspaper astrologer, it isn't known exactly when sun sign astrology first began. However, it was largely popularized by horoscopes which began appearing in English newspapers in the 1930s. Astrologer R. H. Naylor was claimed to have accurately predicted events surrounding the birth of Princess Margaret and the crash of the R101 airship in his horoscopes featured in The Sunday Express. By 1937, Naylor began writing a regular column for the paper called Your Stars, which featured horoscopes based on the 12 star signs. Sun signs The following table shows the zodiac names in Latin, with their English translation and the individuals' names. It also shows the element and quality associated with each sign. The starting and ending dates of the sun sign are approximate, as they may differ from one year to another (by a day or so), due to the fact that the Earth's orbit around the Sun is not synchronous with Earth's rotation (one year does not comprehend a whole number of days). The exact date and time of sign entrance/exit (which is corresponded to the 12 "mid-climates" within Chinese lunisolar calendar) must be obtained with appropriate software or with the help of an ephemeris. Traditional planets in brackets See also Sun sign Ascendant Horoscopic astrology Horoscope Acronical place References Astrology by type History of astrology Astrology

4528895

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fog%20season

Fog season

The fog season is a season of fog that occurs in some places, because of special meteorological and topographical characteristics, after a rainy period. The fog season is usually based in the cooler months (late autumn, winter and early spring). An example is found in the San Joaquin Valley and Sacramento Valley areas of California's Great Central Valley, where a thick ground fog, known as Tule fog, may form, in particular in the months from November through March. In the Tampa Bay area of Florida, the fog season is from December to February. Sydney's fog season is longer, starting from April through to October. Though it's more frequent in June due to more rain. It is not generally true that fog season in a given area is during autumn or winter (the cooler months); for example, the Japanese coast of the Pacific Ocean has a dense fog season from May to August. The June Gloom, a cloudy and foggy phenomena, experienced in the southern coast of California occurs in late spring and early summer (May and June). Seasons

4530704

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deccan%20thorn%20scrub%20forests

Deccan thorn scrub forests

The Deccan thorn scrub forests are a xeric shrubland ecoregion of south India and northern Sri Lanka. Historically this area was covered by tropical dry deciduous forest, but this only remains in isolated fragments. The vegetation now consists of mainly of southern tropical thorn scrub type forests. These consist of open woodland with thorny trees with short trunks and low, branching crowns; spiny and xerophytic shrubs; and dry grassland. This is the habitat of the great Indian bustard and blackbuck, though these and other animals are declining in numbers; this area was at one time home to large numbers of elephants and tigers. Almost 350 species of bird have been recorded here. The remaining natural habitat is threatened by overgrazing and invasive weeds, but there are a number of small protected areas which provide a haven for the wildlife. Trees in these forests have adapted to not require much water. Geography This ecoregion covers the semi-arid portions of the Deccan Plateau, extending across the Indian states of Maharashtra, Telangana, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu to the Northern Province of Sri Lanka. Only small patches of natural habitat remain, as most of the region has been cleared for grazing. Climate The annual rainfall is less than , all falling during the short rainy season, and the area receives no rainfall during the months of November to April. Temperatures can exceed during the hotter months. Flora Today the remaining forest is mostly southern tropical thorn scrub, and also includes patches of the original vegetation, tropical dry deciduous forests. Southern tropical thorn scrub forests consist of open, low vegetation with thorny trees with short trunks and low, branching crowns that rarely meet to form a closed canopy. The trees grow up to . Typical grasses of the ecoregion include Chrysopogon fulvus, Heteropogon contortus, Eremopogon foveolatus, Aristida setacea, and Dactyloctenium species. The second storey of the thorn scrub forests in Maharashtra is poorly developed and mainly consists spiny and xerophytic species, mostly shrubs. An ill-defined lower storey can also be seen during the brief wet season. The plant species that dominate the vegetation in these forests are Acacia species, Balanites roxburghii, Cordia myxa, Capparis spp., Prosopis spp., Azadirachta indica, Cassia fistula, Diospyros chloroxylon, Carissa carandas, and Phoenix sylvestris. There are also several other habitat types found in these forests. The driest, rockiest areas of the ecoregion are covered with a scrub dominated by species of Euphorbia. The soil is usually bare in these areas; however, some grassy growth may also appear during the short monsoon season. The parts of the ecoregion found in Tamil Nadu receive even less rainfall than most, and the vegetation in these parts is mainly made up of thinly spread thorny forests of Acacia planifrons, with umbrella-shaped crowns. The remaining patches of forest are also home to a large number of plants, some of medicinal and botanical interest, including an endemic cycad (Cycas beddomei) and Psilotum nudum. A small patch of the tree Shorea talura also exists within the Chittoor forest division, part of which is being maintained as a preservation plot by the Forest Department of Andhra Pradesh. Finally, the area between the Nallamala and Seshachalam Hills is well known for the red sanders (Pterocarpus santalinus), a rare, endemic tree species that is harvested for the medicinal value of its wood. Fauna The dry grasslands that predominate do provide habitat for the native fauna remaining scattered amid the thorn forest. The grasslands of southern Andhra Pradesh support a good population of the great Indian bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) and blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), although these and other species are declining in number. The forests used to provide habitat for three prominent mammal species, the Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), the Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus), whose populations have recently dwindled and may have even become locally extinct, and the nilgai antelope (Boselaphus tragocamelus). The ecoregion is home to 96 mammal species, out of which three are considered endemic: split roundleaf bat (Hipposideros schistaceus), Kondana soft-furred rat (Millardia kondana), and Elvira rat (Cremnomys elvira). Other threatened mammal species found in these forests include the tiger, gaur (Bos gaurus), dhole (Cuon alpinus), sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), chousingha (Tetracerus quadricornis), and blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra). Little-known ones like the Slender loris also occur here. The Deccan thorn scrub forests are home to a richer variety of birds: almost 350 species, of which three are considered near-endemic: Jerdon's courser (Rhinoptilus bitorquatus), Sri Lanka junglefowl (Gallus lafayetii), and yellow-fronted barbet (Megalaima flavifrons). Jerdon's courser is a critically endangered species which was rediscovered in this ecoregion in 1986 after being recorded for the last time in 1900. Other endangered bird species such as the lesser florican (Sypheotides indicus) and Indian bustard can also be found in the ecoregion. Over 60 species of herpetofauna are known to occur in such forest types. Unique species of amphibians and reptiles do occur here. Such species include the Duttaphrynus hololius, lizards viz. Hemidactylus scabriceps, Hemidactylus reticulatus, Ophisops leschenaultii, Eutropis beddomii and snakes viz. Coluber bholanathi, Chrysopelea taprobanica. Apart from such forms, most of the widespread species of herpetofauna, occurring on a pan-Indian scale, including the endangered Indian star tortoise, Indian chameleon, and Bengal monitor also occur here. Threats and conservation The remaining deciduous woodland continues to be cleared for grazing while the pasture that has been created is itself threatened by overgrazing and invasive weeds. One large area of natural forest remains in southern Andhra Pradesh. Protected areas 9,430 km², or 3%, of the ecoregion is within protected areas. In 1997, there were eleven protected areas that were entirely or partially within the ecoregion, totaling 4,110 km². Current protected areas include: Chundikkulam National Park, Sri Lanka (196 km²) Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary, Karnataka (82.72 km²) Ghataprabha Bird Sanctuary, Karnataka (29.8 km²) Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary, Maharashtra (8,496 km², extension 400 km²) Jayakwadi Bird Sanctuary, Maharashtra 230 km² Koundinya Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh (357.6 km²) Nandur Madhmeshwar Bird Sanctuary, Maharashtra (100.1 km²) Pakkamalai Reserve Forest, Tamil Nadu Ranibennur Blackbuck Sanctuary, Karnataka (119 km²) Sagareshwar Wildlife Sanctuary, Maharashtra (10.9 km²) Sri Venkateswara National Park, Andhra Pradesh 500 km² Tungabhadra Otter Conservation Reserve, Karnataka Tungabhadra Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka 90 km² Vettangudi Bird Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu (0.38 km²; also in East Deccan dry evergreen forests) References Wikramanayake, Eric; Eric Dinerstein; Colby J. Loucks; et al. (2002). Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: a Conservation Assessment. Island Press; Washington, DC. External links Deserts and xeric shrublands Ecoregions of India Ecoregions of Sri Lanka Environment of Karnataka Environment of Tamil Nadu Indomalayan ecoregions

4534829

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ametlla%20de%20Mar%20Observatory

Ametlla de Mar Observatory

Ametlla de Mar Observatory is an astronomical observatory situated in L'Ametlla de Mar in the autonomous Catalonia region of Spain. It has received the IAU observatory code 946 and is operated by Catalan astronomer Jaume Nomen. The observatory participates in the "Unicorn Project" and in the Minor Planet Astrometry group (Grup d'Estudis Astronòmics, GEA). The Minor Planet Center credits the Ametlla de Mar Observatory with the discovery of 12 numbered minor planets between 2001 and 2002. As of 2016, all numbered bodies remain unnamed and still display their provisional designation. List of discovered minor planets See also List of asteroid-discovering observatories List of observatory codes References Minor-planet discovering observatories Astronomical observatories in Catalonia

4535664

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NSS-6

NSS-6

NSS-6 is a communications satellite owned by SES WORLD SKIES. NSS-6 covers the whole of Asia with six high-performance Ku band beams, which can deliver broadband media to small businesses, ISPs or domestic rooftop antennas in those markets. The satellite delivers Direct-To-Home power and performance, as well as significant inter-regional connectivity. High-gain uplink performance (i.e. high receiver G/T figures) allows the use of small uplink antennas and/or amplifiers. Manufacturer: Lockheed-Martin Original Orbital Location: 95° East Current Orbital Location: 86.85° West Launch date: December 17, 2002 Launch Vehicle: Ariane 4 Number of Transponders (physical): Ku band: 50 Number of Transponders (36 MHz Equivalent): 60 Saturated EIRP Range: Ku band: 44 to 55 dBW Frequency Band: Ku band uplink: 13.75 to 14.50 GHz Frequency Band: Ka band uplink: 29.5 to 30.0 GHz Frequency Band: Ku band downlink: 10.95 to 11.20 GHz, 11.45 to 11.70 GHz, 12.50 to 12.75 GHz References External links SES.com ITC Global uses NSS-6 for enterprise grade private networks in (e.g.) Australasia www.gilat.net Lockheed Martin satellites and probes Communications satellites in geostationary orbit Spacecraft launched in 2002 SES satellites NSS-06

4537583

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NSS-7

NSS-7

NSS-7 is a communications satellite owned by SES World Skies. It launched on 16 April 2002 on an AR-44L model of the Ariane 4 launch vehicle. It is a hybrid Ku- and C-band telecommunications satellite providing fixed satellite services, including video distribution, Internet access, corporate business networking and fixed services such as telephony and data. Based on an enhanced version of Lockheed Martin's A2100AX satellite bus, this 72 transponder satellite initially operated at 22° West longitude over the Atlantic Ocean, providing coverage to the whole of Africa. In May 2012 it shifted over to the 20° West location to take over the duties of NSS-5. References External links Official SES Site International Media Switzerland Official provider's site Communications satellites in geostationary orbit Spacecraft launched in 2002 SES satellites NSS-07

4540597

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount%20Nisir

Mount Nisir

Mount Nisir (also spelled Mount Niṣir, and also called Mount Nimush), mentioned in the ancient Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh, is supposedly the mountain known today as Pir Omar Gudrun (elevation 2588 m (8490 ft.)), near the city Sulaymaniyah in Iraqi Kurdistan. The name may mean "Mount of Salvation". According to the Epic of Gilgamesh, Mt. Nisir is the resting place of the ship built by Utnapishtim. Despite the precise descriptions in the Epic of Gilgamesh, those curious have never attempted to search for the remains of the giant ship on Mount Nisir. An alternative translation of "Mount Nisir" in the Epic of Gilgamesh XI,141a is based on the ambiguous words: "KUR-ú KUR ni-sir held tight the boat." The Sumerian word KUR can mean land or country or hill, but not mountain. In Akkadian, KUR with the phonetic complement -ú is read as shadû which can mean hill or mountain. The second KUR is a determinative indicating that nisir is the name of a hill or land or country (or in Akkadian a mountain). But Thompson read this determinative as matu, an Akkadian word for country. The country Nisir may have got its name from nisirtu which means a locality that is hidden, inaccessible, or secluded. Hence the boat may have grounded on an inaccessible hill. References Assyrian geography Mythological mountains

4545371

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anahit

Anahit

Anahit (, ) was the goddess of fertility and healing, wisdom and water in Armenian mythology. In early periods she was the goddess of war. By the 5th century BCE she was the main deity in Armenia along with Aramazd. The Armenian goddess Anahit is related to the similar Iranian goddess Anahita. Anahit's worship, most likely borrowed from the Iranians during the Median invasion or the early Achaemenid period, was of paramount significance in Armenia. Artaxias I erected statues of Anahit, and promulgated orders to worship them. Armenian Anahit and Persian Anahita According to Strabo, the "Armenians shared in the religion of the Perses and the Medes and particularly honored Anaitis". The kings of Armenia were "steadfast supporters of the cult" and Tiridates III, before his conversion to Christianity, "prayed officially to the triad Aramazd-Anahit-Vahagn but is said to have shown a special devotion to 'the great lady Anahit, ... the benefactress of the whole human race, mother of all knowledge, daughter of the great Aramazd According to Agathangelos, tradition required the Kings of Armenia to travel once a year to the temple at Eriza (Erez) in Acilisene in order to celebrate the festival of the divinity; Tiridates made this journey in the first year of his reign where he offered sacrifice and wreaths and boughs. The temple at Eriza appears to have been particularly famous, "the wealthiest and most venerable in Armenia", staffed with priests and priestesses, the latter from eminent families who would serve at the temple before marrying. This practice may again reveal Semitic syncretic influences, and is not otherwise attested in other areas. Pliny reports that Mark Antony's soldiers smashed an enormous statue of the divinity made of solid gold and then divided the pieces amongst themselves. Also according to Pliny, supported by Dio Cassius, Acilisene eventually came to be known as Anaïtica. Dio Cassius also mentions that another region along the Cyrus River, on the borders of Albania and Iberia, was also called "the land of Anaïtis." Temples dedicated to Anahit In Armenia, Anahit worship was established in Erez, Armavir, Artashat and Ashtishat. A mountain in the Sophene district was known as Anahit's throne (Athor Anahta). The entire district of Erez, in the province of Akilisene (Ekeghiats), was called Anahtakan Gavar. According to Plutarch, the temple of Erez was the wealthiest and the noblest in Armenia. During the expedition of Mark Antony in Armenia, the statue was broken to pieces by the Roman soldiers. Pliny the Elder gives us the following story about it: Emperor Augustus, being invited to dinner by one of his generals, asked him if it were true that the wreckers of Anahit's statue had been punished by the wrathful goddess. "No!" answered the general, "on the contrary, I have today the good fortune of treating you with one part of the hip of that gold statue." The Armenians erected a new golden statue of Anahit in Erez, which was worshiped before the time of St. Gregory Illuminator. The annual festivity of the month Navasard, held in honor of Anahit, was the occasion of great gatherings, attended with dance, music, recitals, competitions, etc. The sick went to the temples in pilgrimage, asking for recovery. The symbol of ancient Armenian medicine was the head of the bronze gilded statue of the goddess Anahit. Historians' accounts of Anahit According to Agathangelos, King Trdat extolls the "great Lady Anahit, the glory of our nation and vivifier ...; mother of all chastity, and issue of the great and valiant Aramazd." The historian Berossus identifies Anahit with Aphrodite, while medieval Armenian scribes identify her with Artemis. According to Strabo, Anahit's worship included rituals of sacred prostitution, but later Christian writers do not mention such custom. See also Satala Aphrodite Anahita Aramazd Astghik Vahagn Hayk Anat Sarpanit References Bibliography External links Bronze head of a goddess in the British Museum Armenian goddesses Childhood goddesses Fertility goddesses Health goddesses War goddesses Water goddesses Wisdom goddesses Mother goddesses Anahita

