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4596494

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anboto

Anboto

Anboto () is a limestone mountain of the Western Basque Country, the highest peak of the Urkiola range and not far from the Urkiola mountain pass between Durango and Vitoria-Gasteiz. Description An immense mass of limestone, very compact and of gray color, the mountain contains fossil remnants of massive prehistoric corals and large seashells. The north face has impressive high cliffs, towering over the valley of Atxondo. The south face descends more smoothly toward the pass of Urkiolamendi; more even, it is used for the more popular routes of ascent. The ascent, which can be carried out on any of its faces, requires in all cases certain care when passing next to the cliffs. The Anboto is one of the most known and most characteristic summits of Biscay and of the Basque Country. On its summit there is a geodesic vertex of second order. Mythology Anboto has always been related to magic and mythology. In a cave close to its summit, the legend tells us that Mari, the "Lady of Anboto", has her main dwelling. Legend says that it is usual to see her in the mouth of the cave, on days with good weather, combing her pretty blond hair with a comb of gold in the sunshine. It is not rare either to see her spend nights as a great ball of fire in the sky above Anboto or other places of the Basque Country where she possesses dwellings like the nearby Oiz or Aizkorri. Depending on where she is found there will be good or bad weather. Ascents Anboto can be reached from a great number of places. From the north it is a ascent from the Atxondo valley. From Urkiolamendi the road begins at the famous sanctuary of San Antonio (). From the valley of Atxarte begins the complete ascent of the crests, long but simple along Alluitz () and Anboto (). From Otxandio () or Aramaio (), stopping at the extensive grassy hillock of Zabalaundi (), being able to climb from here directly to the top passing near the caves of the Lady of Amboto and the "Eye of Eskilar". The most popular way consists of leaving from Urkiolamendi pass, to flank Mount Urkiolamendi () arriving at Asuntze (), then climbing right under the summit, to the hillock Pagozelai () ascending its stony slopes (Arrueta) to the hillock of Agindi () just west of the summit. The North face is a rocky climb that requires some rock climbing and can be very dangerous in bad weather conditions or ice. Climbing times: Urkiolamendi (2h) Atxarte (4h, up to the crest) Atxarte (2h 30 m, by Asuntze) Aramaio (3h) Arrazola (2h 15 m, north face) Arrazola (3h, by Zabalaundi) References Sources Mendikat Web sobre Amboto Las montañas Geography of Biscay Basque Mountains Mountains of the Basque Country (autonomous community)

4598166

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross%E2%80%93Sanaga%E2%80%93Bioko%20coastal%20forests

Cross–Sanaga–Bioko coastal forests

The Cross–Sanaga–Bioko coastal forests are a tropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion of west-central Africa. This is lush forest, rich in flora and birdlife. Location and description The region includes the lowland and coastal forests of southeastern Nigeria, southwestern Cameroon, and the lowlands of the island of Bioko, covering an area of . The ecoregion extends from the Cross River in southeastern Nigeria to the Sanaga River in southeastern Cameroon, and up to inland from the Atlantic coast. In Nigeria the region more or less covers Cross River State. The highlands of Mount Cameroon and of Bioko island, above 900 meters elevation, are a distinct ecoregion, the Mount Cameroon and Bioko montane forests, as are the Cameroonian Highlands forests further inland. To the west, across the Cross River, lies the Cross–Niger transition forests ecoregion. Towards the drier interior, the coastal forests transition to the Guinean forest–savanna mosaic to the north and the Northern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic to the east. South of the Sanaga River along the coast lies the Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests ecoregion. The climate is wet with heavy rainfall all year round and many rivers cross the region as well as the Cross and the Sanaga. Flora The area is home to over 3,000 endemic species of plant, half of those found in West Africa, with nearly 2,000 found in Cameroon's Korup National Park alone. Fauna Wildlife in the area includes forest elephants and many primates such as Cross River gorillas and chimpanzees (particularly in Cross River National Park in Nigeria), while Preuss's red colobus (Procolobus pennanti preussi) is found only in this ecoregion and a number of others are nearly endemic including red-eared guenon (Cercopithecus erythrotis), crowned guenon (Cercopithecus pogonias), drills (Mandrillus leucophaeus), northern needle-clawed bushbaby (Euoticus pallidus), and Pennant's colobus, one population of which is found on Bioko. There is also a great variety of amphibians and reptiles including the goliath frog. The forests are also extremely rich in butterflies including the Charaxes superbus and Charaxes acraeoides. Threats In 2006, it was estimated that annually more than 1.3 million mammals, about 64,650 reptiles and at least 7,700 birds are hunted in the Cross–Sanaga–Bioko coastal forests for the bushmeat trade. Conservation A 2017 assessment found that , or 26%, of the ecoregion is in protected areas. One of the largest blocks of forest is in and around Korup National Park. Visiting the region Korup National Park in Cameroon is one of the most accessible ways into the forest, while in Nigeria Cross River State can be accessed from the capital Calabar, where there is a drill monkey sanctuary and from Calabar one can reach the Cross River National Park. External links References Afrotropical ecoregions Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Ecoregions of Cameroon Ecoregions of Equatorial Guinea Ecoregions of Nigeria Forests of Cameroon Cross River (Nigeria)

4598878

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinean%20Forests%20of%20West%20Africa

Guinean Forests of West Africa

The Guinean forests of West Africa is a biodiversity hotspot designated by Conservation International, which includes the belt of tropical moist broadleaf forests along the coast of West Africa, running from Sierra Leone and Guinea in the west to the Sanaga River of Cameroon in the east. The Dahomey Gap, a region of savanna and dry forest in Togo and Benin, divides the Guinean forests into the Upper Guinean forests and Lower Guinean forests. The Upper Guinean forests extend from Sierra Leone and Guinea in the west through Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, and Ghana to Togo in the east. The Lower Guinean forests extend east from Benin through Nigeria and Cameroon. The Lower Guinean forests also extend south past the Sanaga River, the southern boundary of the hotspot, into southern Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Republic of the Congo, Cabinda, and Democratic Republic of the Congo. According to some sources, deforestation has already wiped out roughly 90% of West Africa's original forests. Ecoregions The World Wide Fund for Nature divides the Upper and Lower Guinean forests into a number of distinct ecoregions: Upper Guinean forests Western Guinean lowland forests (Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire) Guinean montane forests (Guinea, Sierra Leone, Côte d'Ivoire) Eastern Guinean forests (Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin) Lower Guinean forests Nigerian lowland forests (Togo, Nigeria) Niger Delta swamp forests (Nigeria) Cross-Niger transition forests (Nigeria) Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests (Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea) Cameroonian Highlands forests (Nigeria, Cameroon) Mount Cameroon and Bioko montane forests (Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea) See also Guineo-Congolian region References External links GUINEAN FORESTS OF WEST AFRICA Afrotropical ecoregions Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests

4598960

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysian%20Centre%20of%20Remote%20Sensing

Malaysian Centre of Remote Sensing

The Malaysian Centre of Remote Sensing (MACRES) was a Malaysian remote sensing centre. An agency under the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (Malaysia). Its role was to provide data and solutions for remote sensing applications. In 1991, it was recognised as a federal institute of research in the field of remote sensing and related technologies. The main centre was located in Kuala Lumpur and the ground receiving centre was located in Mentakab, Pahang, Malaysia. On 15 February 2008, MACRES was upgraded as a full government department and known as Malaysian Remote Sensing Agency (MRSA). In 2019, it had merging with National Space Agency (ANGKASA) bring about the establishment of Malaysian Space Agency (MYSA). See also Malaysian Space Agency (MYSA) Malaysian Remote Sensing Agency (MRSA) National Space Agency (ANGKASA) References Satellite meteorology Governmental meteorological agencies in Asia Former federal ministries, departments and agencies of Malaysia 1988 establishments in Malaysia Government agencies established in 1988 2008 disestablishments in Malaysia Government agencies disestablished in 2008

4599256

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross%E2%80%93Niger%20transition%20forests

Cross–Niger transition forests

The Cross–Niger transition forests is a tropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion of southeastern Nigeria, located between the Niger River on the west and the Cross River on the east. Once a rich mixture of tropical forest and savanna woodland covered these low, rolling hills but today, this is one of the most densely populated areas of Africa and today most of the forest has been removed and the area is now grassland. Location and description The ecoregion known as the Cross Niger Transition Forests is situated between the biogeographic regions of the Niger River and the Cross River. Due to the high agricultural intensity in this ecoregion, the majority of the natural tree cover has been removed.The eco-region extends across the Nigerian states of Abia, Akwa Ibom, Anambra, Ebonyi, and Imo, covering an area of . The Niger River separates the Cross–Niger transition forests from the Nigerian lowland forests to the west, which probably resembles most closely the original environment of the Cross–Niger eco-region. To the south and south-west lies the Niger Delta swamp forests. To the north, the Cross–Niger transition forests yield to the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic of the drier interior. The climate is wet, becoming drier further inland, with a dry season from December to February. Flora The native flora and fauna of the ecoregion is "transitional", blending elements from the Upper Guinean forests include Afzelia, which is cultivated for timber, and the Borassus aethiopum palm. Fauna Small areas of protected forest do remain within the grassland and these are home to animals such as Sclater's guenon and crested chameleon (Trioceros cristatus). The Niger River has always been a substantial barrier to movement of wildlife in and out of the region. Large mammals have been depleted in the area since the 1940s and there is now so little wildlife remaining in the area that even bats and frogs are now trapped and eaten. Threats The ecoregion has sustained a dense human population for centuries, and much of the original forest cover has been cleared for agriculture, forest plantations, and urban developments such as the oil refineries of Port Harcourt. The few remaining enclaves of native forest include the Stubbs Creek Forest Reserve in Akwa Ibom together with some enclaves of sacred forest, which are continually disappearing as village life is eroded, and patches of riverine forest. There are forest reserves in Anambra and elsewhere but these last are mostly for the purpose of cultivating timber rather than preserving the original environment. Pollution References External links Afrotropical ecoregions Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Geography of Nigeria Cross River (Nigeria) Niger River Ecoregions of Nigeria

4599275

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20overpopulation

Human overpopulation

Human overpopulation (or human population overshoot) describes a concern that human populations may become too large to be sustained by their environment or resources in the long term. The topic is usually discussed in the context of world population, though it may concern individual nations, regions, and cities. Since 1804, the global human population has increased from 1 billion to 8 billion due to medical advancements and improved agricultural productivity. Annual world population growth peaked at 2.1% in 1968, and has since dropped to 1.1%. According to the most recent United Nations' projections, "[t]he global population is expected to reach 9.7 billion in 2050 and 10.4 billion in 2100." The UN's projections report predicts that the human population will peak at around 10.4 billion people, before decreasing, noting that fertility rates are falling worldwide. Other models agree that the population will stabilize before or after 2100. Early discussions of overpopulation in English were spurred by the work of Thomas Malthus. Discussions of overpopulation follow a similar line of inquiry as Malthusianism and its Malthusian catastrophe, a hypothetical event where population exceeds agricultural capacity, causing famine or war over resources, resulting in poverty and depopulation. More recent discussion of overpopulation was popularized by Paul Ehrlich in his 1968 book The Population Bomb and subsequent writings. Ehrlich described overpopulation as a function of overconsumption, arguing that overpopulation should be defined by a population being unable to sustain itself without depleting non-renewable resources. The belief that global population levels will become too large to sustain is a point of contentious debate. Those who believe global human overpopulation to be a valid concern, argue that increased levels of resource consumption and pollution exceed the environment's carrying capacity, leading to population overshoot. The population overshoot hypothesis is often discussed in relation to other population concerns such as population momentum, biodiversity loss, hunger and malnutrition, resource depletion, and the overall human impact on the environment. Critics of the belief note that human population growth is decreasing and the population will likely peak, and possibly even begin to decrease, before the end of the century. They argue the concerns surrounding population growth are overstated, noting that quickly declining birth rates and technological innovation make it possible to sustain projected population sizes. Other critics claim that the concept is too narrowly focused, ignores more pressing issues, like poverty, and places an undue burden on the global south. Overview Modern proponents of the concept have suggested that overpopulation, population growth and overconsumption are interdependent and collectively are the primary drivers of human-caused environmental problems such as climate change and biodiversity loss. Many scientists have expressed concern about population growth, and argue that creating sustainable societies will require decreasing the current global population. Advocates have suggested implementation of population planning strategies to reach a proposed sustainable population. Overpopulation hypotheses are controversial, with many demographers and environmentalists disputing the core premise that the world cannot sustain the current trajectory of human population. Additionally, many economists and historians have noted that sustained shortages and famines have historically been caused by war, price controls, political instability, and repressive political regimes (often employing central planning) rather than overpopulation, and that population growth historically has led to greater technological development and advancement of scientific knowledge that has enabled the engineering of substitute goods and technology that better conserves and more efficiently uses natural resources, produces greater agricultural output with less land and less water, and addresses human impacts on the environment due to there being greater numbers of scientists, engineers, and inventors and subsequent generations of scientists overturning scientific paradigms maintained by previous generations of scientists. Instead, social scientists argue that disputes between themselves and biologists about human overpopulation are over the appropriateness of definitions being used (and often devolve into social scientists and biologists simply talking past each other). Annual world population growth peaked at 2.1% in 1968, has since dropped to 1.1%, and could drop even further to 0.1% by 2100. Based on this, the United Nations projects the world population, which is 7.8 billion , to level out around 2100 at 10.9 billion with other models proposing similar stabilization before or after 2100. Some experts believe that a combination of factors (including technological and social change) would allow global resources to meet this increased demand, avoiding global overpopulation. Additionally, some critics dismiss the idea of human overpopulation as a science myth connected to attempts to blame environmental issues on overpopulation, oversimplify complex social or economic systems, or place blame on developing countries and poor populations—reinscribing colonial or racist assumptions and leading to discriminatory policy. These critics often suggest overconsumption should be treated as an issue separate from population growth. History of world population World population has been rising continuously since the end of the Black Death, around the year 1350. The fastest doubling of the world population happened between 1950 and 1986: a doubling from 2.5 to 5 billion people in 37 years, mainly due to medical advancements and increases in agricultural productivity. Due to its impact on the human ability to grow food, the Haber process enabled the global population to increase from 1.6 billion in 1900 to 7.7 billion by November 2018 and, according to the United Nations, eight billion as of November 2022. Some researchers have analyzed this growth in population like other animal populations, human populations predictably grow and shrink according to their available food supply as per the Lotka–Volterra equations, including agronomist and insect ecologist David Pimentel, behavioral scientist Russell Hopfenberg, and anthropologist Virginia Abernethy. World population has gone through a number of periods of growth since the dawn of civilization in the Holocene period, around 10,000 BCE. The beginning of civilization roughly coincides with the receding of glacial ice following the end of the Last Glacial Period. Farming allowed for the growth of populations in many parts of the world, including Europe, the Americas and China through the 1600s, occasionally disrupted by plagues or other crises. For example, the Black Death is thought to have reduced the world's population, then at an estimated 450 million in 1350, to between 350 and 375 million by 1400. After the start of the Industrial Revolution, during the 18th century, the rate of population growth began to increase. By the end of the century, the world's population was estimated at just under 1 billion. At the turn of the 20th century, the world's population was roughly 1.6 billion. By 1940, this figure had increased to 2.3 billion. Even more dramatic growth beginning in 1950 (above 1.8% per year) coincided with greatly increased food production as a result of the industrialization of agriculture brought about by the Green Revolution. The rate of human population growth peaked in 1964, at about 2.1% per year. Recent additions of a billion humans happened very quickly: 33 years to reach three billion in 1960, 14 years for four billion in 1974, 13 years for five billion in 1987, 12 years for six billion in 1999, 11 years for seven billion in 2010, and 12 years for 8 billion toward the end of 2022. Future projections Population projections are attempts to show how the human population might change in the future. These projections help to forecast the population's impact on this planet and humanity's future well-being. Models of population growth take trends in human development, and apply projections into the future to understand how they will affect fertility and mortality, and thus population growth. The most recent report from the United Nations Population Division issued in 2022 (see chart) projects that global population will peak around the year 2086 at about 10.4 billion, and then start a slow decline (the median line on the chart).  As with earlier projections, this version assumes that the global average fertility rate will continue to fall, but even further from 2.5 births per woman during the 2015–2020 period to 1.8 by the year 2100. However, other estimates predict additional downward pressure on fertility (such as more education and family planning) which could result in peak population during the 2060–2070 period rather than later. According to the UN, of the predicted growth in world population between 2020 and 2050, all of that change will come from less developed countries, and more than half will come from just 8 African countries. It is predicted that the population of sub-Saharan Africa will double by 2050. The Pew Research Center predicts that 50% of births in the year 2100 will be in Africa. As an example of uneven prospects, the UN projects that Nigeria will gain about 340 million people, about the present population of the US, to become the 3rd most populous country, and China will lose almost half of its population. History of overpopulation hypotheses Historical use Concerns about population size or density have a long history: Tertullian, a resident of the city of Carthage in the second century CE, criticized population at the time: "Our numbers are burdensome to the world, which can hardly support us... In very deed, pestilence, and famine, and wars, and earthquakes have to be regarded as a remedy for nations, as the means of pruning the luxuriance of the human race." Despite those concerns, scholars have not found historic societies that have collapsed because of overpopulation or overconsumption. By the early 19th century, intellectuals such as Thomas Malthus predicted that humankind would outgrow its available resources because a finite amount of land would be incapable of supporting a population with limitless potential for increase. During the 19th century, Malthus' work, particularly An Essay on the Principle of Population, was often interpreted in a way that blamed the poor alone for their condition and helping them was said to worsen conditions in the long run. This resulted, for example, in the English poor laws of 1834 and a hesitating response to the Irish Great Famine of 1845–52. The first World Population Conference was held in 1927 in Geneva, organized by the League of Nations and Margaret Sanger. Contemporary use Paul R. Ehrlich's book The Population Bomb became a bestseller upon its release in 1968 and created renewed interest in overpopulation. The book predicted population growth would lead to famine, societal collapse, and other social, environmental and economic strife in the coming decades, and advocated for policies to curb it. The Club of Rome published the influential report The Limits to Growth in 1972, which used computer modeling to similarly argue that continued population growth trends would lead to global system collapse. The idea of overpopulation was also a topic of some works of English-language science fiction and dystopian fiction during the latter part of the 1960s. The United Nations held the first of three World Population Conferences in 1974. Human population and family planning policies were adopted by some nations in the late 20th century in an effort to curb population growth, including in China and India. Albert Allen Bartlett gave more than 1,742 lectures on the threat of exponential population growth starting in 1969. However, many predictions of overpopulation during the 20th century did not materialize. In The Population Bomb, Ehrlich stated, "In the 1970s hundreds of millions of people will starve to death in spite of any crash programs embarked upon now," with later editions changing to "in the 1980s". Despite admitting some of his earlier predictions did not come to pass, Ehrlich continues to advocate that overpopulation is a major issue. As the profile of environmental issues facing humanity increased during the end of the 20th and the early 21st centuries, some have looked to population growth as a root cause. In the 2000s, E. O. Wilson and Ron Nielsen discussed overpopulation as a threat to the quality of human life. In 2011, Pentti Linkola argued that human overpopulation represents a threat to Earth's biosphere. A 2015 survey from Pew Research Center reports that 82% of scientists associated with the American Association for the Advancement of Science were concerned about population growth. In 2017, more than one-third of 50 Nobel prize-winning scientists surveyed by the Times Higher Education at the Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings said that human overpopulation and environmental degradation are the two greatest threats facing mankind. In November that same year, the World Scientists' Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice, signed by 15,364 scientists from 184 countries, indicated that rapid human population growth is "a primary driver behind many ecological and even societal threats." Ehlrich and other scientists at a conference in the Vatican on contemporary species extinction linked the issue to population growth in 2017, and advocated for human population control, which attracted controversy from the Catholic church. In 2019, a warning on climate change signed by 11,000 scientists from 153 nations said that human population growth adds 80 million humans annually, and "the world population must be stabilized—and, ideally, gradually reduced—within a framework that ensures social integrity" to reduce the impact of "population growth on GHG emissions and biodiversity loss." In 2020, a quote from David Attenborough about how humans have "overrun the planet" was shared widely online and became his most popular comment on the internet. Key arguments Overconsumption The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and Global Footprint Network have argued that the annual biocapacity of Earth has exceeded, as measured using the ecological footprint. In 2006, WWF's Living Planet Report stated that in order for all humans to live with the current consumption patterns of Europeans, we would be spending three times more than what the planet can renew. According to these calculations, humanity as a whole was using by 2006 40% more than what Earth can regenerate. Another study by the WWF in 2014 found that it would take the equivalent of 1.5 Earths of bio-capacity to meet humanity's current levels of consumption. However, Roger Martin of Population Matters states the view: "the poor want to get rich, and I want them to get rich," with a later addition, "of course we have to change consumption habits,... but we've also got to stabilize our numbers". Critics have questioned the simplifications and statistical methods used in calculating ecological footprints. Therefore, Global Footprint Network and its partner organizations have engaged with national governments and international agencies to test the results—reviews have been produced by France, Germany, the European Commission, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Japan and the United Arab Emirates. Some point out that a more refined method of assessing Ecological Footprint is to designate sustainable versus non-sustainable categories of consumption. Carrying capacity Attempts have been made to estimate the world's carrying capacity for humans; the maximum population the world can host. A 2004 meta-analysis of 69 such studies from 1694 until 2001 found the average predicted maximum number of people the Earth would ever have was 7.7 billion people, with lower and upper meta-bounds at 0.65 and 98 billion people, respectively. They conclude: "recent predictions of stabilized world population levels for 2050 exceed several of our meta-estimates of a world population limit". A 2012 United Nations report summarized 65 different estimated maximum sustainable population sizes and the most common estimate was 8 billion. Advocates of reduced population often put forward much lower numbers. Paul R. Ehrlich stated in 2018 that the optimum population is between 1.5 and 2 billion. In 2022 Ehrlich and other contributors to the "Scientists' warning on population", including Eileen Crist, William J. Ripple, William E. Rees and Christopher Wolf, stated that environmental analysts put the sustainable level of human population at between 2 and 4 billion people. Geographer Chris Tucker estimates that 3 billion is a sustainable number. Critics of overpopulation criticize the basic assumptions associated with these estimates. For example, associate professor of gender and sexuality Jade Sasser believes that calculating a maximum of number of humanity is unethical claiming that only some, mostly European former colonial powers, are mostly responsible for unsustainably using up Earth's resources. Proposed impacts Poverty, and infant and child mortality Although proponents of human overpopulation have expressed concern that growing population will lead to an increase in global poverty and infant mortality, both indicators have declined over the last 200 years of population growth. Environmental impacts A number of scientists have argued that human impacts on the environment and accompanying increase in resource consumption threatens the world's ecosystems and the survival of human civilization. The InterAcademy Panel Statement on Population Growth, which was ratified by 58 member national academies in 1994, states that "unprecedented" population growth aggravates many environmental problems, including rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, global warming, and pollution. Indeed, some analysts claim that overpopulation's most serious impact is its effect on the environment. Some scientists suggest that the overall human impact on the environment during the Great Acceleration, particularly due to human population size and growth, economic growth, overconsumption, pollution, and proliferation of technology, has pushed the planet into a new geological epoch known as the Anthropocene. Some studies and commentary link population growth with climate change. Critics have stated that population growth alone may have less influence on climate change than other factors, such as greenhouse gas emissions per capita. The global consumption of meat is projected to rise by as much as 76% by 2050 as the global population increases, with this projected to have further environmental impacts such as biodiversity loss and increased greenhouse gas emissions. A July 2017 study published in Environmental Research Letters argued that the most significant way individuals could mitigate their own carbon footprint is to have fewer children, followed by living without a vehicle, forgoing air travel, and adopting a plant-based diet. However, even in countries which have both large population growth and major ecological problems, it is not necessarily true that curbing the population growth will make a major contribution towards resolving all environmental problems that can be solved simply with an environmentalist policy approach. Continued population growth and overconsumption, particularly by the wealthy, have been posited as key drivers of biodiversity loss and contemporary species extinction, with some researchers and environmentalists specifically suggesting this indicates a human overpopulation scenario. The Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, released by IPBES in 2019, states that human population growth is a factor in biodiversity loss. IGI Global has uncovered the growth of the human population caused encroachment in wild habitats which have led to their destruction, "posing a potential threat to biodiversity components". Some scientists and environmentalists, including Jared Diamond, E. O. Wilson, Jane Goodall and David Attenborough, contend that population growth is devastating to biodiversity. Wilson for example, has expressed concern when Homo sapiens reached a population of six billion their biomass exceeded that of any other large land dwelling animal species that had ever existed by over 100 times. Inger Andersen, the executive director of the United Nations Environment Programme, stated in December 2022 as the human population reached a milestone of 8 billion and as delegates were meeting for the 2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference, that "we need to understand that the more people there are, the more we put the Earth under heavy pressure. As far as biodiversity is concerned, we are at war with nature." Human overpopulation and continued population growth are also considered by some, including animal rights attorney Doris Lin and philosopher Steven Best, to be an animal rights issue, as more human activity means the destruction of animal habitats and more direct killing of animals. Resource depletion Some commentary has attributed depletion of non-renewable resources, such as land, food and water, to overpopulation and suggested it could lead to a diminished quality of human life. Ecologist David Pimentel was one such proponent, saying "with the imbalance growing between population numbers and vital life sustaining resources, humans must actively conserve cropland, freshwater, energy, and biological resources. There is a need to develop renewable energy resources. Humans everywhere must understand that rapid population growth damages the Earth's resources and diminishes human well-being." Although food shortages have been warned as a consequence of overpopulation, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization, global food production exceeds increasing demand from global population growth. Food insecurity in some regions is attributable to the globally unequal distribution of food supplies. The notion that space is limited has been decried by skeptics, who point out that the Earth's population of roughly 6.8 billion people could comfortably be housed an area comparable in size to the state of Texas in the United States (about ). Critics and agricultural experts suggest changes to policies relating to land use or agriculture to make them more efficient would be more likely to resolve land issues and pressures on the environment than focusing on reducing population alone. Water scarcity, which threatens agricultural productivity, represents a global issue that some have linked to population growth. Colin Butler wrote in The Lancet in 1994 that overpopulation also has economic consequences for certain countries due to resource use. Political systems and social conflict It was speculated by Aldous Huxley in 1958 that democracy is threatened by overpopulation, and could give rise to totalitarian style governments. Physics professor Albert Allen Bartlett at the University of Colorado Boulder warned in 2000 that overpopulation and the development of technology are the two major causes of the diminution of democracy. However, over the last 200 years of population growth, the actual level of personal freedom has increased rather than declined. John Harte has argued population growth is a factor in numerous social issues, including unemployment, overcrowding, bad governance and decaying infrastructure. Daron Acemoglu and others suggested in a 2017 paper that since the Second World War, countries with higher population growth rates experienced the most social conflict. Some advocates have suggested societal problems such as hunger and mass unemployment are linked to overpopulation. According to anthropologist Jason Hickel, the global capitalist system creates pressures for population growth: "more people means more labour, cheaper labour, and more consumers." He and his colleagues have also demonstrated that capitalist elites throughout recent history have "used pro-natalist state policies to prevent women from practicing family planning" in order to grow the size of their workforce. Hickel has however argued that the cause of negative environmental impacts is resource extraction by wealthy countries. He concludes that "we should not ignore the relationship between population growth and ecology, but we must not treat these as operating in a social and political vacuum." Epidemics and pandemics A 2021 article in Ethics, Medicine and Public Health argued in light of the COVID-19 pandemic that epidemics and pandemics were made more likely by overpopulation, globalization, urbanization and encroachment into natural habitats. They both play a significant role impact on human populations, including widespread illness, death, and social disruption. While they can leave to a temporarily loss of population but is followed by significant loss and suffering. These events is not the sole reason for overpopulation but lack of access to family planning and reproductive contraptions, poverty and resource depletion. Proposed solutions and mitigation measures Several strategies have been proposed to mitigate overpopulation. Population planning Several scientists (including Paul Ehrlich, Gretchen Daily and Tim Flannery) proposed that humanity should work at stabilizing its absolute numbers, as a starting point towards beginning the process of reducing the total numbers. They suggested several possible approaches, including: Improved access to contraception and sex education Reducing infant mortality, so that parents do not need to have many children to ensure at least some survive to adulthood. Improving the status of women in order to facilitate a departure from traditional sexual division of labour. Family planning Creating small family "role models" Secular cultures and societies. There is good evidence from many parts of the world that when women and couples have the freedom to choose how many children to have, they tend to have smaller families.   Some scientists, such as Corey Bradshaw and Barry Brook, suggest that, given the "inexorable demographic momentum of the global human population," sustainability can be achieved more rapidly with a short term focus on technological and social innovations, along with reducing consumption rates, while treating population planning as a long-term goal. However, most scientists believe that achieving genuine sustainability is a long-term project, and that addressing population and consumption levels are both essential to achieving it. In 1992, more than 1700 scientists from around the world signed onto a "World Scientists' Warning to Humanity," including a majority of the living Nobel prize-winners in the sciences. "The earth is finite," they wrote. "Its ability to absorb wastes and destructive effluent is finite. Its ability to provide food and energy is finite. Its ability to provide for growing numbers of people is finite. And we are fast approaching many of the earth's limits." The warning noted:Pressures resulting from unrestrained population growth put demands on the natural world that can overwhelm any efforts to achieve a sustainable future. If we are to halt the destruction of our environment, we must accept limits to that growth. Two of the five areas where the signatories requested immediate action were "stabilize population" and "ensure sexual equality, and guarantee women control over their own reproductive decisions." In a follow-up message 25 years later, William Ripple and colleagues issued the "World Scientists' Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice." This time more than 15,000 scientists from around the world signed on. "We are jeopardizing our future by not reining in our intense but geographically and demographically uneven material consumption and by not perceiving continued rapid population growth as a primary driver behind many ecological and even societal threats," they wrote. "By failing to adequately limit population growth, reassess the role of an economy rooted in growth, reduce greenhouse gases, incentivize renewable energy, protect habitat, restore ecosystems, curb pollution, halt defaunation, and constrain invasive alien species, humanity is not taking the urgent steps needed to safeguard our imperilled biosphere." This second scientists’ warning urged attention to both excessive consumption and continued population growth. Like its predecessor, it did not specify a definite global human carrying capacity. But its call to action included "estimating a scientifically defensible, sustainable human population size for the long term while rallying nations and leaders to support that vital goal."   Subsequent scientists' calls to action have also included calls for population planning. The 2020 "World Scientists' Warning of a Climate Emergency" stated: "Economic and population growth are among the most important drivers of increases in CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion." "Therefore," the study noted: "we need bold and drastic transformations regarding economic and population policies." "The world population must be stabilized—and, ideally, gradually reduced," it concluded, implying that humanity is overpopulated given current and expected levels of resource use and waste generation. A follow-up scientists’ warning on climate change in 2021 reiterated the need to plan and limit human numbers to achieve sustainability, proposing as a goal "stabilizing and gradually reducing the [global] population by providing voluntary family planning and supporting education and rights for all girls and young women, which has been proven to lower fertility rates." Family planning Education and empowerment of women and giving access to family planning and contraception have a demonstrated impact on reducing birthrates. Many studies conclude that educating girls reduces the number of children they have. One option according to some activists is to focus on education about family planning and birth control methods, and to make birth-control devices like condoms, contraceptive pills and intrauterine devices easily available. Worldwide, nearly 40% of pregnancies are unintended (some 80 million unintended pregnancies each year). An estimated 350 million women in the poorest countries of the world either did not want their last child, do not want another child or want to space their pregnancies, but they lack access to information, affordable means and services to determine the size and spacing of their families. In the developing world, some 514,000 women die annually of complications from pregnancy and abortion, with 86% of these deaths occurring in the sub-Saharan Africa region and South Asia. Additionally, 8 million infants die, many because of malnutrition or preventable diseases, especially from lack of access to clean drinking water. Women's rights and their reproductive rights in particular are issues regarded to have vital importance in the debate. Anthropologist Jason Hickel asserts that a nation's population growth rapidly declines - even within a single generation - when policies relating to women's health and reproductive rights, children's health (to ensure parents they will survive to adulthood), and expanding education and economic opportunities for girls and women are implemented. A 2020 paper by William J. Ripple and other scientists argued in favor of population policies that could advance social justice (such as by abolishing child marriage, expanding family planning services and reforms that improve education for women and girls) and at the same time mitigate the impact of population growth on climate change and biodiversity loss. In a 2022 warning on population published by Science of the Total Environment, Ripple, Ehrlich and other scientists appealed to families around the world to have no more than one child and also urged policy-makers to improve education for young females and provide high-quality family-planning services. Extraterrestrial settlement Urbanization Despite the increase in population density within cities (and the emergence of megacities), UN Habitat Data Corp. states in its reports that urbanization may be the best compromise in the face of global population growth. Cities concentrate human activity within limited areas, limiting the breadth of environmental damage. UN Habitat says this is only possible if urban planning is significantly improved. Paul R. Ehrlich proposed in The Population Bomb that rhetoric supporting the increase of city density is a means of avoiding dealing with what he views as the root problem of overpopulation and has been promoted by what he views as the same interests that have allegedly profited from population increase (such as property developers, the banking system which invests in property development, industry, and municipal councils). Subsequent authors point to growth economics as driving governments seek city growth and expansion at any cost, disregarding the impact it might have on the environment. Criticism The concept of human overpopulation, and its attribution as a cause of environmental issues, are controversial. Some critics, including Nicholas Eberstadt, Fred Pearce, Dominic Lawson and Betsy Hartmann, refer to overpopulation as a myth. Predicted exponential population growth or any "population explosion" did not materialise; instead, population growth slowed. Critics suggest that enough resources are available to support projected population growth, and that human impacts on the environment are not attributable to overpopulation. According to libertarian think tank the Fraser Institute, both the idea of overpopulation and the alleged depletion of resources are myths; most resources are now more abundant than a few decades ago, thanks to technological progress. The institute also questions the sincerity of advocates of population control in poor countries. Nicholas Eberstadt, a political economist, has criticised the idea of overpopulation, saying that "overpopulation is not really overpopulation. It is a question of poverty". A 2020 study in The Lancet concluded that "continued trends in female educational attainment and access to contraception will hasten declines in fertility and slow population growth", with projections suggesting world population would peak at 9.73 billion in 2064 and fall by 2100. Media commentary interpreted this as suggesting overconsumption represents a greater environmental threat as an overpopulation scenario may never occur. Some human population planning strategies advocated by proponents of overpopulation are controversial for ethical reasons. Those concerned with overpopulation, including Paul Ehrlich, have been accused of influencing human rights abuses including forced sterilisation policies in India and under China's one-child policy, as well as mandatory or coercive birth control measures taken in other countries. Women's rights Influential advocates such as Betsy Hartmann consider the "myth of overpopulation" to be destructive as it "prevents constructive thinking and action on reproductive rights," which acutely affects women and communities of women in poverty. The 1994 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) defines reproductive rights as "the basic right of all couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing, and timing of their children and to have the information to do so." This oversimplification of human overpopulation leads individuals to believe there are simple solutions and the creation of population policies that limit reproductive rights. In response, philosopher Tim Meijers asks the question: "To what extent is it fair to require people to refrain from procreating as part of a strategy to make the world more sustainable?" Meijers rejects the idea that the right to reproduce can be unlimited, since this would not be universalizable: "in a world in which everybody had many children, extreme scarcity would arise and stable institutions could prove unsustainable. This would lead to violation of (rather uncontroversial) rights such as the right to life and to health and subsistence." In the actual world today, excessive procreation could also undermine our descendants' right to have children, since people are likely to refrain (and perhaps should refrain) from bringing children into an insecure and dangerous world. Meijers, Sarah Conly, Diana Coole, and other ethicists conclude that people have a right to found a family, but not to unlimited numbers of children. Coercive population control policies Ehrlich advocated in The Population Bomb that "various forms of coercion", such as removing tax benefits for having additional children, be used in cases when voluntary population planning policies fail. Some nations, like China, have used strict or coercive measures such as the one-child policy to reduce birth rates. Compulsory or semi-compulsory sterilization, such as for token material compensation or easing of penalties, has also been implemented in many countries as a form of population control. Another choice-based approach is financial compensation or other benefits by the state offered to people who voluntarily undergo sterilization. Such policies have been introduced by the government of India. The Indian government of Narendra Modi introduced population policies in the 21st century, including offering incentives for sterilization by citing the risks of a "population explosion" although demographers have criticized that basis, with India thought to be undergoing demographic transition and its fertility rate falling. The policies have also received criticism from human and women's rights groups. Racism The concept of human overpopulation has been criticized by some scholars and environmentalists as being racist and having roots in colonialism and white supremacy, since control and reduction of human population is often focused on the global south, instead of on overconsumption and the global north, where it occurs. Paul Ehrlich's Population Bomb begins with him describing first knowing the "feel of overpopulation" from a visit to Delhi, which some critics have accused of having racial undertones. George Monbiot has said "when affluent white people wrongly transfer the blame for their environmental impacts on to the birthrate of much poorer brown and black people, their finger-pointing reinforces [Great Replacement and white genocide conspiracy] narratives. It is inherently racist." Overpopulation is a common component of ecofascist ideology. Scholar Heather Alberro rejects the overpopulation argument, stating that the human population growth is rapidly slowing down, the underlying problem is not the number of people, but how resources are distributed and that the idea of overpopulation could fuel a racist backlash against the population of poor countries. In response, population activists argue that overpopulation is a problem in both rich and poor countries, and arguably a worse problem in rich countries, where residents’ higher per capita consumption ratchets up the impacts of their excessive numbers. Feminist scholar Donna Haraway notes that a commitment to enlarging the moral community to include nonhuman beings logically entails people’s willingness to limit their numbers and make room for them. Ecological economists like Herman Daly and Joshua Farley believe that reducing populations will make it easier to achieve steady-state economies that decrease total consumption and pollution to manageable levels. Finally, as Karin Kuhlemann observes, "that a population's size is stable in no way entails sustainability. It may be sustainable, or it may be far too large." According to the writer and journalist Krithika Varagur, myths and misinformation about overpopulation of Rohingya people in Myanmar is thought to have driven their genocide in the 2010s. Advocacy organizations The following organizations advocate for a limit to human population growth, although their focus may be on related issues such as environmental protection: Global Footprint Network, a coalition of NGOs that calculates the annual Earth Overshoot Day Millennium Alliance for Humanity and the Biosphere (MAHB) Negative Population Growth Population Matters Voluntary Human Extinction Movement Population Media Center Church of Euthanasia Organization advocate against limits to human population growth. Population Research Institute (organization) See also Demographic trap Demographic transition The Limits to Growth Human population planning Malthusian catastrophe Overshoot (population) Planetary boundaries Antinatalism Overpopulation in domestic pets Documentary and art Overpopulation fiction (category) Fatal Misconception Don't Panic — The Truth about Population What a Way to Go: Life at the End of Empire Planet of the Humans Ten Billion Notes References Bundled references Further reading Matthew Connelly, Fatal Misconception: The Struggle to Control World Population. Harvard University Press, 2010. David Foreman, Man Swarm: How Overpopulation is Killing the Wild World. Livetrue Books, 2015. Karen Shragg, Move Upstream: A Call to Solve Overpopulation. (published November 2015). Discussion of the book by the author, March 2017 (video, 91 minutes). Alan Weisman. Countdown: Our Last, Best Hope for a Future on Earth? Little, Brown and Company, (2013) Thomas Robertson, The Malthusian Moment: Global Population Growth and the Birth of American Environmentalism (2012), Rutgers University Press J.R. McNeill, Peter Engelke, The Great Acceleration: An Environmental History of the Anthropocene since 1945 (2016) Population ecology World population Demographic economic problems Environmental controversies Political controversies

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper%20Guinean%20forests

Upper Guinean forests

The Upper Guinean forests is a tropical seasonal forest region of West Africa. The Upper Guinean forests extend from Guinea and Sierra Leone in the west through Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana to Togo in the east, and a few hundred kilometers inland from the Atlantic coast. A few enclaves of montane forest lie further inland in the mountains of central Guinea and central Togo and Benin. In the drier interior, the Upper Guinean forests yield to the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic, a belt of dry forests and savannas that lies between the coastal forests and the savannas and grasslands of the Sudan further north. The Dahomey Gap, a region of Togo and Benin where the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic extends to the Atlantic coast, separates the Upper Guinean forests from the Lower Guinean forests to the east, which extend from eastern Benin through Nigeria, Cameroon, and south along the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. The Upper Guinean forests are a Global 200 ecoregion. The Guinean moist forests are much affected by winds from the hot dry area to the north and the cool Atlantic currents. This gives the region a very seasonal climate with over of rain falling in some areas in the wet season. Over 2000 species of vascular plant have been recorded in the ecoregion, and mammals found here include the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), leopard (Panthera pardus), pygmy hippopotamus (Hexaprotodon liberiensis), Ogilby's duiker (Cephalophus ogilbyi), Nimba otter shrew (Micropotamogale lamottei) and the African golden cat (Profelis aurata). There are twenty-one endemic/near-endemic and seasonal forest birds in the ecoregion; three avian species, the Nimba flycatcher (Melaenornis annamarulae), the Gola malimbe (Malimbus ballmanni) and the spot-winged greenbul (Phyllastrephus leucolepis) are further restricted in distribution to the western forests only. The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) listed the Upper Guinean forests (which it calls the Guinean moist forests) on its Global 200 Critical Regions for Conservation. The WWF divides the Upper Guinean forests into three ecoregions: The Western Guinean lowland forests, extending from Guinea and Sierra Leone through Liberia and southeastern Côte d'Ivoire, and as far as the Sassandra River. The Eastern Guinean forests, extending east from the Sassandra River through Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana to western Togo, with a few isolated pockets further inland, in the highlands of central Togo and Benin. The Guinean montane forests are found at higher elevations in the Guinea Highlands, which extend through central and southeastern Guinea, northern Sierra Leone, and eastern Côte d'Ivoire. See also Guinean Forests of West Africa Phytochorion References External links Guinean Forests of West Africa (Conservation International) Map of the Guinean Forests of West Africa (Conservation International) (PDF file) Woody Plants of Western African Forests(Reference to Upper Guinean Plants) Afrotropical realm Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Endemic Bird Areas

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower%20Guinean%20forests

Lower Guinean forests

The Lower Guinean forests also known as the Lower Guinean-Congolian forests, are a region of coastal tropical moist broadleaf forest in West Africa, extending along the eastern coast of the Gulf of Guinea from eastern Benin through Nigeria and Cameroon. The Guinean forests encompass a diverse array of vegetation zones that range from humid coastal forests, freshwater swamp forests (such as those found around the Niger Delta), to arid, semi-deciduous forests further inland, characterized by extended periods of dry weather. The Guinean Forests Hotspot boasts a plethora of ecological characteristics that make it globally exceptional. Notably, the Niger Delta swamp forests rank as the second-largest swamp forest on the African continent, while the Central African Mangroves represent the largest mangrove expanse in Africa. Moreover, the offshore volcanic islands within the hotspot are remarkable for their substantial levels of unique species, particularly considering their size. Additionally, the hotspot contains the Volta River, one of West Africa's largest rivers, and the delta of the Niger River, the longest and most massive river in the region. Furthermore, the Western Equatorial Crater Lakes ecoregion is among those recognized as globally remarkable. The Dahomey Gap, a region of savanna and dry forest in Togo and Benin, divides the Lower Guinean forests from the Upper Guinean forests to the west, which extend along the western coast of the Gulf of Guinea from Togo to Liberia and north to Guinea. To the north and northeast, the Lower Guinean forests transition to the drier inland Guinean forest–savanna mosaic and Northern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic and to the southeast are bounded by the Congolian Coastal forests, whose boundary is the Sanaga River in Cameroon. The Lower Guinean forests share many biotic affinities with the Upper Guinean forests. They are collectively known as the Guinean Forests of West Africa, location is Sierra Leone. The Lower Guinean forests, represent a vital ecological region in West and Central Africa. Stretching along the Gulf of Guinea coastline, these forests encompass parts of Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and smaller portions of neighboring countries. The Lower Guinean forests are globally recognized as a biodiversity hotspot, characterized by their exceptional ecological significance and remarkable species diversity. Ecoregions The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) divides the Lower Guinean forests into a number of distinct ecoregions: Nigerian lowland forests (Togo, Nigeria) Niger Delta swamp forests (Nigeria) Cross–Niger transition forests (Nigeria) Cross–Sanaga–Bioko coastal forests (Nigeria, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea) Cameroonian Highlands forests (Nigeria, Cameroon) Mount Cameroon and Bioko montane forests (Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea) São Tomé, Príncipe, and Annobón moist lowland forests (Equatorial Guinea, São Tomé and Príncipe) The WWF has designated two regions of the Lower Guinean forests as Global 200 priority regions for conservation. The WWF's "Coastal Congolian forests" region includes the Cross-Sanaga Bioko coastal forests, São Tomé and Príncipe moist lowland forests, and Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests ecoregions. The "Cameroon Highlands forests" Global 200 region includes the Cameroonian Highlands forests and the Mount Cameroon and Bioko montane forests ecoregions. Geographical Features Tropical Rainforests These forests primarily consist of tropical rainforests, characterized by high rainfall, lush vegetation, and a wide variety of plant life. The region's rainfall is relatively evenly distributed throughout the year. Flora and Fauna The Guinean Forests Hotspot is renowned for its abundant and distinctive collection of wildlife. A noteworthy characteristic of the fauna within this region is that numerous endemic species have particularly limited distributions within the hotspot, rendering them highly susceptible to the consequences of deforestation. To illustrate, the Upper Guinea Highlands harbor an exceptionally high concentration of endemic bats and amphibians with constrained habitats, all of which are classified as either Critically Endangered or Endangered. The Lower Guinean forests are recognized as one of the world's biodiversity hotspots. They are home to a vast array of plant and animal species, many of which are endemic. Lower Guinean forests are known for their rich botanical diversity, including numerous tree species, epiphytes, orchids, and medicinal plants. The forests support diverse wildlife, including various primates (such as chimpanzees and gorillas), big cats (like leopards and forest elephants), numerous bird species, reptiles, amphibians, and insects. Around 63 out of the approximately 320 mammal species are unique to this area, and there are also seven exclusive genera, among them is the single-species genus like the Liberian mongoose (Libtnezctis kuhn~, EN). Another example of a one-species genus is the pygmy hippo (Hexaprotodon liberiensis, VU), a charming miniature version of its larger relative, which is found solely in the Guinean forests, with one subspecies residing in Upper Guinea and another in the Niger Delta. Ecological Significance Carbon Storage These forests play a critical role in sequestering carbon dioxide, helping to mitigate climate change. Their extensive vegetation stores significant amounts of carbon. One of the most pressing global environmental concerns is climate change, primarily driven by the accumulation of greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide, in the atmosphere. The Lower Guinean Forests emerged as a key player in mitigating this phenomenon. These forests boast a remarkable capacity for carbon storage. The extensive and diverse vegetation that thrives within this biome serves as a substantial carbon sink, effectively sequestering carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. In fact, numerous studies and scientific reports have emphasized the importance of these forests in the fight against climate change. Research findings underscore that the Lower Guinean Forests store significant amounts of carbon, serving as a vital buffer against the rising levels of atmospheric CO2. This sequestration function underscores the invaluable role played by these forests in supporting global efforts to reduce the impacts of climate change. Water Regulation The forests regulate water flow, helping to prevent flooding during heavy rains and ensuring a steady supply of freshwater to rivers and streams. The water regulation function of the Lower Guinean Forests is another crucial aspect of their ecological significance. These forests act as natural sponges, absorbing and releasing water in a manner that benefits both the environment and human communities. During periods of heavy rainfall, they play a critical role in preventing flooding by absorbing excess water and regulating its flow. This not only safeguards the ecosystems within the forests but also safeguards human settlements downstream from potential deluges. However, the forests ensure a consistent supply of freshwater to the numerous rivers and streams that originate within or flow through their territory. This consistent water supply is vital for sustaining the aquatic life and vegetation that depend on these water bodies, ultimately contributing to the well-being of the entire region. Habitat for Endangered Species Several critically endangered species, including the Cross River gorilla and various species of monkeys and birds, inhabit the Lower Guinean forests. The Lower Guinean Forests serve as a refuge for a diverse range of wildlife. Among the most emblematic inhabitants of these forests is also the Cross River gorilla, an elusive and highly endangered primate species. These forests are also home to a plethora of other species, including various monkeys, birds, and numerous plants with unique ecological significance. The preservation of these forests is, therefore, paramount for the continued survival of these vulnerable species. Conservation efforts in the Lower Guinean Forests are crucial to maintaining the biodiversity of the region and ensuring the protection of these species. Cultural and Indigenous Importance These forests are often home to indigenous communities with rich cultural traditions. The forests provide resources and are central to the way of life of many local people. These forests have been the cradle of diverse cultural traditions, lifestyles, and worldviews that have thrived for generations. The Cultural and Indigenous Importance of the Lower Guinean Forests therefore extends beyond their ecological significance, reflecting a profound connection between the region's indigenous communities and the forest environment. Understanding and acknowledging this cultural dimension is integral to appreciating the holistic significance of these forests. Threats and Conservation The Guinean Forests Hotspot faces severe threats, being among the world's most endangered forest systems, marked by extensive habitat fragmentation and degradation across the majority of the area. Deforestation The Lower Guinean forests are under threat from deforestation due to logging, agriculture, mining, and infrastructure development. This threatens both biodiversity and carbon storage. While these causes may not be limited to this region, each contributes to the ongoing degradation of this vital ecosystem. Commercial Logging: Commercial logging is a major driver of deforestation in the Lower Guinean forests. Valuable timber species are harvested for export and domestic use, leading to a significant loss of forest cover. Documented instances of this include the extraction of valuable hardwoods like mahogany (Swietenia spp.) and sapele (Entandrophragma cylindricum) for international markets. A study by the World Resources Institute (WRI) highlighted the impact of logging in this region, revealing that it accounts for a substantial portion of deforestation. Agricultural Expansion: The expansion of agriculture, including slash-and-burn farming, plays a substantial role in forest loss. Local communities clear forested areas to make way for crop cultivation, particularly in areas where subsistence farming is prevalent. Documented instances include cases of cocoa cultivation, oil palm plantations, and subsistence farming practices. A report from the Rainforest Foundation UK documented the expansion of cocoa farming in the Lower Guinean forests and its detrimental impact on the environment. Mining Activities: Mining for valuable minerals such as gold and bauxite results in deforestation in the Lower Guinean forests. The extraction of these minerals leads to the clearing of large areas of forest and generates pollution, disrupting local ecosystems. Documented instances include gold mining activities in Ghana and Guinea, which have been widely reported as contributing to deforestation. The Global Forest Watch platform provides data on mining-related deforestation in these regions. Infrastructure Development: The construction of roads, highways, and other infrastructure projects often necessitates clearing significant portions of forested land. As human populations continue to grow, there is a growing demand for improved transportation networks, leading to further deforestation. The fragmentation of forest habitats due to infrastructure development can also isolate populations of various species, making it harder for them to thrive and migrate. Habitat Fragmentation Habitat fragmentation is a pressing concern in the Lower Guinean forests, threatening the integrity of this vital ecosystem. The expansion of human activities, including infrastructure development and agricultural expansion, has led to the fragmentation of forest habitats, making it increasingly challenging for wildlife to thrive, disperse, and maintain genetic diversity. This phenomenon is especially relevant to the Lower Guinean forests and has far-reaching ecological consequences which include limiting the ability of wildlife to access necessary resources, find suitable mates, and maintain genetic diversity. Smaller, isolated populations of species face an increased risk of inbreeding and reduced adaptive capacity. Additionally, fragmented habitats are more vulnerable to edge effects, which can include increased predation, invasive species, and altered microclimates. These consequences of habitat fragmentation pose significant challenges to the conservation and long-term sustainability of the Lower Guinean forests. Illegal Wildlife Trade With the pervasive and destructive issue of Poaching and illegal wildlife trade, the Lower Guinean forests faces illicit activities that poses a substantial threat to the region's unique and diverse flora and fauna, including many endangered species. The trade encompasses the illegal capture, sale, and transportation of wildlife, and it primarily targets species for bushmeat and the exotic pet trade. Bushmeat Trade: The illegal trade in bushmeat, which involves the hunting and consumption of wild animals for food, is a significant concern in the Lower Guinean forests. It poses a severe threat to numerous species, including primates, duikers, and pangolins. Unsustainable hunting practices, driven by a growing demand for bushmeat, have led to declines in wildlife populations. Local communities often rely on bushmeat as a source of protein, but the commercial bushmeat trade, which caters to urban and international markets, exacerbates the problem. This trade results in overhunting and population decline of various species. Unfortunately, many of these activities remain clandestine and are difficult to monitor and control. Exotic Pet Trade: The illegal trade in exotic pets is another concerning facet of wildlife trafficking in the Lower Guinean forests. It targets a wide range of species, including parrots, reptiles, and small mammals, for the global pet trade. These animals are often captured in the wild, often causing harm to their populations. The process of capturing, transporting, and selling these creatures not only threatens their survival but can also introduce invasive species to new regions. The international demand for exotic pets contributes to the persistence of this trade. Traditional Medicine and Folklore: The use of wildlife in traditional medicine and cultural practices is a lesser-known but significant driver of illegal wildlife trade in the region. Various animal parts, such as bones, skins, and organs, are sought for their perceived medicinal or spiritual properties. These practices put additional pressure on wildlife populations and further fuel the illegal trade. Climate Change The Lower Guinean forests, like many other critical ecosystems around the world, are increasingly susceptible to the effects of climate change. These forests, known for their high levels of biodiversity and carbon storage, face a range of climate-related challenges that can disrupt their ecological balance and alter their vital functions. Changing rainfall patterns and temperature variations associated with climate change can impact the health and distribution of forest ecosystems. Changing Rainfall Patterns: Climate change has led to alterations in rainfall patterns across the Lower Guinean forests. This region typically experiences a tropical climate with distinct wet and dry seasons. However, global warming is contributing to shifts in precipitation patterns, with implications for both flora and fauna. Prolonged dry seasons and more intense rainfall events can disrupt the timing of flowering and fruiting of many plant species, affecting the availability of food resources for wildlife. Changes in rainfall patterns and their impact on local ecosystems emphasize the urgent need for adaptive strategies and conservation efforts. Temperature Variations: Rising temperatures are a growing concern in the Lower Guinean forests. Increased temperatures can lead to heat stress in many plant and animal species, particularly those adapted to the relatively stable climate of these forests. Some species may find it challenging to adjust to warmer conditions, and the thermal stress can alter local species composition. Research suggests that rising temperatures in the region may also increase the prevalence of diseases that affect both wildlife and humans, highlighting the interconnectedness of climate change and biodiversity. Drought and Forest Health: Drought events, which are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change, can weaken the resilience of the Lower Guinean forests. Prolonged droughts can result in reduced soil moisture, impacting tree health and potentially leading to increased tree mortality. Such changes can disrupt forest dynamics and the structure of these ecosystems. Additionally, drier conditions may make forests more susceptible to wildfires, which can be particularly destructive in tropical forests. Carbon Storage and Climate Mitigation: The Lower Guinean forests play a crucial role in global carbon storage and sequestration. The carbon stored in these forests helps mitigate climate change by reducing the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. However, the impacts of climate change, including droughts and heat stress, can compromise the ability of these forests to continue serving as effective carbon sinks. Maintaining the health and resilience of these forests is essential for mitigating climate change at both local and global scales. Conservation Efforts Efforts are being made by conservation organizations, governments, and local communities to protect and conserve the Lower Guinean forests. Strategies include creating protected areas, promoting sustainable forestry practices, and raising awareness about the ecological and cultural value of these unique forests. Conservation initiatives aim to balance the need for economic development with the imperative to preserve this vital ecological region. Creating Protected Areas: One of the cornerstone strategies in the conservation of the Lower Guinean forests is the establishment of protected areas. These protected zones act as sanctuaries for the rich tapestry of life that resides within the forests. Notable examples include the Cross River National Park in Nigeria and Taï National Park in Côte d'Ivoire. These protected areas serve as vital refuges for endangered species like the Cross River gorilla and the pygmy hippopotamus. Additionally, they provide opportunities for scientific research and ecotourism, generating economic benefits for local communities while safeguarding the natural heritage of the region. Promoting Sustainable Forestry Practices: Recognizing that logging and forestry are essential for the economic development of the region, conservation efforts also focus on promoting sustainable forestry practices. Selective logging, reduced-impact logging, and other sustainable techniques are encouraged to minimize the ecological footprint of the timber industry. Local communities are involved in these initiatives, ensuring that their livelihoods are not compromised while protecting the forests. Forest certification programs, like the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), are instrumental in verifying that forestry operations adhere to environmentally responsible practices. Raising Awareness: The battle for the conservation of the Lower Guinean forests is not limited to the forests themselves but extends into the hearts and minds of people worldwide. Conservation organizations, governmental agencies, and local communities are actively involved in raising awareness about the ecological and cultural significance of these forests. Educational campaigns, documentaries, and community engagement programs help convey the importance of these ecosystems and the need for their preservation. Through these efforts, the global community is made aware of the biodiversity, the critical role of these forests in mitigating climate change, and the cultural traditions of the communities living in and around these areas. Balancing Economic Development and Conservation: One of the most pressing challenges in conserving the Lower Guinean forests is the need to strike a balance between economic development and environmental conservation. The forests provide resources like timber, non-timber forest products, and agricultural land for local communities. However, unregulated exploitation can lead to deforestation and habitat loss. Conservation initiatives work in concert with local governments and businesses to develop sustainable land-use practices. By providing alternative livelihoods and supporting eco-friendly industries, such as ecotourism, conservationists aim to ensure that economic development does not come at the expense of the forests' integrity. See also Congolian forests References External links Guinean Forests of West Africa, at Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund. Coastal areas of Guinea, Cote d'Ivoire, Liberia, and Sierra Leone at World Wildlife Fund. Afrotropical realm Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Deforestation in Nigeria

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinean%20forest%E2%80%93savanna%20mosaic

