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vii (#11) ############################################# PREFACE C example of this is given in the speeding of the worker. Here there are three possibilities :- Ist, Worker to be stationary ; 2nd, Worker to run with the swift ; 3rd, Worker to run against the swift. Now, seeing that efficient carding is in part depen- dent upon the extent of swift and worker surfaces act- ing upon (i.e., passing) one another, it will be obvious that if instead of the worker retreating from the swift it advances towards it, then the surface speed of the swift may be reduced just in proportion to the increase in surface speed of the worker. And if the surface speed of the swift is reduced, the speed of the fancy may also be reduced and thus possible " throwing ” elimi- nated. But if a less carrying surface of the swift passes the doffer, less wool will be passed through the card unless the swift be more heavily charged : and if the swift be more heavily charged, then, will the workers act successfully and will the fancy "lift ” the heavier load ? All these points and many more are raised by the mere clear statement of the three possibilities of running the workers in a card ! Similarly the speeding of a porcupine in a French drawing-box may be considered under the three possibilities :- Ist, Running slower than the back rollers; 2nd, Running at the same speed as the back rollers; 3rd, Running quicker than the back rollers. vii

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viii (#12) ############################################ PREFAGE Here, however, the question also arises as to whether the porcupine should be speeded in terms of the back or of the front rollers and further, which is the circum- ference of the porcupine which should be so speeded. A quite different problem, which may be treated in a similar manner, is that of the position of the top carrier roller in a drawing-box or spinning frame. This may be :- Ist, Inclined towards the front rollers ; 2nd, Carried perpendicularly over the lower carrier roller ; or 3rd, Inclined away from the front rollers. Another problem, of more than ordinary interest just at the present moment, is the insertion of twist into two and manifold yarns. This may be effected by :- Ist, Rotating the double or multiple thread carrier ; 2nd, Rotating the twisted thread carrier; or 3rd, Rotating both carriers (Ist and 2nd methods combined). The industry had become so accustomed to the end method that it received a sudden shock when the ist method was adopted in the new “Climax" Twisting and Cheese-winding Frame. This book is specially designed to develop the critical outlook and comprehensive habit of thought illustrated by the foregoing examples. viii

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xi (#15) ############################################## ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It would not be seemly to publish this work without due acknowledgment to the Worshipful Company of Clothworkers of the City of London, who, through the excellently equipped Textile Industries Department of the University of Leeds, has provided the opportunity for developing, revising and testing so much of the work included in this volume. My personal thanks are also due to the following:- Dr. S. Brodetsky, for permission to use the Nomo- grams included in this work and for advice upon the mathematical section. Mr. G. Hollis, for looking through certain of the chapters in the Woollen Spinning Section. Mr. E. Priestley, for looking through certain of the chapters in the Worsted Drawing and Spinning Section. Mr. Henry Wilkinson, for the formula linking up the quality and diameters of wool fibres, and for other useful revisions and suggestions. Mr. Ellis Foster, for useful criticism of the data referring to sets of worsted machinery, and also for certain details respecting sets of machinery. Mr. N. R. Newsholme, for suggestions and particu- lars with reference to mechanical doffing. Mr. R. C. Taylor, for supplying his own and the late Mr. Auty's notes on "Carding." . Mr. S. Smith, for notes on "Carding." Mr. W. E. King, for constructing the diagram illustrating the angle of twist in yarns. 1

[[155, 156, "Textile Machine"]]

xii (#16) ############################################# ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Mr. H. Hardy, for useful particulars respecting woollen blends. Mr. J. F. White, for useful details respecting the Blending Room and Conveyer Tubes. To Messrs. Foster Pickles, C. P. Hamond, R. Oversby, G. I. Foreman, A. F. B. Barker, K. C. Barker, and others for useful assistance in preparing the diagrams, etc., illustrating the text. To Messrs. Wm. Lupton & Sons, Platt Bros. & Co., Ltd., Asa Lees & Co., Ltd., Wm. Whiteley & Sons, Ltd., Prince Smith & Sons, Hall & Stell, N. Schlumberger et Cie., The Universal Winding Co., Joseph Stubbs & Co., The Chadwick Machine Company, Ltd., and to many other firms who directly or indirectly have provided examples or illustrations. To the Woollen and Worsted Trades Federation for suggestions gained from their two interesting publica- tions. To the British Research Association for the par- ticulars respecting the Electrification of Fibres and Strains in Yarns, the work of Dr. S. A. Shorter and Mr. W. Harrison. Last, but not least, the author's thanks are due to Mr. Arthur Fish, representing Messrs. Cassell & Co., for the kind consideration and patience exercised in seeing the book through the press; and to Messrs. Cassell & Co., for the liberality with which they have responded to the somewhat serious demands of the author with reference to the text and, more particularly, with refer- ence to the illustrations which markedly add to the value of this publication. A. F. B. 24th July, 1922. xii

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xiii (#17) ############################################ CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE . . . . . I. THE RAW MATERIALS OF THE WOOLLEN IN- DUSTRY-BLENDING I 2. WOOLLEN CARDING AND CONDENSING 34 3. WOOLLEN YARN SPINNING . 105 4. WOOLLEN FRAME SPINNING-TWISTING- WINDING-FANCY YARN PRODUCTION 141 5. SETS OF WOOLLEN MACHINES—WOOLLEN YARN COSTING 164 6. THE BASIC PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN WORSTED DRAWING 172 7. WORSTED DRAWING MACHINES—THE CLOTH- ING OF BASIC PRINCIPLES 192 8. THE STUDY OF THE VARIOUS TYPES OF WOR- STED DRAWING MACHINES 213 9. WORSTED SPINNING-PRINCIPLES AND PRAC- TICE 233 10. COLOURED YARN PRODUCTION_MELANGES, MIXTURES AND TWISTS : 261 II. SETS OF DRAWING AND SPINNING MACHINERY -CALCULATIONS FOR OUTPUT . 271 12. TWISTING THEORIES AND SPINNING AND TWISTING PRACTICE 289 13. PROCESSES SUBSEQUENT TO TWISTING . 307 14. THE TESTING OF WOOLS, TOPS AND YARNS, AND EXPERIMENTAL TESTING APPARATUS 15. DEFECTS IN RAW MATERIALS, TOPS AND YARNS 324 APPENDIX : OILS AND THE OILING OF WOOL 338 INDEX 341 . 318 xiii

[[59, 61, "Textile Machine"]]

xiv (#18) ############################################# LIST OF PLATES FIG. FACING PAGE 4 5 2. 6 7 8 9 IO II . 12 . 1. English and Botany Noils ia. Analysis of (1) 50's Prepared Noil; (2) 56's Carded Noil ; (3) Moderate Rough Peruvian Cotton Woollen Cloths and Stocking Samples from which Re-manufactured Materials are Produced 3. The Re-manufactured Materials Cottons employed in the Woollen Industry 4a. Micrographs of Cotton Fibres 4b. Cotton Wastes employed in the Woollen Industry 5. Special Materials occasionally employed in the Woollen Industry 6. Micrographs of Woollen Condensed Sliver and Worsted Roving 8a. The Willow or Willey 8b. Fearnought or Tenterhook Teaser 8c. Opener with Conveyer attached 9. Plan of Modern Blending Room Ioa. Woollen Yarn Productions : Range of Processes Samples II. Automatic Hopper Feed 12. Blamire's Lap Forming Intermediate Feed 13. Ball and Creel Intermediate Feed . 14. Carding Shed, showing “Scotch" Feed . 148. Band-film Intermediate Feed 16a. Carding Surfaces (Enlarged about 10 times) . 30 31 32 32 . . . 40 41 44 . 45 46 47 1 . 56 xiv

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xv (#19) ############################################## LIST OF PLATES FIG. FACING PAGE 58 58 76 . . 98 98 99 • . 18. The Single Ring-Doffer Condenser 19. The Double Doffer Condenser 21a. Four-tier Tape Condenser 62 29. Types of Card Clothing . 33. Box Bend with Wrought-iron Standards and Brass Steps for the Workers and Strippers 33a. Flat Bend with Inner Flange fitting close to Cylinder, Compound Brackets and " Swivel' Bushes, for Carding Engine with Outside Driving 34. Micrographs illustrating Card-wires under different conditions 35. Hand-spinning of Woollen Yarn 106 35a. Twisting Position 107 35b. Winding-on Position 107 46. Platt's Ring Spinning Frame for Woollen. 142 52. Plan of Modern Woollen Mill (American System) 164 53. Plan of Woollen Mill (English System) 166 53a. Blending Room in a Woollen Mill 168 53b. Carding Room (Condensing) in a Woollen Mill. 168 53C. Woollen Spinning : Mule Room 56. Plan of Four-head Gill-box 194 57. Plan of O.P.S. Gill-box 196 59. Section of the Intersecting Gill-box . 60. Automatic Bobbin Weighing Machine (50 lbs.). 204 62. Plan of First French Drawing box . 208 63. Plan of Finisher French Drawing-box 69.} Plan and Elevation of Flyer Spinning Frame · 244 буа 70. Illustrating Cap Shapes . 248 71. Illustrating Types of Spool, Tube and Bobbin Build 248 • 169 . . 202 . 210 . XV

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xvi (#20) ############################################# LIST OF PLATES FIG. PAGE . . . 266 . . . 73. The Arnold-Forster Mechanical Flyer Doffer 252 76. Section of the Schlumberger Worsted Mule 260 77 Diagrams illustrating a Scheme for Mixing Three s 77a Colours in Varying Proportions 264, 265 78. The Methods of Arranging Graded Ranges of Colours 80. The Effect of Varying the Number of Turns per inch in 2/24's Worsted Yarn 270 Plan Illustrating 4 Sets of Open Drawing and Cap Spinning and Twisting . 286 87. 2/24's Botany Yarn Twists 294 88. Dr. Brodetsky's Nomogram for Angle of Twist and Turns per inch 296 91. Avery's Spool Counting by Weighing Machine . 310 92. Pirn Winder 95. Extension Testing Machine 96. Extensometer designed by Percy J. Neate, Esq. 319 . . 311 318 xvi

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2 (#22) ############################################### WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING will be one of fibre arrangement. The woollen yarn is based upon the free and perfect mixing up of all the fibres composing the thread. The worsted yarn is based upon the parallelizing and constraining into a direction parallel with the length of the thread of all the fibres composing the thread. To produce a perfect worsted yarn it necessarily follows that all short fibres which would be out of control must be removed, and that the most perfect worsted yarn will be spun from a series of fibres of the same length—hence the neces- sity of the “combing,” which effects the two-fold object of “averaging up” the fibre lengths by the extrac- tion of the short fibres or “noil,” and of "straightening out" the longer fibres retained as “top.” The “ top ” only is drawn and spun into worsted yarn. A secondary differentiation between woollen and worsted is that of length. It is said that the woollen spinner can spin any fibre which has two ends. On the other hand, it used to be true that the worsted comber and spinner required fibres of at least three or four inches in length. To-day, however, largely due to the skilful development of machinery by the French, wool fibres down to one and a half or two inches may be spun into worsted yarns. As fibres two or three times this length are spun into woollen yarns by the Scottish spinners, it is obvious that length of fibre alone must not be made the basis of discrimination between woollen and worsted spinning ; but it is true, nevertheless, that, broadly speaking, the woollen spinner is usually dealing with short fibres and the worsted spinner relatively with long fibres. Thus Clothing Wools are the shorter wools which are more suitable for Woollen than for Worsted manufacturing. а. ឲ្យ 04 Noils. The truth of this last remark is apparent 2

[[210, 210, "Textile Machine"]]

3 (#23) ############################################### RAW MATERIALS on considering the second class of materials-Noils. It may be true, as indicated in "Wool Carding and Combing "* that some noils are longer than some combed tops, but this is only so when the noil from a long material--say Lincoln wool-is compared with a very short top-say a French combed top. Broadly, it is true to state that the short-fibred noils from comb- ing form one of the most important and best raw materials of the woollen industry. In Fig. I standard noils are illustrated, being drawn upon a velvet board with -in. spacings. The cross-bred noils, although about the same length as English, may show marked difference in " quality' as distinct from length. For as Professor J. Cossar Ewart, of Edinburgh University, has shown, there are three types of sheep : (I) With an under coat of wool and an outer coat of hair. (2) With a developed under coat; the outer coat being eliminated. (3) With a developed outer coat; the under coat being eliminated. Merino wools come under (2), so that any Botany noil from them is simply produced owing to the breakage of the fibres-top and noil are of exactly the same quality," the only difference is in length. On the other hand, such wools as Herdwick and Blackface show two distinct growths coming under (1). Thus a Blackface noil is largely composed of fibres of 50's to 56's quality, while the top may be only 28's or 32's quality. The different fulling properties of noils coming from the crisper English wools as against the soft noils coming from Merino cross wools must be taken specially into account. Felt makers are well aware of these differences. * Pp. 80 and 85. а. а. 3