4547472

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malpai%20Borderlands

Malpai Borderlands

Malpai Borderlands is a region, or areal feature, along the U.S.-Mexico border at the Arizona and New Mexico state line. It encompasses the extreme southeast corner of Arizona and the southwest corner of New Mexico describe the general vicinity. It includes areas inside the U.S. states of Arizona and New Mexico as well as the Mexican states of Chihuahua and Sonora. The lowest elevations in this area are about 3,700 feet in the San Bernardino National Wildlife Refuge area. Highest elevation is roughly 8,500 feet above mean sea level (AMSL). Mountain ranges generally run north-south. Terrain is described as including desert shrub, Tobosa grassland, Ponderosa Pine forest, and Douglas Fir. Some cattle ranching takes place in the region. The geomorphic provinces include Madrean and Chihuahuan deserts. The name "Malpai", relates to a type of "desert pavement", formed by wind (eolian) processes, and is called Malapai. Variant names The Borderlands are sometimes referred to by the name of a larger region encompassing Malpai Borderlands: Southwest Borderlands. The name is sometimes misspelled Maipai Borderlands. Some references describe it as being inside the Chihuahuan Desert. Unofficial extents of the region Papers on the region describe geographic features that partly define it. The United States portion of this region probably includes portions of Grant County, New Mexico, Hidalgo County, New Mexico, and Cochise County, Arizona. Major geographic features of the area include portions of the San Simon, San Bernardino, Animas, and Playas valleys as well as rivers of the same name. Except for Arizona's San Simon Valley and San Simon River, the areas mentioned appear to be entirely south of present-day Interstate 10. Government reservations in this region include all of Coronado National Forest (US Forest Service) east of US191 and San Bernardino National Wildlife Refuge, (US Fish and Wildlife Service). In the Mexican state of Sonora, Dieciocho de Agosto, Sierra de los Ajos (sometimes written Sierra Ajos), Agua Prieta, frontera (frontier), Cañón del Oso and Nogales are mentioned. In the state of Chihuahua, the area of Janos is mentioned. Variant descriptions A fire history report on the region suggests some definitions may include areas as far west as the Huachuca Mountains of Arizona. Area under scientific study A wide array of individuals and organizations are eyeing competing demands on these lands. The US Forest Service, Arizona Geological Survey, US Geological Survey, Natural Resource Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service), University of New Mexico, The Nature Conservancy, New Mexico Department of Fish and Game, University of Arizona, and Coronado National Forest have been active in studying the future of the area. See also Madrean sky islands (article with map of area) Janos Biosphere Reserve References Sources "Toward Integrated Research, Land Management, and Ecosystem Protection in the Malpai Borderlands: Conference Summary," Rocky Mountain Research Station Report P-10, US Forest Service, July 1999. US Geological Survey web page on region External links Malpai Borderlands Group, (a nonprofit) Map of region – Madrean Region Malpaíses (landform) Deserts and xeric shrublands Temperate coniferous forests Deserts and xeric shrublands in the United States Temperate coniferous forests of the United States Regions of the Western United States Regions of Arizona Regions of New Mexico Chihuahuan Desert Geography of Chihuahua (state) Geography of Sonora Geography of Cochise County, Arizona Geography of Grant County, New Mexico Geography of Hidalgo County, New Mexico