Guinean forest–savanna mosaic

The Guinean forest-savanna mosaic, also known as the Guinean forest-savanna transition, is a distinctive ecological region located in West Africa. It stretches across several countries including Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, and Cameroon. This region is characterized by a unique blend of forested areas and savannas, creating a diverse and dynamic landscape. It is an ecoregion of West Africa, a band of interlaced forest, savanna, and grassland running east to west and dividing the tropical moist forests near the coast from the West Sudanian savanna of the interior. Setting The Guinean forest–savanna mosaic covers an area of , extending from western Senegal to eastern Nigeria, and including portions of Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin and Cameroon. The Cameroon Highlands of eastern Nigeria and Cameroon separate the Guinean forest–savanna mosaic from the Northern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic, which lies to the east. The Dahomey Gap is a region of Togo and Benin where the forest-savanna mosaic extends to the coast, and separates the Upper Guinean forests of Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d'Ivoire, and Ghana from the Lower Guinean forests of Nigeria and Cameroon. Climate The climate in this region varies depending on the specific location, but it generally experiences a tropical climate with distinct wet and dry seasons. The wet season brings heavy rainfall, while the dry season is characterized by lower precipitation and drier conditions. This ecoregion is situated in the humid tropical savanna zone, where the average yearly high temperatures range from 30 to 33°C and the lows range from 14 to 21°C. The annual rainfall typically falls between 1,600 and 2,000 mm, although there are areas in the Dahomey Gap that receive 1,000 mm or less annually. The Guinean forest-savanna mosaic represents a critical ecological transition zone between the dense, evergreen rainforests to the south and the more open, tree-dotted savannas to the north. This transition creates a unique mix of plant and animal species adapted to varying ecological conditions. Like many ecosystems worldwide, the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic is susceptible to the impacts of climate change. Altered rainfall patterns, increased temperatures, and more frequent extreme weather events have affected the health and composition of this biome. Biodiversity The Guinean forest–savanna mosaic is known for its high biological diversity. It is home to a wide range of plant and animal species, including many endemic species that are found nowhere else in the world. Some iconic species found here include chimpanzees, pygmy hippos, forest elephants, and various species of primates and birds. They also include several species of primates, reptiles, amphibians, and plants that have evolved in isolation within this region. Vegetation Forest: The forested areas in this mosaic are primarily composed of tropical rainforests, characterized by high rainfall, high humidity, and diverse flora and fauna. These forests are home to a wide variety of plant species, including towering hardwood trees, lianas, epiphytes, and a rich understory of shrubs and herbs. Savanna: The savanna component consists of grasslands interspersed with scattered trees, which are adapted to periodic fires. The savanna ecosystem supports a different set of plant species, including various grasses, shrubs, and acacia trees. Flora This biome is characterized by a mix of forested areas and open savannas. It is often referred to as a mosaic because it consists of a patchwork of different vegetation types. In the forested areas, you can find a mix of evergreen and deciduous trees, while the savanna regions feature grasslands and scattered trees. In terms of plant life, it contains a mix of tree species such as mahogany, iroko, and various species of acacia, alongside grasses and shrubs common to savannas. The region is mainly grassland crossed with trees growing alongside streams and on hillsides, with the constantly occurring fires keeping back the growth of trees in open country. Lophira lanceolata is one of the tree species found that is more resistant to fire than many others. Fauna The mixture of forest and grassland provide habitat for a range of species from large mammals such as African leopard, forest elephants, hippopotamus and antelopes such as the red-flanked duiker to the common tortoise as well as more localised species including patas monkeys and Ghana worm lizards (Amphisbaenia). The wetlands in the region are rich in birdlife, including iris glossy starling and black crowned crane. Mammals: The Guinean forest-savanna mosaic is home to a wide variety of mammalian species. This includes iconic species such as African elephants, western chimpanzees, and western lowland gorillas. Other notable mammals include leopards, various species of antelope (such as duikers and bushbucks), and a diverse range of primates (like guenons, colobus monkeys, and baboons). Birds: The avifauna of this region is highly diverse, with hundreds of species recorded. This includes a mix of forest-dwelling birds like turacos, hornbills, and various species of parrots, as well as savanna-adapted species like raptors, bustards, and various types of weavers. Reptiles and Amphibians: The mosaic is also home to a variety of reptiles and amphibians, including numerous snake species, chameleons, crocodiles, and an array of frogs and toads. Invertebrates: The biodiversity of invertebrates, including insects and arachnids, is extremely high, with countless species contributing to the overall ecological balance. Human settlement The ecoregion covers large areas of many West African nations including: Senegal - much of the southern Casamance arm of the country including the city of Ziguinchor. All of inland Guinea-Bissau The Gambia - in particular, south of the River Gambia Guinea - the band of lowland areas parallel to the coast and then running south-east of the central mountains, including the towns of Fria, Kindia and Kissidougou. Northern Sierra Leone including the towns of Makeni and Kabala. Côte d'Ivoire - a swathe across the middle east from Touba through the country's second-largest city Bouaké. A wide strip across Ghana including the country east of Lake Volta, where the main town is Ho. Togo - the southern plateau. Benin - the southern areas including the city of Bohicon. Nigeria - a large area including the cities of Ibadan, which means where the forest meets the savanna, the country's capital Abuja, Lokoja where the River Niger and River Benue meet, Enugu, and Makurdi. Threats and Conservation Like many tropical ecosystems, this mosaic is under threat from various human activities. Deforestation due to logging, agriculture expansion, and mining operations pose significant challenges to its conservation. Additionally, infrastructure development and road construction can fragment habitats, making it difficult for wildlife to move between different areas. Deforestation and Habitat Loss: One of the most significant threats to the biodiversity of the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic is deforestation. This occurs due to agriculture expansion, logging, and infrastructure development. Hunting and Poaching: Unsustainable hunting and poaching for bushmeat and the pet trade can put immense pressure on the local wildlife populations. Climate Change: Changes in rainfall patterns, temperature, and other climatic factors can disrupt the delicate ecological balance of the region. Conservation Efforts: Several conservation organizations and government agencies are working to protect and restore the biodiversity of this mosaic. This includes the establishment of protected areas, community-based conservation initiatives, and sustainable land-use planning. Conservation Initiatives Conservation organizations and governments in the region have recognized the importance of preserving the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic. Efforts have been made to establish protected areas and national parks, such as Taï National Park in Ivory Coast and Gola Rainforest National Park in Sierra Leone and Liberia. Protected areas The Guinean forest-savanna mosaic is a biologically diverse and ecologically significant region in West Africa. Its unique blend of forest and savanna habitats, along with its endemic species, make it an area of global importance for conservation efforts. A 2017 assessment found that 107,116 km2, or 16%, of the ecoregion is in protected areas. Protected areas include Upper Niger National Park in Guinea, Dulombi-Boe National Park in Guinea-Bissau, Outamba-Kilimi National Park in Sierra Leone, Mont Sangbé National Park in Ivory Coast, Bui National Park and Digya National Park in Ghana, and Old Oyo National Park and Gashaka-Gumti National Park in Nigeria. Research and Monitoring Scientists and researchers are actively studying this region to better understand its ecological dynamics, species distribution, and responses to environmental changes. Some key aspects of this research and monitoring initiative includes: Ecosystem Description Biodiversity: The Guinean forest-savanna mosaic is renowned for its high biodiversity, supporting a wide variety of plant and animal species. This region is home to several endangered and endemic species, such as chimpanzees, pygmy hippos, and various rare plants. Ecotone: It is an ecotone, which means it's the transition zone between two major biomes: the dense tropical rainforests to the south and the open savannas to the north. This unique blend of habitats contributes to its ecological significance. Research Goals Biodiversity Assessment: Researchers aim to conduct comprehensive surveys to document the plant and animal species in the region. This includes identifying and cataloging both common and rare species, which helps in understanding the ecosystem's overall health. Ecosystem Dynamics: Investigating the interactions between the forest and savanna components, such as how fires and land use changes affect the balance between these two ecosystems. Conservation Status: Assessing the conservation status of key species and identifying threats, such as habitat loss, poaching, and climate change, to develop effective conservation strategies. Indigenous Knowledge: Collaborating with local communities to tap into their indigenous knowledge about the ecosystem and its conservation. This local knowledge is invaluable for understanding the region's dynamics. Monitoring and Data Collection Camera Traps: Researchers often use camera traps to capture images of wildlife in the area. This technology allows for non-intrusive monitoring of elusive species. Remote Sensing: Satellite imagery and GIS (Geographic Information Systems) are used to monitor land cover changes, deforestation, and the expansion of agriculture in the region. Field Surveys: Ecologists and biologists conduct field surveys to collect data on plant and animal populations, habitat quality, and ecological processes. Weather and Climate Data: Monitoring meteorological and climate data helps understand how changing weather patterns impact the ecosystem. Conservation and Policy Implications Protected Areas: Research findings often lead to the creation or expansion of protected areas or national parks. These areas help conserve the unique biodiversity found in the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic. Community Engagement: Engaging local communities in conservation efforts is critical. This includes providing alternative livelihoods to reduce their reliance on forest resources and raising awareness about the importance of conservation. Policy Advocacy: Sharing research results with policymakers can influence decisions related to land use, logging, agriculture, and other activities that can impact the ecosystem. Challenges and Threats Habitat Loss: The conversion of natural habitat for agriculture, logging, and infrastructure development is a significant threat. Illegal Wildlife Trade: The region is also a hotspot for illegal wildlife trade, posing a severe risk to many endangered species. Climate Change: Shifts in weather patterns and increased droughts and wildfires due to climate change can affect the balance between the forest and savanna components. External links References Afrotropical ecoregions Ecoregions of Benin Ecoregions of Burkina Faso Ecoregions of Cameroon Ecoregions of the Gambia Ecoregions of Ghana Ecoregions of Guinea Ecoregions of Guinea-Bissau Ecoregions of Ivory Coast Ecoregions of Nigeria Ecoregions of Senegal Ecoregions of Togo Forests of Guinea Grasslands of Benin Grasslands of Burkina Faso Grasslands of Cameroon Grasslands of the Gambia Grasslands of Ghana Grasslands of Guinea Grasslands of Guinea-Bissau Grasslands of Ivory Coast Grasslands of Nigeria Grasslands of Senegal Grasslands of Togo Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands

4603794

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USNS%20Mission%20San%20Fernando

USNS Mission San Fernando

SS Mission San Fernando was a Type T2-SE-A2 tanker built for the United States Maritime Commission during World War II. After the war she was acquired by the United States Navy as USS Mission San Fernando (AO-122). Later the tanker transferred to the Military Sea Transportation Service as USNS Mission San Fernando (T-AO-122). She was a member of the and was named for Mission San Fernando Rey de España in Los Angeles. She was later renamed USNS Muscle Shoals (T-AGM-19) (after Muscle Shoals, Alabama), and, later, USNS Vanguard (T-AG-194). Service history As oiler, 1943–1957 Mission San Fernando was laid down on 26 August 1943 under a Maritime Commission contract by Marine Ship Corporation, Sausalito, California; launched on 25 November 1943; sponsored by Mrs. Ruth B. Krohn; and delivered on 29 February 1944. Chartered to Pacific Tankers Inc., for operations, she served the remainder of the War carrying fuel to Allied forces in the western Pacific (during which time she was twice awarded the Battle Efficiency Award as well as the National Defense Service Medal). She remained in service until 10 May 1946 when she was returned to the Maritime Commission and laid up in the Reserve Fleet at Olympia, Washington. Acquired by the Navy on 21 October 1947 she was chartered to the Union Oil Company for operations and placed in service under the operational control of the Naval Transportation Service as Mission San Fernando (AO-122). Transferred to the operational control of the newly created Military Sea Transportation Service on 1 October 1949 she was redesignated USNS Mission San Fernando (T-AO-122). She served in MSTS until 24 May 1955 when she was returned to the Maritime Administration and laid up in the Maritime Reserve Fleet at Olympia. She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 22 June 1955. Reacquired by the Navy on 21 June 1956 she was placed in service with MSTS and operated, under charter, by Marine Transportation Lines. She served with MSTS until she was returned to the Maritime Administration on 4 September 1957 and laid up in the Maritime Reserve Fleet at James River, Virginia. As tracking and navigational test ship, 1964–1999 Reacquired by the Navy on 28 September 1964 she was taken in hand by General Dynamics Quincy Shipbuilding Division for extensive modernization and rebuilding at its Quincy, Massachusetts yard. This included adding 80 feet to her length. While under conversion to a missile-range instrumentation ship, she was renamed for Muscle Shoals, Alabama, and reclassified, becoming Muscle Shoals (AGM-19). Renamed Vanguard on 1 September 1965, she was placed in service with MSTS on 28 February 1966 as USNS Vanguard (T-AGM-19). Designed to be a seagoing missile tracking station, she participated in the Apollo Project test series and into 1969 had continued in these duties. She then participated in the Skylab program and the joint US/Soviet Apollo–Soyuz Test Project. In September 1980, she was reconfigured and the large missile tracking antennas were removed. She replaced the and reclassified as T-AG-194. Her role became that of a Navigational Test Ship and she was used to check submarine navigation systems. She steamed over 250,000 miles in support of Poseidon and Trident I navigation subsystems and in development of the Trident II navigation subsystem. She was stricken again on 12 December 1999 after being replaced by USNS Waters (T-AGS-45). Disposal On 29 November 2001 she was transferred to the United States Maritime Administration (MARAD). On 16 March 2005 MARAD issued a "Request for Comments" for public input on the historical significance of the Vanguard. Following historical review, the vessel was cleared for disposal by the Virginia State Historic Preservation Office on 15 November 2006. The ship was scrapped on 5 November 2013 at Marine Metal Inc. recycle slip in Brownsville, Texas. Gallery References 1943 ships Type T2-SE-A2 tankers Ships built in Sausalito, California World War II tankers of the United States San Fernando Type T2-SE-A2 tankers of the United States Navy Cold War auxiliary ships of the United States Missile range instrumentation ships of the United States Navy Apollo program Maritime vessels related to spaceflight

4605404

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest%E2%80%93savanna%20mosaic

Forest–savanna mosaic

Forest–savanna mosaic is a transitory ecotone between the tropical moist broadleaf forests of Equatorial Africa and the drier savannas and open woodlands to the north and south of the forest belt. The forest–savanna mosaic consists of drier forests, often gallery forest, interspersed with savannas and open grasslands. Flora This band of marginal savannas bordering the dense dry forest extends from the Atlantic coast of Guinea to South Sudan, corresponding to a climatic zone with relatively high rainfall, between 800 and 1400 mm. It is an often unresolvable, complex of secondary forests and mixed savannas, resulting from intense erosion of primary forests by fire and clearing. The vegetation ceases to have an evergreen character, and becomes more and more seasonal. A species of acacia, Faidherbia albida, marks, with its geographical distribution, the Guinean area of the savannas together with the area of the forest-savanna, arboreal and shrub, and a good part of the dense dry forest with prevalently deciduous trees. Ecoregions The World Wildlife Fund recognizes several distinct forest-savanna mosaic ecoregions: The Guinean forest–savanna mosaic is the transition between the Upper and Lower Guinean forests of West Africa and the West Sudanian savanna. The ecoregion extends from Senegal on the west to the Cameroon Highlands on the east. The Dahomey Gap is a region of Togo and Benin where the forest-savanna mosaic extends to the coast, separating the Upper and Lower Guinean forests. The Northern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic lies between the Congolian forests of Central Africa and the East Sudanian savanna. It extends from the Cameroon Highlands in the west to the East African Rift in the east, encompassing portions of Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and southwestern Sudan. The Western Congolian forest–savanna mosaic lies southwest of the Congolian forest belt, covering portions of southern Gabon, southern Republic of the Congo, western Democratic Republic of the Congo, and northwestern Angola. The Southern Congolian forest–savanna mosaic lies east of the Western Congolian forest savanna mosaic in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, separating the Congolian forests to the north from the Miombo woodlands to the south. The Victoria Basin forest–savanna mosaic lies to the east and north of Lake Victoria in East Africa, and is surrounded on the east and west by the montane forests of the East African Rift's Western and Eastern arcs. The ecoregion covers much of Uganda, extending into portions of eastern Kenya, northwestern Tanzania, and eastern Rwanda. References Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Forests Grasslands Afrotropical ecoregions

4607613

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic%20plateau

Oceanic plateau

An oceanic or submarine plateau is a large, relatively flat elevation that is higher than the surrounding relief with one or more relatively steep sides. There are 184 oceanic plateaus in the world, covering an area of or about 5.11% of the oceans. The South Pacific region around Australia and New Zealand contains the greatest number of oceanic plateaus (see map). Oceanic plateaus produced by large igneous provinces are often associated with hotspots, mantle plumes, and volcanic islands — such as Iceland, Hawaii, Cape Verde, and Kerguelen. The three largest plateaus, the Caribbean, Ontong Java, and Mid-Pacific Mountains, are located on thermal swells. Other oceanic plateaus, however, are made of rifted continental crust, for example the Falkland Plateau, Lord Howe Rise, and parts of Kerguelen, Seychelles, and Arctic ridges. Plateaus formed by large igneous provinces were formed by the equivalent of continental flood basalts such as the Deccan Traps in India and the Snake River Plain in the United States. In contrast to continental flood basalts, most igneous oceanic plateaus erupt through young and thin () mafic or ultra-mafic crust and are therefore uncontaminated by felsic crust and representative for their mantle sources. These plateaus often rise above the surrounding ocean floor and are more buoyant than oceanic crust. They therefore tend to withstand subduction, more-so when thick and when reaching subduction zones shortly after their formations. As a consequence, they tend to "dock" to continental margins and be preserved as accreted terranes. Such terranes are often better preserved than the exposed parts of continental flood basalts and are therefore a better record of large-scale volcanic eruptions throughout Earth's history. This "docking" also means that oceanic plateaus are important contributors to the growth of continental crust. Their formations often had a dramatic impact on global climate, such as the most recent plateaus formed, the three, large, Cretaceous oceanic plateaus in the Pacific and Indian Ocean: Ontong Java, Kerguelen, and Caribbean. Role in crust–mantle recycling Geologists believe that igneous oceanic plateaus may well represent a stage in the development of continental crust as they are generally less dense than oceanic crust while still being denser than normal continental crust. Density differences in crustal material largely arise from different ratios of various elements, especially silicon. Continental crust has the highest amount of silicon (such rock is called felsic). Oceanic crust has a smaller amount of silicon (mafic rock). Igneous oceanic plateaus have a ratio intermediate between continental and oceanic crust, although they are more mafic than felsic. However, when a plate carrying oceanic crust subducts under a plate carrying an igneous oceanic plateau, the volcanism which erupts on the plateau as the oceanic crust heats up on its descent into the mantle erupts material which is more felsic than the material which makes up the plateau. This represents a step toward creating crust which is increasingly continental in character, being less dense and more buoyant. If an igneous oceanic plateau is subducted underneath another one, or under existing continental crust, the eruptions produced thereby produce material that is yet more felsic, and so on through geologic time. List of oceanic plateaus Continental oceanic plateaus Campbell Plateau (South Pacific) Challenger Plateau (South Pacific) Exmouth Plateau (Indian) Falkland Plateau (South Atlantic) Lord Howe Rise (South Pacific) Rockall Plateau (North Atlantic) Igneous oceanic plateaus Agulhas Plateau (Southwest Indian) Azores Plateau (North Atlantic) Broken Plateau (Indian) Caribbean-Colombian Plateau (Caribbean) Exmouth Plateau (Indian) Hikurangi Plateau (Southwest Pacific) Iceland Plateau (North Atlantic) Kerguelen Plateau (Indian) Magellan Rise (Pacific) Manihiki Plateau (Southwest Pacific) Mascarene Plateau (Indian) Naturaliste Plateau (Indian) Ontong Java Plateau (Southwest Pacific) Shatsky Rise (North Pacific) Vøring Plateau (North Atlantic) Wrangellia Terrane (Northeast Pacific) Yermak Plateau (Arctic) See also Abyssal plain Bathymetry Glossary of landforms Ocean bank References Notes Sources (updated February 2017) External links Gsa.confex.com: "Oceanic Plateaus: Nuclei for Archean Cratons" Tristan.ferroir.free.fr: "On the oceanic plateaux"— 01 Coastal and oceanic landforms Submarine topography Physical oceanography Plate tectonics Oceanographical terminology Abyssal plains Aquatic ecology

4608190

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night%20skiing

Night skiing

Night skiing is the sport of skiing or snowboarding after sundown, offered at many ski areas. There are usually floodlights – including LED lamps – along the piste which allow for better visibility. The night skiing session typically begins around sunset, and ends between 8:00 PM and 10:30 PM. Night skiing offers reduced price access versus daylight hours. Trails at night are normally not as busy as during the day, but there are usually fewer runs available. The trails also tend to be icier than during the day, due to melting and refreezing. A few ski resorts offer opportunities for night skiing wearing personal headlamps. History Processions of skiers holding torches or flares while skiing down a slope at night has been a scheduled event of winter festivals since at least 1903. The dramatic spectacle of torchlight ski descents is a program element at the Holmenkollen Ski Festival, Nordic Games, and ski resort holiday celebrations. Lighted slope skiing originated with Clare Bousquet at Bousquet Ski Area in Pittsfield, Massachusetts in 1936 thanks to a local partnership with General Electric. Other early lighted slopes are cited at Jackson NH (1937), Hyak WA (1938) and Brattleboro VT (1938). References External links Types of skiing Lighting Skiing

4609589

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Gervasio%20%28Maya%20site%29

San Gervasio (Maya site)

San Gervasio is an archaeological site of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization, located in the northern third of the island of Cozumel off the northeastern coast of the Yucatán Peninsula, in what is now the Mexican state of Quintana Roo. San Gervasio's pre-Hispanic name was Tantun Cuzamil, Mayan for Flat Rock in the place of the Swallows. The ruins were once a hub of worship of the goddess Ix Chel, an aged deity of childbirth, fertility, medicine, and weaving. Pre-Columbian Maya women would try to travel to San Gervasio and make offerings at least once in their lives. In 1560, the Spanish historian, Diego Lopez de Cogolludo, wrote: "The pilgrims arrive at Cozumel for the fulfillment of their vows to offer their sacrifices, to ask help for their needs, and for the mistaken adoration of their false gods." The bishop of Yucatán, Diego de Landa, wrote in 1549 that the Maya "held Cozumel in the same veneration as we have for pilgrimages to Jerusalem and Rome, and so they used to go to visit and offer presents there, as we do to holy places; and if they did not go themselves, they always sent their offerings." Overview Although most of the stone structures at San Gervasio now lack their roofs and upper portions of their walls, archaeologists from Harvard and the University of Arizona compiled detailed plans of the remains in the early 1970s that allowed them to create reconstructed views of these buildings. Renderings of these reconstructions are illustrated in the guidebook offered for sale by the Cozumel Parks and Museum Foundation (FPMCQROO), an agency of the Mexican State of Quintana Roo and the agency responsible for the upkeep and maintenance of the State park that surrounds the National Monument of the ruins of San Gervasio, which is administered separately by the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH). More information about the archaeological park, including hours of operation, entrance fees, and directions are available on the FPMCQROO website CozumelParks.com The park is a wildlife refuge and the local iguana population has become quite habituated to humans. Although other species of lizards abound, they are not so trusting. Likewise, the peccaries and coatis that are sometimes spotted as they pass through the ruins tend to keep a safe distance from the tourists. The ruins cover 4 districts spread out over several square kilometers, but only certain parts of District 1 are open to the public. Most of the District 1 buildings that are accessible lie within or very near the District 1 Central Plaza Group. History The first European to visit San Gervasio was Juan de Grijalva, who discovered the island for the Spanish in 1518. The second group of European visitors came with the Hernán Cortés expedition, which stopped by the island on the way to Veracruz in 1519. Both groups were received well by the Maya of Cozumel, and Cortez even wrote a letter for them to present to any Spaniards that came to the island in the future, stating that “there is no gold here and these are peaceful people.” The letter did not help much, however, when the Panfilo de Narvaez expedition arrived in 1520. Several of the expedition’s crewmembers were sick with smallpox. The sickness ran rampant across the island. There have been three mass graves discovered at San Gervasio where these smallpox victims were buried, along with their glass trade-beads given to them by the Spanish. Structures Las Manitas Meaning: Little Hands Constructed during: Terminal-Classic (1000-1200 AD) Location: East of the District 1 Central Plaza Las Manitas was the residence of the halach unik, or the Mayan ruler of Cozumel during the Terminal Classic Period. It has an outer room that was his residence and an inner sanctum that was his personal shrine. The name of the building comes from red-colored hand prints on the interior walls. Chi Chan Nah Meaning: Small House Constructed during: Post Classic Location: to the East of Las Manitas This building was an oratorio, or chapel, used by the family of the halach uinik who lived in the nearby residence of Las Manitas (see above). It consisted of a large outer room with a small inner sanctum containing an altar. In the nearby altar platform (named La Tumba) to the west of Las Manitas, a single vaulted-roofed tomb was discovered in 1973, the only one of its kind found in San Gervasio. Ka'na Nah Meaning: Tall House Constructed during: Post-Classic (1200-1650 AD) Location: West of the District 1 Central Plaza This pyramid is the largest single structure in San Gervasio. Due to certain architectural arrangements in the interior of the small room on the top, this structure may have been the temple of Ixchel described in 1552 by Francisco Lopez de Gomara, when he wrote of a temple "where they kept a very strange idol, very distinct from the others. The body of this great idol was hollow, made of baked clay and fastened to the wall with mortar, in back of which was something like a sacristy, where the priests had a small secret door cut into the side of the idol, into which one of them would enter, and from it speak to and answer those who came to worship and beg favors. With this trickery, simple men were made to believe whatever the god told them." In 1618, Diego Lopez de Cogolludo wrote that "they venerated the statue more than the others, sacrificing to it birds, dogs, their own blood, and even men." El Arco Meaning: The Arch Constructed during: A reconstruction erected in the 1980s Location: Northeast of District 1 Central Plaza This arch is the main entrance from the north and west to San Gervasio’s District 1 Central Plaza Group. It is a simple arch about seven feet tall that straddles the main religious pathway (called a sacbe in Mayan, a word meaning "white road") running northeast from the plaza. It was reconstructed by INAH in the form of similar arches found at other sites on the east coast of Quintana Roo, such as El Cedral, located on the southern portion of Cozumel. To the north of this arch, on the western edge of the religious pathway lies a small hole in the bedrock, similar to others that can be found throughout the ruins. These natural karst formations are called cenotes (from the Mayan word ‘’d'zonot’’) and served as water sources for the inhabitants of San Gervasio. District 1 Central Plaza Meaning: Constructed during: Post-Classic (1200-1650 AD) Location: Northwest of the entrance to the ruins The Plaza Group consists of 6 buildings arranged in a square around a central altar platform. Several of these buildings once had roofs made of timber and thatch, which have since rotted away. Others had roofs of wood beams and poured mortar, while a few had rooms constructed of corbeled arches. All were public buildings and included temples, oratories, altars, and a building used to house visitors who came to participate in religious events taking place in the plaza. Nohoch Nah Meaning: Big House Constructed during: Terminal-Classic (1000-1200 AD) and Post-Classic (1200-1650 AD) Location: North of the District 1 Central Plaza With its intact roof, this is one of the best preserved buildings in San Gervasio. Inside, (closed off to the public, but visible through the doorway) the interior walls still show signs of a red, ochre and blue mural. This building was a temple dedicated to Ku’kul’kan, the feathered serpent god. Los Murcielagos Meaning: The Bats Constructed during: Late-Classic (600-1000 AD): Location: Northwest of District 1 Central Plaza This compound is made up of several rooms and out-buildings situated on a platform and making up the residence of the halach uinik of Cozumel during the late Post-Classic Period. References The brochure provided by the park includes the link Cozumelparks.org . Markers on sites at park External links San Gervasio Photo Essay Maya sites in Quintana Roo Cozumel Tourist attractions in Quintana Roo Maya Maya sites that survived the end of the Classic Period

4615500

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea%20glass

Sea glass

Sea glass are naturally weathered pieces of glass, which often have the appearance of tumbled stones. Sea glass is physically and chemically weathered glass found on beaches along bodies of salt water. These weathering processes produce natural frosted glass. Sea glass is used for decoration, most commonly in jewellery. "Beach glass" comes from fresh water and is often less frosted in appearance than sea glass. Sea glass takes 20–40 years, and sometimes as much as 100–200 years, to acquire its characteristic texture and shape. It is also colloquially referred to as drift glass from the longshore drift process that forms the smooth edges. In practice, the two terms are used interchangeably. Formation Sea glass begins as normal shards of broken glass that are then persistently tumbled and ground until the sharp edges are smoothed and rounded. In this process, the glass loses its slick surface but gains a frosted appearance over many years. Naturally produced sea glass ("genuine sea glass") originates as pieces of glass from broken bottles, broken tableware, or even shipwrecks, which are rolled and tumbled in the ocean for years until all of their edges are rounded off, and the slickness of the glass has been worn to a frosted appearance. Then, the glass will wash to shore where it may be collected. Colors The color of sea glass is determined by its original source, and most sea glass comes from bottles. Besides pieces of glass, colored sea pottery pieces are often also found. The most common colors of sea glass are kelly green, brown, white, and clear. These colors predominantly come from glass bottles mostly used by companies that sell beer, juices, soft drinks, and other beverages. The clear or white glass comes from clear plates and glasses, windshields, windows, and assorted other sources. Less common colours include jade, amber (from bottles for whiskey, medicine, spirits, and early bleach bottles), golden amber or amberina (mostly used for spirit bottles), lime green (from soda bottles during the 1960s), forest green, and ice- or soft blue (from soda bottles, medicine bottles, ink bottles, and fruit jars from the late 19th and early 20th centuries, windows, and windshields). These colors are found about once for every 25 to 100 pieces of sea glass found. Uncommon colors of sea glass include a type of green, which comes primarily from early to mid-1900s Coca-Cola, Dr Pepper, and RC Cola bottles as well as beer bottles. Soft green colors could come from bottles that were used for ink, fruit, and baking soda. These colors are found once in every 50 to 100 pieces. Purple sea glass is very uncommon, as is citron, opaque white (from milk bottles), cobalt and cornflower blue (from early Milk of Magnesia bottles, poison bottles, artwork, Bromo-Seltzer and Vicks VapoRub containers), and aqua (from Ball Mason jars and certain 19th century glass bottles). These colors are found once for every 200 to 1,000 pieces found. Extremely rare colors include gray, pink (often from Great Depression-era plates), teal (often from Mateus wine bottles), black (older, very dark olive green glass), yellow (often from 1930s Vaseline containers), turquoise (from tableware and art glass), red (often from old Schlitz bottles, car tail lights, dinnerware, or nautical lights, it is found once in about every 5,000 pieces), and orange (the least common type of sea glass, found once in about 10,000 pieces). These colors are found once for every 1,000 to 10,000 pieces collected. Some shards of black glass are quite old, originating from thick eighteenth-century gin, beer, and wine bottles. Antique black sea glass Old black glass bottles that had iron slag added during production to increase strength and opaqueness were at times broken in shipment. Artificial In order to make artificial sea glass, a tumbler, sand, and glass are necessary. A number of characteristics highlight the differences between artificial sea glass and natural sea glass, starting with the coloration and surface texture of each piece. An example of natural sea glass will usually have a frosty, almost powdery texture at different points. One of the most reliable indicators for natural sea glass is a "C" shaped design all over the outside of the sample. If the design is located on the piece, it is authentic sea glass, since artificial glass will typically not have that particular design. Sea glass usually comes from broken glass bottles or other household items, so pieces found on beaches will not be perfectly shaped, unlike artificial sea glass, often sold as beach glass. See also Glass Beach (Fort Bragg, California) Sea pottery References Further reading National Geographic magazine, "Environment" section: "The Shard Way", August 2008 http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/artnov11macro/JosephineWyman/JW_SeaGlassArticle.pdf External links North American Sea Glass Association Fortune Small Business magazine article on sea glass collection Washington Post article on sea glass collection and sales Photographic Exploration of Sea Glass- Josephine Wyman Brief summary/discussion about Sea Glass / Beach Glass Glass in nature Ocean pollution Glass beaches

4616703

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halosere

Halosere

A halosere is an ecological succession in a saline water saline environments. An example of a halosere is a salt marsh. In a river estuary, large amounts of silt are deposited by the ebbing tides, as well as inflowing rivers. Plants in halosere The earliest plant colonizers are algae and zostera, which can tolerate submergence by the tide for most of the 12 hour cycle and which trap mud, causing it to accumulate. Two other colonizer plants are Salicornia, and Spartina, which are both halophytes. Halophytes are plants that can tolerate saline conditions and they grow on the intertidal mudflats with a maximum of four hours' exposure to air every 12 hours. On a large scale halophytes have colonized the halosere on the banks of the Great Salt Lake in Utah. Halosere vegetation can also be found in the salt marshes of the Wadden Sea islands and the zone towards the dunes. River estuaries In a river estuary, large amount of silt are depositing. Halosere in river estuaries consist of mudflats and the so called sward zone. Halosere sward zones can be found in the Llanrhidian marsh on the Gower Peninsula. See also Seral community References Ecological succession Wetlands Estuaries

4618035

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afromontane

Afromontane

The Afromontane regions are subregions of the Afrotropical realm, one of the Earth's eight biogeographic realms, covering the plant and animal species found in the mountains of Africa and the southern Arabian Peninsula. The Afromontane regions of Africa are discontinuous, separated from each other by lower-lying areas, and are sometimes referred to as the Afromontane archipelago, as their distribution is analogous to a series of sky islands. Geography Afromontane communities occur above elevation near the equator, and as low as elevation in the Knysna-Amatole montane forests of South Africa. Afromontane forests are generally cooler and more humid than the surrounding lowlands. The Afromontane archipelago mostly follows the East African Rift from the Red Sea to Zimbabwe, with the largest areas in the Ethiopian Highlands, the Albertine Rift Mountains of Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Tanzania, and the Eastern Arc highlands of Kenya and Tanzania. Other Afromontane regions include the Drakensberg range of southern Africa, the Cameroon Highlands, and the Cameroon Line volcanoes, including Mount Cameroon, Bioko, and São Tomé. Flora Although some Afromontane enclaves are widely separated, they share a similar mix of plant species which are often distinct from the surrounding lowland regions. Podocarps, of genera Podocarpus and Afrocarpus, are a characteristic tree, along with Prunus africana, Hagenia abyssinica, Juniperus procera, and Olea spp.. In the higher mountains, the Afromontane forest or woodland zone transitions to a higher Afroalpine zone of grasslands, shrublands, or moorlands. The plant families Curtisiaceae and Oliniaceae are Afromontane endemics and family Barbeyaceae is a near-endemic. The tree genera Afrocrania, Balthasaria, Curtisia, Ficalhoa, Hagenia, Kiggelaria, Kuloa, Leucosidea, Platypterocarpus, Trichocladus, Widdringtonia, and Xymalos are Afromontane endemics or near-endemics, as are the plant genera Ardisiandra, Cincinnobotrys, and Stapfiella. Plant communities Afromontane areas have a wide range of plant communities, including intermediate types. These include: Afromontane rain forest. Afromontane rain forest is found on wetter slopes from southern Ethiopia to Malawi, mostly between 1200 and 2500 meters elevation. It occurs on wetter slopes where average annual rainfall is from 1250 to 2500 mm, or higher. Elevation and location varies somewhat based on distance from the equator or from the sea, and the size and configuration of the highland where it occurs. Mature rain forests generally have an upper stratum of trees 25 to 45 meters high, a middle stratum 14 to 30 meters high, a lower stratum 6 to 15 meters high, a shrub layer of 3 to 6 meters high, and a sparse herbaceous ground layer. The tree crowns of the upper strata are typically open, and the middle strata may be continuous but rarely forms a dense canopy, while the lower tree stratum is typically dense. Most trees are evergreen. Afromontane rain forests can be similar in structure to lowland Guineo-Congolian rain forests, but the species mostly differ from lowland forests. Typical trees include Aningeria adolfi-friederici, Cola greenwayi, Cylicomorpha parviflora, Diospyros abyssinica, Drypetes gerrardii, Entandrophragma excelsum, Ficalhoa laurifolia, Gambeya gorungosana, Kuloa usambarensis, Mitragyna rubrostipulata, Myrianthus holstii, Ochna holstii, Olea capensis, Parinari excelsa, Podocarpus milanjianus, Prunus africana, Strombosia scheffleri, Syzygium guineense subsp. afromontanum, Tabernaemontana johnstonii, and Xymalos monospora. Tree ferns (Cyathea spp.), lianas, and epiphytes, including ferns, mosses, and species of Begonia, Impatiens, Streptocarpus, and Peperomia, are abundant. Distribution In South Africa, Afromontane forests cover only 0.5% of the country's land area. The Afromontane forests occur along the mountainous arc of the Drakensberg Range, from Limpopo Province in the northeast to the Western Cape Province in the southwest. The Afromontane forests generally occur in well-watered areas, including ravines and south-facing slopes. The Afromontane forests are intolerant of fire, and the frequent fires of the surrounding fynbos, savanna, and grassland limit the expansion of the forests. Despite their small area, the Afromontane forests of South Africa produce valuable timber, particularly the real yellowwood (Podocarpus latifolius), Outeniqua yellowwood (Afrocarpus falcatus), and stinkwood (Ocotea bullata). Afromontane ecoregions Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Albertine Rift montane forests (Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda) Cameroonian Highlands forests (Cameroon, Nigeria) East African montane forests (Kenya, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda) Eastern Arc forests (Tanzania, Kenya) Ethiopian montane forests (Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan) Guinean montane forests (Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia, Sierra Leone) Knysna-Amatole montane forests (South Africa) Southern Afrotemperate Forest (Western Cape Province of South Africa) Mount Cameroon and Bioko montane forests (Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea) Montane grasslands, shrublands, and woodlands Angolan montane forest-grassland mosaic (Angola) Angolan scarp savanna and woodlands (Angola) Drakensberg alti-montane grasslands and woodlands (Lesotho, South Africa) Drakensberg montane grasslands, woodlands and forests (Lesotho, South Africa, Eswatini) East African montane moorlands (Kenya, South Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda) Eastern Zimbabwe montane forest-grassland mosaic (Mozambique, Zimbabwe) Ethiopian montane grasslands and woodlands (Eritrea, Ethiopia) Ethiopian montane moorlands (Ethiopia) Highveld grasslands (Lesotho, South Africa) Jos Plateau forest-grassland mosaic (Nigeria) Maputaland-Pondoland bushland and thickets (Mozambique, South Africa, Eswatini) Southern Afrotemperate Forest (Western Cape Province of South Africa) Rwenzori-Virunga montane moorlands (Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Uganda) South Malawi montane forest-grassland mosaic (Malawi, Mozambique) Southern Rift montane forest-grassland mosaic (Malawi, Tanzania) Deserts and xeric shrublands Southwestern Arabian montane woodlands (Saudi Arabia, Yemen) External links Eastern Afromontane Biodiversity Hotspot (Conservation International) Eastern Afromontane, from Hotspots Revisited (Conservation International) References Galley, C. & Linder, H. P. (2006) Geographical affinities of the Cape flora, South Africa. Journal of Biogeography 33 (2), 236–250. Afrotropical ecoregions Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Montane grasslands and shrublands Deserts and xeric shrublands Ecoregions of Africa Ecoregions of Saudi Arabia Ecoregions of Yemen

4625119

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timewyrm%3A%20Genesys

Timewyrm: Genesys

Timewyrm: Genesys is an original Doctor Who novel, published by Virgin Publishing in their New Adventures range of Doctor Who novels. It was the first book in that series (and the first book in the Timewyrm quartet), and was thought of by some fans as a continuation of the television series; in effect, a Season 27 to follow the televised Season 26. The novel featured the Seventh Doctor and Ace; it also features a brief cameo of the Fourth Doctor – in the form of a holographic message to his future self – and the Seventh Doctor briefly uses the TARDIS to summon the personality of his third incarnation when he needs his past self's technical expertise. The book makes extensive use of characters and plot elements from the Mesopotamian myth of Gilgamesh. Synopsis In ancient Mesopotamia the Seventh Doctor and Ace together with Gilgamesh face a mythological Gallifreyan terror – the Timewyrm. Plot In space above the planet Earth, two spaceships fight. One, commanded by a cybernetic woman, is shot down by the other. She survives and her escape pod crash lands somewhere in ancient Mesopotamia. Gilgamesh, King of Uruk, finds the escape pod while engaged on a spying mission against Kish. The woman, who claims to be the goddess Ishtar, tries to lure Gilgamesh into helping her. Gilgamesh refuses, and Ishtar becomes enraged, vowing that she will have her revenge. On board the TARDIS, Ace awakens to discover that she has no memory of who or where she is. The Doctor informs her that he is accidentally responsible for the removal of her memories. Before he can correct this error, the Doctor triggers a message from his own past in the form of a holographic projection of the Fourth Doctor. Recorded during the events of The Invasion of Time, the Fourth Doctor's warning concerns a mythical creature known only as the Timewyrm. After the Doctor restores Ace's memories, the TARDIS lands in ancient Mesopotamia Back in Uruk, two noblemen, Gudea and Ennatum, plot against Gilgamesh. They send a messenger to Kish warning that Gilgamesh will be returning on a spy mission. The message is received by High Priest Dumuzi in the Temple of Ishtar, a Temple graced by the presence of its divine namesake. Agga, King of Kish, is not pleased that Ishtar had chosen to visit his city. She has ordered the construction of strange, highly intricate metal designs throughout her Temple. Agga knows that Ishtar is immensely powerful and fears for the safety of his people and his daughter, Ninani. When Gilgamesh and his trusted Neanderthal friend Enkidu are ambushed by the Kishite guards, the TARDIS appears. The Doctor and Ace become involved in the melee, and Ace uses her Nitro-9 explosives to frighten the attackers away. Gilgamesh mistakes the strangers for the Gods Ea and Aya. The Doctor leaves Ace in a pub with Gilgamesh and Enkidu while he investigates Kish. Gilgamesh attracts unwanted attention, and, to avoid a brawl, Ace sings "The Wild Rover" to entertain the crowd. She attracts the attention of Avram, a travelling songsmith, who tells her that Ishtar is present in Kish. Ace decides to set off for the Temple of Ishtar, along with Avram, Gilgamesh, and Enkidu, certain that the Doctor will be there and will need her help. In Kish, Princess Ninani plans to oppose the Goddess in any way she could. She sends for a young Priestess of Ishtar, En-Gula, so that she might learn more about Ishtar and find a way to fight her. En-Gula is afraid of Ishtar and joins Ninani's conspiracy. As En-Gula returns to the Temple of Ishtar, she meets the Doctor. The Doctor is surprised that Ishtar is present within her temple. The Doctor allows himself to be taken to meet the Goddess. Dumuzi drugs the Doctor into unconsciousness so that his mind can be devoured by Ishtar. At that point, Ace and her party arrive. Thinking that the Doctor is in danger, Ace throws some Nitro-9 around, causing serious damage to the Temple. An angry Doctor explains to Ace that he was feigning unconsciousness to gather information about Ishtar. The Doctor reveals that the patterns Ishtar is having worked into the walls of the Temple are a kind of massive electronic transmitter which will allow her to control thousands of human minds over vast distances. Ace's explosives have damaged the transmitter, but it will only be a matter of time before it is repaired. The party, which now includes En-Gula and Avram, return to Uruk to plan their next move. In Uruk, they all enjoy a feast prepared in honour of Gilgamesh. Avram entertains the court with a song about a mysterious god-like being known as Utnapishtim. The Doctor believes there is more to the legend of Utnapishtim. The group decides that Gilgamesh, Ace, and Avram will seek out Utnapishtim, while the Doctor, Enkidu, and En-Gula keep an eye on Kish. Ace's party reaches the extinct volcano where Utnapishtim is said to live. Avram, who has been there before, leads them to two "scorpion men", in reality robotic guards designed to repel intruders. Within the volcano, they reach a large lake, guarded by a single man. Gilgamesh, getting impatient, attacks the man. Ace is forced to disarm the guard of his laser gun, to avoid allowing Gilgamesh to be killed in contravention of known Earth history. The party uses a small boat to travel to the center of the lake to Utnapishtim, who resides in the remains of a vast spaceship. He explains how he had pursued Qataka, a ruthless criminal from the planet Anu, across space. He claims that Qataka had been destroyed, but that his ship had been badly damaged in the fight. He confides to Ace that his people will not be able to remain long within their wrecked ship, and that, when they venture out into the world, a destructive war with the humans will be inevitable. Ace tells Utnapishtim that Qataka was not destroyed, that she is calling herself Ishtar and is planning to take the Earth for herself. Utnapishtim agrees to help Ace destroy Qataka/Ishtar with a computer virus that will attack Ishtar's cybernetic body. Meanwhile, the Doctor, Enkidu, and En-Gula return to Kish to consult with Ninani. The Doctor hopes Ninani can help him get into Ishtar's temple undetected. Ninani is willing to help, but they are discovered by Agga. Agga is so afraid of the punishment for his daughter's treachery against Ishtar that he confines all of them (except his daughter) to the dungeons. Agga explains to Ninani that Ishtar claims she has a device which can destroy the world. He tries to convince Ninani that they can not oppose such a powerful creature. Ninani waits for her father to leave and then sets about to rescue the others from the dungeons. The Doctor, Enkidu, En-Gula, and Ninani return to the Temple of Ishtar, but are discovered by the Goddess, who was expecting this. As Ishtar prepares to consume the Doctor's mind, an explosion rocks the temple. Ace has returned, via a small flying craft piloted by Utnapishtim, along with Gilgamesh and Avram. The Doctor realises that Ishtar has rigged a cobalt bomb, powerful enough to destroy the planet, to explode in the event of her death. As Ace and the others attempt to destroy Ishtar, the Doctor is forced to try to save her. When Ishar attempts to consume Ace's mind, she instead downloads the computer virus that Utnapishtim had implanted within all of their minds. The Doctor explains the bomb to Utnapishtim and that they have to return to the TARDIS at once. Back on the TARDIS, the Doctor tries to find a way to keep Ishtar's mental processes going after the virus destroys her body. Using the TARDIS telepathic circuits, the Doctor mentally summons the Third Doctor to assist with the technical aspects of the plan. The Doctor takes one of Ishtar's mental implants and wires it into the TARDIS telepathic circuits, in effect downloading Ishtar into the TARDIS, keeping her alive long enough to disarm the bomb. Unfortunately, when the Doctor tries to delete Ishtar's mind from the TARDIS circuitry, he discovers that she is no longer there. Adapting to the TARDIS, Ishtar uses its systems as a replacement body. The Doctor tricks her into moving her consciousness into the TARDIS's secondary control room, which he then jettisons into the Time Vortex, certain that the forces of the Vortex will destroy her. The Doctor returns everyone to Mesopotamia and assists Utnapishtim in repairing his ship, making sure that the people of Anu can find an uninhabited planet to call their new home. Back in the TARDIS, the Doctor notices the Time Path Indicator is active, which means that they are being followed by another time machine. Ishtar, having assimilated TARDIS components into herself, has become the Timewyrm, and she now has the power to travel through time and space. The Doctor attempts to time ram the creature, but the Timewyrm evades his trap and escapes. Using the Time Path Indicator, the Doctor is able to track the Timewyrm to London in the 20th century, and the Doctor and Ace set out to destroy their new enemy. Controversy Due to the presence of a topless teenage prostitute in the novel, Timewyrm: Genesys was the subject of some coverage in UK tabloids. References External links The Cloister Library – Timewyrm: Genesys 1991 British novels 1991 science fiction novels Holography in fiction Novels by John Peel Seventh Doctor novels Virgin New Adventures Works based on the Epic of Gilgamesh

4625872

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%2855636%29%202002%20TX300

(55636) 2002 TX300

is a bright Kuiper belt object in the outer Solar System estimated to be about in diameter. It is a large member of the Haumea family that was discovered on 15 October 2002 by the Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking (NEAT) program. is a classical Kuiper belt object with an absolute magnitude between that of 50000 Quaoar and 20000 Varuna. has the most eccentric and inclined orbit of the three. A variability of the visual brightness was also detected which could fit to 7.9 h or 15.8 h rotational period (the distinction between single or double-peaked curved could not be made with confidence). The changes in brightness are quite close to the error margin and could also be due to an irregular shape. Orbit The adjacent diagrams show polar and ecliptic views of the orbits of the two cubewanos. The perihelia (q) and the aphelia (Q) are marked with the dates of passage. The present positions (as of April 2006) are marked with the spheres, illustrating relative sizes and differences in albedo (both objects appear neutral in the visible spectrum). is classified as a classical Kuiper belt object and follows an orbit very similar to that of : highly inclined (26°) and moderately eccentric (e ~0.12), far from Neptune's perturbations (perihelion at ~37 AU). Other mid-sized cubewanos follow similar orbits as well, notably and . It has been observed 303 times, with precovery images back to 1954. Size In 2004, the non-detection of IR thermal emissions put an upper limit of on its diameter and a lower limit on the albedo of 0.19. In a 2006 International Astronomical Union press release discussing the IAU 2006 draft proposal, a diagram suggested that could be as large as 50000 Quaoar. The artist's diagram was largely based on the concept that , with an absolute magnitude (H) of 3.4, may have an albedo around 0.08, which resulted in an overly optimistic diameter estimate of around . In 2007, measurements by the Spitzer Space Telescope showed that it may be less than in diameter. In 2008, it was considered to be a dwarf planet based on its lightcurve amplitude and the assumption that it was larger than in diameter. Because is a member of the Haumea family, it is assumed to have an albedo of around 0.7, which would result in a diameter of about . occulted a relatively bright apparent magnitude 13.1 star in the constellation of Andromeda on 9 October 2009. This event was visible from Australia, possibly New Zealand, and the southern United States and Mexico. The RA and declination for this event was about 00 37 13.64 +28 22 23.2.: detailed information for observers was made available. The occultation produced a diameter of , suggesting an albedo of about 0.88. Mike Brown lists it as a possible dwarf planet. Surface The spectrum in the visible and near-infrared rages is very similar to that of Charon, characterized by neutral to blue slope (1%/1000 Å) with deep (60%) water absorption bands at 1.5 and 2.0 μm. Mineralogical analysis indicates a substantial fraction of large ice (H2O) particles. The signal-to-noise ratio of the observations was insufficient to differentiate between amorphous or crystalline ice (crystalline ice was reported on Charon, Quaoar and Haumea). The proportion of highly processed organic materials (tholins), typically present on numerous trans-Neptunian objects, is very low. As suggested by Licandro et al. 2006, this lack of irradiated mantle suggest either a recent collision or comet activity. Origin Common physical characteristics with the dwarf planet Haumea together with similar orbit elements led to suggestion that was a member of the Haumean collisional family. The object, together with other members of the family (, , and ), would be created from ice mantle ejected from the proto-Haumea as result of a collision with another large (around ) body. References External links AstDys orbital elements Haumea family Classical Kuiper belt objects Discoveries by NEAT Objects observed by stellar occultation 20021015

4628624

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fumifugium

Fumifugium

Fumifugium, or, is a pamphlet published in London, 1661 (see 1661 in literature), by John Evelyn. It is one of the earliest known works on air pollution and is still considered a significant contribution to the literature on the subject over three and half centuries after its publication. The letter was specifically addressed to King Charles II of England and discussed problems with the capital's air pollution dating back to medieval times. Evelyn refers to Greek philosophers, who once believed that air was the principle of the earth and primary substance of the soul up until the time that air pollution began to cause ill health. Background Evelyn was appointed to the newly formed Royal Society, and both Society and pamphlet are celebrated in the 1663 "Ballad of Gresham College". Stanza 23 (given here in modern English) describes how Evelyn [...] shows that 'tis the sea-coal smoke That always London does environ, Which does our lungs and spirits choke, Our hanging spoil, and rust our iron. Let none at Fumifuge be scoffing Who heard at Church our Sunday's coughing. The sea-coal to which Evelyn referred was appropriately named because it came by sea from Newcastle. When burned, it gave off a terrible smell because of high amounts of sulfur in its composition. When burned the sea coal released sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, nitric oxide, soot, and particulates of organic matter into the atmosphere. The pamphlet suggests that burning wood, particularly aromatic woods, will be less harmful to the lungs and recommends relocating some of London's more polluting industries outside the capital, in particular lime-burning and brewing. Structure and contents Fumifugium is broken down into three parts which explain the problem, a proposed solution, and a way of improvement upon the air in London. Part One The first part of Evelyn's letter describes the details of the problem with the air pollution in London and its effect on human health. He explains that many philosophers believed that air was the most important for the soul and the Earth for we benefit it and therefore it is necessary for survival by the respiration of clean air through the lungs: It is not without some considerable Analogy, that sundry of the Philosophers have named the Aer the Vehicle of the Soul, as well as of the Earth, and this frail Vessell of ours which contains it; since we all of us finde the benefit which we derive from it. Not onely for the necessity of common Respiration and functions of the Organs; but likewise for the use of Spirits and Primigene Humors, which doe most neerly approach that Divine particle. Part Two The second part of the letter proposes a solution to the current air pollution problem by recommending a removal of all pollution trades from the capital. Part Three In the third part of Evelyn's letter, he describes ways of improving the air quality of London by way of plantations, sweet-smelling flowers and vegetation placed near the city. Significance Fumifugium is considered a milestone in the development of air pollution science. In The Big Smoke: A History of Air Pollution in London Since Medieval Times, Peter Brimblecombe comments that "Fumifugium... is an outstanding work and cannot fail to remind the reader that [Evelyn] was a man with extraordinary powers of perception". William M. Cavert, a historian of early British environmental history, considers it "... the most extensive, sophisticated, and ambitious analysis of urban air pollution produced anywhere during the early modern period". Todd Andrew Borlik, a specialist in Renaissance literature, argues that Fumifugium is "one of the first sustained polemics against air pollution, and not only diagnoses the crisis but also formulates a sophisticated urban planning scheme to combat it". On the other hand, Mark Jenner, a specialist in early modern history, has argued that it is "too simple" to consider Fumifugium "as a precocious example of environmental concern"; in his view: "Evelyn's celebrated account of London smoke pollution in the 1660s, has consistently been misinterpreted... it was a highly political text centrally concerned with Charles II's recent Restoration". According to Jenner, Fumifugium is not only "suffused with politicized symbolism" and "closely related to the panegyric literature of the early 1660s", but also part of a growing scientific interest in the study of air, including the work of Robert Boyle and Nathaniel Henshaw. See also Smog References Further reading Text of Fumifugium. Internet Archive. Retrieved 7 January 2010. HTML text of Fumifugium. Retrieved 7 March 2010. 1661 works Air pollution Air pollution in the United Kingdom Charles II of England Pamphlets Panegyrics Scientific documents Environmental history of the United Kingdom

4636083

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat%20of%20arms%20of%20Sofia

Coat of arms of Sofia

The coat of arms of Sofia consists of a shield divided into four. The image of the Saint Sofia Church which gave the name to the city takes up the upper left quarter (as seen from behind the shield) and a humanized picture of the ancient town of Serdica taken from an antique coin is located to the right (again, heraldry reverses right and left as it is from the point of view of someone holding the shield from behind). At lower left is a golden baldachin and a statue of Apollo Medicus representing the mineral springs around the city, while the lower right quarter is reserved for Vitosha, the mountain at the foot of which Sofia is located. In the middle is another, smaller shield (inescutcheon), with a lion rampant, a traditional Bulgarian symbol. A mural crown tops the larger shield. At the bottom is the city motto, "Расте, но не старѣе" – Raste, no ne staree ("Ever Growing, Never Aging"). History The coat of arms was created for the Paris Exposition Universelle in 1900 by a team of three noted Bulgarian artists and specialists – Haralampi Tachev, Ivan Mrkvička and Václav Dobruský, as the city was required by the executive committee to submit a symbol in order to take part. The then-Knyaz Ferdinand approved the coat of arms and it was sent to Paris. Changes were made to the original image of the coat of arms in the following years. The motto was first added in 1911 by Haralampi Tachev, who also gave it a final touch by adding a band with the motto and laurel twigs in 1928. A simplified version was suggested by Boris Angelushev in the 1940s, with Ivan Radoev adding a five-pointed star and additionally stylizing the coat of arms in 1974. The 1928 edition of Haralampi Tachev returned into official use after the democratic changes. Gallery References External links The act restoring the original coat of arms in 1991 The Birth of the Coat of Arms, excerpt from a publication by Haralampi Tachev. Sofia municipal website, accessed 5 April 2006. 1928 establishments in Bulgaria Sofia Culture in Sofia History of Sofia Sofia Sofia Sofia

4637196

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace%20Monument

Peace Monument

The Peace Monument, also known as the Naval Monument or Civil War Sailors Monument, stands on the grounds of the United States Capitol in Peace Circle at First Street, N.W., and Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D.C. The 44 foot (13.4 m) high white marble memorial was erected from 1877 to 1878 in commemoration of the naval deaths at sea during the American Civil War. Today it stands as part of a three-part sculptural group including the James A. Garfield Monument and the Ulysses S. Grant Memorial. Description At the top of the monument, facing west, stand two classically robed female figures. Grief holds her covered face against the shoulder of History and weeps in mourning. History holds a stylus and a tablet that was inscribed "They died that their country might live." Below Grief and History, another life-size classical female figure represents Victory, holding high a laurel wreath and carrying an oak branch, signifying strength. Below her are the infant Mars, the god of war, and the infant Neptune, god of the sea. The shaft of the monument is decorated with wreaths, ribbons, and scallop shells. Facing the Capitol is Peace, a classical figure draped from the waist down and holding an olive sprig. Below her are symbols of peace and industry. A dove, now missing and not documented in any known photographs, once nested upon a sheaf of wheat in a grouping of a cornucopia, turned earth, and a sickle resting across a sword. Opposite, the symbols of science, literature, and art (including an angle, a gear, a book, and a pair of dividers) signify the progress of civilization that peace makes possible. At the corners of the monument, four marble globes are visually supported by massive brackets. The fountain below, with a jet on each side, empties into a quatrefoil-shaped basin. Its inscription reads: The sculptor of the monument was Franklin Simmons (1839–1913), who was born in Maine, where he became known for his portrait busts. He worked in Rome after 1867, when he received the commission for a statue of Roger Williams for the National Statuary Hall collection. In all, he created four statues and three busts for the United States Capitol. The Peace Monument is an example of his idealized neoclassical sculpture. The Peace Monument, first intended for Annapolis, Maryland, was conceived by Admiral David Dixon Porter, who had commanded fleets of gunboats and troop transports during the war. Porter first sketched a simple design depicting Grief and History; beginning in 1865, he raised funds from private contributors, and the monument was commissioned from Simmons in 1871. The sculptor carved the Carrara marble in Rome and worked directly with Admiral Porter on many changes in the designs, including the addition of other figures. The architectural part of the monument was made by the Bonanni Brothers of Carrara, Italy, under Simmons's direction. The marble pieces were shipped to Washington in 1876; in 1877 the monument was erected on the base of Maine blue granite (designed by Architect of the Capitol Edward Clark); and the final figure, Peace, was set into place in January 1878. The statue is a contributing monument to the Civil War Monuments in Washington, DC, of the National Register of Historic Places. The monument came back into public consciousness when it became the place where on January 6, 2021 the Capitol rioters were arrested. Gallery See also List of public art in Washington, D.C., Ward 6 Navy – Merchant Marine Memorial United States Navy Memorial References External links Peace Monument, Architect of the Capitol Allegorical sculptures in Washington, D.C. Military monuments and memorials in the United States United States Capitol grounds United States Navy 1878 sculptures Marble sculptures in Washington, D.C. Peace monuments and memorials Historic district contributing properties in Washington, D.C. 1878 establishments in Washington, D.C. Civil War Monuments in Washington, D.C. Outdoor sculptures in Washington, D.C. Sculptures of Neptune Capitol Hill Mars (mythology) in art Sculptures of seashells Sculptures of books