[]

7 (#31) ############################################### Fig. 3.- List of Re-manufactured Samples (t-in. spacings) 2 Sample No. I Light Steel Stockings Carbonized Pink Stockings Carbonized 3 Blue Grey Stockings 4 Pulled Black Stockings 5 New Pulled Waste 6 Sample of Blue Serge clippings opened on machine with 4 swifts 7 Sample of Dress Goods rags, Pulled on rag machine and Garnett machine with 2 swifts 8 Silk and Cotton Pulled Waste 9 Pulled Berlins Loom Flyings II Raising Flocks 12 Cutting Flocks IO 7

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12 (#40) ############################################## WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING are given, from which, by careful comparison, the requirements of the two series of processes and the value of the foregoing materials to the woollen manufacturer may be realized. * * * (C Blending.-As preparatory to blending it is desir- able to bear in mind the divisions of the woollen in- dustry based upon carding, for the “ blender” must always have his "sets of carding machines ” in view. Four main divisions of carding are observable in the woollen industry, viz. : Cheviot, Saxony, Re-manufactured (long and short fibres), and Union sets of machines. Although each of these types must be set or adjusted for each particular blend passing through it, still there are marked structural and speeding differences which form the basis for this classification of cards. The blender must certainly know for which type of card he is preparing his blend, and even then must consider how the materials he proposes to blend will affect one another, as already instanced in the case of cotton. The term "blending " has two meanings in the woollen trade. It is firstly used as a verb to indicate the mechanical mixing of the fibres to be treated. In this aspect it is applied indiscriminately to fibre mixing, whether the “ blend,” as it is termed, consists of- (a) One quality of material in which the “ blend- ing consists of mixing such varieties in fibre length and diameter as there may be present, and also in ensuring that there is horough mixing with reference to root and tip of both staples and individual wool fibres. (6 3 12

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24 (#54) ############################################## WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING Such a list as the foregoing may appear on first glance pedantic, but the capacity to easily draft such a list will be found a valuable asset to the blender. The following special blends may now usefully be studied :- No. 1, Natural khaki. d. 30 lb. Camel hair at 1/11 57 6 15 lb. Alpaca at 1/8 25 30 lb. Green cross-bred at 2 /2 65 8 lb. White cross-bred at 1/11 15 4 S. O 0 83 lb. costing 162 10 = I/114 per lb. for materials. No. 2. 9 Skeins Weft-Blend for Cotton Warp Venetian (Pre-War Costing). Stones.* lb. 255 Best uncut mungo at 2 d. 5 8 Fine new mungo at 4d. 18 33 8 59 0 Nippings † at 2 d. 17 9 Cotton at id. 17 S. d. 0 38 35 hours ܝܘ ܘ ܤ ܘ ܘ ထ ထ လ o 356 58 17 8 8 costing 779} warterns I delivered in condensed slubbings at 1/-s. 38 19 4 £97 17 O 779} warterns costing £97 17 0 = 2 61 per wartern, or 5 d. per lb. spun yarn. Spinners' waste 23ś warterns Weavers' waste. 193 warterns Total waste || . 43} warterns * The Yorkshire wool stune is 16 lb. † Nippings-wastes from previous blend (fud). # The wartern is the “quartern" of the old 24 lb. stone, that is, 6 lb. $ The 1/- per wartern is the cost from raw material in the Willey House to the spindle point. ll Apart from machine droppings. 24

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26 (#56) ############################################## WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING The Blending Process.—Before considering the machinery in “ blending," the process itself should be carefully thought over. In what states actually are the materials to be blended, and in what state should they be before the process is started ? What state should the blend be in when the process is finished, and what process or processes should be employed to effect the required transformation ? The materials to be blended will arrive at the mill or even in the blending room in many different forms, but in almost every case each material will require preparation for blending before the actual blending is taken in hand. Thus scoured wool must be opened out, brought into a fairly lock-divided state and if oiling has not been effected on the drying machine while the wool is warm and the fibres in the state to receive an evenly distributed film of oil over their surface-oiled previously to being blended with cotton. Cotton must be thoroughly opened out and brought into a fluffy state ; similarly with mungo, shoddy, and all other materials which it is proposed to blend. The final state, in which the materials should be as evenly and finely mixed as possible, will only be satisfactorily attained by giving thoughtful attention not only to the machines employed, but also to every detail of the process. It is obvious, for example, that a deadened oiled wool mixed with a light flimsy cotton may be sorted out by a thoughtlessly employed air-blast or air control in either Willow or Fearnought ; but it is not so evident that the mere breaking-down of a stack with sticks may “strike-sort " the material into long and short fibres-hence the superior method of breaking-down by " pulling." The actual blending process is effected by building the materials to be blended into a "stack” layer by 26

[[135, 136, "Textile Machine"]]

28 (#58) ############################################## WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING workable. When this object is so clearly in mind it seems curious that so little attention has been paid to the temperature of store rooms for “ mellowing.” This question is not only bound up with efficient carding, but obviously with the oils em. ployed and fire insurance. The truth is, that all too little is known of the oils and oil blends employed for oiling wool, and that practically no one really understands, in a scientific sense, the effects and action of the various oils, used alone or in combin- ation with water, etc., on wool and cotton. This ignorance is, of course, played upon consciously by unscrupulous oil merchants, and often unconsciously by the most con- scientious oil mei chants. The number of oils, oil blends and emulsions is legion* ; but no blender should work in ignorance of the basic nature of the oils he is using. Blending Machinery.—Two or three machines are essential for blending, viz., the Shake Willey, the Willow or Willey and the Fearnought. The simple construction of the Shake Willey is shown in Fig. 8. It is made in several forms with one, two or more swifts. Its function is always simply to shake and in no sense to tear or tease the wool. The normal Willow consists essentially of (a) An automatic intermittent feeding apparatus. (b) A willowing or beating and tearing appar- atus; and (c) An automatic delivery apparatus usually linked up to the automatic feed apparatus. The construction and action of these parts will be * See Appendix. 28

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30 (#60) ############################################## WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING means of a lattice and two feed rollers. The material is fed in on a travelling lattice, and may remain under work as long as is considered desirable. After a suitable controlled period of willowing a door automatically opens, and the material is thrown out on to the delivery lattice. The production is about 900 lb. per hour. Although there is no one standard design of Willow, since makers produce machines embodying special and distinctive features and advantages, yet these as a rule are matters of detail, the general character of all makes of this machine being uniform. The Fearnought (Fig. 8b) consists essentially of (a) an automatic continuous feeding apparatus with which is often combined an oiling apparatus, which is almost invariably ignored* ; (b) a coarse carding apparatus which should both tease out unopened wool-locks and mix up the component materials of the blend ; and (c) a delivering apparatus usually of the air-blast type. This latter may be arranged to deliver the teased blend by a system of conveyer - tubes to the blending room into bins, suitably situated in relation to the cards through which the blend must next pass. The con- struction and action of these parts will be understood from Fig. 8b and the following description. The main swift of the “Fearnought” is clothed with strong tenter-hook teeth, three or four pairs of workers (clothed with strong tenter-hook teeth) and strippers (clothed with strong but not tenter-hook teeth); a lattice which delivers the wool to two feed- rollers, a licker-in and angled stripper, and a delivery arrangement consisting of a fan, while underneath both swift and fan is a grating or grid through which the ) * With a Hopper feed this may be used to advantage. 30

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30 (#63) ############################################## BLENDING in. 1 . 46 22 heavy dirt, etc., falls. The action of the machine is so nearly allied to the card that no further description is called for save the following details of construction : Diameter on Diameter to Revolutions the wood. top of teeth. per minute. in. Feed Rollers 5 6 II3 Angle Stripper 51 71 II.3 Swift 47 180 Workers. 63 81 10:4 Strippers 51 71 10:4 Fan 251 810 The teeth are } in. pitch and intersect when possible. The teeth usually are tenter-hooks” with the excep- tion of the fan-strippers, which have around straight tooth. The production is about 1,200 lb. per hour. The speeding of the cylinders in machines of this type is a very interesting problem. Thus the speed of the main cylinder (the swift) may be decided by- 1. The speed at which it is mechanically safe to run it; or 2. The speed at which it will effect the most satisfactory disentanglement of the fibres submitted to it without undue breakage. Motor-car engines may run up to 4,000 revs. per minute, but the clutch is invariably much smaller in diameter than the cylinders in the machines under con- sideration. But probably (2) is the deciding factor here. Unfortunately few tests have so far been carried out to decide upon the most satisfactory speeds for fibre dis- entanglement (speed of wool-lock rupture). When this is done it will probably be found that the speed is well within the machine speed possibilities of any of the cylinders under consideration. Research is here obviously called for to replace the pure empiricism at present made the basis of practice. 31

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30 (#64) ############################################## WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING Having decided upon the speed of the main cylinder the other cylinders will be speeded from this on the lines laid down in Chapter II. The interesting arrangement of the workers and strippers in the Fearnought (worker preceding stripper) and the similar speeding should not be passed unnoticed. Reference has already been made to conveyer tubes (Fig. 8c). Owing to faulty construction in both machines and tubes, a prejudice has arisen in the minds of some manufacturers against these. In view of the necessity of treating many blends ranging from white to black; and occasionally from all-wool to cotton and wool, in the same machines and conveyers, it is obviously neces- sary to be able thoroughly to cleanse out both machines and conveyers. Willows, Fearnoughts, and conveyers should be so constructed that this may be readily done. In Fig. 9 a good arrangement of a blending room is given, from which it will be gathered that- (a) A space should be reserved large enough for the building-up of wool-stacks of any and every required size. (6) Arrangements should be made for satis- factorily preparing the various materials for blending without interfering with (or contaminating) any other blend in process of completion. (c) Distributing trunks from the Willow and Fearnought should be so arranged that the stack can be built up from the Willow or Fearnought without any handling other than feeding-on-proportion by pro- portion—to the feed sheet of the machine. (d) Suitable arrangements should be made for oiling where necessary. 32

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33 (#69) ############################################## BLENDING 5 << (e) A conveyer tube from the Fearnought or from any convenient part of the "blending room ” should be arranged to convey the wool to a convenient storage as near the cards as possible. Perhaps it should be added that a good conveyer system will deliver wool without matting or stringing up to a thousand feet away from the blending room. ** * * Basic principles : These are- I. To clear each material, so far as ever possible, of its impurities: 2. To bring each material into a freely disen- tangled state usually without shortening the fibre length. 3. To mix regularly the one or the several materials composing a blend. 4. To mix finely the various materials composing a blend with due deference to the carding which follows. 5. To arrange for the delivery of the blended materials to the required place in the mill with the least possible felting or detrimental handling. All machines and processes should be severely criticized in the light of these five principles ; by this means much thoughtless and even stupid machine design and blending practice may be avoided. V 33

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35 (#71) ############################################## CARDING AND CONDENSING General Consideration However well wool may be scoured it invariably appears as a sullied mass after carding. This is specially noticeable in the carding of combing wools (scoured only). It is not that the card dirties the wool, but that certain fibre-groups have emerged from the scouring bath still stuck together by grease and dirt, and the carder, in freeing these, releases a certain amount of grease and dirt which spreads itself over the whole mass and thus gives rise to the sullied appearance of the sliver or film produced. It is just this freeing of the material, fibre by fibre, that carding is designed to effect. It is almost of equal importance that fibres should be reversed and turned about during the passage through the machine-root to tip and tip to root. An excellent training in imaginative insight is to follow a fibre or lock of wool through the card, estimating its chance of being turned round at each roller and averaging up the final result of a number of fibres similarly treated. Mr. Howard Priestman, at Leeds University some time ago, obtained fairly exact results of such a test by tinting the tips of fibres red, passing these into the card under three conditions and then examining the position of each fibre in the resultant sliver.* The cleansing from impurities of the material to be carded is well understood by the cotton carder, but too frequently partially overlooked by the woollen carder. This is due to the comparative unimportance of the cleansing operation in woollen carding as compared with cotton carding, and also to the fact that if the woollen card is properly designed impurities fall out and con- sequently do not involve any special setting of the card, *"Wool Combing," by Howard Priestman, p. 101. » 35