4548379

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere%20of%20Mars

Atmosphere of Mars

The atmosphere of Mars is the layer of gases surrounding Mars. It is primarily composed of carbon dioxide (95%), molecular nitrogen (2.8%), and argon (2%). It also contains trace levels of water vapor, oxygen, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and noble gases. The atmosphere of Mars is much thinner than Earth's. The average surface pressure is only about which is less than 1% of the Earth's value. The currently thin Martian atmosphere prohibits the existence of liquid water on the surface of Mars, but many studies suggest that the Martian atmosphere was much thicker in the past. The higher density during spring and fall is reduced by 25% during the winter when carbon dioxide partly freezes at the pole caps. The highest atmospheric density on Mars is equal to the density found above the Earth's surface and is ≈0.020 kg/m3. The atmosphere of Mars has been losing mass to space since the planet's core slowed down, and the leakage of gases still continues today. The atmosphere of Mars is colder than Earth's. Owing to the larger distance from the Sun, Mars receives less solar energy and has a lower effective temperature, which is about . The average surface emission temperature of Mars is just , which is comparable to inland Antarctica. Although Mars' atmosphere consists primarily of carbon dioxide, the greenhouse effect in the Martian atmosphere is much weaker than Earth's: on Mars, versus on Earth. This is because the total atmosphere is so thin that the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is very weak, leading to less warming. The daily range of temperature in the lower atmosphere is huge due to the low thermal inertia; it can range from to near near the surface in some regions. The temperature of the upper part of the Martian atmosphere is also significantly lower than Earth's because of the absence of stratospheric ozone and the radiative cooling effect of carbon dioxide at higher altitudes. Dust devils and dust storms are prevalent on Mars, which are sometimes observable by telescopes from Earth, and in 2018 even with the naked eye as a change in colour and brightness of the planet. Planet-encircling dust storms (global dust storms) occur on average every 5.5 Earth years (every 3 Martian years) on Mars and can threaten the operation of Mars rovers. However, the mechanism responsible for the development of large dust storms is still not well understood. It has been suggested to be loosely related to gravitational influence of both moons, somewhat similar to the creation of tides on Earth. The Martian atmosphere is an oxidizing atmosphere. The photochemical reactions in the atmosphere tend to oxidize the organic species and turn them into carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide. Although the most sensitive methane probe on the recently launched ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter failed to find methane in the atmosphere over the whole of Mars, several previous missions and ground-based telescopes detected unexpected levels of methane in the Martian atmosphere, which may even be a biosignature for life on Mars. However, the interpretation of the measurements is still highly controversial and lacks a scientific consensus. Atmospheric evolution The mass and composition of the Martian atmosphere are thought to have changed over the course of the planet's lifetime. A thicker, warmer and wetter atmosphere is required to explain several apparent features in the earlier history of Mars, such as the existence of liquid water bodies. Observations of the Martian upper atmosphere, measurements of isotopic composition and analyses of Martian meteorites, provide evidence of the long-term changes of the atmosphere and constraints for the relative importance of different processes. Atmosphere in the early history In general, the gases found on modern Mars are depleted in lighter stable isotopes, indicating the Martian atmosphere has changed by some mass-selected processes over its history. Scientists often rely on these measurements of isotope composition to reconstruct conditions of the Martian atmosphere in the past. While Mars and Earth have similar 12C / 13C and 16O / 18O ratios, 14N is much more depleted in the Martian atmosphere. It is thought that the photochemical escape processes are responsible for the isotopic fractionation and has caused a significant loss of nitrogen on geological timescales. Estimates suggest that the initial partial pressure of N2 may have been up to 30 hPa. Hydrodynamic escape in the early history of Mars may explain the isotopic fractionation of argon and xenon. On modern Mars, the atmosphere is not leaking these two noble gases to outer space owing to their heavier mass. However, the higher abundance of hydrogen in the Martian atmosphere and the high fluxes of extreme UV from the young Sun, together could have driven a hydrodynamic outflow and dragged away these heavy gases. Hydrodynamic escape also contributed to the loss of carbon, and models suggest that it is possible to lose of CO2 by hydrodynamic escape in one to ten million years under much stronger solar extreme UV on Mars. Meanwhile, more recent observations made by the MAVEN orbiter suggested that sputtering escape is very important for the escape of heavy gases on the nightside of Mars and could have contributed to 65% loss of argon in the history of Mars. The Martian atmosphere is particularly prone to impact erosion owing to the low escape velocity of Mars. An early computer model suggested that Mars could have lost 99% of its initial atmosphere by the end of late heavy bombardment period based on a hypothetical bombardment flux estimated from lunar crater density. In terms of relative abundance of carbon, the ratio on Mars is only 10% of that on Earth and Venus. Assuming the three rocky planets have the same initial volatile inventory, then this low ratio implies the mass of CO2 in the early Martian atmosphere should have been ten times higher than the present value. The huge enrichment of radiogenic 40Ar over primordial 36Ar is also consistent with the impact erosion theory. One of the ways to estimate the amount of water lost by hydrogen escape in the upper atmosphere is to examine the enrichment of deuterium over hydrogen. Isotope-based studies estimate that 12 m to over 30 m global equivalent layer of water has been lost to space via hydrogen escape in Mars' history. It is noted that atmospheric-escape-based approach only provides the lower limit for the estimated early water inventory. To explain the coexistence of liquid water and faint young Sun during early Mars' history, a much stronger greenhouse effect must have occurred in the Martian atmosphere to warm the surface up above freezing point of water. Carl Sagan first proposed that a 1 bar H2 atmosphere can produce enough warming for Mars. The hydrogen can be produced by the vigorous outgassing from a highly reduced early Martian mantle and the presence of CO2 and water vapor can lower the required abundance of H to generate such a greenhouse effect. Nevertheless, photochemical modeling showed that maintaining an atmosphere with this high level of H2 is difficult. SO2 has also been one of the proposed effective greenhouse gases in the early history of Mars. However, other studies suggested that high solubility of SO2, efficient formation of H2SO4 aerosol and surface deposition prohibit the long-term build-up of SO2 in the Martian atmosphere, and hence reduce the potential warming effect of SO2. Atmospheric escape on modern Mars Despite the lower gravity, Jeans escape is not efficient in the modern Martian atmosphere due to the relatively low temperature at the exobase (≈200 K at 200 km altitude). It can only explain the escape of hydrogen from Mars. Other non-thermal processes are needed to explain the observed escape of oxygen, carbon and nitrogen. Hydrogen escape Molecular hydrogen (H2) is produced from the dissociation of H2O or other hydrogen-containing compounds in the lower atmosphere and diffuses to the exosphere. The exospheric H2 then decomposes into hydrogen atoms, and the atoms that have sufficient thermal energy can escape from the gravitation of Mars (Jeans escape). The escape of atomic hydrogen is evident from the UV spectrometers on different orbiters. While most studies suggested that the escape of hydrogen is close to diffusion-limited on Mars, more recent studies suggest that the escape rate is modulated by dust storms and has a large seasonality. The estimated escape flux of hydrogen range from 107 cm−2 s−1 to 109 cm−2 s−1. Carbon escape Photochemistry of CO2 and CO in ionosphere can produce CO2+ and CO+ ions, respectively: +  ⟶  +  ⟶  An ion and an electron can recombine and produce electronic-neutral products. The products gain extra kinetic energy due to the Coulomb attraction between ions and electrons. This process is called dissociative recombination. Dissociative recombination can produce carbon atoms that travel faster than the escape velocity of Mars, and those moving upward can then escape the Martian atmosphere: UV photolysis of carbon monoxide is another crucial mechanism for the carbon escape on Mars: + ( < 116  nm) ⟶ . Other potentially important mechanisms include the sputtering escape of CO2 and collision of carbon with fast oxygen atoms. The estimated overall escape flux is about 0.6 × 107 cm−2 s−1 to 2.2 × 107 cm−2 s−1 and depends heavily on solar activity. Nitrogen escape Like carbon, dissociative recombination of N2+ is important for the nitrogen escape on Mars. In addition, other photochemical escape mechanism also play an important role: +  ⟶  Nitrogen escape rate is very sensitive to the mass of the atom and solar activity. The overall estimated escape rate of 14N is 4.8 × 105 cm−2 s−1. Oxygen escape Dissociative recombination of CO2+ and O2+ (produced from CO2+ reaction as well) can generate the oxygen atoms that travel fast enough to escape: However, the observations showed that there are not enough fast oxygen atoms the Martian exosphere as predicted by the dissociative recombination mechanism. Model estimations of oxygen escape rate suggested it can be over 10 times lower than the hydrogen escape rate. Ion pick and sputtering have been suggested as the alternative mechanisms for the oxygen escape, but this model suggests that they are less important than dissociative recombination at present. Current chemical composition Carbon dioxide CO2 is the main component of the Martian atmosphere. It has a mean volume ratio of 94.9%. In winter polar regions, the surface temperature can be lower than the frost point of CO2. CO2 gas in the atmosphere can condense on the surface to form 1–2 m thick solid dry ice. In summer, the polar dry ice cap can undergo sublimation and release the CO2 back to the atmosphere. As a result, significant annual variability in atmospheric pressure (≈25%) and atmospheric composition can be observed on Mars. The condensation process can be approximated by the Clausius–Clapeyron relation for CO2. There also exists the potential for adsorption of CO2 into and out of the regolith to contribute to the annual atmospheric variability. Although the sublimation and deposition of CO2 ice in the polar caps is the driving force behind seasonal cycles, other processes such as dust storms, atmospheric tides, and transient eddies also play a role. Understanding each of these more minor processes and how they contribute to the overall atmospheric cycle will give a clearer picture as to how the Martian atmosphere works as a whole. It has been suggested that the regolith on Mars has high internal surface area, implying that it might have a relatively high capacity for the storage of adsorbed gas. Since adsorption works through the adhesion of a film of molecules onto a surface, the amount of surface area for any given volume of material is the main contributor for how much adsorption can occur. A solid block of material, for example, would have no internal surface area, but a porous material, like a sponge, would have high internal surface area. Given the loose, finely grained nature of the Martian regolith, there is the possibility of significant levels of CO2 adsorption into it from the atmosphere. Adsorption from the atmosphere into the regolith has previously been proposed as an explanation for the observed cycles in the methane and water mixing ratios. More research is needed to help determine if CO2 adsorption is occurring, and if so, the extent of its impact on the overall atmospheric cycle. Despite the high concentration of CO2 in the Martian atmosphere, the greenhouse effect is relatively weak on Mars (about 5 °C) because of the low concentration of water vapor and low atmospheric pressure. While water vapor in Earth's atmosphere has the largest contribution to greenhouse effect on modern Earth, it is present in only very low concentration in the Martian atmosphere. Moreover, under low atmospheric pressure, greenhouse gases cannot absorb infrared radiation effectively because the pressure-broadening effect is weak. In the presence of solar UV radiation (hν, photons with wavelength shorter than 225 nm), CO2 in the Martian atmosphere can be photolyzed via the following reaction: + ( < 225 nm) ⟶ . If there is no chemical production of CO2, all the CO2 in the current Martian atmosphere would be removed by photolysis in about 3,500 years. The hydroxyl radicals (OH) produced from the photolysis of water vapor, together with the other odd hydrogen species (e.g. H, HO2), can convert carbon monoxide (CO) back to CO2. The reaction cycle can be described as: Mixing also plays a role in regenerating CO2 by bringing the O, CO, and O2 in the upper atmosphere downward. The balance between photolysis and redox production keeps the average concentration of CO2 stable in the modern Martian atmosphere. CO2 ice clouds can form in winter polar regions and at very high altitudes (>50 km) in tropical regions, where the air temperature is lower than the frost point of CO2. Nitrogen N2 is the second most abundant gas in the Martian atmosphere. It has a mean volume ratio of 2.6%. Various measurements showed that the Martian atmosphere is enriched in 15N. The enrichment of heavy isotopes of nitrogen is possibly caused by mass-selective escape processes. Argon Argon is the third most abundant gas in the Martian atmosphere. It has a mean volume ratio of 1.9%. In terms of stable isotopes, Mars is enriched in 38Ar relative to 36Ar, which can be attributed to hydrodynamic escape. One of Argon's isotopes, 40Ar, is produced from the radioactive decay of 40K. In contrast, 36Ar is primordial: It was present in the atmosphere after the formation of Mars. Observations indicate that Mars is enriched in 40Ar relative to 36Ar, which cannot be attributed to mass-selective loss processes. A possible explanation for the enrichment is that a significant amount of primordial atmosphere, including 36Ar, was lost by impact erosion in the early history of Mars, while 40Ar was emitted to the atmosphere after the impact. Oxygen and ozone The estimated mean volume ratio of molecular oxygen (O2) in the Martian atmosphere is 0.174%. It is one of the products of the photolysis of CO2, water vapor, and ozone (O). It can react with atomic oxygen (O) to re-form ozone (O). In 2010, the Herschel Space Observatory detected molecular oxygen in the Martian atmosphere. Atomic oxygen is produced by photolysis of CO2 in the upper atmosphere and can escape the atmosphere via dissociative recombination or ion pickup. In early 2016, Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) detected atomic oxygen in the atmosphere of Mars, which has not been found since the Viking and Mariner mission in the 1970s. In 2019, NASA scientists working on the Curiosity rover mission, who have been taking measurements of the gas, discovered that the amount of oxygen in the Martian atmosphere rose by 30% in spring and summer. Similar to stratospheric ozone in Earth's atmosphere, the ozone present in the Martian atmosphere can be destroyed by catalytic cycles involving odd hydrogen species: Net: Since water is an important source of these odd hydrogen species, higher abundance of ozone is usually observed in the regions with lower water vapor content. Measurements showed that the total column of ozone can reach 2–30 μm-atm around the poles in winter and spring, where the air is cold and has low water saturation ratio. The actual reactions between ozone and odd hydrogen species may be further complicated by the heterogeneous reactions that take place in water-ice clouds. It is thought that the vertical distribution and seasonality of ozone in the Martian atmosphere is driven by the complex interactions between chemistry and transport of oxygen-rich air from sunlit latitudes to the poles. The UV/IR spectrometer on Mars Express (SPICAM) has shown the presence of two distinct ozone layers at low-to-mid latitudes. These comprise a persistent, near-surface layer below an altitude of , a separate layer that is only present in northern spring and summer with an altitude varying from 30 to 60 km, and another separate layer that exists 40–60 km above the southern pole in winter, with no counterpart above the Mars's north pole. This third ozone layer shows an abrupt decrease in elevation between 75 and 50 degrees south. SPICAM detected a gradual increase in ozone concentration at until midwinter, after which it slowly decreased to very low concentrations, with no layer detectable above . Water vapor Water vapor is a trace gas in the Martian atmosphere and has huge spatial, diurnal and seasonal variability. Measurements made by Viking orbiter in the late 1970s suggested that the entire global total mass of water vapor is equivalent to about 1 to 2 km3 of ice. More recent measurements by Mars Express orbiter showed that the globally annually-averaged column abundance of water vapor is about 10-20 precipitable microns (pr. μm). Maximum abundance of water vapor (50-70 pr. μm) is found in the northern polar regions in early summer due to the sublimation of water ice in the polar cap. Unlike in Earth's atmosphere, liquid-water clouds cannot exist in the Martian atmosphere; this is because of the low atmospheric pressure. Cirrus-like water-ice clouds have been observed by the cameras on Opportunity rover and Phoenix lander. Measurements made by the Phoenix lander showed that water-ice clouds can form at the top of the planetary boundary layer at night and precipitate back to the surface as ice crystals in the northern polar region. Methane As a volcanic and biogenic species, methane is of interest to geologists and astrobiologists. However, methane is chemically unstable in an oxidizing atmosphere with UV radiation. The lifetime of methane in the Martian atmosphere is about 400 years. The detection of methane in a planetary atmosphere may indicate the presence of recent geological activities or living organisms. Since 2004, trace amounts of methane (range from 60 ppb to under detection limit (< 0.05 ppb)) have been reported in various missions and observational studies. The source of methane on Mars and the explanation for the enormous discrepancy in the observed methane concentrations are still under active debate. See also the section "detection of methane in the atmosphere" for more details. Sulfur dioxide Sulfur dioxide (SO2) in the atmosphere would be an indicator of current volcanic activity. It has become especially interesting due to the long-standing controversy of methane on Mars. If volcanoes have been active in recent Martian history, it would be expected to find SO2 together with methane in the current Martian atmosphere. No SO2 has been detected in the atmosphere, with a sensitivity upper limit set at 0.2 ppb. However, a team led by scientists at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center reported detection of SO2 in Rocknest soil samples analyzed by the Curiosity rover in March 2013. Other trace gases Carbon monoxide (CO) is produced by the photolysis of CO2 and quickly reacts with the oxidants in the Martian atmosphere to re-form CO2. The estimated mean volume ratio of CO in the Martian atmosphere is 0.0747%. Noble gases, other than helium and argon, are present at trace levels (neon at 2.5 ppmv, krypton at 0.3 ppmv and xenon at 0.08 ppmv) in the Martian atmosphere. The concentration of helium, neon, krypton and xenon in the Martian atmosphere has been measured by different missions. The isotopic ratios of noble gases reveal information about the early geological activities on Mars and the evolution of its atmosphere. Molecular hydrogen (H2) is produced by the reaction between odd hydrogen species in the middle atmosphere. It can be delivered to the upper atmosphere by mixing or diffusion, decompose to atomic hydrogen (H) by solar radiation and escape the Martian atmosphere. Photochemical modeling estimated that the mixing ratio of H2 in the lower atmosphere is about 15 ±5 ppmv. Vertical structure The vertical temperature structure of the Martian atmosphere differs from Earth's atmosphere in many ways. Information about the vertical structure is usually inferred by using the observations from thermal infrared soundings, radio occultation, aerobraking, landers' entry profiles. Mars's atmosphere can be classified into three layers according to the average temperature profile: Troposphere (≈0–40 km): The layer where most of the weather phenomena (e.g. convection and dust storms) take place. Its dynamics is heavily driven by the daytime surface heating and the amount of suspended dust. Mars has a higher scale height of 11.1 km than Earth (8.5 km) because of its weaker gravity. The theoretical dry adiabatic lapse rate of Mars is 4.3 °C km−1, but the measured average lapse rate is about 2.5 °C km−1 because the suspended dust particles absorb solar radiation and heat the air. The planetary boundary layer can extend to over 10 km thick during the daytime. The near-surface diurnal temperature range is huge (60 °C) due to the low thermal inertia. Under dusty conditions, the suspended dust particles can reduce the surface diurnal temperature range to only 5 °C. The temperature above 15 km is controlled by radiative processes instead of convection. Mars is also a rare exception to the "0.1-bar tropopause" rule found in the other atmospheres in our solar system. Mesosphere (≈40–100 km): The layer that has the lowest temperature. CO2 in the mesosphere acts as a cooling agent by efficiently radiating heat into space. Stellar occultation observations show that the mesopause of Mars locates at about 100 km (around 0.01 to 0.001 Pa level) and has a temperature of 100-120 K. The temperature can sometimes be lower than the frost point of CO2, and detections of CO2 ice clouds in the Martian mesosphere have been reported. Thermosphere (≈100–230 km): The layer is mainly controlled by extreme UV heating. The temperature of the Martian thermosphere increases with altitude and varies by season. The daytime temperature of the upper thermosphere ranges from 175 K (at aphelion) to 240 K (at perihelion) and can reach up to 390 K, but it is still significantly lower than the temperature of Earth's thermosphere. The higher concentration of CO2 in the Martian thermosphere may explain part of the discrepancy because of the cooling effects of CO2 in high altitude. It is thought that auroral heating processes is not important in the Martian thermosphere because of the absence of a strong magnetic field in Mars, but the MAVEN orbiter has detected several aurora events. Mars does not have a persistent stratosphere due to the lack of shortwave-absorbing species in its middle atmosphere (e.g. stratospheric ozone in Earth's atmosphere and organic haze in Jupiter's atmosphere) for creating a temperature inversion. However, a seasonal ozone layer and a strong temperature inversion in the middle atmosphere have been observed over the Martian south pole. The altitude of the turbopause of Mars varies greatly from 60 to 140 km, and the variability is driven by the CO2 density in the lower thermosphere. Mars also has a complicated ionosphere that interacts with the solar wind particles, extreme UV radiation and X-rays from Sun, and the magnetic field of its crust. The exosphere of Mars starts at about 230 km and gradually merges with interplanetary space. Atmospheric dust and other dynamic features Atmospheric dust Under sufficiently strong wind (> 30 ms−1), dust particles can be mobilized and lifted from the surface to the atmosphere. Some of the dust particles can be suspended in the atmosphere and travel by circulation before falling back to the ground. Dust particles can attenuate solar radiation and interact with infrared radiation, which can lead to a significant radiative effect on Mars. Orbiter measurements suggest that the globally-averaged dust optical depth has a background level of 0.15 and peaks in the perihelion season (southern spring and summer). The local abundance of dust varies greatly by seasons and years. During global dust events, Mars surface assets can observe optical depth that is over 4. Surface measurements also showed the effective radius of dust particles ranges from 0.6 μm to 2 μm and has considerable seasonality. Dust has an uneven vertical distribution on Mars. Apart from the planetary boundary layer, sounding data showed that there are other peaks of dust mixing ratio at the higher altitude (e.g. 15–30 km above the surface). Dust storms Local and regional dust storms are not rare on Mars. Local storms have a size of about 103 km2 and occurrence of about 2000 events per Martian year, while regional storms of 106 km2 large are observed frequently in southern spring and summer. Near the polar cap, dust storms sometimes can be generated by frontal activities and extratropical cyclones. Global dust storms (area > 106 km2 ) occur on average once every 3 Martian years. Observations showed that larger dust storms are usually the result of merging smaller dust storms, but the growth mechanism of the storm and the role of atmospheric feedbacks are still not well understood. Although it is thought that Martian dust can be entrained into the atmosphere by processes similar to Earth's (e.g. saltation), the actual mechanisms are yet to be verified, and electrostatic or magnetic forces may also play in modulating dust emission. Researchers reported that the largest single source of dust on Mars comes from the Medusae Fossae Formation. On 1 June 2018, NASA scientists detected signs of a dust storm (see image) on Mars which resulted in the end of the solar-powered Opportunity rover's mission since the dust blocked the sunlight (see image) needed to operate. By 12 June, the storm was the most extensive recorded at the surface of the planet, and spanned an area about the size of North America and Russia combined (about a quarter of the planet). By 13 June, Opportunity rover began experiencing serious communication problems due to the dust storm. Dust devils Dust devils are common on Mars. Like their counterparts on Earth, dust devils form when the convective vortices driven by strong surface heating are loaded with dust particles. Dust devils on Mars usually have a diameter of tens of meter and height of several kilometers, which are much taller than the ones observed on Earth. Study of dust devils' tracks showed that most of Martian dust devils occur at around 60°N and 60°S in spring and summer. They lift about 2.3 × 1011 kg of dust from land surface to atmosphere annually, which is comparable to the contribution from local and regional dust storms. Wind modification of the surface On Mars, the near-surface wind is not only emitting dust but also modifying the geomorphology of Mars over long time scales. Although it was thought that the atmosphere of Mars is too thin for mobilizing the sandy features, observations made by HiRSE showed that the migration of dunes is not rare on Mars. The global average migration rate of dunes (2 – 120 m tall) is about 0.5 meter per year. Atmospheric circulation models suggested repeated cycles of wind erosion and dust deposition can lead, possibly, to a net transport of soil materials from the lowlands to the uplands on geological timescales. Thermal tides Solar heating on the day side and radiative cooling on the night side of a planet can induce pressure difference. Thermal tides, which are the wind circulation and waves driven by such a daily-varying pressure field, can explain a lot of variability of the Martian atmosphere. Compared to Earth's atmosphere, thermal tides have a larger influence on the Martian atmosphere because of the stronger diurnal temperature contrast. The surface pressure measured by Mars rovers showed clear signals of thermal tides, although the variation also depends on the shape of the planet's surface and the amount of suspended dust in the atmosphere. The atmospheric waves can also travel vertically and affect the temperature and water-ice content in the middle atmosphere of Mars. Orographic clouds On Earth, mountain ranges sometimes force an air mass to rise and cool down. As a result, water vapor becomes saturated and clouds are formed during the lifting process. On Mars, orbiters have observed a seasonally recurrent formation of huge water-ice clouds around the downwind side of the 20 km-high volcanoes Arsia Mons, which is likely caused by the same mechanism. Acoustic environment In April 2022, scientists reported, for the first time, studies of sound waves on Mars. These studies were based on measurements by instruments on the Perseverance rover. The scientists found that the speed of sound is slower in the thin Martian atmosphere than on Earth. The speed of sound on Mars, within the audible bandwidth between 20 Hz - 20 kHz, varies depending on pitch, seemingly due to the low pressure and thermal turbulence of Martian surface air; and, as a result of these conditions, sound is much quieter, and live music would be more variable, than on Earth. Unexplained phenomena Detection of methane Methane (CH4) is chemically unstable in the current oxidizing atmosphere of Mars. It would quickly break down due to ultraviolet radiation from the Sun and chemical reactions with other gases. Therefore, a persistent presence of methane in the atmosphere may imply the existence of a source to continually replenish the gas. The ESA-Roscomos Trace Gas Orbiter, which has made the most sensitive measurements of methane in Mars' atmosphere with over 100 global soundings, has found no methane to a detection limit of 0.05 parts per billion (ppb). However, there have been other reports of detection of methane by ground-based telescopes and Curiosity rover. Trace amounts of methane, at the level of several ppb, were first reported in Mars's atmosphere by a team at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in 2003. Large differences in the abundances were measured between observations taken in 2003 and 2006, which suggested that the methane was locally concentrated and probably seasonal. In 2014, NASA reported that the Curiosity rover detected a tenfold increase ('spike') in methane in the atmosphere around it in late 2013 and early 2014. Four measurements taken over two months in this period averaged 7.2 ppb, implying that Mars is episodically producing or releasing methane from an unknown source. Before and after that, readings averaged around one-tenth that level. On 7 June 2018, NASA announced a cyclical seasonal variation in the background level of atmospheric methane. The principal candidates for the origin of Mars' methane include non-biological processes such as water-rock reactions, radiolysis of water, and pyrite formation, all of which produce H2 that could then generate methane and other hydrocarbons via Fischer–Tropsch synthesis with CO and CO2. It has also been shown that methane could be produced by a process involving water, carbon dioxide, and the mineral olivine, which is known to be common on Mars. Living microorganisms, such as methanogens, are another possible source, but no evidence for the presence of such organisms has been found on Mars. There are some suspicions about the detection of methane, which suggests that it may instead be caused by the undocumented terrestrial contamination from the rovers or a misinterpretation of measurement raw data. Lightning events In 2009, an Earth-based observational study reported detection of large-scale electric discharge events on Mars and proposed that they are related to lightning discharge in Martian dust storms. However, later observation studies showed that the result is not reproducible using the radar receiver on Mars Express and the Earth-based Allen Telescope Array. A laboratory study showed that the air pressure on Mars is not favorable for charging the dust grains, and thus it is difficult to generate lightning in Martian atmosphere. Super-rotating jet over the equator Super-rotation refers to the phenomenon that atmospheric mass has a higher angular velocity than the surface of the planet at the equator, which in principle cannot be driven by inviscid axisymmetric circulations. Assimilated data and general circulation model (GCM) simulation suggest that super-rotating jet can be found in Martian atmosphere during global dust storms, but it is much weaker than the ones observed on slow-rotating planets like Venus and Titan. GCM experiments showed that the thermal tides can play a role in inducing the super-rotating jet. Nevertheless, modeling super-rotation still remains as a challenging topic for planetary scientists. History of atmospheric observations In 1784, German-born British astronomer William Herschel published an article about his observations of the Martian atmosphere in Philosophical Transactions and noted the occasional movement of a brighter region on Mars, which he attributed to clouds and vapors. In 1809, French astronomer Honoré Flaugergues wrote about his observation of "yellow clouds" on Mars, which are likely to be dust storm events. In 1864, William Rutter Dawes observed that "the ruddy tint of the planet does not arise from any peculiarity of its atmosphere; it seems to be fully proved by the fact that the redness is always deepest near the centre, where the atmosphere is thinnest." Spectroscopic observations in the 1860s and 1870s led many to think the atmosphere of Mars is similar to Earth's. In 1894, though, spectral analysis and other qualitative observations by William Wallace Campbell suggested Mars resembles the Moon, which has no appreciable atmosphere, in many respects. In 1926, photographic observations by William Hammond Wright at the Lick Observatory allowed Donald Howard Menzel to discover quantitative evidence of Mars's atmosphere. With an enhanced understanding of optical properties of atmospheric gases and advancement in spectrometer technology, scientists started to measure the composition of the Martian atmosphere in the mid-20th century. Lewis David Kaplan and his team detected the signals of water vapor and carbon dioxide in the spectrogram of Mars in 1964, as well as carbon monoxide in 1969. In 1965, the measurements made during Mariner 4's flyby confirmed that the Martian atmosphere is constituted mostly of carbon dioxide, and the surface pressure is about 400 to 700 Pa. After the composition of the Martian atmosphere was known, astrobiological research began on Earth to determine the viability of life on Mars. Containers that simulated environmental conditions on Mars, called "Mars jars", were developed for this purpose. In 1976, two landers of the Viking program provided the first ever in-situ measurements of the composition of the Martian atmosphere. Another objective of the mission included investigations for evidence of past or present life on Mars (see Viking lander biological experiments). Since then, many orbiters and landers have been sent to Mars to measure different properties of the Martian atmosphere, such as concentration of trace gases and isotopic ratios. In addition, telescopic observations and analysis of Martian meteorites provide independent sources of information to verify the findings. The imageries and measurements made by these spacecraft greatly improve our understanding of the atmospheric processes outside Earth. The rover Curiosity and the lander InSight are still operating on the surface of Mars to carry out experiments and report the local daily weather. The rover Perseverance and helicopter Ingenuity, which formed the Mars 2020 program, landed in February 2021. The rover Rosalind Franklin is scheduled to launch in 2022. Potential for use by humans The atmosphere of Mars is a resource of known composition available at any landing site on Mars. It has been proposed that human exploration of Mars could use carbon dioxide (CO2) from the Martian atmosphere to make methane (CH4) and use it as rocket fuel for the return mission. Mission studies that propose using the atmosphere in this way include the Mars Direct proposal of Robert Zubrin and the NASA Design Reference Mission study. Two major chemical pathways for use of the carbon dioxide are the Sabatier reaction, converting atmospheric carbon dioxide along with additional hydrogen (H2) to produce methane (CH4) and oxygen (O2), and electrolysis, using a zirconia solid oxide electrolyte to split the carbon dioxide into oxygen (O2) and carbon monoxide (CO). In 2021, however, the NASA rover Perseverance was able to make oxygen on Mars. The process is complex and takes a lot of time to produce a small amount of oxygen. Image gallery See also References Further reading External links NASA Mars Exploration Program Mars Weather: Perseverance*Curiosity*InSight Summary of weekly weather on Mars prepared by Malin Space Science systems Mars Mars Articles containing video clips

4549880

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zagros%20Mountains%20forest%20steppe