4640562

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20core

Solar core

The core of the Sun is considered to extend from the center to about 0.2 to 0.25 of solar radius (). It is the hottest part of the Sun and of the Solar System. It has a density of 150000 kg/m3 (150 g/cm3) at the center, and a temperature of 15 million kelvins (15 million degrees Celsius, 27 million degrees Fahrenheit). The core is made of hot, dense plasma (ions and electrons), at a pressure estimated at (or 265 billion bar or 3.84 trillion psi at the center. Due to fusion, the composition of the solar plasma drops from 68 to 70% hydrogen by mass at the outer core, to 34% hydrogen at the core/Sun center. The core inside 20% of the solar radius contains 34% of the Sun's mass, but only 0.8% of the Sun's volume. Inside 24% of the solar radius is the core which generates 99% of the fusion power of the Sun. There are two distinct reactions in which four hydrogen nuclei may eventually result in one helium nucleus: the proton–proton chain reaction – which is responsible for most of the Sun's released energy – and the CNO cycle. Composition The Sun at the photosphere is about 73–74% by mass hydrogen the rest being primarily helium, which is the same composition as the atmosphere of Jupiter, and the primordial composition of gases at the earliest star formation after the Big Bang. However, as depth into the Sun increases, fusion decreases the fraction of hydrogen. Traveling inward, hydrogen mass fraction starts to decrease rapidly after the core radius has been reached (it is still about 70% at a radius equal to 25% of the Sun's radius) and inside this, the hydrogen fraction drops rapidly as the core is traversed, until it reaches a low of about 33% hydrogen, at the Sun's center (radius zero). All but 2% of the remaining plasma mass (i.e., 65%) is helium. Energy conversion Approximately 3.7 protons (hydrogen nuclei), or roughly 600 million tonnes of hydrogen, are converted into helium nuclei every second releasing energy at a rate of 3.86 joules per second. The core produces almost all of the Sun's heat via fusion: the rest of the star is heated by the outward transfer of heat from the core. The energy produced by fusion in the core, except a small part carried out by neutrinos, must travel through many successive layers to the solar photosphere before it escapes into space as sunlight, or else as kinetic or thermal energy of massive particles. The energy conversion per unit time (power) of fusion in the core varies with distance from the solar center. At the center of the Sun, fusion power is estimated by models to be about 276.5 watts/m3. Despite its intense temperature, the peak power generating density of the core overall is similar to an active compost heap, and is lower than the power density produced by the metabolism of an adult human. The Sun is much hotter than a compost heap due to the Sun's enormous volume and limited thermal conductivity. The low power outputs occurring inside the fusion core of the Sun may also be surprising, considering the large power which might be predicted by a simple application of the Stefan–Boltzmann law for temperatures of 10 to 15 million kelvins. However, layers of the Sun are radiating to outer layers only slightly lower in temperature, and it is this difference in radiation powers between layers which determines net power generation and transfer in the solar core. At 19% of the solar radius, near the edge of the core, temperatures are about 10 million kelvins and fusion power density is 6.9 W/m3, which is about 2.5% of the maximum value at the solar center. The density here is about 40 g/cm3, or about 27% of that at the center. Some 91% of the solar energy is produced within this radius. Within 24% of the radius (the outer "core" by some definitions), 99% of the Sun's power is produced. Beyond 30% of the solar radius, where temperature is 7 million K and density has fallen to 10 g/cm3 the rate of fusion is almost nil. There are two distinct reactions in which 4 H nuclei may eventually result in one He nucleus: "proton–proton chain reaction" and the "CNO cycle" (see below). Proton–proton chain reaction The first reaction in which 4 H nuclei may eventually result in one He nucleus, known as the proton–proton chain reaction, is: This reaction sequence is thought to be the most important one in the solar core. The characteristic time for the first reaction is about one billion years even at the high densities and temperatures of the core, due to the necessity for the weak force to cause beta decay before the nucleons can adhere (which rarely happens in the time they tunnel toward each other, to be close enough to do so). The time that deuterium and helium-3 in the next reactions last, by contrast, are only about 4 seconds and 400 years. These later reactions proceed via the nuclear force and are thus much faster. The total energy released by these reactions in turning 4 hydrogen atoms into 1 helium atom is 26.7 MeV. CNO cycle The second reaction sequence, in which 4 H nuclei may eventually result in one He nucleus, is called the CNO cycle and generates less than 10% of the total solar energy. This involves carbon atoms which are not consumed in the overall process. The details of this CNO cycle are as follows: This process can be further understood by the picture on the right, starting from the top in clockwise direction. Equilibrium The rate of nuclear fusion depends strongly on density. Therefore, the fusion rate in the core is in a self-correcting equilibrium: a slightly higher rate of fusion would cause the core to heat up more and expand slightly against the weight of the outer layers. This would reduce the fusion rate and correct the perturbation; and a slightly lower rate would cause the core to cool and shrink slightly, increasing the fusion rate and again reverting it to its present level. However the Sun gradually becomes hotter during its time on the main sequence, because the helium atoms in the core are denser than the hydrogen atoms they were fused from. This increases the gravitational pressure on the core which is resisted by a gradual increase in the rate at which fusion occurs. This process speeds up over time as the core gradually becomes denser. It is estimated that the Sun has become 30% brighter in the last four and a half billion years and will continue to increase in brightness by 1% every 100 million years. Energy transfer The high-energy photons (gamma rays) released in fusion reactions take indirect paths to the Sun's surface. According to current models, random scattering from free electrons in the solar radiative zone (the zone within 75% of the solar radius, where heat transfer is by radiation) sets the photon diffusion time scale (or "photon travel time") from the core to the outer edge of the radiative zone at about 170,000 years. From there they cross into the convective zone (the remaining 25% of distance from the Sun's center), where the dominant transfer process changes to convection, and the speed at which heat moves outward becomes considerably faster. In the process of heat transfer from core to photosphere, each gamma photon in the Sun's core is converted during scattering into several million visible light photons before escaping into space. Neutrinos are also released by the fusion reactions in the core, but unlike photons they very rarely interact with matter, so almost all are able to escape the Sun immediately. For many years measurements of the number of neutrinos produced in the Sun were much lower than theories predicted, a problem which was recently resolved through a better understanding of neutrino oscillation. See also Active region Stellar core References External links Animated explanation of the core of the Sun (University of South Wales). Core of the Sun (University of South Wales). Animated explanation of the temperature and density of the core of the Sun (University of South Wales). Sun

4648967

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo%208%20Genesis%20reading

Apollo 8 Genesis reading

On Christmas Eve, December 24, 1968, the crew of Apollo 8 read from the Book of Genesis as they orbited the Moon. Astronauts Bill Anders, Jim Lovell, and Frank Borman, the first humans to travel to the Moon, recited verses 1 through 10 of the Genesis creation narrative from the King James Bible. Anders read verses 1–4, Lovell verses 5–8, and Borman read verses 9 and 10. Drafting Borman felt that his initial attempts to draft something appropriate sounded too much like an apology for the United States involvement in the Vietnam War, and Joseph Laitin of the Bureau of the Budget (now the Office of Management and Budget) was brought in to assist. Laitin himself had the same problem; his initial drafts centered on the concept of peace on Earth, which felt inappropriate in light of the ongoing war effort, and he began looking through the New Testament to find a good connection between the Christmas season and the biblical accounts of the birth of Jesus. The suggestion to instead look to the Old Testament and use the beginning of Genesis came from Christine Laitin, Joseph Laitin's wife. The text was printed on fire-proof paper and included in the mission flight plan. Transcript Bill Anders We are now approaching lunar sunrise, and for all the people back on Earth, the crew of Apollo 8 has a message that we would like to send to you. In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters.And God said, Let there be light: and there was light.And God saw the light, that it was good: and God divided the light from the darkness. Jim Lovell And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the evening and the morning were the first day.And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters.And God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament: and it was so.And God called the firmament Heaven. And the evening and the morning were the second day. Frank Borman And God said, Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together unto one place, and let the dry land appear: and it was so.And God called the dry land Earth; and the gathering together of the waters called he Seas: and God saw that it was good. And from the crew of Apollo 8, we close with good night, good luck, a Merry Christmas – and God bless all of you, all of you on the good Earth. Lawsuit Madalyn Murray O'Hair, founder of American Atheists, responded by suing the United States government, alleging violations of the First Amendment. The suit was filed in the United States District Court for the Western District of Texas. It was submitted to a three-judge panel, which concluded that the case was not a three-judge matter, and dismissed the case for failure to state a cause of action. The direct appeal to the Supreme Court was dismissed for lack of jurisdiction. Another appeal was heard before the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals, which affirmed the trial court's dismissal per curiam. The Supreme Court declined to review the case. Artifacts The page of the flight plan with the Genesis passage is on display at the Adler Planetarium in Chicago, on loan from Lovell. In 2018 it was displayed in the National Cathedral in Washington, DC for the fiftieth anniversary of the flight. In popular culture Art, entertainment, and media Music and spoken word Mike Oldfield used a part of the reading of Bill Anders in the first and second song of his 1994 album The Songs of Distant Earth. The Israeli psychedelic trance group Astral Projection used a sample of the recording on their 1995 track "Let There Be Light". Christian rock group Brave Saint Saturn sampled the recording in their song "Under Bridges", from the 2000 album So Far from Home. The East-German alternative rock band Down Below samples the recording at the beginning of their song "How To Die In Space", from the 2004 album Silent Wings: Eternity. Michael Jackson used the ending part of the Apollo 8 Genesis on his song "HIStory" from his album HIStory: Past, Present and Future, Book I (1995). The group MGMT used the verses read by Borman as a sample in the song "Come On Christmas", from the 2005 album Climbing To New Lows. The progressive rock band Arena used excerpts of this broadcast in the song "Purgatory Road" from the 2005 Pepper's Ghost album. The Swedish progressive rock band Moon Safari used the first two sentences of Bill Anders' part on their song "Moonwalk". The European electronic duo VNV Nation used a sample of the recording on "Genesis", a song from their 2002 album, Futureperfect. The Dutch DJ Bakermat used the opening verse of the audio in his 2013 single "Uitzicht". Electronic music duo W&W used an excerpt of Anders' verse in their 2013 song "Lift Off". Television In the 1995 Space: Above and Beyond episode "The River of Stars," the Apollo 8 recording is played for the 58th "Wildcards" Squadron. The entire reading is reproduced verbatim in the "1968" episode of the 1998 HBO TV miniseries From the Earth to the Moon. An excerpt from James Lovell's section of the reading was used in the 2017 episode "Freedom & Whisky" of the Starz series Outlander (season 3, episode 5). Postage stamp In 1969, the United States Postal Service issued a postage stamp (Scott # 1371) to commemorate the Apollo 8 mission and the reading. Notes External links Genesis reading from Apollo 8 Apollo 8 Astronomical controversies Book of Genesis 1968 in spaceflight Christianity-related controversies History of television December 1968 events Articles containing video clips William Anders Frank Borman Jim Lovell Genesis 1 Reading of religious texts King James Version

4649281

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay%20owl

Bay owl

The bay owls (Phodilus) are a genus of Old World barn-owls. The defining characteristics of bay owls are their smaller bodies, in comparison to other barn owls, and their U- or V-shaped faces. These owls can be found in South to Southeast Asia within forest and grassland ecosystems. Taxonomy and systematics The genus Phodilus was erected by the French zoologist Boho Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire in 1830. Some taxonomists place two species in the genus, while others include three. The name is from the Ancient Greek phōs for "light" or "daylight" and deilos for "timid" or "cowardly". Most classification schemes recognize three extant species in this genus: The Itombwe owl (T. prigoginei) was formerly classified in this genus as the Congo bay owl, but morphological evidence suggests that it is a member of the genus Tyto. Description Although bay owls are typically smaller, they bear resemblances to other barn owls. Other characteristics of the bay owl are groupings of feathers that resemble ears, and a divided face disk. Bay owls have also been attributed with U-or V-shaped faces. Their wings are rounded and their tail is chestnut-colored, with a few narrow, dark bars.  Their tarsi, or leg/foot bones, are relatively short and fully feathered to the joint. Their toes are yellowish-brown with pale claws. Their throat has a creamy color and their underparts are often a pale yellowish-brown, with speckles of blackish-brown coloring. Distribution and habitat The bay owl can be found in regions from India to Southeast Asia and Indonesia. It is uncertain where the ancestors of these avians lived as the phylogeny of all species of bay owls has not been analyzed. These owls can be found in both forests and grasslands, but are fairly scattered in their distribution. However, their primary habitat is within dense evergreen forests, where the owls may roost during the day in the opening of tree trunks or branches sheltered by palm tree leaves. They are often found roosting no more than 2 meters off the ground. They are most vulnerable in this state and not very alert. References Further reading Bruce, M. D. (1999): Family Tytonidae (Barn-owls). In: del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A. & Sargatal, J. (eds): Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 5: Barn-owls to Hummingbirds: 34–75, plates 1–3. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. External links Tropics Taxa named by Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire

4649758

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20Bushby

Karl Bushby

Karl Bushby (born 30 March 1969) is a British ex-paratrooper, walking adventurer and author, currently attempting to be the first person to completely walk an unbroken path around the world. Bushby's trek is known as the Goliath Expedition. Early life Bushby was born 30 March 1969 in Hull, England. He attended a local comprehensive school and joined the British Army at the age of 16. Bushby served with the 3rd Battalion The Parachute Regiment for 11 years. Goliath Expedition The Goliath Expedition is Bushby's attempt to walk around the world "with unbroken footsteps", from Punta Arenas, Chile, to his home in Hull, England. He began his journey on 1 November 1998 and originally expected to finish the over- trek in eight years, though numerous delays meant it has not yet been completed. Bushby set off from Punta Arenas, Chile, on 1 November 1998, and had completed over as of 2006, walking through South, Central, and North America. With over to walk, and maintaining his current speed, he then estimated he would return home to Hull by 2012. In March 2006, Bushby and French adventurer Dimitri Kieffer crossed the Bering Strait on foot, having to take a roundabout 14-day route across a frozen section to cross the wide strait from Alaska to Siberia. They were detained by Russian border troop officers while they were crossing the Russian border near the Chukotkan village of Uelen, for not entering Russia at a correct port of entry. They were threatened with being banned from Russia, which would stop the journey. It was announced on 5 May 2006 that the Russian appeal court had upheld Bushby's application and his walk would continue. This was reported to be the result of consultation between John Prescott, the then British Deputy Prime Minister (and MP in Bushby's home town of Hull), and Roman Abramovich, the then Governor of Chukotka. On 16 March 2007, it was announced that Bushby had obtained the required permission from the Russian authorities, and began to prepare for the second half of his Goliath Expedition. Bushby would walk the first leg of this stage to Yakutsk, along with Kieffer. He had a struggle with the Russian authorities to get a visa and permit (the entire area is a military area, and a special visit permit is needed). During 2007, he managed to walk more than from Uelen to Dvoynoye (not far from Bilibino), returning to Alaska when his visa ran out in November. In 2008 he only walked for three weeks, reaching Bilibino. He started very late, since the visa approval was delayed, and when the snow disappeared in May he could not continue because the area is filled with swamps and rivers, impossible to penetrate on foot when not frozen. He was only allowed to be in Russia for 90 days out of every 180 days per visa, and had to leave the country before each visa expires. From late 2008 to 2010, he spent his time in Mexico for cost reasons and was unable to travel to Russia. This was both because of trouble getting a visa and permits, and because of financial trouble; Bushby lost several of his sponsors as a result of the financial crisis of 2007–2008. After Bushby secured new sponsors in 2010, the Russian government issued him another visa, and he resumed walking across Russia in the spring of 2011. In addition to the 90-day time restraint imposed by Russian visas, Bushby was hampered by the tundra conditions. Because his route took him through an area that can only be traveled on foot via frozen rivers and ice roads, he could only walk during the late winter and early spring. On 25 April 2011, after walking approximately , Bushby reached the town of Srednekolymsk, completing his leg for 2011. Beginning his 2012 leg, he only needed to travel an additional before reaching improved roads, meaning his travel would only be limited by the Russian visa rules. On 12 April 2012, Bushby reported on his site that the Russian authorities had denied him a visa for 2012. In March 2013, Russia banned Bushby from re-entering Russia for five years. Bushby walked over from Los Angeles to Washington, D.C. His destination was the Russian Embassy. At the end of the adventure, Bushby's visa ban was overturned and he was granted a letter of invitation from the Russian government. He was granted a visa in 2014, at the embassy, marking the end of his year long journey. Bushby crossed the Russia-Mongolia border in 2017, and on 8 August 2017 he was in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Bushby crossed into Uzbekistan early in June 2019, reaching the border between Turkmenistan and Iran a few months later where the voyage is currently on pause due to visa issues, and the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Giant Steps Bushby wrote a book about his walk titled Giant Steps, first published in 2005. The latest edition (2007) includes events up to 31 March 2006, and his Bering Strait crossing. The book and the Bering Strait crossing also inspired a board game called Ice Flow. See also List of pedestrian circumnavigators References Notes Bibliography Bushby, Karl. Giant Steps. Sphere. (2nd ed.; 2007) External links Goliath Expedition home page Goliath Expedition blog, 2009-2010 Latest update on Karl Bushby 2012 Interview with Karl Bushby 2011 Alone Around the World A long distance radio interview with Karl Bushby at Podstantsiya.ru WideWorld Article Odyssey XXI, one man’s 15 year trek across the globe Men's Journal Article 1969 births Living people British Parachute Regiment soldiers Pedestrian circumnavigators of the globe Walkers of the United Kingdom Military personnel from Kingston upon Hull

4661151

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonda%20%28rocket%29

Sonda (rocket)

Sonda ("Probe" in English) is a family of Brazilian-built sounding rockets which serves as an R&D path to the VLS () orbital rocket. Launches started in 1965 and continue to this day. Launch sites include Wallops Island, Andoya, Kiruna, Natal, Alcântara, Cassino and SvalRak. Sonda I The Sonda I is a two stage rocket (S10-1 + S-10-2 rocket stages) with a maximum flight altitude of 65 km, a liftoff thrust of 27 kN a total mass of 100 kg, a diameter of 11 cm and a length of 4.5 metres. It was launched 9 times between 1965 and 1966. Sonda II The Sonda II is a single stage rocket (S-20 rocket stage) with a maximum flight altitude of 180 km, a Liftoff Thrust of 36.00 kN, a total mass of 400 kg, a core Diameter of 0.30 m and a total Length of 5.60 m. It was launched 7 times between 1990 and 1996. Sonda III Sonda III is a two stage rocket available in three versions, the Sonda III (S30 + S-20 rocket stages), the Sonda III M1 (S30 + S-23 rocket stages) and the Sonda IIIA (S30 + S33 rocket stages). The first two versions rockets have a maximum flight altitude of 600 km, a liftoff Thrust of 102.00 kN, a diameter of 0.30 m and a length of 8.00 m. However Sonda 3 weighs 1500 kg while Sonda 3 M1 weighs 1400 kg at launch. It was launched 27 times between 1976 and 2002. Sonda IV Sonda IV is a two stage rocket (S30 + S-43 rocket stages) with a maximum flight altitude of 800 km, a liftoff Thrust of 203.00 kN, a total Mass of 7200 kg, a diameter of 1.01 m and a length of 11.00 m. It was launched 7 times between 1984 and 1990. Image gallery References External links The Brazilian Sounding Rocket VSB-30: meeting the Brazilian Space Program and COPUOS objectives Sonda rocket family Sounding rockets of Brazil Rockets and missiles Space program of Brazil

4662630

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tundra%20orbit

Tundra orbit

A Tundra orbit () is a highly elliptical geosynchronous orbit with a high inclination (approximately 63.4°), an orbital period of one sidereal day, and a typical eccentricity between 0.2 and 0.3. A satellite placed in this orbit spends most of its time over a chosen area of the Earth, a phenomenon known as apogee dwell, which makes them particularly well suited for communications satellites serving high-latitude regions. The ground track of a satellite in a Tundra orbit is a closed figure 8 with a smaller loop over either the northern or southern hemisphere. This differentiates them from Molniya orbits designed to service high-latitude regions, which have the same inclination but half the period and do not loiter over a single region. Uses Tundra and Molniya orbits are used to provide high-latitude users with higher elevation angles than a geostationary orbit. This is desirable as broadcasting to these latitudes from a geostationary orbit (above the Earth's equator) requires considerable power due to the low elevation angles, and the extra distance and atmospheric attenuation that comes with it. Sites located above 81° latitude are unable to view geocentric satellites at all, and as a rule of thumb, elevation angles of less than 10° can cause problems, depending on the communications frequency. Highly elliptical orbits provide an alternative to geostationary ones, as they remain over their desired high-latitude regions for long periods of time at the apogee. Their convenience is mitigated by cost, however: two satellites are required to provide continuous coverage from a Tundra orbit (three from a Molniya orbit). A ground station receiving data from a satellite constellation in a highly elliptical orbit must periodically switch between satellites and deal with varying signal strengths, latency and Doppler shifts as the satellite's range changes throughout its orbit. These changes are less pronounced for satellites in a Tundra orbit, given their increased distance from the surface, making tracking and communication more efficient. Additionally, unlike the Molniya orbit, a satellite in a Tundra orbit avoids passing through the Van Allen belts. Despite these advantages the Tundra orbit is used less often than a Molniya orbit in part due to the higher launch energy required. Proposed uses In 2017 the ESA Space Debris office released a paper proposing that a Tundra-like orbit be used as a disposal orbit for old high-inclination geosynchronous satellites, as opposed to traditional graveyard orbits. Properties A typical Tundra orbit has the following properties: Inclination: 63.4° Argument of perigee: 270° Period: 1436 minutes Eccentricity: 0.24–0.4 Semi-major axis: Orbital inclination In general, the oblateness of the Earth perturbs a satellite's argument of perigee () such that it gradually changes with time. If we only consider the first-order coefficient , the perigee will change according to equation , unless it is constantly corrected with station-keeping thruster burns. where is the orbital inclination, is the eccentricity, is mean motion in degrees per day, is the perturbing factor, is the radius of the Earth, is the semimajor axis, and is in degrees per day. To avoid this expenditure of fuel, the Tundra orbit uses an inclination of 63.4°, for which the factor is zero, so that there is no change in the position of perigee over time. This is called the critical inclination, and an orbit designed in this manner is called a frozen orbit. Argument of perigee An argument of perigee of 270° places apogee at the northernmost point of the orbit. An argument of perigee of 90° would likewise serve the high southern latitudes. An argument of perigee of 0° or 180° would cause the satellite to dwell over the equator, but there would be little point to this as this could be better done with a conventional geostationary orbit. Period The period of one sidereal day ensures that the satellites follows the same ground track over time. This is controlled by the semi-major axis of the orbit. Eccentricity The eccentricity is chosen for the dwell time required, and changes the shape of the ground track. A Tundra orbit generally has an eccentricity of about 0.2; one with an eccentricity of about 0.4, changing the ground track from a figure 8 to a teardrop, is called a Supertundra orbit. Semi-major axis The exact height of a satellite in a Tundra orbit varies between missions, but a typical orbit will have a perigee of approximately and an apogee of , for a semi-major axis of . Spacecraft using Tundra orbits From 2000 to 2016, Sirius Satellite Radio, now part of Sirius XM Holdings, operated a constellation of three satellites in Tundra orbits for satellite radio. The RAAN and mean anomaly of each satellite were offset by 120° so that when one satellite moved out of position, another had passed perigee and was ready to take over. The constellation was developed to better reach consumers in far northern latitudes, reduce the impact of urban canyons and required only 130 repeaters compared to 800 for a geostationary system. After Sirius' merger with XM it changed the design and orbit of the FM-6 replacement satellite from a tundra to a geostationary one. This supplemented the already geostationary FM-5 (launched 2009), and in 2016 Sirius discontinued broadcasting from tundra orbits. The Sirius satellites were the only commercial satellites to use a Tundra orbit. The Japanese Quasi-Zenith Satellite System uses a geosynchronous orbit similar to a Tundra orbit, but with an inclination of only 43°. It includes four satellites following the same ground track. It was tested from 2010 and became fully operational in November 2018. Proposed systems The Tundra orbit has been considered for use by the ESA's Archimedes project, a broadcasting system proposed in the 1990s. See also Elliptic orbit List of orbits Molniya orbit References Earth orbits Satellite broadcasting

4665377

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rampart%20crater

Rampart crater

Rampart craters are a specific type of impact crater which are accompanied by distinctive fluidized ejecta features found mainly on Mars. Only one example is known on Earth, the Nördlinger Ries impact structure in Germany. A rampart crater displays an ejecta with a low ridge along its edge. Usually, rampart craters show a lobate outer margin, as if material moved along the surface, rather than flying up and down in a ballistic trajectory. The flows sometimes are diverted around small obstacles, instead of falling on them. The ejecta look as if they move as a mudflow. Some of the shapes of rampart craters can be duplicated by shooting projectiles into mud. Although rampart craters can be found all over Mars, the smaller ones are only found in the high latitudes where ice is predicted to be close to the surface. It seems that the impact has to be powerful enough to penetrate to the level of the subsurface ice. Since ice is thought to be close to the surface in latitudes far from the equator, it does not take a large impact to reach the ice level. Based on images from the Viking program in the 1970s, it is generally accepted that rampart craters are evidence of ice or liquid water beneath the surface of Mars. The impact melts or boils the water in the subsurface producing a distinctive pattern of material surrounding the crater. Ryan Schwegman described double layered ejecta (DLE) craters as showing two distinct layers of ejecta that appear to have been put in place as a mobile, ground-hugging flow. His measurements suggest that ejecta mobility (the distance ejecta travels from the crater rim) typically goes up with increasing latitude and may reflect ice concentration. That is the higher the latitude, the greater the ice content. The lobateness (curved shape of the perimeter of ejecta) usually goes down with increasing latitude. Furthermore, DLEs on sedimentary ground seem to display higher ejecta mobility than those on volcanic surfaces. A detailed discussion of various kinds of Martian craters, including double-layer ejecta craters (rampart craters) can be found in a 2014 paper by David Weiss and James Head. Single-layered ejecta craters Single-layered ejecta craters are one type of rampart crater. They have one ejecta lobe that extends 1 to 1.5 crater radii from the rim of the crater. They have an average diameter of 10 km. Although present at all latitudes, they are most common near the equator. Their average size increases the more distant from the equator. It has been suggested that these types of craters are produced by impact into icy ground. Specifically, it is an impact that does not go entirely through the icy layer. The increase in size away from the equator is explained by a possible greater thickness in the icy layer away from the equator. Double and multiple layered ejecta craters Another type of rampart crater is called a double-layered ejecta (DLE) crater. It displays two lobes of ejecta. Related to these are (MLE) craters that have more than 2 or more layers of ejecta. They are larger than single layered ejecta craters, having an average diameter of 22 km. Their ejecta are about 2.2 radii from the crater rim. They are more concentrated near the equator (mostly between 40 degrees from the equator). Evidence leads researchers to believe that they result from an impact that goes through an icy layer and into a rocky layer. There may be more of them closer to the equator because the icy layer is not as thick there; hence more impacts will penetrate all the way through the icy layer and into the rocky layer. They are larger at all latitudes than single layer ejecta craters. The icy layer has been called by different names: cryosphere, permafrost, and ice-cemented cryosphere. Researchers have analyzed the distribution of both of these craters to determine the thickness of an icy layer that may surround the total surface of Mars. The depth of a crater has been found to be about one tenth of its diameter. So by measuring the diameter, the depth can be easily found. They mapped the position and size of all of these craters and then determined the maximum size of single-layered craters and the smallest size for multiple-layered craters for each latitude. Remember the single-layered ejecta crater does not penetrate the icy layer, but the multiple-layered does. An average of those should give the thickness of the icy layer. From such an analysis, they determined that the icy layer or cryosphere varies from about 1.3 km (equator) to 3.3 km (poles). This represents a great deal of frozen water. It would be equal to 200 meters of water spread over the entire planet, if one assumes 20% pore space. The Phoenix lander confirmed the existence of large amounts of water ice in the northern regions of Mars. This finding was predicted by theory and was measured from orbit by the Mars Odyssey instruments, so the idea that rampart crater size shows the depth to ice was confirmed by other space probes. The image below from the Phoenix lander shows ice that was exposed by the descent engines. They are normally small craters found in the far north or south parts of the planet Pancake craters In the Mariner and Viking mission a type of crater was found that was called a "pancake crater." It is similar to a rampart crater, but does not have a rampart. The ejecta is flat along its whole area, like a pancake. Under higher resolutions it resembles a double-layer crater that has degraded. These craters are found in the same latitudes as double-layer craters (40–65 degrees). It has been suggested that they are just the inner layer of a double-layer crater in which the outer, thin layer has eroded. Craters classified as pancakes in Viking images, turned out to be double-layer craters when seen at higher resolutions by later spacecraft. See also Geology of Mars Impact event LARLE crater Martian Craters Pedestal crater Peak ring (crater) References External links The Role of Subsurface Ice in Rampart Crater Formation Viking 1 orbiter image, 1977 Ages and Onset Diameters of Rampart Craters In Equatorial Regions on Mars. Craters as seen by Viking Planetary science Geology of Mars

4669752

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gadani

Gadani

Gadani () is a coastal town of Hub District located in the southern part of Balochistan along the Arabian Sea, Pakistan. and is just a 1-hour drive away from Karachi. The population of Gadani was estimated to be around 10,000 in 2005. More than 97% of the population is Muslim with a small Hindu minority. The majority of the population speaks Balochi, Brahui languages and there is a small Lasi speaking minority. They belong to the Sanghur, Kurd, Sajdi, Muhammad Hasni, Gurginari and Bezinjo tribes. Many prehistoric shell-midden sites were discovered along the shores of a small bay, near Gadani. They are characterized of heaps of fragments of marine and mangrove shells among which are flint and jasper tools and stone querns. The first radiocarbon dates obtained from these middens indicate they result from the activity of people who settled along the coast both during the seventh and the fifth millennium before present. There is a feasibility study ongoing for establishing a port in Gadani. Gadani Power Project Gadani Power Project (also known as Pakistan Power Park) was a proposed energy complex in Gadani, Balochistan, Pakistan under the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor. In August 2013, Pakistani Government announced to establish ten coal power plants of total capacity of 6,600 MW with technical and financial assistance mostly from China. China is providing with debt to cover 85% of the project cost, while the rest of the finances would be arranged by the government of Pakistan. The total cost of the project is PKR 144.6 billion. 10×660 MW coal based power plants at Gadani Energy Park will be constructed, while Chinese have agreed to invest in 6 projects, two projects will be constructed by ANC Dubai and one project has been initiated by Government of Pakistan. The Ciner Group of Turkey has agreed to immediately start work on a 660 MW coal power plant at Gadani. Gadani Ship Breaking Yard Gadani ship-breaking yard is the world's third largest ship breaking yard located across a long beachfront at Gadani, Pakistan. The yard consists of 132 ship-breaking plots. It is located about northwest of Karachi, the largest city of Pakistan. In 1980s, Gadani was the largest ship-breaking yard in the world, with more than 30,000 direct employees. However, competition from newer facilities in Alang, India and Chittagong, Bangladesh resulted in a significant reduction in output, with Gadani, today, producing less than one fifth of the scrap it produced in the 1980s. The recent reduction in taxes on scrap metal has led to a modest resurgence of output at Gadani, which now employs around 6,000 workers. Over one million tons of steel is salvaged per year, and much of it is sold domestically. In the 2009-2010 fiscal year, a record 107 ships, with a combined light displacement tonnage (LDT) of 852,022 tons, were broken at Gadani whereas in the previous 2008-2009 fiscal year, 86 ships, with a combined LDT of 778,598 tons, were turned into scrap. It currently has an annual capacity of breaking up to 125 ships of all sizes, including supertankers, with a combined LDT of 1,000,000 tons. See also Gadani Beach Gadani Fish Harbour Gadani ship-breaking yard Gadani Industrial Estate References External links Hub District Government Archaeological sites in Balochistan, Pakistan Populated coastal places in Pakistan Populated places in Hub District Port cities and towns in Pakistan Indian Ocean Arabian Sea

4669944

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar%20station

Lunar station

Often called lunar mansion, a lunar station or lunar house is a segment of the ecliptic through which the Moon passes in its orbit around the Earth. The concept was used by several ancient cultures as part of their calendrical system. Stations in different cultures In general, though not always, the zodiac is divided into 27 or 28 segments relative to the vernal equinox point or the fixed stars – one for each day of the lunar month. (A sidereal month lasts about  days.) The Moon's position is charted with respect to those fixed segments. Since the Moon's position at any given stage will vary according to Earth's position in its own orbit, lunar stations are an effective system for keeping track of the passage of seasons. Various cultures have used sets of lunar stations astrologically; for example, the Jyotisha astrological nakshatras of Hindu culture, the Arabic manzils (manazil al-qamar), the Twenty-Eight Mansions of Chinese astronomy, and the 36 decans of Egyptian astronomy. Western astrology does not use stations, but each zodiac sign covers two or three. The Chinese system groups houses into four groups related to the seasons. The concept of lunar stations is thought to originate in Babylonian astronomy. Tester (1987) explains that they appear in Hellenistic astrology in the 2nd-century list of fixed stars in the Katarchai by Maximus, the Arabic lists by Alchandri and Ibn Abī l-Rijāl, and a similar Coptic list with Greek names. Tester believes that though they were known in the Vedic period of India, all lists "seem to betray" transmission through Greek sources. Though pointing out that the Babylonians had well established lunar groupings by the 6th century BC, he also notes that the 28 station "scheme was derived via Egyptian magic by the linking of the lists of lucky and unlucky days of the lunar month with the hemerologies and with the zodiac." Chinese 宿 xiù The 28 Lunar Mansions, or more precisely lodgings () are the Chinese and East Asian form of the lunar stations. They can be considered as the equivalent to the Western zodiac, although the 28 stations reflect the movement of the Moon through a sidereal month rather than the Sun in a tropical year. In their final form, they embodied the astral forms of the Four Symbols: two real and two legendary animals important in traditional Chinese culture, such as feng shui. Indian nakshatra The nakshatras (or more precisely nákṣatra, lit. "stars") are the Indian form of lunar stations. They usually number 27 but sometimes 28 and their names are related to the most prominent constellations in each sector. According to the modern tradition they start from a point on the ecliptic precisely opposite the star Spica (Sanskrit: Chitrā) and develop eastwards but the oldest traditional method was to use the Vernal Equinox point as the starting point of Ashvini Nakshatra. In classical Hindu mythology, the creation of the nakshatras is attributed to Daksha. They were wives of Chandra, the moon god. The nakshatras of traditional bhartiya astronomy are based on a list of 28 asterisms found in the Atharvaveda (AVŚ 19.7) and also in the Shatapatha Brahmana. The first astronomical text that lists them is the Vedanga Jyotisha. The stations are important parts of Indian astrology. Arabic manzil In the traditional Arabic astrological system, the new moon was seen to move through 28 distinct manāzil (singular: manzil "house") during the normal solar year, each manzil lasting, therefore, for about 13 days. One or more manazil were then grouped into a nawaa (plural anwaa) which were tied to a given weather pattern. In other words, the yearly pattern was divided in the following manner: A year was divided into anwaa, each of which was made up of one more manazil, which were associated with a dominant star or constellation. These stars and constellations were sometimes, but not always, connected in some way to constellations in the Zodiac. Moreover, as the anwaa repeat on a regular, solar cycle, they can be correlated to fixed points on the Gregorian calendar. The following table is a breakdown of the anwaa and their position on the Gregorian calendar. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Manzil!! Associated Nawaa!! Significant Stars/Constellations !! Zodiac Constellations!! Begins on |- | Sharaṭān || Al Thurayyā || Sheratan in Aries || -- || 17 May |- | Pleione || Al Thurayyā || Pleione in the Pleiades|| --|| 31 May |- | Al-Buṭayn || Al Thurayyā || Albatain in the Pleiades|| --|| 13 June |- | Al-Tuwaibe' || Al Tuwaibe' || Aldebaran || --|| 26 June |- | Al-Haq‘ah || Al Jawzaa/Gemini || Haq‘ah in Orion || Gemini || 9 July |- | Al-Han‘ah || Al Jawzaa/Gemini|| Alhena in Gemini|| Gemini || 22 July |- | Murzim || Murzim || Canis Major || --|| 4 August |- | An Nathra || Kulaibain || An Nathra || --|| 17 August |- | Alterf || Suhail|| Alterf in Leo || Leo || 30 August |- | Dschuba || Suhail || Dschuba || Scorpio || 12 September |- | Azzubra || Suhail || || || 25 September |- | Assarfa || Suhail || || || 8 October |- | Auva || Al Wasm || Auva || Virgo || 21 October |- | Simak || Al Wasm || Spica || -- || 3 November |- | Syrma || Al Wasm || || -- || 16 November |- | Az Zubana || Al Wasm || Acuben || Cancer || 29 November |- | Akleel "The Crown" || Murabaania || Corona Borealis || -- || 12 December |- | Qalb al Akraab || Murabaania || Antares || Scorpio || 25 December |- | Shaula || Murabaania || Shaula || Scorpio || 3 January |- | Al Naam || Ash Shabt || Ascella and Nunki || Sagittarius || 16 January |- | Al Baldaah || Ash Shabt ||Pi Saggitari||Sagittarius|| 29 January |- | Saad Al Thabib || The Three Saads || Beta Capricorni || Capricornus|| 11 February |- | Saad Balaa || The Three Saads || Saad Balaa || --|| 26 February |- | Saad Al Saud || The Three Saads || Saadalsud || Aquarius || 11 March |- | Saad Al Akhbia || Hameemain || Sadachbia || -- || 24 March |- | Almuqaddam || Hameemain || Almuqaddam || -- || 6 April |- | Al Muakhar || Al Tharaeen || Pollux || Gemini and Aquarius (in the Arab system) || 19 April |- | Alrescha || Al Tharaeen|| Alrescha || Gemini and Aquarius (in the Arab system)|| 2 May |- |} The dates above are approximate; notice that there are 2 days missing from a solar year in the table above. {| class="wikitable" |+Lunar station - [Manazilu ʾl-Qamar منازل القمر] according to Islamic astronomical system (Arab sources) ! rowspan="2" |Station ! rowspan="2" |Period(approx. by Arab sources) ! rowspan="2" |Starting degreeof Sidereal Zodiac sign ! rowspan="2" |Constellation ! rowspan="2" |ʿAmal عمل(lit. "doer"/ "doer of the deed")(The Angel ruling the Manazil and ḥurūf) ! rowspan="2" |Lunar station[Manazilu ʾl-Qamar منازل القمر] | colspan="4" |Arabic alphabet [ḥurūf حروف] - Abjadī Order |- ! Transliteration ! Letter Name ! Letter Value(Abjad numerals) ! Letter(Isolated Form) |- | 1st | 5 April | 0° 0' | rowspan="3" | Aries |ʾIsrāfīl إِسْرَافِيل |ʾAsh-Sharaṭayn / ʾAn-Naṭḥ ﭐلْشَّرَطَيْن \ ﭐلْنّطح |ā / ’ (also ʾ ) |alif |1 |أ |- |2nd |18 April |12° 51' |Jibrāʾīl جِبْرَائِيل |ʾAl-Buṭayn ﭐلْبُطَيْن |b |bāʾ |2 |ب |- |3rd |1 May |25° 43' |Kalkāʾīl* كلكائيل |ʾAth-Thurayyā ﭐلْثُّرَيَّا |j (also ǧ, g) |jīm |3 |ج |- |4th |14 May |8° 34' | rowspan="2" |Taurus |Dardāʾīl* دردَائِيل |ʾAd-Dabarān ﭐلْدَّبَرَان |d |dāl |4 |د |- |5th |27 May |21° 26' |Dūryāʾīl* دوريَائِيل |ʾAl-Haqʿah ﭐلْهَقْعَة |h |hāʾ |5 |ه |- |6th |9 June |4° 17' | rowspan="2" |Gemini |Fatmāʾīl* فتمَائِيل |ʾAl-Hanʿah ﭐلْهَنْعَة |w / ū |wāw |6 |و |- |7th |22 June |17° 9' |Sharfāʾīl* شرفَائِيل |ʾAdh-Dhirāʿ ﭐلْذِّرَاعْ |z |zayn / zāy |7 |ز |- |8th |5 July |0° 0' | rowspan="3" |Cancer |Tankafīl* تنكفيل |ʾAn-Nathrah ﭐلْنَّثْرَة |ḥ |ḥāʾ |8 |ح |- |9th |18 July |12° 51' |ʾIsmāʿīl* إِسْمَاعِيل |ʾAṭ-Ṭarf / ʾAṭ-Ṭarfah ﭐلْطَّرْف \ ﭐلْطَّرْفَة |ṭ |ṭāʾ |9 |ط |- |10th |31 July |25° 43' |Kīṭāʾīl* كيطَائِيل |ʾAl-Jab'hah ﭐلْجَبْهَة |y , ī / ā , ỳ |yāʾ / alif maqṣūrah |10 |ي \ ى |- |11th |14 Aug |8° 34' | rowspan="2" |Leo بُرْجُ ﭐلْأَسَد |Ḥarūzāʾīl* حروزَائِيل |ʾAz-Zubrah / ʾAl-Kharātān ﭐلْزُّبْرَة \ ﭐلْخرَاتَان |k |kāf |20 |ك |- |12th |27 Aug |21° 26' |Ṭāṭāʾīl* طَاطَائِيل |ʾAṣ-Ṣarfah ﭐلْصَّرْفَة |l |lām |30 |ل |- |13th |9 September |4° 17' | rowspan="2" |Virgo |Rūmāʾīl* رومَائِيل |ʾAl-ʿAwwāʾ ﭐلْعَوَّاء |m |mīm |40 |م |- |14th |22 September |17° 9' |Ḥūlāʾīl* حولَائِيل |ʾAs-Simāk / ʾAs-Simāku ʾl-Aʿzil ﭐلْسِّمَاك \ ﭐلْسِّمَاكُ ﭐلأَعْزِل |n |nūn |50 |ن |- |15th |5 October |0° 0' | rowspan="3" |Libra |Hamrākīl* همرَاكيل |ʾAl-Ghafr ﭐلْغَفْر |s |sīn |60 |س |- |16th |18 October |12° 51' |Lūmāʾīl* لومَائِيل |ʾAz-Zubānā ﭐلْزُّبَانَى |‘ (also ʿ ) |ayn |70 |ع |- |17th |31 October |25° 43' |Sarhamākīl* سرهمَاكيل |ʾAl-Iklīl / ʾAl-Iklīlu ʾl-Jab'hah ﭐلْإِكْلِيل \ ﭐلْإِكْلِيلُ ﭐلْجَبْهَة |f |fā |80 |ف |- |18th |13 November |8° 34' | rowspan="2" |Scorpio |ʾAhjamāʾīl* / ʾUhjamāʾīl* اهجمَائِيل |ʾAl-Qalb ﭐلْقَلْب |ṣ |ṣād |90 |ص |- |19th |26 November |21° 26' |ʿAṭrāʾīl* / ʿUṭrāʾīl* عطرَائِيل |ʾAsh-Shawlah ﭐلْشَّوْلَة |q |qāf |100 |ق |- |20th |9 December |4° 17' | rowspan="2" |Sagittarius Burju ʾl-Qaws |ʾ'Amwākīl* / ʾUmwākīl*امواكيل |ʾAn-Naʿāʾamﭐلْنَّعَائَم|r |rāʾ |200 |ر |- |21st |22 December |17° 9' |Hamrāʾīl* همرَائِيل |ʾAl-Baldahﭐلْبَلْدَة|sh (also š) |shīn |300 |ش |- |22nd |4 January |0° 0' | rowspan="3" |Capricorn |ʿAzrāʾīl عَزْرَائِيل |Saʿdu ʾdh-Dhābiḥ / ʾAdh-Dhābiḥسَعْدُ ﭐلْذَّابِح \ ﭐلْذَّابِح |t |tāʾ |400 |ت |- |23rd |17 January |12° 51' |Mīkāʾīl مِيكَائِيل |Saʿdu ʾl-Bulʿa / ʾAl-Bulʿaسَعْدُ ﭐلْبُلْعَ \ ﭐلْبُلْعَ |th (also ṯ) |thāʾ |500 |ث |- |24th |30 January |25° 43' |Mahkāʾīl* مهكَائِيل |Saʿdu ʾs-Suʿud / ʾAs-Suʿudسَعْدُ ﭐلْسُّعُود \ ﭐلْسُّعُود |kh (also ḫ, ḵ) |khāʾ |600 |خ |- |25th |12 February |8° 34' | rowspan="2" |Aquarius |ʾAhrāfīl* / ʾUhrāfīl*اهرَافِيل|Saʿdu ʾl-ʾAkhbiyyah / ʾAl-ʾAkhbiyyahسَعْدُ ﭐلْأَخْبِيَّه \ ﭐلْأَخْبِيَّه |dh (also ḏ) |dhāl |700 |ذ |- |26th |25 February |21° 26' |ʿAṭkāʾīl* / ʿUṭkāʾīl* عطكَائِيل |Farghu ʾd-Dalū ʾl-Muqdim / ʾAl-Muqdimفَرْغُ ﭐلْدَّلُو ﭐلْمُقْدِم \ ﭐلْمُقْدِم |ḍ |ḍād |800 |ض |- |27th |10 March |4° 17' | rowspan="2" |Pisces |Tūrāʾīl* تورَائِيل |Farghu ʾd-Dalū ʾl-Muʾkhar / ʾAl-Muʾkharفَرْغُ ﭐلْدَّلُو ﭐلْمُؤْخَر \ ﭐلْمُؤْخَر |ẓ |ẓāʾ |900 |ظ |- |28th |23 March |17° 9' |Lūkhāʾīl* لوخَائِيل |ʾAr-Rashāʾ / Buṭnu ʾl-Ḥūt'ﭐلْرَّشَاء \ بَطْنُ ﭐلْحُوت |gh (also ġ, ḡ) |ghayn |1000 |غ |} Also, the following letters has no alphabetical value in numerology of the Abjad system known as "Ilm ul-ʾAdad". Notes of the table above in accordance to strict traditional Arab Islamic astronomy and theology: (1) the Arabic alphabet resonates the alphabetical value in numerology of the Abjad system known as "Ilm ul-ʾAdad".(2) the ʿAmal (Islamic view of angels, equivalent to rank of the "Watcher" or "Guardian Angel") is the Angel that rules the corresponding Arabic alphabet (rhythm of the alphabet in numerology of the Abjad system), manazilu-l-qamar (lunar houses) and constellations (i.e. zodiac signs). Generally speaking, the four Archangels in Islam ace Jibrāʼīl, Mīkāʼīl, ʼIsrāfīl and Malaku-l-Maut (ʿAzrāʼīl). (3) the alphabetical orders follows the sequence of the original abjadī'' order (أَبْجَدِي), used for lettering, derives from the order of the Phoenician alphabet, and is therefore similar to the order of other Phoenician-derived alphabets, such as the Hebrew alphabet. In this order, letters are also used as numbers, Abjad numerals, and possess the same alphanumeric code/cipher as Hebrew gematria and Greek isopsephy. (4) those angel name with an "asterisk" needs source citation upon Arabic transliteration but the given is the closest pronunciation based upon uttering the consonants. A few of the numerical values are different in the alternative Abjad order. For four Persian letters these values are used: {| class="wikitable" !Transliteration !Letter Name !Letter Name in Persian !Letter Value !Letter(Isolation Form) |- |p |pe [Voiceless bilabial stop p] |په |2 |پ |- |č / ch |če / che [Voiceless palato-alveolar affricate t͡ʃ] |چه |3 |چ |- |ž / zh |že / zhe [Voiced palato-alveolar sibilant ʒ] |ژه |7 |ژ |- |g |gāf [Voiced velar stop ɡ] |گاف |20 |گ |} See also Astrotheology Footnotes References External links Astrology Orbit of the Moon

4670441

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudanian%20savanna

Sudanian savanna

The Sudanian savanna or Sudan region is a broad belt of tropical savanna that runs east and west across the African continent, from the Ethiopian Highlands in the east to the Atlantic Ocean in the west. It represents the central bioregion within the broader tropical savanna biome of the Afrotropical realm. The Sahel acacia savanna, a belt of drier grasslands, lies to the north, forming a transition zone between the Sudanian savanna and the Sahara Desert phytochorion. To the Sudan's south, the more humid forest-savanna mosaic forms a transition zone between the Sudanian savanna and the Guineo-Congolian forests that lie nearer the equator. Etymology The name Sudan derives , referring to Africa south of the Sahel. Physiographic province The Sudanian savanna is one of the three distinct physiographic provinces of the larger African Massive division. Physiography divides this province into three distinct physiographic sections, the Niger Basin, the Lake Chad Basin, and the Middle Nile Basin. Ecoregions The World Wide Fund for Nature divides the Sudanian savanna bioregion into two ecoregions, separated by the Mandara Plateau: The East Sudanian savanna in East and Central Africa extends westwards from the western lowlands of Ethiopia to the Mandara Mountains. The West Sudanian savanna in West Africa runs from eastern Nigeria to The Gambia West Coast. Geography The area is predominantly a plateau with river valleys of the White Nile, Chad and Niger. It extends over in a band several hundred kilometers wide across Africa. It stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in Senegal, through southern Mali (known as French Sudan when it was a French colony), Burkina Faso, southern Niger, northern Ghana, northern Nigeria, southern Chad, Central African Republic, southern Sudan and South Sudan to the Ethiopian Highlands. Climate Average annual temperatures range from . Average temperatures in the coldest months are above and above in the hottest months. Daily temperatures fluctuate by up to . The summer monsoon brings rain from the equator. Annual precipitation ranges from in the north to in the south. During the dry winter season (Köppen Aw), the Harmattan northeasterly wind is bringing hot and dry air from the Sahara. Flora The Sudanian savanna is characterized by the coexistence of trees and grasses. Dominant tree species are often belonging to the Combretaceae and Caesalpinioideae; some Acacia species are also important. The dominant grass species are usually Andropogoneae, especially the genera Andropogon and Hyparrhenia, on shallow soils also Loudetia and Aristida. Much of the Sudanian savanna region is used in the form of parklands, where useful trees, such as shea, baobab, locust-bean tree and others are spared from cutting, while sorghum, maize, millet or other crops are cultivated beneath. Fauna Many large mammals are native to the Sudanian savanna, including African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana), northern giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), giant eland (Taurotragus derbianus derbianus), roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus), African buffalo (Syncerus caffer brachyceros), lion (Panthera leo), leopard (Panthera pardus) cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), and African wild dog (Lycaon pictus). Most large mammals are now very limited in range and numbers. Land use The Sudanian savanna is used by both pastoralists and farmers. Cattle are predominantly the livestock kept, but in some areas, sheep and goats are also kept. The main crops grown are sorghum and millet which are suited to the low levels of rainfall. With increasing levels of drought since the 1970s, pastoralists have needed to move southwards to search for grazing areas and have come into conflict with more settled agriculturalists. History According to some modern historians, of all the regions of Africa, western Sudan "is the one that has seen the longest development of agriculture, of markets and long-distance trade, and of complex political systems." It is also the first region "south of the Sahara where African Islam took root and flowered." Middle Ages Its medieval history is marked by the caravan trade. The sultanates of eastern Sudan were Darfur, Bagirmi, Sennar and Wadai. In central Sudan, Kanem–Bornu Empire and the Hausa Kingdoms. To the west were Wagadou, Manden, Songhay and the Mossi. Later, the Fula people spread to a wide area. During the colonization period, French Sudan was created and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan was named after the present Sudanese state. Slave trade Early on in the first millennium, many people from the Sudan were used as "a steady steam of slaves for the Mediterranean world" in the Saharan slave trade. With the arrival of the Portuguese in the fifteenth century, "people were directed to the Atlantic slave trade," totaling over a thousand years for the Saharan and four centuries for the Atlantic trades. As a result, slavery critically shaped the institutions and systems of the Sudan. The Portuguese first arrived at Senegambia and found that slavery was "well established" in the region, used to "feed the courts of coastal kings as it was used in the medieval empires of the interior." Between the process of capture, enslavement, and "incorporation into a new community, the slave had neither rights nor any social identity." As a result, the identity of people who were enslaved "came from membership in a corporate group, usually based on kinship." Modern During the period of European colonization, French Sudan was created in the area that would become Mali and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan was formed in what would become the present Sudanese and South Sudanese states. See also Neolithic Subpluvial — ancient Green Sahara Sub-Saharan Africa Jews of Bilad el-Sudan References Afrotropical ecoregions Ecoregions of Africa Grasslands of Africa Ecoregions of Cameroon Ecoregions of Chad Ecoregions of Ethiopia Ecoregions of Nigeria Ecoregions of Sudan Physiographic provinces Regions of Africa Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands Sub-Saharan Africa Geography of Burkina Faso Geography of Chad Geography of Mali Geography of Niger Geography of Nigeria Geography of Senegal Geography of South Sudan Geography of Sudan Historical regions

4671299

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quindar%20tones

Quindar tones

Quindar tones, most often referred to as the "beeps" that were heard during the American Apollo space missions, were a means by which remote transmitters on Earth were turned on and off so that the capsule communicator (CapCom) could communicate with the crews of the spacecraft. It was a means of in-band signaling to simulate the action of the push-to-talk and release-to-listen (often referred to as PTT) button commonly found on two-way radio systems and walkie-talkies. Rationale When Mission Control (in Houston, Texas) wanted to talk to astronauts, the capsule communicator (CapCom) pushed a button (push-to-talk, or PTT) that turned on the transmitter, then spoke, then released the button. When the transmitter is local, this is easy to arrange: the transmitter is connected directly to the PTT button. But to stay in continuous contact with the astronauts as they orbit the Earth, or travel to the Moon, NASA had to use tracking stations all around the world, switching from one station to the next as needed. To get the voice signal to the remote transmitter, dedicated telephone lines connected these stations to Houston. NASA could either build a parallel system for operating the transmitters—one line to carry the audio and another to carry the control signal for the PTT button (out-of-band signalling)—or combine these two systems together, using audio tones to turn the transmitter on and off. Since dedicated phone lines were a very expensive measure at the time, NASA chose the use of tones to reduce the operating cost of the network. The same system was used in Project Gemini and was still in use with half duplex UHF Space Shuttle communications for transmitter radio frequency keying. With modern digital communication systems, Quindar tones are no longer necessary because a single communication line can simultaneously carry multiple communication channels in the form of data comprising both speech and signaling (the PTT signal), as well as video and telemetry. However, Quindar tones can still be heard in missions like Crew-1 when the astronauts communicate with mission control. Implementation The Quindar system, named after its manufacturer, Quindar Electronics, Inc., used two tones, both being pure sine waves that were 250ms long. The "intro tone" was generated at 2,525 Hz and signaled the "key down" key-press of the PTT button and unmuted the audio. The "outro tone" was slightly lower at 2,475 Hz and signalled the release of the PTT button and muted the audio. The two tones were generated by special equipment located at Mission Control, and they were decoded by detectors located at the various tracking stations. The selection of the tones allowed them to travel in the same passband as a human voice, which has a range from roughly 300 Hz to 3,000 Hz. Common misconceptions Two common misconceptions surround Quindar tones. The first is that one tone came from Earth and the other from the transmitters used by the astronauts while in space. This confusion exists because many ground-to-space transmissions were initiated by Mission Control and responded to by the astronauts. In this sequence, the CapCom would press the PTT, which would send the intro tone, and then speak. When finished speaking, the CapCom would release the PTT, which would send the outro tone, and the astronauts would respond to Mission Control. Therefore, those transmissions would consist of a "beep" (PTT press) followed by Houston talking, then another "beep" (PTT release) and finally the voice of the astronauts. Another misconception about Quindar tones is that they were designed to signal the end of a transmission, similar to a courtesy tone used on many half-duplex radio repeaters. Although the astronauts may have secondarily used the Quindar outro tone to know when the CAPCOM had started/stopped speaking, no equivalent existed for Mission Control because the astronauts keyed their transmissions locally (inside the spacecraft) using either a PTT or VOX, neither of which required Quindar tones. Additionally, separate radio frequencies allowed both Houston and the astronauts to talk simultaneously if they wished and thereby made a courtesy tone as a way to minimize the possibility of both of them speaking at the same time unnecessary. Origin of the name Quindar tones were named for the manufacturer Quindar Electronics, Inc., now QEI (https://www.qeiinc.com/). Glen Swanson, historian at NASA's Johnson Space Center who edited the Mission Transcript Collection, and Steve Schindler, an engineer with voice systems engineering at NASA's Kennedy Space Center, confirmed the origin of the name. "Quindar tones, named after the manufacturer of the tone generation and detection equipment, are actually used to turn on and off, or 'key', the remote transmitters at the various tracking stations." References External links Apollo Lunar Surface Journal: Quindar Tones The Mission Transcript Collection Apollo 17 Onboard Voice Recorder Transcripts Mission Transcripts - Apollo 17 Communications Transcripts: Mercury Through Apollo QEI, Inc. (formerly, Quindar Electronics Incorporated) Science Friday podcast Apollo program Telephony signals