[[52, 53, "Textile Machine"]]

37 (#73) ############################################## CARDING AND CONDENSING must be allowed in the material nor placed on the card, as in all probability such would not be thrown out during carding and may lead to difficulties in mule-spinning, while if it gets into the cloth, the material will look unsightly and be almost painful to the touch (cloth carbonizing will probably be necessary). The production by the final carding-engine-usually termed the "condenser ”-of a level, intact, perfect fibre-mixed” film of wool is essential if sound threads are finally to be spun. If the blend is a black and white mixture irregularities readily show a defect, but mixing is also important in such cases as white wool and white cotton, navy noil and navy mungo, etc., etc. It is usual, however, to have one or two extra swifts with their accompanying workers and strippers for carding blends of materials presenting marked luminosity or colour differences. It is very important that the wool film should be perfect, should be perfectly stripped and satisfactorily presented to the condensing apparatus to be split up into the desired number of filaments, or condensed slivers as they are termed. Given a level film from the card, then any really good condensing apparatus should split the film into the required number of equal filaments, one not "robbing from the other but all being equal and distinct and even- tually rolled up neatly on to the condenser-bobbin for conveyance to and spinning upon the mule. Flat The fibre arrangement in the condensed sliver may here be usefully considered, as it has given rise to much controversy, notably between the late Mr. Charles Vickerman, of Huddersfield, and several writers on woollen spinning. The sliver-delivery apparatus of the old carder dropped the slivers on the floor, or if a piecening machine was employed, into the trays arranged for their reception. These slivers were stripped from 37

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38 (#74) ############################################## WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING ( strips of card clothing arranged across the doffer, so that each sliver was in length just the width of the doffer." These slivers were piecened together either at the billey” by hand, or at the carder by the “piecening machine”; but in either case it will be realized that the fibres, owing to the method of stripping from the doffer, would almost all be concentrically arranged in the sliver and, upon being spindle-drafted upon the "billey," or upon the mule, would take a longitudinal spiral form. This fibre arrangement resulted in a wonderfully efficient thread, and a fabric capable of receiving an extra- ordinary “finish.” The thread taken off the doffer concentrically, as in the modern condenser, in which the fibres lie not spirally but mostly longitudinally in the length of the thread, is so different that in the early days of the proposed change from one system to the other, some woollen manufacturers for years refused to make the change, and others who made the change re- verted to the old style but finally were constrained by economic fact to accept the new method of condensing. The modern condenser should deliver the condensed slivers roughly about half to two-thirds the desired yarn skeins ; so regularly condensed that the mule without breaking these filaments will put in the necessary spindle-draft and twist and thus produce the required woollen yarn. > or From time to time fashion runs on to fancy effects such as random" knickerbocker yarn. Two methods of producing random effects are discussed later; also a description of a very simple method of producing knickerbocker and other "flecking " effects. Every carding engineer should be prepared to break away from standard practice and thoughtfully set to work to produce novelties when such are required. * See Journal of the Textile Institute, Vol. III., p. 303, 1912. 38

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39 (#75) ############################################## CARDING AND CONDENSING The production of a carding set is dependent upon : (a) the depth of material of any given type which the cylinders will readily control, truly card, and pass forward ; (6) the number of threads taken off the machine and the skeins condensed to, and (c) the speeds at which the several controlling cylinders may be run. Taking (6) first, it is obvious that if 60 threads of, say, 8 skeins are taken off a set of machines (running at the highest economic speed) the maximum weight of condensed sliver delivered is absolutely fixed; and further, that if 16 skeins be the count taken off, for the same number of threads, the weight delivered will be half this, and that if 4 skeins be the count taken off the weight delivered will be double this weight. But the question may be asked, if 40 lbs. per hour of 8 skeins shows satisfactory and economic carding, will not 20 lbs. per hour of 16 skeins be uneconomical, and 80 lbs. per hour of 4 skeins unworkable? This latter question brings up (a) the problem of the depth of material of any given type which can be satisfactorily worked. This problem is treated fully when dealing with double-film cards such as Josephy's ; at this junc- ture it is only necessary to realize that this is a funda- mental problem. It has just been suggested that "speed of delivery' will also affect output. To exaggerate: if the condensed sliver rollers, running at 15 revolutions per minute, give 40 lbs. of 8 skein yarn per hour, the same rollers running at 30 revolutions per minute will give 80 lbs. per hour; or run at 73 revolutions per minute will give 20 lbs. per hour, provided the same weight of film is supplied to them. What then really fixes the speed of these rollers > 39

[[27, 27, "Textile Machine Part"], [60, 60, "Textile Machine Part"]]

41 (#79) ############################################## CARDING AND CONDENSING between D and E representing the thin film of wool, the full width of the machine which, by the condensing apparatus, is split up into the required number of con- densed slivers E, the thickness, skeins or counts of these slivers being dependent upon the quantity of material fed into the card in relation to the number of threads and the " length / time” delivery from the card. * The Process of Carding.-Carding may be con- sidered as a further development of the willowing and teazing carried out in the blending room, but it is more illuminative to regard carding as the basic process and willowing and teazingas processes prepara- tory to this basic process. Under any circumstances there should be no sudden increase in the fibre disentangling activities of any of these sequential machines but a gradual increase in the search- ing activities of the carding teeth from the coarse toothed willow, the finer toothed fearnought, and the finely toothed carder; and the carder itself should be arranged on the same principle from feed end to delivery end, treating the material gently at first and gradually becoming more searching until the conditions are such that every fibre must have been separated from its neighbours. It is well here to realize that the carding efficiency of a set of machines depends upon : (1) Extent of carding surface and the number of carding contacts. (2) The carding surfaces at the point of cylinder contact, dependent upon the sizes of the cylinders. (3) The mode of feed and delivery adopted. (4) The absolute speeds and the relative speeds of the cylinders. 41

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42 (#80) ############################################## 1 WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 1) (5) The "setting," i.e. the spacing apart of the various cylinders included in a “set” of machines. (6) The design of the card-clothing with which the cylinders composing the set of carding machines are clothed, and (7) To a minor extent the relative design of scribbler, intermediate and condenser, All these points should be kept in mind in reading the following descriptions of a carding engine and of a "set of machines. * The action of a carder should be carefully studied under the headings (A) Feeding and feeding mechanisms; (Note: with this is almost invariably in- volved the delivery from the previous machine.) (B) Passage through the card, this involving the study of carding, stripping, and method of passage forward in the machine itself; and (C) Method of deliveryma simple problem ex- cepting in the case of the last machine, the condenser. (A) Feeding and Feeding Mechanisms are of two types :- ist. Preliminary or hopper feeds; and 2nd. Intermediate feeds. The object of a hopper feed is to take away from the “hands" the control of the quantity of material passed through the machine. Under the old conditions of hand-feeding the workman or workwoman weighed out a given quantity of the blend and spread this more or less evenly on each marked 12" of the feed-sheet as it slowly travelled towards the feed rollers. In the case of 1 1 42

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44 (#82) ############################################## WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING (c) Feed evenly across into the weigh-pan or directly on to the feed lattice; (d) Deliver accurately on to the feed-sheet to ensure a level feed of the machine ; and (e) Deliver its charge with absolute accuracy, never missing a charge, and always empty- ing clean. The form of feed illustrated here feeds directly on to the feed-sheet. The more usual form feeds into a weigh-pan. The material to be fed into the intermediate card or on to the condenser may be received in several forms, each of which may require special feeding mechan- ism :- (1) The doffing comb may be allowed to strip the film of wool from the last doffer of the scribbler (or first card), and this may be collected by hand and fed into the next machine by (a) hand, or (6) hopper feed. Method (a) is more usual as a hopper feed deals better with the material in the form in which it is sent out of the blending room than with the fibrous-film-mass coming from the scribbler. (2) The film doffed from the scribbler may be built up into a full width lap by a Blamire's lap-forming machine, and in this case the feed mechanism of the next card must be designed to receive two, three or four of these laps which are run together to form the full weight of film required. This feed arrangement will be easily understood by referring to Fig. 12. (3) The film doffed from the scribbler may be gath- ered together either in the centre-front of the doffer as in the case of the worsted card; or, as is more usual in the case of the woollen card, drawn off the side, and balled up into as firm a ball as possible. This type of delivery necessitates a creel to hold a number of these 44

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44 (#84) ############################################## சான கால HASRNS 5 Fig. 13.–Ball and Creel Intermediate Feed » 2 E

[[9, 12, "Textile Machine"]]

44 (#85) ############################################## CARDING AND CONDENSING balls, say 48, to obtain the right weight of sliver to feed into the next machine. In both these cases, and in that of the Blamire's feed the second and subsequent machines will have to stand until the necessary number of laps or balls have been produced by the first machines, and the later ma- chines will have to work a considerable time after the first machines have completed their work. The "ball “ and creel" feed, however, possesses certain advantages for making what are known as "random" effects (see p. 87), and in addition is supposed to keep the fibres straight in the sliver and hence from any given material to yield a stronger sliver and thread. This feed will be understood on referring to Fig. 13. (4) The film doffed from the scribbler may be car- ried by means of a "floor" or of an overhead" lattice to a convenient position in proximity to the feed-sheet of the next machine, and by a suitable device laid on this feed-sheet in the required thickness and with the required regularity. In Fig. 14 the action of the . Scotch” feed is shown. It will be noticed that the Scotch feed lays the sliver of material only slightly diagonally upon the feed-sheet. Another suitable type of feeding mechanism-the Apperley lays the sliver much more diagonally upon the feed-sheet. This, of course, necessitates a longer feed-sheet, but turning the fibres in the sliver more to- wards the feed rollers may possibly prevent a certain amount of fibre break at the sacrifice of some of the mixing efficiency of the Scotch feed. The Scotch and the Apperley feeds are continuous, so that the material once automatically fed into the carding set by the hopper feed is not further interfered with until it emerges from the condenser as condensed sliver. In this case as in the previous cases there will be at least one waste thread 66 45

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44 (#86) ############################################## WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING at each extreme edge of the condenser--it is impossible to prevent irregularities in sliver at the edges of the feed- sheet and consequently there are irregularities on the edges throughout the machine. These waste threads should be returned by pneumatic conveying tubes to the hopper feed for re-carding. The principles underlying“ intermediate feeds " may be summarized as follows: (A) Build of sliver for feeding into succeeding machine : (1) Band-built (Fig. 15 (6) and (c)). (2) Film-built (Fig. 15 (d)). (3) Band-film built (Fig. 14a and Fig. 15 (e) and (). (B) Direction of fibres as presented to the next machine : (1) Lengthwise(a) unreversed (Fig. 15a); (6) reversed (Fig. 150). (2) Semi-lengthwise-(a) unreversed; (b) reversed. (3) Crosswise-(a) unreversed; unreversed; (b) re- versed (Fig. 15 (6) and (d)). (c) (1) Continuous (Fig. 15 (e)) or (2) broken sliver or fibre (Fig. 15 (f)). Various combinations of (6), (c), and (d) are in every- day use, but rarely in this country are the methods illustrated in (e) and (() (Fig. 15) employed. It is quite obvious, however, that the last word has not been written on this matter; English carders have here something to learn from their French brethren. In Figs. 15 methods of simply but graphically repre- senting the "lie of the slivers "lie of the slivers" and fibre direction in several of these feeds are indicated. 46

[[13, 13, "Textile Machine Part"], [46, 48, "Textile Machine Part"], [74, 74, "Textile Machine"], [51, 52, "Textile Machine"], [58, 59, "Textile Machine Part"]]

47 (#89) ############################################## CARDING AND CONDENSING SECOND SWIFT ANCLE STRIPPER FIAST SWIFT SECOND SWIFT 1 ANCLE STRIPPER LICKER IN 11 MIDDLE FEED ROLLER LATTICE ROLLER II! I!!! LAST DOFFER LICKER IN LATTICE FEED MIDDLE [FEED ROLLER! LATTICE ROLLER DOI FINC COMB PRESS ROLLERS (6) FIRST SWIFT LATTICE ROLLER SECOND SWIFT ANGLE STRIPPER IIIIIIII FLICKER IN III!! LAST DOFFER LAST DOFFER MIDOLE SE OLLERS IIIIIII!! DOFFING COMB FIRST SWIFT (a) BALLS BALL (c) Fig. 15.-The "Lie" of the Slivers in (a) Direct Feed, (b) the Scotch Feed, (c) the Ball and Creel Feed 47