Zagros Mountains forest steppe

The Zagros Mountains forest steppe is a temperate broadleaf and mixed forests ecoregion in Western Asia. The ecoregion extends along the Zagros Mountains, stretching from eastern Turkey and northern Iraq to southern Iran. Geography The Zagros Mountains are a belt of folded mountains formed by the collision of the African Plate with the Eurasian Plate. On the west, south, and east, the mountains are surrounded by deserts and semi-deserts. The dry grasslands, shrublands, and low-lying deserts of Mesopotamia and southern Iran lie to the west, and the plateau deserts of the Iranian Plateau to the east. The Armenian Highlands and Alborz Mountains lie to the north. Climate The ecoregion's climate is semi-arid and temperate. Annual precipitation ranges from 400 m to 800 mm, and falls mostly in winter and spring. Summers are hot and dry, and winters are cold, with the coldest winter temperatures dropping below −25 °C. Temperatures are generally warmer and the climate drier at the southern end of the range. Flora The predominant plant community in the mountains is forest or open woodland of deciduous broadleaf trees, with an understory of steppe shrubs and grasses. Oaks, particularly Persian oak (Quercus brantii), are the characteristic trees, covering over 50% of the Zagros mountains in Iran. Pistachio (Pistacia spp.) forms groves, and grows in association with oaks. Vegetation varies with altitude and exposure to prevailing winds. In the northern part of the ecoregion, shrub steppe of Astragalus spp. and Salvia spp. with scattered trees occurs above 400m to 500m elevation. Forests and forest remnants of Quercus brantii and/or Q. boissieri occur from 700 to 800 meters elevation to about 1,700 m. The treeline is at 1,900 to 2,000 meters elevation, with sub-alpine vegetation above it. At the southern end of the range, the trees are sparser and more open, and the steppe vegetation is more prominent. Steppe extends up to 1400 meters elevation, and open woodlands of Quercus brantii, hawthorn (Crataegus), almond (Prunus amygdalus), nettle tree (Celtis spp.) and pear (Pyrus syriaca and Pyrus glabra) continue up to 2,400 meters. Although degraded from overgrazing and deforestation, the Zagros is home to a rich and complex flora. Remnants of the originally widespread oak-dominated woodland can still be found, as can park-like pistachio-almond steppelands. The wild ancestors of many important food plants, including wheat, barley, lentil, almond, walnut, pistachio, apricot, plum, pomegranate, and grape, grow throughout the mountains. Endemic plants of the mountain range include Allium iranicum, Astragalus crenophila, Bellevalia kurdistanica, Cousinia carduchorum, Cousinia odontolepis, Echinops rectangularis, Erysimum boissieri, Iris barnumiae, Ornithogalum iraqense, Scrophularia atroglandulosa, Scorzonera kurdistanica, Tragopogon rechingeri, and Tulipa kurdica. Fauna The Zagros are home to many threatened and endangered animals, including the Persian leopard (Panthera pardus tulliana), Syrian brown bear (Ursus arctos syriacus), mouflon (Ovis orientalis orientalis), wolf (Canis lupus), striped hyena (Hyena hyena), Blanford's fox (Vulpes cana), and Zagros Mountains mouse-like hamster (Calomyscus bailwardi). Wild goats (Capra aegrarus) can be found throughout the Zagros Mountains. The Persian fallow deer (Dama dama mesopotamica), an ancient domesticate once thought extinct, was rediscovered in the late 20th century in Khuzestan Province in the southern Zagros. In the late 19th century, the Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica) inhabited the southwestern part of the mountains. It is now extinct in this region. The Luristan newt (Neurergus kaiseri) is a vulnerable species endemic to the central Zagros mountains of Iran. Protected areas A 2017 assessment found that 20,339 km², or 5%, of the ecoregion is in protected areas. Protected areas include: Arjan and Parishan Protected Area (IUCN category V, 597.8 km²) Bamou National Park (IUCN category II, 486.8 km²) Bakhtegan Wildlife Refuge (IUCN category IV, 2004 km²) Kolahghazi Wildlife Refuge (IUCN category IV, 41.2 km²) Dez Wildlife Refuge (IUCN category IV, 53 km²) Bijar Protected Area (IUCN category V, 316.1 km²) Bahramgor Protected Area (IUCN category V, 4080 km²) Angoran Protected Area (IUCN category V, 923.2 km²) Dez Protected Area (IUCN category V, 175.3 km²) Karkheh Protected Area (IUCN category V, 140 km²) External links References Zagros Mountains Ecoregions of Iran Ecoregions of Iraq Ecoregions of Turkey Palearctic ecoregions Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests

4549894

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarim%20Basin%20deciduous%20forests%20and%20steppe

Tarim Basin deciduous forests and steppe

The Tarim Basin deciduous forests and steppe is a temperate broadleaf and mixed forests ecoregion in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of western China. The ecoregion includes deciduous riparian forests and steppes sustained by the region's rivers in an otherwise arid region. Geography The Tarim Basin is a desert basin lying in westernmost China. The basin is surrounded by high mountains – the Kunlun Mountains to the south, which form the northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau; the Pamir Mountains to the west; and the Tian Shan to the north. The basin is arid, but the surrounding mountains receive considerable rainfall and snow. Rivers drain into the basin from the mountains, including the northward-flowing Hotan River, which drains the western Kunlun Mountains, the Yarkand River, which drains the Pamirs, and the Aksu River, which drains the western Tian Shan mountains. These rivers join to form the Tarim River, which flows for 1300 km in an arc across the northern and eastern basin. The Kongque River drains southeastwards from the central Tian Shan. The basin is endorheic, with no outlet to the sea, and Tarim River and Kongque rivers empty into a complex of salt lakes in the eastern portion of the basin. The lower Tarim River empties southeast into Taitema Lake in the southeastern basin, and the Kongque empties eastwards into Lop Nur. The Qarqan River rises in the central Kunlun Mountains and also empties northeastwards into Taitema Lake. Taitema Lake is approximately 800 meters above sea level. Soils in the ecoregion are generally sandy loam. Climate The basin has an arid continental climate. Average annual temperatures range from -20º C in the winter months to 40º C during the summer months. Rainfall averages only 50 mm per year on the floor of the basin. Annual precipitation in the surrounding mountains can exceed 1000 mm per year. The rivers are sustained snowfall and glacial melt (about 60% of total flow) and by rainfall (about 40%). About 75% of the annual runoff comes in the months of July, August and September, creating an regular summer flood season. Flora The natural vegetation includes wetland, riparian forest, and shrub communities. In seasonally and permanently-flooded areas there are reed swamps and wet meadows of Myricaria pulcherrima, Phragmites australis, and Calamagrostis pseudophragmites. The riparian forests, known as Tugay, are dominated by the deciduous desert poplar (Populus euphratica) on the lower river terraces, along with Elaeagnus angustifolia. The upper river terraces are home to drier forests and shrubby woodlands, with Tamarix ramosissima and Halostachys caspica along with Populus euphratica and salt-tolerant halophyte plants. Populus pruinosa occurs along the upper reaches of the rivers, but not in the lower basin. Fauna The forests and wetlands are important habitat for migratory and resident birds. The ecoregion is home to several mammal species, including Yarkand deer (Cervus elaphus yarkandensis). The Yarkand deer population declined from 10,000 individuals in the 1950s to less than 3000 in the 1990s. Conservation and threats The Silk Road passes through the Tarim Basin, and the region's rivers have supported settled and nomadic people for centuries. Much of the river lowland has been converted to agriculture and pasture. Since the 1950s, the Chinese government has settled many people in the area from elsewhere in China, and the region's growing population accelerated conversion of habitat, draining wetlands, and diverting water for agriculture. Water diversion has both reduced flows in the river and lowered the groundwater table, endangering the forests. Since 1921 the Tarim has been diverted via the Kongque into Lop Nur, and freshwater flows to the 320 km of the lower Tarim and Taitema Lake were much reduced. Construction of Daxihaizi Dam in 1972 mostly eliminated freshwater flows into the lower Tarim. Most of the forest died off, and wildlife, including wild camels, was decimated. In 2000, the government started regular water releases from the upstream dams into the lower Tarim, which allowed the forests, wildlife, and groundwater to recover somewhat. Protected areas A 2017 assessment found that 4,051 km², or 7%, of the ecoregion is in protected areas. Very little habitat remains outside protected areas. Tarim Huyanglin Nature Reserve, established in 1983, protects the largest remaining block of habitat on the Tarim River, including an un-dyked stretch of river in the western portion of the reserve where natural river processes still prevail. References Ecoregions of China Palearctic ecoregions Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests Geography of Xinjiang

4550189

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block%20upconverter

Block upconverter

A block upconverter (BUC) is used in the transmission (uplink) of satellite signals. It converts a band of frequencies from a lower frequency to a higher frequency. Modern BUCs convert from the L band to Ku band, C band and Ka band. Older BUCs convert from a 70 MHz intermediate frequency (IF) to Ku band or C band. Most BUCs use phase-locked loop local oscillators and require an external 10 MHz frequency reference to maintain the correct transmit frequency. BUCs used in remote locations are often 2 or 4 W in the Ku band and 5 W in the C band. The 10 MHz reference frequency is usually sent on the same feedline as the main carrier. Many smaller BUCs also get their direct current (DC) over the feedline, using an internal DC block. BUCs are generally used in conjunction with low-noise block converters (LNB). The BUC, being an up-converting device, makes up the "transmit" side of the system, while the LNB is the down-converting device and makes up the "receive" side. An example of a system utilizing both a BUC and an LNB is a VSAT system, used for bidirectional Internet access via satellite. The block upconverter is a block shaped device assembled with the LNB in association with an OMT, orthogonal mode transducer to the feed-horn that faces the reflector parabolic dish. This is opposed to other types of frequency upconverter which may be rack mounted indoors or not co-located with the dish. Radio technology Satellite broadcasting Telecommunications equipment

4551850

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtropical%20front

Subtropical front

A subtropical front is a surface water mass boundary or front, which is a narrow zone of transition between air masses of contrasting density, air masses of different temperatures or different water vapour concentrates. It is also characterized by an unforeseen change in wind direction, and speed across its surface between water systems, which are based on temperature and salinity. The subtropical separates the more saline subtropical waters from the fresher sub-Antarctic waters. Subtropical frontal zone A subtropical frontal zone (STFZ) is a large seasonal cycle located on the eastern side of basins. It is made up of fronts of multiple weak sea surface temperature (SST), aligned northwest–southeast, spread over a large latitudinal span. On the far eastern side of basins, the subtropical frontal zone becomes narrower and temperature gradients stronger, but still much weaker than across the dynamical subtropical frontal zone. A dynamical frontal zone sits at the southern limit of the saline subtropical waters on the western sides of basins. There are no water mass boundaries or fronts in correlation with the sea surface temperature at the subtropical frontal zone at the surface or beneath. The structure of a subtropical frontal zone results in the formation of a positive wind stress curl, which is the shear stress exerted by wind on the surface of water. The areas of most positive wind stress curl are characterized by very weak sea surface temperature incline, and are likely consistent to regions of mode water. Northern subtropical front The Northern subtropical front is found in the Pacific Ocean between 25° and 30° north latitude. North Atlantic subtropical fronts The North Atlantic subtropical fronts possess the characteristics of seasonal variability. Highest front occurrences are during early spring in the western region. Less front probability occurs in late spring to early summer in the eastern region. The strengths of the fronts differ with seasons, building strength when moving southward during the winter and spring, and weakening when moving northward during the summer. North Pacific subtropical fronts The North Pacific subtropical fronts are occupied by wind driven submesoscale subduction. Due to the constant thermohaline circulation fronts, cold air flows near the surface and bottom of the ocean. There are alternating fluxes throughout the year, that is influenced by jet streams which causes temperatures in these areas to differ. Southern subtropical front The Southern subtropical front is caused by warm, salty subtropical waters and Antarctic waters, found in all three ocean basins. A commonly used criterion found is that the salinity at a depth of 100m drops below 34.9 practical salinity units. South Atlantic subtropical frontal zone A characteristic of the South Atlantic subtropical frontal zone, between 15°W and 5°E, is the conversion from subtropical to sub-polar waters. As a result, this coerces the South Atlantic Current flow and is surrounded by a distinct front. See also Ocean current References External links Southern Subtropical Front Physical oceanography

4553161

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western%20Guinean%20lowland%20forests

Western Guinean lowland forests

The Western Guinean lowland forests ecoregion (WWF #AT0130) is a tropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion of West Africa. It is centered on Liberia, with portions in surrounding countries. It is the westernmost tropical rainforest in Africa, and has high levels of species endemism, with over 200 species of endemic plants. Geography The ecoregion includes the lowland forests extending from the Atlantic Ocean a few hundred kilometres inland, and from western Côte d'Ivoire across Liberia, southeastern Guinea, most of Sierra Leone, and into southwest Guinea. The terrain is relatively flat, with a mean elevation of 2,225 meters and a few isolated mountains that reach a high point of . Major rivers include the Sewa River, Mano River, Saint Paul River, Cavalla River and Sassandra River. The soils are poor, heavily leached lateritic. The Sassandra River of Côte d'Ivoire separates the Western Guinean forests from the Eastern Guinean forests which lie to the east. Inland and to the west, the Western Guinean forests transition to the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic, and to the Guinean montane forests at higher elevations. The Western Guinean forests, together with the other tropical moist forests of West Africa, is included within Conservation International's Guinean Forests of West Africa biodiversity hotspot. Climate The climate of the ecoregion is Tropical savanna climate - dry winter (Köppen climate classification (Aw)). Temperatures can average from 30 to 33 degrees (C) in the hot months, 12 to 12 (C) in the colder months. The rainy season is May to October, with precipitation reaching 3,300 mm/year or more in the higher regions. Flora and fauna Closed forest covers two thirds of the ecoregion, mostly broadleaf evergreen trees, but much of this is second-growth or otherwise disturbed by human activities. Another 22% of the terrain is open forest or shrub. The term ‘farmbush’ has been applied to the degraded secondary growth that follows slash-and-burn agriculture. Common trees include Dacroydes klaineana, Strombosia glaucescens, Allanblackia floribunda, Coula edulis and Diospyros sanza-minika. Semi-deciduous forests occur at lower altitudes into Guinea. Because the wet areas expanded and contracted during the Ice Age, 'islands' of specialized species developed. Some of these areas of diversified floral and faunal communities are in protected areas. Protected areas A 2017 assessment found that 24,028 km², or 12%, of the ecoregion is in protected areas. Only 2% of the unprotected area is covered by relatively-intact forest. Protected areas include: Taï National Park in Ivory Coast, Lofa-Mano National Park, in Liberia, Sapo National Park in Liberia, Diecké Forest Reserve in Guinea, and Kangari Hills Forest Reserve, in Sierra Leone. See also Upper Guinean forests External links Guinean Forests of West Africa (Conservation International) Map of the Guinean Forests of West Africa (Conservation International) (PDF file) References Afrotropical ecoregions Ecoregions of Ivory Coast Ecoregions of Guinea Ecoregions of Liberia Ecoregions of Sierra Leone Forests of Ivory Coast Forests of Guinea Forests of Liberia Forests of Sierra Leone Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests

4555212

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutelsat%2031A

Eutelsat 31A

Eutelsat 31A, formerly e-Bird, Eurobird 3 and Eutelsat 33A, is a communications satellite that offers capacity for broadband and broadcast services in Europe. It is owned by Eutelsat. Positioned at 31° East - having been relocated from 33° East in May 2014 - Eutelsat 31A is optimised for interactive broadband services, and also valued by broadcasters for occasional use and professional video services, and data networks like Estar by Technologie Satelitarne service. Its 20 Ku band transponders are connected to four spot beams over Europe and Turkey. These four beams overlap to allow hubs located in the hot spots of each beam to communicate with each other, thus ensuring highly effective pan-European coverage. References Communications satellites in geostationary orbit Spacecraft launched in 2003 Satellites using the HS-376 bus Eutelsat satellites Ariane commercial payloads

4555275

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apstar%202R

Apstar 2R

Apstar 2R, also known as Telstar 10 and SinoSat 1C located at 76.5°E, is a communications satellite equipped with 27 C band and 24 Ku band transponders (36 MHz equivalents). The C band payload provides coverage of Asia, Australia, parts of Europe and Africa. The Ku band payload covers Korea and China, including Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan. Telstar 10, which hosts one of the most extensive cable neighborhoods in Asia, distributes cable television programming, direct-to-home services, telecommunications, as well as Internet and VSAT (very small aperture terminal) services. See also Apstar 2 References External links List of Active Channel on Telstar 10 Communications satellites in geostationary orbit Satellites using the SSL 1300 bus Communications satellites of China 1997 in China