4672978

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danilova%20%28crater%29

Danilova (crater)

Danilova is an impact crater on Venus. It is named after the Russian ballet dancer Maria Danilova. External links Image References Impact craters on Venus

4673091

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De%20Lalande%20%28crater%29

De Lalande (crater)

De Lalande is a multiring impact crater on Venus. It has a diameter of and wall width of . The crater has an outer rim but no peak and is in close proximity to the volcano Gula Mons. Namesake The de Lalande crater is named after the French astronomer Marie-Jeanne de Lalande (1768-1832), illegitimate daughter of astronomer Joseph Jerome de Lalande (1732-1807). References Impact craters on Venus

4673245

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra%20%28crater%29

Cleopatra (crater)

Cleopatra, initially called Cleopatra Patera, is an impact crater on Venus, in Maxwell Montes. Cleopatra is a double-ring impact basin about in diameter and deep. A steep-walled, winding channel a few kilometers wide (Anuket Vallis) breaks through the rough terrain surrounding the crater rim. A large amount of lava originating in Cleopatra flowed through this channel and filled valleys in Fortuna Tessera. Cleopatra is superimposed on the structures of Maxwell Montes and appears to be undeformed, indicating that Cleopatra is relatively young. The crater is named after Egyptian queen Cleopatra VII. Patera geologic description Cleopatra is a nearly circular double ring crater on Venus, 2–3 km deep and 105 km in diameter. A patera is geologic feature defined as a crater formed by impact or volcanic origin. Cleopatra patera is unusual in that its origin was debated for twelve years. A volcanic origin initially was supported due to non-impact geologic aspects, such as having a low rim, a surrounding plains-forming unit, and a non-concentric nature of its inner basin, as well as its proximity to Maxwell Montes. However, as more recent missions to Venus improved in the clarity of topographic imagery from Arecibo radio telescope and Venera 15/16 spacecraft, the structures seen in the crater has cleared the scientific controversy and has been since identified as an impact crater. Cleopatra patera has features in that of a double ring impact crater. The crater rim is scalloped and the center of the crater is steeply slanted down to a smooth dark crater floor. A central peak is found in the center of the crater floor and outside the inner crater is masses of "coarse hummocky terrain." The plains surrounding the crater is smooth and bright, but there are some dark deposits around the topographic depressions just north of the crater. These dark deposits are interpreted to be "shock-melt material" equivalent to ejecta blanket material; however, the dark deposits to the south are "ridge slopes." The outflow of material to the right of the crater is lava flows which have spilled from the bowl shape of the crater due to the impact hitting the steep side of Maxwell Montes, occurring at impact. When the magma chamber at the floor of Cleopatra erupted, subsidence occurred explaining the large depth of the crater. Crater impact model Most large impact craters do not have a central peak, yet have sharp rims bordered by asymmetrical radar bright ejecta blankets, have multiple rims, are surrounded and partially filled by subsequent lava which creates a reduced apparent depth, have dark crater floors, and buries some ejecta. By analyzing Magellan images, Cleopatra patera's was found to be distorted in shape in that its noncircular inner ring is off center, but also that the outflow channel of lava moves from within the crater and reaches the top of the crater rim. The interiors are radar dark and smooth in comparison to the surrounding plains. From the image of Plate P-11 from Venera 15 and 16 shows that Cleopatra patera that was originally interpreted as a large caldera but has now been interpreted as a multi-ringed impact crater with a central peak. Using photogeologic analysis, the floor of the crater has a shallow central depression resulting from subsidence of uplifted mantle material from below due to "viscous relaxation". This was found in Venusian craters larger than 70 km in diameter by using altimetry data which shows surfaces with different elevations from the Magellan mission. Original volcanic model Prior to improved satellite imagery from the Magellan spacecraft mapping mission to Venus in 1994, the topography of Venus was interpreted from lower quality images received from radio telescopes and altimetric data. This data allowed for a misinterpretation of the crater; however, it is important to understand what was seen geometrically to explain why certain hypotheses withstood many years. It was found that the topographic elevation on Maxwell Montes resulted from a combination of horizontal compression and vertical crustal thickening, which in combination allowed for the lower crust to be partially melted, so long as the crustal thickness exceeds 40 km. Significant crustal thickening occurs in terrestrial orogenic belts either through obduction or isostatic subsidence as the mountain grows in height. Based on the model and the information pertinent to understanding the tectonic environment surrounding the patera, crustal anatexis is a viable model for the origin of magmatism at Cleopatra Patera. This process could be associated with other high mountain belts on Venus and with melting of pre-existing rock in the Himalayan granites. This results in the melting of the lower levels of the thickened crust and potential magmatic activity, volcanism, and caldera formation at the surface. Volcanic evidence The following evidence from Scraber et al. was the leading explanation for a volcanic origin for twelve years until Magellan imagery was returned in the early 1990s. a volcanic origin of Cleopatra patera included its association with plains forming deposit sloping away from the crater in a lava flow the depth and steepness of the walls of the crater interpreted as multiple calderas the elongation of the outer rim deposits following along the same path as the tectonic features of the area the absence of a raised highly backscattered rim deposit seen in impact craters the large depth to diameter ratio and its situation in a regional tectonic environment The best comparison to Cleopatra is the Alba Patera on Mars and Cleopatra's ring structure was intensely interpreted to link it to a volcanic origin. Peterfreund et al. and Scraber et al. described their interpretation of the rings as follows: Alba patera has a caldera of similar size to Ring B, interpreted image of rings to the right, and is surrounded by structural patterns produced by tectonic deformation (refer to previous image). Cleopatra shares commonalities with impact craters on Venus because of it radially smooth interior and rough exterior. However, the asymmetry of ring A challenges an impact hypothesis. Ring C and D represents structural areas associated with the initial crater The area within C is related to material ejected from a volcano or has been heavily fractured and deformed very differently from the surrounding terrain. Ring D has a tectonic fracture that was involved in deformation. See also Geology of Venus List of geological features on Venus Maxwell Montes Tessera (Venus) Volcanism on Venus References External links Map of the area Impact craters on Venus

4674162

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addams%20%28crater%29

Addams (crater)

Addams is a crater on Venus. It was named after Jane Addams. References Impact craters on Venus

4674242

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcott%20%28crater%29

Alcott (crater)

Alcott is an impact crater on Venus. Lava produced by a volcano at one point filled the crater and altered its rim. References Impact craters on Venus

4674276

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yablochkina%20%28crater%29

Yablochkina (crater)

Yablochkina is an impact crater on Venus. It was named after Aleksandra Yablochkina. References Impact craters on Venus

4674388

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mead%20%28crater%29

Mead (crater)

Mead is an impact crater on Venus named in honor of the cultural anthropologist Margaret Mead. Mead crater is the largest impact crater on Venus, with a diameter of 280 km (174 miles). The crater has an inner and an outer ring and a small ejecta blanket surrounding the outer ring. Mead crater is relatively shallow (likely due to viscous relaxation and infilling) and crater floor looks very similar in morphology to the surrounding plain. Mead is classified as a multi-ring crater with its innermost, concentric scarp being interpreted as the rim of the original crater cavity. No inner peak-ring of mountain massifs is observed on Mead. The presence of hummocky, radar-bright crater ejecta crossing the radar-dark floor terrace and adjacent outer rim scarp suggests that the floor terrace is probably a giant rotated block that is concentric to, but lies outside, the original crater cavity. The flat, somewhat brighter inner floor of Mead is interpreted to result from considerable infilling of the original crater cavity by impact melt and/or by volcanic lavas. To the southeast of the crater rim, emplacement of hummocky ejecta appears to have been impeded by the topography of preexisting ridges, thus suggesting a very low ground-hugging mode of deposition for this material. References External links Image of the crater at www.espacial.org. Retrieved 18 April 2016. Impact craters on Venus

4674510

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golubkina%20%28crater%29

Golubkina (crater)

Golubkina is a crater on Venus. Golubkina is characterized by terraced inner walls and a central peak, typical of large impact craters on the Earth, Moon, and Mars. The terraced inner walls form at late stages in the formation of an impact crater, due to collapse of the initial cavity formed by the meteorite impact. The central peak forms due to rebound of the inner crater floor. The smoothness of the floor may be due to pounding of volcanic lava flows in the crater floor. The rough, blocky morphology of the crater ejecta and the sharp terraced crater wall suggest that this feature is relatively young. References Impact craters on Venus

4675500

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taufa

Taufa

In Tongan mythology, Taufa was a sea god worshipped by chief Tungi of East Tongatapu and by the royal family of Tonga because he cured the Tongan king George I (ruled 1845–1893). He also protects gardens. In order for a homeowner to gain this protection, they had to braid a coconut leaf into a shark shape. Taufa is both a sea and a land god. As a sea god he appears as a shark. References R.D. Craig, Dictionary of Polynesian Mythology (Greenwood Press: New York, 1989), 267. Collocot, E. E.V. "Notes on Tongan Religion." The Journal of the Polynesian Society. N.p., n.d. Web. Tongan deities Sea and river gods Earth gods

4677415

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgynous%20Peripheral%20Attach%20System

Androgynous Peripheral Attach System

The terms Androgynous Peripheral Attach System (APAS), Androgynous Peripheral Assembly System (APAS) and Androgynous Peripheral Docking System (APDS) are used interchangeably to describe a Russian family of spacecraft docking mechanisms, and are also sometimes used as generic names for any docking system in that family. A system similar to APAS-89/95 is used by the Chinese Shenzhou spacecraft. Overview The name of the system is Russian in origin, and is an acronym, , in the Cyrillic alphabet, from the Russian (Androginno-periferiynyy agregat stykovki). The English acronym was designed to be just the same letters but in the Latin alphabet, for which the first two words are direct counterparts of those in the original. The third word in Russian comes from the German , meaning "complicated mechanism", and the last means "docking". The last two words in the English name were picked to begin with the same equivalent letters as in the Russian name. The idea behind the design is that unlike with the probe-and-drogue docking system, any APAS docking ring can mate with any other APAS docking ring; both sides are androgynous. In each docking there is an active and a passive side, but both sides can fulfill either role. There are three basic variations of the APAS system. APAS-75 Co-developed by American and Soviet engineers through a series of in-person meetings, letters and teleconferences, APAS-75 was initially planned to be used on an American mission to a Salyut space station which instead became Apollo–Soyuz. There were differences between the American and Soviet version of the docking mechanism, but they were still mechanically compatible. Early on, the Americans called the device both the International Rendezvous and Docking Mission (IRDM) Docking Mechanism and the International Docking System. The device is called the Androgynous Peripheral Docking System (APDS) in the NASA press packet for ASTP. Design Unlike previous docking systems, either APAS-75 unit could assume the active or passive role as required. For docking, the spade-shaped guides of the extended active unit (right) and the retracted passive unit (left) interacted for gross alignment. The ring holding the guides shifted to align the active unit latches with the passive unit catches. After these caught, shock absorbers dissipated residual impact energy in the American unit; mechanical attenuators served the same function on the Soviet side. The active unit then retracted to bring the docking collars together. Guides and sockets in the docking collars completed alignment. Four spring push rods drove the spacecraft apart at undocking. The Americans selected North American Rockwell to construct seven docking mechanisms (two flight, four test, and one spare). The Soviet Union built five Soyuz spacecraft that used APAS-75. The first three flew as test systems (Cosmos 638, Cosmos 672 and Soyuz 16). One was used for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, Soyuz 19 the only Soyuz to actually use the docking system, and the last one flew as Soyuz 22. On the American side the Apollo–Soyuz Docking Module carried one APAS-75 docking collar and one Apollo docking collar. Development In April 1970 NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine suggested, in an informal meeting with Russian academician Anatoli Blagonravov in New York, that the two nations cooperate on astronaut safety, including compatible docking equipment on space stations and spacecraft to permit rescue operations in space emergencies. Engineer Caldwell Johnson proposed a ring and cone system during a meeting in Moscow during October 1970. Boris N. Petrov rejected the simple adaptation of Apollo and Soyuz as a "space stunt" and had proposed developing a universal docking mechanism, Johnson suggested that the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) draw up a "design specifically adequate to requirements of a particular CSM/Salyut mission, the design being representative only of the fundamental form and function of docking gear satisfying the requirements for compatible docking system for future spacecraft." During a meeting in Houston during June 1971, Soviet docking specialist Valentin N. Bobkov indicated that the Soviets also favored some version of the double ring and cone. Bobkov illustrated through sketches that the overall diameter of the docking system could not exceed 1.3 meters, because any larger system would require a change in the launch shroud. When Johnson raised the question of altering the shroud, the Soviets stressed the major impact that such a modification would have. In addition to having to design a new shroud, they would have to test out the launch aerodynamics of the altered hardware. The Americans had hoped to argue for a larger tunnel, but such a change appeared to be too great for their counterparts. After the June meetings, Johnson had put Bill Creasy and his mechanical designers to work on the preliminary design of a docking mechanism. By the time the NASA delegation left for Moscow, Creasy's crew had designed and built a 1-meter double ring and cone docking system that had four guide fingers and attenuators on both rings, so either half could be active or passive during docking. The Structures and Mechanics Laboratory at MSC made 16-millimeter movies demonstrating this system in action, which Johnson took to Moscow in November, along with a booklet describing the system and a model of the capture latches. To Johnson's surprise, Vladimir Syromyatnikov had been working on a variation of NASA's ring and cone concept since the previous October. Instead of the four guide fingers in the American proposal, Syromyatnikov suggested three, and in lieu of hydraulic shock-absorbers, he proposed electromechanical attenuators. In essence, the Soviets had accepted the idea of using a set of intermeshing fingers to guide the two halves of the docking gear from the point of initial contact to capture. The concept of using shock absorbing attenuators on the active spacecraft's capture ring to buffer the impact of two spacecraft coming together was also acceptable. Both groups of engineers planned to retract the active half of the docking gear using an electrically powered winch to reel in a cable. Once retracted, structural or body latches would be engaged to lock the two ships together. Three basic issues had to be resolved — the number of guides, the type of attenuators, and the type of structural latches — before the design of a universal system could proceed. Johnson, Creasy, and the other engineers in the Spacecraft Design Division had wanted to use four guides because they believed that it provided the best geometry when using hydraulic attenuators. As Bill Creasy subsequently explained it, the most probable failure situation using hydraulic attenuators would be a leak that would cause one shock absorber to collapse on impact. A study of various combinations had led the MSC specialists to conclude that four guides and eight shock absorbers was the optimum design. Creasy pointed out too that the most likely trouble with an electromechanical system would be a freeze-up or binding of one of the pairs of attenuators. Thus, the Soviets had sought to minimize the number of pairs in their system for the same reason that the Americans had preferred a larger number to limit the probability of something going wrong. Since the United States had no significant engineering or hardware equity in its proposed design, and since the USSR had considerable equity in its proposed design, the Soviet design was selected as a baseline for the next phase of study. By the end of the November–December meeting, the two teams had signed a set of minutes outlining the basic concept for a universal androgynous docking system. The formal statement read, "The design concept includes a ring equipped with guides and capture latches that were located on movable rods which serve as attenuators and retracting actuators, and a docking ring on which are located peripheral mating capture latches with a docking seal." Basic information on shapes and dimensions of the guides were also included in the minutes. They were to be solid and not rodlike; as first proposed by the Soviets, and three in number. As long as the requirement for absorbing docking forces was met, each side was free to execute the actual attenuator design as it best saw fit. The Soviets planned to use an electromechanical approach designed for the Soyuz docking probe, and the Americans proposed to stick with hydraulic shock absorbers similar to those used on the Apollo probe. This proposal also called for developing docking gear that could be used in either an active or passive mode; when one ship's system was active, the other would be passive. Looking into the detailed design of the mechanism, the two sides had further agreed that the capture latches would follow the design developed at MSC and the structural latches and ring would follow the Soviet pattern. These paired sets of hooks had been successfully used on both Soyuz and Salyut. In addition, the group concurred on details regarding the alignment pins, spring thrusters (to assist in the separation of the spacecraft at undocking), and electrical connector locations. To evaluate the docking system concept and to ensure the establishment of compatibility at an early point in the development, the men planned to build a two-fifths-scale test model, the exact details of which would be decided at the next joint meeting. Upon his return to Houston, Caldwell Johnson prepared a memorandum to document some of the informal understandings reached in Moscow. He indicated that this reflected "upon the manner in which the two countries will conduct and coordinate the next phase of the engineering studies of those systems ... The understandings ... were reached more often than not outside of formal meetings, and so are not likely otherwise to be reported." For example, in the area of hatch diameter, he noted that "it became apparent from the beginning ... that a hatch diameter greater than about 800 mm could not be incorporated into the Salyut spacecraft without great difficulty," but MSC had "long since reconciled itself" to a test hatch diameter of less than 1 meter. Johnson went on to comment that "the capture ring assembly had variously been called ring and cone, double ring and cone, and ring and fingers. It was agreed henceforth to call the capture ring 'ring' and the fingers 'guides.'" Bill Creasy and several of his colleagues worked with Yevgeniy Gennadiyevich Bobrov at the drafting table to lay out these first Soviet-American engineering drawings. Larry Ratcliff drew the capture ring and guides on drafting paper, and Robert McElya supplied the details of the structural interface ring, while Bobrov prepared a similar drawing for the structural latches. T.O. Ross then took these drawings and conducted a dimensional analysis to be sure that all items were compatible. Agreement on technical specifications for the docking system cleared the way for NASA to begin discussions with Rockwell about building the docking system. In April 1972, the Soviets informed NASA that they had chosen to use a Soyuz spacecraft in place of a Salyut space station for cost and technical reasons. Final official approval of a joint docking mission came in Moscow on 24 May 1972. U.S. President Nixon and U.S.S.R. Premier Aleksey N. Kosygin signed the Agreement Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes, including development of compatible spacecraft docking systems to improve safety of manned space flight and to make joint scientific experiments possible. The first flight to test the systems was to be in 1975, with modified Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft. Beyond this mission, future crewed spacecraft of the two nations were hoped to be able to dock with each other. In July 1972, the group concentrated on spelling out more fully specifications for the docking system. Some refinements were made in the guides and other parts of the mechanism; as with the other groups, a schedule for the upcoming months was written, indicating documents to be prepared and tests to be conducted. After the team had a thorough look at the American two-fifths-scale docking system, which helped the designers discuss the operation of the mechanism and decide on refinements, they scheduled joint model tests for December. Then the engineers would be able to see just how the interfacing elements of one country's system mated with those of the other. The Soviets said they would draft the "Test Plan for Scale Models of Apollo/Soyuz Docking System" (IED 50003), while the Americans drew up the dimensions of the model and the test fixtures. Under the direction of Syromyatnikov, the Soviet team had readied their documentation in both English and Russian and had prepared their two-fifths-scale model of the docking system for the joint meeting. Some of the Americans observed that while the U.S.S.R. mechanism was more complex mechanically than the American one, it was suitable for the mission and "sophisticated" in its execution. The two sides reviewed and signed the two-fifths-model test plan and scheduled the test for December in Moscow. The Preliminary Systems Review (PSR) was planned to be a "formal configuration review ... initiated near the end of the conceptual phase, but prior to the start of detail design" work on the docking mechanism. As part of their presentation to the Preliminary Systems Review Board (the Board being the Technical Directors), Don Wade and Syromyatnikov included all the test data, specifications, and drawings for the docking system, as well as a design evaluation for the mechanism. After hearing their report, Lunney and Bushuyev felt three problem areas needed further study. First, the requirement for a spring thruster designed to help separate the two spacecraft had caught their attention, since the failure of this thruster to compress properly could prevent completion of docking. Second, Lunney and Bushuyev emphasized the importance of an indicator that would verify that the structural latches were properly in place. The American system provided information on the functioning of each latch but did not indicate that the interface seals were compressed, while the Soviet system gave data on compression of the seals but none for the latches. To assure the structural integrity of the transfer tunnel, it was important to know that all eight latches were closed. The third problem area was whether it was possible for the structural latches be inadvertently released. Bushuyev and Lunney called for a thorough re-evaluation of all these issues and advised the group to present their specific recommendations to them in December and January. The group tests of the two-fifths-scale model and the second part of the Preliminary Systems Review for the docking system was the last joint activity scheduled for 1972. The Americans arrived in Moscow on December 6 and worked through December 15. Testing the scale models occurred at the Institute of Space Research in Moscow. Tests of the full-scale Soviet and American docking systems began in Houston during October 1973. APAS-89 When the USSR started working on Mir they were also working on the Buran shuttle program. APAS-89 was envisioned to be the docking system for Buran with the Mir space station. The APAS-75 design was heavily modified. The outer diameter was reduced from 2030 mm to 1550 mm and the alignment petals were pointed inward instead of outward. This limited the internal passage diameter of the docking port to about 800 mm. The Buran shuttle was finally canceled in 1994 and never flew to the Mir space station, but Mir's Kristall module was outfitted with two APAS-89 docking mechanisms. The Mir Docking Module, basically a spacer module between Kristall and the Shuttle, also used APAS-89 on both sides. APAS-95 APAS was selected for the Shuttle-Mir program and manufactured by Russian company RKK Energiya under a $18 million contract signed in June 1993. Rockwell International, prime contractor for the Shuttle, accepted delivery of hardware from Energiya in September 1994 and integrated it onto Space Shuttles' Orbiter Docking System, an add-on that was installed in the payload bay and was originally meant for use with Space Station Freedom. Although Energia's code for the Shuttle APAS is APAS-95, it has been described as being basically the same as APAS-89. It had a mass of 286 kg. APAS-95 was selected to join the American and Russian modules on the International Space Station (ISS) and to allow the Space Shuttle to dock. The Shuttle's Orbiter Docking System remained unchanged from when it was used for the Shuttle–Mir Program in 1995. The active capture ring that extends outward from the spacecraft captured the passive mating ring on the space station's APAS-95 connection on the Pressurized Mating Adapter. The capture ring aligned them, pulled them together and deployed 12 structural hooks, latching the two systems with an airtight seal. The Pressurized Mating Adapters are permanently passive. ASA-G/ASP-G It is used only by Nauka Science (or Experiment) Airlock, to berth to Nauka forward port on 4 May 2023, 01:00 UTC during VKD-57 spacewalk. The non-androgynous berthing mechanism is a unique hybrid derivative the Russian APAS-89/APAS-95 system as it has 4 petals instead of 3 along with 12 structural hooks and is a combination of an active "probe and drogue" soft-dock mechanism on port and passive target on airlock. Images See also Space rendezvous International Docking System Standard NASA Docking System References External links Video of docking using APAS-95 Spacecraft components Spacecraft docking systems Components of the International Space Station Soviet inventions Mir Apollo–Soyuz Test Project Soviet Union–United States relations

4678280

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diomin

Diomin

Diomin is a dark fantasy role-playing game, designed by R. Hyrum Savage and published by OtherWorld Creations (OWC). The only familiar race in Diomin are the humans, who are divided into two cultures: the good-leaning "Tirasim" and the evil-leaning "Zeredites". OWC has announced plans to release Diomin material for the new version of RuneQuest, published by Mongoose Publishing. History Diomin was a fantasy setting which was originally designed for GURPS, but after starting RPG publisher OtherWorld Creations (OWC) during the d20 boom, R. Hyrum Savage and his friends Chad Cunningham and Chris Miller were convinced by the d20 licensing to convert Diomin to d20 and the company released it in 2000. OtherWorld supported Diomin with publications through 2003, but production was halted soon after with the crash of the d20 market. Savage brought back OtherWorld Creations in 2006 using another licensing opportunity similar to the OGL, and thus Diomin was brought back for the Mongoose Publishing version of the RuneQuest system, with new books that were mostly released as PDFs. Races Arak: An insular people with blue skin, black hair, and reddish eyes. Tribal and proud. Gadianti: A race of bipedal catpeople marked as jaguars or tigers. One of the two main "villain races" of Diomin (the other being the Zeredites) who obey Akish, one of Diomin's Lords of Darkness. Gnolaum: A seafaring and long-lived race whose culture resembles that of feudal Japan. Hearthom: Mysterious beings who resemble living statues (with hair). Their origins are hidden and while there are male and female Hearthom, there seems to be an utter lack of Hearthom children. Humans (see Tirasim and Zeredites) Both cultures of humans have practices that resemble those of the ancient Greeks (Tirasim) and Sumerians (Zeredites). Tirasim are descendants of the Zeredites who fled East to found a new nation at the behest of Barak, chief deity of the Warriors of Light. Zeredites were outcasts from the Arak during the Gods War and were the first humans on Diomin. Classes With the sole exception of the Rogue class, all of the core D&D base classes are modified for their niche in the d20 edition Diomin, if only in terms of cultural availability. The Paladin class receives the most in terms of game mechanic changes, followed by the Wizard. Also introduced is the Shaman class and Spirit Magic. The RuneQuest system does not use character classes. Gods The Warriors of Light - Those who serve the One Barak – God of Law, Good, Water and Protection. He is normally depicted as a tall man in fine, flowing robes, with grayish-white shoulder-length hair and blue eyes. His holy symbol is the compass and carpenters square. Ashima – Goddess of War, Law, and Strength. She is a tall woman, with raven colored hair and emerald eyes. She is always shown wearing her armor and is worshipped as the goddess of all just and honorable warriors. Her holy symbol is a shield overlaid with a sword. Chemosh – God of Knowledge, Magic, and Good. He is a man of average height with short blond hair and blue eyes. He is the god of scholars and students of the arcane. His holy symbol is an open book with a bookmark running down the left page. Sepharvaim – God of Good, Healing, and Protection. This god is always portrayed in his white robes, the hood drawn over his face. Those whose only desire is to serve the helpless, poor, needy, and good worship him. His holy symbol is a serpent entwined around a staff. The Lords of Darkness - Those who serve the Liberator Akish – Goddess of Chaos, Evil, and Destruction. She is depicted as a dangerously beautiful woman with blonde hair, green eyes, and pale skin. Among her chief worshippers, the Gadianti, she is known as “the Mother” and appears to them as a black haired Gadianti with glowing red eyes. She is the goddess of all that is evil and is the first follower that Cedron brought to his side. Her holy symbol is a hooded lantern. Rimmon – God of War, Destruction, and Chaos. He is a giant, over nine feet tall, with long greasy hair, and one blue eye, and one green eye. His right hand is missing and they tell stories of the battle how Ashima severed it. Only treacherous and dishonorable warriors worship him. His holy symbol is three shrunken heads tied together by the hair. Molech – God of Law, Knowledge, Death, and Magic. He is an old, cruel man with gray hair and brown, wild-looking eyes. He is the god of dark magic, torture, and those who wish for knowledge at any price. His symbol is the pentagram. Ashtoreth – Goddess of Chaos, Evil, and Healing. She is an old crone with long white hair and blue eyes. Those who seek to overthrow the world and plunge it into chaos worship her. Her holy symbol is a skull with the lower jaw gone. Children of the Vineyard - Those who serve only themselves Tartak – God of Trickery, Luck, and Chaos. Tartak is also the chief god of the Hearthom. He is a fat, balding man with brown hair and eyes. He is depicted as being happy, but there is a glint of something more in his eyes. Additionally, he is also depicted as a rotund Hearthom made of granite. Thieves, gamblers, and lawyers worship him. His holy symbol is a jewel of any kind dedicated to him at a temple. Succoth-Benath – Goddess of Earth, Chaos, Knowledge. She is always seen as a beautiful woman, either young and fresh or older and seductive. She has red hair and blue eyes. She is the goddess of those who only seek after the joys of the flesh. Her symbol is the rose. Nebo – God of Plant, Animal, Knowledge, and Fire. He is an old looking man with gray hair and brown eyes. He was once a part of the Warriors of Light but grew tired of the conflict and now only wishes to be left alone with his creations. His symbol is the acorn. Kalaratri – Goddess of Destruction, Trickery, and Chaos. She is the epitome of the Children of the Vineyard. She dwells in the Spirit Realm and is also known as the “Eater of Souls”. It is said that she is the cause of all random acts of violence, destruction, or chaos. She is also the goddess of the berserk, obsessed, and crazed. She has no holy symbol. See also Diomin Worldbook by R. Hyrum Savage, Chad Cunningham, Christopher T. Miller (OtherWorld Creations, 2000) Into the Darkness by R. Hyrum Savage (OtherWorld Creations, 2001) State of the Nations Volume One: The Gadianti & Hearthom by Rob Holmes, James Kovach, & Dave Webb (OtherWorld Creations, 2001) Acceptance of Fate by Chad Justice and R. Hyrum Savage (OtherWorld Creations, 2002) The Shaman by R. Hyrum Savage (OtherWorld Creations, 2006) References Savage, R.H., Cunningham, C. & Miller, C.T. Diomin (OtherWorld Creations, 2000). D20 System Fantasy role-playing games Horror role-playing games Role-playing games introduced in 2000 Astarte

4679150

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat%20of%20arms%20of%20Zagreb

Coat of arms of Zagreb

The coat of arms of Zagreb in Croatia consists of a three-towered city with a star and a crescent moon overhead. The coat of arms dates back to at least the 18th century. Description Against an Azure ground on a Vert hill: an Argent walled moat with three towers and open Or gates. An Or six-pointed star Sinister and an Argent crescent Dexter. References External links Zagreb Culture in Zagreb History of Zagreb Zagreb Zagreb Zagreb

4679872

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urs%20festival%2C%20Ajmer

Urs festival, Ajmer

The Urs festival is an annual festival held at Ajmer, Rajasthan, India which commemorates the anniversary of the death of Sufi saint Moinuddin Chishti (founder of the Chishtiya Sufi order in India). It is held over six days and features night-long dhikr (zikr) qawwali singing. The anniversary is celebrated in the seventh month of the Islamic lunar calendar. Thousands of pilgrims visit the shrine from all over India and abroad. The festival The sixth day of the Urs is regarded as the most special and auspicious. It is called "Chhati Sharif". It is celebrated on the 6th Rajab between 10:00 A.M. and 1:30 p.m. inside the Mazaar Sharif or shrine complex. Shijra, or the genealogical tree associated with the Chishti Order, is read by duty bound Khadims of Moinuddin Chishti, and then there is Fariyad (prayers). Just before the Qu'l (conclusion of Chhati Sharif), Badhaawa (a poem of praise) is sung at the main entrance of the shrine by Qawwals. Badhaawa is a recitation accompanied only by clapping; no musical instrument is played. It was composed by Syed Behlol Chishty, an ancestor of the present day Chishty Sufis of Ajmer Sharif called Syedzadgan Khadim Khwaja Sahib. After its recitation, the ceremony of the Qu'l comes to an end, and Fatiha is recited. The end of the ceremony is marked by firing a cannon at 1:30 p.m. References Tourist attractions in Ajmer Festivals in Rajasthan Urs Music festivals in India Islamic festivals in India Sufism in India Observances set by the Islamic calendar Barelvi festivals

4681509

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night%20owl

Night owl

A night owl, evening person or simply owl, is a person who tends or prefers to be active late at night and into the early morning, and to sleep and wake up later than is considered normal; night owls often work or engage in recreational activities late into the night (in some cases, until around dawn), and sleep until relatively late in the day. The opposite of a night owl is an early bird – a lark as opposed to an owl – which is someone who tends to begin sleeping at a time that is considered early and also wakes early. Researchers traditionally use the terms morningness and eveningness for the two chronotypes or diurnality and nocturnality in animal behavior. In several countries, especially in Scandinavia, one who stays up late is called a B-person, in contrast to an early riser being called an A-person. Involuntary and unwanted inability to fall asleep at an ordinary time may be diagnosed as delayed sleep phase disorder. However, many night owls do not consider their habits a disorder, and adapt their lifestyle accordingly; some choose to work in the evening or overnight. Other mays face challenges due to externally fixed schedules associated with their places of work or education. History While staying up after dark was considered a negative trait, this changed in 17th and 18th century Europe (and subsequently spread beyond) due to the development and implementation of artificial lighting: more domestic lights, added street lighting, and adaptation by the royal and upper social classes. The introduction of chocolate, coffee and tea, and cafes that stayed open through dawn, became part of the new culture. Etymology The term is derived from nocturnal habits of owls. Most owls sleep during the day and hunt for food at night. Characteristics Usually, people who are night owls stay awake past midnight, and extreme night owls may stay awake until just before or even after dawn. Some night owls have a preference or habit for staying up late, or stay up to work the night shift. Night owls who work the day shift often have difficulties adapting to standard daytime working hours. Night owls have often been blamed for unpunctuality or attitude problems. Employers, however, have begun to learn to increase productivity by respecting body clocks through flexible working hours, while the Danish "B-Society" of night owls and the American Start School Later movement lobby actively for more school and workplace flexibility for the post-agricultural world. Some research has found that night owls are more intelligent and creative and more likely to get high-paying jobs than larks, or morning persons. A study among 1,000 adolescents by the University of Madrid found that night owls scored higher than early birds on inductive reasoning tests, which often serve as a proxy for intelligence. However, they lag behind larks in academic performance, and they tend to have unhealthier eating habits, as well as higher rates of smoking. Some night owls with great difficulty adopting normal sleeping and waking times may have delayed sleep phase disorder. Morning light therapy may be helpful in shifting sleep rhythms for the night owl. Psychology The night-owl pattern is more prevalent in men than in women. Night-owls are more likely to be single than in long-term relationships. A study done in 2013 suggests that they also more commonly possess dark triad traits. Factors The tendency to be a night owl exists on a spectrum, with most people being typical, some people having a small or moderate tendency to be a night owl, and a few having an extreme tendency to be a night owl. An individual's own tendency can change over time and is influenced by multiple factors, including: a genetic predisposition, which can cause the tendency to run in families, the person's age, with teenagers and young adults tending to be night owls more than young children or elderly people, and the environment the person lives in, except for the patterns of light they are exposed to through seasonal changes as well as through lifestyle (such as spending the day indoors and using electric lights in the evening). The genetic make-up of the circadian timing system underpins the difference between early and late chronotypes, or early birds and night owls. While it has been suggested that circadian rhythms may change over time, including dramatic changes that turn a morning lark to a night owl or vice versa, evidence for familial patterns of early or late waking would seem to contradict this, and individual changes are likely on a smaller scale. Prevalence A 2007 survey of over 55,000 people found that chronotypes tend to follow a normal distribution, with extreme morning and evening types on the far ends. Career options Night owls tend to thrive in careers that do not require working in the early morning. People who want to work in the evening are often employed at restaurants, hotels, entertainment venues, retail stores, and some personal care businesses. Night owls who work the night shift may work in emergency services, in transportation, or at round-the-clock facilities, such as hospitals and some manufacturing plants. Many businesses that operate in the evening or at night need employees at all levels, from entry-level employees to managers to skilled staff, whenever they are open. For example, most hospitals employ many types of workers around the clock: non-medical staff such as security guards, IT specialists, cleaning and maintenance workers, cooks and food service staff, and admissions clerks; medical staff such as nurses, paramedics, radiographers, pharmacists, and phlebotomists; managers for each of the main hospital wards or activities, including janitorial supervisors and head nurses. Industries that tend to be less favorable to night owls include farming, construction, education, and working for public utilities. Many employees in these industries start working before 7:00 a.m. Notable people A list of famous night owls includes: Adolf Hitler Bobby Fischer Kanye West Vladimir Putin Charles Bukowski Fidel Castro Michael Chabon Winston Churchill Bob Dylan Gustave Flaubert Glenn Gould Samuel Johnson Carl Jung Franz Kafka Fran Lebowitz H. P. Lovecraft Marilyn Manson E. T. A. Hoffmann Mao Zedong Frank Meyer Barack Obama Prince Marcel Proust Murray Rothbard George Sand Joseph Stalin Hunter S. Thompson J. R. R. Tolkien Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec John Travolta Linus Torvalds Frank Zappa John Wayne Gacy Van Cliburn In popular culture In Pliny the Elder's Natural History, he states Vita vigila est, "to be alive is to be watchful", a military metaphor for keeping watch in the night. For Robert Louis Stevenson, "There is a romance about all those who are abroad in the black hours." In Jayne Ann Krentz's Truth or Dare, "Arcadia and Harry were both creatures of the night. They managed to appear oddly stylish at one-thirty in the morning." British author Hilary Rubinstein wrote: "Blessed are the owls, for they shall inherit the mystery and magic of the night." In the Little River Band song "The Night Owls": "Be strong, find the heart of a night owl falling/Stay up till dawn until the night is gone" See also Chronobiology – the study of sleep cycles and other time-dependent biological systems Circadian rhythm sleep disorder Insomnia – the inability to fall asleep or stay asleep Morningness–eveningness questionnaire (MEQ) Munich Chronotype Questionnaire (MCTQ) Nightlife – activities, mostly entertainment-oriented, done between sundown and sunrise Zeitgeber – environmental factors, such as bright light, that reinforce sleep–wake cycles References Further reading Louise Miller, Careers for Night Owls and Other Insomniacs (2002) J. Dunlap et al., Chronobiology (2004) External links Sleep Discrimination Intelligence and Creativity in Night Owls vs. Early Birds with several references to different studies Sleep deprivation impacts night owls and early risers differently Sleep Circadian rhythm Night Owls in culture

4682253

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbiting%20Carbon%20Observatory

Orbiting Carbon Observatory

The Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO) is a NASA satellite mission intended to provide global space-based observations of atmospheric carbon dioxide (). The original spacecraft was lost in a launch failure on 24 February 2009, when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent. The added mass of the fairing prevented the satellite from reaching orbit. It subsequently re-entered the atmosphere and crashed into the Indian Ocean near Antarctica. The replacement satellite, Orbiting Carbon Observatory-2, was launched 2 July 2014 aboard a Delta II rocket. The Orbiting Carbon Observatory-3, a stand-alone payload built from the spare OCO-2 flight instrument, was installed on the International Space Station Kibō Exposed Facility in May 2019. Mission description OCO's measurements are designed to be accurate enough to show for the first time the geographic distribution of carbon dioxide sources and sinks on a regional scale. The data is planned to improve the understanding of the global carbon cycle, the natural processes and human activities that influence the abundance and distribution of the greenhouse gas. This improved understanding is expected to enable more reliable forecasts of future changes in the abundance and distribution of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and the effect that these changes may have on Earth's climate. The OCO spacecraft was provided by Orbital Sciences Corporation. During its two-year mission, OCO will fly in a near polar orbit which enables the instrument to observe most of Earth's surface at least once every sixteen days. It is intended to fly in loose formation with a series of other Earth-orbiting satellites known as the Earth Observing System Afternoon Constellation, or the A-train. This coordinated flight formation was intended to enable researchers to correlate OCO data with data acquired by other instruments on other spacecraft. In particular, Earth scientists would like to compare OCO data with nearly simultaneous measurements acquired by the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) instrument aboard NASA's Aqua satellite and ground-based data from the Total Carbon Column Observing Network (TCCON). Alignment with the A-train demands a particularly short launch window of 30 seconds. The original cost of the mission was . It was sponsored by NASA's Earth System Science Pathfinder Program. NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, manages OCO for NASA's Science Mission Directorate. Technology The satellite will carry a single instrument designed to make the most precise measurements of atmospheric carbon dioxide ever made from space. The instrument consists of three parallel, high-resolution spectrometers, integrated into a common structure and fed by a common telescope. The spectrometers will make simultaneous measurements of the carbon dioxide and molecular oxygen absorption of sunlight reflected off the same location on Earth's surface when viewed in the near-infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum, invisible to the human eye. As sunlight passes through Earth's atmosphere and is reflected from Earth's surface, molecules of atmospheric gases absorb very specific colors of light. If the light is divided into a rainbow of colors, called a spectrum, the specific colors absorbed by each gas appear as dark lines. Different gases absorb different colors, so the pattern of absorption lines provides a telltale spectral "fingerprint" for that molecule. OCO's spectrometers were designed to detect these molecular fingerprints. Each of the three spectrometers was tuned to measure the absorption in a specific range of colors. Each of these ranges includes dozens of dark absorption lines produced by either carbon dioxide or molecular oxygen. The amount of light absorbed in each spectral line increases with the number of molecules along the optical path. OCO's spectrometers measure the fraction of the light absorbed in each of these lines with very high precision. This information was then to be analyzed to determine the number of molecules along the path between the top of the atmosphere and the surface. If the amount of carbon dioxide varies from place to place, the amount of absorption will also vary. To resolve these variations, the observatory's instrument will record an image of the spectrum produced by each spectrometer three times every second as the satellite flies over the surface at more than four miles per second. This information would then be transmitted to the ground, where carbon dioxide concentrations would be retrieved in four separate footprints for each image collected. These spatially varying carbon dioxide concentration estimates would then be analyzed using global transport models, like those used for weather prediction, to infer the locations of carbon dioxide sources and sinks. The OCO instrument was developed by Hamilton Sundstrand Sensor Systems in Pomona, California, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Original launch The satellite was originally launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California on a dedicated Taurus XL rocket. However, the payload fairing—a clam shell-shaped covering that protects the satellite during launch—apparently failed to separate from the spacecraft. "We have not had a successful launch tonight and will not be able to have a successful OCO mission", NASA commentator George Diller said. Date: 24 February 2009, 09:55:31 UTC Launch Vehicle: Orbital Sciences, Taurus-XL Launch Site: Vandenberg Air Force Base, Launch Complex 576-E A payload fairing is a clamshell-shaped cover that encloses and protects a payload on the pad and during early flight. Fairings are a standard component of expendable launch vehicles, and are always jettisoned as soon as possible after a rocket has climbed high enough for heating from air friction to no longer risk damaging the payload. The Taurus XL's fairing was intended to separate several seconds after stage 2 ignition. Its extra mass was not a significant factor during the flight of the larger lower stages, but kept the relatively small stage 3 from adding enough velocity to reach orbit. 17 minutes after liftoff the payload fell into the ocean near Antarctica. NASA investigators later determined the cause for the launch failure to be faulty materials provided by aluminum manufacturer Sapa Profiles. Re-flight Three days after the failed February 2009 launch, the OCO science team sent NASA headquarters a proposal to build and launch an OCO copy by late 2011. On 1 February 2010, the FY 2011 NASA budget request did include $170 million for NASA to develop and fly a replacement for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory: OCO-2. NASA, in 2010, initially selected Orbital Sciences for launching the replacement in February 2013 on a Taurus XL 3110 from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California. The launch of the Glory satellite took place on 4 March 2011 and ended in failure, like OCO. Then, in February 2012 both NASA and Orbital Sciences came to an agreement to terminate the launch contract. OCO-2 was initially scheduled for launch on 1 July 2014 at 09:56 UTC aboard a Delta II rocket, though that launch was scrubbed at 46 seconds on the countdown clock due to a faulty valve on the water suppression system that is used to flow water on the launch pad to dampen the acoustic energy during launch. The rocket launched 2 July at the same time. NASA Investigation NASA Launch Services Program (LSP) investigators have determined the technical root cause for the Taurus XL launch failures of NASA's Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO) and Glory missions in 2009 and 2011, respectively: faulty materials provided by aluminium manufacturer, Sapa Profiles, Inc. (SPI). LSP's technical investigation led to the involvement of NASA's Office of the Inspector General and the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ). The efforts of the DOJ, recently made public, resulted in the resolution of criminal charges and alleged civil claims against SPI, and its agreement to pay $46 million to the U.S. government and other commercial customers. This relates to a 19-year scheme that included falsifying thousands of certifications for aluminium extrusions to hundreds of customers. On 24 February 2009, a Taurus XL rocket (Taurus T8) carrying NASA's Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO) satellite failed to reach orbit. The Taurus T8 mission failed because the payload fairing did not separate during ascent, causing the rocket to not shed weight. As a result of the extra weight, the Taurus rocket failed to reach orbital velocity, resulting in a total loss of the mission. On 4 March 2011, another Taurus rocket (Taurus T9) carrying NASA's Glory scientific satellite failed to reach orbit. The Taurus T9 mission also concluded in a failure of the payload fairing to separate. The Taurus T8 and T9 missions both reentered earth's atmosphere resulting in break-up and/or burnup of the rocket and satellite, and any surviving pieces would have been dispersed in the Pacific Ocean near Antarctica. The combined cost of both mission failures was in excess of $700 million. This document's purpose is to provide a top-level outline of NASA's updated findings pertaining to the cause of both mishaps. The Taurus T8 and T9 rockets both used 63-inch diameter payload fairings to cover and protect the spacecraft during ground operations and launch. The payload fairing halves are structurally joined and attached to the rocket using frangible joints. A frangible joint is a structural separation system that is initiated using ordnance. Initiation of the ordnance causes the ligament of the frangible joint extrusion to fracture, allowing the two payload fairing halves to be separated and subsequently jettisoned from the Taurus rocket. The frangible joints for T8 and T9 were made and assembled together, at the same time. The T8 and T9 frangible joint extrusions were manufactured by Sapa Profiles, Inc. (SPI) in its Technical Dynamics Aluminum (TDA) plant, in Portland, Oregon. See also Glory (satellite)—also lost in a launch failure when the payload fairing of the Taurus rocket which was carrying it failed to separate during ascent. Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 References External links NASA/JPL Orbiting Carbon Observatory website JPL Science Division OCO page UStream video on OCO mission Earth observation satellites of the United States NASA satellites Satellite launch failures 2009 in the United States Spacecraft launched in 2009

4683961

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophylact%20Simocatta

Theophylact Simocatta

Theophylact Simocatta (Byzantine Greek: Θεοφύλακτος Σιμοκάτ(τ)ης Theophýlaktos Simokát(t)ēs; ) was an early seventh-century Byzantine historiographer, arguably ranking as the last historian of Late Antiquity, writing in the time of Heraclius (c. 630) about the late Emperor Maurice (582–602). Life Simocatta is best known as the author of History, a work split into eight books, about the reign of the emperor Maurice (582–602), for which period he is the best and oldest authority. Though his work is of lesser stature than that of Procopius and his self-consciously classicizing style is pompous, he is an important source of information concerning the seventh-century Slavs, the Avars and the Persians, and the emperor's tragic end. He mentions the war of Heraclius against the Persians (610–28), but not that against the Arabs (beginning 629), so it is likely that he was writing around 630. Among his sources he used the history of John of Epiphania. Edward Gibbon wrote: His want of judgement renders him diffuse in trifles and concise in the most interesting facts. This notwithstanding, Simocatta's general trustworthiness is admitted. The history contains an introduction in the form of a dialogue between History and Philosophy. Nicolaus Copernicus translated Greek verses by Theophylact into Latin prose and had his translation, dedicated to his uncle Lucas Watzenrode, published in Kraków in 1509 by Johann Haller. It was the only book that Copernicus ever brought out on his own account. Simocatta was also the author of Physical Problems, a work on natural history, and of a collection of 85 essays in epistolary form. In regards to the Far East, Simocatta wrote a generally accurate depiction of the reunification of China by Emperor Wen (r. 581–604 AD) of the Sui Dynasty, with the conquest of the rival Chen Dynasty in southern China, correctly placing these events within the reign period of Byzantine ruler Maurice. Simocatta also provided cursory information about the geography of China along with its customs and culture, deeming its people "idolatrous" but wise in governance. He also related how the ruler was named Taisson, the meaning of which was "Son of God", possibly derived from Chinese Tianzi (Son of Heaven, a title of the emperor of China) or even the name of the contemporaneous ruler Emperor Taizong of Tang. Works Notes References Michael and Mary Whitby, translators, The History of Theophylact Simocatta: An English Translation with Introduction, Oxford University Press, 1986, , 9780198227991 Angus Armitage, The World of Copernicus, New York, Mentor Books, 1947. Yule, Henry (1915). Henri Cordier (ed.), Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the Cape Route. London: Hakluyt Society. Accessed 21 September 2016. External links Greek Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes Raw Greek OCR of Carl de Boor's Teubner edition Theophylacti Simocattae Historiae (1887) from the Lace collection at Mount Allison University. 7th-century Byzantine historians Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown Nicolaus Copernicus

4689986

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Day%20Lasts%20More%20Than%20a%20Hundred%20Years

The Day Lasts More Than a Hundred Years

The Day Lasts More Than a Hundred Years (, "And longer than a century lasts a day"), originally published in Russian in the Novy Mir literary magazine in 1980, is a novel written by the Kyrgyz author Chinghiz Aitmatov. The title of the novel In an introduction written in 1990, during perestroika, the author wrote that the original title was The Hoop ("Обруч"), which was rejected by censors. The title The Day Lasts More Than a Hundred Years, taken from the poem "Unique Days" ("единственные дни") by Boris Pasternak, used for the magazine version (Novy Mir, #11, 1980), was also criticized as too complicated, and the first "book-size" version of the novel was printed in Roman-Gazeta in a censored form under the title The Buranny Railway Stop (Буранный полустанок). Introduction The novel takes place over the course of a day, which encompasses the railman Burranyi Yedigei's endeavor to bury his late friend Kazangap in the cemetery Ana-Beiit ("Mother's Grave"). Throughout the trek, Yedigei recounts his personal history of living in the Sary-Ozek steppes along with pieces of Kyrgyz folklore. The author explains the term "Saryozeks" as "Middle Lands of Yellow Steppes". Sary-Ozek (or Russified form "Sarozek", used interchangeably in the novel) is also the name of a (fictional) cosmodrome. Additionally, there is a subplot involving two cosmonauts, one American and one Soviet, who make contact with an intelligent extraterrestrial life form and travel to the planet Lesnaya Grud' ("The Bosom of the Forest") while on a space station run co-operatively by the United States and the Soviet Union. The location of the Soviet launch site, Sarozek-1, near Yedigei's railway junction, intertwines the subplot with the main story. Plot summary The novel begins with Yedigei learning about the death of his longtime friend, Kazangap. All of Kazangap's crucial relatives have been forewarned of his impending death, and it is decided to set off to bury him the next day. To the consternation of his son, Sabitzhan, who is indifferent toward his father's burial, it is decided to travel across the Sarozek to the Ana-Beiit cemetery in order to bury Kazangap. The procession promptly leaves the next morning, and experiences that took place throughout Yedigei's lifetime, as well as various Sarozek legends, are recollected. Initially, Yedigei recalls how he had fought in World War II but had been dismissed from duty due to shell shock. As a result, he was sent to work on the railway. Through his work, he met Kazangap, who convinced him to move to what would become his permanent home, the remote Boranly-Burannyi junction, from which he gained his namesake. Kazangap and Yedigei become dear friends, and Kazangap eventually gives Yedigei the gift of a camel, named Karanar, which becomes legendary across the Sarozek because of its strength and vitality. At the end of 1951, Abutalip and Zaripa Kuttybaev move to Boranly-Burranyi junction with their two young sons. They initially have a hard time adjusting to living on the Sarozek because of the harsh environment; however, they eventually become adjusted. Before relocating, both had been school teachers. Abutalip also fought in the war and had been taken prisoner by the Germans, but he escaped and fought with the Yugoslav partisan army. Nevertheless, upon his return to the Soviet Union he still retained the stigma of having been a prisoner of war and was often relocated because of political reasons. To leave a personal account of his experiences for his children and also to maintain his faculties amid the desolate Sarozek, Abutalip takes to writing about his time as a prisoner of war, his escape, and fighting for the partisans; he also records the various legends told to him by Yedigei. Unfortunately for him, these activities are discovered during a routine inspection of the junction and reported to higher authorities. The denizens of Boranly-Burannyi and Abutalip are interrogated by the tyrannical Tansykbaev, and he is deemed counterrevolutionary. In due Soviet process, he is taken away and unheard of for a long time. Later, Kazangap travels to the nearby Kumbel' to visit his son. There he finds a letter meant to inform Zaripa of Abutalip's death, but thinks it best to merely tell her that she has a letter rather to inform her of its contents. Yedigei later accompanies Zaripa to Kumbel' in order to receive the letter; coincidentally, Joseph Stalin dies on the same day, but Zaripa was too overcome with grief to pay notice to the news. Zaripa decides that it is best to forestall conveying the news of Abutalip's death to her children. Yedigei thereafter becomes the paternal figure in her children's lives and grows to love them more than his own daughters. Abutalip's last request was for Yedigei to tell his sons about the Aral Sea, so Yedigei spends much time telling them about his former occupation as a fisherman. As a result of his frequent reminiscing, Yedigei recalls the time he had to catch a golden sturgeon to quell the desires of his wife, Ukubala's, unborn child but decides not to share it. He eventually becomes fond of Zaripa from spending so much time with her and her children, but she does not return his affection and moves away one day when Yedigei travels to another junction to fetch his wandering camel. In consequence, Yedigei projects his anger onto Karanar by maiming him until he runs away again, only to later return famished and dilapidated. Years later, after internal reforms within the Soviet Union, Yedigei pressures the government to inquire into Abutalip's death in order to clear the names of his sons. Abutalip is declared "rehabilitated," and Yedigei also learns that Zaripa has remarried and has once more begun working as a school teacher. Near the end of the story, the group that set out to bury Kazangap has nearly reached the Ana-Beiit cemetery. However, they are hindered in their journey by a barbed wire fence erected in the middle of their route. Resolved to go around it, they travel along it toward another road only to reach a check-point guarded by a young soldier. To their dismay, they are told that access beyond the fence is prohibited, but the soldier calls his superior to see if an exception can be made. It is then that Yedigei learns that the superior is named Tansykbaev but discovers that this is a different man from the one previously known. However, the new Tansykbaev is also encrusted in a patina of hierarchical obedience and interpersonal tyranny; unmoved by the procession's request, he denies them entry and also informs them that the Ana-Beiit cemetery is to be leveled in the future. During their return, everybody in the group, with the exception of Kazangap's son, Sabitzhan, decides that it would be against tradition to return from a burial with a body. They decide to bury Kazangap near a precipice on the Sarozek. Yedigei, most adamantly, makes them promise to bury him next to Kazangap since he is the oldest and the most likely to die next. Everybody leaves after the burial, but Yedigei remains with Karanar and his dog, Zholbars, to ruminate over the day's circumstances. He decides to return to the check-point in order to vocalize his anger at the guard, but a series of rockets are launched into space from within the fenced area before he reaches the check-point, sending Yedigei, Zholbars, and Karanar running off into the Sarozek. Subplot summary Shortly after learning the news of Kazangap's death, Yedigei observes a rocket launching from the launch site north of the Boranly-Burranyi junction. Launches, though infrequent, are not unusual to Yedigei, but this one in particular is because he had no prior knowledge of it. Generally, such occasions heralded pompous celebration, but this one had not. This launch, and the circumstances surrounding it, have been kept secret from the public, and an American launch from Nevada occurs at the same time. Both are destined for the joint Soviet-American space station, Parity, currently orbiting the Earth. There were already two cosmonauts on board the Parity space station before the launch; however, they had mysteriously curtailed all contact with the aircraft carrier Convention, afloat between San Francisco and Vladivostok, which serves as a base of operations for the Soviets and Americans. Once they arrive, the two cosmonauts sent to Parity discover that their predecessors have disappeared completely. Before leaving, they left a note stating that they had made contact with intelligent life from the planet Lesnaya Grud'. Together, they decided to keep their findings private out of fear for the political turmoil that might occur. The inhabitants of Lesnaya Grud' had traveled to Parity and transported the two cosmonauts to their home planet. From there, the cosmonauts send a transmission back to Parity describing the planet. It has a much larger population than Earth, nobody has any concept of war, and there is an established and functional world government. Furthermore, Lesnaya Grud' suffers from the problem of "internal withering," where portions of the planet turn to uninhabitable desert. Although this problem will not be critical for many millions of years, the inhabitants of Lesnaya Grud' are already trying to decide what to do about it and how to possibly fix it. In response to the cosmonauts' actions, the officials on Convention decide to prohibit them from ever returning to Earth. Moreover, they all vow never to mention what took place. In order to ensure their decision, the Americans and Soviets threaten to destroy any foreign spacecraft that comes into Earth's orbit, and both nations launch missile-equipped satellites to secure their threat. The aircraft carrier Convention is then handed over to neutral Finland, and the operation is shut down. Characters Burannyi Yedigei Yedigei is the main protagonist. He is a railway worker on the Sarozek who was once a soldier in the second World War and before that, a fisherman on the Aral Sea. It is he who undertakes the responsibility for Kazangap's burial and most of the story is told from his perspective. Kazangap Asanbiev Kazangap was the oldest man in Buranly-Burranyi and originally encouraged Yedigei to move there. He worked alongside Yedigei on the railway. The "day" mentioned in the title The Day Lasts More than a Hundred Years is the day on which he is buried. (His last name is only mentioned once. This happens when at the last moment his mobilization for the war is cancelled because he is an essential worker as a railroad employee.) Ukubala Ukubala is the wife of Yedigei. Overall, she is mostly submissive to his desires but does encourage him to seek an investigation into the death of Abutalip. Throughout the story, she is loyal to Yedigei and even overlooks his affection for Zaripa. On multiple occasions, Yedigei recalls them laboring together. Folkloric themes The story of the mankurts, prisoners of war who were turned into slaves deprived of memory. A mankurt did not recognize his name, family or tribe — "a mankurt did not recognize himself as a human being", Aitmatov writes. In the novel, Naiman-Ana is killed by her mankurt son when she tries to free him. The story of Genghis Khan's white cloud (not included in the English translation) is about a forbidden relationship between a Mongolian soldier and a woman who makes dragon banners. The story of Raimaly-aga, an aging bard who fell in love with a young woman but was tied to a tree by his family to prevent him from seeing her. Film In 1990 the film Mankurt (Манкурт) was released in the Soviet Union. Written by Mariya Urmatova, the film is based on one narrative strand from the novel. It is the last film directed by Khodzha Narliyev. Its main cast was Tarik Tardzhan, Maya-Gozel Aymedova, Jylmaz Duru, Khodzhadurdy Narliev, Maysa Almazova. The film tells about a Turkmenian who defends his homeland from invasion. After he is captured, tortured, and brainwashed into serving his homeland's conquerors, he is so completely turned that he kills his mother when she attempts to rescue him from captivity. References Further reading Banerjee, Anindita, "Atoms, Aliens, and Compound Crises: Central Asia's Nuclear Fantastic." Science Fiction Studies 45, No. 3 (2018): 454–468. DOI: 10.5621/sciefictstud.45.3.0454 1980 novels Soviet science fiction novels Kyrgyz-language literature 1980 in the Soviet Union Works originally published in Novy Mir Books by Chinghiz Aitmatov Russian novels adapted into films Novels set in one day