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48 (#90) ############################################## WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING LAST DOFFER DOFFING COMB LATTICE ROLLER Q 6 FILM IN LATTICE E o o B LAP SHOWING LAP BUILDING DIRECTION OF FEED INTO ISUCCEEDING CARD (d) 1 1 1 FA 9 (e) Fig. 15.-The “Lie” of the Slivers in (d) Blamire's Feed, (e) Continuous Traverse Feed, () Broken Traverse Feed. 48

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49 (#91) ############################################## CARDING AND CONDENSING (B) The passage through the card involving :- (1) Carding, (2) Stripping, and (3) Passing forward, constitute the most important series of operations which the student of carding has to study. The passage of wool through a worsted carder is carefully considered on pages 218-220, “Wool Carding and Combing but carding is a much more important matter to the woollen spinner than to the wool comber, consequently deeper insight must here be attempted. The action of card wires spoken of as the “carding action is that effected by means of the old hand-cards when these are drawn in opposition to one another- point to point. But with hand-cards this action is necessarily intermittent-with rollers clothed with wires having the correct inclination and revolved in the required direction, the operation is continuous. This action is the basis of woollen carding, the swift (A) Fig. 16 meeting the worker (B) point to point and more or less effectively carding the wool. On a card wherever swift and workers meet there is true carding taking place- more or less severe according to (a) The relative speeds of the cylinders ; (6) Distance apart of the cylinders; and (c) The card clothing densities. With reference to (a) the relative speeds of the two cylinders will depend upon whether the worker is Stationary, or Revolving in the same direction as the swift, its teeth act against the teeth of the swift; or Revolving in the opposite direction to the swift, its teeth as it were retiring from the swift. The first condition is almost obtained in the flat cotton card, but as the idea of the roller card is to attain E 49

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50 (#92) ############################################## WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING continuity of action and possibly varied-surface move- ment, this condition rarely obtains in wool carding. The second condition results in a severe carding straightening operation, and is employed in the case of short material (such as noils and mungos) which cannot well be fibre-broken further, but in which thorough disintegrating and mixing, and so far as possible par- allelizing, is required. Even then it is only usual to drive the workers over the last swift in this direction. List II.-SIZES AND SPEEDS OF ENGLISH AND FRENCH CARDS English French Reus. Relative Diameter per Surface Diameter min. Speeds Revolutions per min. Relative Surface Speeds in. in. per min. Swift Worker Stripper Fancy Doffer Width 50 80 (9 to) 12 5 43 (to 12) | 263 14 375 (36 to) 40 5 60 to 72 in. in. per min.! 4000 46 (+ or -'60 8 (to 9) 1183 (3 to) 4 5220 I 2 200 28 60 to 80 100 (to 120) 5 (to 6) 125 425 8 4600 (tor-) 40 500 5100 224 The third condition is the more usual as in this case the teeth of the worker retreating from the teeth of the swift ease the severity of the carding operation. The cylinder revolutions and surface speeds of carding rollers in a Cheviot carding set are given in List II, from which it will be gathered that even the woollen carding engine is by no means ideal from the point of view of gradually disintegrating the fibre masses. This severe action, however, may be mitigated in part by the “lifting," or setting to a wider gauge, of the workers from the swift-hence the necessity for completely studying—(6) distance apart of cylinders. If the whole of the workers on a card be set to one 50

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55 (#97) ############################################## CARDING AND CONDENSING the teeth of the swift and passes it forward to be doffed by the doffing comb (Fig. 16 (b)) at B. But the swift is now clear to the points of the teeth and no doubt in part even below the points, so that it is eager to seize a new charge of material which it usually C SE 4 «А AI H (c) (a) (o A E (b) Fig. 16.-(a) The Carding Cylinders, (b) The Delivery Cylinders, (c) The Feed Cylinders does from the angle-stripper K, this cylinder acting as the conveyer between the licker-in and swift (Fig. 16 (c)). If now for a moment the cylinders be thought of as clothed with perfectly level films of material (or, say, cloth), it will be realized that the film from the angle- strippers is now held on the swift by the opposite sur- 55

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56 (#102) ############################################# WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING RCAST CLOER Don Fig. 17.-Carding Engine for the Manufacture of Felts doffer? Perhaps one further sug- gestion should be given. So long as fibres lie across the cylinders -across the direction of move- ment—will they be liable to be impeded in their passage. Ap- proximation to the direction of cylinder movement in the" lie' of the fibres will always give a better chance of escaping the next carding contact. This thought brings up the difficult question : should count and crown be the same in carding surfaces ?should not the card- clothing on the earlier cylinders be striated in the direction of movement to facilitate the "lying - in” and consequent passage forward of the material ? This is certainly a question which carding engineers should consider. * (C) Method of Final Delivery. -The method of final delivery is one of the most important matters which has to be decided. The simplest form of delivery is that illustrated in Fig. 17, in which a thin film of wool the full width of the carder is built up layer by layer into a thick film of wool of considerable length. This spongy mass is docco 58

[[12, 12, "Textile Machine"], [34, 34, "Textile Machine Part"], [102, 102, "Textile Machine Part"], [180, 180, "Textile Machine"]]

60 (#106) ############################################# WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING comb (Fig. 20) does not appear to be nearly so efficient as that by the stripper (Fig. 21). In dealing with a delicate film of wool of this nature, the influence and effect of air currents must not be overlooked, and on this account the “stripper" method is much less objectionable than the reciprocating doffing comb. The dividing of the film of material is effected on two distinct methods :- (1) By the " presence" and "absence” card wire “ system, known as the Ring-Doffer system ; FANCY DOFTER O CYLINDER. DOFFER. Fig. 19a.-Double Doffer Tandem Rubber Condenser (2) By means of tapes or bands, two horizontal layers of which unite to receive the full-width film of material between themselves but separ- ate virtually into i-in., or 4-in. or -in. sections as they carry the film forward, thus dividing the full-width film into a number of fila- ments. * The simplest form of ring-doffer condenser is shown in Figs. 18 and 18a. Most carding engineers prefer this system to any other, but owing to the fact that 60

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64 (#112) ############################################# WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING and nailing or winding the foundation with its accompanying wires on to the carding cylinders. This method with sheeting or fillet- ing is adopted almost entirely in the normal carding engine. In Fig. 22 these three types are shown in their simplest forms. Card sheeting is illustrated in Figs. 18 and 19. A FEARNOUGHT TEETH B GARNETT CLOTHING ca CARD C CLOTHING Fig. 22.-Mechanical Construction of Carding Surfaces NOTE.-Clothing with Card Sheeting is illustrated in Figs. 18 and 19. 64

[[20, 21, "Textile Machine Part"], [36, 37, "Textile Machine"]]

70 (#118) ############################################# WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING > almost equal pinning of the clothing in both count and crown direction. The distribution of the teeth in the first place may be designed as shown in Fig. 24 a, b, c, by dotting in the points of the teeth as required to scale, and then upon this dotting to add the crowns in plain, rib or twill order according to the condition judged most suitable in each particular case. In the second place the plain, rib or twill foundation crowns may be lightly sketched in to scale, and then the points of the teeth (at the two ends of crowns) dotted in strongly to clearly indicate the dis- tribution of the points of the teeth (Fig. 25 a, b, c). As a rule it is much more satisfactory for the carding engineer to design and indicate the settings he desires than merely to take what is offered to him by the card- clothing manufacturer. He should recognize, however, that the card-clothing manufacturers have a wonderfully extensive experience to draw upon, and as a rule are quite prepared to discuss the various points here raised. In the pinning of comb circles for the Noble comb it is now customary to take the diameter of the wire and the required “clear space necessitated by the quality of fibre being combed and to calculate the pins per inch accordingly. This may also be done in the case of card clothing. Taking, for example, 60's counts 6 crown, the cal- culation stands as follows :- 60's/6-Wire No. 24 (L.S.G.) = '022" diameter-144 teeth ) per sq. in. και πd2. Area (0.022) 0.00038 .00038 X 144 0.0547 wire area per sq. in. 0.9453 space per sq. in. It should be noted that the bending of the wires at the knee along with the card grinding results in the wire presenting an area, which is an ellipse, consider- 1 70

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76 (#124) ############################################# WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING Ń fibre length The formula is simply a suggested 3 basis for deciding the matter of wire length; if adopted it would still require modification in the light of certain empirical knowledge. It does, however, give some approximation 'to present-day practice. The length of wire should probably be taken into account along with the space interval—at least in the true carding ” positions (worker and swift). If the length of the wire above the knee be taken as the carding length, then the three factors : length (approximately) of swift wire, space interval, length (approximately) of worker wire should be just equal to the minimum fibre length to ensure equal carding conditions for the fibre. This condition is probably attained in carding short fibres of fairly average length, but in carding longer fibres there is a marked discrepancy. This is due partly to the “lie ” of the fibres upon the revolving cylinders, partly to the resist- ance offered during transference from cylinder to cylin- der--even in stripping, and partly due to air friction. It is difficult to see how the practical nece ties can here be met with any other method than empiricism, but the value of having mental vision of what is happening, and some basis of reference, is still strongly in evidence. (c) The combination of foundation and wire to meet the requirements of the various and different activities observable in every carding engine, and also to meet the *requirements of carding engines designed to card par- ticular fibres, must now be considered. Differences here will be found to be due to 76

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86 (#136) ############################################# WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING ) ) the material is of sufficient length to stand the strain of passing over the overhead lattice from the delivery end of one machine to the feed end of another machine. Should the material be too short, and consequently the sliver too weak for this mode of conveyance, the Apperley feed may be adopted, in which the lattice conveying the sliver may be run along the ground, and thus a very simple and direct connexion between the two machines effected. The problem of deciding the best angle of the feed has already been referred to, and is also elucidated in the graphic diagrams of feeding (Fig. 15). In this country the Blamire or blanket" feed is almost invariably selected for short material, especially mungo blends—but the feed is considered very unsuit- able for long-fibred material. This feed is illustrated in Fig. 12, from which it will be noted that the “ blanket" is built up film by film, the direction of the fibres in these films being almost at right angles to the direction of the delivery of the final thick "blanket." There is another form of the Blamire feed for mills in which room is limited, but the principle of forming the lap is exactly the same. One other feed-specially designed for long-fibred material-merits careful study. The "ball and creel" feed presents certain advantages which must not be overlooked. In Fig. 13 this type of feed is illustrated. There the fibre direction is approximately with the length of the sliver,* and consequently this feed is especi- ally suited to the carding of the longer clothing wools. The difficulties of starting up and stopping have already been referred to. Attention should be drawn, however, to one important advantage which this feed presents, viz., the ease with which random effects * On the assumption that the sliver has been brought from the centre--not from the side of the doffer. 86

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87 (#137) ############################################# CARDING AND CONDENSING may be obtained. If alternate balls of, say, black and white are fed up to a ring doffer condenser (or any carder without rollers which are given a traverse across the swift), a striated film of black and white, which may be arranged to fit the pitch of the doffer rings, will pass through the machine towards the condensing. Under normal conditions the white streak would be taken by one ring, and the black streak by the next ring and so on across the card, and thus solid coloured threads alter- nately of black and white would be produced. If, how- ever, (a) the ring doffer is given a traverse crosswise of, say, the breadth or half the breadth of the striations or card-rings; or (6) the ring doffer is clothed with rings which do not pass concentrically round, but are waved or angled ” to the extent of the striations ; then instead of a solid thread, a thread alternately of black and white-or, as it is termed, a "random " thread -is produced. It is obvious that this method of pro- ducing fancy yarns is capable of being developed : certainly every woollen manufacturer should have at least one of his cards fitted up to produce this effect. The value of carefully considering intermediate card- film production, as illustrated in Fig. 15 is in evidence in Fig. 31. There a film intermediate between the normal narrow Scotch-feed film and the normal full- width Blamire film is illustrated. * * Condensers and Skein (Count) Control The functions of the condenser card are :- (a) to produce and present to the dividing apparatus a perfectly level broad film of material; (6) to neatly and with absolute regularity divide up this film into the desired number of filaments. 87