4555319

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mursili%27s%20eclipse

Mursili's eclipse

The solar eclipse mentioned in a text dating to the reign of Mursili II could be of great importance for the absolute chronology of the Hittite Empire within the chronology of the Ancient Near East. The text records that in the tenth year of Mursili's reign, "the Sun gave a sign" (), just as the king was about to launch a campaign against the Kingdom of Azzi-Hayasa in north-eastern Anatolia. The reference in the annals was first interpreted as describing an eclipse by Emil Forrer (1926), Schorr (1928) identified it as the eclipse of the 13 March 1335 BC, visible as annular in Anatolia in the afternoon.<ref>Astronomische Abhandlungen 8-9 (1929), p. 16. Mitteilungen des Instituts für Orientforschung 6 (1958), 188.</ref> It is now more commonly identified as the one of 24 June 1312 BC, which was visible in totality in northern Anatolia in the afternoon. Paul Åström (1993) proposes the alternative date of 13 April 1308 BC, which would have been visible as a partial eclipse at sunrise. Peter J. Huber has suggested a date of 8 January 1340 BC. 1312 BC eclipse The 1312 BC eclipse occurred over northern Anatolia in the early afternoon, and its effects would have been quite spectacular for Mursili and his men on campaign: 24 June 1312 BC, total eclipse, maximum at 10:44 UTC, (Sicily) The 1312 BC date would imply that Mursili began his reign in either 1322 or 1321 BC. This date would be roughly that usually proposed for the death of Tutankhamun. It is known that Šuppiluliuma I was besieging Carchemish when he received a letter from the widow of a Pharaoh (who is called Dakhamunzu in the annals). Šuppiluliuma died shortly thereafter and his successor was Mursili II (whose brother would have been Prince Zannanza sent to Egypt where he died). Thus this appears to be a chronological anchor. However, there are other views, asserting for example that the dead Pharaoh was Akhenaten or that Tutankhamun died later. 1308 BC eclipse In contrast, the 1308 BC eclipse was annular, and began very early in the morning over Arabia (and only penumbral over Anatolia and Syria), reaching its height over Central Asia: 13 April 1308 BC, annular eclipse (94.8%), maximum at 04:16 UTC, (Tian Shan) See also List of solar eclipses visible from China References Further reading Paul Astrom, 'The Omen of the Sun in the Tenth Year of the Reign of Mursilis II', in Horizons and Styles: Studies in Early Art and Archaeology in Honour of Professor Homer L. Thomas, (1993) Trevor R. Bryce, The Kingdom of the Hittites'', Clarendon Oxford University Press, (1998) External links Path map (NASA) Solar eclipses Hittite Empire Chronology Assyriology 14th century BC Ancient astronomy

4557237

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20solar%20eclipses%20in%20the%2021st%20century

List of solar eclipses in the 21st century

During the 21st century, there will be 224 solar eclipses of which 77 will be partial, 73 will be annular, 68 will be total and 7 will be hybrids between total and annular eclipses. Of these, two annular and one total eclipse will be non-central, in the sense that the very center (axis) of the Moon's shadow will miss the Earth (for more information see gamma). In the 21st century, the greatest number of eclipses in one year is four, in 2011, 2029, 2047, 2065, 2076, and 2094. The predictions given here are by Fred Espenak of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. At this point, the longest measured duration in which the Moon completely covered the Sun, known as totality, was during the solar eclipse of July 22, 2009. This total solar eclipse had a maximum duration of 6 minutes and 38.86 seconds. The longest possible duration of a total solar eclipse is 7 minutes and 32 seconds. The longest annular solar eclipse of the 21st century took place on January 15, 2010, with a duration of 11 minutes and 7.8 seconds. The maximum possible duration is 12 minutes and 29 seconds. The eclipse of May 20, 2050, will be the second hybrid eclipse in the span of less than one year, the first one being on November 25, 2049. The table contains the date and time of the greatest eclipse (in dynamical time, which in this case is the time when the axis of the Moon's shadow cone passes closest to the centre of Earth; this is in (Ephemeris Time). The number of the saros series that the eclipse belongs to is given, followed by the magnitude of the eclipse (the fraction of the Sun's diameter obscured by the Moon) and the type of the eclipse (either total, annular, partial or hybrid). For total and annular eclipses, the duration of the eclipse is given, as well as the location of the greatest eclipse (the point of maximum eclipse) and the path width of the total or annular eclipse. The geographical areas from which the eclipse can be seen are listed. Eclipses See also List of solar eclipses in the 18th century List of solar eclipses in the 19th century List of solar eclipses in the 20th century List of lunar eclipses in the 21st century References Acknowledgement: Eclipse Predictions by Fred Espenak, NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center Bibliography 21st century-related lists +21

4557286

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20eclipse%20of%20August%2011%2C%201999

Solar eclipse of August 11, 1999

A total solar eclipse occurred on 11 August 1999 with an eclipse magnitude of 1.0286. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide. The path of the Moon's shadow began in the Atlantic Ocean and, before noon, was traversing the southern United Kingdom, northern France, Belgium, Luxembourg, southern Germany, Austria, Slovenia, Croatia, Hungary, and northern FR Yugoslavia (Vojvodina). The eclipse's maximum was at 11:03 UTC at in Romania (next to a town called Ocnele Mari near Râmnicu Vâlcea); and it continued across Bulgaria, the Black Sea, Turkey, northeastern tip of Syria, northern Iraq, Iran, southern Pakistan and Srikakulam in India and ended in the Bay of Bengal. It was the first total eclipse visible from Europe since 22 July 1990, and the first visible in the United Kingdom since 29 June 1927. Observations { "type": "ExternalData", "service": "page", "title": "SE1999Aug11T.map" } Because of the high population densities in areas of the path, this was one of the most-viewed total solar eclipses in human history; although some areas in the path of totality (mainly in Western Europe) offered impaired visibility due to adverse weather conditions. Some of the organized eclipse-watching parties along the path of totality set up video projectors on which people could watch the Moon's shadow as it raced towards them. There was substantial coverage on International TV stations of the progress of the eclipse shadow. The Moon's shadow was also observed from the Russian Mir space station; during the eclipse, video from Mir was broadcast live on television. The BBC concentrated its coverage efforts on the first landfall of the shadow across the western end of Cornwall (from St Ives to Lizard), which was packed with an extraordinary number of visitors, although Cornwall did not have nearly as many as expected leading to many specially organised events being left with very small attendance. The veteran amateur astronomer, broadcaster and eclipse-watcher Patrick Moore was brought in to head a live programme, but the eclipse was clouded out. BBC One also produced a special version of their Balloon Idents for the event. The BBC did not have a presence at Goonhilly on the Lizard Peninsula, one of the few places in Cornwall where the clouds parted just in time for the total eclipse to be visible. There was extensive cloud in Perranporth which parted just in time, allowing the very large crowd that filled the beach and hillsides to witness the event. Some of the best viewing conditions were to be had mid-Channel, where ferries were halted in calm conditions to obtain an excellent view. Hundreds of people who gathered on the island of Alderney also experienced the event. Also at sea, many of the Fastnet fleet contestants encountered totality crossing the Celtic Sea on the way to the Fastnet Rock. A gathering of several thousand people at the airport in Soissons, France, which was on the path of totality, were denied all but a few fleeting glimpses of the eclipse through the overcast sky. The clouds cleared completely just a few minutes after the eclipse. In contrast, the overcast sky in Amiens, France, where thousands had gathered, cleared only minutes before the eclipse began. Further inland, viewing conditions were also perfect at Vouziers, a French country town gridlocked by Belgian cars from day-visitors. The patchy cloud covering cleared a short time before the shadow arrived. Some photos from Vouziers were used on the subsequent BBC Sky at Night programme. The San Francisco Exploratorium featured a live webcast from a crowded town square in Amasya, Turkey. Doordarshan, the national TV channel in India, broadcast live coverage from Srikakulam, hosted by the TV personality Mona Bhattacharya. A Bulgarian Air Force MiG-21 two-seater was used by the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences to study the solar corona. The MiG-21, flying at 1600–1700 km/h (M=1,4-1,5) at an altitude of 13,000 m, was able to stay in the Moon's umbra for 6 min. The photographer, an air force pilot, used two film cameras, both fitted with 200 mm lenses and infrared filters, and one Digital8 video camera. Hungary's most popular tourist destination, Lake Balaton and its surrounding area, fell into the path of the eclipse entirely, which made the area even more popular for that day. The motorway leading there was so crowded, many people had to watch the eclipse while caught in a traffic jam. One French and two British Concordes briefly followed the eclipse with tourists on board. The BBC was filming one of its episodes for its TV series Airport that day and, during the show, resident press officers Russell Clisby and Steve Meller took photographs of the eclipse at Heathrow Airport, as well as Aeroflot supervisor Jeremy Spake witnessing the eclipse on a special charter flight. RTS, the national public broadcaster of Serbia, urged people to remain inside, citing dangers to public health. This caused the streets of all Serbian cities, towns and villages to be entirely deserted during the eclipse, with many opting to watch it on TV instead. The BMJ a month after the eclipse reported only 14 cases of eye damage from improper viewing of the eclipse, a number lower than initially feared. In one of the most serious cases the patient had looked at the Sun without eye protection for twenty minutes, but overall the public health campaign had succeeded. Gallery Notable times and coordinates Related eclipses Eclipses of 1999 A penumbral lunar eclipse on January 31. An annular solar eclipse on February 16. A partial lunar eclipse on July 28. A total solar eclipse on August 11. Solar eclipses 1997–2000 Saros 145 Metonic series See also List of solar eclipses visible from the United Kingdom Notes References Eclipse at hermit.org "Club Krile Magazine", Vol. 11, 1999, "Air Group 2000" Publishing, Sofia, Bulgaria The Total Solar Eclipse of 1999 August 11 Russia expedition Photos Turkey. Prof. Druckmüller's eclipse photography site Hungary. Prof. Druckmüller's eclipse photography site France. Prof. Druckmüller's eclipse photography site Bulgaria Solar Corona Shape Exploratorium Webcast: Solar Eclipse August 11, 1999 KryssTal - Eclipse in Cornwall (UK)—totality not seen but scene photographed Solar eclipse of August 11, 1999 Romania, shown in Romanian Maximum Card Solar eclipse of August 11, 1999 Romania, shown in Romanian Maximum Card Images from Turkey by Crayford Manor House Astronomical Society A Crescent Sunrise, APOD 8/17/1999, partial eclipse from Quebec, Canada Sun Block, APOD 8/18/1999, totality from Hungary Light From The Dark Sun, APOD 8/19/1999, totality from Siofok, Hungary At The Sun's Edge, APOD 8/20/1999, totality near Bagdere, Turkey The Big Corona, APOD 4/8/2001, totality by Fred Espenak Total Eclipse of the Active Sun, APOD 6/20/2001, from Kecel, Hungary Diamond Ring in the Sun, APOD 6/21/2001, totality from eastern Turkey Looking Back at an Eclipsed Earth, APOD 9/26/2004, total eclipse shadow seen from Mir spacestation, chosen as APOD again on 6/10/2007 Russian scientist observed eclipse 1999 08 11 1999 08 11 1999 in science August 1999 events in Asia 1999 in the United Kingdom 1999 in France 1999 in Belgium 1999 in Luxembourg 1999 in Germany 1999 in Austria 1999 in Slovakia 1999 in Slovenia 1999 in Hungary 1999 in Romania 1999 in Yugoslavia 1999 in Bulgaria 1999 in Turkey 1999 in Iran 1999 in Iraq 1999 in Syria 1999 in Pakistan 1999 in India August 1999 events in Europe

4561442

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmopolitan%20distribution

Cosmopolitan distribution

In biogeography, cosmopolitan distribution is the term for the range of a taxon that extends across all of (or most of) the world, in appropriate habitats; most cosmopolitan species are known to be highly adaptable to a range of climatic and environmental conditions, though this is not always so. Killer whales (orcas) are among the most well-known cosmopolitan species on the planet, as they maintain several different resident and transient (migratory) populations in every major oceanic body on Earth, from the Arctic Circle to Antarctica and every coastal and open-water region in-between. Such a taxon (usually a species) is said to have a cosmopolitan distribution, or exhibit cosmopolitanism, as a species; another example, the rock dove (commonly referred to as a 'pigeon'), in addition to having been bred domestically for centuries, now occurs in most urban areas across the world. The extreme opposite of a cosmopolitan species is an endemic (native) species, or one that is found only in a single geographical location. Endemism usually results in organisms with specific adaptations to one particular climate or region, and the species would likely face challenges if placed in a different environment. There are far more examples of endemic species than cosmopolitan species; one example being the snow leopard, a rare feline species found only in Central Asian mountain ranges, an environment the cats have adapted to over millennia. Qualification The caveat "in appropriate habitat" is used to qualify the term "cosmopolitan distribution", excluding in most instances polar regions, extreme altitudes, oceans, deserts, or small, isolated islands. For example, the housefly is highly cosmopolitan, yet is neither oceanic nor polar in its distribution. Related terms and concepts The term pandemism also is in use, but not all authors are consistent in the sense in which they use the term; some speak of pandemism mainly in referring to diseases and pandemics, and some as a term intermediate between endemism and cosmopolitanism, in effect regarding pandemism as subcosmopolitanism. This means near cosmopolitanism, but with major gaps in the distribution, say, complete absence from Australia. Terminology varies, and there is some debate whether the true opposite of endemism is pandemism or cosmopolitanism. Oceanic and terrestrial Another concept in biogeography is that of oceanic cosmopolitanism and endemism. Although there is a temptation to regard the World Ocean as a medium without biological boundaries, this is far from reality; many physical and biological barriers interfere with either the spread or continued residence of many species. For example, temperature gradients prevent free migration of tropical species between the Atlantic and Indian-plus-Pacific oceans, even though there is open passage past continental masses such as the Americas and Africa/Eurasia. Again, as far as many species are concerned, the Southern Ocean and the Northern marine regions are completely isolated from each other by the intolerable temperatures of the tropical regions. In the light of such considerations, it is no surprise to find that endemism and cosmopolitanism are quite as marked in the oceans as on land. Ecological delimitation Another aspect of cosmopolitanism is that of ecological limitations. A species that is apparently cosmopolitan because it occurs in all oceans might in fact occupy only littoral zones, or only particular ranges of depths, or only estuaries, for example. Analogously, terrestrial species might be present only in forests, or mountainous regions, or sandy arid regions or the like. Such distributions might be patchy, or extended, but narrow. Factors of such a nature are taken widely for granted, so they seldom are mentioned explicitly in mentioning cosmopolitan distributions. Regional and temporal variation in populations Cosmopolitanism of a particular species or variety should not be confused with cosmopolitanism of higher taxa. For example, the family Myrmeleontidae is cosmopolitan in the sense that every continent except Antarctica is home to some indigenous species within the Myrmeleontidae, but nonetheless no one species, nor even genus, of the Myrmeleontidae is cosmopolitan. Conversely, partly as a result of human introduction of unnatural apiculture to the New World, Apis mellifera probably is the only cosmopolitan member of its family; the rest of the family Apidae have modest distributions. Even where a cosmopolitan population is recognised as a single species, such as indeed Apis mellifera, there generally will be variation between regional sub-populations. Such variation commonly is at the level of subspecies, varieties or morphs, whereas some variation is too slight or inconsistent for formal recognition. For an example of subspecific variation, consider the so-called "African killer bee", which is the subspecies Apis mellifera scutellata, and the Cape bee, which is the subspecies Apis mellifera capensis; both of them are in the same cosmopolitan species Apis mellifera, but their ranges barely overlap. Other cosmopolitan species, such as the house sparrow and osprey, present similar examples, but in yet other species there are less familiar complications: some migratory birds such as the Arctic tern occur from the Arctic to the Southern Ocean, but at any one season of the year they are likely to be largely in passage or concentrated at only one end of the range. Also, some such species breed only at one end of the range. Seen purely as an aspect of cosmopolitanism, such distributions could be seen as temporal, seasonal variations. Other complications of cosmopolitanism on a planet too large for local populations to interbreed routinely with each other include genetic effects such as ring species, such as in the Larus gulls, and the formation of clines such as in Drosophila. Examples Cosmopolitan distributions can be observed both in extinct and extant species. For example, Lystrosaurus was cosmopolitan in the Early Triassic after the Permian-Triassic extinction event. In the modern world, the killer whale, the blue whale, and the great white shark all have cosmopolitan distribution, extending over most of the Earth's oceans. The wasp Copidosoma floridanum is another example, as it is found around the world. Other examples include humans, cats, dogs, the western honey bee, the foliose lichen Parmelia sulcata, and the mollusc genus Mytilus. The term can also apply to some diseases. It may result from a broad range of environmental tolerances or from rapid dispersal compared to the time needed for speciation. See also Ecoregion Gondwanan distribution Holarctic Pantropical References External links Biogeography

4563252

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/118P/Shoemaker%E2%80%93Levy