4691143

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aufruf

Aufruf

Aufruf (Yiddish: אויפרוף ofrif, oyfruf, ufruf/ifrif or אויפרופן ofrifn), which in Yiddish means "calling up," is the Jewish custom of a groom being called up in the synagogue for an aliyah, the recitation of a blessing over the Torah. In the Ashkenazic Jewish community the aufruf ceremony is typically held on the Shabbat before the wedding; but it can also be held on a Monday or Thursday. In modern Hebrew and in the Sephardic and Mizrachi traditions, it is called Shabbat Hatan, the groom's Sabbath, and it is typically held on the Shabbat after the wedding, in which case both newlyweds and their families participate. After the Torah reading, the congregation sings a congratulatory song and the women throw candy at the groom. In non-Orthodox congregations, the bride and groom may be called up to the Torah together. It is customary for the family of the groom to invite the congregation to a festive kiddush after the services. In many Ashkenazi Orthodox communities, the bride typically does not attend the aufruf because it is customary for the bride and groom to refrain from seeing each other for one week before the wedding. On the Shabbat preceding the wedding, there is also a custom for the bride's family and friends to gather to celebrate the bride and bring her joy. This is called a Shabbat Kallah, the bride's Sabbath. See also Jewish views on marriage References Marriage in Judaism Shabbat Yiddish words and phrases in Jewish law

4691591

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cydonia%20%28Mars%29

Cydonia (Mars)

Cydonia (, ) is a region on the planet Mars that has attracted both scientific and popular interest. The name originally referred to the albedo feature (distinctively coloured area) that was visible from earthbound telescopes. The area borders the plains of Acidalia Planitia and the highlands of Arabia Terra. The region includes the named features Cydonia Mensae, an area of flat-topped mesa-like features; Cydonia Colles, a region of small hills or knobs; and Cydonia Labyrinthus, a complex of intersecting valleys. As with other albedo features on Mars, the name Cydonia was drawn from classical antiquity, in this case from Kydonia (; ), a historic polis (city state) on the island of Crete. Cydonia contains the "Face on Mars", located about halfway between the craters Arandas and Bamberg. Location Cydonia lies in the planet's northern hemisphere in a transitional zone between the heavily cratered regions to the south and relatively smooth plains to the north. Some planetologists believe that the northern plains may once have been ocean beds, and that Cydonia may once have been a coastal zone. It is in the Mare Acidalium quadrangle. "Face on Mars" Cydonia was first imaged in detail by the Viking 1 and Viking 2 orbiters. Eighteen images of the Cydonia region were taken by the orbiters, of which seven have resolutions better than 250 m/pixel (820 ft/pixel). The other eleven images have resolutions that are worse than 550 m/pixel (1800 ft/pixel) and are of limited use for studying surface features. Of the seven good images, the lighting and time at which two pairs of images were taken are so close as to reduce the number to five distinct images. The Mission to Mars: Viking Orbiter Images of Mars CD-ROM set image numbers for these are: 035A72 (VO-1010), 070A13 (VO-1011), 561A25 (VO-1021), 673B54 & 673B56 (VO-1063), and 753A33 & 753A34 (VO-1028). In one of the images taken by Viking 1 on July 25, 1976, a Cydonian mesa, situated at 40.75° north latitude and 9.46° west longitude, had the appearance of a humanoid face. When the image was originally acquired, Viking chief scientist Gerry Soffen dismissed the "Face on Mars" in image 035A72 as a "trick of light and shadow". A second image, 070A13, also shows the "face", and was acquired 35 Viking orbits later at a different sun-angle from the 035A72 image. This latter discovery was made independently by Vincent DiPietro and Gregory Molenaar, two computer engineers at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center. DiPietro and Molenaar discovered the two misfiled images, Viking frames 035A72 and 070A13, while searching through NASA archives. The resolution of these images was of about 50 m/pixel. Later imagery More than 20 years after the Viking 1 images were taken, a succession of spacecraft visited Mars and made new observations of the Cydonia region. These spacecraft have included NASA's Mars Global Surveyor (1997–2006) and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (2006–), and the European Space Agency's Mars Express probe (2003–). In contrast to the relatively low resolution of the Viking images of Cydonia, these new platforms afford much improved resolution. For instance, the Mars Express images are at a resolution of 14 m/pixel (46 ft/pixel) or better. By combining data from the High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) on the Mars Express probe and the Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) on board NASA's Mars Global Surveyor it has been possible to create a three-dimensional representation of the "Face on Mars". Since it was originally first imaged, the face has been accepted by scientists as an optical illusion, an example of the psychological phenomenon of pareidolia. After analysis of the higher resolution Mars Global Surveyor data NASA stated that "a detailed analysis of multiple images of this feature reveals a natural looking Martian hill whose illusory face-like appearance depends on the viewing angle and angle of illumination". Similar optical illusions can be found in the geology of Earth; examples include the Old Man of the Mountain, the Romanian Sphinx, Giewont, the Pedra da Gávea, the Old Man of Hoy, Stac Levenish, Sleeping Ute, and the Badlands Guardian. Speculation The Cydonia facial pareidolia inspired individuals and organizations interested in extraterrestrial intelligence and visitations to Earth, and the images were published in this context in 1977. Some commentators, most notably Richard C. Hoagland, believe the "Face on Mars" to be evidence of a long-lost Martian civilization along with other features they believe are present, such as apparent pyramids, which they argue are part of a ruined city. While accepting the "face" as a subject for scientific study, astronomer Carl Sagan criticized much of the speculation concerning it in the chapter "The Man in the Moon and the Face on Mars" in his 1995 book The Demon-Haunted World. The shape-from-shading work by Mark J. Carlotto was used by Sagan in a chapter of his famous Cosmos series. In 1998 a news article about the "Space Face" quoted a scientist talking about deciphering "intelligent design" in nature. A cutting of this was used by Charles Thaxton as an overhead visual for a lecture at Princeton, in his first public use of the term "intelligent design" as a substitute for creation science. The "face" is also a common topic among skeptics groups, who use it as an example of credulity. They point out that there are other faces on Mars but these do not elicit the same level of study. One example is the Galle Crater, which takes the form of a smiley, while others resemble Kermit the Frog or other celebrities. On this latter similarity, Discover magazine's "Skeptical Eye" column ridiculed Hoagland's claims, asking if he believed the aliens were fans of Sesame Street. Interactive Mars map See also , home to another "face" References External links NASA or ESA Cydonia – the face on Mars, ESA's overview of features in Cydonia region Viking Project Information, NASA Past Missions: Viking, NASA Mars Express, ESA Mars Express: Home, NASA Mars Global Surveyor, NASA Astronomy Picture of the Day: 2006 September 25, "Mars Express Close-Up of the Face on Mars" Astronomy Picture of the Day: 2006 September 26, "Mars Express: Return to Cydonia" Non-Space Agency High-resolution images of Cydonia, Freie Universität Berlin – Mars Express orbiter data (orbit 3253) Discussion of MOC and "Face on Mars", Malin Space Science Systems (also, The "Face on Mars") "The Face on Mars" at Google Mars Interactive 3D "Face on Mars", Shockwave Player at MarsQuest Online. The exact position of the Face on Mars on Geody, provides link to NASA World Wind, among others Face on Mars, entry in the Skeptic's Dictionary Hoagland debunking at Bad Astronomy, a discussion of the science and pseudoscience of Cydonia --> Albedo features on Mars Mare Acidalium quadrangle

4693975

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MidSTAR-1

MidSTAR-1

MidSTAR-1 is an artificial satellite produced by the United States Naval Academy Small Satellite Program. It was sponsored by the United States Department of Defense (DoD) Space Test Program (STP), and was launched on March 9, 2007 at 03:10 UTC, aboard an Atlas V expendable launch vehicle from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. MidSTAR-1 flew along with FalconSat 3, STPSat 1, and CFESat as secondary payloads; the primary payload was Orbital Express. MidSTAR-1 Mission (USNA-5) MidSTAR is a general-purpose satellite bus capable of supporting a variety of space missions by easily accommodating a wide range of space experiments and instruments. The integration of the experiments with the satellite bus must be accomplished with minimal changes to the satellite bus design. MidSTAR is intended to be a relatively low-cost, quick response platform accommodating small payloads approved by the DoD Space Experiments Review Board (SERB) and awaiting launch through STP. MidSTAR is designed for use on the EELV Secondary Payload Adapter (ESPA) Ring developed by Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) for placement on Delta IV or Atlas V expendable launch vehicles. MidSTAR is a Class D spacecraft, produced at minimum cost with a correspondingly higher technical risk in production and operation. It is intentionally simple in design and rugged in construction, using commercial off-the-shelf “plug-and-play” components to the greatest extent possible. Component development and circuit-board level design are accomplished only when necessary. MidSTAR-1 is the first implementation of the design. It was commissioned by STP to carry the Internet Communications Satellite (ICSat) Experiment for SSP and the Configurable Fault Tolerant Processor (CFTP) Experiment for Naval Postgraduate School (NPS). In addition, MidSTAR-1 carries the Nano Chem Sensor Unit (NCSU) for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Ames Research Center; Eclipse, built by Eclipse Energy Systems, Inc. for NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC); and the Micro Dosimeter Instrument (MiDN), sponsored by the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI) and built by the USNA Department of Aerospace Engineering. The mission is intended to last two years. Mission architecture The MidSTAR-1 mission includes a single spacecraft under the command and control of a single satellite ground station (SGS) located at the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland. The ground station forwards downlinked data files to the principal investigators via the Internet. The launch segment for MidSTAR-1 utilized an Atlas V launch vehicle through the Space Test Program, placing the satellite in a circular orbit at 496 km altitude, 46 degrees inclination. The satellite uses an uplink at 1.767 GHz with an intermediate frequency (IF) of 435 MHz, and a 2.20226 GHz downlink. By utilizing a Gaussian Mean Shift Key modulation, communications with the satellite are achieved at 68.4 kbit/s or higher data rate. The satellite also uses open source software based on the Linux operating system. MidSTAR-1 has no attitude control or determination, no active thermal control, and its mass is 120 kg. One hundred percent success would be the successful launch and operation of the satellite with full support for the two primary experiments for two years. Fifty percent success was the successful launch and operation of the satellite with: Full support of one primary experiment for two years; Full support of both primary experiments for one year; or, partial support of both primary experiments for two years. Thirty-three percent success was successful launch of the satellite and full operation of the satellite bus with partial support of any combination of primary and secondary payloads for any length of time. Mission log 9 March 2007: MidSTAR-1 flew as part of the STP-1 mission on a United Launch Alliance Atlas V from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. Liftoff occurred at 0310 UTC; spacecraft separation occurred at 0332 UTC. USNA SGS successfully acquired communications with the spacecraft during the first pass over Annapolis MD at 0459 UTC. The spacecraft was operating nominally in safe mode. 21 March 2007: CFTP turned on at 2217 UTC to add 6 W continuous to the electrical power system load and thus lessen charging stress on the batteries. 28 March 2007: MiDN turned on at approximately 2400 UTC. Spacecraft stopped responding to all ground commands subsequent to this pass. 4 April 2007: First use of firecode reset of spacecraft at approximately 2130 UTC. This command toggles the reset switch on the MIP-405 processor and reboots the operating system. This reset returned the CFTP and MiDN experiments to off and cleared all command buffers. At 2324 UTC the spacecraft responded to a transmitter on command. Telemetry confirmed that the reboot was successful. 5 April 2007: CFTP and MiDN turned back on. 6 April 2007: Selective download of MiDN files retrieved 71 files of 92 bytes each which were delivered to the Principal Investigator (PI). This was the first successful retrieval of science data from the spacecraft. With this milestone, MidSTAR-1 satisfied the criteria of 33% mission success. 26 May 2007: NCSU turned on at approximately 1900 Z. 29 May 2007: First data package delivered to NCSU PI. All four experiments are on and delivering data to the PIs. 18 June 2007: NASA press release announces success of NCSU. 5 September 2007: Spacecraft computer froze as a result of unknown influences, most likely radiation-induced upsets. This happened while the spacecraft was in full sun and with the power drains (30 W) on to prevent battery overcharging. Without the computer to cycle the drains off, the spacecraft remained in a continuous negative net power configuration which eventually drained the batteries. When the battery voltage dropped below 8 V, the electronic switches for the drains defaulted to off, returning the spacecraft to positive net power and allowing the batteries to recharge. 7 September 2007: Once the batteries recharged sufficiently, the computer restarted successfully. Restart occurred 48 hours after the initial event. No telemetry from the spacecraft or any experiment is available for that 48-hour period. Telemetry indicates that normal operation resumed, but all experiments were left off pending post-event analysis and the development of a plan to bring them back online. 12 September 2007: CFTP restarted. 21 September 2007: MiDN restarted. April 2009: Contact with MidSTAR-1 lost. Spacecraft ceased transmitting and failed to respond to ground command. Anomaly attributed to failure of battery packs. MidSTAR-1 declared non-operational. MidSTAR-1 fully supported all onboard experiments for two full years, fulfilling the 100% success criteria. 17 August 2023: the satellite decayed from orbit. Structure The MidSTAR-1 frame is an octagonal structure 32.5" along the long axis, including separation system, and 21.2"x21.2" measured side-to-side in cross-section. The deployment mechanism is mounted on the negative x face. The positive x face is reserved for externally mounted experiments. Of the 38" along the x-axis allowed in the ESPA envelope, 2-4" are reserved for the deployment mechanism (15-in motorized lightband manufactured by Planetary Systems, Inc.), and 4-6" are reserved for external experiments. The frame length is 30". All eight sides of the spacecraft are covered with solar cells in order to maximize the power available. Eight dipole antennas are mounted on the four faces of the spacecraft which "cut the corners" of the ESPA envelope, and are therefore positioned within the ESPA envelope rather than coincident with the envelope surface. The remaining sides are mounted with remove-before-flight eyeholes for lifting and transport during ground support. MidSTAR-1 has three interior shelves which provide area inside the satellite for mounting of components and payloads. Their locations are determined by the dimensions of the payloads and components. These can be varied in future implementations of the MidSTAR model if necessary, as long as the structure remains within the center of gravity requirements. The load-bearing structure of the octagon consists of the top and bottom decks, connected at the eight corners by stringers. The side panels of the spacecraft are 1/8" aluminum panels mounted to the stringers with #10 bolts. Command and Data Handling (C&DH) The mission of the Command and Data Handling System (C&DH) is to receive and execute commands; collect, store, and transmit house-keeping data; and support the onboard payloads. The flight computer is designed to control the satellite and manage telemetry and experiment data for a minimum of two years. The C&DH system consists of a custom-modified MIP405-3X single board computer which included (i) 133 MHz PowerPC processor; (ii) 128 MB ECC; (iii) 4 RS-232 asynchronous serial ports; (iv) 1 Ethernet Port; (v) a PC/104 bus; (vi) a PC/104+ bus; and, (vi) a 202-D384-X Disc on Chip providing 384 MB of secondary storage. The computer board is supported by an ESCC-104 Synchronous Serial Card with 2 synchronous serial ports, and an EMM-8M-XT Serial Expansion Card with 8 RS-232/422/485 asynchronous serial ports and 8 digital I/O channels. A modified I0485 data acquisition board provides 22 analog telemetry channels and 32 digital I/O channels. The decision to use the PowerPC based MIP405 over an x86 based board was based solely on the low power consumption of the board combined with the feature set. The choice was limited to x86, PowerPC, and ARM processor architectures because of a program decision to use the Linux operating system. The MIP405 integrates Ethernet, serial ports, and Disk-on-Chip interface on a single board while providing 128 MB of ECC memory and a powerful processor for under 2 watts. The closest x86 based system with comparable features found consumed 5 watts of power. The M-Systems Disk-on-Chip was chosen because it was the de facto standard flash memory harddisk replacement. Flash memory was chosen over a traditional hard disk to increase reliability and reduce power. The 384 MB version was chosen to provide the storage required for the operating system and still maintain adequate margin. The Diamond Systems Emerald-MM-8 was chosen for the asynchronous serial board based on its innate flexibility with any of the 8 ports capable of being configured as RS-232, RS-422, RS-485. RMV's IO485 data acquisition and control board was chosen for the distributed telemetry system because of built-in support for daisy chaining and handling a large number of boards. The integrated expandability is fundamental to addressing future telemetry issues in later versions of the MidSTAR line. The C&DH uses the Linux operating system with a 2.4 series kernel. To create an open software architecture the IP protocol stack was chosen to provide inter process, intra-satellite, and satellite-ground communications. This allowed programs created at different facilities on different hardware to be integrated with minimum difficulty. All internal and external communications use internet protocols. TCP is used for all internal satellite communications; UDP or MDP is used on the uplink and downlink. See also USNA MidSTAR Program eoPortal describes MidSTAR-1 References Satellite Internet access Satellites orbiting Earth Spacecraft launched in 2007 United States Naval Academy

4694085

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galle%20%28Martian%20crater%29

Galle (Martian crater)

Galle is a crater on Mars. It is located on the eastern rim of the huge impact basin Argyre Planitia in Argyre quadrangle. It is named after the German astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle. Galle is often known as the "happy face crater" because pareidolia causes a curved mountain range in the southern part of the crater and two smaller mountain clusters further north to appear to be a smiley face. The formation was first photographed by Viking Orbiter 1. A second "happy face crater", smaller than Galle and located at 45.1°S, 55.0°W in Nereidum Montes, was discovered by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter on January 28, 2008. Appearance in Watchmen As the smiley is a key motif in the comic book Watchmen by Alan Moore and Dave Gibbons, the crater was used as a story location after the coincidence was noted by Gibbons. According to Gibbons, the similarity "was almost too good to be true. I worried that if we put it in, people would never believe it." The crater also appears in the same scene during the film adaptation. Gallery See also "The Face on Mars" Galle (lunar crater) List of craters on Mars References External links The Galle Crater on NASA.gov Impact craters on Mars Argyre quadrangle Watchmen

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen%20Prizes

Bergen Prizes

The Bergen Prizes were three British merchantmen (Betsy, Union, and Charming Polly) that were captured by Captain Pierre Landais of the USS Alliance and John Paul Jones of the USS Bonhomme Richard in 1779. Landais, who had had numerous disagreements with Jones over the command of the squadron in European waters, sent the vessels to Bergen, Norway. Once there, they were repaired and handed back to the British consul, depriving their captors of the satisfaction of having hurt the enemy and of any hope of being rewarded for their efforts.. However, the subject of indemnity was broached by Jones, who turned up in person at Copenhagen. Ultimately, no payment was made by the Danish government due to the existence of a treaty signed between the English and Danish governments in 1660 that obligated Denmark to England. As a result, no reward was given to the captains or crew of the United States vessels responsible for the capture of the merchantmen until the United States Congress ratified reimbursement to Landais in 1806 and the heirs of Jones in 1848. Sources Dictionary of American History by James Truslow Adams, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1940 Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, United States Navy, 1959 Prize warfare Law of the sea

4696273

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hostis%20humani%20generis

Hostis humani generis

(Latin for 'an enemy of mankind') is a legal term of art that originates in admiralty law. Before the adoption of public international law, pirates and slavers were already held to be beyond legal protection and so could be dealt with by any nation, even one that had not been directly attacked. A comparison can be made between this concept and the common law "writ of outlawry", which declared a person outside the king's law, a literal out-law, subject to violence and execution by anyone. The ancient Roman civil law concept of proscription, and the status of conveyed by proscription may also be similar. Background Perhaps the oldest of the laws of the sea is the prohibition of piracy, as the peril of being set upon by pirates, who are not motivated by national allegiance, is shared by the vessels and mariners of all nations, and thus represents a crime upon all nations. Since classical antiquity, pirates have been held to be individuals waging private warfare, a private campaign of sack and pillage, against not only their victims, but against all nations, and thus, those engaging in piracy hold the particular status of being regarded as , the enemy of humanity. Since piracy anywhere is a peril to every mariner and ship everywhere, it is held to be the universal right and the universal duty of all nations, regardless of whether their ships have been beset by the particular band of pirates in question, to capture, try by a regularly constituted court-martial or admiralty court (in extreme circumstances, by means of a drumhead court-martial convened by the officers of the capturing ship), and, if found guilty, to execute the pirate via means of hanging from the yard-arm of the capturing ship, an authoritative custom of the sea. Although summary battlefield punishment was conducted by certain nations at certain times with regard to pirates, it was regarded as irregular (but lawful if the attenuation of due process was dictated by urgent military necessity), as individuals captured with pirates could potentially have a defense to charges of piracy, such as coercion. For instance, in early 1831, the 250-strong crew captured off Ascension was brought to Ascension and summarily hanged, as they were acting in a rebellious manner and threatening to overthrow the 30-man crew of , a British sloop-of-war, which took them captive. As the summary punishment, in this case, was due to military necessity, there was clear evidence of the offense, and it was done proximate in time and location to the battlefield, it can be classified as merely irregular, and not a violation of the custom of the sea. Theorized extended usages of the term The land and airborne analogues of pirates, bandits and hijackers are not subject to universal jurisdiction in the same way as piracy; this is despite arguments that they should be. Instead these crimes, along with terrorism, torture, crimes against internationally protected persons and the financing of terrorism are subject to the aut dedere aut judicare principle (meaning prosecute or extradite). In the current global climate of international terrorism some commentators have called for terrorists of all sorts to be treated hostis humani generis. Other commentators, such as John Yoo, have called for the extension of this hypothetical connection of hostis humani generis from pirates to hijackers to terrorists all the way to that of "unlawful enemy combatants". Unlawful enemy combatants, or persons captured in war who do not fight on behalf of a recognized sovereign state, have become an increasingly common phenomenon in contemporary wars, such as the War in Afghanistan, Iraq War, Chechen Wars and Syrian Civil War. Actual extended usages of the term The only actual extension of blessed by courts of law has been its extension to torturers. This has been done by decisions of U.S. and international courts; specifically, in a case tried in the United States in 1980, Filártiga v. Peña-Irala, 630 F.2d 876, the United States 2nd Circuit Court ruled that it could exercise jurisdiction over agents of the Alfredo Stroessner military dictatorship of Paraguay (in their individual capacity) who were found to have committed the crime of torture against a Paraguayan citizen, using its jurisdiction under the Offenses Clause of the Constitution of the United States, the Alien Tort Claims Act, and customary international law. In deciding this, the court famously stated that "Indeed, for purposes of civil liability, the torturer has become like the pirate and slave trader before him: , an enemy of all mankind." This usage of the term has been reinforced by the ruling of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia in the conviction of a torturer in Prosecutor v. Furundžija. In the Eichmann trial of 1961, the Jerusalem District Court did not explicitly deem Adolf Eichmann a . The prosecution, however, invoked the standard, ultimately cited in the verdict by reference to piracy. See also Aut dedere aut judicare Banning Habeas corpus Homo sacer Outlawry Persona non grata Torture Universal jurisdiction Protect America Act Section 105B(l) November 13, 2001 Presidential Military Order References Universal jurisdiction Law of the sea Piracy law Anti-piracy International criminal law Latin legal terminology

4700088

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20John%27s%20Day

St. John's Day

St. John's Day may refer to: Feasts celebrating the Nativity of Saint John the Baptist: January 7, an Eastern Orthodox feast June 24, Midsummer Day an Eastern Orthodox feast celebrating his birth a Roman Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican feast celebrating his birth Fête St-Jean-Baptiste Festival of San Juan Saint Jonas Day Jaaniõhtu Festa Junina See also Saint John's Eve August 29, an Eastern Orthodox feast commemorating his beheading September 23 an Eastern Orthodox feast celebrating his conception a Roman Catholic and Lutheran feast celebrating his conception Thout 2, a Coptic Orthodox feast Dehwa Daimana (Mandaean feast): 1st day of Hiṭia, the 11th month of the Mandaean calendar Feasts celebrating John the Evangelist December 27, a Roman Catholic, Lutheran, and Anglican feast May 8, an Eastern Orthodox feast See also Saint John's Day sr:Јовањдан

4700242

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars%20sample-return%20mission

Mars sample-return mission

A Mars sample-return (MSR) mission is a proposed mission to collect rock and dust samples on Mars and return them to Earth. Such a mission would allow more extensive analysis than that allowed by onboard sensors. The most recent concepts are a NASA-ESA proposal; a CNSA proposal, Tianwen-3; a Roscosmos proposal, Mars-Grunt; and a JAXA proposal, Martian Moons eXploration (MMX). Although NASA and ESA's plans to return the samples to Earth are still in the design stage , samples have been gathered on Mars by the Perseverance rover. Risks of cross-contamination of the Earth biosphere from returned Martian samples have been raised, though the risk of this occurring is considered to be extremely low. Scientific value Once returned to Earth, stored samples can be studied with the most sophisticated science instruments available. Thomas Zurbuchen, associate administrator for science at NASA Headquarters in Washington, expect such studies to allow several new discoveries at many fields. Samples may be reanalyzed in the future by instruments that do not yet exist. In 2006, the Mars Exploration Program Analysis Group identified 55 important investigations related to Mars exploration. In 2008, they concluded that about half of the investigations "could be addressed to one degree or another by MSR", making MSR "the single mission that would make the most progress towards the entire list" of investigations. Moreover, it was reported that a significant fraction of the investigations could not be meaningfully advanced without returned samples. One source of Mars samples is what are thought to be Martian meteorites, which are rocks ejected from Mars that made their way to Earth. , 356 meteorites had been identified as Martian, out of over 79,000 known meteorites. These meteorites are believed to be from Mars because their elemental and isotopic compositions are similar to rocks and atmospheric gases analyzed on Mars. History Before 1990 Returning from Mars appeared in technical literature when Apollo was still in development and the first spacecraft to fly past Mars had not yet launched, with an expectation that people would be on board for Mars ascent. The density of the Mars atmosphere remained unknown at that time, so the Lockheed engineering author reported the analysis of trajectory options over a range of aerodynamic drag conditions for a 15-ton launch vehicle to reach a rendezvous orbit. At NASA, returning samples from Mars was studied jointly by the Langley Research Center and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in the early 1970s during the time that the Viking Mars lander mission was in development, and a Langley author noted that the "Mars surface-to-orbit launch vehicle" would need high performance because its mass would "have a substantial impact on the mass and systems requirements" for earlier mission phases, delivery of that vehicle to Mars and launch preparations on Mars. For at least three decades, scientists have advocated the return of geological samples from Mars. One early concept was the Sample Collection for Investigation of Mars (SCIM) proposal, which involved sending a spacecraft in a grazing pass through Mars's upper atmosphere to collect dust and air samples without landing or orbiting. The Soviet Union considered a Mars sample-return mission, Mars 5NM, in 1975 but it was cancelled due to the repeated failures of the N1 rocket that would have launched it. Another sample-return mission, Mars 5M (Mars-79), planned for 1979, was cancelled due to complexity and technical problems. In the mid-1980's, JPL mission planners noted that MSR had been "pushed by budgetary and other pressures into the '90s," and that the round trip would "impose large propulsion requirements." They presented a notional mass budget for a concept that would launch a 9.5-metric-ton payload from Earth, including a Mars orbiter for Earth return, and a lander having a 400-kg rover and a "Mars return vehicle" that would mass over 2 metric tons. A 20-kg sample canister would arrive at Earth containing 5 kg of samples including scientific-quality cores drilled from every type of Mars terrain. In the late 1980s, multiple NASA centers contributed to a proposed Mars Rover Sample Return mission (MRSR). As described by JPL authors, one option for MRSR relied on a single launch of a 12-ton package including a Mars orbiter and Earth return vehicle, a 700-kg rover, and a 2.7-ton Mars ascent vehicle (MAV) which would use pump-fed liquid propulsion for a significant mass saving. A 20-kg sample package on the MAV was to contain 5 kg of Mars soil. A Johnson Space Center author subsequently referred to a launch from Earth in 1998 with a MAV mass in the range 1400 to 1500 kg including a pump-fed first stage and a pressure-fed second stage. 1990 onward The United States' Mars Exploration Program, formed after Mars Observer failure in September 1993, supported a Mars sample return. One architecture was proposed by Glenn J. MacPherson in the early 2000s. In 1996, the possibility of life on Mars was raised when apparent microfossils were thought to have been found in Mars meteorite, ALH84001. This hypothesis was eventually rejected, but led to a renewed interest in a Mars sample return. In the mid-1990s, NASA funded JPL and Lockheed Martin to study affordable small-scale MSR mission architectures including a concept to return 500 grams of Mars samples using a 100-kg MAV that would meet a small Mars orbiter for rendezvous and return to Earth. Robert Zubrin, a long-time advocate for human Mars missions, concluded in 1996 that the best approach to MSR would be launching directly to Earth using propellants made on Mars, because a rendezvous in Mars orbit would be too risky and he estimated that a direct-return MAV would mass 500 kg, too heavy to send to Mars affordably if fully fueled on Earth. International peer reviewers concurred. In 1997, a detailed analysis of conventional small-scale rocket technology (both solid and liquid propellant) found that known propulsion components would be too heavy to build a MAV as lightweight as several hundred kilograms and "The application of launch vehicle design principles to the development of new hardware on a tiny scale" was suggested. In 1998, JPL presented a design for a two-stage pressure-fed liquid bipropellant MAV that would be 600 kilograms or less at Mars liftoff, intended for a MSR mission in 2005. The same JPL author collaborated on a notional single-stage 200-kg MAV intended to be made small by using pump-fed propulsion to permit lightweight low-pressure liquid propellant tanks and compact high-pressure thrust chambers. This mass advantage of pump-fed operation was applied to a conceptual 100-kg MAV having a mass budget consistent with reaching Mars orbit using monopropellant, partly enabled by the simplicity of a single tank, also applicable to Mars landing typically done with monopropellant. The high-pressure thrusters and pump had previously been demonstrated in the 1994 flight of an experimental 21-kg rocket. As of late 1999, the MSR mission was anticipated to be launched from Earth in 2003 and 2005. Each was to deliver a rover and a Mars ascent vehicle, and a French supplied Mars orbiter with Earth return capability was to be included in 2005. The 140-kg MAV, "in the process of being contracted to industry" at that time, was to include telemetry on its first stage and thrusters that would spin the vehicle to 300 RPM before separation of the simplified lightweight upper stage. Atop each MAV, a 3.6-kg, 16-cm diameter spherical payload would contain 500 grams of samples and have solar cells to power a long-life beacon to facilitate rendezvous with the Earth return orbiter. The orbiter would capture the sample containers delivered by both MAVs and place them in separate Earth entry vehicles. This mission concept, considered by NASA's Mars Exploration Program to return samples by 2008, was cancelled following a program review. In mid-2006, the International Mars Architecture for the Return of Samples (iMARS) Working Group was chartered by the International Mars Exploration Working Group (IMEWG) to outline the scientific and engineering requirements of an internationally sponsored and executed Mars sample-return mission in the 2018–2023 time frame. In October 2009, NASA and ESA established the Mars Exploration Joint Initiative to proceed with the ExoMars program, whose ultimate aim is "the return of samples from Mars in the 2020s". ExoMars's first mission was planned to launch in 2018 with unspecified missions to return samples in the 2020–2022 time frame. The cancellation of the caching rover MAX-C in 2011, and later NASA withdrawal from ExoMars, due to budget limitations, ended the mission. The pull-out was described as "traumatic" for the science community. In early 2011, the US National Research Council's Planetary Science Decadal Survey, which laid out mission planning priorities for the period 2013–2022, declared an MSR campaign its highest priority Flagship Mission for that period. In particular, it endorsed the proposed Mars Astrobiology Explorer-Cacher (MAX-C) mission in a "descoped" (less ambitious) form. This mission plan was officially cancelled in April 2011. A key mission requirement for the Mars 2020 Perseverance rover mission was that it help prepare for MSR. The rover landed on 18 February 2021 in Jezero Crater to collect samples and store them in 43 cylindrical tubes for later retrieval. Mars 2020 mission The Mars 2020 mission landed the Perseverance rover in the Jezero crater in February 2021. It has collected multiple samples and will continue to do so, packing them into cylinders for later return in the MSR Campaign. Jezero appears to be an ancient lakebed, suitable for ground sampling. It is also assigned the task to return the samples directly to the Sample Return lander, considering its potential mission longevity. From December 21, 2022, Perseverance started a campaign to deposit 10 of its collected samples to the backup depot, Three Forks to ensure if Perseverance runs into problems, the MSR campaign could still succeed. Proposals NASA–ESA The NASA-ESA flagship plan is to return samples using three missions: a sample collection mission (Perseverance) launched in 2020 and currently operational, a sample retrieval mission (Sample Retrieval Lander + Mars ascent vehicle + Sample Transfer arm + 2 Ingenuity class helicopters) launched in 2026 or 2028, and a return mission (Earth Return Orbiter) in 2026. The mission hopes to resolve the question of whether Mars once harbored life. Although NASA and ESA's proposal is still in the design stage and facing significant cost overruns as of August 2023, the first leg of gathering samples is currently being executed by the Perseverance rover on Mars and the components of sample retrieval lander (second leg) are in testing phase on earth. China China has announced plans for a Mars sample-return mission to be called Tianwen-3. The mission would launch in late-2028, with a lander and ascent vehicle on a Long March 5 and an orbiter and return module launched separately on a Long March 3B. Samples would be returned to Earth in July 2031. A previous plan would have used a large spacecraft that could carry out all mission phases, including sample collection, ascent, orbital rendezvous, and return flight. This would have required the super-heavy-lift Long March 9 launch vehicle. Another plan involved using Tianwen-1 to cache the samples for retrieval. France France has worked towards a sample return for many years. This included concepts of an extraterrestrial sample curation facility for returned samples, and numerous proposals. They worked on the development of a Mars sample-return orbiter, which would capture and return the samples as part of a joint mission with other countries. Japan On 9 June 2015, the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) unveiled a plan named Martian Moons Exploration (MMX) to retrieve samples from Phobos or Deimos. Phobos's orbit is closer to Mars and its surface may have captured particles blasted from Mars. The launch from Earth is planned for September 2024, with a return to Earth in 2029. Japan has also shown interest in participating in an international Mars sample-return mission. Russia A Russian Mars sample-return mission concept is Mars-Grunt. It adopted Fobos-Grunt design heritage. 2011 plans envisioned a two-stage architecture with an orbiter and a lander (but no roving capability), with samples gathered from around the lander by a robotic arm. Back contamination Whether life forms exist on Mars is unresolved. Thus, MSR could potentially transfer viable organisms to Earth, resulting in back contamination — the introduction of extraterrestrial organisms into Earth's biosphere. The scientific consensus is that the potential for large-scale effects, either through pathogenesis or ecological disruption, is small. Returned samples would be treated as potentially biohazardous until scientists decide the samples are safe. The goal is that the probability of release of a Mars particle is less than one in a million. The proposed NASA Mars sample-return mission will not be approved by NASA until the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) process has been completed. Furthermore, under the terms of Article VII of the Outer Space Treaty and other legal frameworks, were a release of organisms to occur, the releasing nation(s) would be liable for any resultant damages. The sample-return mission would be tasked with preventing contact between the Martian environment and the exterior of the sample containers. In order to eliminate the risk of parachute failure, the current plan is to use the thermal protection system to cushion the capsule upon impact (at terminal velocity). The sample container would be designed to withstand the force of impact. To receive the returned samples, NASA proposed a custom Biosafety Level 4 containment facility, the Mars Sample-Return Receiving facility (MSRRF). Other scientists and engineers, notably Robert Zubrin of the Mars Society, argued in the Journal of Cosmology that contamination risk is functionally zero leaving little need to worry. They cite, among other things, lack of any known incident although trillions of kilograms of material have been exchanged between Mars and Earth via meteorite impacts. The International Committee Against Mars Sample Return (ICAMSR) is an advocacy group led by Barry DiGregorio, that campaigns against a Mars sample-return mission. While ICAMSR acknowledges a low probability for biohazards, it considers the proposed containment measures to be unsafe. ICAMSR advocates more in situ studies on Mars, and preliminary biohazard testing at the International Space Station before the samples are brought to Earth. DiGregorio accepts the conspiracy theory of a NASA coverup regarding the discovery of microbial life by the 1976 Viking landers. DiGregorio also supports a view that several pathogens – such as common viruses – originate in space and probably caused some mass extinctions and pandemics. These claims connecting terrestrial disease and extraterrestrial pathogens have been rejected by the scientific community. See also Timeline of Solar System exploration References External links Mars Sample return media reel produced by NASA and JPL (video) Chinese space probes European Space Agency space probes Missions to Mars Proposed astrobiology space missions Proposed NASA space probes

4709501

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space%20weathering

Space weathering

Space weathering is the type of weathering that occurs to any object exposed to the harsh environment of outer space. Bodies without atmospheres (including the Moon, Mercury, the asteroids, comets, and most of the moons of other planets) take on many weathering processes: collisions of galactic cosmic rays and solar cosmic rays, irradiation, implantation, and sputtering from solar wind particles, and bombardment by different sizes of meteorites and micrometeorites. Space weathering is important because these processes affect the physical and optical properties of the surface of many planetary bodies. Therefore, it is critical to understand the effects of space weathering in order to properly interpret remotely sensed data. History Much of our knowledge of the space weathering process comes from studies of the lunar samples returned by the Apollo program, particularly the lunar soils (or regolith). The constant flux of high energy particles and micrometeorites, along with larger meteorites, act to comminute, melt, sputter and vaporize components of the lunar soil. The first products of space weathering that were recognized in lunar soils were "agglutinates". These are created when micrometeorites melt a small amount of material, which incorporates surrounding glass and mineral fragments into a glass-welded aggregate ranging in size from a few micrometers to a few millimeters. Agglutinates are very common in lunar soil, accounting for as much as 60 to 70% of mature soils. These complex and irregularly-shaped particles appear black to the human eye, largely due to the presence of nanophase iron. Space weathering also produces surface-correlated products on individual soil grains, such as glass splashes; implanted hydrogen, helium and other gases; solar flare tracks; and accreted components, including nanophase iron. It wasn't until the 1990s that improved instruments, in particular transmission electron microscopes, and techniques allowed for the discovery of very thin (60-200 nm) patinas, or rims, which develop on individual lunar soil grains as a result of the redepositing of vapor from nearby micrometeorite impacts and the redeposition of material sputtered from nearby grains. These weathering processes have large effects on the spectral properties of lunar soil, particularly in the ultraviolet, visible, and near infrared (UV/Vis/NIR) wavelengths. These spectral changes have largely been attributed to the inclusions of "nanophase iron" which is a ubiquitous component of both agglutinates and soil rims. These very small (one to a few hundred nanometers in diameter) blebs of metallic iron are created when iron-bearing minerals (e.g. olivine and pyroxene) are vaporized and the iron is liberated and redeposited in its native form. Effects on spectral properties On the Moon, the spectral effects of space weathering are threefold: as the lunar surface matures it becomes darker (the albedo is reduced), redder (reflectance increases with increasing wavelength), and the depth of its diagnostic absorption bands are reduced These effects are largely due to the presence of nanophase iron in both the agglutinates and in the accreted rims on individual grains. The darkening effects of space weathering are readily seen by studying lunar craters. Young, fresh craters have bright ray systems, because they have exposed fresh, unweathered material, but over time those rays disappear as the weathering process darkens the material. Space weathering on asteroids Space weathering is also thought to occur on asteroids, though the environment is quite different from the Moon. Impacts in the asteroid belt are slower, and therefore create less melt and vapor. Also, fewer solar wind particles reach the asteroid belt. And finally, the higher rate of impactors and lower gravity of the smaller bodies means that there is more overturn and the surface exposure ages should be younger than the lunar surface. Therefore, space weathering should occur more slowly and to a lesser degree on the surfaces of asteroids. However, we do see evidence for asteroidal space weathering. For years there had been a so-called "conundrum" in the planetary science community because, in general, the spectra of asteroids do not match the spectra of our collection of meteorites. Particularly, the spectra of S-type asteroids, did not match the spectra of the most abundant type of meteorites, ordinary chondrites (OCs). The asteroid spectra tended to be redder with a steep curvature in the visible wavelengths. However, Binzel et al. have identified near Earth asteroids with spectral properties covering the range from S-type to spectra similar to those of OC meteorites, suggesting an ongoing process is occurring that can alter the spectra of OC material to look like S-type asteroids. There is also evidence of regolith alteration from Galileo's flybys of Gaspra and Ida showing spectral differences at fresh craters. With time, the spectra of Ida and Gaspra appear to redden and lose spectral contrast. Evidence from NEAR Shoemaker's x-ray measurements of Eros indicate an ordinary chondrite composition despite a red-sloped, S-type spectrum, again suggesting that some process has altered the optical properties of the surface. Results from the Hayabusa spacecraft at the asteroid Itokawa, also ordinary chondrite in composition, shows spectral evidence of space weathering. In addition, definitive evidence of space weathering alteration has been identified in the grains of soil returned by the Hayabusa spacecraft. Because Itokawa is so small (550 m diameter), it was thought that the low gravity would not allow for the development of a mature regolith, however, preliminary examination of the returned samples reveals the presence of nanophase iron and other space weathering effects on several grains. In addition, there is evidence that weathering patinas can and do develop on rock surfaces on the asteroid. Such coatings are likely similar to the patinas found on lunar rocks. There is evidence to suggest most of the color change due to weathering occurs rapidly, in the first hundred thousands years, limiting the usefulness of spectral measurement for determining the age of asteroids. Space weathering on Mercury The environment on Mercury also differs substantially from the Moon. For one thing, it is significantly hotter in the day (diurnal surface temperature ~100 °C for the Moon, ~425 °C on Mercury) and colder at night, which may alter the products of space weathering. In addition, because of its location in the Solar System, Mercury is also subjected to a slightly larger flux of micrometeorites that impact at much higher velocities than the Moon. These factors combine to make Mercury much more efficient than the Moon at creating both melt and vapor. Per unit area, impacts on Mercury are expected to produce 13.5x the melt and 19.5x the vapor than is produced on the Moon. Agglutinitic glass-like deposits and vapor-deposited coatings should be created significantly faster and more efficiently on Mercury than on the Moon. The UV/Vis spectrum of Mercury, as observed telescopically from Earth, is roughly linear, with a red slope. There are no absorption bands related to Fe-bearing minerals, such as pyroxene. This means that either there is no iron on the surface of Mercury, or else the iron in the Fe-bearing minerals has been weathered to nanophase iron. A weathered surface would then explain the reddened slope. See also Space climate Space weather References Further reading Planetary science Space science Lunar science

4710310

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmonautics%20Day

Cosmonautics Day

Cosmonautics Day () is an anniversary celebrated in Russia and some other post-Soviet states on 12 April. In Poland, an "International Day of Aviation and Cosmonautics" () is celebrated on the same day. In 2011, at the 65th session of the United Nations General Assembly, 12 April was declared as the International Day of Human Space Flight in dedication of the first crewed space flight made on 12 April 1961 by the 27-year-old Soviet Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin. Gagarin orbited the Earth for 1 hour and 48 minutes aboard the Vostok 1 spacecraft. History The commemorative day was established in the Soviet Union one year later, on 9 April 1962. In modern Russia, it is celebrated in accordance with Article 1.1 of the Law "On the Days of Military Glory and the Commemorative Dates in Russia". Gagarin's flight was a triumph for the Soviet space program, and opened a new era in the history of space exploration. Gagarin became a national hero of the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc and a famous figure around the world. Major newspapers around the globe published his biography and details of his flight. Moscow and other cities in the USSR held mass demonstrations, the scale of which was second only to World War II Victory Parades. Gagarin was escorted in a long motorcade of high-ranking officials through the streets of Moscow to the Kremlin where, in a lavish ceremony, he was awarded the highest Soviet honour, the title of Hero of the Soviet Union, by the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev. Nowadays the commemoration ceremony on Cosmonautics Day starts in the city of Korolyov, near Gagarin's statue. Participants then proceed under police escort to Red Square for a visit to Gagarin's grave in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis, and continue to Cosmonauts Alley, near the Monument to the Conquerors of Space. Finally, the festivities conclude with a visit to the Novodevichy Cemetery. In 1968, the 61st conference of the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale resolved to celebrate this day as the World Aviation and Astronautics Day. On 12 April 1981, exactly 20 years after Vostok 1, a Space Shuttle (STS-1, Columbia) was launched for the first orbital flight, although this was a coincidence as the launch of STS-1 had been delayed for two days. On 7 April 2011, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution declaring 12 April as the International Day of Human Space Flight. In the 1960s the song 14 минут до старта ("14 Minutes Until Start") written by Oscar Feltsman and Vladimir Voynovich was considered the unofficial "anthem of cosmonautics" and regularly aired on this day in the USSR. Adapted into a march, it is played in all military parades as a sort of march past of the Russian Space Forces. In the 1980s it was eclipsed by the hit Трава у дома ("Grass by the Home") performed by the Russian VIA band Zemlyane ("The Earthlings"). The latter song was awarded the official status of the anthem of Russian Cosmonautics in 2009. Russian cosmonauts have traditionally taken this song with them getting assigned for orbital deployments. Since 2001, Yuri's Night, also known as the "World's Space party", is held every 12 April worldwide to commemorate milestones in space exploration. On 12 April 2017, the United Nations commemorated the "International Day of Human Space Flight" to celebrate the 56th anniversary of the first human space flight, which ushered in the beginning of the space era for mankind. Gallery In philately and numismatics See also Astronauts Day Yuri's Night References Anniversaries April observances Articles containing video clips Observances in Russia Public holidays in the Soviet Union Science commemorations Space advocacy Space program of Russia Space program of the Soviet Union Spring (season) events in Russia United Nations days Yuri Gagarin

4713770

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nightride%20and%20Sunrise

Nightride and Sunrise

Nightride and Sunrise (in Finnish: ) is a single-movement tone poem for orchestra written in 1908 by the Finnish composer Jean Sibelius. Sibelius gave different accounts of the inspiration for this music. One, told to Karl Ekman, was that it was inspired by his first visit to the Colosseum in Rome, in 1901. Another account, given in his later years to his secretary Santeri Levas, was that the inspiration was a sleigh ride from Helsinki to Kerava "at some time around the turn of the century", during which he saw a striking sunrise. Orchestration Sibelius scored the work for piccolo, 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, bass clarinet, 2 bassoons, contrabassoon, 4 horns (doubled if possible in the Sunrise), 2 trumpets, 3 trombones, tuba, timpani, bass drum, snare drum, tambourine, triangle and strings. Background Sibelius completed the score by November 1908 and sent the manuscript to Alexander Siloti, who conducted the first performance, in Saint Petersburg, in 1909. The reviews of the first performance were unfavorable, except for one in Novy Russ, and one reviewer called Siloti's conducting "slack and monotonous". A writer for Novoye Vremya asked, "Who is actually riding, and why?" Siloti had made cuts to the score. The work represents a subjective, spiritual experience of nature by "an ordinary man." It unfolds in three contrasting parts: a galloping section whose length and dogged determination produce one of Sibelius's strangest utterances; a brief hymnic transition in the strings; and an exquisite Northern sunrise whose first rays emerge in the horns. A typical performance takes about fourteen minutes. Recordings In July 1956, the piece was recorded by Sir Adrian Boult and the London Philharmonic Orchestra. References Sources External links On-line biography of Jean Sibelius, "Inner voices 1908-1914". Symphonic poems by Jean Sibelius 1908 compositions Colosseum Morning

4713880

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20telescope

Solar telescope

A solar telescope is a special purpose telescope used to observe the Sun. Solar telescopes usually detect light with wavelengths in, or not far outside, the visible spectrum. Obsolete names for Sun telescopes include heliograph and photoheliograph. Professional solar telescopes Solar telescopes need optics large enough to achieve the best possible diffraction limit but less so for the associated light-collecting power of other astronomical telescopes. However, recently newer narrower filters and higher framerates have also driven solar telescopes towards photon-starved operations. Both the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope as well as the proposed European Solar Telescope (EST) have larger apertures not only to increase the resolution, but also to increase the light-collecting power. Because solar telescopes operate during the day, seeing is generally worse than for night-time telescopes, because the ground around the telescope is heated, which causes turbulence and degrades the resolution. To alleviate this, solar telescopes are usually built on towers and the structures are painted white. The Dutch Open Telescope is built on an open framework to allow the wind to pass through the complete structure and provide cooling around the telescope's main mirror. Another solar telescope-specific problem is the heat generated by the tightly-focused sunlight. For this reason, a heat stop is an integral part of the design of solar telescopes. For the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope, the heat load is 2.5 MW/m2, with peak powers of 11.4 kW. The goal of such a heat stop is not only to survive this heat load, but also to remain cool enough not to induce any additional turbulence inside the telescope's dome. Professional solar observatories may have main optical elements with very long focal lengths (although not always, Dutch Open Telescope) and light paths operating in a vacuum or helium to eliminate air motion due to convection inside the telescope. However, this is not possible for apertures over 1 meter, at which the pressure difference at the entrance window of the vacuum tube becomes too large. Therefore, the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope and the EST have active cooling of the dome to minimize the temperature difference between the air inside and outside the telescope. Due to the sun's narrow path across the sky, some solar telescopes are fixed in position (and are sometimes buried underground), with the only moving part being a heliostat to track the Sun. One example of this is the McMath-Pierce Solar Telescope. Selected solar telescopes The Einstein Tower (Einsteinturm) became operational in 1924 McMath-Pierce Solar Telescope (1.6 m diameter, 1961–) Andrei Severny Solar Telescope (90 cm diameter, 1954–) in Crimea Multi-purpose automated solar telescope (80 cm diameter) in Republic of Buryatia, Russia Large solar vacuum telescope (76 cm diameter, 1980-) on the coast of lake Baikal, Russia McMath-Hulbert Observatory (24"/61 cm diameter, 1941–1979) Swedish Vacuum Solar Telescope (47.5 cm diameter, 1985–2000) Swedish 1-m Solar Telescope (1 m diameter, 2002–) Richard B. Dunn Solar Telescope (0.76 m diameter, 1969–) Mount Wilson Observatory Dutch Open Telescope (45 cm diameter, 1997–) The Teide Observatory hosts multiple solar telescopes, including the 70 cm Vacuum Tower Telescope (1989–) and the 1.5 m GREGOR Solar Telescope (2012–]). Goode Solar Telescope (1.6 m, 2009-) Chinese Large Solar Telescope (CLST) (180 cm diameter, 2019–) Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope (DKIST), a telescope with 4m aperture. European Solar Telescope (EST), a proposed 4-meter class aperture telescope. Chinese Giant Solar Telescope (CGST), a proposed 5-8 meter aperture telescope. National Large Solar Telescope (NLST), is a Gregorian multi-purpose open telescope proposed to be built and installed in India and aims to study the Sun's microscopic structure. Other types of observation Most solar observatories observe optically at visible, UV, and near infrared wavelengths, but other solar phenomena can be observed — albeit not from the Earth's surface due to the absorption of the atmosphere: Solar X-ray astronomy, observations of the Sun in x-rays Multi-spectral solar telescope array (MSSTA), a rocket launched payload of UV telescopes in the 1990s Leoncito Astronomical Complex operated a submillimeter wavelength solar telescope. The Radio Solar Telescope Network (RSTN) is a network of solar observatories maintained and operated by the U.S. Air Force Weather Agency. CERN Axion Solar Telescope (CAST), looks for solar axions in the early 2000s Amateur solar telescopes In the field of amateur astronomy there are many methods used to observe the Sun. Amateurs use everything from simple systems to project the Sun on a piece of white paper, light blocking filters, Herschel wedges which redirect 95% of the light and heat away from the eyepiece, up to hydrogen-alpha filter systems and even home built spectrohelioscopes. In contrast to professional telescopes, amateur solar telescopes are usually much smaller. With a conventional telescope, an extremely dark filter at the opening of the primary tube is used to reduce the light of the sun to tolerable levels. Since the full available spectrum is observed, this is known as "white-light" viewing, and the opening filter is called a "white-light filter". The problem is that even reduced, the full spectrum of white light tends to obscure many of the specific features associated with solar activity, such as prominences and details of the chromosphere (i.e., the surface). Specialized solar telescopes facilitate clear observation of such H-alpha emissions by using a bandwidth filter implemented with a Fabry-Perot etalon. See also List of solar telescopes List of telescope types Heliostat References External links * CSIRO Solar Heliograph part 2 Solar Gallery of an amateur astronomer Solar Gallery of the Hong Kong Astronomical Society Astronomical instruments Telescope

4718797

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5264%20Telephus

5264 Telephus

5264 Telephus is a large Jupiter trojan from the Greek camp, approximately in diameter. It was discovered on 17 May 1991, by American astronomer couple Carolyn and Eugene Shoemaker at the Palomar Observatory in California, and later named after King Telephus from Greek mythology. The dark and possibly elongated D-type asteroid belongs to the 50 largest Jupiter trojans and has a rotation period of 9.5 hours. Classification and orbit Telephus is a dark Jovian asteroid orbiting in the leading Greek camp at Jupiter's Lagrangian point, 60° ahead of the Gas Giant's orbit in a 1:1 resonance (see Trojans in astronomy). It is also a non-family asteroid in the Jovian background population. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 4.6–5.8 AU once every 11 years and 11 months (4,342 days; semi-major axis of 5.21 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.11 and an inclination of 34° with respect to the ecliptic. The asteroid was first observed as at the Purple Mountain Observatory in January 1965. The body's observation arc begins with a precovery taken at Palomar in January 1989, more than 2 years prior to its official discovery observation. Physical characteristics In both the Tholen- and SMASS-like taxonomy of the Small Solar System Objects Spectroscopic Survey (S3OS2), Telephus is a D-type asteroid. In the SDSS-based taxonomy, it is also a D-type, while the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link (CALL) assumes it to be a C-type. Rotation period In June 1994, photometric observations of this asteroid by astronomers Stefano Mottola and Anders Erikson with the Dutch 0.9-metre Telescope at ESO's La Silla Observatory, Chile, were used to build a lightcurve. It showed a rotation period of 9.518 hours with a brightness amplitude of magnitude (). In May 2015, Telephus was observed in Chile, using the 4-meter Víctor M. Blanco Telescope and its DECam with a red filter in Chile. The lightcurve gave a concurring period of 9.540 hours and an brightness variation of 0.20 in magnitude (). In May 2016, follow-up observation by Robert Stephens and Daniel Coley at the Center for Solar System Studies, California, and Linda French at Wesleyan University gave the so-far best rated period of hours with an amplitude of 0.47 (). Due to its higher than usual brightness variation, this Jovian asteroid is likely to have a non-spherical shape. Diameter and albedo According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, the asteroid measures between 68.47 and 81.38 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.043 and 0.072. CALL agrees with the results obtained by IRAS, and derives an albedo of 0.0571 with a diameter of 73.33 kilometers, based on an absolute magnitude of 9.4. Naming This minor planet was named from Greek mythology after King Telephus. He is the grandson of Zeus and son of Heracles, after whom the Apollo near-Earth asteroids 5731 Zeus and 5143 Heracles were named, respectively. Telephus was the son-in-law of King Priam of Troy, but fought with the Greeks in the Trojan War. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 12 July 1995 (). Notes References External links Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info ) Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (5001)-(10000) – Minor Planet Center 005264 Discoveries by Carolyn S. Shoemaker Discoveries by Eugene Merle Shoemaker Named minor planets 19910517

4718969

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2099%20%C3%96pik

2099 Öpik

2099 Öpik, provisional designation , is a dark and eccentric asteroid and Mars-crosser from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 5.1 kilometers in diameter. The asteroid was discovered on 8 November 1977, by American astronomer Eleanor Helin at the Palomar Observatory in California, and named after Estonian astronomer Ernst Öpik. Orbit and classification Öpik orbits the Sun in the inner main-belt at a distance of 1.5–3.1 AU once every 3 years and 6 months (1,277 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.36 and an inclination of 27° with respect to the ecliptic. The first used precovery was taken at the discovering observatory in 1970, extending the asteroid's observation arc by 7 years prior to its discovery. Physical characteristics Originally, the asteroid's spectral type was that of a bright S-type asteroid in the Tholen classification. More recently, it has been characterized as a dark Ch-type, a hydrated subtype of the carbonaceous C-type asteroids in the SMASS classification, which is in agreement with its low albedo (below). Diameter and albedo According to the survey carried out by NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Öpik measures 5.17 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.05. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.057 and calculates a diameter of 5.12 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 15.18. Rotation period In 2005, a photometric lightcurve analysis by several astronomers including Pierre Antonini, rendered a rotation period of hours and with a brightness amplitude of 0.21 in magnitude (), superseding the results of an observation from the 1990s that gave a longer period of 9.3 hours (). Naming This minor planet was named after Estonian astronomer and astrophysicist, Ernst Öpik (1893–1985), who has influenced many fields of astronomy during his 60-year long career. He is noted for developing the discipline of statistical celestial mechanics and for methods to estimate the lifetimes of planet-crossing asteroids. In the early 1950s, he calculated the impact probability of Mars-crossing asteroids with Mars, and concluded that a search for impact craters on Mars would be a fruitful. Fourteen years later, Martian craters were discovered by Mariner 4. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 1 November 1978 (). References External links Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info ) Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center 002099 Discoveries by Eleanor F. Helin Named minor planets 002099 002099 19771108