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89 (#139) ############################################# CARDING AND CONDENSING multiple or series tape machine (Fig. 20a), but it is conceivable that it might be so improved that it would be at least equal in efficiency to the single tape machine. In Fig. 21a a method of tape control different from those illustrated in Figs. 20 or 20a is shown. This also illustrates the method of running the condensed slivers on to six instead of two or four condensing tiers. Careful study of these diagrams will bring out the following questions : (a) Method of doffing the film--comb or stripper ; (6) Continuous or single tapes ; (c) Deep grooved (Fig. 20a) or shallow grooved (Fig. 21a) tape control; (d) The turning over of the tapes in order- I. to deliver the films of wool they carry to the rollers; 2. to use both sides as film carriers ; (e) the guiding of the tapes to obviate two tapes, with their accompanying air currents, running against one another and so disturbing the delicate films of wool at the crucial moment of presentation to the rubbers; (f) the number of tiers of rubbers and condensing bobbins will depend upon the width of the tapes (i.e. number of threads taken off the machine). If, for example, 60 threads are taken off 60 in., two tiers may be ample; but if 180 threads are to be taken off 60 in., then the delivery illustrated in Fig. 21 should be employed. (g) single or tandem rubbers and breadth of "rub." Several patents have been taken out for steel blade condensers. The employment of steel bands or tapes is also now possibly thinkable. This brings up the question of the material of which the condensing tapes are made. It is obvious that such materials 89

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91 (#141) ############################################# CARDING AND CONDENSING PANCY DOFTER CYLINDER -FANCY DOFFER Fig. 31.-Carding Engine with two fancies and two doffers producing two films for yarns of the lower grades and skeins 16

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92 (#142) ############################################# WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING takes the fibres lying below the points of the teeth of the swift. The value of this idea may be thought out as follows: 1. Under any circumstances as great a weight of wool should be passed through the carder as the wires on the cylinders can well control and truly card. The limit should not be in the condensing 2. The material to be condensed - (a) as is usually the case, may be divided up into a large number of fine or a smaller number of coarse filaments according to the divisions (i.e. tapes) across the machine ; or (b) may be continuously delivered as two films, and each of these films divided up into fine or coarse filaments according to the divisions (i.e. tapes) across the machine. Thus the double-film tape condenser in comparison with the ordinary tape condenser may allow- I, the same number of filaments of the same count number to be taken off with tapes double the normal width; or 2, say, double the number of films, of double the count number, to be taken off with tapes the normal width. Carding engineers generally agree that given the maximum weight of film coming through the card, the normal single film condenser with tapes of the necessary pitch will do all that is required and yield a uniform result-which, of course, a card cannot yield from two condensing film layers. There would seem to be room, however, for a convenient method of varying the width or pitch of the tapes. With a given tape condenser the 92

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94 (#144) ############################################# WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING lags ; and there seems to be always a preference for wood in the case of the fancy. The sizes of the cylinders may best be studied under the headings I. Breadth; 2. Diameter. Although 60 in. was the standard width of all carding engines, no doubt being fixed at this by the engineering difficulties involved (rigidity of cylinders being essential), still much wider cylinders are made to work satisfac- torily to-day: 72 in. is now quite usual, but go in. appears to be too broad for satisfactory work. The practice in the woollen trade appears to be to make scribbler and intermediate 72 in. and then in the con- denser to come down to 60 in. ; but probably the correct way to put this is that if 60 in. be adopted as the width of the condenser the wool will be better cleaned and carded if intermediate and scribbler be widened out to 72 in. Cylinders or swifts will be made of a size in con- formity with 1. Rigidity; 2. Weight-with reference to power consumption and cost of driving gear. Workers should be varied in diameter according to the length of wool to be carded a long wool neces- sitates a large diameter worker (say 12 in.) and a short mungo only needs a small worker (say 5 in.), allowing more workers to the swift as compared with the larger worker. It is difficult to see why workers are all made the same size*--they may be either increased in size from first to last on the same swift or on different swifts; or decreased in size. A gradual increase in * Excepting that standardization is always to be sought for in the works. 94

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96 (#146) ############################################# WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING . found that the carding contact (3) Fig. 32 is com- paratively long. If with the same-sized swift is worked a small doffer, the carding arc of contact is short. There is probably some relationship between fibre length and the length of the carding arc of contact—but again this may be affected by whether the teeth of the doffer are made to retreat from the swift or to act against the swift. There is also the extra cost of making and driving the larger doffer to be taken into account, and possibly the wearing surface of the card clothing also to be considered—including the ratio between wear due to work and wear due to exposure in the mill atmosphere. The following are the usual sizes of woollen card cylinders : Cylinders or swifts 54 in, diameter to 50 in. Breasts 54 36 Doffers 50 24 Workers 5 , Strippers 5 Fancies 9 Of the two types of framework, viz., "box bends” and “flat bends," the box bends are to be preferred as usually allowing of more refinement in the setting of the cylinders (Fig. 33). In either case the bends should be fitted close up to the cylinders to prevent the development of air currents, and the outside driving arrangement should be designed to allow of protection to the bearing hubs of the worker, stripper and fancy shafts. Of the details of construction perhaps the wood-plugging positions are all-important, but there are obviously many points in the design of a carding engine where details have a very important bearing upon utility and economic running The question may here be debated as to whether machines should be single, double, or treble style I2 2 16 96

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97 (#147) ############################################# CARDING AND CONDENSING machines—in each case having given the same number of swifts and their accompanying cylinders. In view of the mixing capacities of the intermediate feeds it is not surprising to find that often in the case of ordinary wool- len cards scribbler and condenser only are employed, but that where perfect mixing is required scribbler, intermediate and condenser are almost invariably arranged for—thus giving two intermediate feed mixings. The number of swifts per machine varies consider- ably. For working fine, short wools, four or five small swifts in the scribbler used to be quite common. To-day a breast and four or five swifts per set is ordinarily met with for carding mixtures. The following distribution of five swifts are thinkable : 1 2 3 6 6 7 2 2 I I 2 I 2 I . 2 2 I I I 2 2 Scribbler 3 3 Intermediate 3 Condenser 3 Of these, I and 5 are most commonly in use. Nos. 6 and 7 are actually defective, for it is obviously desirable to effectively open out all locks, etc., before submitting the material to the severe treatment of, say, an inter- mediate Scotch feed. > (d) Driving and Speeding of Cards.-In the list on page 50 standard speeds for the chief cylinders in carding characteristic blends are given. The speeding of a card would probably be worked out as follows :- 1. The swift being the main carrying cylinder of the card would be first speeded, but this would possibly be in relation to the speed of the fancy which must lift* the wool on the swift with- out " throwing" it ; * See "Preface" also, H 97

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98 (#149) ############################################# PLATT BROTHERS & CO LIMITED OLDRAM Fig. 33.-Box Bend with wrought-iron standards and brass steps for the workers and strippers PLATTERS UNITED OLDHAM - Fig. 33a.-Flat Bend with inner flange fitting close to cylinder, compound brackets and "Swivel” bushes, for Carding Engine with outside driving

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99 (#151) ############################################# CARDING AND CONDENSING The calculation for the "weight per hour” is worked out as follows: (1а) бо х 24 х бо 8 X 256 42 lbs. per hour. These particulars are specially selected to bring into question the whole problem of "card-timing." ” It is quite evident that this problem has rarely been scien- tifically tackled. The possibilities are obviously so great that it is not surprising to learn that one York- shire firm refuses to allow visitors to the mill, else might the secret of how to get double the normal weights through cards become common trade know- ledge. Perhaps more important than anything else is the method of gradually increasing the severity of the carding operation from feed rollers to last doffers. All the sur- face speeds of the rollers of a card should be calculated with this end in view, and there should be no hesita- tion in ensuring this gradation. The breakage of fibre which takes place in the best carding to-day warrants a revolution in carding practice. In Fig. 90, “Wool Carding and Combing,” the driving of a carding engine is so well illustrated that there is no need to consider the matter further here. Note should be made, however, of the possibilities of chain drives throughout, experiments with Renold's chains having recently been made with this end in view. * * * * (e) Sets of Machines and their Arrangements.- Ordinary cards, say 60 in. to.72 in. wide, are arranged to pass anything from 20 lbs. per hour to 70 lbs. per hour. The conditions controlling this have already been dealt with. As a basis, 40 lbs. per hour may be taken as an average, with the qualification that this would be decreased for fine wool to be condensed to a fine count, 99

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101 (#153) ############################################ CARDING AND GONDENSING > the finest carding wires may be obtained. These points, however, are really too delicate for anything save cotton for which plough ground wire is largely employed By method (d) a rough back and side sharpening of the wires results, and if an emery trimming roller is employed turning from side to side during the grinding process, a useful approximation to the plough grinding of cotton cards may be obtained. As already indicated, workers and strippers are usually ground away from the card and the swifts and doffers in situ. But in the latter case what becomes of the fine wire dust !! In this chapter, although a great many points have been touched on, the subject has not been dealt with exhaustively. Perhaps no other of the textile processes so merits consideration, nor so well repays both worker and master for the time spent in the attempt to grasp intelligibly the many principles involved. The following are a few practical comments on card- ing and card-setting given by the late Mr. Auty, one of the best-known of Yorkshire manufacturers, in a lecture delivered at Leeds University. A good deal may now be read into these statements and suggestions. 1. Set feed rollers close to keep clean teeth, and run them at the same speed. 2. Card-clothing better than licker-in fillet for the licker-in, as it drops less material. The latter will drop six times as much. 3. Strippers should be speeded to just nicely beat the worker. If speeded too much, will not deliver as well to the swift, they should be kept off swift, but run near to worker. * 4. Be particular in gauging (setting) a machine both sides are alike, looking out for dark (where not stripped) and light sides. * To lay the wool softly on the swift the strippers should be speeded up. IOI

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102 (#154) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 5. With low (short) goods set as near as possible, with long straighten the fibre. 6. If fancy is not well set into the swift, swift is not kept clean and workers cannot do their duty, the doffers ought to be set near. 7. On the scribbler run angle strippers backward way (running over up-hill) ; on the carder going under, set close. 8. To get yarn straight, like worsted, set angle stripper, fancy and doffer close, the yarn should be drawn out on the mule in spinning the last 12–18”; and if it will not go, speed up the mule at the beginning and slow at end to get well together. 9. Fancy ought to be set the thickness of id. into swift for low stuff, thickness of 1/- for better stuff. 10. Has tried the doffer 18" under the swift, but finds does not get the power of lashing the material and won't hold on to it. 11. Three essential points :- Card clean. Speed well. Set well. If the latter two are right, the first follows. 12. For speeding swift : (a) With stockings (Cheviot material) 60 revs. per minute (50" swifts). (b) Botany (fine materials) 85-90. Back swift 80–84. 13. Fancy is the chief cause of unevenness. 14. Doffers may be run slow to get more weight through. 15. Machines want cleaning if fancy is causing rolling (on doffer side of swift). 16. Condense a yarn to be spun to 100 yards per oz. to 60 yds., if partly cotton would be necessary to condense to 70 yds.* 17: With yarn spun to 72 yds., could do 100 warterns (600 lb.) per day of 10 hours on plain low stuff. With yarn spun 100 yds. per oz., 60-80 warterns (360-480 lb.). With yarn spun 100 yds. per oz., if fancy yarns 40-50 warterns (240-270). 18. Showed sample of yarn spun to 160 yds. (warp) * Cotton drafting " dead" on the mule as compared with wool. . 102

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103 (#155) ############################################ CARDING AND CONDENSING per oz. made from brown cotton material cost 20/- per 240 lb. on willey room floor. Machines were 4 swift scribbler, 2 swift carder 72" wide ; on low stuff keep 2 mules going off one condenser. Weft 160 yds. per oz. did 60 warterns (360 lb.) in 10 hours. Best sets of machines-Scribbler and condenser 6 swifts per set. * West of England sets of machines- Scribbler, Intermediate and Condenser-3 swifts per set. The following are notes from a lecture recently delivered by Mr. S. Smith (a representative of Messrs. Samuel Law and Sons, Cleckheaton) : In certain classes of woollen work, slightly easy pricking of the wire is useful for fancies. Centrifugal force, over- coming the air friction, causes the fancy teeth to straighten out and softly enter the swift clothing but vigorously to brush up the wool on the swift when the teeth leave the deepest point and the function of raising begins. There are times when the angle stripper should be con- sidered in conjunction with the fancy. It is interesting to note how various settings of the angle stripper to the swift affect the work of the fancy, both in woollen and worsted carding. Tummers on woollen carders are important. They should have the sharpest possible point and be set as close as possible to licker-in and swift, without touching. On single part carders especially, the character of the slubbing is affected in no small measure by the condition and setting of this roller. They should be kept smooth, perfectly true and level across. On many classes of work, too keen a point causes the material to be more difficult to strip from the Tape Doffer where a comb is the stripping agent; and in many instances has a detrimental effect on the sliver even where the doffer is stripped by a stripper. To ensure first class work of fine skeins from a tape condenser, the clothing of swift, doffer, fancy and stripper should receive careful consideration. Incorrect bend of wire on any one roller may cause much trouble. Harmonizing of the bend, along with the carder's attention to degree of * Probably due to the necessity for carding to open out partially disintegrated threads, etc. 103