118P/Shoemaker–Levy

118P/Shoemaker–Levy (also known as periodic comet Shoemaker–Levy 4) is a comet discovered by astronomers Carolyn and Eugene M. Shoemaker and David Levy. During the 2010 apparition the comet became as bright as apparent magnitude 11.5. The comet nucleus is estimated to be 4.8 kilometers in diameter. On December 3, 2015, comet Shoemaker–Levy 4 will pass from asteroid 4 Vesta. This comet should not be confused with Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 (D/1993 F2) which spectacularly crashed into Jupiter in 1994. References External links Orbital simulation from JPL (Java) / Horizons Ephemeris 118P magnitude plot for 2010 http://jcometobs.web.fc2.com/pcmtn/0118p.htm 118P on Kronk's Cometography Periodic comets 0118 Discoveries by Carolyn S. Shoemaker Discoveries by Eugene Merle Shoemaker 118P Shoemaker-Levy Comets in 2016 19910209

4564287

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ares%20%28Marvel%20Comics%29

Ares (Marvel Comics)

Ares is a fictional character, a deity appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is based on the Greek god of the same name. He first appeared in Thor #129 (June 1966) and was created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby. Ares has commonly appeared as an enemy of Thor and Hercules and starred in his own self-titled series in 2006. Ares, the Greek God of War, was initially depicted as a supervillain in the Marvel Universe, opposing Thor, Hercules and the Avengers. Early on, his influence on Earth was less direct as he created an organization known as the "Warhawks" and used them to create war on Earth. In 2006 the character was recast to not be a villain but instead more of an antihero who simply lived for battle, any battle. He was added to the Avengers roster as one of their "heavy hitters" and showed himself to have his own "Warriors Honor" codex and not the one-dimensional villain he had been portrayed as in the past. He would later join Norman Osborn's Dark Avengers, believing that he could put his powers to good use. During the Siege storyline Ares is killed by Sentry who literally tears him apart. He is later brought back from the dead. Publication history Ares first appeared in Thor #129, 1966, written by Stan Lee and drawn by Jack Kirby. He would often appear as a villain in both Thor and The Avengers over the next 30 years. A 5-issue limited series, Ares, written by Michael Avon Oeming and drawn by Travel Foreman, was published in 2006 and focuses on this character. Since the release of the Ares miniseries he has been portrayed as an antihero. Following the superhero Civil War, Ares was invited to join the official, S.H.I.E.L.D.-sponsored The Mighty Avengers, led by Tony Stark, and appeared in that title. He was one of only two members to remain on the team after Norman Osborn took Stark's position, as part of the Dark Reign storyline and appeared in the first Dark Avengers series throughout its run. Ares subsequently starred in a three-issue Dark Avengers: Ares miniseries written by Kieron Gillen. He appeared as a regular character in the Dark Avengers series from issue #1 (March 2009) until the time of his death in the Siege limited series. During the "Chaos War" storyline, Ares appeared in a one-shot comic titles Chaos War: Ares. Fictional character biography Ares is the son of Zeus and is the Olympian God of War. Ares reveled in war and combat in all its forms, not caring about sides or victims, supporting Troy in the Trojan war. Ares has hated Hercules ever since Hercules killed Ares' pets, the monstrous Stymphalian birds, and his hatred increased when he noticed Hercules being favored by their father, while he was shunned for his brutal behavior. Further adding to his hatred, is that in modern times, war is shunned and disliked, whereas Hercules is still beloved by the masses, despite his own history of death and destruction. As the Romans took on worship of Greek gods and renamed them, Ares is also the deity Mars. After Zeus allowed the worship of the Greek/Roman gods to cease, the dissatisfied Ares held a deep grudge and would try to overthrow Olympus more than once. He refused to battle against Pluto on behalf of Hercules, and aided Pluto instead. Hercules teamed up with the Asgardian god Thor in order to defeat Ares, leading to Ares' retreat. Ares fought a duel with Hercules, forming an alliance with the Enchantress to make Hercules her slave and ally against the Avengers using water from the Spring of Eros, which led to Hercules being exiled from Olympus for a year. Ares organized the Warhawks, which included Satyrs whose pipes caused violence in humans, and with them battled the Avengers. He dispatched Kratos and Bia to capture Hercules. After allying with the Enchantress again, he used the Black Knight's Ebony Blade to quench the Promethean Flame and conquer Olympus, by turning all the other Olympians to crystal, although Hercules was not transformed, but exiled to Earth with amnesia, due to being brutally beaten by Ares' henchman the Yellow-crested Titans and drifting between Olympus and Earth for six days and nights. Ares sent the two gods, Kratos and Bia, after Hercules, and despite the Avenger's efforts Hercules was captured and taken back to Olympus. Ares again battled the Avengers who had come to rescue the captive Hercules, and was defeated by Thor and the Black Knight. Ares also battled Namor the Sub-Mariner and Venus. He formed another alliance with Pluto, and kidnapped Krista in an attempt to foment war between Olympus and Asgard. He also plotted with Pluto and Ares' daughter Hippolyta to marry Hercules and Venus to Hippolyta and himself. It was revealed that in ancient times, he took part in the Trojan War. Alongside Zeus, Ares struck an alliance with Odin against the Eternals, and battled the Eternal Ikaris. He frequently battled teams and individuals while working as a villain, and continued to battle heroes like the Avengers. Ares' uncle Pluto sought to overwhelm Mount Olympus with an army of the dead, leading to a stalemate that the gods and demigods (including Achilles) were unable to break. In desperation to end the siege of Olympus, Zeus called upon his son Ares who defeated Hades' army almost single-handedly. Hoping that this would allow him to join his kind in Olympus, Ares was disappointed to hear his parents and the other gods disparage his "crude" and "dishonorable" nature. He abandoned his brethren to live amongst mortal men, but did not completely give up his god nature yet. Ares tired of his own warmongering when he realized that was why the other gods despised him and decided to live a normal life. He gave up his position as god of war, but maintained his skills, weaponry, and immortality. On Earth, he set himself up as a builder/carpenter. He would later father a son with an unidentified mother. After the events of the Civil War storyline, Ms. Marvel and Iron Man recruit Ares as part of the new Mighty Avengers. He plays a major part in defeating Ultron. During the Secret Invasion, Ares' son Alexander was recruited for Nick Fury's Secret Warriors, by Daisy Johnson, to oppose the Skrull invasion of New York City. During the Dark Reign storyline, Ares has joined the Dark Avengers, Norman Osborn's personal team of Avengers. Writer of the Dark Avengers series, Brian Michael Bendis, described Ares' role: "Ares is going to be a big part of this book. He's really going to step up and use his War God brain." During The Dark Avengers' first mission, "Venom-Spidey" is turned into a monster by Morgan le Fay. Venom (under her control) attempts to eat Ares. He is spit back out but is turned to stone shortly thereafter by Morgana. He returns to normal when Morgana is defeated by Dr. Doom in her own time. Ares later receives a truancy notice in the mail regarding his son. Deciding to investigate as best he can, he sends Alex to school, only to see him board Daisy Johnson's scooter on the way to a new base for the Secret Warriors. Ares tails them on his motorcycle and rampages his way in through the wall. When Hellfire tries to attack, Ares easily dispatches him and in their own silent way, Nick Fury and Ares ask for a private audience with one another. Ares then uncharacteristically declares himself a horrid father, but only aims to raise Alex differently than he and his father were raised. He then peacefully leaves the place behind, allowing Alex the opportunity to not have to hide his allegiance anymore. When the Dark Avengers and H.A.M.M.E.R. go to San Francisco to quell the riots, Ares was stomping out a group of pro-mutant activists. Gambit challenged him but was easily dispatched. Rogue tried absorbing his powers, which prove too much for her, but nonetheless she manages to weaken him. Danger, fearing that Rogue might injure herself, threw an energized manhole at Ares, pushing him away from Rogue. She gained half of Ares' power as a result. The trio then hijack a H.A.M.M.E.R. tank and leave a bleeding Ares behind. Ares, having recovered from his injuries, is seen next during the Dark Avengers' assault on the X-Men's new base Utopia (which was made from the remains of the first Asteroid M). There he fights with several X-Men until he is confronted with the once more empowered valkyrie Danielle Moonstar. The two fight and are evenly matched with Dani quickly gaining the upper hand due to having borrowed some power from Hela the Asgardian death Goddess. Eventually both he and his team of Avengers are forced to retreat. Before the Siege begins, Osborn is seen trying to convince Ares to come up with a plan to invade Asgard, saying Loki has taken control of it. Even though Osborn promises Ares that nothing is wrong, Ares tells Osborn that if he is lying, he will 'cut his head off, armour and all'. Once the Siege of Asgard begins, as the battle intensifies, Ares finds himself battling Balder and learns from Heimdall about Osborn's deceptions. When Osborn dispatches Daken to find Maria Hill, he is struck down by Ares, who vows to kill Osborn for his lies. However, Ares is suddenly attacked by the Sentry and a brutal battle ensues, in which Ares is wounded while barely doing any damage to Sentry. The battle then comes to a violent conclusion when the Sentry rips Ares in half before the horrified eyes of the combatants on both sides. Alexander, after finding out about his father's death, recalls a time when he asked Ares if they would always be together, Ares responded that, as they are gods, they can be killed, but they "will never truly die" and tells him that he has experienced "this many, many times", having been "to Hades and through the Underworld to awaken in the fair Fields of Elysium...". Ares tells Alexander that he would one day die, but promises him that he will always find him again. During the Chaos War storyline, Ares is among the dead beings released by Pluto in order to defend the Underworld from the forces of Amatsu-Mikaboshi, but is ultimately defeated and enslaved bodily by the Chaos King along with his fallen parents Zeus and Hera. Despite the combined attacks of the newly assembled God Squad, Ares is unscathed and engages Hercules in direct combat as Zeus and Hera battle Galactus and the other members of the God Squad. Ares ultimately returned to the underworld with the rest of the dead. As part of the All-New, All-Different Marvel, Ares and Alexander (who had been killed by Gorgon) are later seen residing in the Elysian Fields. However, Ares is kidnapped and forcibly resurrected by agents of Maestro in order to serve as one of the Collector's fighters in the new Contest of Champions. Though Ares agrees to go along with the tournament, Stick claims that he is simply biding his time until he can find a way to kill Collector and Maestro. After the Maestro is defeated, Ares chooses to travel the world with his new friends, stating that he wishes to have a whole host of new adventures to tell Phobos about when he returns to the Elysian Fields one day. During the Secret Empire storyline, Ares appears as a member of the Champions of Europe alongside Captain Britain, Excalibur, Guillotine, Outlaw, and Peregrine. Alongside Squirrel Girl and Enigma, the Champions of Europe liberate Paris, France from a Hydra invasion force. Shortly after the War of the Realms storyline, Ares is seen watching Shang-Chi and Sword Master train in Flushing, New York. After Flushing is merged with other Asian, Pacific and predominantly Asian cities outside of Asia with portals created by the Big Nguyen Company, Ares and his legion of Dragonborn soldiers confront Shang-Chi and Sword Master as the God of War wants Lin Lie's mystical Fuxi sword for himself. After a brief struggle, Ares is able to take the sword and reveals his plans to use its god slaying abilities to kill another god. While he and his soldiers leave, Ares is belittled by Shang-Chi for his cowardice and stupidity, comparing him unfavorably to Chiyou, the Chinese God of War. Ares takes the sword to a repair shop run by his dwarven ally Orgarb, an exiled master smith from Nidavellir; despite Orgarb's efforts, Ares is unable to activate the sword's power, as Shang-Chi predicted. When Orgarb inquires what Ares plans to do with the sword, Ares refuses to tell him. Shang-Chi and Sword Master suddenly appear and Shang reveals Ares' plan to kill another god with the sword, shocking Orgarb. Seeing that the sword's magic can only be summoned when wielded by Sword Master, Ares and Orgarb attempt to kidnap Lin Lie for his blood, only to be stopped by Shang-Chi who uses the sword (without activating its power) to break Ares' hammer, impressing the Olympian. Shang-Chi makes a compromise to Ares: in exchange for Shang-Chi and Sword Master helping him, Ares would use his godhood help find Lin Lie's missing father. Sword Master protests, claiming that Ares is an evil god but Ares rebuffs the accusation, pointing out the atrocities committed by the Greek "heroes" Jason and Cadmus against his son, the drakon Ismenios, were done without the encouragement of the gods. Ares accepts Shang-Chi's offer, revealing that Ismenios had been abducted. Believing that only someone powerful would risk angering the God of War, Ares had hoped to use the Fuxi sword to punish his son's kidnapper. After arming themselves at Ares' armory in the South Bronx, the three then head though a Pan Portal from Flushing to Madripoor, where Ares warns them of the gods residing there. Due to Lin Lie's skill with solving puzzles, the group eventually finds an imprisoned Ismenios within a Madriporrian temple and Ares is reunited with his son. However Sword Master's destruction of Ismenios' cage activates the temple's stone dragon guards and summons Davi Naka, the Mother Goddess of Madripoor. Despite Shang-Chi's attempts to negotiate, Ares, Ismenios and Sword Master attack Naka but are easily defeated by the Mother Goddess. Naka explains her reasoning behind Ismenios's kidnapping: Ismenios attempted to plunder Atlantis's treasure hoard during the absence of its sea serpent guardian but was caught by Namor. Due to her duty to protect all dragons, Naka rescued Ismenios from Namor's wrath and imprisoned the young drakon in her temple for his protection and to placate Atlantis. Ares admonishes his son for attacking the kingdom under the protection of his uncle, Poseidon, but quickly forgives him after realizing he would've done the same thing. Dismissing the whole ordeal was a misunderstanding and ending his deal with Sword Master and Shang-Chi as they and the Fuxi sword were not needed, Ares attempts to leave the temple with Ismenios, but is prevented so by Naka. The goddess warns the group that despite her efforts, Atlantis is still outraged over the disappearance of their sea serpent and orders them to find the missing guardian or else face the wrath of the kingdom. Powers and abilities Ares belongs to a race of inter-dimensional deities known only as the Olympians. He possesses the base superhuman physical attributes of an Olympian, including superhuman strength, speed, agility, durability, reflexes, regenerative healing factor, and virtual immortality, though some of his powers are substantially greater than most other Olympians. Like all Olympians, Ares is superhumanly strong, though far more so than the majority of his race. Among the Olympians, his physical strength is equaled only by his uncles, Neptune and Pluto, and is exceeded only by his father, Zeus, and his half-brother, Hercules. Ares' body and metabolism generates almost no fatigue toxins during physical activity, granting him virtually inexhaustible superhuman stamina in all physical activities. Ares' body is also highly resistant to physical injury. He can withstand great impact forces, energy discharges, temperature extremes, and falls from great heights without being injured. However, also like all other Olympians, he can sustain injury; once, after an extensive self-imposed exile on the Earthly plane, Ares was physically vulnerable enough to be injured and downed by mere bullets. At the same time Ares has been shown withstanding being shot at point-blank range from machine guns used by War Machine. Ares is functionally immortal in the sense that he is immune to the effects of aging and hasn't aged since reaching adulthood. He is also immune to any known terrestrial disease or infection. While not as accomplished at magic as many of his fellow Olympians, and lacking the ability to fly, project energy and teleport, as an Olympian god Ares has the potential to use magic. Ares can sense the presence of other gods, demons, and the use of magic, call other gods, and transport himself to Olympus and to Earth at will on certain occasions (such as abandoning his station as the God of War to lead a mortal life, or when retreating to Olympus after Hercules wounded him in a fierce battle with Kyknos). However, neither his rudimentary magic nor his Olympian natural abilities were capable of overwhelming the Merlin-tutored Morgan le Fay or preventing the mistress of the mystic arts from easily transmuting him into stone. He is, as fits his station as the Olympian God of War, a formidable hand-to-hand combatant, possessing fighting skills superior to that of even his father Zeus and his sister Athena; Nate Grey described him as "war personified, on every plane...in every future" and admits that even he can find nothing to counter one such as Ares; when Nate hid himself and Mimic "amongst time", Ares was able to tear through the fabric of time itself to reach and overpower him (claiming that such could not "limit" him), the temporal conflict sending ripples across the stars and disrupting the timestream itself. In another instance, apparently without aid, Ares was able to somehow bring himself and Alexander to another dimension, where many gods of Earth, including the Council of Skyfathers, had convened to judge his son's worthiness as the 'God of Fear'. Ares was also able to somehow create the man-eating Stymphalian birds "as a perfect expression of his own essence" ages ago, and was also able to send his son Monstro from 1805 through time into the mid-20th century as punishment for his renouncing war and change him into a sixty-foot tall giant. Ares can also use his powers to create and manipulate conflicts at will. He is also an expert with numerous weapons, including ancient weapons and conventional, modern-day firearms. In his earlier appearances, he typically carried Olympian weapons like battleaxes, spears, swords, daggers, and a javelin (which has been said to at least once be his "favorite" weapon), but his most recent appearance shows him favoring a mixture of ancient, like the jawbone of an ass, and modern weapons, like gases, rays, firearms, and high-explosives, as well as "Hydra blood bullets", which contain the lethal blood of a Lernaean Hydra. He is an aficionado, expert, and collector of the most unusual instruments and methods of death dealing, as well as being well-versed in torture, interrogation, and combat tactics. Reception Accolades In 2012, IGN ranked Ares 39th in their "Top 50 Avengers" list. In 2019, CBR.com ranked Ares 6th in their "Marvel Comics: The 10 Most Powerful Olympians" list. In 2021, CBR.com ranked Ares 7th in their "Marvel: 10 Most Powerful Olympians" list. In 2022, Sportskeeda ranked Ares 5th in their "10 best Greek gods from Marvel comics " list. In 2022, Screen Rant ranked Ares 10th in their "10 Marvel Comics Gods Who Should Join The MCU Next" list, included him in their "10 Most Powerful Hercules Villains In Marvel Comics" list, and included him in their "10 Most Powerful Olympian Gods In Marvel Comics" list. In 2022, CBR.com ranked Ares 3rd in their "Black Knight's 10 Strongest Villains" list and 8th in their "10 Scariest Avengers" list. Other versions Age of Ultron In the Age of Ultron storyline, the reality that formed from Wolverine and Invisible Woman killing Henry Pym to prevent Ultron from being created shows that Ares has become the new Doctor Doom after the original died and is engaged to Morgan le Fay where they have conquered half the planet. Hippolyta defeats Ares and takes back command of the Amazons (who were subdued by Ares). In other media Television Ares appears in The Marvel Super Heroes episode, "The Verdict of Zeus". Ares appears in the Avengers Assemble, voiced by Trevor Devall. In the episode "The Incredible Herc", he pursues Hercules as part of his plot to steal the Key of Tartarus from him. In the episodes "The Citadel" and "The Wastelands", Ares helps the Beyonder pursue the Avengers to maintain Battleworld. Ares appears in Marvel Future Avengers, voiced by Masami Iwasaki in Japanese and JB Blanc in the English dub. This version is a member of the Masters of Evil. Video games Ares appears as an unlockable character in Marvel: Avengers Alliance. Ares appears as a playable character in Marvel Puzzle Quest. Ares appears in Lego Marvel's Avengers. Ares appears as a boss in Marvel Future Revolution. Collected editions References External links Ares at Marvel.com Ares in popular culture Avengers (comics) characters Characters created by Jack Kirby Characters created by Stan Lee Classical mythology in Marvel Comics Comics characters introduced in 1966 Fictional axefighters Fictional gods Fictional swordfighters in comics Greek and Roman deities in fiction Marvel Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds Marvel Comics characters who use magic Marvel Comics characters with accelerated healing Marvel Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength

4565834

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navaratna

Navaratna

Navaratna () is a Sanskrit compound word meaning "nine gems" or "ratnas". Jewellery created in this style has important cultural significance in many southern, and south-eastern Asian cultures as a symbol of wealth, status, and is claimed to yield talismanic benefits towards health and wellbeing. The setting of the stones is believed to hold mystical powers tied to the astrology and mythology of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. The historic origin of the navaratna is tied to the astrological concept of "Navagrahas", or "nine celestial gods" (planets). The stones are often set within gold or silver jewellery, with a ruby as the centrepiece representing the Sun. Each additional stone around the ruby then represents another celestial body within the Solar System, or a node, in addition to representing good fortune and the characteristics of various religious figures. For traditional purposes and the purported health benefits, the arrangement of the stones and their position to the body is of particular significance, as is the quality of the gemstones. Navaratna across languages and cultures In each culture, the Navaratna largely reflects the same core concepts associated with the stones. Their arrangement is considered sacred in almost all the countries of Asia, including, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Singapore, Myanmar, Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand and Malaysia, regardless of religious and cultural differences. Translation of Navaratna Navaratna in Sinhalese, Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Nepali, Kannada, Burmese, Bengali and Indonesian Nabaratna (ନବରତ୍ନ) in Odia Navaratinam in Tamil Navaratnalu in Telugu Navaratnam in Malayalam Nawaratna in Malay Nawarat or Noppharat in Thai Nawarat (နဝရတ်) in Burmese Recognition in Thailand In Thailand, the Navaratna is officially recognised as a national and royal symbol. A specific honour awarded by the king is called the "Noppharat Ratchawaraphon" (the Ancient Auspicious Order of the Nine Gems). The decoration consists of a single class (Knight). The insignia is: Pendant of the Nine Gems, on a yellow sash with a red, blue and green trims, worn over the right shoulder of the left hip (for men). For women, the Pendant of the Nine Gems is attached onto a silk ribbon, worn on the front left shoulder. Star of the Nine Gems, to wear on the left chest Gold Ring of the Nine Gems, for men, to wear on the right ring finger. Gems and planets Late Thai astrologer Horacharn Thep Sarikabutr has given the meaning of these nine gems in his Parichad-Jataka (chapter 2, verse 21, page 35–36) translated as follows: "Top quality and flawless ruby is the gem for the Sun, natural pearl for the Moon, red coral for Mars, emerald for Mercury, yellow sapphire for Jupiter, diamond for Venus, blue sapphire for Saturn, hessonite for Rahu (ascending lunar node), and cat's eye for Ketu (descending lunar node)." This quote, attributed to Brihat Jataka and is mentioned in Mani-mala as well as Jataka Parijata Translation: Ruby () for Surya () (Sun), Pearl () for Chandra (Moon), Red coral () for Mangala () (Mars), Emerald () for Budha () (Mercury), Yellow sapphire () for Bṛhaspati () (Jupiter), Diamond () for Shukra () (Venus), Blue sapphire () for Shani (Saturn), Hessonite () for Rahu (the ascending lunar node) Cat's eye () for Ketu (the descending lunar node), "...these gems must be high-born and flawless." Setting arrangement The traditional setting and arrangement of the Navaratna is as illustrated. A ruby (representing the Sun) is always in the center, surrounded (clockwise from the top) by a diamond, a natural pearl, red coral, hessonite, a blue sapphire, cat's eye, a yellow sapphire, and an emerald. Traditionally, no gem other than a ruby or a red spinel is set in the center of the arrangement. Because the Sun is the center of the Solar System, its gem is positioned in the heart of a Navaratna Talisman. For an example of the Navaratna in a necklace setting, see Thailand's "The Queen Sirikit Navaratna." Navaratna gem purity In the above sloka the words sujatyam-amalam (sujati=high born, and amala=completely pure or flawless) are significant. According to Asian belief systems, only clean, top-quality gems are considered to be auspicious. In the Hindu Garuda Purana, chapter 68, verse 17, it is stated by the narrator, Sri Suta Goswami that: "Pure, flawless gems have auspicious powers which can protect one from demons, snakes, poisons, diseases, sinful reactions, and other dangers, while flawed stones have the opposite effect." A similar concept exists in the Agni Purana, chapter 246, slokas 7 and 8: "A gem free from all impurities and radiating its characteristic internal luster should be looked upon as an escort of good luck; a gem which is cracked, fissured, devoid of luster, or appearing rough or sandy, should not be used at all." Contemporary ideas on gem therapy by Yogananda in Autobiography of a Yogi "Just as a house can be fitted with a copper rod to absorb the shock of lightning, so the bodily temple can be benefited by various protective measures. Ages ago our yogis discovered that pure metals emit an astral light which is powerfully counteractive to negative pulls of the planets. Subtle electrical and magnetic radiations are constantly circulating in the universe [...] This problem received attention from our rishis; they found helpful not only a combination of metals, but also of plants and most effective of all faultless jewels of not less than two carats. The preventive uses of astrology have seldom been seriously studied outside of India. One little-known fact is that the proper jewels, metals, or plant preparations are valueless unless the required weight is secured, and unless these remedial agents are worn next to the skin." Gems in sidereal astrology According to Hindu astrology, life on Earth is influenced by the navagrahas, or nine influencers (the planets). The placement of the navagrahas in one's horoscope is supposed to have an influence throughout an individual's life. Wearing the nine gems is said to provide an astrological balance and benefit to the wearer. In Hindu astrology, it is believed that these gems may have both positive or negative influences on human life, and that astrological gems should be worn only after consulting an astrologer. Based on an individual's sidereal horoscope, either a single gem or a combination of compatible gems is advised to be worn to harness beneficial planets or counteract harmful planets. The supposed "astrological" or "piezoelectric" benefit of wearing or donating gems has not been scientifically quantified. References External links The Planetary Gemologists Association website Hindu astrology Types of jewellery Magic (supernatural) Talismans Superstitions of India Jewellery of India Gemstones in religion

4570624

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20eclipse%20of%20November%2023%2C%202003

Solar eclipse of November 23, 2003

A total solar eclipse took place on November 23, 2003, with a magnitude of 1.0379. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide. It was visible from a corridor in the Antarctic region. A partial eclipse was seen from the much broader path of the Moon's penumbra, including the southern tip of South America and most of Australia. For most solar eclipses the path of totality moves eastwards. In this case the path moved south and then west round Antarctica. Images Animated map Related eclipses Eclipses of 2003 A total lunar eclipse on May 16. An annular solar eclipse (one limit) on May 31. A total lunar eclipse on November 9. A total solar eclipse on November 23. Solar eclipses 2000–2003 Saros 152 Metonic series Notes References Fred Espenak and Jay Anderson. "Total Solar Eclipse of 2003 November 23". NASA, July 2003. NASA graphics Google Map Photos: Prof. Druckmüller's eclipse photography site. Flight over Antarctica Images from Antarctica by Crayford Manor House Astronomical Society APOD 8/5/2004, An Antarctic Total Solar Eclipse APOD 11/27/2003, The Long Shadow of the Moon, Total solar eclipse from satellite over Antarctica 2003 11 23 2003 in science 2003 11 23 November 2003 events

4578111

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seudah%20shlishit

Seudah shlishit

Seudah shlishit ( third meal) or shaleshudes (Yiddish, an elided form of šālōš sǝʿuḏôt ()) is the third meal customarily eaten by Sabbath-observing Jews on each Shabbat. Both names refer to the third of the three meals a Jew is obligated to eat on Shabbat according to the Talmud. The practice of eating three meals is homiletically attached to Ex. 16:25, in which the word for day, hayom, appears three times with reference to the manna that fell in a double portion on Friday. Practices According to Halakha, the meal is to be eaten in the afternoon. It is usually the smallest of the three meals, often consisting of foods such as salads, herring, and gefilte fish in Ashkenazi custom and tuna, harissa, and fruits in Mizrahi and Sephardi customs. According to the Arba'ah Turim, it is also to be eaten on Jewish holidays. It has special significance because it is a mitzvah ("commandment") to eat three meals on the Sabbath. In Hasidic communities, this mitzvah is carried out with great enthusiasm as the Hitveadut. In some Hasidic circles, this third meal continues hours after the Sabbath has officially ended concluding with Birkat HaMazon over the same cup with Havdalah giving rise to the tradition of Melaveh Malkah. The lights might be turned off, either by a timer, or by a person after the Sabbath has ended. Some have a custom to rise and "accept the Kingdom of Heaven", by reciting Ein Kamocha ("The Lord is King, the Lord was King, the Lord will always be King") and the Shema Yisrael. While most poskim (Jewish legal decisors) encourage people to eat bread at this meal, most agree that eating cake or fruit will minimally suffice. However, many Jews of the Hasidic Chabad community have a custom specifically to refrain from eating bread at this meal, as do some German Jews. Special Sabbath songs that are often sung at this meal include Bnei Heichala (a Kabbalistic hymn by Rabbi Isaac Luria), Mizmor L'David (23rd Psalm), and Yedid Nefesh (a piyyut, or liturgical poem, composed by 16th century Kabbalist rabbi Elazar ben Moshe Azikri). Some also finish the morning hymn Baruch Adonai Yom Yom, starting either from the words B'vo'o M'Edom or Y'tzaveh Tzur Chasdo. Many recite the "Acceptance of the Kingdom of Heaven" before the last verse of this hymn. Some sing other Sabbath morning hymns, and some Kabbalistic hymns for the third meal, such as Kel Mistater. During the meals from Passover until Rosh Hashanah, many recite Pirkei Avot during the meal, one or two chapters per week, so as to finish three times. Although according to some opinions one is required to recite kiddush at this meal, most say it is not necessary. However, some have either maintained the recitation of kiddush as a custom, or merely partake of some wine or grape juice in order to recite the blessing, but do not consider it as the recitation of kiddush. Others have no particular custom as to the partaking of wine or grape juice at this meal. Shabbat meals The Talmud (tractate Shabbat 117b) states that a Jew must eat three meals on the Sabbath day, based on a derivation from a Biblical passage referring to Shabbat. Some rabbinic commentators conjecture that this three meal requirement was instituted in order to lend a special measure of honor to Shabbat, since the normative practice at the time was to eat two meals in the course of a normal weekday: one during the day and one at night. Later rabbinic sources list great spiritual rewards for eating this third meal and state that it is equivalent to all the meals combined. Indeed, while sometimes called seudah shlishit, or "third meal," it is often called shalosh seudos, "three meals" for its significance. While not described as a required act, it has become common practice today. In commemoration of the double portion of manna that fell for Shabbat, it is customary to have two loaves of bread at each meal. Among European Jewry this bread often takes the form of challah, while Middle Eastern Jews and Sephardi Jews normally use their own traditional breads or regional breads. Some Ashkenazi Jews will eat Matza. See also Shabbat meals Seudat mitzvah Melaveh Malkah External links Songs for Seudah Shlishit from The Zemirot Database. The source in the Torah for the Mitzvah of Shalosh Seudos Shalosh Seudos in Satmar Notes Shabbat Jewish traditions Jewish ceremonial food and drink Jewish festive meals Hebrew words and phrases in Jewish law

4582200

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20eclipse%20of%20December%204%2C%202002

Solar eclipse of December 4, 2002

A total solar eclipse took place on December 4, 2002, with a magnitude of 1.0244. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide. It was visible from a narrow corridor in southern Africa, the Indian Ocean and southern Australia. A partial eclipse was seen from the much broader path of the Moon's penumbra, including most of Africa and Australia. During the sunset after the eclipse many observers in Australia saw numerous and unusual forms of a green flash. In some parts of Angola, it was the second total eclipse of the Sun within 18 months, following the Solar eclipse of June 21, 2001. Images Gallery Related eclipses Eclipses of 2002 A penumbral lunar eclipse on May 26. An annular solar eclipse on June 10. A penumbral lunar eclipse on June 24. A penumbral lunar eclipse on November 20. A total solar eclipse on December 4. Tzolkinex Preceded: Solar eclipse of October 24, 1995 Followed: Solar eclipse of January 15, 2010 Half-Saros Preceded: Lunar eclipse of November 29, 1993 Followed: Lunar eclipse of December 10, 2011 Tritos Preceded: Solar eclipse of January 4, 1992 Followed: Solar eclipse of November 3, 2013 Solar Saros 142 Preceded: Solar eclipse of November 22, 1984 Followed: Solar eclipse of December 14, 2020 Inex Preceded: Solar eclipse of December 24, 1973 Followed: Solar eclipse of November 14, 2031 Solar eclipses 2000–2003 Saros 142 Tritos series Metonic series Notes References Fred Espenak and Jay Anderson. "Total Solar Eclipse of 2002 December 4". NASA, November 2004. Google Map Photos: Spaceweather.com: Dec. 4, 2002, Solar Eclipse Gallery and Prof. Druckmüller's eclipse photography site. Australia Prof. Druckmüller's eclipse photography site. South Africa and Mozambique KryssTal - Eclipse from Botswana. Images from Australia by Crayford Manor House Astronomical Society Total Solar Eclipse of 4 December 2002 seen in EUMETSAT satellite imagery . Zimbabwe Solar Eclipse, APOD 12/6/2002, Corona from Zimbabwe-South Africa border The Crown of the Sun, APOD 12/13/2002, Corona of total eclipse from Musina, South Africa Shadow Cone of a Total Solar Eclipse, APOD 1/6/2003, totality from South Australia 2002 12 04 2002 in science 2002 12 04 December 2002 events 2002 in Angola 2002 in Zambia 2002 in Zimbabwe 2002 in Botswana 2002 in Mozambique 2002 in South Africa December 2002 events in Australia

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20eclipse%20of%20June%2021%2C%202001