4723180

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/StreetWars

StreetWars

StreetWars is a three-week-long water gun "assassination" tournament that was founded in 2004 and still exists today, taking places in different cities around the world. Created by Franz Aliquo and Liao Yutai, the tournament was based on the college and high school game Assassin. The June 2007 issue of Maxim magazine had an article written by one of the participants of the 2006 London StreetWar. In August 2014, board game review show Shut Up & Sit Down released a podcast episode reviewing their experiences of the 2014 London StreetWar. History and background of the tournament The tournament is loosely based on the game Assassin, popular among some high school and college students. Aliquo and Liao took the game citywide and opened it to anyone above the age of 18, and changed it to a 3 week long, 24/7 format. Featured in the book "Spray," by Harry Edge, as a tournament known as Water Wars, with different directors than the actual game. The first StreetWars took place in the summer of 2004 in New York City; subsequent tournaments took place in Vancouver (2004), Vienna (2004), New York City (2005, 2006, 2008, 2009, 2014), San Francisco (2005, 2007, 2010, 2015), Los Angeles (2006), London (2006, 2007, 2010), Chicago (2007), and Paris (2007). StreetWars' last event was in 2015 in San Francisco and now seems to be defunct, with the last update made to its Facebook page in August 2016 and its website no longer live. Controversy Mayor Bloomberg blasts StreetWars In July 2005, when asked of his opinion on StreetWars, Mayor Mike Bloomberg of New York City said that the creators of StreetWars could probably 'use some psychiatric help'. Police concerns in London Before the start of the game in London in July 2006, police voiced concerns that the associated suspicious activities might lead to deployment of officers and waste of resources. The Shadow Government While StreetWars was created by Aliquo and Liao, the tournament itself is operated by an organization that calls itself "The Shadow Government", led by two mysterious figures known only as "Supreme Commander" and "Mustache Commander". His signature is a fedora, mandarin gown, pipe, bottle of Jack Daniels, and mustache. The "Mustache Commander" is the fictional alter ego of Yutai Liao, and the "Supreme Commander" – of Franz Aliquo. Alter ego of StreetWars co-creator, Yutai Liao, Mustache Commander made his first appearance in StreetWars during the San Francisco 2005 game. Previous to the SF 2005 game, there has only been the Supreme Commander and the mysterious "Assigner". The now famous giant bottle of Jack Daniel's that greets each and every player at the beginning of every tournament, started with the second appearance of the Mustache Commander (the first was with his signature fedora), in a tunnel in Golden Gate Park in the SF 2005 tournament. The Mustache Commander is now often portrayed with a bottle of Jack Daniel's in hand. Past winners Champions The 'Champion' is the last assassin standing at the end of the three-week regulation period, or the winner of the sudden death tournament. All games have ended in Sudden Death unless noted. NYC 2011 – Handsome Brandon – killed Supreme while hiding under a thimble (Brandon Sherman's Facebook page) London 2010 – Rob Gribbin (FFF). Last man standing NYC 2010 – Boba Fetch San Francisco 2010 – Deadspace NYC 2009 – Midnight Toker (Damien DeJesús's Facebook page) NYC 2008 – Aqua Man Paris 2007 – OSS 117 London 2007 – Alex Blue – 4Strength4Stam Leather Belt Chicago 2007 – Don Thacker (Website) San Francisco 2007 – James Flynn NYC 2006 – Mr. Peter Stevens London 2006 – Abi Davison-Jenkins and Anita Marsden LA 2006 – David Jackson San Francisco 2005 – Redeye Gonzales NYC 2005 – The Crazy 88's Most kills This award goes to the assassin with the most successful hits. NYC 2011 – Balls Deep (6 kills) London 2010 – Rob Gribbin, FFF (13 kills) NYC 2010 – Firefox San Francisco 2010 – The Shadow Warriors (9 kills) NYC 2009 – The River Rats (8 kills) NYC 2008 – Agent Orange (6 kills) Paris 2007 – Kone London 2007 – Robert Gribbin (11 kills) Chicago 2007 – Dos Lobos (5 kills) San Francisco 2007 – James Flynn (8 kills) NYC 2006 – Team Bushwick Country Club (Website) (11 kills) London 2006 – Robert Gribbin (9 kills) LA 2006 – Brandon Karrer (7 kills) San Francisco 2005 – Sandra Sunderland (7 kills) NYC 2005 – Amanda Keylor (7 kills) Golden Mustache Award A golden framed mustache from the Mustache Commander's own personal collection of mustaches, The Golden Mustache Award was first created in the London 2006 game as a reward for the assassin who successfully completes a contract placed on the heads of a wayward team by the Mustache Commander. The award has since been repurposed to live on in future games to acknowledge general excellence in the field of battle. NYC 2011 – The River Rats NYC 2010 – Gangster San Francisco 2010 – Toothless NYC 2009 – Bobby Drake NYC 2008 – The Hebrew Hammer Paris 2007 – Charly Brown (Frederic Gracia) London 2007 – Shed Squad ("hoo-ha!") Chicago 2007 – Maryanne of Team A.L.I.C.E. San Francisco 2007 – Danny Dawson (7 kills) NYC 2006 – Adrian Goins London 2006 – David Styles Killer2 Best Visual Kill Award San Francisco 2010 – The Aqua Men (view videos) NYC 2008 – Frankie the Hipster Slayer (view video) Chicago 2007 – Big Daddy (view video) SF2007 – Adam Williumsen (view video) LA 2006 – The Chi Squad (view video) See also Assassin (game) Urban gaming Alternate reality game References Sources News coverage Streetwars tournament reaches finale Channel 4 Special Report 21 Aug 2006 Real Life: From office employee to assassin with StreetWars CNET8 August 2006 Bloomberg Says Creator of StreetWars Could Probably 'Use Some Psychiatric Help' New York Sun July 26, 2005 Have gun, will squirt 130 compete in Street Wars game, where it's soak or be soaked San Francisco Chronicle November 19, 2005 Stalked by a (fake) assassin Asap (web portal) 7 October 2005 Games: A Runaway Hit Newsweek Aug. 22, 2005 On the streets of New York City, adults play a game of 'Assassins' The Record (Bergen County) August 7, 2005 Girl duo win Street Wars ITV Sun Aug 27 2006 Ever want to shoot a stranger? Well, you’re in luck Metro NY, SEP 8th 2006 A Shadowy, Wet World of Squirt-Gun Assassins The New York Times, Sep 26th 2008 Street Wars London 2010: The Bullets Rain Urban Travel Blog, Sep 18th 2010 External links Official StreetWars website Official Mustache Commander website Official Supreme Commander website StreetWars: Assassins Compete in London How Stuff Works Mustache Commander Flickr stream Live-action role-playing games Pervasive games Postmodern art Contemporary works of art Outdoor locating games Water guns Role-playing games introduced in 2004

4723506

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JCSAT-5A

JCSAT-5A

JCSAT-5A or N-STAR d, known as JCSAT-9 before launch, is a geostationary communications satellite operated by SKY Perfect JSAT Group (JSAT), which was designed and manufactured by Lockheed Martin on the A2100 platform. Satellite description The spacecraft was designed and manufactured by Lockheed Martin on the A2100-AX satellite bus. It had a launch mass of and a 12-year design life. It would provide communications services throughout Japan and Asia and for NTT DoCoMo.As most satellites based on the A2100-AX platform, it uses a LEROS-1C liquid apogee engine (LAE) for orbit raising. Its solar panels span when fully deployed, and, with its antennas in fully extended configurations it is wide. Its payload is consists of eight 54 MHz and twelve 36 MHz Ku-band transponders, twenty 36 MHz C-band transponders, and one S-band beam. The Ku-band transponders have a TWTA output power of 110 watts, a C-band of 45 watts, and a S beam of 130 watts. History On 30 April 2003, JSAT awarded an order for JCSAT-9 to Lockheed Martin and its A2100-AXS platform. Moreover in May 2003, JSAT leased some transponders to NTT DoCoMo to be used as N-STAR d for its WIDESTAR II service. A hybrid satellite with 20 C-band, 20 Ku-band, and 1 S-band transponders, it was expected to launch in 2005 for the 132° East slot. On 12 April 2006 at 23:29:59 UTC, a Zenit-3SL launching from the offshore Odyssey launch platform successfully orbited JCSAT-9. Separation from the launch vehicle occurred at 00:38:02 UTC. JSAT had leased some transponders to NTT DoCoMo to be used as N-STAR d. Once in its 132° East orbital position, it was renamed JCSAT-5A and N-STAR d. See also Sea Launch 2006 in spaceflight References Communications satellites in geostationary orbit Lockheed Martin satellites and probes Spacecraft launched in 2006 Spacecraft launched by Zenit and Energia rockets Satellites using the A2100 bus Communications satellites of Japan Satellites of Japan

4733927

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adivar%20%28crater%29

Adivar (crater)

Adivar is an impact crater on Venus, named in honor of Turkish writer Halide Edib Adıvar. The crater is located just north of the western Aphrodite highland (9 degrees north latitude, 76 degrees east longitude). Surrounding the crater rim is ejected material which appears bright in the radar image due to the presence of rough fractured rock. A much broader area has also been affected by the impact, particularly to the west of the crater. Radar-bright materials, including a jet-like streak just west of the crater, extend for over across the surrounding plains. A darker streak, in a horseshoe or paraboloidal shape, surrounds the bright area. Radar-dark (i.e., smooth) paraboloidal streaks were observed around craters in earlier Magellan images, but this is a rare bright crater streak. These unusual streaks, seen only on Venus, are believed to result from the interaction of crater materials (the meteoroid, ejecta, or both) and high-speed winds in the upper atmosphere. The precise mechanism that produces the streaks is poorly understood, but it is clear that the dense atmosphere of Venus plays an important role in the distribution of the ejected material. References Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Catalog Page for PIA00083. Catalog Page for PIA00083 Retrieved 4 September 2009. External links Magellan image Impact craters on Venus

4734149

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth%20%28Venusian%20crater%29

Ruth (Venusian crater)

Ruth is an impact crater on Venus. The crater, based on data provided by the Magellan spacecraft, has an estimated diameter of and an elevation (measured as local planetary radius in kilometers) of . References Impact craters on Venus

4734614

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint%20precision%20approach%20and%20landing%20system

Joint precision approach and landing system

The joint precision approach and landing system (JPALS) is a ship's system (CVN and LH type), all-weather landing system based on real-time differential correction of the Global Positioning System (GPS) signal, augmented with a local area correction message, and transmitted to the user via secure means. The onboard receiver compares the current GPS-derived position with the local correction signal, deriving a highly accurate three-dimensional position capable of being used for all-weather approaches via an Instrument Landing System-style display. While JPALS is similar to Local Area Augmentation System, but intended primarily for use by the military, some elements of JPALS may eventually see their way into civilian use to help protect high-value civilian operations against unauthorized signal alteration. History The development of JPALS was the result of two main military requirements. First, the military needs an all-service, highly mobile all-weather precision approach system, tailorable to a wide range of environments, from shipboard use to rapid installation at makeshift airfields. Second, they need a robust system that can maintain a high level of reliability in combat operations, particularly in its ability to effectively resist jamming. Operation JPALS encompasses two main categories: SRGPS (shipboard relative GPS) and LDGPS (land/local differential GPS). SRGPS provides highly accurate approach positioning for operations aboard ship, including aircraft carriers, helo and STO/VL carriers, and other shipboard operations, primarily helicopter operations. LDGPS is further divided into three sub-categories: fixed base, tactical, and special missions. Fixed base is used for ongoing operations at military airfields around the world, while the tactical system is portable, designed for relatively short-term, austere airfield operations. The special missions system is a highly portable system capable of rapid installation and use by special forces. Accuracy The accuracy of local area augmentation system (LAAS) is better than CAT III ILS accuracy, and will provide horizontal and vertical resolutions of less than 1 m. Although the exact accuracy of JPALS will remain classified, it's estimated that JPALS will meet or exceed this accuracy for authorized users. Benefits The main benefit of JPALS is that it's a system that can be taken anywhere, anytime, providing a safe and effective way to conduct 24/7, all-weather, anti-jam instrument landing system capability to all authorized users, worldwide. A secondary benefit is a significant reduction in cost over current systems. The naval version of JPALS transmits a signal that has a low probability of intercept; so it is unlikely that an enemy will detect the signal and trace it back to its source. The existing system, tactical air navigation (TACAN), is not encrypted or concealed in any way, which can reveal the location of the ship on which it is installed. This is not acceptable in emissions control (EMCON) or stealth conditions. The increase in both accuracy and reliability will significantly enhance operations while reducing non-operational periods due to weather or adversarial efforts. See also Local area augmentation system is a similar system for civilian usage. Wide area augmentation system Precision approach Instrument landing system Global Positioning System Differential GPS Microwave landing system Electronics technician References External links FAA GPS Programs FAA LAAS Fact Sheet Stanford JPALS Page Raytheon JPALS Product Page FAS JPALS Page GlobalSecurity.org's JPALS Page US Navy information US Navy images Aircraft landing systems Military aviation Global Positioning System

4735779

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%206872

NGC 6872

NGC 6872, also known as the Condor Galaxy, is a large barred spiral galaxy of type in the constellation Pavo. It is from Earth. is interacting with the lenticular galaxy , which is less than one twelfth as large. The galaxy has two elongated arms with a diameter based on ultraviolet light of over , and a D25.5 isophotal diameter of over , making it the largest known spiral galaxy. It was discovered on 27 June 1835 by English astronomer John Herschel. Star formation rates When observed in the ultraviolet and mid-infrared, the central region and bar of show old stars and low rates of star formation, with rates increasing along the spiral arms as distance from the core increases. The most active region of star formation, located in the northeast arm, shows a stellar flux around 1,000 times higher than in the central region, though this may be affected by the density of stellar dust in the core. The extended portions of both arms exhibit young star cluster formations with ages ranging from one to one hundred million years. Star formation rates in the northeast extended arm are twice that of the southwest extended arm, and five times the formation rate in the sections of the arms closer to the central region. Interaction with IC 4970 IC 4970 is a nearby lenticular galaxy, located only a few arcseconds away, and is known to be interacting with NGC 6872. Horrelou and Koribalski (2007), using a computer simulation to determine how the two galaxies were interacting, reported that approached nearly along the plane of its spiral disk, making its closest approach approximately 130 million years ago and resulting in the latter's current highly elongated shape. An ultraviolet-to-infrared study by Eufrasio, et al. (2013), using data from GALEX, Spitzer, and other resources found that the interaction between the two galaxies appears to have triggered significant star formation in the northeastern arm of beginning about from its nucleus. The same appears to have also occurred in the southwestern arm. A bright ultraviolet source was discovered at the end of the northeastern arm, around from the nucleus, which may be a tidal dwarf galaxy formed out of the interaction between and . The bright ultraviolet nature of this cluster indicates that it contains stars less than 200 million years old, which roughly coincides with the timeframe of the collision. Mihos, et al. (1993), and Eufrasio, et al. (2014), suggest that prior to its interaction with , the galaxy's disk may have been non-uniform with an extended mass distribution. Possible interaction with NGC 6876 Machacek, et al. (2005), reported on a X-ray trail that exists between and the nearby elliptical galaxy . is moving away from at in approximately the same trajectory as the X-ray trail, suggesting a link between the two galaxies. Four possibilities for the trail's existence were given: gas stripped from the two galaxies during a close fly-by, intergalactic medium that has been gravitationally focused behind as it moves, interstellar medium that was stripped from by ram pressure as it passed through the densest part of the Pavo group, and interstellar medium stripped from by turbulent viscosity as it passes through Pavo. Any or all of these processes may be responsible for the trail. If and did interact in the past, the latter may have affected spiral arms and gas distribution as much as its interaction with . See also Antennae Galaxies NGC 2207 and IC 2163 NGC 5090 and NGC 5091 Notes References External links NGC 6872 at SIMBAD Barred spiral galaxies Peculiar galaxies Interacting galaxies Pavo (constellation) 073-32 64413 6872 20115-7055 18350627

4739722

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bysen

Bysen

Bysen () is a legendary gnome-like creature that haunts the woods of the island of Gotland, Sweden. Bysen carries an axe. He is said to have committed a crime and condemned to walk the Earth forever. He attracts people, making them get lost. Often he meddles with foresters, delays their transports, and tips loads of timber over. He often interferes with men in other ways and is accused of all sorts of mischief. Bysen often appears as a stump or an insignificant, little, grey man. Sometimes he wears a red woven cap and an axe because one of his tasks is to cut down Gotland's forest. This goes slowly, however, and sometimes only one tree per century is felled. It's said Bysen is a humanoid who has done some crime within his lifetime and is therefore sentenced to wander the Earth forever. Bysen is also the ward of the forest and nature. Similar to the Deildegast from Norwegian folklore, some sources say that Bysen are deceased people who have cheated other men out of their land by moving the markers that separated two holdings. As punishment, they get no peace in the grave and are doomed to go along the faulty border, moving the sticks on the wrong land. As they walk, you can hear them mumble, "This is right, this is wrong", while moving the markers. If a human follows Bysen and moves the wrongly placed sticks to the right places, then Bysen will gain peace. On the Swedish mainland the counterpart to Bysen is called skälvrängare or osaliga lantmätare (approximately: unholy landsurveyor). If Bysen catches sight of you where you are in the forest, he will enchant your vision so that you can not find him again. What returns one's vision to normal is to turn a garment crooked. Etymology and spelling The word bys most likely comes from the Swedish word bus, which means mischief or prank. Its declinations in Swedish with English translations: References Gotland Scandinavian legendary creatures Scandinavian folklore Swedish folklore Forest spirits Gnomes

4750018

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Observatory%20of%20Belgium

Royal Observatory of Belgium

The Royal Observatory of Belgium (, ), has been situated in the Uccle municipality of Brussels, Belgium, since 1890. It was first established in Saint-Josse-ten-Noode in 1826 by King William I of the Netherlands under the impulse of Adolphe Quetelet. It was home to a diameter aperture Zeiss reflector in the first half of the 20th century, one of the largest telescopes in the world at the time. It now owns a variety of other astronomical instruments, such as astrographs, as well as a range of seismograph equipment (for detecting earthquakes). Its main activities are: Reference systems and geodynamics; Astrometry and dynamics of celestial bodies; Astrophysics; Solar physics. The asteroid 1276 Ucclia is named in honour of the city and the observatory and 16908 Groeselenberg is named for the hill the observatory is located on. History 19th century Adolphe Quetelet first petitioned the government of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands to establish an astronomical observatory in Brussels in 1823. William I granted his request in 1826 and construction started in 1827 in Saint-Josse-ten-Noode. Meteorological observations started early, but delivery and installation of astronomical equipment proceeded slowly. Quetelet was appointed astronomer in 1828. During the Belgian Revolution, fighting took place in and around the observatory. Quetelet kept his position under the new government and started scientific observations. By 1834, buildings and instruments were finally completed. Adolpe Quetelet was succeeded by his son Ernest upon his death in 1874. In 1876, Jean-Charles Houzeau became the new director. He called on François van Rysselberghe to attach him to the weather forecast service the same year. On 26 September 1876, the Observatory published the first Meteorological Bulletin in its history. Immediately after he became director, Houzeau started planning a move to Uccle. He managed to obtain better funding, enlarged the scientific staff and completely renewed the instruments. The first Belgian astronomical expedition was sent to Santiago and San Antonio to observe the transit of Venus in 1882. He tried to separate the meteorological and astronomical departments, but this was refused by the government. In 1883 construction of a new observatory in Uccle started, but Houzeau's resignation in 1883 delayed the move which was only completed in 1890–1891. 20th century Georges Lecointe was appointed as director in 1900, succeeding F. Folie and A. Lancaster. Under his leadership, seismological measurements started in 1901 and the first weather balloons were launched in 1906. Belgium participated in the Carte du Ciel and the Astrographic Catalogue; observations lasted until 1964. In 1913 the meteorological department finally became an independent entity, the Royal Meteorological Institute. After World War I the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams was located in Uccle from 1920 to 1922 while it was headed by Lecointe. Illness forced Lecointe to resign in 1925 and he was succeeded by Paul Stroobant. Since 1981, the Sunspot Index Data center, the World data center for the Sunspot Index is harbored at the observatory. The Planetarium is located on the Heysel Plateau, in the northern region of Brussels. King Baudouin was an amateur astronomer and took a keen interest in the Royal Observatoy. After his death a statue in honour of the king was raised outside the entrance. Instruments Examples only In 1914: 38 cm (15-inch) Cooke-Merz refractor 15 cm (6-inch) Cooke-Steinhell refractor 15 cm (6-inch) Repsold refractor with micrometer Carte du Ciel astrograph As of 1981: Askania Meridian circle (19 cm) Danjon Astrolabe 45-cm aperture Cooke-Zeiss refractor on equatorial mount 38-cm aperture refractor Triple refractor (By Zeiss) 25, 10, and 15 cm aperture refractors (these are telescopes with a lens) 20 cm Zeiss Double Astrograph The Observatory also had a 100 cm aperture Zeiss reflector. List of discovered minor planets See also Belgian Federal Science Policy Office Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy List of astronomical observatories Planetarium Royal Meteorological Institute References Further reading Centennial of the Royal Observatory Belgium (The Observatory, Vol. 58, p. 208–209 (1935)) External links Official website 1834 establishments in Belgium Astronomical observatories in Belgium Research institutes in Belgium Buildings and structures in Brussels Minor-planet discovering observatories Organisations based in Belgium with royal patronage Uccle William I of the Netherlands

4750171

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific%20Disaster%20Center

Pacific Disaster Center

Pacific Disaster Center (PDC) is an applied science, information and technology center, working to reduce disaster risks and impacts on life, property, and the economies worldwide. PDC's products and services are used to support sound decision making in disaster response and civil-military humanitarian assistance operations, as well as in disaster risk reduction, mitigation and planning. The Center is primarily engaged in: Enhance Disaster early warning and decision support capabilities and technologies; Advancing risk and vulnerability assessment (RVA), including socio-cultural analyses of risk; Cultivating international working partnerships to support capacity building in developing countries through training and technical assistance; Supporting humanitarian assistance and disaster relief operations. Organization PDC was established by the U.S. Congress following Hurricane Iniki's devastation of the Hawaiian Island of Kauai in 1992, and became operational in 1996. Originally created to use information resources to mitigate the impacts of natural disasters in Hawaiʻi, today PDC resources are used locally and globally by disaster and crisis management professionals, planners and executive decision makers, national governments, regional organizations, and International- and Non-Governmental Organizations (I/NGO). The headquarters of PDC is located on the Island of Maui in Hawai‘i, with additional presence on the Island of Oahu, in Colorado and Washington, DC. PDC also maintains a project office at the Water Resource University in Hanoi, Vietnam. Since 2006, the University of Hawaiʻi has been the managing partner of PDC. PDC is a public/private partnership sponsored by the PDC Program Office (OSD-Policy). The content of the information here does not necessarily reflect the position or policy of the U.S. Government and no official Government endorsement should be inferred. Major projects and activities of PDC In its earliest years, PDC did the initial development and deployment of various applications and web-based tools for the use of disaster management professionals and the general public. Those tools have been maintained and further developed since, and have been deployed to more organizations and nations. The Center developed its first computerized decision support system for disaster managers within the U.S. military working in the Caribbean. 1996–2003 PDC also support for humanitarian efforts in Afghanistan in 2002. Event-related efforts from 1996 through 2003 included providing direct information-technology support for operations related to Hurricane Jimena threatening Hawaii, flooding and landslides in American Samoa, Super Typhoon Pongsona in Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands, Super Typhoon Lupit in the Philippines and Federated States of Micronesia; and numerous wildfires on Maui. 2004–2005 In the 2004–2005 period, PDC provided a wide range of support to the countries impacted by the Great Sumatra Earthquake and Indian Ocean tsunami (December 26, 2004), initiating a line of work and establishing partnerships that have continued ever since. PDC also engaged in developing and hosting the Asia Pacific Natural Hazards Information Network (APNHIN); conducting a multi-hazard urban risk assessment for Marikina, Philippines; mapping flood hazards and conducting risk assessments for the Mekong River Basin; providing the 10-member Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) with a Disaster Information Sharing and Communications Network (DISCNet); developing an earthquake atlas for Hawaii based on FEMA's HAZUS software; collaborating with the Maui High-Performance Computing Center to develop an interactive, map-based interface for an ocean environmental database; customizing a wildfire rating system for Hawaii and mapping both wildfires and fire fuels; and developing a digital, geospatial database of critical infrastructure for Hawaii. 2005–2006 The efforts begun in immediate response to the Indian Ocean tsunami continued through the years 2005 and 2006, and eventually included a major technical assistance project, supported by USTDA, to provide Thailand with a decision support and early warning system. The growth of APNHIN and the ASEAN DISCNet continued, perhaps accelerated by ongoing tsunami-related activities. PDC collaborated with the South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission to develop a Tsunami Awareness Kit for the Pacific Islands. At this time, PDC, in partnership with Earthquakes and Megacities Initiative, also built and launched a worldwide “knowledge base” pooling the resources of 20 international population centers. The Center developed new products for Hawaii and its counties including remote information services for Maui and a statewide regional secure server. As PDC's capabilities increased, the Center was involved in more and more exercises in Hawaii and across the Pacific, it was called upon all the more frequently to support activities in response to disasters. In this period, some of the major events were Hurricane Katrina in the U.S., multiple tropical cyclones in the Central Pacific, a major landslide on Leyte Island in the Philippines, and sustained severe weather and flooding in Hawaii. 2007–2009 During the years 2007–2009, while constantly improving and expanding the technical tools offered to disaster managers and the public, PDC also expanded the APNHIN program from Asia Pacific to global, rebranding it the Global Hazards Information Network (GHIN) and launched a worldwide Atlas, as well. Some of the major areas of focus for PDC were disaster planning and preparedness in Vietnam; tracking avian influenza, and later, Influenza A (H1N1) also called swine flu; assisting with responses to repeated (sometimes called “unprecedented”) severe weather in Hawaii; earthquakes each year in Indonesia, some of them spawning tsunamis; the Kiholo Bay earthquake in Hawaii; a major earthquake and tsunami in the Solomon Islands; and a fleet of tropical cyclones all across the Pacific, with many of them setting records of intensity and for the damage done. Among the notable storm events that engaged PDC most and longest was Tropical Cyclone Nargis, Burma, 2008; and a series of typhoons beginning with Ketsana, Philippines and throughout the region, 2009. For both of these events, PDC put a Geographic information system and communications expert on the ground to work with United Nations teams and others, coordinating connections, developing maps and collaborating with PDC Maui to provide immediately useful maps, images and data products. Week of Pacific Disasters In the fall of 2009, the Pacific was plagued by disasters, and Pacific Disaster Center's resources were severely tested. In the six days from September 27 to October 1, the Center created and delivered products or otherwise provided direct support for the responses to Typhoon Ketsana, especially the storm's devastating effects on Manila, Philippines; Typhoon Parma, which increased the disastrous flooding in Manila; Super Typhoon Melor, the worst effects of which were felt in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands and in Japan; multiple earthquakes and a devastating tsunami in Samoa and American Samoa; and another cluster of earthquakes in West Sumatra, Indonesia. Just days after this “Week of Pacific Disasters,” there was an additional cluster of earthquakes, notably in Vanuatu where another tsunami was generated, and new tropical cyclones formed, as well. See also 2017–2019 eruptions of Mount Agung 2020 Cyclone Amphan Coral Triangle Initiative (CTI-CFF) Geographic information system (GIS) High-performance computing (Center) Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences National Domestic Preparedness Consortium Tsunami warning system Volcano Water resources (University) References External links Pacific Disaster Center Home Page 1996 establishments in Hawaii Disaster preparedness in the United States Pacific Ocean

4750427

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spring%20day

Spring day

Spring day is a holiday marking the coming of the spring season, which takes place in different countries, on varying dates. Northern Hemisphere Albania Albania celebrates the lunar Spring Day, the so-called Summer Day (), on 14 March, and in 2004 it became a national holiday. It is an old pagan practice, particularly popular in the city of Elbasan, Central Albania. According to some sources, Dita e Verës derives from the Arbëreshë, an Albanian community that lives in Italy since the fifteenth century. On 14 March, the Arbëreshë of the Italian coast, collect a tuft of grass roots and soil, bringing it home to commemorate the anniversary of their emigration from Albania. In fact, some sources date back this celebration to the ancient Illyria. At that time, the feast was celebrated on 1 March, which according to the Julian calendar, corresponded to the first day of the year. Pilgrimages were made to the highest peaks in the Albanian mountains to be as close as possible to the Sun God and pray for the goodness and prosperity of the new year. The great fire crossed by men and young people symbolized the end of winter. Instead, wreaths and garlands on the doors of the houses wished good luck. The purity of the celebration has weakened over the centuries but came to this day thanks to the tradition preserved in the city of Elbasan. The ritual of the Dita e Verës begins on the previous day with the preparation of sweets: the revani and ballakume, the blended butter, sugar, corn flour and egg yolks cooked in a wood oven. During the evening ballakume, dried figs, walnuts, turkey legs, boiled eggs, Simit (a typical sandwich of the city) are distributed to members of the family. The oldest woman of the house remains awake at night and goes from room to room to put down grass on the cushions of couples, young people and children, a ritual that symbolizes the regeneration and quickening. On the morning of 14 March, the elderly leave the door open as a sign of generosity, a pitcher filled with fresh water and take home a clump of green grass. The youngest fertilizes the orange and olive trees, but the smaller ones are the first to make the "lucky" visits to neighbors and relatives who give them turkey legs, dried figs and nuts. Finally lunch on 14 March, should be eaten outdoors in the company of friends and relatives. Estonia Estonia celebrates Spring Day on 1 May. Iran Iran celebrates Spring day at 21 March as its only new year celebration. This national celebration is called Nowruz in Iran. Bangladesh Bangladesh celebrates Spring day on 13 February as the first of the month of Falgun. It is the beginning of the Boshonto, the Spring season for Bengalis. Southern Hemisphere Argentina Argentina celebrates the beginning of spring, conventionally, on 21 September, one or two days before the actual spring equinox. This day also marks Students' Day. Though this is not a work-free public holiday, it coincides with Students' Day, which is a no-school day for students on all the levels of the education system. The holiday is therefore mostly observed and dominated by teenagers and young adults, who massively take over public parks, beaches and other outdoor venues in the larger cities, and enjoy sports or picnics. Local administrations usually offer the public a number of entertainment shows, such as free rock concerts. In recent years security operations have been staged to avoid incidents such as fights and vandalism, as well as controls to curb the consumption of alcoholic beverages. Paraguay Paraguay celebrates the beginning of spring on 21 September, one or two days before the actual spring equinox. This day also marks Youth Day. Uruguay Uruguay celebrates the beginning of spring, on 21 September, one or two days before the actual spring equinox. Bolivia Bolivia celebrates the beginning of spring, on 21 September, it is also Students' day and "día del amor", on this day youth will send cards, chocolates and flowers to their friends, mates, or lovers. South Africa South Africa Celebrates spring Day on the 1 September. Spring day traditions in South Africa range from having a traditional braai to shaving your head and beard. In many townships, children celebrate Spring Day by spraying each other with water. However, in some urban settlements everyone participates. Types of secular holidays Spring holidays Autumn equinox es:Primavera#Festividades

4752159

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact%20depth

Impact depth

The impact depth of a projectile is the distance it penetrates into a target before coming to a stop. The physicist Sir Isaac Newton first developed this idea to get rough approximations for the impact depth for projectiles traveling at high velocities. Newton's approximation for the impact depth Newton's approximation for the impact depth for projectiles at high velocities is based only on momentum considerations. Nothing is said about where the impactor's kinetic energy goes, nor what happens to the momentum after the projectile is stopped. The basic idea is simple: The impactor carries a given momentum. To stop the impactor, this momentum must be transferred onto another mass. Since the impactor's velocity is so high that cohesion within the target material can be neglected, the momentum can only be transferred to the material (mass) directly in front of the impactor, which will be pushed at the impactor's speed. If the impactor has pushed a mass equal to its own mass at this speed, its whole momentum has been transferred to the mass in front of it and the impactor will be stopped. For a cylindrical impactor, by the time it stops, it will have penetrated to a depth that is equal to its own length times its relative density with respect to the target material. This approach is only valid for a narrow range of velocities less than the speed of sound within the target or impactor material. If the impact velocity is greater than the speed of sound within the target or impactor material, impact shock causes the material to fracture, and at higher velocities to behave like a gas, causing rapid ejection of target and impactor material and the formation of a crater. The depth of the crater depends on the material properties of impactor and target, as well as the velocity of impact. Typically, greater impact velocity means greater crater depth. Applications Projectile: Full metal projectiles should be made of a material with a very high density, like uranium (19.1 g/cm3) or lead (11.3 g/cm3). According to Newton's approximation, a full metal projectile made of uranium will pierce through roughly 2.5 times its own length of steel armor. Shaped charge, bazooka: For a shaped charge (anti-tank) to pierce through steel plates, it is essential that the explosion generates a long heavy metal jet (in a shaped charge for anti-tank use, the explosion generates a high speed metal jet from the cone shaped metal lining). This jet may then be viewed as the impactor of Newton's approximation. Meteorite: As may be concluded from the air pressure, the atmosphere's material is equivalent to about 10 m of water. Since ice has about the same density as water, an ice cube from space travelling at 15 km/s or so must have a length of 10 m to reach the surface of the earth at high speed. A smaller ice cube will be slowed to terminal velocity. A larger ice cube may also be slowed, however, as long as it comes in at a very low angle and thus has to pierce through a lot of atmosphere. An iron meteorite with a length of 1.3 m would punch through the atmosphere; a smaller one would be slowed by the air and fall at terminal velocity to the ground. Impactor, bunker buster: Solid impactors can be used instead of nuclear warheads to penetrate bunkers deep underground. According to Newton's approximation, a uranium projectile (density 19 g/cm3) at high speed and 1 m in length would punch its way through 6 m of rock (density 3 g/cm3) before coming to a stop. See also Impact force Terminal ballistics Further reading External links Earth Impact Effects Program Space debris penetration depth by velocity and diameter Projectiles Isaac Newton

4756231

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five%20Eyes

Five Eyes

The Five Eyes (FVEY) is an intelligence alliance comprising Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. These countries are parties to the multilateral UK-USA Agreement, a treaty for joint cooperation in signals intelligence. Informally, Five Eyes can also refer to the group of intelligence agencies of these countries. The origins of the FVEY can be traced to informal secret meetings during World War II between British and American code-breakers, which started before the US formally entered the war, followed by the Allies' 1941 Atlantic Charter that established their vision of the post-war world. Canadian academic Srdjan Vucetic argues the alliance emerged from Winston Churchill's Iron Curtain speech in 1946, which warned of open conflict with the Soviet bloc unless the English-speaking democracies learned to cooperate: Neither the sure prevention of war, nor the continuous rise of world organisation will be gained without what I have called the fraternal association of the English-speaking peoples. This means a special relationship between the British Commonwealth and Empire and the United States... the continuance of the intimate relationship between our military advisers, leading to common study of potential dangers..." As the Cold War deepened, the intelligence sharing arrangement became formalised under the ECHELON surveillance system in the 1960s. This was initially developed by the FVEY to monitor the communications of the former Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc, although it is now used to monitor communications worldwide. In the late 1990s, the existence of ECHELON was disclosed to the public, triggering a major debate in the European Parliament and, to a lesser extent, the United States Congress. The FVEY further expanded their surveillance capabilities during the course of the "war on terror", with much emphasis placed on monitoring the World Wide Web. Former NSA contractor Edward Snowden described the Five Eyes as a "supra-national intelligence organisation that does not answer to the known laws of its own countries". Documents leaked by Snowden in 2013 revealed that the FVEY has been spying on one another's citizens and sharing the collected information with each other, although the FVEY nations maintain that this was done legally. It has been claimed that FVEY nations have been sharing intelligence in order to circumvent domestic laws, but only one court case in Canada has found any FVEY nation breaking domestic laws when sharing intelligence with a FVEYs partner. In spite of continued controversy over its methods, the Five Eyes relationship remains one of the most comprehensive known espionage alliances in human history. Since processed intelligence is gathered from multiple sources, the intelligence shared is not restricted to signals intelligence (SIGINT) and often involves defence intelligence as well as human intelligence (HUMINT) and geospatial intelligence (GEOINT). Organisations The following table provides an overview of most of the FVEY agencies involved in such forms of data sharing. History Origins (1941–1950s) The earliest origins of the Five Eyes alliance are secret meetings between British and US code-breakers at the British code-breaking establishment at Bletchley Park in February 1941 (before the US entry into the war). A February 1941 entry in the diary of Alastair Denniston, head of Bletchley Park, reading "The Ys are coming!" ("Ys" referring to "Yanks") is the first record, followed by "Ys arrive" on 10 February. The British and US agencies shared extremely confidential information, including the British breaking of the German Enigma code, and the US breaking of the Japanese Purple code. From then key figures travelled back and forth across the Atlantic, including Denniston and code-breaking expert Alan Turing. The practical relationship established for wartime signals intelligence developed into a formal signed agreement at the start of the post-war Cold War. The formal Five Eyes alliance can be traced back to the Atlantic Charter, which was issued in August 1941 to lay out the Allied goals for the post-war world. On 17 May 1943, the British–US Communication Intelligence Agreement, also known as the BRUSA Agreement, was signed by the UK and US governments to facilitate co-operation between the US War Department and the British Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS). On 5 March 1946, the secret treaty was formalized as the UKUSA Agreement, which forms the basis for all signal intelligence cooperation between the NSA and GCHQ to this day. In 1948, the treaty was extended to include Canada, followed by Norway (1952), Denmark (1954), West Germany (1955), Australia (1956), and New Zealand (1956). These countries participated in the alliance as "third parties". By 1955, the formal status of the remaining Five Eyes countries was officially acknowledged in a newer version of the UKUSA Agreement that contained the following statement: The "Five Eyes" term has its origins as a shorthand for a "AUS/CAN/NZ/UK/US EYES ONLY" (AUSCANNZUKUS) releasability caveat. Cold War During the Cold War (generally accepted to be approximately the period 1947–1991), GCHQ and the NSA shared intelligence on the Soviet Union, the People's Republic of China, and several eastern European countries (known as Exotics). Over the course of several decades, the ECHELON surveillance network was developed to monitor the military and diplomatic communications of the Soviet Union and its Eastern Bloc allies. During the Vietnam War, Australian and New Zealand operators in the Asia-Pacific region worked directly to support the United States, while GCHQ operators stationed in the (then) British colony of Hong Kong were tasked with monitoring North Vietnamese air defence networks. During the Falklands War, the British received intelligence data from its FVEY allies such as Australia, as well as from third parties such as Norway and France. In the aftermath of the Gulf War, a technician of the ASIS was used by SIS to bug Kuwaiti government offices. In the 1950s, SIS and the CIA jointly orchestrated the overthrow of Iran's Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh. In the 1960s, SIS and the CIA jointly orchestrated the assassination of the Congolese independence leader Patrice Lumumba. In the 1970s, the ASIS and the CIA jointly orchestrated the overthrow of Chile's President Salvador Allende. Also in the 1970s, a senior officer (Ian George Peacock) in the counterespionage unit of Australia's ASIO stole and sold highly classified intelligence documents shared with Australia to the Russians for at least five years. Peacock held the title of supervisor-E (espionage) and had top-secret security clearance. He retired from the ASIO in 1983 and died in 2006. During the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, SIS and the CIA took part in Operation Yellowbird to rescue dissidents from the Chinese regime. ECHELON network disclosures (1972–2000) By the end of the 20th century, the ECHELON surveillance network had evolved into a global system capable of sweeping up massive amounts of private and commercial communications, including telephone calls, fax, email and other data traffic. This was done through the interception of communication bearers such as satellite transmission and public switched telephone networks. The Five Eyes has two types of information collection methods: the PRISM program and the Upstream collection system. The PRISM program gathers user information from technology firms such as Google, Apple and Microsoft, while the Upstream system gathers information directly from the communications of civilians via fiber cables and infrastructure as data flows past. The program's first disclosure to the public came in 1972 when a former NSA communications analyst reported to Ramparts magazine that the NSA had developed technology that "could crack all Soviet codes". In 1988, Duncan Campbell revealed in the New Statesman the existence of ECHELON, an extension of the UKUSA Agreement on global signals intelligence [Sigint]. The story, 'Somebody's listening,' detailed how the eavesdropping operations were not only being employed in the interests of 'national security,' but were regularly abused for corporate espionage in the service of US business interests. The piece passed largely unnoticed outside of journalism circles. In 1996, a detailed description of ECHELON was provided by New Zealand journalist Nicky Hager in a book titled Secret Power – New Zealand's Role in the International Spy Network', which was cited by the European Parliament in a 1998 report titled "An Appraisal of the Technology of Political Control" (PE 168.184). On 16 March 2000, the Parliament called for a resolution on the Five Eyes and their ECHELON surveillance network, which, if passed, would have called for the "complete dismantling of ECHELON". Three months later, the Temporary Committee on ECHELON was set up by the European Parliament to investigate the ECHELON surveillance network. However, according to a number of European politicians such as Esko Seppänen of Finland, these investigations were hindered by the European Commission. In the United States, congressional legislators warned that the ECHELON system could be used to monitor US citizens. On 14 May 2001, the US government cancelled all meetings with the Temporary Committee on ECHELON. According to a BBC report in May 2001, "the US Government still refuses to admit that Echelon even exists." War on Terror (since 2001) In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, the surveillance capabilities of the Five Eyes were greatly increased as part of the global war on terror. During the run-up to the Iraq War, the communications of UN weapons inspector Hans Blix were monitored by the Five Eyes. The office of UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan was bugged by British agents. An NSA memo detailed plans of the Five Eyes to boost eavesdropping on UN delegations of six countries as part of a "dirty tricks" campaign to apply pressure on these six countries to vote in favour of using force against Iraq. SIS and the CIA forged a surveillance partnership with Libya's ruler Muammar Gaddafi to spy on Libyan dissidents in the West, in exchange for permission to use Libya as a base for extraordinary renditions. , the Five Eyes also have access to SIPRNet, the US government's classified version of the Internet. In 2013, documents leaked by the former NSA contractor Edward Snowden revealed the existence of numerous surveillance programs jointly operated by the Five Eyes. The following list includes several notable examples reported in the media: PRISM – Operated by the NSA together with GCHQ and the ASD XKeyscore – Operated by the NSA with contributions from the ASD and the GCSB Tempora – Operated by GCHQ with contributions from the NSA MUSCULAR – Operated by GCHQ and the NSA STATEROOM – Operated by the ASD, CIA, CSE, GCHQ, and NSA In March 2014, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) ordered Australia to stop spying on East Timor. This marks the first such restrictions imposed on a member of the FVEY. In November 2020, the Five Eyes alliance criticised China's rules which disqualified elected legislators in Hong Kong. Competition with China (since 2018) On 1 December 2018, Meng Wanzhou, a Huawei executive, was arrested by Canadian authorities at Vancouver International Airport, in order to face charges of fraud and conspiracy in the United States. China responded by arresting two Canadian nationals. According to the South China Morning Post this conflict was seen by analysts as the beginning of a direct clash between the CCPs leadership of China and members of the Five Eyes alliance. In the months that followed, the United States placed restrictions on technology exchanges with China. Following prompting by parliamentarians in Australia and by US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, the UK Government announced it would reduce the presence of Huawei technology in its 5G network to zero. The newspaper reported that these events were seen by Beijing as political warfare "waged with the world’s oldest intelligence alliance, the Five Eyes." In mid-April 2021, the New Zealand Foreign Minister Nanaia Mahuta issued a statement that New Zealand would not let the Five Eyes alliance dictate its bilateral relationship with China and that New Zealand was uncomfortable with expanding the remit of the intelligence grouping. In response, the Australian Government expressed concern that Wellington was undermining collective efforts to combat what it regarded as Chinese aggression. Mahuta's remarks were echoed by New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern who claimed that while New Zealand was still committed to the Five Eyes alliance, it would not use the network as its first point for communicating on non-security matters. While The Telegraph defence editor Con Coughlin and British Conservative Member of Parliament Bob Seely criticised New Zealand for undermining the Five Eyes' efforts to put a united front against Beijing, the Chinese Global Times praised New Zealand for putting its own national interests over the Five Eyes. In late April 2021, the Global Times reported that employees of companies and organisations considered to be "at-risk" of foreign infiltration travelling to the Five Eyes countries would be monitored by the Chinese Ministry of State Security. These employees will be required to report their travel destinations, agendas, and meetings with foreign personnel to Chinese authorities. Other security measures include undergoing "pre-departure spying education" and leave their electronic devices at home and bring new ones abroad. These measures came at a time of heightened tensions between China and the Five Eyes countries. In mid-December 2021, the United States Secretary of State Antony Blinken along with the Foreign Ministers of Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United Kingdom issued a joint statement criticising the exclusion of opposition candidates, the Hong Kong national security law, and urging China to respect human rights and freedoms in Hong Kong in accordance with the Sino-British Joint Declaration. In response, the Chinese Government claimed the Hong Kong elections were fair and criticised the Five Eyes for interfering in Hong Kong's domestic affairs. 2023 meeting In October 2023, the first known public meeting of the Five Eyes leaders occurred, at Stanford University's Hoover Institution, California, USA. They had been meeting in private at nearby Palo Alto. Present were: Australia's ASIO Director General Mike Burgess, Canada's CSIS head David Vigneault, New Zealand's NZSIS Director General Andrew Hampton, UK's Director General of MI5 Ken McCallum, and USA's FBI Director Christopher Wray. Matters covered in public statements included: the death in Canada of Hardeep Singh Nijjar Chinese state-backed hackers Domestic espionage sharing controversy One of the core principles is that members do not spy on other governments in the alliance. US Director of National Intelligence Admiral Dennis C. Blair said in 2013: "We do not spy on each other. We just ask." In recent years, documents of the FVEY have shown that they are intentionally spying on one another's citizens and sharing the collected information with each other, although the FVEYs countries claim that all intelligence sharing was done legally, according to the domestic law of the respective nations. Shami Chakrabarti, the director of the advocacy group Liberty, claimed that the FVEY alliance increases the ability of member states to "subcontract their dirty work" to each other. The former NSA contractor Edward Snowden described the FVEY as a "supra-national intelligence organisation that doesn't answer to the laws of its own countries". While many claims of illegal intelligence sharing among FVEY nations have been made, only once has any FVEY intelligence agency been shown to have broken the law with intelligence sharing in Canada. As a result of Snowden's disclosures, the FVEY alliance has become the subject of a growing amount of controversy in parts of the world: : In late 2013, Canadian federal judge Richard Mosley strongly rebuked the CSIS for outsourcing its surveillance of Canadians to overseas partner agencies. A 51-page court ruling asserts that the CSIS and other Canadian federal agencies have been illegally enlisting FVEY allies in global surveillance dragnets, while keeping domestic federal courts in the dark. : In 2014, the NZSIS and the GCSB of New Zealand were asked by the New Zealand Parliament to clarify if they had received any monetary contributions from members of the FVEY alliance. Both agencies withheld relevant information and refused to disclose any possible monetary contributions from the FVEY. David Cunliffe, leader of the Labour Party, asserted that the public is entitled to be informed. : In early 2014, the European Parliament's Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs released a draft report which confirmed that the intelligence agencies of New Zealand and Canada have cooperated with the NSA under the Five Eyes programme and may have been actively sharing the personal data of EU citizens. The EU report did not investigate if any international or domestic US laws were broken by the US and did not claim that any FVEY nation was illegally conducting intelligence collection on the EU. The NSA maintains that any intelligence collection done on the EU was in accordance with domestic US law and international law. So far, no court case has found the NSA broke any laws while spying on the EU. : In 2013, the British Parliament's Intelligence and Security Committee conducted an investigation and concluded that the GCHQ had broken no domestic British laws in its intelligence sharing operations with the NSA. According the investigation "It has been alleged that GCHQ circumvented UK law by using the NSA’s PRISM programme to access the content of private communications. From the evidence we have seen, we have concluded that this is unfounded. We have reviewed the reports that GCHQ produced on the basis of intelligence sought from the US, and we are satisfied that they conformed with GCHQ’s statutory duties. The legal authority for this is contained in the Intelligence Services Act 1994. Further, in each case where GCHQ sought information from the US, a warrant for interception, signed by a Minister, was already in place, in accordance with the legal safeguards contained in the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000." : So far, no court case has been brought against any US intelligence community member claiming that they went around US domestic law to have foreign countries spy on US citizens and give that intelligence to the US. Other international cooperatives Beginning with its founding by the United States and United Kingdom in 1946, the alliance expanded twice, inducting Canada in 1948 and Australia and New Zealand in 1956, establishing the Five Eyes as it remains to this day. Further, there are nations termed "Third Party Partners" that share their intelligence with the Five Eyes despite not being formal members. While the Five Eyes is rooted in a particular agreement with specific operations amongst the five nations, similar sharing agreements have been set up independently and for specific purposes; for example, according to Edward Snowden, the NSA has a "massive body" called the Foreign Affairs Directorate dedicated to partnering with foreign countries beyond the alliance. Six Eyes (proposed) Several countries have been prospective members of the Five Eyes. Israel, Singapore, South Korea, and Japan have or continue to collaborate with the alliance, though none are formally members. According to French news magazine L'Obs, in 2009, the United States propositioned France to join the treaty and form a subsequent "Six Eyes" alliance. French President at the time Nicolas Sarkozy required that France have the same status as the other members, including the signing of a "no-spy agreement". This proposal was approved by the director of the NSA, but rejected by the director of the CIA and by President Barack Obama, resulting in a refusal from France. In 2013 it was reported that Germany was interested in joining the Five Eyes alliance. At that time, several members of the United States Congress, including Tim Ryan and Charles Dent, were pushing for Germany's entrance to the Five Eyes alliance. Five Eyes Plus Since 2018, through an initiative sometimes termed "Five Eyes Plus 3", Five Eyes formed associations with France, Germany and Japan to introduce an information-sharing framework to counter threats arising from foreign activities of China as well as Russia. Five Eyes plus France, Japan and South Korea share information about North Korea's military activities including ballistic missiles, in an arrangement sometimes dubbed "Five Eyes Plus". Nine Eyes The Nine Eyes is a different arrangement that consists of the same members of Five Eyes working with Denmark, France, the Netherlands and Norway. Fourteen Eyes According to a document leaked by Edward Snowden, there is another working agreement among 14 nations officially known as SIGINT Seniors Europe, or "SSEUR". These "14 Eyes" consist of the same members of Nine Eyes plus Belgium, Germany, Italy, Spain and Sweden. Further intelligence sharing collaborations As spelled out by Privacy International, there are a number of issue-specific intelligence agreements that include some or all the above nations and numerous others, such as: An area specific sharing amongst the 41 nations that formed the allied coalition in Afghanistan; A shared effort of the Five Eyes nations in "focused cooperation" on computer network exploitation with Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and Turkey; Club of Berne: 17 members including primarily European States; the US is not a member; Maximator: an intelligence alliance between Denmark, Germany, France, the Netherlands and Sweden The Counterterrorist Group: a wider membership than the 17 European states that make up the Club of Berne, and includes the US; NATO Special Committee: made up of the heads of the security services of NATO's 31 member countries See also ABCANZ Armies Air and Space Interoperability Council (air forces) Allied technological cooperation during World War II Anglosphere ANZUS — Trilateral security pact between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States AUKUS — Trilateral security partnership between Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States AUSCANNZUKUS (navies) Border Five CANZUK Combined Communications-Electronics Board (communication-electronics) Five Country Conference (immigration) Five Nations Passport Group Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) — Strategic dialogue among Australia, India, Japan and US The Technical Cooperation Program (technology and science) Tizard Mission International relations Australia–Canada relations Australia–New Zealand relations Australia–United Kingdom relations Australia–United States relations Canada–New Zealand relations Canada–United Kingdom relations Canada–United States relations New Zealand–United Kingdom relations New Zealand–United States relations United Kingdom–United States relations References Further reading Williams, Brad. "Why the Five Eyes? Power and Identity in the Formation of a Multilateral Intelligence Grouping." Journal of Cold War Studies 25, no. 1 (2023): 101-137. External links UKUSA Agreement at The National Archives UKUSA Agreement at the National Security Agency From Insularity to Exteriority: How the Anglosphere is Shaping Global Governance – Centre for International Policy Studies Anglosphere Global surveillance Espionage Intelligence operations National security Espionage scandals and incidents Australia–United Kingdom relations Australia–United States relations Australia–New Zealand relations Australia–Canada relations Canada–United Kingdom relations Canada–United States relations Canada–New Zealand relations New Zealand–United Kingdom relations New Zealand–United States relations United Kingdom–United States relations

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20eclipse%20of%20August%2021%2C%202017