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104 (#156) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING sharpness of swift and doffer and the condition of these rollers, is equally, or perhaps more, important than minute setting in order to secure the best results. When taking 180 or fewer threads from a 60-inch machine, attention to the smallest detail is necessary. The swift, fancies and strippers should be perfectly balanced, otherwise setting close without touching at some point is an impossibility. The fettler plate when used for dressing fine clothing is a friend to the card maker, but not to the buyer of the clothing. Filleting, however, is damaged more than sheets. The teeth of a sheet card are correctly pitched all the way across, whereas the teeth across a fillet become slightly out of pitch where the laps join each other. Whenever cleaning cards on boards can be used, they are much better than plates for fine clothing. 104

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105 (#157) ############################################ CHAPTER III WOOLLEN YARN SPINNING IN certain of the operations involved in wool manu- facture the operation itself may be complex, but the mechanical means to attain the desired ends may be comparatively simple ; or the operation may be simple, and the means to attain the desired end complex. Nothing can well be simpler than the ordinary bobbin wheel, upon which all woollen yarn was spun prior to the development of the jenny, the billey and the mule; but the actual spinning operation on this wheel is comparatively complex, resolving itself into six periods, as given later. On the other hand, even this complexity in spinning is simplicity itself in comparison with the mechanical complexities involved in the modern mule-possibly no machine in the whole range of textile mechanism is nearly so complicated as the mule. It is therefore obvious that in the space which can be allotted to mule spinning in this treatise, little more can be done than to give a sketch treatment of the opera- tion, emphasizing- (a) the basic method of mule spinning so far as this applies to the production of woollen yarn; (6) draft and twist in mule spinning; and (c) the control which the practical spinner can ex- ercise over the mule mechanism to attain the desired results in the yarn being spun. 105

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106 (#158) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING Further treatment must be left to the monograph on the mule which will no doubt appear in due course. * * (a) The Basic Method of Mule Spinning.—This will best be realized by actually spinning from the con- densed sliver upon the spinning wheel (i.e. the normal bobbin winding wheel, Fig. 35). It will then be found that this resolves itself into- I. delivery of a suitable length of the condensed sliver from the holding fingers of the spinster, to extend between the fingers and the end of the revolving spindle ; 2. the extension of this length so that the required count of yarn is obtained, along wit 3. the twist support given (by slowly revolving the wheel and consequently the spindle) during this extension, without which the thread would break down or be very irregular (Fig. 35a) ; 4. upon the completion of the “spindle-drafting the insertion of the necessary twist to bind the fibres into the type of thread required ; 5. the “backing-off” or unwinding of the coils extending from the spun yarn already wound on to the cop or bobbin up to the point of the spindle, as preparatory to winding neatly on to the spindle or bobbin the length of yarn just spun ; 6. the building up upon the "cop cop” or upon the bobbin fixed upon the spindle, the length of yarn just spun (Fig. 356). Of the above six operations comprising the “cycle in mule spinning, the second usually referred to as 106

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107 (#161) ############################################ WOOLLEN YARN SPINNING 1 spindle-draft”-is the most important from the actual spinning point of view. From the mechanical point of view the sixth was the most difficult to attain, and was the last for which a satisfactory mechanism was invented.* It is impossible to emphasize too strongly the effect of spindle-draft and the extent to which it differentiates woollen yarn from worsted yarn which is twisted after roller drafting has been applied. In the first case the twisting and the drafting conjointly and simultaneously decide the position of the fibres in the thread : in the latter case the drafting rollers decide the relative positions of the fibres and the twisting simply binds the fibres together in a more or less parallel-spiral form. Two questions with reference to woollen mule spinning lead directly on to a thorough apprehension of what is actually taking place- (a) why is it usual to employ such a thick-ended, untapered spindle ? (b) why do the two ends of a ruptured sliver so readily join together (piecen ”) during the spinning period ? The effect of the thick-ended spindle can be felt during the "spindle-draft " on the hand-wheel and can be seen on watching the mule itself. As the yarn slips over the spindle tip it “slackens,” and as it again winds up to the spindle-top on the continued revolution of the spindle it " tightens.” Thus the drafting opera- “ tion in woollen mule spinning is not a steady draw but a draw in which there is a "give and take periodicity," in time, corresponding with the revolutions of the spindle. * The hand-mule, which automatically did everything except wind-up the spun yarn on to the cop or bobbin in satisfactory form, was extensively in use in Yorkshire up to twenty-five years ago. 107

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108 (#162) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING Thus the spindle revolution during the drafting process has the twofold object of supporting the fibres by means of the twist inserted, and of effecting this periodicity in the drafting.* There is here obviously a remarkably interesting mathematical computation and research to be undertaken. With reference to what happens during “piecening," it seems strange that this operation should be done prob- ably millions of times a day in Yorkshire alone and yet of all the pieceners employed apparently few have yet asked the question—“What is happening just under or between my fingers ? ” (Fig. 36). Does not this show the deadening effect rather than the vivifying 1" Fig. 36.- Illustrating "piecening" on the mule effect of our modern system of education ? Certainly the fibre movement in woollen yarn spinning is worthy of more careful consideration than has yet been given to it. Such consideration should take the form of investigations by direct observation, and, aided say by high-speed observation photography, followed by careful and close imaginative thinking. There is far too much parrot-like assertion along with the application of sup- posed common sense to the problems under con- sideration, and the results attained are usually by no means above suspicion. * * (b) Draft and Twist in Mule Spinning.-Although the difference between woollen and worsted yarn is primarily one of fibre arrangement, it should never be * The value of this periodicity as against a steady draw is worth debating. 108

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109 (#163) ############################################ WOOLLEN YARN SPINNING forgotten that the woollen mule is specially designed for short-fibre spinning—long fibres cannot be drafted on the spindle-draft principle, the twist at once binding such into undraftable slivers; and that short fibres-even on the spindle-draft principle-cannot be given a draft of more than two, or, in very extreme cases, say three. The great bulk of woollen yarn is spun with a draft of 11 to 2, while quite a considerable quantity is spun with a very slight gain of the carriage on the delivery rollers, the yarn thus produced being really a twisted condensed sliver rather than a spun woollen thread. It should here be stated that the soundest and best woollen thread will be produced by condensing to a thick count and drafting (spinning) to the count re- quired. If the drafting (spinning) cannot be effected at one operation, it should be effected by roving first and then spinning. The following are possible methods of producing a 36 skeins (36 yards to the dram) woollen yarn :- Condensed sliver Roved to Spun to i intro no I. 2 3 4 5 6. 34 skeins 24 skeins 18 skeins 12 skeins 24 skeins 25 skeins 18 skeins 12 skeins (draft 11) 30 skeins (draft 1}) 30 skeins (draft 1}) 24 skeins (draft 2) 24 skeins (draft 1117) 36 skeins (draft 1t) 36 skeins (draft 2) 36 skeins (draft 3) 36 skeins (draft 1}) 36 skeins (draft 15) 36 skeins (draft it) 36 skeins (draft 11) 36 skeins 8 Of the above (I) is not really a spun thread; (5) and (6) are worth comparing from a mathematical point of view; (8) would give the most typical woollen thread if the yarn were level; but (7) would almost certainly yield the best all round thread. Roving, 109

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111 (#165) ############################################ WOOLLEN YARN SPINNING In Woollen spinning on the “spindle-draft " principle the relative and absolute fibre movement during drafting will be- Fibre length < (draft given - I) 12 1 REV TO 12 REVS A. 12" FIBRE B FIBRE A 8 8 144" B Fig. 37.-Illustrating Fibre Movement during Drafting > Thus whether the fibre be in., I in., or 2 in., with a draft of two the fibre moves its own length, viz., fin., 1 in., or 2 in. in each respective case. If, then, the basis of " spindle-drafting " be taken as- 2 III

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112 (#166) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING the fibre moving its own length along the sliver then the rule for the draft will be fibre length 1 + fibre length This is true for any system of length measurement -British or metric, for example—but simply amounts to the statement that a spindle-draft of two should always be employed. And this is not true! For fibres under 1 in. much less draft is admissible, and the most suitable draft in all cases is approximated to by the rule- VL I + 2 = I.4 2 2 a 2 in which L = the length in inches of the longest fibre L in the blend. Example 1: With a 2-in. fibre the calculation stands V2 It = It = 1 + 7 = 1.7 spindle-draft required. 7 • Example 2 : With a I-in. fibre the calculation stands Vi I + = I + 5 = 1.5 spindle-draft required. Example 3 : With a t-in. fibre the calculation stands V•5 It = 1 + 35 = 1.35 spindle-draft required. - A similar empirical rule could no doubt be devised for the metric or any other system of length measure- ment of fibre. As there is usually no doubling in woollen spinning but only a levelling-up by reason of the twist distributing itself over the sliver during drafting approximately in proportion to the diameter of the sliver, it will usually not be safe to draft the slivers more than this : less may t t 1 2 II2

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113 (#167) ############################################ WOOLLEN YARN SPINNING be given, but in this case the operation will partake more of the twisting of condensed slivers rather than the spinning of a woollen thread. Considerable parallel- izing in spiral form of the fibres is necessary to produce a typical woollen thread. * * * The twist inserted has a twofold object- 1. To support the thread during drafting; and 2. To make a sound, strongly-spun thread. The drafting-twist inserted is probably dependent upon the longest and shortest fibres to be spun, as well as upon the average fibre-length of the blend. Unfortu- - nately no method has been devised for ascertaining this twist other than the "trial and error," or empirical, method. The problem is not merely one of the absolute turns per inch to be given, but of a gradually increasing twist to compensate for the decrease in thickness of slivers as the movement of the carriage outwards atten- uates them. This will be better understood by looking at the matter from the "angle of twist” point of view. Thus, the first question to be decided is Is it desirable to decide upon and maintain one definite angle of twist throughout the spindle-drafting operation; or should the angle be varied, and if varied what should the varia- tion be ? Adopting the view that for each woollen blend there is a definite twist angle with which the utmost support to the fibres—without interference with the sliding of fibre on fibre—is given, then the two questions to be decided are- 1. What decides the twist angle for any particular blend ? 2. How shall this twist angle be maintained through- out the spindle-drafting (movement of the carriage) ? I 113

[[154, 154, "Textile Machine Part"]]

115 (#169) ############################################ WOOLLEN YARN SPINNING I 60 X 5 6° 60 60 X •75 Cot. 0 14.6 and Cot. -10 3:14 3:14 X *75 4° 2nd Example : Should the blend be composed of fibres up to, say, 2 in., then- 60 X 2 Cot. 0 38 and Cot. -10= 1•75° 3:14 3rd Example : Should the blend be composed of fibres up to, say, '5 in., then Cot. 0 9.5 and Cot. -10 3:14 4th Example : Řequired the angle of drafting-twist for spinning a blend the fibre-length of which is 1 in. and the condensed sliver of which is io skeins (10 yd. per dram). Cot. 0 43 X I 43 = 13:5 and Cot. - 10 4° 3.1416 3.1416 Of course, to apply this rule it is again necessary to obtain the length of the fibres comprising a blend- this may be actually ascertained mechanically * or may be carefully estimated by the spinner as already noted. If " turns per inch” (T) only are required, then- ) Ist Example : It L = 1.3 turns per i in.; •75 2nd Example : L 0.5 turns per 1 in. ; I I I 2 * By the Schlumberger Top Tester or by Dr. Laurence Ball's machine. In the case of thick slivers this formula must stand as =T I Ju-( L x -). D And in this case ♡ yds. per lb. may not give D. (See p. 295.) 115

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116 (#170) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 3rd Example : I L = 2.0 turns per i in. ; 5 1 4th Example : I I == I turns per in. L I 3 These last particulars are designed to give one com- plete turn round the thread of the longest fibres. It does not follow that one turn is sufficient or that it may not be too much. For slippery silk it is quite conceivable that three or four turns round the thread may be necessary to hold the sliver together during spindle- drafting ; for a very rough and hairy material less than one turn round might be desirable. There is an inter- esting research based upon the frictional co-efficients of the fibres under test, possibly along with certain other minor factors. If the basis of three turns round the thread be taken, then the formula stands ỉ = drafting turns per in. required (see Fig. 38). . . Having decided upon the angle of drafting-twist, the second point-how to maintain this throughout the spindle-drafting of the slivers—must now be faced. The conditions are- 1. The rim-shaft of the mule is usually putting in twist at a constant rate during the outward run of the carriage ; 2. The sliver is being drafted finer and finer as the carriage recedes and consequently requires twist for the additional length plus more and more twist as the thread becomes finer, to maintain the twist angle decided upon. This 116