Solar eclipse of June 21, 2001

A total solar eclipse took place on June 21, 2001, with a magnitude of 1.0495. It was the first solar eclipse of the 21st century. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide. Occurring 2.2 days before perigee (June 23, 2001), the Moon's apparent diameter was larger. Many people traveled to Africa to watch the eclipse; the Daily Telegraph reported that "while some tribesmen watch a celestial crocodile eating the sun, the modern African will be counting the cash brought in by thousands of visitors". Visibility It was visible from a narrow corridor in the southern Atlantic Ocean and southern Africa, including Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, the southern tip of Malawi, and Madagascar. A partial eclipse was seen from the much broader path of the Moon's penumbra, including eastern South America and most of Africa. Images Related eclipses Eclipses of 2001 A total lunar eclipse on January 9. A total solar eclipse on June 21. A partial lunar eclipse on July 5. An annular solar eclipse on December 14. A penumbral lunar eclipse on December 30. Tzolkinex Preceded: Solar eclipse of May 10, 1994 Followed: Solar eclipse of August 1, 2008 Half-Saros Preceded: Lunar eclipse of June 15, 1992 Followed: Lunar eclipse of June 26, 2010 Tritos Preceded: Solar eclipse of July 22, 1990 Followed: Solar eclipse of May 20, 2012 Solar Saros 127 Preceded: Solar eclipse of June 11, 1983 Followed: Solar eclipse of July 2, 2019 Inex Preceded: Solar eclipse of July 10, 1972 Followed: Solar eclipse of June 1, 2030 Solar eclipses 2000–2003 Saros 127 Tritos series Metonic series Notes References Fred Espenak and Jay Anderson. "Total Solar Eclipse of 2001 June 21". NASA, November 2004. Map Google Photos: Spaceweather.com solar eclipse gallery Prof. Druckmüller's eclipse photography site. Zambia Prof. Druckmüller's eclipse photography site. Angola KryssTal - Eclipse in Zimbabwe - in a school by the Ruya River. Images from Zimbabwe by Crayford Manor House Astronomical Society Eclipse in African Skies, APOD 6/22/2001, totality from Lusaka, Zambia Bakasa Eclipse Sequence, APOD 7/6/2001, totality from Bakasa, Zimbabwe A Total Eclipse Over Africa, APOD 7/11/2001, totality from Malambanyama, Zambia Madagascar Totality, APOD 7/26/2001, from southern Madagascar Eclipse Over Acacia, APOD 12/3/2002, from Chisamba, Zambia Moon AND Sun, APOD 11/22/2003, totality from Chisamba, Zambia 2001 06 21 2001 in science 2001 06 21 June 2001 events 2001 in Angola 2001 in Zambia 2001 in Zimbabwe 2001 in Malawi 2001 in Mozambique 2001 in Madagascar

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20eclipse%20of%20October%203%2C%202005

Solar eclipse of October 3, 2005

An annular solar eclipse occurred at the Moon's descending node of the orbit on October 3, 2005, with a magnitude of 0.958. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth. An annular solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is smaller than the Sun's, blocking most of the Sun's light and causing the Sun to look like an annulus (ring). An annular eclipse appears as a partial eclipse over a region of the Earth thousands of kilometres wide. Occurring only 4.8 days after apogee (September 28, 2005), the Moon's apparent diameter was smaller. It was visible from a narrow corridor through the Iberian peninsula and Africa and Brazil. A partial eclipse was seen from the much broader path of the Moon's penumbra, including all of Europe, Africa and southwestern Asia. The Sun was 96% covered in a moderate annular eclipse, lasting 4 minutes and 32 seconds and covering a broad path up to 162 km wide. The next solar eclipse in Africa occurred just 6 months later. It was the 43rd eclipse of the 134th Saros cycle, which began with a partial eclipse on June 22, 1248, and will conclude with a partial eclipse on August 6, 2510. Visibility The path of the eclipse began in the North Atlantic ocean at 08:41 universal time (UT). The antumbra reached Madrid, Spain at 08:56 UT, lasting four minutes and eleven seconds and 90% of the Sun was covered by the Moon. The antumbra reached Algiers at 09:05 UT, then passed through Tunisia and Libya before heading southeast through Sudan, Kenya and Somalia. The shadow then moved out over the Indian Ocean until it terminated at sunset, 12:22 UT. The maximum eclipse duration occurred in central Sudan at 10:31:42 UT, where it lasted for 4m 31s when the Sun was 71° above the horizon. The motion of the shadow was supersonic and it generated gravity waves that were detectable as disturbances in the ionosphere. These gravity waves originate in the thermosphere at an altitude of about 180 km. Because of the obscuration of solar radiation, the ionization level dropped by 70% during the eclipse. The eclipse caused a 1–1.4 K drop in the temperature of the ionosphere. Images Related eclipses Eclipse season This is the first eclipse this season. Second eclipse this season: 17 October 2005 Partial Lunar Eclipse Eclipses of 2005 A hybrid solar eclipse on April 8. A penumbral lunar eclipse on April 24. An annular solar eclipse on October 3. A partial lunar eclipse on October 17. Tzolkinex Preceded: Solar eclipse of August 22, 1998 Followed: Solar eclipse of November 13, 2012 Half-Saros Preceded: Lunar eclipse of September 27, 1996 Followed: Lunar eclipse of October 8, 2014 Tritos Preceded: Solar eclipse of November 3, 1994 Followed: Solar eclipse of September 1, 2016 Solar Saros 134 Preceded: Solar eclipse of September 23, 1987 Followed: Solar eclipse of October 14, 2023 Inex Preceded: Solar eclipse of October 23, 1976 Followed: Solar eclipse of September 12, 2034 Solar eclipses 2004–2007 Saros 134 Metonic cycle Notes References Photos: Photos of solar eclipse around the world Spaceweather.com solar eclipse gallery Annular Solar Eclipse at High Resolution APOD 10/5/2005, annularity from Spain Annular Eclipse Madrid APOD 10/7/2005, annularity from Buen Retiro Park, Madrid, Spain Annular Eclipse Shirt APOD 10/14/2005, from Madrid, Spain 2005 10 3 2005 in science 2005 10 03 October 2005 events

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Fetzer

James Fetzer

James Henry Fetzer (born December 6, 1940) is an American professor emeritus of the philosophy of science at the University of Minnesota Duluth, known for promoting conspiracy theories and Holocaust denial. Fetzer has worked on assessing and clarifying the forms and foundations of scientific explanation, probability in science, philosophy of mind, and philosophy of cognitive science, especially artificial intelligence and computer science. In the early 1990s, Fetzer began to promote John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories, later 9/11 conspiracy theories, Holocaust denial, conspiracy theories regarding the 2002 death of Senator Paul Wellstone, and Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting conspiracy theories. He cofounded Scholars for 9/11 Truth in 2005, and claims that elements in the United States government, United States intelligence community, and Israeli Mossad were responsible for the September 11th attacks. Fetzer asserts that no commercial planes or hijackers were involved at any of the attack locations, that Flight 93 did not exist, and that guided missiles and/or explosives were instead used to destroy the buildings and create the appearance of a plane crash in Shanksville, Pennsylvania. Fetzer's allegations and speculations have drawn strong criticism as a source of disinformation and false conspiracy theories. In October 2019, a Wisconsin court ordered Fetzer to pay the father of a Sandy Hook victim $450,000 in a defamation case. Fetzer's views have been featured by Iran's PressTV, Fars, and Tasnim news agencies and the pro-Russian website Veterans Today, which have been described as sources of state propaganda. In an interview Fetzer supported Iranian and Russian media as "Press TV, along with RT and Sputnik News, have become the gold standard for reporting on international events and developments." He stated his opposition to the US and Israel as they "have become the greatest threats to freedom and democracy ever known, not only in the Middle East but throughout the world." He held up Iran as a "beacon of light in comparison to the United States." In another interview, Fetzer stated "Russia and Iran are now providing leadership for the world community. May they prosper and endure!" Early life Fetzer was born in Pasadena, California, on December 6, 1940, to a father who worked as an accountant in a welfare office in Los Angeles County, and grew up in a neighboring city, Altadena. After his parents' divorce, Fetzer moved to La Habra Heights, California, with his brother, mother, and stepfather. His mother took her own life when he was 11, and he went to live with his father and stepmother. Following Fetzer's graduation from South Pasadena High School, he studied philosophy at Princeton University and graduated magna cum laude in 1962 where his undergraduate thesis, under the supervision of Carl G Hempel, won The Dickinson Prize. He then joined the United States Marine Corps, and was second lieutenant in an artillery unit. In the early 1960s, he was stationed at Okinawa, Japan. During military service in the 1960s, Fetzer married, and divorced four years later, after having a son. He remarried in the 1970s. In 1966, soon after promotion to captain, he resigned to enter graduate school. Having attained a master's degree from Indiana University, he studied at Columbia University for a year, then returned to Indiana University and in 1970 gained a PhD in history of science and philosophy of science. Career He became an assistant professor at the University of Kentucky in 1970, and received the University of Kentucky Student Government's first Distinguished Teaching Award in 1973. He was denied tenure at Kentucky in 1977, and spent the next ten years in visiting positions at the University of Virginia, University of Cincinnati, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and University of South Florida. After ten years without a tenure-track position, in 1987 he was hired as a full professor at the University of Minnesota Duluth. In 1996, Fetzer received a Distinguished McKnight University Professorship from the University of Minnesota, a title that recipients retain until they retire from the University, which he did in 2006, becoming a professor emeritus. In the late 1970s, Fetzer received a National Science Foundation fellowship, and contributed a chapter to a book on Hans Reichenbach. In 1990, Fetzer received the Medal of the University of Helsinki. He assisted theorists in computer science, and joined the debate over proper types of inference in computing. In the late 1990s, Fetzer was called to organize a symposium on philosophy of mind, and authored textbooks on cognitive science and artificial intelligence. He is an expert on philosopher Carl G. Hempel. Fetzer published over 100 articles and 20 books on philosophy of science and philosophy of cognitive science, especially of artificial intelligence and computer science. In 2002, Fetzer edited Consciousness Evolving, a collection of studies on the past, the present, and the future of consciousness. He founded the international journal Minds and Machines, which he edited for 11 years, and founded the academic library Studies in Cognitive Systems, of which he was series editor. He founded the Society for Machines & Mentality. Near and after retirement, Fetzer remained a contributor to as well as cited or republished in philosophy of science and cognitive science volumes and encyclopedias. Promotion of conspiracy theories Fetzer alleges government conspiracies include an involvement in the assassination of President Kennedy. He believes Kennedy's assassination was "a government hit job" and "the Zapruder film is a fake". With Don "Four Arrows" Jacobs, Fetzer claimed that the 2002 airplane crash that killed US Senator Paul Wellstone was an assassination "by an out-of-control Republican cabal under the direction of" Karl Rove. He also claimed that Paul McCartney died in 1966. Fetzer has alleged the 9/11 attacks were treasonable, and called for the military overthrow of President George W. Bush. He has asserted that the World Trade Center buildings collapsed by controlled demolitions or by high-tech weaponry, gaining further critical attention. In 2005, with Steven E. Jones, Fetzer co-founded Scholars for 9/11 Truth. Within a year, Jones wrote to other members of Scholars for 9/11 Truth declaring he and others wished to sever their connections with the organization, because Fetzer's backing of theories about a direct energy weapon had left them open to severe mockery. Jovan Byford criticized Fetzer's speculations that Jews or Israel were involved in a conspiracy to commit the 9/11 attacks as "a contemporary variant of the old, antisemitic conspiracist canard about the disloyalty of Jews and their usurpation of power in the name of communal interests and the accumulation of wealth." Fetzer has asserted that elements in the US Department of Defense, US intelligence and the Israeli Mossad were involved in the attacks. Rolling Stone has described Fetzer as "a leader of the so-called Sandy Hook 'truther' movement". An article by Fetzer published by Iranian state-run Press TV and pro-Russian conspiracy theory and fake news website Veterans Today titled (by the latter) "Did Mossad death squads slaughter American children at Sandy Hook?" was described in January 2013 by Oliver Kamm in The Jewish Chronicle as "monstrous, calumnious, demented bilge" that "violates all bounds of decency". Fetzer was a member of the Advisory Board of Veterans Today in 2013. In 2015, Fetzer published a book titled Nobody Died at Sandy Hook: It Was a FEMA Drill to Promote Gun Control. The book's publisher, Moon Rock Books, later apologized to the Pozners and agreed to take the book out of circulation. In December 2015 Iran's Tasnim News Agency published an interview with Fetzer where he claims the Charlie Hebdo shooting, the November 2015 Paris attacks, and the Islamic State beheading incidents were staged. Fetzer has also promoted theories that the Boston Marathon bombing, Parkland and Pulse nightclub shootings, and the Charlottesville car attack were hoaxes, classified training-exercises in the vein of Sandy Hook, and believes the Apollo Moon landings were faked. Fetzer contributed the foreword for a book entitled Breaking The Spell (2014) by Nicholas Kollerstrom, a work of Holocaust denial. Fetzer himself has said of the Holocaust: "My research on the Holocaust narrative suggests that it is not only untrue but provably false and not remotely scientifically sustainable." In 2013, officials of the University of Minnesota said that "Fetzer has the right to express his views, but he also has the responsibility to make clear he's not speaking for the university." He is retired and no longer employed by the university. Fetzer has backed claims the 2020 United States presidential election was "stolen" from Donald Trump. Legal problems Leonard Pozner, father of Sandy Hook victim Noah Pozner, sued Fetzer and his co-author, Mike Palacek, for defamation in a Dane County, Wisconsin court for statements contained in Nobody Died at Sandy Hook. Pozner’s son Noah, 6, was the youngest person killed during the mass shooting that left 26 people dead, including 20 children around Noah’s age. In June 2019, circuit judge Frank Remington found that Fetzer and Palacek had defamed the Pozners, with damages to be awarded at an October 2019 trial. On October 16, 2019, a jury in Wisconsin awarded Leonard Pozner $450,000 for defamation. Fetzer's appeals were denied by the Wisconsin Court of Appeals and the Wisconsin Supreme Court. Fetzer's petition for certiorari to the United States Supreme Court was denied on October 3, 2022. References External links James H. Fetzer at University of Minnesota Duluth Curriculum Vitae for JFK Research 1940 births Living people 9/11 conspiracy theorists American conspiracy theorists American Holocaust deniers John F. Kennedy conspiracy theorists Indiana University Bloomington alumni Moon landing conspiracy theorists People from Pasadena, California People from Altadena, California People from La Habra Heights, California Press TV people Princeton University alumni Researchers of the assassination of John F. Kennedy University of Minnesota Duluth faculty

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmasphere

Plasmasphere

The plasmasphere, or inner magnetosphere, is a region of the Earth's magnetosphere consisting of low-energy (cool) plasma. It is located above the ionosphere. The outer boundary of the plasmasphere is known as the plasmapause, which is defined by an order of magnitude drop in plasma density. In 1963 American scientist Don Carpenter and Soviet astronomer proved the plasmasphere and plasmapause's existence from the analysis of very low frequency (VLF) whistler wave data. Traditionally, the plasmasphere has been regarded as a well behaved cold plasma with particle motion dominated entirely by the geomagnetic field and, hence, co-rotating with the Earth. History The discovery of the plasmasphere grew out of the scientific study of whistlers, natural phenomena caused by very low frequency (VLF) radio waves. Whistlers were first heard by radio operators in the 1890s. British scientist Llewelyn Robert Owen Storey had shown lightning generated whistlers in his 1953 PhD dissertation. Around the same time, Storey had posited the existence of whistlers meant plasma was present in Earth's atmosphere, and that it moved radio waves in the same direction as Earth's magnetic field lines. From this he deduced but was unable to conclusively prove the existence of the plasmasphere. In 1963 American scientist Don Carpenter and Soviet astronomer Konstantin Gringauz—independently of each other, and the latter using data from the Luna 2 spacecraft—experimentally proved the plasmasphere and plasmapause's existence, building on Storey's thinking. In 1965 Storey and French scientist M. P. Aubry worked on FR-1, a French scientific satellite equipped with instruments for measuring VLF frequencies and the local electron density of plasma. Aubry and Storey's studies of FR-1 VLF and electron density data further corroborated their theoretical models: VLF waves in the ionosphere occasionally passed through a thin layer of plasma into the magnetosphere, normal to the direction of Earth's magnetic field. Throughout the 1970s, Storey continued studying VLF waves using data gathered by FR-1. Data received from the VLF receiver on OV3-3, launched 4 August 1966, determined the location of the plasmapause. In 2014 satellite observations from the THEMIS mission have shown that density irregularities such as plumes or biteouts may form. It has also been shown that the plasmasphere does not always co-rotate with the Earth. The plasma of the magnetosphere has many different levels of temperature and concentration. The coldest magnetospheric plasma is most often found in the plasmasphere. However, plasma from the plasmasphere can be detected throughout the magnetosphere because it gets blown around by the Earth's electric and magnetic fields. Data gathered by the twin Van Allen Probes show that the plasmasphere also limits highly-energetic ultrarelativistic electrons from cosmic and solar origin from reaching low earth orbits and the surface of the planet. See also Magnetosphere chronology List of plasma physics articles References Further reading Carpenter, D. L., Whistler evidence of a 'knee' in the magnetospheric ionization density profile, J. Geophys. Res., 68, 1675–1682, 1963. Nishida, A., Formation of plasmapause, or magnetospheric plasma knee, by combined action of magnetospheric convections and plasma escape from the tail, J. Geophys. Res., 71, 5669, 1966. Sandel, B. R., et al., Extreme ultraviolet imager observations of the structure and dynamics of the plasmasphere, Space Sci. Rev., 109, 25, 2003. External links NASA web site University of Michigan description University of Alabama in Huntsville research Southwest Research Institute description IMAGE Extreme Ultraviolet Imager EUV Images of the plasmasphere Terrestrial plasmas Space plasmas Atmosphere Geomagnetism Articles containing video clips