Solar eclipse of August 21, 2017

The solar eclipse of August 21, 2017, dubbed the "Great American Eclipse" by some media, was a total solar eclipse visible within a band that spanned the contiguous United States from the Pacific to the Atlantic coasts. It was also visible as a partial solar eclipse from as far north as Nunavut in northern Canada to as far south as northern South America. In northwestern Europe and Africa, it was partially visible in the late evening. In northeastern Asia, it was partially visible at sunrise. Prior to this event, no solar eclipse had been visible across the entirety of the United States since June 8, 1918; not since the February 1979 eclipse had a total eclipse been visible from anywhere in the mainland United States. The path of totality touched 14 states, and the rest of the U.S. had a partial eclipse. The area of the path of totality was about 16 percent of the area of the United States, with most of this area over the ocean, not land. The event's shadow began to cover land on the Oregon coast as a partial eclipse at 4:05 p.m. UTC (9:05 a.m. PDT), with the total eclipse beginning there at 5:16 p.m. UTC (10:16 a.m. PDT); the total eclipse's land coverage ended along the South Carolina coast at about 6:44 p.m. UTC (2:44 p.m. EDT). Visibility as a partial eclipse in Honolulu, Hawaii began with sunrise at 4:20 p.m. UTC (6:20 a.m. HST) and ended by 5:25 p.m. UTC (7:25 a.m. HST). This total solar eclipse marked the first such event in the smartphone and social media era in America. Information, personal communication, and photography were widely available as never before, capturing popular attention and enhancing the social experience. The event was received with much enthusiasm across the nation; people gathered outside their homes to watch it, and many parties were set up in the path of the eclipse. Many people left their homes and traveled hundreds of miles just to get a glimpse of totality, which few ever get to experience. Marriage proposals were timed to coincide with the eclipse, as was at least one wedding. Logistical problems arose with the influx of visitors, especially for smaller communities. The sale of counterfeit eclipse glasses was also anticipated to be a hazard for eye injuries. Future total solar eclipses will cross the United States on April 8, 2024 (12 states), August 23, 2044 (2 states), and on August 12, 2045 (10 states), and annular solar eclipses—wherein the Moon appears smaller than the Sun—occurred in October 2023 (9 states) and will occur in June 2048 (9 states). Visibility The total eclipse had a magnitude of 1.0306 and was visible within a narrow corridor wide, crossing 14 of the contiguous United States: Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Nebraska, Kansas, Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. It was first seen from land in the U.S. shortly after 10:15 am PDT (17:15 UTC) at Oregon's Pacific coast, and then it progressed eastward through Salem, Oregon; Idaho Falls, Idaho; Casper, Wyoming; Lincoln, Nebraska; Kansas City, Missouri; St. Louis, Missouri; Hopkinsville, Kentucky; and Nashville, Tennessee; before reaching Columbia, South Carolina about 2:41 pm; and finally Charleston, South Carolina. A partial eclipse was seen for a greater time period, beginning shortly after 9:00 am PDT along the Pacific Coast of Oregon. Weather forecasts predicted clear skies in Western U.S. and some Eastern states, but clouds in the Midwest and East Coast. The longest ground duration of totality was 2 minutes 41.6 seconds at about in Giant City State Park, just south of Carbondale, Illinois, and the greatest extent (width) was at near the village of Cerulean, Kentucky, located in between Hopkinsville and Princeton. This was the first total solar eclipse visible from the Southeastern United States since the solar eclipse of March 7, 1970. Two NASA WB-57Fs flew above the clouds, prolonging the observation time spent in the umbra. A partial solar eclipse was seen from the much broader path of the Moon's penumbra, including all of North America, particularly areas just south of the totality pass, where the eclipse lasted about 3–5 hours, northern South America, Western Europe, and some of Africa and north-east Asia. At one location in Wyoming, a small group of astronomers used telescopic lenses to photograph the sun as it was in partial eclipse, while the International Space Station was also seen to briefly transit the sun. Similar images were captured by NASA from a location in Washington. (See Gallery – partial eclipse section). Other celestial bodies During the eclipse for a long span of its path of totality, several bright stars and four planets were visible. The star system Regulus was almost in conjunction with the Sun. Mars was 8° to the right, and Venus 34° right. Mercury was 10° left, and Jupiter 51° left. Other eclipses over the United States This was the first total solar eclipse visible from the United States since that of July 11, 1991—which was seen only from part of Hawaii—and the first visible from the contiguous United States since 1979. An eclipse of comparable length (up to 3 minutes, 8 seconds, with the longest eclipse being 6 minutes and 54 seconds) occurred over the contiguous United States on March 7, 1970 along the southern portions of the Eastern Seaboard, from Florida to Virginia. The path of totality of the solar eclipse of February 26, 1979 crossed only the states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, and North Dakota. Many enthusiasts traveled to the Pacific Northwest to view the eclipse, since it would be the last chance to view such an eclipse in the contiguous United States for almost four decades. The August 2017 eclipse was the first with a path of totality crossing the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of the U.S. since the solar eclipse of 1918. Also, its path of totality made landfall exclusively within the United States, making it the first such eclipse since the country's declaration of independence in 1776. Prior to this, the path of totality of the eclipse of June 13, 1257, was the last to make landfall exclusively on lands currently part of the United States. The path of the 2017 eclipse crosses with the path of the upcoming total solar eclipse of April 8, 2024, with the intersection of the two paths being in southern Illinois in Makanda Township at Cedar Lake, just south of Carbondale. An area of about , including the cities of Makanda, Carbondale, Cape Girardeau, Missouri, and Paducah, Kentucky, will thus experience two total solar eclipses within a span of less than seven years. The cities of Benton, Carbondale, Chester, Harrisburg, Marion, and Metropolis in Illinois; Cape Girardeau, Farmington, and Perryville in Missouri, as well as Paducah, Kentucky, will also be in the path of the 2024 eclipse, thereby earning the distinction of witnessing two total solar eclipses in seven years. The solar eclipse of August 12, 2045, will have a very similar path of totality over the U.S. to the 2017 eclipse: about 400 km (250 mi) to the southwest, also crossing the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of the country; however, totality will be more than twice as long, and it will be seen not only in the United States. It will be seen in the Americas. Total eclipse viewing events Oregon Corvallis – The Corvallis campus of Oregon State University hosted "OSU150 Space Grant Festival: A Total Eclipse Experience", a weekend-long celebration of the eclipse. A watch party was also hosted on campus the day of the eclipse. Huntington – Historic Farewell Bend State Recreation Area hosted the RASC: Yukon Centre (Yukon Astronomical Society) and the RASC: Okanagan Centre. Solar viewing and presentations on the eclipse were given along with a dark-sky presentation. Keizer – The Salem-Keizer Volcanoes, a Class A baseball team, played a morning game against the visiting Hillsboro Hops that featured the first ever "eclipse delay" in baseball history. Madras – The city sponsored a four-day Solarfest at two locations. Ontario – Treasure Valley Community College hosted an eclipse viewing event. Prineville – Symbiosis Gathering hosted a seven-day eclipse festival which included rave-style music dubbed "Oregon Eclipse". Rickreall – The Polk County Fairgrounds organized a series of events and an eclipse gathering. Salem – The Oregon Museum of Science and Industry hosted an event at the Oregon State Fairgrounds. Idaho Arco – High altitude balloon launches by the USC Astronautical Engineering department and NASA. Craters of the Moon – The National Monument and Preserve hosted NASA presentations, evening star parties hosted by the Idaho Falls Astronomical Society, and presentations by the New Mexico Chapter of the Charlie Bates Solar Astronomy Project. Idaho Falls – Free entertainment and educational seminars and an eclipse-watching event at the Museum of Idaho (an official NASA viewing site) and elsewhere, and a free eclipse-watching event at Melaleuca Field. Rexburg – Brigham Young University Idaho offered a series of eclipse-related educational events. Weiser – The city sponsored a five-day festival prior to the eclipse. Wyoming Casper – The Astronomical League, an alliance of amateur astronomy clubs, held its annual Astrocon conference, and there were other public events, called Wyoming Eclipse Festival 2017. Fort Laramie – Fort Laramie held an eclipse viewing event, which included a Special "Great American Eclipse" Program. Riverton – The biggest Polish expedition conducted as the Great Expedition of Polish Society of Amateur Astronomers was flocked between Riverton and Shoshoni in the central line of totality. Nebraska Alliance – Entertainment and educational seminars were offered. ABC News reported live from Carhenge during totality. Auburn – Nemaha County Hospital hosted an eclipse viewing event, including sharing safety tips from Lifetime Vision Center. Beatrice – Homestead National Monument of America – Events were held with Bill Nye the Science Guy as well as representatives from NASA on Saturday, Sunday and the day of the eclipse. Grand Island – Stuhr Museum hosted an eclipse viewing event, including the launch of a NASA eclipse observing balloon. Lincoln – At Haymarket Park, the Lincoln Saltdogs, an independent baseball team in the American Association, defeated the Gary SouthShore RailCats 8–5 in a special eclipse game, with 6,956 in attendance. The game was paused for 26 minutes in the middle of the third inning to observe the eclipse. The Saltdogs players wore special eclipse-themed uniforms that were auctioned off after the game. Kansas Atchison – Benedictine College hosted thousands in its football stadium. There were students from schools from Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, and Oklahoma attending, plus numerous other guests who heard from, amongst others, astronomers from the Vatican Observatory. Missouri Columbia – The Cosmo Park and the Gans Creek Park were open for the eclipse. There was a watch party on campus for the students at the University of Missouri coordinated by Angela Speck, and the MU Health Care system released eye safety information. Kansas City – A 5-mile (8 km) bicycle ride from downtown KCMO (where totality only lasted about 30 seconds) to Macken Park in North Kansas City (where totality lasted 1 minute 13 seconds) was organized by KC Pedal Party Club, a local Meetup group. Lathrop – The city celebrated its 150th anniversary with an eclipse festival. Parkville – TotalEclipseofthePark – August 20 educational program featuring NASA Glenn Research Center Hall of Famer Lynn Bondurant, '61, and August 21 watch party organized by Park University. Potosi  – Hora Eclipse, an Israeli folkdance camp coordinated with the eclipse, was held at YMCA Trout Lodge and Camp Lakewood, near the Mark Twain National Forest. More information at the event's website, especially its post-mortem page. St. Clair – An event organized by the St. Clair City Chamber of Commerce. St. Joseph – An event organized by Front Page Science was held at Rosecrans Memorial Airport. St. Louis – David Tipper hosted his Tipper & Friends 4321 electronic music event at Astral Valley Art Park featuring 5 days of music, art, and eclipse viewing. Illinois Carbondale – Southern Illinois University sponsored many eclipse related educational events, including the two day Crossroads Astronomy, Science and Technology Expo, and viewing at Saluki Stadium. Amtrak ran a special train, the Eclipse Express, from Chicago to Carbondale. NASA EDGE was broadcasting live from Southern Illinois University Carbondale with a four-hour and thirty-minute show (11:45 a.m. – 4:15 p.m. EDT). Carterville – A three-day rock festival called Moonstock was headlined by Ozzy Osbourne, who performed during the eclipse. Goreville – The University of Illinois Astronomy Department hosted a viewing event in town, which was the closest village to the point of longest duration. Kentucky Bowling Green – Western Kentucky University hosted thousands of K-12 students in its football stadium. At Bowling Green Ballpark, the Bowling Green Hot Rods, a Class A baseball team, played an eclipse game against the visiting West Michigan Whitecaps. Hopkinsville – A four-day eclipse festival was held at Jefferson Davis State Historic Site. Tennessee Athens – The City of Athens hosted "Total Eclipse of the Park" at Athens Regional Park, including entertainment, food, and vendors. Clarksville – Austin Peay State University presented several educational events, including an appearance by astronaut Rhea Seddon. Cookeville – Tennessee Technological University hosted a solar eclipse viewing party at Tucker Stadium. Cookeville hosted special events from Saturday to Monday. McMinnville – celebrated the eclipse by hosting BLACKOUT 2017, an eclipse viewing event held in the city square. In addition to the viewing, a selection of food trucks and musical acts which features The Pink Floyd Appreciation Society band who performed Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon in its entirety prior to the totality event. Memphis – At AutoZone Park, the Memphis Redbirds, a Class AAA baseball team, played an eclipse game against the visiting New Orleans Baby Cakes. Nashville – offered many special events, including the Music City Eclipse Science & Technology Festival at the Adventure Science Center. The Italian Lights Festival hosted the largest Eclipse Viewing Party in Nashville, a free NASA-Certified Eclipse Event held at the Bicentennial Mall. Two astrophysicists from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory emceed the countdown. North Carolina Bryson City – Planetarium shows were offered, as well as rides on the Great Smoky Mountains Railroad to an eclipse location. Cullowhee – The eclipse was visible in totality, and classes were cancelled for several hours during the first day of classes at Western Carolina University. Rosman – Pisgah Astronomical Research Institute (PARI) hosted a viewing event. The event at PARI has garnered international attention and the visitors included amateur astronomers. Georgia Athens – Viewing at Sanford Stadium at the University of Georgia. Blairsville – Get off the Grid Festival on three days preceding the eclipse. Elbert County – Approximately 400 people gathered at the Georgia Guidestones. South Carolina Anderson – Viewing at the Green Pond Landing on Lake Hartwell with food trucks, astronomer, and music. Unfortunately, clouds blocked the sun at the beginning of totality, but almost completely disappeared throughout. Charleston – The College of Charleston hosted NASA's "eclipse headquarters" broadcast as part of an afternoon eclipse viewing celebration on the green behind the campus library. Clemson – Viewing at Clemson University. Columbia – The South Carolina State Museum hosted four days of educational events, including an appearance by Apollo 16 astronaut Charles Duke. At Spirit Communications Park, the Columbia Fireflies, a Class A baseball team, played an eclipse game against the visiting Rome Braves. Greenville – Viewing at Furman University. Events include streaming coverage from NASA, educational activities, and live music. At Fluor Field, the Greenville Drive, a Class A baseball team, played an eclipse game against the visiting West Virginia Power. Sumter – Viewing at Dillon Park. Eclipse viewing glasses given away for free. Goose Creek – The clouds blocked the Eclipse that day much like in Anderson. Viewing from outside the United States Canada A partial eclipse was visible across the width of Canada, ranging from 89 percent in Victoria, British Columbia to 11 percent in Resolute, Nunavut. In Ottawa, viewing parties were held at the Canada Aviation and Space Museum. In Toronto, viewing parties were held at the CNE and the Ontario Science Centre. Mexico, Central America, Caribbean islands, South America A partial eclipse was visible from Central America, Mexico, the Caribbean islands, and ships and aircraft in and above the adjacent oceans, as well as the northern countries of South America such as Colombia, Venezuela, and several others. On the Caribbean Sea, Bonnie Tyler performed her 1983 song Total Eclipse of the Heart live with the pop group DNCE on board the cruise ship Oasis of the Seas, as the ship entered the eclipse's totality path, east of The Bahamas. Asian Russia A partial eclipse was visible during sunrise or morning hours in Russian Far East (including Severnaya Zemlya and New Siberian Islands archipelagos). For big cities in Russia, the maximal obscuration was in Anadyr, and it was 27.82%. Europe In northwestern Europe, a partial eclipse was visible in the evening or at sunset. Only those in Iceland, Ireland, Scotland and the Portuguese Azores archipelago saw the eclipse from beginning to end; in Wales, England, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Spain, and Portugal, sunset occurred before the end of the eclipse. In Germany, the beginning of the eclipse was visible just at sunset only in the extreme northwest of the country. In all regions east of the orange line on the map, the eclipse was not visible. West Africa In some locations in West Africa and western North Africa, a partial eclipse was seen just before and during sunset. The most favorable conditions to see this eclipse gained the Cape Verde Archipelago with nearly 0.9 magnitude at the Pico del Fogo volcano. Media and scientific coverage A large number of media outlets broadcast coverage of the eclipse, including television and internet outlets. NASA announced plans to offer streaming coverage through its NASA TV and NASA Edge outlets, using cameras stationed on the ground along the path of totality, along with cameras on high-altitude balloons, jets, and coverage from the International Space Station; NASA stated that "never before will a celestial event be viewed by so many and explored from so many vantage points—from space, from the air, and from the ground." ABC, CBS, and NBC announced that they would respectively broadcast live television specials to cover the eclipse with correspondents stationed across the path of totality, along with CNN, Fox News Channel, Science, and The Weather Channel. The PBS series Nova presented streaming coverage on Facebook hosted by Miles O'Brien, and aired a special episode chronicling the event—"Eclipse Over America"—later in the day (which marked the fastest production turnaround time in Nova history). Other institutions and services also announced plans to stream their perspectives of the eclipse, including the Exploratorium in San Francisco, the Elephant Sanctuary of Hohenwald, Tennessee, the Slooh robotic telescope app, and The Virtual Telescope Project. The Eclipse Ballooning Project, a consortium of schools and colleges that sent 50 high-altitude balloons into the sky during the eclipse to conduct experiments, provided streams of footage and GPS tracking of its launches. Contact with one balloon with $13,000 of scientific equipment, launched under the aegis of the LGF Museum of Natural History near Vale, Oregon, was lost at . Given that the balloon was believed to have burst at , it could have parachuted down anywhere from eastern Oregon to Caldwell, Idaho (most likely) to Sun Valley, Idaho; a $1,000 reward is offered for its recovery. The National Solar Observatory organized Citizen CATE volunteers to man 60 identical telescopes and instrumentation packages along the totality path to study changes in the corona over the duration of the eclipse. In orbit, the satellites Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, the International Space Station, the Solar Dynamics Observatory, the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, and Hinode gathered data from the eclipse. A viewing party was held at the White House, during which President Donald Trump appeared on the Truman Balcony with First Lady Melania Trump. With the sun partially eclipsed, President Trump looked briefly in the general direction of the sun before using solar viewing glasses. The eclipse generated reports of abnormal behavior in animal and plant life. Some chickens came out from beneath their coops and began grooming, usually an evening activity. Horses displayed increased whinnying, running, and jumping after the event. Cicadas were reported to grow louder before going silent during totality. Various birds were also observed flying in unusually large formations. Flowers such as the Hibiscus closed their petals which typically happens at night, before opening again after the solar event. Pornhub, a pornographic video-sharing website provided an unusual sociological and statistical report: its traffic dropped precipitously along the path of totality, so much so that its researchers were themselves surprised. NASA reported over 90 million page views of the eclipse on its websites, making it the agency's biggest online event ever, beating the previous web traffic record about seven times over. Counterfeit eclipse glasses In the months leading up to the eclipse, many counterfeit glasses were put up for sale. Effective eclipse glasses must not only block most visible light, but most UV and infrared light as well. For visible light, the user should only be able to see the Sun, sunglint reflected off shiny metal, halogen bulbs, the filament in unfrosted incandescent bulbs, and similarly intense sources. Determining whether the glasses effectively block enough UV and infrared light requires the use of spectrophotometer, which is a rather expensive piece of lab equipment. The eye's retina lacks pain receptors, and thus damage can occur without one's awareness. The American Astronomical Society (AAS) said products meeting the ISO 12312-2 standard avoid risk to one's eyes and issued a list of reputable vendors of eclipse glasses. The organization warned against products claiming ISO certification or even citing the same number, but not tested by an accredited laboratory. Another problem was counterfeits of reputable vendors' products, some even claiming the company's name such as with American Paper Optics which published information detailing the differences between its glasses and counterfeits. Andrew Lund, the owner of a company which produces eclipse glasses, noted that not all counterfeit glasses were necessarily unsafe. He stated to Quartz that the counterfeits he tested blocked the majority of harmful light spectrum, concluding that "the IP is getting ripped off, but the good news is there are no long-term harmful effects." As one example, the Springdale Library in metropolitan Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, accidentally passed out dozens of pairs of counterfeit eclipse glasses, but as of August 23 had not received any reports of eye damage. On July 27, 2017, Amazon required all eclipse viewing products sold on its website have a submission of origin and safety information, and proof of an accredited ISO certification. In mid-August 2017, Amazon recalled and pulled listings for eclipse viewing glasses that "may not comply with industry standards" and gave refunds to customers who had purchased them. Camera equipment damage Lensrentals, a camera rental company based in Tennessee, reported that many of its customers returned cameras and lenses with extensive damage. The most common problem reported was damage to the camera's sensor. This most often happens when shooting in live view mode, where the sensor is continuously exposed to the eclipse image and becomes damaged by the sun's light. Another problem was the heat and brightness of the eclipse destroying the lens iris, which mechanically regulates the amount of light that enters the camera. Another problem reported was one of a cinema camera's neutral-density filter being damaged by the heat and light of the eclipse. The cost of all of this damage likely amounted to thousands of dollars. Planning Officials inside and near the path of totality plannedsometimes for yearsfor the sudden influx of people. Smaller towns struggled to arrange viewing sites and logistics for what could have been a tourism boom or a disaster. In the American West, illegal camping was a major concern, including near cities like Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Idaho's Office of Emergency Management said Idaho was a prime viewing state, and advised jurisdictions to prepare for service load increases; nearly every hotel and motel room, campground, and in some cases backyards for nearly north and south of the path of totality had been reserved several months, if not years, in advance. The state anticipated up to 500,000 visitors to join its 1.6 million residents. Oregon deployed six National Guard aircraft and 150 soldiers because the influx of visitors coincided with the state's fire season. Hospital staffing, and supplies of blood and antisnake bite antidote, were augmented along the totality line. Also in Oregon, there were reports of hoteliers canceling existing reservations made at the regular market rate and increasing their rate, sometimes threefold or more, for guests staying to view the eclipse. The Oregon Department of Justice (DOJ) investigated various complaints and reached settlements with affected customers of at least 10 hotels in the state. These settlements included refunds to the customers and fines paid to the DOJ. Post-eclipse traffic problems Although traffic to areas within the path of totality was somewhat spread out over the days prior to the eclipse, there were widespread traffic problems across the United States after the event ended. Michael Zeiler, an eclipse cartographer, had estimated that between 1.85 million and 7.4 million people would travel to the path of the eclipse. In Oregon, because an estimated one million people were expected to arrive, the Oregon National Guard was called in to help manage traffic in Madras along US 26 and US 97. Madras Municipal Airport received more than 400 mostly personal planes that queued for hours while waiting to leave after the eclipse. Officials in Idaho, where the totality path crossed the center of the state, began planning for the eclipse a year in advance. The state Transportation Department suspended construction projects along Interstate 15, which traverses Eastern Idaho, from August 18–22 in order to have all lanes open; their counterparts in neighboring Utah, where many were expected to travel the north via the highway from the Salt Lake City metropolitan area, did the same. On the morning of the eclipse, many drivers left before dawn, creating traffic volume along I-15 normally not seen until morning rush hour; northbound traffic on the interstate in Box Elder County north of Salt Lake City slowed to . The Idaho State Police (ISP) stationed a patrol car along I-15 every between Shelley and the Utah border. After the eclipse, traffic more than doubled along I-15 southbound, with extensive traffic jams continuing for eight hours as viewers who had traveled north into the totality path from Utah returned there and to points south. The ISP tweeted a picture of bumper-to-bumper traffic stalled on the interstate just south of Idaho Falls. Motorists reported to local news outlets that it was taking them two hours to travel the from that city to Pocatello to the south, a journey that normally takes 45 minutes. Others reported that it took three hours to travel from Idaho Falls to the closer city of Blackfoot, farther north of Pocatello. In the rest of the state the impact was less severe. Traffic nearly doubled on US 93, and was up 55 percent on US 20. For some northbound travelers on I-15, the Montana Department of Transportation had failed to make similar plans to those in Idaho, scheduling a road construction project to begin on August 21 that narrowed a section of the highway to a single northbound lane, near the exit to Clark Canyon Dam south of Dillon. Though that stretch of highway generally has a traffic count of less than 1,000 vehicles per day, on the day of the eclipse there were over a thousand vehicles per hour at peak times. As a result, traffic backed up as far as Lima, creating a delay of at least an hour for travelers heading northward. Further, as construction had not yet begun, drivers observed cones set up but no workers present on the road. While the state traditionally halts construction projects during high traffic periods, a state official admitted "we ... probably made a bad mistake here in this regard." In Wyoming, estimates were that the population of the state, officially 585,000, may have doubled or even tripled, with traffic counts on August 21 showing 536,000 more cars than the five-year average for the third Monday in August; a 68 percent increase. One official offered an estimate of "two people in every car" to arrive at a one-million-visitor figure, and others noted that one million was a conservative estimate based on a one-day traffic count of limited portions of major highways. There were additional arrivals by aircraft, plus travelers who arrived early or stayed for additional days. Two days before the eclipse, traffic increased 18 percent over a five-year average, with an additional 131,000 vehicles on the road. Sunday saw an additional 217,000-vehicle increase. Following the eclipse, more than 500,000 vehicles traveled Wyoming roads, creating large traffic jams, particularly on southbound and eastbound highways. Drivers reported that it took up to 10 hours to travel into northern Colorado. There was one traffic fatality, and another fatality related to an off-highway ATV accident, but in general there were far fewer incidents and traffic citations than authorities had anticipated. In Tennessee, the Knoxville News Sentinel described the traffic problems created by the eclipse as the worst ever seen in that part of the state. One backup along Interstate 75 reached in length, between Niota and the Interstate 40 interchange at Farragut. A spokesman for the state's Department of Transportation allowed that the traffic jams were the worst he had seen in six and a half years on the job, noting that accidents had aggravated the already heavy traffic flows, attributed the I-75 congestion to Knoxville-area residents heading for the totality path at Sweetwater and returning during what was the city's normal afternoon rush hour. Before the eclipse, state officials had described their traffic expectations as equivalent to that generated by the Bonnaroo Music Festival, the twice-a-season NASCAR Cup Series races at Bristol or the formerly-held Boomsday fireworks festival. "Maybe they should have considered a tsunami of traffic combining all three of those heavily attended events", the News Sentinel commented. The Tennessee Highway Patrol made sure that "[e]very trooper not on sick leave or military leave or pre-approved leave [wa]s working" the day of the eclipse; the state DOT made sure its full complement of emergency-aid HELP trucks were available as well. Alert signs on the highways also warned motorists not to pull over onto the shoulders to watch the eclipse as it could increase the risk of dangerous accidents and block the path of emergency vehicles. In North Carolina, the Department of Transportation added cameras, message boards and safety patrols in the counties where the total eclipse would take place, as well as stopping road work. The department warned that due to "unprecedented" traffic ordinary activities requiring driving might prove difficult, and advised people to act as if there were snow. In Kentucky, particularly around the Hopkinsville area, which was dubbed "Eclipseville, USA", post-eclipse traffic caused extensive delays. The en masse departure of tourists via Interstate 69 as well as the Western Kentucky Parkway resulted in commute times double or even triple of normal. The Hopkinsville-to-Lexington commute under normal circumstances lasts three and a half hours. Impact on solar power An eclipse causes a reduction of solar power generation where the Moon shadow covers any solar panel, as do clouds. The North American Electric Reliability Corporation predicted minor impacts, and attempted to measure the impact of the 2017 eclipse. In California, solar power was projected to decrease by 4–6,000 megawatts at 70 MW/minute, and then ramp up by 90 MW/minute as the shadow passes. CAISO's typical ramp rate is 29 megawatts per minute. Around 4 GW mainly in North Carolina and Georgia were expected to be 90 percent obscured. After the 2017 eclipse, grid operators in California reported having lost 3,000–3,500 megawatts of utility-scale solar power, which was made up for by hydropower and gas reliably and as expected, mimicking the usual duck curve. Energy demand management was also used to mitigate the solar drop, and NEST customers reduced their demand by 700 MW. NV Energy prepared for the solar eclipse months in advance and collaborated with 17 western states. When the eclipse began covering California with partial darkness, which reduced its usual amount of solar-generated electricity, NV Energy sent power there. Likewise, when Nevada received less sunlight, other west coast states supplied electricity to it. During the solar eclipse, the state of Nevada lost about 450 megawatts of electricity, the amount used by about a quarter million typical residences. The 2015 eclipse caused manageable solar power decreases in Europe; in Germany, solar power dropped from 14 GW to 7 GW, of a 38 GW solar power capacity. Commemorative stamp On June 20, 2017, the USPS released the first application of thermochromic ink to postage stamps in its Total Eclipse of the Sun Forever stamp to commemorate the eclipse. When pressed with a finger, body heat turns the dark image into an image of the full moon. The stamp was released prior to August 21, so uses an image from the eclipse of March 29, 2006 seen in Jalu, Libya. Videos Gallery Totality (Images where the sun is completely eclipsed by the moon) Transition (Images showing Baily's beads or a Diamond ring, which occur just as totality begins or ends) Partial (Images where the sun is partially eclipsed by the moon) Images produced by natural pinholes (Images of the eclipse created by natural pinholes formed by tree leaves) Views outside of the US Related eclipses Occurring only 3.2 days after perigee (Perigee on Friday, August 18, 2017), the moon's apparent diameter was larger during the total solar eclipse on Monday, August 21, 2017. There was another solar eclipse in 2017, a large annular solar eclipse (99.223%) on February 26. Eclipses of 2017 A penumbral lunar eclipse on February 11. An annular solar eclipse on February 26. A partial lunar eclipse on August 7. A total solar eclipse on August 21. Solar eclipses ascending node 2015–2018 Saros 125: Partial Solar Eclipse September 13, 2015 Saros 135: Annular Solar Eclipse September 1, 2016 Saros 145: Total Solar Eclipse August 21, 2017 Saros 155: Partial Solar Eclipse August 11, 2018 Astronomers Without Borders began collecting eclipse glasses for redistribution to Latin America for the total solar eclipse occurring on July 2, 2019, and to Asia for the annular eclipse on December 26, 2019. A partial lunar eclipse took place on August 7, 2017, in the same eclipse season. It was visible over Africa, Asia, Australia, and eastern Europe. Tzolkinex Preceded: Solar eclipse of July 11, 2010 Followed: Solar eclipse of October 2, 2024 Half-Saros cycle Preceded: Lunar eclipse of August 16, 2008 Followed: Lunar eclipse of August 28, 2026 Tritos Preceded: Solar eclipse of September 22, 2006 Followed: Solar eclipse of July 22, 2028 Solar Saros 145 Preceded: Solar eclipse of August 11, 1999 Followed: Solar eclipse of September 2, 2035 Inex Preceded: Solar eclipse of September 11, 1988 Followed: Solar eclipse of August 2, 2046 Solar eclipses 2015–2018 Saros series 145 Inex series Metonic series See also List of solar eclipses visible from the United States Notable total solar eclipses crossing the United States from 1900 to 2050: Solar eclipse of June 8, 1918 (Saros 126, Descending Node) Solar eclipse of September 10, 1923 (Saros 143, Ascending Node) Solar eclipse of January 24, 1925 (Saros 120, Descending Node) Solar eclipse of August 31, 1932 (Saros 124, Descending Node) Solar eclipse of July 9, 1945 (Saros 145, Ascending Node) Solar eclipse of June 30, 1954 (Saros 126, Descending Node) Solar eclipse of October 2, 1959 (Saros 143, Ascending Node) Solar eclipse of July 20, 1963 (Saros 145, Ascending Node) Solar eclipse of March 7, 1970 (Saros 139, Ascending Node) Solar eclipse of February 26, 1979 (Saros 120, Descending Node) Solar eclipse of August 21, 2017 (Saros 145, Ascending Node) Solar eclipse of April 8, 2024 (Saros 139, Ascending Node) Solar eclipse of August 12, 2045 (Saros 136, Descending Node) Notable annular solar eclipses crossing the United States from 1900 to 2050: Solar eclipse of May 30, 1984 (Saros 137, Ascending Node) Solar eclipse of May 10, 1994 (Saros 128, Descending Node) Solar eclipse of October 14, 2023 (Saros 134, Descending Node) Solar eclipse of June 11, 2048 (Saros 128, Descending Node) References Further reading External links August 21, 2017 eclipse – NASA Color map – NASA Eclipse 2017: One Nation Under The Sun (NPR) A synopsis of people's reactions as the eclipse moved across the U.S., (published August 27, 2017). Eclipse Across America (Celestron) A synopsis of people's reactions as the eclipse moved across the U.S., (published September 26, 2017). Photos and videos Space.com Gallery of photos from Casper, Wyoming NationalEclipse.com An educational site launched for the 2017 eclipse with overviews, maps, city data, events, animations, merchandise, historical information, and other resources. 2017 in science 2017 in space 2017 08 21 Articles containing video clips August 2017 events August 2017 events in the United States 2017 08 21

4763121

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innocent%20passage

Innocent passage

Innocent passage is a concept in the law of the sea that allows for a vessel to pass through the archipelagic and territorial waters of another state, subject to certain restrictions. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea Article 19 defines innocent passage as: Innocent passage concedes the coastal country's territorial sea claim, unlike freedom of navigation, which directly contests it. History Initially, the right of innocent passage in the current sense began to take shape in the 1840s (as a customary rule) with the development of world trade and the emergence of steamships navigation, for which it was economically significant to use the shortest possible route often through the coastal waters of a foreign state. The law was codified in the 1958 Geneva Convention and affirmed in the 1982 UNCLOS. See also 1986 Black Sea incident 1988 Black Sea bumping incident Corfu Channel incident Right of passage Transit passage References External links UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, Part II: Section 3 defines "innocent passage" Spadi, F. (2001), "The Bridge on the Strait of Messina: 'Lowering' the Right of Innocent Passage?", International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 50: 411–419. Law of the sea

4763397

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daily%20Prayer%20for%20Peace

Daily Prayer for Peace

The Daily Prayer for Peace is a spiritual discipline unique to the Community of Christ and practiced at the Independence Temple in the church's headquarters campus in Independence, Missouri. It falls within the most common category of Christian prayer known as supplication. Each day of the year at 1 p.m. Central Standard Time/Central Daylight Time a Daily Prayer for Peace is held as part of a brief worship for that purpose held in the sanctuary of the Independence Temple. The sanctuary is open to the public as members lead a brief worship service that includes the Daily Prayer for Peace. The form of the prayer is a publicly spoken prayer, usually written by one of the members from somewhere in the world and read aloud either by that member or another person. Each day of the year, the Daily Prayer for Peace is focused on the needs of a different nation of the world. The supplicant prays aloud for peace under the 150-foot dome of the temple spire. Those living in or visiting Independence, Mo. are encouraged to stop in to participate in this worship experience, and those elsewhere around the globe are encouraged to pause for a moment of silent prayer. Background At the 1984 World Conference of Community of Christ, its President, Wallace B. Smith, called for the construction of the Independence Temple and its dedication "to the pursuit of peace." A committee formed to consider the worship ministries to be held in the new temple, devised the idea of a Daily Prayer for Peace to act as a witness of Christ's peace and a "symbol of the Church's unrelenting pursuit of peace." The Daily Prayer for Peace has been held daily in the Independence Temple since December 1993. It is one of many practices, including the Community of Christ International Peace Award that distinguish the denomination and its members. Prior to 9 April 2007, the Daily Prayer for Peace was held at 12:30 p.m. Central Standard Time/Central Daylight Time. With the change in time, those working at Community of Christ International Headquarters are encouraged to pause and attend this service. Since 26 October 2007 each Friday at Noon Eastern Time the Daily Prayer for Peace service is celebrated at the Kirtland Temple Complex as the Friday Prayer for Peace. Starting in May 2008 it started being celebrated daily in both Independence and Kirtland. Order of service The committee developed a standard order of service which is normally followed: Gathering in Silence, Call to Prayer, Lighting of Candle, Invitation, Scripture Reading, Prayer for Peace, Prayers of the People, Hymn, Benediction and Postlude. Prayer topics In order to ensure a truly global reach for the prayers, a different country is named each day as a focus of prayer. The schedule can be seen on the Community of Christ website http://www.cofchrist.org/prayerpeace/. This schedule reflects the ecumenical prayer cycle of the World Council of Churches, which lists a nation or series of nations for each week of the year. References Laurie Smith Monsees, The Temple: Dedicated to Peace, Herald House: 1993. External links Daily Prayer for Peace official website Community of Christ official website Prayer types in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam: Do You Pray Like Your Fathers? Christian prayer Community of Christ Religion and peace 1993 establishments in Missouri 1993 in Christianity Latter Day Saint temple practices Prayer for Peace

4767343

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape%20Floristic%20Region

Cape Floristic Region

The Cape Floral Region is a floristic region located near the southern tip of South Africa. It is the only floristic region of the Cape Floristic Kingdom, and includes only one floristic province, known as the Cape Floristic Province. The Cape Floristic Region, the smallest of the six recognised floral kingdoms of the world, is an area of extraordinarily high diversity and endemism, and is home to over 9,000 vascular plant species, of which 69 percent are endemic. Much of this diversity is associated with the fynbos biome, a Mediterranean-type, fire-prone shrubland. The economical worth of fynbos biodiversity, based on harvests of fynbos products (e.g. wildflowers) and eco-tourism, is estimated to be in the region of R77 million (~US$5 million) a year. Thus, it is clear that the Cape Floristic Region has both economic and intrinsic biological value as a biodiversity hotspot. Location and description Home to the greatest non-tropical concentration of higher plant species in the world, the region is the only hotspot that encompasses an entire floral kingdom, and holds five of South Africa's 12 endemic plant families and 160 endemic genera. Covering 78,555 km2, Cape Floristic Region hotspot is located entirely within the borders of South Africa. It is one of the five temperate Mediterranean-type systems on the hotspots list, and is one of only two hotspots that encompass an entire floral kingdom (the other being New Caledonia). The Region covers the Mediterranean climate region of South Africa in the Western Cape in the southwestern corner of the country, and extends eastward into the Eastern Cape, a transitional zone between the winter rainfall region to the west and the summer-rainfall region to the east in KwaZulu-Natal. Flora Most of the region is covered with fynbos, a sclerophyllous shrubland occurring on acid sands or nutrient-poor soils derived from Table Mountain sandstones (Cape Supergroup). Fynbos is home to a diverse plethora of plant species including many members of the protea family (Proteaceae), heath family (Ericaceae), and reed family of restios (Restionaceae). Other vegetation types are sandveld, a soft coastal scrubland found mostly on the west-facing coast of the Western Cape Province, on tertiary sands. Renosterveld is a grassy shrubland dominated by members of the daisy family (Asteraceae), particularly renosterbos (Elytropappus rhinocerotis), graminoids and geophytes, occurring on the base-rich shaley soils of the coastal forelands. Small pockets of Afromontane forest (Southern Afrotemperate Forest) can be found in humid and sheltered areas. According to Takhtajan (1978), the following families are endemic or subendemic to the region: Grubbiaceae, Roridulaceae, Bruniaceae, Penaeaceae, Greyiaceae, Geissolomataceae, Retziaceae (Retzia) and Stilbaceae.Rooibos is produced out of this region. Vegetation types List of vegetation types of the Cape Floristic Region: Swartland Alluvium Renosterveld Swartland Granite Renosterveld Swartland Silcrete Renosterveld Ecology The World Wide Fund for Nature divides the Cape floristic region into three ecoregions: the Lowland fynbos and renosterveld, Montane fynbos and renosterveld and the Albany thickets. The fynbos ecoregions are designated one of the Global 200 priority ecoregions for conservation. Conservation International declared the Cape floristic region to be a biodiversity hotspot. It is thought that the Cape Floristic Region is experiencing one of the most rapid rates of extinction in the world due to habitat loss, land degradation, and invasive alien plants. World Heritage Site In 2004, the "Cape Floral Region Protected Areas" were inscribed as a World Heritage Site. The site includes eight representative protected areas: Table Mountain National Park Cederberg Wilderness Area Groot Winterhoek Wilderness Area Boland Mountain Complex (Limietberg Nature Reserve, Jonkershoek Nature Reserve, Assegaaibosch Nature Reserve, Hottentots Holland Nature Reserve, Kogelberg Nature Reserve) De Hoop Nature Reserve Boosmansbos Wilderness Area Swartberg Complex (Swartberg Nature Reserve, Gamkapoort Nature Reserve, Towerkop Nature Reserve) Baviaanskloof Mega Reserve References This article incorporates CC BY-3.0 text from the reference External links Conservation International: Cape floristic Region – biodiversity hotspot Cape Action: the Cape floristic Region Floristic regions Fynbos Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub Afromontane ecoregions Afrotropical realm Geography of South Africa World Heritage Sites in South Africa

4768772

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second%20Thoughts%20%28Butor%20novel%29

Second Thoughts (Butor novel)

Second Thoughts () is a novel by Michel Butor first published in French in 1957. It is the author's most famous work. It was translated into English by Jean Stewart, with the title Second Thoughts (Faber and Faber, 1958) as well as under the titles A Change of Heart (Simon & Schuster, 1959) and Changing Track (Calder, 2017; revised translation). Plot summary The plot is quite straightforward: a middle-aged man takes the train from Paris to Rome to visit his lover, Cécile, whom he has not informed of his arrival. They have met in secret once a month for the past two years: each time that his business trips have taken him to the Italian capital. He now intends to tell her that he has finally decided to leave his wife, found a job for her (Cécile) in Paris and is ready to take her back there and live with her. The novel describes his gradual change of mind. His initial enthusiasm and hopes of a rejuvenating new start slowly give way to doubt, fear and cowardice. He eventually decides to spend the week-end in Rome alone, go back to Paris the following Monday without saying anything to Cécile and leave the situation as it was until their relationship eventually ends. He will write about this failure in a book which happens to be La Modification itself. Major themes One of the most striking characteristics of the book is the very unusual use of the formal second-person ("Vous" – "You") to refer to the main character, a narrative technique known as second-person narration. "Vous", the second-person plural, is a more respectful form of address, in contrast to the more intimate second person singular "Tu". The story is remarkably concentrated as far as time and space are concerned. The entire action takes place in less than 24 hours and never leaves the train in which the main character is travelling, except during the flashbacks. La Modification contains both realistic and fantastic elements. On the one hand, the various landscapes, the passengers, the interior of the carriage are described down to the last detail. On the other, there are many eerie episodes. For instance, as the train passes the Fontainebleau Forest, the main character sees the "Grand Veneur", a ghost rider that is rumoured to haunt it and ask questions to the persons he comes across. It reappears several times in the book (thus becoming a leitmotiv). Its questions always echo the state of mind of the main character: "Can you hear me?", "Can you see me?", "Who are you?", "What do you want?", "Where are you going?", "What are you looking for?". All these surreal episodes culminate in a nightmare in which the main character is judged and condemned by the decayed corpses of the old Roman Emperors and the pagan gods who deem him unworthy and deny him entry to the city. The opposition between the pagan Rome (Cécile) and the Christian one (the wife) is also central to the book. In this respect, it is significant that, in several of the story's flashbacks, the main character is reading the Letters of Julian the Apostate, the emperor who rejected Christianity and sought to restore traditional polytheism. As a matter of fact, he gradually realises that his love for Cécile is motivated by his fascination for the mystery of Rome, a mystery that he will never be able to understand. Living with her in Paris would ruin everything, would make her lose her appeal since she was important only in that she introduced him to the secrets of the city. The novel can also be seen as a psychological case study. At the beginning of the book, the main character's determination and enthusiasm seem unshakable. However, Butor's extremely detailed and careful analysis of the slow, almost mechanical workings of doubt and fear make his eventual change of mind absolutely inevitable. Reception The novel won the prix Renaudot in 1957. See also Le Monde's 100 Books of the Century 1957 French novels Cultural depictions of Julian (emperor) Psychological novels Metafictional novels Novels set on trains Novels set in one day

4773039

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Wonder-Book%20for%20Girls%20and%20Boys

A Wonder-Book for Girls and Boys

A Wonder-Book for Girls and Boys (1851) is a children's book by American author Nathaniel Hawthorne in which he retells several Greek myths. It was followed by a sequel, Tanglewood Tales. Overview The stories in A Wonder-Book for Girls and Boys are all stories within a story. The frame story is that Eustace Bright, a Williams College student, is telling these tales to a group of children at Tanglewood, an area in Lenox, Massachusetts, where Hawthorne lived for a time. All the tales are modified versions of ancient Greek myths: "The Gorgon's Head" - recounts the story of Perseus killing Medusa at the request of the king of the island, Polydectes. "The Golden Touch" - recounts the story of King Midas and his "Golden Touch". "The Paradise of Children" - recounts the story of Pandora opening the box filled with all of mankind's Troubles. "The Three Golden Apples" - recounts the story of Heracles procuring the Three Golden Apples from the Hesperides' orchard, with the help of Atlas. "The Miraculous Pitcher" - recounts the story of Baucis and Philemon providing food and shelter to two strangers who were Zeus and "Quicksilver" (Hermes) in disguise. Baucis and Philemon were rewarded by the gods for their kindness; they were promised never to live apart from one another. "The Chimæra" - recounts the story of Bellerophon taming Pegasus and killing the Chimæra. Composition and publication history Hawthorne expressed his idea to rewrite Greek myths as early as 1846 when he outlined a book to Evert Augustus Duyckinck of stories "taken out of the cold moonshine of classical mythology, and modernized, or perhaps gothicized, so that they may be felt by children of these days." In 1851, just after the birth of his daughter Rose, he proposed the idea again in the form of a collection of six tales. His aim would be, he wrote, "substituting a tone in some degree Gothic or romantic, or any such tone as may please myself, instead of the classic coldness, which is as repellent as the touch of marble... and, of course, I shall purge out all the old heathen wickedness, and put in a moral wherever practicable." Publisher James Thomas Fields pushed for Hawthorne to complete the project quickly. Fields had begun reissuing the author's earlier series for children titled Grandfather's Child, originally published by Elizabeth Palmer Peabody and now renamed True Stories from History and Biography, and was also planning a new edition of Twice-Told Tales. The entirety of the collection was written between June and mid-July 1851. He sent the final manuscript to Fields on July 15 and wrote: "I am going to begin to enjoy the summer now and to read foolish novels, if I can get any, and smoke cigars and think of nothing at all — which is equivalent to thinking of all manner of things." The Hawthornes had moved to The Berkshires shortly after the publication of The Scarlet Letter and it was here that he completed not only A Wonder-Book but also his novel The House of the Seven Gables. He was able to spend time with several other literary figures, including Herman Melville, who was then living at Arrowhead in Pittsfield. Melville is referenced by name in A Wonder-Book: "On the higher side of Pittsfield, sits Herman Melville, shaping out the gigantic conception of his 'White Whale' while the gigantic shape of Graylock looms upon him from his study-window." Biographer Philip McFarland called this period "by far the most productive creative period of Hawthorne's life", though it also marked the end of his time as a writer of short tales. The Hawthornes would soon move temporarily to West Newton, Massachusetts, where the author would begin to write The Blithedale Romance, a novel he conceived while in Lenox. A later edition from 1922 was illustrated by Arthur Rackham. Response Hawthorne wrote A Wonder-Book immediately after The House of the Seven Gables. That novel had sold 6,710 copies by August 1851, and A Wonder-Book sold 4,667 copies in just two months after its November 1851 publication. By comparison, his friend Herman Melville's novel Moby-Dick was released the same month, with the British edition selling under 300 copies in two years, and the American edition under 1,800 in the first year. Hawthorne later authorized a French edition of A Wonder-Book and bought a copy in Marseille while on a European vacation in 1859. He joked in his journal about the purchase of "the two volumes of the Livre des Merveilles, by a certain author of my acquaintance." References External links A Wonder Book for Girls & Boys, illustrated by Walter Crane (1893) 1851 short story collections 1850s children's books American children's books Children's short story collections Short story collections by Nathaniel Hawthorne Books illustrated by Arthur Rackham Children's books based on classical mythology

4777389

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydric%20soil

Hydric soil

Hydric soil is soil which is permanently or seasonally saturated by water, resulting in anaerobic conditions, as found in wetlands. Overview Most soils are aerobic. This is important because plant roots respire (that is, they consume oxygen and carbohydrates while releasing carbon dioxide) and there must be sufficient air—especially oxygen—in the soil to support most forms of soil life. Air normally moves through interconnected pores by forces such as changes in atmospheric pressure, the flushing action of rainwater, and by simple diffusion. In addition to plant roots, most forms of soil microorganisms need oxygen to survive. This is true of the more well-known soil animals as well, such as ants, earthworms and moles. But soils can often become saturated with water due to rainfall and flooding. Gas diffusion in soil slows (some 10,000 times slower) when soil becomes saturated with water because there are no open passageways for air to travel. When oxygen levels become limited, intense competition arises between soil life forms for the remaining oxygen. When this anaerobic environment continues for long periods during the growing season, quite different biological and chemical reactions begin to dominate, compared with aerobic soils. In soils where saturation with water is prolonged and is repeated for many years, unique soil properties usually develop that can be recognized in the field. Soils with these unique properties are called hydric soils, and although they may occupy a relatively small portion of the landscape, they maintain important soil functions in the environment. The plants found in hydric soils often have aerenchyma, internal spaces in stems and rhizomes, that allow atmospheric oxygen to be transported to the rooting zone. Hence, many wetlands are dominated by plants with aerenchyma; common examples include cattails, sedges and water-lilies. Technical definitions United States A hydric soil is defined by federal law to mean "soil that, in its undrained condition, is saturated, flooded, or ponded long enough during a growing season to develop an anaerobic condition that supports the growth and regeneration of hydrophytic vegetation". This term is part of the legal definition of a wetland included in the United States Food Security Act of 1985 (P.L. 99-198). This definition is provided in the controlling regulations to the Wetland Conservation Provisions of the FSA of 1985(7 C.F.R 12) and is used by the U.S.D.A. Natural Resources Conservation Service in the administration of the Wetland Conservation Compliance provisions ("Swampbuster") contained in the FSA of 1985. In adopting this definition in 1985, Congress attempted to capture the duration of waterlogged condition of a hydric soil by adding that a hydric soil is waterlogged long enough to support not only the growth of plants adapted to life in anaerobic conditions but also the regeneration of such plants. Another common definition of a hydric soils is provided by the National Technical Committee of Hydric Soils (NTCHS) as "a soil that formed under conditions of saturation, flooding, or ponding long enough during the growing season to develop anaerobic conditions in the upper part." The NTCHS hydric soil definition is used by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Environmental Protection Agency in their joint responsibilities in the administration of Section 404 of the Clean Water Act (1972). See also Acid sulfate soil Blue goo Gley soil Mesic Redox Wade Hurt Xeric References Bibliography Environmental Laboratory. 1987. Corps of Engineers Wetland Delineation Manual, Technical Report Y-87-1, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss. Url (pdf) last accessed 2006-04-16 Soil Conservation Service. 1994. National Food Security Act Manual. Title 180. USDA Soil Conservation Service, Washington, D.C. Soil Survey Staff. 1999. Soil Taxonomy: A Basic System of Soil Classification for Making and Interpreting Soil Surveys. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Agric. Hdbk. 436, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 869 pp. Soil Survey Staff. 1994. National Soil Survey Handbook. USDA Soil Conservation Service, Washington, D.C. External links Hydric Soils Technical Note 1: Proper use of Hydric Soil Terminology. USDA-NRCS. Accessed 2006-04-16. Pedology Types of soil Riparian zone Environmental soil science Wetlands

4782330

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesosiderite

Mesosiderite

Mesosiderites are a class of stony–iron meteorites consisting of about equal parts of metallic nickel-iron and silicate. They are breccias with an irregular texture; silicates and metal occur often in lumps or pebbles as well as in fine-grained intergrowths. The silicate part contains olivine, pyroxenes, and Ca-rich feldspar and is similar in composition to eucrites and diogenites. They are a rare type of meteorite; as of November 2014 only 208 are known (of which 56 come from Antarctica) and only 7 of these are observed falls. On the other hand, some mesosiderites are among the largest meteorites known. At Vaca Muerta in the Atacama Desert in Chile, many fragments with a total mass of 3.8 tons were found in a large strewnfield. They were first discovered in the 19th century by ore prospectors who mistook the shiny metal inclusions for silver and thought they had found an outcrop of a silver ore deposit. Later when an analysis was made and nickel-iron was found, the true nature as a meteorite was established. The meteorite was called Vaca Muerta. The picture at right shows a cut and polished piece of Vaca Muerta. The most recent fall of a mesosiderite occurred at Dong Ujimqin Qi in China, on September 7, 1995, where three large pieces with a total mass of fell. The fall of the Estherville mesosiderite in Iowa, US occurred on May 10, 1879. After a brilliant fireball had been seen, a shower of several large masses and many small fragments fell, totaling . The fall at Lowicz in Poland on March 12, 1935, yielded many (more than 50) fragments with a total weight of . The other observed mesosiderite falls occurred in 1842 at Barea (Spain), in 1880 at Varamin (Iran), in 1933 at Dyarrl Island (Papua New Guinea), and at Patwar (India) in 1935. The legendary Chinguetti meteorite is also supposed to be a mesosiderite. The asteroid 16 Psyche is a candidate for the parent body of the mesosiderites. See also Glossary of meteoritics References External links Mesosiderite images from Northern Arizona University Mesosiderite images from Meteorites Australia

4790698

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path-constrained%20rendezvous

Path-constrained rendezvous

In spaceflight, a path-constrained rendezvous is the process of moving an orbiting object from its current position to a desired position and velocity, in such a way that no obstacles are contacted along the way. It is a more constrained instance of the general problem of orbital rendezvous. When no obstacles need consideration, the problem of rendezvous is straightforward, and many efficient algorithms are available to plan the necessary maneuvers. Depending on the desired time taken to accomplish the rendezvous, there are an infinite number of possible rendezvous paths. The presence of obstacles posing a collision risk complicates the problem. The shortest-time or lowest-energy rendezvous might be made infeasible by obstacles, so a path requiring more time or more energy would have to be employed. For instance, if the purpose is to rescue an astronaut in distress on the far side of a large space station, speed is important. One may have to find quickly the rescue path requiring minimal time to execute, yet avoiding contact with the space station structure. A natural object of study is the problem of maneuvering in the vicinity of a large orbiting sphere, since a collision with a more complex structure can be avoided by selecting rendezvous paths that avoid contact with a virtual sphere enclosing the structure. Early research considered the problem of departure and arrival points lying on the surface of an orbiting sphere. This led to a pair of necessary conditions called the Tangential Departure and Tangential Arrival conditions. See also Space rendezvous Selected publications Stern, S. A. and Soileau, K. M., "Operational Implications for Path-Constrained Rendezvous," Proceedings of the AIAA Guidance, Navigation and Control Conference, Snowmass, CO, August 19–21, 1985, pp. 812–820. Soileau, K. M. and Stern, S. A., "Path-Constrained Rendezvous: Necessary and Sufficient Conditions," Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, Vol. 23, September–October 1986, pp. 492–498. Stern, S. A. and Soileau, K. M., "Inadequacy of Single-Impulse Transfers for Path-Constrained Rendezvous," Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, Vol. 24, May–June 1987, pp. 282–284. Soileau, Kerry M., "Defining Optimal Point-to-Point Transfer Surfaces for Orbital Path-Constrained Rendezvous," Proceedings of the AAS/NASA International Symposium, Greenbelt, MD, April 24–27, 1989, pp. 103–107. A.J. Grunwald, A. Abramovitz, S.R. Ellis. Interactive method for planning fuel-efficient proximity operations using visual optimization aids. 1995 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics. Intelligent Systems for the 21st Century, 2318–2323. Der-Ren Taur, Victoria Coverstone-Carroll, John E. Prussing. (1995) Optimal Impulsive Time-Fixed Orbital Rendezvous and Interception with Path Constraints. Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics 18:1, 54-60 Ismael Lopez, Colin R. McInnes. (1995) Autonomous rendezvous using artificial potential function guidance. Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics 18:2, 237-241 Russel S. Wenzel, John E. Prussing. (1996) Preliminary study of optimal thrust-limited path-constrained maneuvers. Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics 19:6, 1303-1309 Astrodynamics Orbits

4794229

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20mammal%20park

Marine mammal park

A marine mammal park (also known as marine animal park and sometimes oceanarium) is a commercial theme park or aquarium where marine mammals such as dolphins, beluga whales and sea lions are kept within water tanks and displayed to the public in special shows. A marine mammal park is more elaborate than a dolphinarium, because it also features other marine mammals and offers additional entertainment attractions. It is thus seen as a combination of a public aquarium and an amusement park. Marine mammal parks are different from marine parks, which include natural reserves and marine wildlife sanctuaries such as coral reefs, particularly in Australia. History Sea Lion Park opened in 1895 at Coney Island in Brooklyn, New York City with an aquatic show featuring 40 sea lions. It closed in 1903. The second marine mammal park, then called an oceanarium, was established in St. Augustine, Florida in 1938. It was initially a large water tank used to exhibit marine mammals for filming underwater movies, and only became later a public attraction. Today Marineland of Florida claims to be "the world's first oceanarium". In November 1961, Marineland of the Pacific on the Palos Verdes Peninsula, near Los Angeles in California was the first park to display an orca in captivity, although the orca named Wanda died after two days. The Vancouver Aquarium was responsible for the second orca ever held alive in captivity, Moby Doll, for 3 months in 1964. Between the 1970s and the 1990s, technical advances and the public's increasing interest in aquatic environments prompted a shift to large marine mammal parks with cetaceans (mostly orcas and other species of dolphin) as attractions. Within this time SeaWorld USA emerged with operations in Orlando, Florida, San Diego, California, San Antonio, Texas, and Aurora, Ohio (which has since closed down). On July 13, 1865, P.T. Barnum's Museum in New York City caught fire and killed two Beluga Wales in captivity by boiling them alive in their tank. List of parks Asia Australia Europe North America South America Criticism and animal welfare Many animal welfare groups, such as the WSPA, consider keeping whales and dolphins in captivity a form of abuse. The main argument is that whales and dolphins do not have enough freedom of movement within their artificial environments. The existence of marine mammal parks is thus very controversially discussed. Although sizable pools for whales and dolphins require an extraordinarily technical and financial expenditure and are usually nearly impossible to provide and maintain, many marine mammal parks endeavour to improve the conditions of captivity and attempt to engage in public education as well as scientific studies. For that purpose many marine mammal parks joined together in the "Alliance of Marine Mammal Parks and Aquariums", an international association dedicated to high standard of care of marine mammals. It was founded in 1987 and established offices near Washington, DC, in 1992. One report found that there is little objective evidence to indicate that marine mammal parks furthers public knowledge. In 2010, the practice of keeping animals in captivity as trained show performers was heavily criticized when a trainer was killed by an orca whale at SeaWorld Orlando in Florida. Orcas attacks have been documented in the film Blackfish, released in 2013. In 2015, the California Coastal Commission banned the breeding of captive killer whales. Captivity of marine mammals Animal captivity is the capturing and holding of an animal. Animals have been held captive for entertainment purposes and domestication. As of 2016, 63 whales and dolphins who are held captive have significantly less of space than they would usually swim every day in the wild. Marine mammals in captivity are fully aware and know when one of their pod mates or family members have died or they get separated from one another. Dolphins Dolphins are six times as likely to die after being captured due to stress and poor treatment. Dolphins live on average forty years less in captivity than they would live in the wild. Due to the stress of being in captivity it is very rare for dolphins to reproduce. Dolphins in their natural habitat spend around 80% of the time deep under water and swimming around 40 miles a day. Dolphins in captivity spend around 80% of their time above water and swimming just a few miles a day. Orcas Orcas have one of the biggest and most complex brains of all the marine mammals. They fully understand when they are captured and in captivity. Orcas also understand when they are being treated by humans. On average, Orcas swim around 100 miles every day and only spend around 10% of their lives at the surface of the ocean. In captivity, Orcas cannot swim as deep as they need to survive causing sun burn and blisters. Their dorsal fin can collapse from being out of the water so much. As of 2016, 63 orcas are in captivity in America. Studies show that almost all of these Orcas die for reasons other than old age while they are still in captivity. Twelve Orcas have died at Sea World since 1970. Sea world in Sandiego has recorded 17 orca deaths since 1971. The orcas often die from pregnancy, disease, and stress. Orcas are self-aware, and orcas depend on their pod mates and family to survive, and it is rare for them to survive on their own. An orca named Loita at the Miami Seaquarium, who was captured at four years old and lived in captivity for almost fifty years, was set to be released but died before she could be freed. She died from heath issues in 2021. Prevention of captivity Congress passed the Animal Welfare Act to protect animals who are under human care. There where laws against animal captivity but, they were mostly ceased in 1984. The marine Mammal Protection Act was passed in 1972 by President Richard Nixion. The act prohibits anyone from capturing marine mammals. Benefits of captivity Holding marine mammals in captivity allows scientists to study and observe them which then allows them to help more animals in the wild. A lot of marine mammals in captivity who fall ill or get injured will just pass away, but if they get captured, they can be treated and get a second chance at life. References Further reading Lou Jacobs, Wonders of an oceanarium: The story of marine life in captivity. Golden Gate Junior Books, 1965. Joanne F. Oppenheim, Oceanarium. Bantam Books, 1994. Reed M. Swim with Dolphins Guide: A Guide to Wild Dolphin Swims, Dolphin Swim Resorts and Dolphin Assisted Therapy 2012. See also Animal theme park List of dolphinariums WSPA Marine Mammal Protection Act Marine mammal training Captivity (animal)   Captivity External links Alliance of Marine Mammal Parks and Aquariums Recommended EAAM dolphin housing standards Site sur les différents orques et leur mode de reproduction évitant la consanguinité. Animal welfare Aquariums Oceanaria Amusement parks Animal theme parks

4795569

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypotheses%20non%20fingo

Hypotheses non fingo

Hypotheses non fingo (Latin for "I frame no hypotheses", or "I contrive no hypotheses") is a phrase used by Isaac Newton in an essay, "General Scholium", which was appended to the second (1713) edition of the Principia. Original remark A 1999 translation of the Principia presents Newton's remark as follows: Later commentary The 19th-century philosopher of science William Whewell qualified this statement, saying that, "it was by such a use of hypotheses, that both Newton himself and Kepler, on whose discoveries those of Newton were based, made their discoveries". Whewell stated:What is requisite is, that the hypothesis should be close to the facts, and not connected with them by other arbitrary and untried facts; and that the philosopher should be ready to resign it as soon as the facts refuse to confirm it. Later, Imre Lakatos asserted that such a resignation should not be too rushed. See also Action at a distance Primum movens References Latin philosophical phrases Gravity Isaac Newton History of physics Razors (philosophy) Epistemology of science

4803114

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrosyne

Euphrosyne

In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Euphrosyne (; ), was a deity, one of the Charites, known in ancient Rome as the Gratiae (Graces). She was sometimes called Euthymia (Εὐθυμία) or Eutychia (Εὐτυχία). Family According to Hesiod, Euphrosyne and her sisters Thalia and Aglaea were daughters of Zeus and the Oceanid Eurynome. Alternative parentage may be Zeus and Eurydome, Eurymedousa, or Euanthe; Dionysus and Kronois; or Helios and the Naiad Aegle. In some accounts, Euphrosyne was a daughter of the primordial gods, Erebus (Darkness) and Nyx (Night)."From Nox/ Nyx (Night) and Erebus [were born]: Fatum/ Moros (Fate), Senectus/ Geras (Old Age), Mors/ Thanatos (Death), Letum (Dissolution), Continentia (Moderation), Somnus/ Hypnos (Sleep), Somnia/ Oneiroi (Dreams), Amor (Love)--that is Lysimeles, Epiphron (Prudence), Porphyrion, Epaphus, Discordia/ Eris (Discord), Miseria/ Oizys (Misery), Petulantia/ Hybris (Wantonness), Nemesis (Envy), Euphrosyne (Good Cheer), Amicitia/ Philotes (Friendship), Misericordia/ Eleos (Compassion), Styx (Hatred); the three Parcae/ Moirai (Fates), namely Clotho, Lachesis and Atropos; the Hesperides." Mythology Euphrosyne is a goddess of good cheer, joy and mirth. Her name is the female version of the word euphrosynos, "merriment". Pindar wrote that these goddesses were created to fill the world with pleasant moments and good will. The Charites attended the goddess of beauty Aphrodite. In art, Euphrosyne is usually depicted with her sisters dancing. Cults Euphrosyne and her sisters' main cult was located in Athens, Sparta, or Boetia. Legacy In art and literature Euphrosyne is depicted with the other two Graces, Aglaea and Thalia, at the left of the painting in Botticelli's Primavera. The sculptor Antonio Canova made a well-known piece in white marble representing the three Graces, in several copies including one for John Russell, 6th Duke of Bedford. Joshua Reynolds painted Mrs. Mary Hale, wife of General John Hale, as Euphrosyne in 1766. John Milton invoked her in the poem L'Allegro. Virginia Woolf set her novel The Voyage Out on a ship named Euphrosyne. In science The asteroid 31 Euphrosyne is named after the goddess, as is the Euphrosinidae family of marine worms. Augustin Pyramus de Candolle named a genus of plants in the family Asteraceae Euphrosyne. Notes References Hesiod, Theogony from The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Nonnus of Panopolis, Dionysiaca translated by William Henry Denham Rouse (1863-1950), from the Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1940. Online version at the Topos Text Project. Nonnus of Panopolis, Dionysiaca. 3 Vols. W.H.D. Rouse. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1940-1942. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. Pindar, Odes translated by Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Pindar, The Odes of Pindar including the Principal Fragments with an Introduction and an English Translation by Sir John Sandys, Litt.D., FBA. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1937. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library. The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White. Homeric Hymns. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Greek text available from the same website. Greek goddesses Children of Nyx Children of Zeus Children of Helios Children of Dionysus Happiness