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119 (#173) ############################################ WOOLLEN YARN SPINNING o 43 43.8 Thus if 4° (Ex. 4) is the drafting angle, the following deduc- tions may be made :- D* 43 = T whence II x Cot. of O 3•14 Cot. 4° 43 = I turn per i in. to give 4º. 3.14 X 14 For ist 18 in. (no draft) 18 X I 18 turns of spindle For ist and 2nd 18 in. (2 draft) 36 X 1.4 = 50 turns of spindle For ist, 2nd, and 3rd 18 in. (1} draft) 54 X 1•7 = 92 turns of spindle For ist, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th 18 in. (1š draft) 72 x 2 = 144 turns of spindle To effect the insertion of this necessary twist with an actual regular turning of the spindle, it is obvious that the speed of the carriage must be so reduced that the second movement of 18 in. occupies V2 of the time the first 18 in. took; the third movement of 18 in. takes V3 of the time of the first 18 in.; and the fourth movement of 18 in. takes ~ 4 of the time of the first 18 in. If now it be taken that the spindles turn once per second it will be obvious that- the ist period of 18 in. will require 18 secs. the 2nd 18 in. 50 18 = 32 secs. the 3rd 18 in. 92 50 42 secs. 18 in. 144 92 52 secs. seconds for completion 144 : The time taken for each period may be put into the form- (18 * I) VI 18 seconds for 18 in. (18 x 2) v2 = 50 seconds for 36 in. (18 x 3) V3 92 seconds for 54 in. (18 x 4) VA 144 seconds for 72 in. from which the general rule may be adduced that - the 4th . See p. 292. 119

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121 (#175) ############################################ WOOLLEN YARN SPINNING (P1) V1 x 20 x 3 = 1 sec. for completion of ist period of (PC) V6 X 4 draft; (P2) V2 x 20 x3 and 3•14 secs. for completion of ist and (P) VÕ x 4 2nd periods of draft; and (P) V5 x 20 x 3 = 15 secs. for completion of ist, 2nd, (P) VÕ X 4 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th periods of draft; Illustrating this from the draft of 14-say 48 in. drafted to 72 in., then (P1) VI x 20 x 3 48 X 20 X 3 = 8.4 secs. for com- (PI) V iš 4 pletion of ist period of draft. (PI) Vī} x 20 x 3 X 86 X 20 X 3 = 15 secs. for com- (PI) VI} + 4 pletion of ist and 2nd periods of draft. 86 X 4 86 X 4 * * All the points raised in this section may be summarized as follows :- 1. To find the skeins to which any blend will spin : WF x 20) K² = skeins (drams per yard). . 2. To find the spindle-draft which any blend will reasonably stand : VI = draft I + 2 2a. To find the skeins to condense to Count of yarn required skeins of condensed sliver. VL I + 2 3. To find the drafting-twist angle to employ in spinning any given blend : 121

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122 (#176) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING Diameter Reciprocal of Condensed Sliver Fibre Length (3•1416) = Cot. of angle (for one coil of fibre round the thread). 3a. To find the turns of spindles to be inserted during the outward movement of the carriage : Reciprocal of Yarn Diameter x Inches Traverse of Carriage Cot. of angle required for drafting x + (3.1416) Turns of spindles during outward traverse of carriage. 4. To find the retardation of the carriage to maintain the required drafting-twist angle : (P1) Ví x seconds for completion of outward draw (P) x ✓N seconds required to complete the 1st period. (P2) vã x seconds for completion of outward draw (Pn) VN seconds required to complete the 1st and 2nd periods (Pn) VN x seconds for completion of outward draw (P7) VN seconds required to complete the Nths periods. The drawing-out scrolls should be designed, in con- junction with the driving gear, to give as nearly as possible the retardation given in these formulas. The drafted woollen thread will be twisted from, say, a 4° drafting twist angle to about a 25° twist angle- this being the usual angle of twist inserted in woollen yarns for maximum strength, although it should obviously be varied according to the purpose in view. The two following formulas (strictly logical) will here prove useful :- D Cot. of Angle x 16 T (turns per i in.) and, D Cot. of Angle given by any turns per 1 in. TX TE 122

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123 (#177) ############################################ WOOLLEN YARN SPINNING F! C. Mechanical Control in Mule Spinning. The requirements of mule spinning are best realized by spinning upon the wheel and by actually carrying out the six operations already referred to on p. 106. These operations are worked out by the modern mule following an ingeniously devised cycle of move- ments. It is well to keep in mind that in the mule cycle there are two marked stages of control, viz. the arriving in and the arriving out of the carriage : at both of these stages in the cycle of operations marked changes, if not actually then and there effected, are started. This, perhaps, is the first point to be noted in studying the mule. The cycle of operations in Woollen Self-Acting Mule Spinning may be stated as follows:--- (a) delivery of condensed sliver from the front rollers to the spindles ; (6) recession of the mule-carriage approximately at the rate of delivery of the condensed sliver ; (c) insertion of (1) supporting or drafting twist during the outward movement of the carriage; (2) final twist (double speed) on the completion of the outward movement of the carriage ; (d) the movement inwards of the carriage to com- pensate for the "take-up” in the twisting of the slivers ; or, the delivery from the rollers of a little more of the condensed sliver to allow for the "take-up” in twisting; (e) backing-off,” to give the " faller-wire” control of the thread in order that it may finally guide it in the required manner to build it up into a firm cop or bobbin ; () descent of faller-wire and ascent of weighted counter-faller-wire, the latter suitably tension- ( 123

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124 (#178) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING ing the yarn as it is exactly guided by the faller-wire on to the cop or bobbin ; (g) running-in of the carriage to deliver the lengths of yarn spun to the cop or bobbin ; (h) the faller-wire traverse as controlled by the bowl on the copping or shaping-rail, and the turning of the spindles as controlled by the quadrant as the carriage runs in; these con- jointly building up firm, regularly-tensioned cops or bobbins. The greatest periodic change has now to take place for the re-starting of the cycle of movements. The perfect control of all these movements, and certain subsidiary movements not referred to in the foregoing outline, necessitates a truly wonderful com- bination of mechanisms, one mechanism, as it were, controlling the other, and the whole working harmoni- ously together for a common purpose. Such mechanism to be fully described would require a work larger than this to itself * ; here the treatment is limited to just those points which will enable the student or mill manager to intelligently grasp what is happening as he sees the mule, with almost human-like skill, per- forming its task, cycle by cycle. (a) The delivery of the length of condensed sliver to be spun at each draw of the carriage is effected by the revolution of the delivery rollers, in conjunction with the positive turning of the condenser bobbin by means of the surface-contact (by weight) between the actual condensed slivers and the drums upon which these slivers rest or friction. The control of the length of sliver delivered for each draw (and consequently of the spindle-draft or extension) resides in the stop-projec- • See “ Traité pratique de Filature de la Laine Cardée," par Priault and Thomas. 124 1

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125 (#179) ############################################ WOOLLEN YARN SPINNING tion or peg, l, Fig. 40, on the “slubbing-wheel," which, according to its setting, disconnects the delivery rollers and condensed sliver drums from the driving power. (6) During this delivery from the delivery rollers the mule carriage should recede as quickly as possible simply to gain time during this period of the spin when there is little or no strain upon the sliver or yarn being spun. This movement is carried from the power by means L Fig. 40.--Illustrating Condensed Sliver Control Delivery of the drawing-out change pinion D, Figs. 41 and 42, through a convenient train of wheels (for control of speed purposes) to the drawing-out scroll shaft E (Fig. 42). Thus the design of the scroll on shaft E controls the variation in the speed of the carriage from start to finish of the draw; and the change wheels D control the speed of the carriage in accomplishing its complete traverse in relation to the speed of the power- shaft and consequently in relation to the twist put in 125

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126 (#180) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING by the smaller rim wheel A, Fig. 41, which is fixed on this shaft and consequently is inserting twist at the same time as drawing-out is taking place. (c) During the recession of the carriage the spindles are regularly revolved at a comparatively slow constant speed through slow speed pulley 3 to the smaller rim B A 1 2 3 G SECTION OF RIM SHAFT. Fig. 41.--Illustrating Control of Drawing-out of Carriage wheel A (Fig. 41), and the connection shown in Figs. 411 and 42a. If one wheel D has 30 teeth possibly the yarn will average six turns per inch for the drawing out; if one wheel (D) has 60 teeth (or the two indicated by D, Fig. 42, together equal 60 teeth) the yarn will average three turns per inch. It is obvious that to maintain economic running the change-wheel D 126

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127 (#181) ############################################ WOOLLEN YARN SPINNING must be kept as large as possible to maintain the highest possible speed of the carriage. Thus, if a very fine yarn requiring a lot of drafting-twist is being spun, rather than decrease the teeth in D, thus slowing down the carriage and the output of the mule, a larger slow-speed rim A may be employed to speed up the spindles during the draw. The arrival of the carriage at the extent of its traverse disconnects, through the half-revolution of the cam shaft, the drawing-out scroll clutch and at the B A N TOA Fig. 41a.-Control of Fast Speed Spindle Drive same time throwing the belt on to pulley 1 (Fig. 41) causes the fast-speed rim B to take charge of the spindles, thus putting in the twist required in the yarn as quickly as possible. The control of this motion is effected by a peg in a wheel driven through twist worm G (Fig. 41). This peg must cause the withdrawal of the driving belt from pulley I on to the loose pulley 2, thus stopping the turning of the spindles through the rim B and at the same time allowing the backing-off wheel c to come into action. (d) It should here also be noted that the twisting of the threads extending from the nip of the rollers to the 127

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129 (#183) ############################################ WOOLLEN YARN SPINNING tip of the spindles causes them to contract, and that when the carriage is freed from the outward draw it is drawn inwards by this contraction of the threads, aided by a conveyed tendency, until held by the jack-lever. The backing-off indirectly raises this jack-lever and thus frees the carriage for the run-in. (e) Backing-off must now be accomplished. This is effected by reversing the turning of the rim wheel B, which necessarily reverses the turning of the spindles. This is effected through the separate drive (usually rope, to ensure positive action) from the main mill shaft, through the two-grooved pulley F (Fig. 42), which, through toothed gearing, turns the toothed backing-off wheel c (Figs. 41 and 42) in the reverse direction. This wheel c (Fig. 41) forms a friction clutch with pulley 1. The arrival “in” of the carriage again giving half a revolution of the cam shaft of the mule withdraws the friction contact ; the half turn of the cam shaft on the arrival out of the carriage left it free under the control of the twist mechanism already described. Thus on the completion of the twisting with the carriage in the outward position the withholding catch is withdrawn, the backing-off wheel by friction engages I, and through it and the fast-speed rim B reverses the spindles and thus effects " backing-off." The further ” control of the motions must now pass to the mule carriage. () As backing-off takes place the faller-wires must come into action, the shaper-faller-wire sinking to the lowest position required for the stage arrived at in building up the spool and the counter-faller (weighted) rising, thus maintaining a constant tension on the threads or lengths backed-off. The control of this action rests with the tin-roller shaft, the reversing of this (from the headstock as already described) by means of a ratchet * 29

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130 (#184) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING wheel, and pawls and chain, winds the faller-wire to the locking position with the bowl on the copping shaper- rail, and in doing this frees the carriage by lifting the jack - lever for the run - in and also frees the spindles entirely from rim - shaft control. (g) The running-in of the carriage is dependent upon the direct rope drive from the mill shaft driving the grooved pulley shaft F (Fig. 42) as already described, upon which is a bevel driving the upright shaft G which carries the friction shell h and leather - covered bevel or cone. This friction wheel his continually turning but can only act on the drawing - in scroll shaft I, through the friction surface and bevels, when the shell His dropped. Upon being dropped the power direct from the mill shaft turns the three scrolls K (two pulling in and one steady ing) on the scroll shaft, and these draw Fig. 42a.-Side Elevation of Woollen Mule B A 130