4803223

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AniZona

AniZona

AniZona was an annual anime convention based in Arizona that took place annually on Easter weekend (from Thursday to Sunday), hosted by AniZona Inc., a non-profit volunteer organization. The convention is no longer being run. The inaugural convention, also the first full-scale anime convention to be held in the state, occurred between March 25 and 27, 2005 at the Embassy Suites in Phoenix. Events Popular events included a Cosplay Contest, a Karaoke Contest, and an Anime Music Video Contest. AniZona featured numerous programming items involving voice actors in the anime industry, generally from North America, as well as webcomic artists, though the main Guest of Honor for the first convention was Yoshitaka Amano, and at least one Japanese guest, manga artist Haruka Miyabi, has been confirmed by the convention for the third AniZona. Sponsors have included distributors in the North American anime industry as well as local businesses in the Phoenix metropolitan area. History The convention was founded by Anthony Grutta (who served as convention chair for the first year), David Hungerford, and Jason Bustard. AniZona was the first convention dedicated to anime in the state. Although numerous small-scale anime and anime-related festivals had been held, there had not been any anime-specific conventions in Arizona. After two years at the Embassy Suites Phoenix North, the third AniZona was held at the Phoenix Marriott Mesa and Convention Center in Mesa, Arizona, April 5–8, 2007. There is an attendance cap for the convention. Pre-registration for AniZona 1 was capped at 800–850 attendees, although actual attendance was estimated at higher due to a limited number of at-the-door registrations sold. Event history References Defunct anime conventions

4804361

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octave%20%28liturgy%29

Octave (liturgy)

"Octave" has two senses in Christian liturgical usage. In the first sense, it is the eighth day after a feast, reckoning inclusively, and so always falls on the same day of the week as the feast itself. The word is derived from Latin octava (eighth), with dies (day) understood. In the second sense, the term is applied to the whole period of these eight days, during which certain major feasts came to be observed. Octaves, not being successive, are quite distinct from eight-day weeks and simply refer to the return of the same day of a seven-day week in the inclusive counting system used in Latin (just as the ninth day was a return to the same day of a nundinal cycle, the eight-day week of the pre-Christian Roman calendar). Early history The "eighth day" or octava dies was associated with the weekly Christian celebration of the resurrection of Christ every "eighth day", which became a name for Sunday. As circumcision is performed in Judaism on the "eighth day" after birth, the number 8 became associated in Christianity with Baptism, and baptismal fonts have from an early date often been octagonal. The practice of octaves was first introduced under Constantine I, when the dedication festivities of the basilicas at Jerusalem and Tyre, Lebanon were observed for eight days. After these one-off occasions, annual liturgical feasts began to be dignified with an octave. The first such feasts were Easter, Pentecost, and in the East, Epiphany. This occurred in the 4th century and served as a period of time for the newly converted to take a joyful retreat. The development of octaves occurred slowly. From the 4th century to the 7th century, Christians observed octaves with a celebration on the eighth day, with little development of the liturgies of the intervening days. Christmas was the next feast to receive an octave. By the 8th century, Rome had developed liturgical octaves not only for Easter, Pentecost, and Christmas, but also for the Epiphany and the feast of the dedication of a church. From the 7th century, saints' feasts also began to have octaves (as an eighth-day feast, not eight days of feasts), among the oldest being those of Saints Peter and Paul, Saint Lawrence and Saint Agnes. From the 12th century, the custom arose of liturgical observance of the days between the first and the eighth day, as well as the eighth day. During the Middle Ages, octaves for various other feasts and saints were celebrated depending upon the diocese or religious order. Western Christianity Catholic Church From Pius V to Pius XII While Pope Pius V reduced the number of octaves in 1568, these were still numerous. Not only on the eighth day from the feast but, with the exception of the octaves of Easter, Pentecost, and, to a lesser extent, Christmas, on all the intervening days the liturgy was the same as on the feast day itself, with the exact same prayers and Scripture readings. Octaves were classified into several types. Easter and Pentecost had "specially privileged" octaves, during which no other feast whatsoever could be celebrated. Christmas, Epiphany, and Corpus Christi had "privileged" octaves, during which certain highly ranked feasts might be celebrated. The octaves of other feasts allowed even more feasts to be celebrated. To reduce the repetition of the same liturgy for several days, Pope Leo XIII and Pope Pius X made further distinctions, classifying octaves into three primary types: privileged octaves, common octaves, and simple octaves. Privileged octaves were further arranged in a hierarchy of first, second, and third orders. For the first half of the 20th century, octaves were ranked in the following manner, which affected holding other celebrations within them: Privileged Octaves Privileged Octaves of the First Order Octave of Easter Octave of Pentecost Privileged Octaves of the Second Order Octave of Epiphany Octave of Corpus Christi Privileged Octaves of the Third Order Octave of Christmas Octave of the Ascension Octave of the Sacred Heart Common Octaves Octave of the Immaculate Conception BVM Octave of the Solemnity of St. Joseph Octave of the Nativity of St. John the Baptist Octave of Ss. Peter and Paul Octave of the Assumption BVM Octave of All Saints Simple Octaves Octave of St. Stephen Octave of St. John the Apostle Octave of the Holy Innocents Octave of St. Lawrence Octave of the Nativity BVM In addition to these, the patron saint of a particular nation, diocese, or church was celebrated therein with an octave, on each day of which the Mass and Office of the feast was repeated, unless impeded by a higher-ranked celebration. Although the feasts of St. Lawrence and the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary officially still had simple octaves, by the 20th century they had all but vanished as higher-ranking feasts were added to the calendar. The octave day alone of St. Lawrence was still commemorated during the Mass of St. Hyacinth. The entire octave of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary was impeded, but The Most Holy Name of Mary was celebrated during the octave and The Seven Sorrows of the Blessed Virgin Mary was celebrated on the former octave day. Reduction by Pius XII and Paul VI Pope Pius XII further simplified the Calendar with a decree dated 23 March 1955: only the octaves of Christmas, Easter and Pentecost were kept, as these did not repeat the same liturgy daily. All other octaves in the Roman Rite were suppressed, including those of local calendars (see General Roman Calendar of Pope Pius XII#Octaves.) In 1969, the Church further revised the Calendar by deleting the Octave of Pentecost. The first eight days of the Easter Season make up the Octave of Easter and are celebrated as Solemnities of the Lord, with proper readings and prayers. The Second Sunday of Easter, which ends the Easter Octave, has also been called "White Sunday" (Dominica in albis). The Christmas Octave is presently arranged as follows: Sunday within the octave: Feast of the Holy Family; celebrated on Friday, December 30 when Christmas is a Sunday 26 December: Feast of Saint Stephen 27 December: Feast of John the Apostle 28 December: Feast of the Holy Innocents 29-31 December: days within the octave, with assigned readings and prayers, on which the celebration of optional memorials is permitted according to special rubrics (but as noted above, when Christmas is a Sunday, the Feast of the Holy Family is celebrated on December 30) 1 January, octave day of the Nativity; Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God Lutheran Church The liturgical calendar of the Lutheran Churches may have octaves for the following feasts: "The Nativity of Our Lord, The Epiphany of Our Lord, The Resurrection of Our Lord, All Saints, Ascension Day, Pentecost and Trinity Sunday." Anglican Communion Churches within the Anglican Communion traditionally observed octaves associated with the feasts of Christmas, Corpus Christi, Epiphany, Michaelmas, Easter, and All Saints' Day. Many provinces have followed the Catholic Church and altered the practice of observing octaves. In the Church of England, the only octave that remains in some form is that of Easter: no other feasts may be celebrated in the six days following Easter Sunday, and only a Dedication Festival or Patronal Festival may be celebrated on the Second Sunday of Easter. Eastern Christianity Among the Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Rite Eastern Catholic Churches, what in the West would be called an Octave is referred to as an Afterfeast. The celebration of the Great Feasts of the church year are extended for a number days, depending upon the particular Feast. Each day of an Afterfeast will have particular hymns assigned to it, continuing the theme of the Feast being celebrated. Most of these Great Feasts (except Feasts within the moveable Paschal Cycle) also have a day or more of preparation called a Forefeast. Forefeasts and Afterfeasts will affect the structure of the services during the Canonical Hours. The last day of an Afterfeast is called the Apodosis (lit. "giving-back") of the Feast. On the Apodosis, most of the hymns that were chanted on the first day of the Feast are repeated. On the Apodoses of Feasts of the Theotokos, the Epistle and Gospel of the Feast are repeated again at the Divine Liturgy. Non-liturgical usage The term "octave" is applied to some church observances that are not strictly liturgical. For example, many churches observe an annual "Octave of Prayer for Christian Unity", which runs from 18 January to 25 January. The octave was established in 1895 by Pope Leo XIII for the period between Ascension and Pentecost. In 1909, Pope Pius X approved the transfer of this octave to the period between the former feast of the Chair of St. Peter (then on January 18) and the feast of the Conversion of St. Paul (January 25). In 1968, the World Council of Churches and the Vatican's Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity agreed to jointly publish prayer materials for the occasion under the title "Week of Prayer for Christian Unity", but it is still often referred to as an octave, especially within the Roman Catholic, Lutheran and Anglo-Catholic traditions. The Week of Prayer is observed at various times around the world, especially in the Southern Hemisphere where it is commonly observed from Ascension to Pentecost. Each year, Luxembourg holds what is called the octave celebration from the 3rd to the 5th Sunday after Easter, making it 15 instead of 8 days, in honour of Our Lady of Luxembourg, patroness of the city. See also Isru chag References Day

4812886

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian%20grid

Gaussian grid

A Gaussian grid is used in the earth sciences as a gridded horizontal coordinate system for scientific modeling on a sphere (i.e., the approximate shape of the Earth). The grid is rectangular, with a set number of orthogonal coordinates (usually latitude and longitude). At a given latitude (or parallel), the gridpoints are equally spaced. On the contrary along a longitude (or meridian) the gridpoints are unequally spaced. The spacing between grid points is defined by Gaussian quadrature. By contrast, in the "normal" geographic latitude-longitude grid, gridpoints are equally spaced along both latitudes and longitudes. Gaussian grids also have no grid points at the poles. In a regular Gaussian grid, the number of gridpoints along the longitudes is constant, usually double the number along the latitudes. In a reduced (or thinned) Gaussian grid, the number of gridpoints in the rows decreases towards the poles, which keeps the gridpoint separation approximately constant across the sphere. Examples of Gaussian grids CCCma global climate models of climate change [96×48] [128×64] European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts 192×96 320×160 512×256 640×320 800×400 1024×512 1600×800 2048×1024 2560×1280 Features for ERA-40 grids See also Global climate model Spectral method Spherical harmonics References NCAR Command Language documentation W.M. Washington and C.L. Parkinson, 2005. An Introduction to Three-Dimensional Climate Modeling. Sausalito, CA, University Science Books. 368 pp. Hortal, Mariano, and A. J. Simmons, 1991. Use of reduced Gaussian grids in spectral models. Monthly Weather Review 119.4 : 1057-1074. Geodesy Geographic coordinate systems

4814724

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elysium%20Mons

Elysium Mons

Elysium Mons is a volcano on Mars located in the volcanic province Elysium, at , in the Martian eastern hemisphere. It stands about above its base, and about above the Martian datum, making it the third tallest Martian mountain in terms of relief and the fourth highest in elevation. Its diameter is about , with a summit caldera about across. It is flanked by the smaller volcanoes Hecates Tholus to the northeast, and Albor Tholus to the southeast. Discovery Elysium Mons was discovered in 1972 in images returned by the Mariner 9 orbiter. Terrestrial analog The terrestrial volcano Emi Koussi (in Chad) has been studied as an analog of Elysium Mons. The two shield volcanoes have summit calderas of similar size, but Elysium Mons is 3.5 times larger in diameter and 6 times higher than its counterpart on Earth. Possible source of nakhlites A 6.5 km diameter crater at 29.674 N, 130.799 E, in the volcanic plains to the northwest of Elysium Mons has been identified as a possible source for the nakhlite meteorites, a family of similar basaltic Martian meteorites with cosmogenic ages of about 10.7 Ma, suggesting ejection from Mars by a single impact event. The dates of the igneous rocks of the nakhlites range from 1416 ± 7 Ma to 1322 ± 10 Ma. These dates plus the crater dimensions suggest a growth rate of the source volcano during that interval of 0.4–0.7 m per Ma, far slower than would be expected for a terrestrial volcano. This implies that Martian volcanism had slowed greatly by that point in history. Gallery Interactive Mars map See also Geography of Mars List of mountains on Mars by height List of tallest mountains in the Solar System References External links Google Mars - zoomable map centered on Elysium Mons "Elysium Mons Volcano" - NASA images of Elysium Mons, from Malin Space Science Systems Volcanoes of Mars Mountains on Mars Elysium quadrangle

4815155

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuri%20Lysianskyi

Yuri Lysianskyi

Yuri Fedorovych Lysianskyi (also spelled as: Yury Fyodorovich Lisyansky, Urey Lisiansky, Lisianski, and Lysyansky; , ; , , 1(13) April 1773 – 6 March 1837) was an officer in the Imperial Russian Navy and explorer. He headed the first Russian circumnavigation aboard the Neva and was among the early western explorers to visit Easter Island. Biography Lysiansky was born in Nizhyn (Hetmanate, now Ukraine, then Russian Empire) in the family of an Orthodox priest and was a descendant of an old noble Cossack family. In 1786 he graduated from the Navy Cadet Corps and took part in the Russo-Swedish War (1788-1790). During 1790-1793 he served in the Baltic Fleet. During 1793-1800 he sailed British ships all over the globe. Between 1793 and 1795 he served as a volunteer aboard the 36-gun HMS Oiseau, under her captain, Robert Murray. Lysiansky recalled in his memoirs his experiences on the North American Station operating against French convoys and privateers, and how while in the West Indies he was struck by yellow fever, recalling how Murray had helped his recovery, even giving up part of his own accommodation for the sick Lysiansky. Lysiansky was the first Ukrainian who in 1795 had an audience with the first President and founder of the USA, George Washington, in Philadelphia. Нe left positive impressions of his stay in the USA in his diaries and letters. In 1803–1806 Lysiansky as the commanding officer of the Russian-American Company's merchant sloop Neva took part in the first Russian circumnavigation of the Earth. The expedition was under the command of Count Nikolay Petrovich Rezanov, Plenipotentiary of Alexander I for the Far Eastern and Western colonies of the Russian Empire, and Captain Adam Johann von Krusenstern in Nadezhda. The ships also included a naturalist, Wilhelm Gottlieb Tilesius, and astronomer Johan Caspar Horner (1734-1834). They started from Kronstadt, but the ships split after visiting Hawaii, and Count Nikolay Rezanov and Lysiansky headed to Russian America (Alaska). In 1804 Neva visited Easter Island, and later that year, was essential in defeating the Tlingit in the Battle of Sitka, Alaska. During his stay in Alaska, Lysiansky mapped its coast, the islands of Kodiak and Sitka, and left its geographical and ethnographic descriptions. He collected a unique ethnographic collection that tells about the life and culture of local peoples - Aleuts, Eskimos and Tlingit. He criticized the Russian colonial government for mercilessly oppressing and abusing the indigenous peoples of America. In 1805 he met Krusenstern again in Macau, but they soon separated. Also in 1805, he was the first to describe the Hawaiian monk seal on the island which now bears his name - Lisianski Island. Eventually, Neva was the first to return to Kronstadt on 22 July 1806. For his feats Lysiansky received several rewards, including the Order of Saint Vladimir of 3rd degree. He described his own adventures and travels in the book Voyage Round the World with maps and drawings, which he published in Russian and English in 1812-1814. Lysiansky was buried at Tikhvin Cemetery of the Alexander Nevsky Monastery, St. Petersburg. Memorials A number of places are named after him: Lisianski Island in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, a peninsula of Baranof Island, Alaska, a bay, a strait, a river, and a cape in North America, an undersea mountain in Okhotsk Sea, and a peninsula by the Okhotsk Sea. There is monument and Memorial museum of U.Lysianskyi in Ukrainian town of Nizhyn. The 1965-built Project 97A icebreaker Ledokol-9 was renamed Yuriy Lisyanskiy in 1966. Citations References Barratt, Glynn R. deV. A Russian View of Philadelphia, 1795-96: From the Journal of Lieutenant Iurii Lisianskii // Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies. Vol. 65, No. 1 (Winter 1998), pp. 62-86. Naming of Alaska 1773 births 1837 deaths People from Nizhyn Russian military personnel Circumnavigators of the globe Explorers from the Russian Empire Russian explorers Imperial Russian Navy personnel Russian explorers of the Pacific Russian America Russian people of Ukrainian descent Recipients of the Order of St. Vladimir, 3rd class Burials at Tikhvin Cemetery Naval Cadet Corps alumni

4818466

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Weber%20%28astronomer%29

Robert Weber (astronomer)

Robert Weber (1926–2008) was an American astronomer and discoverer of minor planets who ran the precursor to the LINEAR project shortly before his retirement in 1996. Data were collected by manually entering telescope pointing positions and requesting an image save. Searching twenty fields was a taxing experience. They did have automatic object detection working, but no starfield matching at that time. The inner main-belt asteroid 6181 Bobweber, discovered by Eleanor Helin at Palomar Observatory in 1986, was named in his honour on 21 March 2008. (). Career Weber graduated from the MIT Department of Physics in 1959, and was with the MIT Lincoln Laboratory in Lexington for 34 years (1962–1996). He also worked on sounding rockets, and interplanetary particles and fields with the Helios, Voyager, and IMP programmes. He led the team that developed the prototype for the Air Force GEODSS deep space satellite tracking network (the two LINEAR telescopes are GEODSS assets that were originally destined for Portugal). He is also responsible for the project that led to the development of the CCID16 CCD chip used in the LINEAR cameras, a natural consequence of earlier work in solid state physics. Discovered minor planets 8409 Valentaugustus – Discovered 1995 November 28 by R. Weber's Team at MIT's ETS in Socorro. Valentin Augustus Weber (1867–1940) was the grandfather of the team leader. Born in Germany, he moved to the U.S.\ in 1889, where he designed and constructed stained-glass windows for cathedrals and mahogany furniture for his friends and neighbors in Brooklyn, New York. 11602 Miryang – Discovered 1995 September 28 by R. Weber's Team at MIT's ETS, Socorro. A small town in South Korea, just north of Daegu, Miryang was the birthplace of the team leader's wife, Chung-hi Koh (Helen) Weber. 12005 Delgiudice – Discovered 1996 May 19 by R. Weber's Team at MIT's ETS, Socorro. Maria del Giudice (b. 1964) is the wife of one of the team's observers and measurers, Frank Shelly. 23612 Ramzel – Discovered 1996 January 22 by R. Weber's Team at MIT's ETS, Socorro. Allen Lee Ramzel (b. 1960) was an observer and systems engineer for the team that discovered this object. This minor planet also honors his family. 26906 Rubidia – Discovered 1996 January 22 by R. Weber at the MIT's ETS in Socorro. Rubidia (Ruby) Mendez-Harris (b. 1945) is the wife of David L. Harris, a member of the team that discovered this object. Born in Huehuetenango, Guatemala, she was educated as a psychologist and still practices therapy and counseling in Socorro. This name was suggested by D. L. Harris in 1998. 37687 Chunghikoh – Named after R. Weber's wife. Chung-hi (Helen) Koh was the mother of seven children, a registered pharmacist, a volunteer nurse's aid and a kind hearted soul. More information coming. 39645 Davelharris – Named after a good friend and member of R. Weber's team. David Lowell Harris was the beloved husband of Ruby Mendez Harris and an enthusiastic member of R. Weber's team. More information coming. Publications by Robert Weber Confirmation of the following publications can be found at the following websites: http://libraries.mit.edu/archives/ http://prola.aps.org/ http://www.iop.org/EJ/journal/0022-3727 (1959) The resonant-frequency shift of a microwave cavity caused by the high-density plasma in semiconductors, as a function of magnetic field. Physics. Cambridge, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Science Doctorate. (1961) Robert Weber & P.E. Tannenwald, "Exchange Integral in Cobalt from Spin-Wave Resonance." The Physical Review 121(3): 715. (1963) Tannenwald, P. E. & Robert Weber, "Second-Order Exchange Interactions from Spin Wave Resonance." The Journal of Physics and Chemistry Solids 24: 1357-1361. (1964) "Ultrasonic Measurements in Normal and Superconducting Niobium." The Physical Review 133(6A): A1487-A1492. (1965) Tannenwald, P. E. & Robert Weber, "Long-Range Exchange Interactions from Spin-Wave Resonance." The Physical Review 140(2A): A498-A506. (1966) Robert Weber & P.E. Tannenwald, "Temperature Variation of the Spin-Wave Dispersion Relation." Journal of Applied Physics 37(3): 1058-1059. (1966) "Comparative Data on CdS Transducers from 14 Mc/s to 70 Gc/s." Proceedings of the IEEE 54(2): 333-334. (1966) "Electron Bombardment Technique for Deposition of CdS Film Transducers." The Review of Scientific Instruments 37(7): 955-956. (1969) Robert Weber &. M. H. S., "Nuclear Linewidth Measurements of 55Mn In Antiferromagnetic CsMnF3 and RbMnF3." Solid State Communications 7: 619-622. (1968) Tannenwald, P. E. & Robert Weber, "Comments on Standing Spin-Wave Resonance in 'Flash-Evaporated' Permally Films." Physical Review Letters 20(17): 918-919. (1968) "Magnon-Phonon Coupling in Metallic Films." The Physical Review 169(2): 451-456. (1968) "Observation of Magnetoelastic Coupling by Spin-Wave Resonance." Journal of Applied Physics 39(2 (Part I)): 491. (1968) "Spin-Wave Resonance." IEEE Transactions on Magnetics Mag-4(1): 28-31. (1970) Robert Weber, P.E Tannenwald and C.H Bajorek, "Intensities of Spin-Wave Resonand Modes in Thin Films." Applied Physics Letters 16(1): 35-37. (1971) MSFN/DSN Integration Program for the DSS 11 26-m Antenna Prototype Station. The Deep Space Network Progress Report, TR 32-1526, March and April 1971. MIT: 197-202. (1974) Robert Weber & T.H. Brooks. The limits of detectability of a low-light-level point-source sensor as a function of telescope aperture, sensor resolution, night-sky background, and pre-readout electron gain. MIT. (1974) Visual Magnitude Flux Rate Density Standards for Sunlight Incident on Photoemissive Surfaces. MIT. (1976) The detection capabilities of gallium arsenide and s-20 photo multiplier tubes to go-type, point source, signals. MIT. (1976) Nominal event support: The observation of synchronous satellite number 83594 by GEODSS on days 181,182,183 and 184 1976 (UTC). MIT. (1976) Predicted and measured detection capabilities of the Lincoln ETS, photon-noise-limited, elector-optical systems. MIT. (1977) The amplitude effect of point-source blooming as a function of background level in ebsicon-type camera tubes. MIT. (1977) Field-Testing and Evaluation of the TRW Streak MTI System. MIT. (1977) Photoemissive and electroemissive surfaces and sandwiches. MIT. (1978) The ground-based electro-optical detection of deep-space satellites. Applications of electronic imaging systems; Proceedings of the Seminar, Washington, D.C., March 30, 31, 1978 (A79-17202 05-35) Bellingham, Washington, Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers: 59-69. (1978) Limiting point-source detection capabilities of two-dimensional, scanned, optical detector arrays in constant false-alarm systems. MIT. (1978) The passive, ground-based, electro-optical detection of synchronous satellites. MIT. (1979) Large-format Ebsicon for low-light-level satellite surveillance. Recent Advances in TV Sensors and Systems. San Diego, California, Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers. (1979) "Passive ground-based electro-optical detection of artificial earth satellites." Optical Engineering 18(1): 82-91. (1979) Updated 2005. Some Field Test Results - Teal Amber CCD Sensor, MIT. (1981) "Large-Format Ebiscon for Low Light Level Satellite Surveillance." Optical Engineering 20(2): 212-215. (1983) Optical detection loss due to air-borne salts on Diego Garcia. MIT. (1983) Perturbations on the reception characteristics of antennas on Diego Garcia due to the presence of a GEODSS site. MIT. (1985) Dwell-in-Dell Detection - Design and Performance Implications, MIT. (1992) The Transportable Optical System (TOS): A Comprehensive Overview, MIT. Robert Weber should not be confused with the Technical University of Vienna's Robert Weber, or the U.S. Court of International Trade's Robert Weber. References 1926 births 2008 deaths 20th-century American astronomers Discoverers of asteroids MIT Lincoln Laboratory people

4822501

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat%20of%20arms%20of%20Crimea

Coat of arms of Crimea

Both the Ukrainian Autonomous Republic of Crimea and the Russian Republic of Crimea use the same coat of arms (, ), which has been in use since 1992. Description The coat of arms consists of a red Varangian shield and a silver griffin passant facing to the heraldic right with an azure pearl in its right paw. On either sides of the shield are a white pillar. At the top of the shield sits the rising sun. Winding around both columns and under the shield rests the Flag of Crimea, a blue–white–red tricolor ribbon, unto which the Motto of Crimea, Процветание в единстве (translated as Prosperity in unity), is inscribed. The Varangian shield is symbolic of the fact that the region of Crimea was for a long time a crossing of major trade routes. The red field of the coat of arms symbolizes the intense history of Crimea. The griffin is placed on the coat of arms because it is commonly used to represent the territory north of the Black Sea, and is known as the "coat of arms" of Chersonesos and Panticapaeum, where one can see the griffin on artifacts from the area. Another variation in the symbolism is that the pearl is symbolic of Crimea as a part of Earth, and the griffin as the defender of the young republic. The pearl's azure is reminiscent of the combined culture of Crimea. The white pillars are said to be reminiscent of the ancient civilizations which inhabited the peninsula. The rising sun is symbolic of prosperity and regeneration. Historical coats of arms See also Flag of Crimea Notes References External links Ukrainian heraldry — Coat of arms of Crimea Crimea Symbols of Crimea Crimea Crimea Crimea Crimea

4839237

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerenchyma

Aerenchyma

Aerenchyma or aeriferous parenchyma or lacunae, is a modification of the parenchyma to form a spongy tissue that creates spaces or air channels in the leaves, stems and roots of some plants, which allows exchange of gases between the shoot and the root. The channels of air-filled cavities (see image to right) provide a low-resistance internal pathway for the exchange of gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide and ethylene between the plant above the water and the submerged tissues. Aerenchyma is also widespread in aquatic and wetland plants which must grow in hypoxic soils. The word "aerenchyma" is Modern Latin derived from Latin for "air" and Greek for "infusion." Aerenchyma formation and hypoxia When soil is flooded, hypoxia develops, as soil microorganisms consume oxygen faster than diffusion occurs. The presence of hypoxic soils is one of the defining characteristics of wetlands. Many wetland plants possess aerenchyma, and in some, such as water-lilies, there is mass flow of atmospheric air through leaves and rhizomes. There are many other chemical consequences of hypoxia. For example, nitrification is inhibited as low oxygen occurs and toxic compounds are formed, as anaerobic bacteria use nitrate, manganese, and sulfate as alternative electron acceptors. The reduction-oxidation potential of the soil decreases and metal oxides such as iron and manganese dissolve, however, radial oxygen loss allows re-oxidation of these ions in the rhizosphere. In general, low oxygen stimulates trees and plants to produce ethylene. Advantages The large air-filled cavities provide a low-resistance internal pathway for the exchange of gases between the plant organs above the water and the submerged tissues. This allows plants to grow without incurring the metabolic costs of anaerobic respiration. Moreover, the degradation of cortical cells during aerenchyma formation reduce the metabolic costs of plants during stresses such as drought. Some of the oxygen transported through the aerenchyma leaks through root pores into the surrounding soil. The resulting small rhizosphere of oxygenated soil around individual roots support microorganisms that prevent the influx of potentially toxic soil components such as sulfide, iron, and manganese. References Plant physiology Plant cells Wetlands de:Parenchyma#hym

4839407

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madagascar%20spiny%20forests

Madagascar spiny forests

The Madagascar spiny forests (also known as the Madagascar spiny thickets) is an ecoregion in the southwest of Madagascar. The vegetation type is found on poor substrates with low, erratic winter rainfall. The ecoregion contains an outstanding proportion of endemic plant species and is listed as one of the 200 most important ecological regions in the world; one of the Global 200. Flora This is the area with the highest level of plant endemism in Madagascar, with 48% of the genera and 95% of the species endemic. Many constituent plants show extreme adaptations to drought. Spiny plants of the endemic subfamily Didiereoideae form a conspicuous component, especially towards the east. They are woody but distantly related to the cacti. The remaining component of the forests is dominated by members of the plant families Burseraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Anacardiaceae and Fabaceae, all of which have representatives elsewhere. Fauna Notable inhabitants of the spiny thickets include the spider tortoise (Pyxis arachnoides) and the radiated tortoise (Astrochelys radiata), the gecko Ebenavia maintimainty, several lemurs including Verreaux's sifaka, Grandidier's mongoose, and eight endemic birds. Conservation 8.31% of the ecoregion is in protected areas. including Tsimanampetsotsa National Park, Berenty Reserve, Beza Mahafaly Reserve, and Cap Sainte Marie Special Reserve. Andohahela National Park offers limited protection through its 'parcel 3' section. Elsewhere the spiny forest habitat is under pressure from human exploitation. The main impacting activities are burning for conversion to grazing land, harvesting for charcoal and firewood, and logging for construction. The Arboretum d'Antsokay is a botanical garden near Toliara dedicated to preserving the flora of the spiny forest. Gallery As shown on the map on the right, Madagascar can be divided into four climatic ecoregions with four forest types: the moist forest in the East (green), the dry forest in the West (orange), the spiny forest in the South (red), and the mangrove forest on the West coast (blue). Ecoregions were defined following climatic and vegetation criteria. The dark grey areas represent the remaining natural forest cover for the year 2014. Forest types are defined on the basis of their belonging to one of the four ecoregions. See also Ecoregions of Madagascar Flora of Madagascar Moringa (genus) Sakoa References External links and bibliography For extent, fragmentation and intact sections, see: A refined classification of the primary vegetation of Madagascar based on the underlying geology, Du Puy and Moat, 1996. For dominant plant families, see: Structure and floristic composition of the vegetation in the Réserve Naturelle Intégrale d’Andohahela, Madagascar, Rakotomalaza and Messmer, 1999. Madagascar spiny thickets (Encyclopedia of the Earth) Deserts and xeric shrublands Ecoregions of Madagascar Atsimo-Andrefana Anosy Androy

4840515

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Back%20to%20the%20Moon

Back to the Moon

Back to the Moon is a science fiction novel and Homer Hickam's first fictional book. Published in June 1999, Hickam wrote Back to the Moon using insider information he learned from NASA. Plot summary The prologue of the novel begins with a dramatized account of the second EVA of Apollo 17. Astronaut Jack Schmitt discovers orange soil in Shorty Crater at the very end of the EVA and gathers samples in a race against time to get back to the LEM. Meanwhile, Wernher von Braun is watching the end of the mission on TV with other NASA engineers. Katrina Suttner, the young daughter of one of von Braun's colleagues, is in on a secret involving the mission, and is certain that humans will soon return to the Moon. The novel then skips ahead 30 years. Jack Medaris, the protagonist, is preparing the launch of a privately funded, uncrewed mission to the Moon to gather more of the orange soil, which appears to have enormous potential as a source of clean nuclear energy on Earth. Shortly before launch, Medaris' probe is destroyed by unknown terrorists or saboteurs. It also becomes clear that Medaris is driven to go to the Moon to recover the secret left by Katrina, who later became his wife and was killed in a test-stand accident. Medaris hatches a plot to hijack the Space Shuttle Columbia on a routine mission. The plan nearly comes off, but his renegade pilot is accidentally shot and killed, and one payload specialist from the planned crew, Penny High Eagle, launches with him. Medaris takes the controls of Columbia, and gradually persuades High Eagle that she should help him, if only for their mutual survival. NASA also reluctantly agrees to help, in order to prevent the loss of their spacecraft. Medaris has developed a new rocket motor which will make it possible to take Columbia into lunar orbit. With the help of High Eagle, he is able to attach the smuggled engine, and boost the shuttle to the Moon. He has also smuggled a bare-bones LEM, of his own design, aboard the shuttle, which will allow him to make a one-man EVA to the Apollo 17 landing site. Back on Earth, a mysterious consortium is using a private security company to try to sabotage Medaris' mission by any means possible, including hiring a group of computer hackers to take control of a set of hunter-killer satellites parked behind the Moon, and persuading Roscosmos to intervene and take over the shuttle in LEO. In spite of these obstacles, Medaris successfully lands on the Moon, gets the orange soil, retrieves the message from Katrina, and returns to Earth. High Eagle and Medaris form a romantic and physical relationship during the return. Reception Back to the Moon received mixed to positive reviews from CNN and The New York Times. References External links 1999 American novels 1999 science fiction novels American science fiction novels Books by Homer Hickam Novels set on the Moon Novels about NASA Apollo 17 Space exploration novels Techno-thriller novels Cultural depictions of Wernher von Braun

4843981

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recorded%20history

Recorded history

Recorded history or written history describes the historical events that have been recorded in a written form or other documented communication which are subsequently evaluated by historians using the historical method. For broader world history, recorded history begins with the accounts of the ancient world around the 4th millennium BC, and it coincides with the invention of writing. For some geographic regions or cultures, written history is limited to a relatively recent period in human history because of the limited use of written records. Moreover, human cultures do not always record all of the information which is considered relevant by later historians, such as the full impact of natural disasters or the names of individuals. Recorded history for particular types of information is therefore limited based on the types of records kept. Because of this, recorded history in different contexts may refer to different periods of time depending on the topic. The interpretation of recorded history often relies on historical method, or the set of techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write accounts of the past. The question of what constitutes history, and whether there is an effective method for interpreting recorded history, is raised in the philosophy of history as a question of epistemology. The study of different historical methods is known as historiography, which focuses on examining how different interpreters of recorded history create different interpretations of historical evidence. Prehistory Prehistory traditionally refers to the span of time before recorded history, ending with the invention of writing systems. Prehistory refers to the past in an area where no written records exist, or where the writing of a culture is not understood. Protohistory refers to the transition period between prehistory and history, after the advent of literacy in a society but before the writings of the first historians. Protohistory may also refer to the period during which a culture or civilization has not yet developed writing, but other cultures have noted its existence in their own writings. More complete writing systems were preceded by proto-writing. Early examples are the Jiahu symbols (), Vinča signs (), early Indus script () and Nsibidi script (). There is disagreement concerning exactly when prehistory becomes history, and when proto-writing became "true writing". However, invention of the first writing systems is roughly contemporary with the beginning of the Bronze Age in the late Neolithic of the late 4th millennium BCE. The Sumerian archaic cuneiform script and the Egyptian hieroglyphs are generally considered the earliest writing systems, both emerging out of their ancestral proto-literate symbol systems from 3400 to 3200 BCE with earliest coherent texts from about 2600 BCE. Historical accounts The earliest chronologies date back to the earliest civilizations of Early Dynastic Period of Egypt, Mesopotamia and the Sumerians, which emerged independently of each other from roughly 3500 BCE. Earliest recorded history, which varies greatly in quality and reliability, deals with Pharaohs and their reigns, as preserved by ancient Egyptians. Much of the earliest recorded history was re-discovered relatively recently due to archaeological dig sites findings. A number of different traditions have developed in different parts of the world as to how to interpret these ancient accounts. Europe Dionysius of Halicarnassus knew of seven predecessors of Herodotus, including Hellanicus of Lesbos, Xanthus of Lydia and Hecataeus of Miletus. He described their works as simple, unadorned accounts of their own and other cities and people, Greek or foreign, including popular legends. Herodotus (484 BCE – 425 BCE) has generally been acclaimed as the "father of history" composing his The Histories from the 450s to the 420s BCE. However, his contemporary Thucydides (c. 460 BCE – c. 400 BCE) is credited with having first approached history with a well-developed historical method in his work the History of the Peloponnesian War. Thucydides, unlike Herodotus, regarded history as being the product of the choices and actions of human beings, and looked at cause and effect, rather than as the result of divine intervention. History developed as a popular form of literature in later Greek and Roman societies in the works of Polybius, Tacitus and others. Saint Augustine was influential in Christian and Western thought at the beginning of the medieval period. Through the Medieval and Renaissance periods, history was often studied through a sacred or religious perspective. Around 1800, German philosopher and historian Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel brought philosophy and a more secular approach into historical study. According to John Tosh, "From the High Middle Ages (c.1000–1300) onwards, the written word survives in greater abundance than any other source for Western history." Western historians developed methods comparable to modern historiographic research in the 17th and 18th centuries, especially in France and Germany, where they began investigating these source materials to write histories of their past. Many of these histories had strong ideological and political ties to their historical narratives. In the 20th century, academic historians began focusing less on epic nationalistic narratives, which often tended to glorify the nation or great men, to attempt more objective and complex analyses of social and intellectual forces. A major trend of historical methodology in the 20th century was a tendency to treat history more as a social science rather than as an art, which traditionally had been the case. French historians associated with the Annales School introduced quantitative history, using raw data to track the lives of typical individuals, and were prominent in the establishment of cultural history. East Asia The Zuo zhuan, attributed to Zuo Qiuming in the 5th century BCE covers the period from 722 to 468 BCE in a narrative form. The Book of Documents is one of the Five Classics of Chinese classic texts and one of the earliest narratives of China. The Spring and Autumn Annals, the official chronicle of the State of Lu covering the period from 722 to 481 BCE, is arranged on annalistic principles. It is traditionally attributed to Confucius (551–479 BCE). Zhan Guo Ce was a renowned ancient Chinese historical compilation of sporadic materials on the Warring States period compiled between the 3rd and 1st centuries BCE. Sima Qian (around 100 BCE) was the first in China to lay the groundwork for professional historical writing. His written work was the Records of the Grand Historian, a monumental lifelong achievement in literature. Its scope extends as far back as the 16th century BCE, and it includes many treatises on specific subjects and individual biographies of prominent people, and also explores the lives and deeds of commoners, both contemporary and those of previous eras. His work influenced every subsequent author of history in China, including the prestigious Ban family of the Eastern Han dynasty era. South Asia In Sri Lanka, the oldest historical text is the Mahavamsa ( 5th century CE). Buddhist monks of the Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya maintained chronicles of Sri Lankan history starting from the 3rd century BCE. These annals were combined and compiled into a single document in the 5th century by the Mahanama of Anuradhapura while Dhatusena of Anuradhapura was ruling the Anuradhapura Kingdom. It was written based on prior ancient compilations known as the Atthakatha, which were commentaries written in Sinhala. An earlier document known as the Dipavamsa (4th century CE) "Island Chronicles" is much simpler and contains less information than the Mahavamsa and was probably compiled using the Atthakatha on the Mahavamsa as well. A companion volume, the Culavamsa "Lesser Chronicle", compiled by Sinhala monks, covers the period from the 4th century to the British takeover of Sri Lanka in 1815. The Culavamsa was compiled by a number of authors of different time periods. The combined work, sometimes referred to collectively as the Mahavamsa, provides a continuous historical record of over two millennia, and is considered one of the world's longest unbroken historical accounts. It is one of the few documents containing material relating to the Nāga and Yakkha peoples, indigenous inhabitants of Lanka prior to the legendary arrival of Prince Vijaya from Singha Pura of Kalinga. The Sangam literature offers a window into some aspects of the ancient South Indian culture, secular and religious beliefs, and the people. For example, in the Sangam era Ainkurunuru poem 202 is one of the earliest mentions of "pigtail of Brahmin boys". These poems also allude to historical incidents, ancient Tamil kings, the effect of war on loved ones and households. The Pattinappalai poem in the Ten Idylls group, for example, paints a description of the Chola capital, the king Karikala, the life in a harbor city with ships and merchandise for seafaring trade, the dance troupes, the bards and artists, the worship of the Hindu god Murugan and the monasteries of Buddhism and Jainism. Indica is an account of Mauryan India by the Greek writer Megasthenes. The original book is now lost, but its fragments have survived in later Greek and Latin works. The earliest of these works are those by Diodorus Siculus, Strabo (Geographica), Pliny, and Arrian (Indica). West Asia In the preface to his book, the Muqaddimah (1377), the Arab historian and early sociologist, Ibn Khaldun, warned of seven mistakes that he thought that historians regularly committed. In this criticism, he approached the past as strange and in need of interpretation. Ibn Khaldun often criticized "idle superstition and uncritical acceptance of historical data." As a result, he introduced a scientific method to the study of history, and he often referred to it as his "new science". His historical method also laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history, and he is thus considered to be the "father of historiography" or the "father of the philosophy of history". Methods of recording history While recorded history begins with the invention of writing, over time new ways of recording history have come along with the advancement of technology. History can now be recorded through photography, audio recordings, and video recordings. More recently, Internet archives have been saving copies of webpages, documenting the history of the Internet. Other methods of collecting historical information have also accompanied the change in technologies; for example, since at least the 20th century, attempts have been made to preserve oral history by recording it. Until the 2000s this was done using analogue recording methods such as cassettes and reel-to-reel tapes. With the onset of new technologies, there are now digital recordings, which may be recorded to compact disks. Nevertheless, historical record and interpretation often relies heavily on written records, partially because it dominates the extant historical materials, and partially because historians are used to communicating and researching in that medium. Historical method The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history. Primary sources are first-hand evidence of history (usually written, but sometimes captured in other mediums) made at the time of an event by a present person. Historians think of those sources as the closest to the origin of the information or idea under study. These types of sources can provide researchers with, as Dalton and Charnigo put it, "direct, unmediated information about the object of study." Historians use other types of sources to understand history as well. Secondary sources are written accounts of history based upon the evidence from primary sources. These are sources which, usually, are accounts, works, or research that analyse, assimilate, evaluate, interpret, and/or synthesize primary sources. Tertiary sources are compilations based upon primary and secondary sources and often tell a more generalized account built on the more specific research found in the first two types of sources. See also Big History Source text References Citations Sources Works cited World history History of writing

4844404

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific%20information%20from%20the%20Mars%20Exploration%20Rover%20mission

Scientific information from the Mars Exploration Rover mission

NASA's 2003 Mars Exploration Rover Mission has amassed an enormous amount of scientific information related to the Martian geology and atmosphere, as well as providing some astronomical observations from Mars. This article covers information gathered by the Opportunity rover during the initial phase of its mission. Information on science gathered by Spirit can be found mostly in the Spirit rover article. The unmanned Mars exploration mission, commenced in 2003 sent two robotic rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, to explore the Martian surface and geology. The mission was led by Project Manager Peter Theisinger of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and Principal Investigator Steven Squyres, professor of astronomy at Cornell University. Primary among the mission's scientific goals is to search for and characterize a wide range of rocks and soils that hold clues to past water activity on Mars. In recognition of the vast amount of scientific information amassed by both rovers, two asteroids have been named in their honor: 37452 Spirit and 39382 Opportunity. On January 24, 2014, NASA reported that current studies on the planet Mars by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers will now be searching for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable. The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA objective. Water hypothesis On March 2, 2004, NASA announced that "Opportunity has landed in an area of Mars where liquid water once drenched the surface". Associate administrator Ed Weiler told reporters that the area "would have been good habitable environment", although no traces of life have been found. This statement was made during a press conference, where mission scientists listed a number of observations that strongly support this view: Distributions of spherules Hypothesis: Spherules are concretions created in water as a solvent. Competing hypothesis: Spherules are rehardened molten rock droplets, created by volcanoes or meteor strikes. Supporting data: Location of spherules in the rock matrix is random and evenly spread. Quote from Steve Squyres: "The little spherules like blueberries in a muffin are embedded in this rock and weathering out of it. Three ideas, lapilli, little volcanic hailstones, one possibility. Two, droplets of volcanic glass or impact. We've looked at these things very carefully. Probably concretions. If so, it's pointing towards water." Detailed analysis of environmental, chemical, and mineralogical data taken from the Opportunity rover led to the elimination of the competing hypotheses, and the confirmation of the conclusion that the spherules were formed in place as post-depositional sedimentary concretions from an aqueous source Vugs Hypothesis: Rock was formed in water, for instance by precipitation. Competing hypothesis: Rock were formed by ash deposits. Supporting data: Voids found in bedrock resemble "vugs" which are left by eroded away, disk-shaped crystals, possibly dissolved in a watery environment. Quote from Steve Squyres: The second piece of evidence is that when we looked at it close-up, it was shot through with tabular holes. Familiar forms. When crystals grow within rocks, precipitated from water. If they're tabular, as they grow you can get tabular crystals and water chem changes and they go away or they weather away." Sulfates and jarosite Hypothesis: Water created tell-tale salt chemicals in the rock. Competing hypothesis: Chemistry of rocks is determined by volcanic processes. Supporting data: Sulfate salts and jarosite mineral were found in the rock. On Earth they are made in standing water (possibly during evaporation). Quote from Steve Squyres: "Next piece of evidence comes from APXS. We found it looked like a lot of sulfur. That was the outside of the rock. We brought with us a grinding tool, the RAT and we ground away 2-4 mm and found even more sulfur. Too much to explain by other than that this rock is full of sulfate salts. That's a telltale sign of liquid water. Mini-TES also found evidence of sulfate salts. Most compelling of all, the Mössbauer spectrometer in the RATted space showed compelling evidence of jarosite, an iron-(III) sulfate basic hydrate. Fairly rare, found on Earth and had been predicted that it might be found on Mars some day. This is a mineral that you got to have water around to make." On March 23, 2004, NASA announced that they believe that Opportunity had not landed in a location merely "drenched in water", but on what was once a coastal area. "We think Opportunity is parked on what was once the shoreline of a salty sea on Mars," said Dr. Steve Squyres of Cornell University. The announcement was based on evidence of sedimentary rocks that are consistent with those formed by water and not wind. "Bedding patterns in some finely layered rocks indicate the sand-sized grains of sediment that eventually bonded together were shaped into ripples by water at least five centimeters (two inches) deep, possibly much deeper, and flowing at a speed of 10 to 50 centimeters (four to 20 inches) per second," said Dr. John Grotzinger, from MIT. The landing site was likely a salt flat on the edge of a large body of water that was covered by shallow water. Other evidence includes findings of chlorine and bromine in the rocks which indicates the rocks had at least soaked in mineral-rich water, possibly from underground sources, after they formed. Increased assurance of the bromine findings strengthens the case that rock-forming particles precipitated from surface water as salt concentrations climbed past saturation while water was evaporating. The evidence for water was published in a series of scientific papers, with the initial results appearing in the journal Science and then with a detailed discussion of the sedimentary geology of the landing site appearing in a special issue of the journal Earth and Planetary Science Letters Spherules and hematite Early in the mission, mission scientists were able to prove that the abundant spherules at Eagle crater were the source of hematite in the area discovered from orbit. Hematite Geologists were eager to reach a hematite-rich area (in the center of the picture at right) to closely examine the soil, which may reveal secrets about how the hematite got to this location. Knowing how the hematite on Mars was formed may help scientists characterize the past environment and determine whether that environment provided favorable conditions for life. "Grey hematite is a mineral indicator of past water," said Dr. Joy Crisp, JPL project scientist. "It is not always associated with water, but it often is." Scientists have wanted to find out which of these processes created grey hematite on Mars since 1998, when Mars Global Surveyor spotted large concentrations of the mineral near the planet's equator (seen in the right picture). This discovery provided the first mineral evidence that Mars' history may have included water. "We want to know if the grains of hematite appear to be rounded and cemented together by the action of liquid water or if they're crystals that grew from a volcanic melt," said Crisp. "Is the hematite in layers, which would suggest that it was laid down by water, or in veins in the rock, which would be more characteristic of water having flowed through the rocks." The next picture shows a mineral map, the first ever made on the surface of another planet, which was generated from a section of the panorama picture overlaid with data taken from the rover's Mini-TES. The Mini-TES spectral data was analyzed in a way that the concentration of the mineral hematite was deduced and its level coded in color. Red and orange mean high concentration, green and blue low concentration. The next picture shows a hematite abundance "index map" that helps geologists choose hematite-rich locations to visit around Opportunity's landing site. Blue dots equal areas low in hematite and red dots equal areas high in hematite. The colored dots represent data collected by the miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer on Sol 11, after Opportunity had rolled off of the lander and the rover was located at the center of the blue semicircle (the spectrometer is located on the panoramic camera mast). The area to the left (with high concentration of hematite) was selected by mission members for further investigation, and called Hematite Slope. During Sol 23 (February 16) Opportunity successfully trenched the soil at Hematite Slope and started to investigate the details of the layering. Spherules Microscopic images of the soil taken by Opportunity revealed small spherically shaped granules. They were first seen on pictures taken on Sol 10, right after the rover drove from the lander onto martian soil. When Opportunity dug her first trench (Sol 23), pictures of the lower layers showed similar round spherules. But this time they had a very shiny surface that created strong glints and glares. "They appear shiny or polished," said Albert Yen, science team member, during a press conference on February 19. He said: "Data will hopefully help us figure out what's altering them." At the same press briefing, Dr. Squyres noted this as one of the main question: "Where did those spherules come from, dropped from above or grown in place?" Mission scientists reported on March 2 that they concluded a survey of the distribution of spherules in the bedrock. They found that they spread out evenly and randomly inside the rocks, and not in layers. This supports the notion that they grew in place, since if their origin was related to volcanic or meteoric episodes one would expect layers of spherules as a "record in time" for each event. This observation was added to the list of evidence for liquid water being present at this rock site, where it is thought the spherules formed. Berry Bowl On March 18 the results of the investigation of the area called "Berry Bowl" was announced. This site is a large rock with a small, bowl-shaped depression, in which a large number of spherules had accumulated. The MIMOS II Mössbauer spectrometer was used to analyze the depression and then the area of the rock right beside it. Any difference in the measured data was then attributed to the material in the spherules. A large difference in the obtained "spectra" was found. "This is the fingerprint of hematite, so we conclude that the major iron-bearing mineral in the berries is hematite," said Daniel Rodionov, a rover science team collaborator from the University of Mainz, Germany. This discovery seems to strengthen the conclusion, that spherules are concretions, grown in wet condition with dissolved iron. Rocks and minerals The rocks on the plains of Gusev are a type of basalt. They contain the minerals olivine, pyroxene, plagioclase, and magnetite, and they look like volcanic basalt as they are fine-grained with irregular holes (geologists would say they have vesicles and vugs). Much of the soil on the plains came from the breakdown of the local rocks. Fairly high levels of nickel were found in some soils; probably from meteorites. Analysis shows that the rocks have been slightly altered by tiny amounts of water. Outside coatings and cracks inside the rocks suggest water deposited minerals, maybe bromine compounds. All the rocks contain a fine coating of dust and one or more harder rinds of material. One type can be brushed off, while another needed to be ground off by the Rock Abrasion Tool (RAT). There are a variety of rocks in the Columbia Hills (Mars), some of which have been altered by water, but not by very much water. The dust in Gusev Crater is the same as dust all around the planet. All the dust was found to be magnetic. Moreover, Spirit found the magnetism was caused by the mineral magnetite, especially magnetite that contained the element titanium. One magnet was able to completely divert all dust hence all Martian dust is thought to be magnetic. The spectra of the dust was similar to spectra of bright, low thermal inertia regions like Tharsis and Arabia that have been detected by orbiting satellites. A thin layer of dust, maybe less than one millimeter thick covers all surfaces. Something in it contains a small amount of chemically bound water. Plains Observations of rocks on the plains show they contain the minerals pyroxene, olivine, plagioclase, and magnetite. These rocks can be classified in different ways. The amounts and types of minerals make the rocks primitive basalts—also called picritic basalts. The rocks are similar to ancient terrestrial rocks called basaltic komatiites. Rocks of the plains also resemble the basaltic shergottites, meteorites which came from Mars. One classification system compares the amount of alkali elements to the amount of silica on a graph; in this system, Gusev plains rocks lay near the junction of basalt, picrobasalt, and tephrite. The Irvine-Barager classification calls them basalts. Plain's rocks have been very slightly altered, probably by thin films of water because they are softer and contain veins of light colored material that may be bromine compounds, as well as coatings or rinds. It is thought that small amounts of water may have gotten into cracks inducing mineralization processes. Coatings on the rocks may have occurred when rocks were buried and interacted with thin films of water and dust. One sign that they were altered was that it was easier to grind these rocks compared to the same types of rocks found on Earth. The first rock that Spirit studied was Adirondack. It turned out to be typical of the other rocks on the plains. Columbia Hills Scientists found a variety of rock types in the Columbia Hills, and they placed them into six different categories. The six are: Clovis, Wishbone, Peace, Watchtower, Backstay, and Independence. They are named after a prominent rock in each group. Their chemical compositions, as measured by APXS, are significantly different from each other. Most importantly, all of the rocks in Columbia Hills show various degrees of alteration due to aqueous fluids. They are enriched in the elements phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine, and bromine—all of which can be carried around in water solutions. The Columbia Hills' rocks contain basaltic glass, along with varying amounts of olivine and sulfates. The olivine abundance varies inversely with the amount of sulfates. This is exactly what is expected because water destroys olivine but helps to produce sulfates. Acid fog is believed to have changed some of the Watchtower rocks. This was in a 200 meter long section of Cumberland Ridge and the Husband Hill summit. Certain places became less crystalline and more amorphous. Acidic water vapor from volcanoes dissolved some minerals forming a gel. When water evaporated a cement formed and produced small bumps. This type of process has been observed in the lab when basalt rocks are exposed to sulfuric and hydrochloric acids. The Clovis group is especially interesting because the Mössbauer spectrometer(MB) detected goethite in it. Goethite forms only in the presence of water, so its discovery is the first direct evidence of past water in the Columbia Hills's rocks. In addition, the MB spectra of rocks and outcrops displayed a strong decline in olivine presence, although the rocks probably once contained much olivine. Olivine is a marker for the lack of water because it easily decomposes in the presence of water. Sulfate was found, and it needs water to form. Wishstone contained a great deal of plagioclase, some olivine, and anhydrate (a sulfate). Peace rocks showed sulfur and strong evidence for bound water, so hydrated sulfates are suspected. Watchtower class rocks lack olivine consequently they may have been altered by water. The Independence class showed some signs of clay (perhaps montmorillonite a member of the smectite group). Clays require fairly long term exposure to water to form. One type of soil, called Paso Robles, from the Columbia Hills, may be an evaporate deposit because it contains large amounts of sulfur, phosphorus, calcium, and iron. Also, MB found that much of the iron in Paso Robles soil was of the oxidized, Fe+++ form, which would happen if water had been present. Towards the middle of the six-year mission (a mission that was supposed to last only 90 days), large amounts of pure silica were found in the soil. The silica could have come from the interaction of soil with acid vapors produced by volcanic activity in the presence of water or from water in a hot spring environment. After Spirit stopped working scientists studied old data from the Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer, or Mini-TES and confirmed the presence of large amounts of carbonate-rich rocks, which means that regions of the planet may have once harbored water. The carbonates were discovered in an outcrop of rocks called "Comanche." In summary, Spirit found evidence of slight weathering on the plains of Gusev, but no evidence that a lake was there. However, in the Columbia Hills there was clear evidence for a moderate amount of aqueous weathering. The evidence included sulfates and the minerals goethite and carbonates which only form in the presence of water. It is believed that Gusev crater may have held a lake long ago, but it has since been covered by igneous materials. All the dust contains a magnetic component which was identified as magnetite with some titanium. Furthermore, the thin coating of dust that covers everything on Mars is the same in all parts of Mars. First atmospheric temperature profile During a press conference on March 11, 2004, mission scientists presented the first temperature profile of the martian atmosphere ever measured. It was obtained by combining data taken from the Opportunity Mini-TES infrared spectrometer with data from the TES instrument on board the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) orbiter. This was necessary because Opportunity can only see up to 6 km high, and the MGS camera could not measure data all the way down to the ground. The data was acquired on February 15 (Sol 22) and is split into two data sets: Since the orbiter is in motion, some data was taken while it was approaching the Opportunity site, other when it was moving away. In the graph, these sets are marked "inbound" (black color) and "outbound" (red color). The dots represent Mini-TES (= rover) data and the straight lines are TES (=orbiter) data. Atmospheric science from the MER rovers has been published in a series of scientific papers in Science and Journal of Geophysical Research Astronomical observations Opportunity observed the eclipse, or transits of Phobos and transits of Deimos across the Sun, and photographed the Earth, which appeared as a bright celestial object in the Martian sky. A transit of Mercury from Mars took place on January 12, 2005 from about 14:45 UTC to 23:05 UTC, but camera resolution did not permit seeing Mercury's 6.1" angular diameter. Transits of Deimos across the Sun were seen, but at 2' angular diameter, Deimos is about 20 times larger than Mercury's 6.1" angular diameter. See also Aeolis quadrangle Composition of Mars Curiosity rover Exploration of Mars Geology of Mars Groundwater on Mars Margaritifer Sinus quadrangle Mars Science Laboratory Mars 2020 rover mission Opportunity Rover Space exploration Unmanned space missions Water on Mars References Further reading Mars Exploration Rover mission