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131 (#185) ############################################ WOOLLEN YARN SPINNING in the carriage at the variable speed required, viz. slowly at the start, quickly for centre of traverse, and slowly as the carriage comes to the position for stopping and starting its outward traverse again.* The starting control of this action must obviously come from the faller-wire, the locking of this on to the runner upon the copping shaper-rail withdrawing the “stop which has been holding the shell from contact with the scroll shaft. A rod, not perceptible in the diagrams, also controls shell H, thus preventing running-in if it is desired so to do. (h) The faller-wire traverse, the weighting of the counter faller-wire, and the turning of the spindles during the running-in of the carriage are designed to so control the yarn that if cops are being formed a sound, firm cop is built up, or if weft-bobbins are being employed the yarn is satisfactorily wound upon these. The up-and-down action of the faller-wire is controlled by the copping shaper-rail upon which runs the anti- friction wheel or runner, which is now directly connected with the faller-wire. This copping shaper-rail must be shaped to give, in conjunction with the turning of the spindle, the desired traverse to the thread, and must actually be permanently lowered as the cop is built up higher and higher on the spindle, equally distri- buting the thread from the large circumference of the cop or spool and back quickly to the nose again, or, say, quickly to the bottom and then slowly to the nose. The control of the revolutions of the spindle to build the cop or spool as required is effected by the quad- rant through the chain which is coiled round the drum or scroll connected with the tin-roller shaft. The action A simple harmonic motion is here required, both for smooth running-in of carriage and for the least power-consumption in effecting this running-in. 131

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133 (#187) ############################################ ING WOOLLEN YARN SPINNING kontrol pins of backing-off has freed the tin-roller shaft from rim- wheel control, so that during the run-in of the carriage the spindles would now be standing still but for the quadrant nut n (Fig. 42) not following the inward movement of the carriage and so effecting a turning of the tin-roller shaft through the chain. Thus, in starting a set of cops the quadrant nut n will be at the bottom, and as the carriage comes out all the slack chain will be wound on to the drum specially arranged for it on the tin-roller shaft. On the run-in starting there is so much “lag” of the nut that the chain is very rapidly unwound as the carriage runs in, and the spindles thus are quickly turned to wind up the yarn spun on to their smallest diameters. But as the build- ing up of the cop proceeds the nut-draw by draw is traversed by its screw thread farther and farther up the quadrant to the position seen in Fig. 42, N, thus giving less and less of a retarding action and consequently less and less turning of the spindles; but as the cop is now the full diameter the less number of revolutions to wind up the yarn is just what is required. It will be noticed, however, that the nut N is describing a circular path and gives "harmonic retardation " for the completion of each winding-up, that is when the yarn is coiling upon the bare spindle. To traverse the nut downwards by hand through turning o during a spin tightens up the faller-wire, i.e. tensions the thread through revolving the spindles more; to traverse the nut upwards during the spin slackens the faller- wires, i.e. puts less tension on the threads, through revolving the spindle less. The counter-faller, correctly weighted, would all the time be giving the same tension on the thread, so that it is rather the adjustment of faller-wire to counter faller-wire which is watched and controlled by supplementary turns of o by hand or 133

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134 (#188) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 1:57 2" 2.5' Worsted Mule Woollen Mule WA Fig. 43.-Worsted and Woollen Mule_Spindle Sections 134

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135 (#189) ############################################ NING WOOLLEN YARN SPINNING Jen 55 55 ( 90 90 90 16° 32° 131 131- 131 -0.25 -0.25 -025 1911, 224 192 22 1952 22". (a) (b) (c) Fig. 44.-Spindle Inclination in Mule Spinning 135

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136 (#190) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING ! - 夏​是​這 ​by an automatic controller dependent upon the tension of the threads. The greatest periodic change has now to be effected. 1. The faller-wire has risen above the tops of the spindles, so that the yarn is curved round the spindle to the tips—is in the spinning position; 2. Shell H must be lifted, thus freeing the carriage from inward drag and steadying of scrolls; 3. The carriage must be started out again by the belt being thrown on to the fast pulley 3; 4. The spindles are once more thrown under the control of the rim shaft A; and 5. The delivery of the yarn is again started. The control of all these motions (saving one) is dependent upon the revolution of the cam shaft, which (a) Lifts shell and places it upon the stop, which later will be withdrawn, following the locking of the faller-wire, in time to effect the running-in; (6) Places the already withdrawn backing-off friction wheel c under the indirect control of the double- speed twist mechanism ; (c) Throws the belt from loose pulley 2 to the fast pulley 3, thus restarting the cycle of move- ments. 2. * * The following special points with reference to woollen mules are worthy of careful consideration :- 1. The pitch and inclination of the spindles are varied according to the quality of work, and consequently count of yarn, being spun. The following are the most usual ; 136

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137 (#191) ############################################ WOOLLEN YARN SPINNING Counts Inclination from vertical Pitch Size Bobbin or Cap. 5 skeins to 10 skeins Io skeins to 25 skeins 25 skeins to 50 skeins 12° 14° 3 in. 21 Up to 9 in. long 78 6 > 9 16° 2 Standard conditions indicating the inclination and setting of the spindles for woollen and worsted mules are set out in Fig. 43, and in Fig. 44 the three spindle inclinations of 8°, 16° and 32° to the vertical are shown from which the "slipping over ” and quick periodic “tug” during spindle-drafting following the rotation of the spindle will be realized. 2. The mule should be arranged to spin either from condenser bobbins or from slubbing bobbins, condenser and mule pitch of rollers being the same ; and possibly in some cases a creel for doubling, roving, and re-spinning may be advisable ; 3. Speeding-up may be effected by arranging for three different speeds on the mule ; or if two speeds only are employed the double-speed may be brought into action before the carriage reaches the extremity of its draw; 4. Increased production may be obtained by holding the carriage out at its extreme traverse and delivering additional condensed sliver by brief rotation of the delivery rollers to compensate for the take-up in twisting : 5. Perfect control of the delivery of the condensed sliver throughout the carriage movement in place of the definite delivery and stoppage 137

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138 (#192) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING described in the foregoing pages. By means of a cone arrangement this is effected without the use of change wheels; 6. In the spinning of blends which “bind " quickly a spindle stop motion to stop the spindles until the carriage has gone a short distance away from the rollers is added ; 7. The nosing motion is very important. Improve- ments in this are usually worth consideration, as it is by no means uncommon for yarns to be spoilt by being " nosed” on both the woollen and worsted mules ; 8. A motion for stopping the mule in any desirable position is useful ; 9. Squaring bands and rigid carriage control to ensure perfect spinning should receive careful attention ; 10. The drawing-out scroll design should be in accord- Cance with the variable speed of carriage defined on pp. 118 to 120. The running-in and steady- ing scrolls design should probably partake of a pure harmonic character for both absence of “jar" and economy in power consumption. Reference to mule makers' catalogues usually reveals attachments of which each particular firm has made a speciality. Calculations for Draft, Drafting-Twist and Twist.- These calculations are comparatively simple, and in this brief treatment in their entirety must necessarily be excluded. It will probably be sufficient to note- 1. That the draft is dependent upon the position of the slubbing peg, which disengages the delivery rollers from the power ; 138

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139 (#193) ############################################ WOOLLEN YARN SPINNING 2. That drafting-twist is dependent upon the speed with which the carriage is drawn out (spindles usually running at a constant speed); and this is dependent upon a change-wheel which, without varying the speed of the spindles, varies the speed of the carriage and thus affects the turns per inch during the outward run of the carriage. There is usually a secondary change wheel which- coming after the slubbing peg wheel-may be used alone or in conjunction with the primary change wheel. Thus there are three means of control of drafting-twist, viz. primary change wheel, secondary change wheel primary and secondary change wheels. 3. The time that the double speed is in action decides the final twist given to the yarn. This again is dependent upon the twist-peg already referred to. In many cases twist may be calculated in mule spinning by spindle speed and time; but upon the whole this system is to be condemned-greater accuracy in mule spinning is much needed. 4. Calculation for Production : This is dependent upon three factors (a) Draws of carriage per minute ; (6) Length of draw; and (c) Count of yarn to be spun. Let a = draws of carriage per minute ; 6 length in yards of draw; = counts of yarn spun (yards per dram); then ахбо хъ = lb. per hour calculated (theoretical) pro- 6 X 256 duction per spindle. Example : с Let a = 3 b 70" C = 20 skeins, then 139

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140 (#194) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING = about I 3 x 60 x 70 Ib. per hour per spindle. 20 X 256 X 36 15 For 48 hours per week the calculated production will be :- 48 = 3.2 lb. per week per spindle. 15 :, 1 card turning off 40 lb. per hour for 48 hours per 1920 1920 lb. per week will require = 600 spindles 3.2 per card or a pair of mules per card. A deduction will be made from the mule production for doffing, the percentage reduction gradually decreasing as the fineness of the yarn increases. This matter is fully dealt with in Chapter IV., pp. 147 to 158. week = 140

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141 (#195) ############################################ CHAPTER IV WOOLLEN FRAME SPINNING-TWISTING-WINDING FANCY YARN PRODUCTION Frame Spinning (Woollen).–The small production of a mule, owing to its intermittent action, in comparison with the production of an ordinary continuous spinning frame has drawn the attention of many inventors, but in England it was not until about 1912 that a really successful mechanism was designed. The fundamental difficulty lies in the fact that it is impossible to put permanent twist into a sliver which is held at both ends. Thus between any thinkable delivery rollers and the bobbin upon which the spun yarn is to be wound, it is impossible to put in any permanent twist other than that given by the rotation of the delivery rollers and the sliver they are delivering; or by the rotation of the bobbin carrying the yarn already spun; or by both actions. The bobbin, as the simpler proposition, is rotated in all modern spinning machines. But the twist required for the spun yarn is far too much for the purpose of " drafting-twist," so that any frame in which “ drafting-twist” is required-to allow “spindle- draft to be applied to the condensed sliver--must have at least two distinct twisting actions :- 1. A drafting-twist action combined with the necessary drafting; and 2. A yarn-twist action combined with the winding up of the spun yarn on to the spindle or bobbin. 141

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142 (#196) ############################################ h K Fig. 45.-Célestin Martin Woollen Spinning Frame (one sider only) 142

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142 (#197) ############################################ PLATT BROS & C017. OLDHAM Fig. 46.—Platt's Ring Spinning Frame for Woollen, with stationary Spindle Rails and Lifting Ring Plates. One row of Condenser Bobbins in Greel

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143 (#199) ############################################ WOOLLEN FRAME SPINNING Many attempts have been made to effect (1) during the last fifty years, among which the revolving of the receiving or drafting rollers (made in several forms) and the lifting of the drafting rollers intermittently to allow sufficient twist to run up the thread to the delivery a CONDENSER BOBBIN CONOCKSER DRUM CONDENSER DRUM ORIVIC SWT M SPRINCPIECE FRANINC SPRINCP EDC ly UFTINC SPINOU RAILS STATIONARY RING PLATES AND JOCERT PUM LOOR LINE Fig. 46a.--Sectional Diagram of Platt's Ring Spinning Frame with one row of Condenser Bobbins 7 rollers for drafting-twist, may be cited. The firm of Célestin Martin, of Verviers, at an early period produced a fairly successful frame in which the first or drafting- twist was obtained by a "false-twister" placed between the delivery and the drafting-rollers which inserted the false twist during the traverse of the thread. On emerging from the drafting rollers the twistless drafted 143

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144 (#200) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 1 sliver is twisted and wound on to the receiving bobbin on the Ring principle. The arrangement of this frame is very interesting, and is illustrated in one of its forms in Fig. 45. The best frame of this type, however, has been designed by Messrs. Platt Bros., of Oldham. This is illustrated in Figs. 46 and 46a. "The main drafting action of the machine is effected by two pairs of drafting rollers, as in the many other machines of the type referred to, but the pièce-de- résistance of the machine is the twister tube.” This not only inserts the necessary false “drafting-twist," but by means of two “lugs ” gives the necessary flips” or “ tugs” during the “spindle-drafting,” thus imitating the action of the yarn slipping over the top of the spindle in the mule at every revolution (Fig. 46a at b). The tube is also so designed at its lower extremity that it presents the sliver at this point minus its false twist directly into the nip of the draft rollers, i.e. the drafting- twist is from a to b, as shown in Fig. 46a. The drafting rollers deliver the untwisted sliver to an ordinary ring and traveller attachment whereby the necessary final twist is inserted and the yarn wound on to suitable bobbins or cops. For this frame the slivers should be condensed 20 per cent. finer than for mule spinning, as only a small draft can well be employed. In adjusting draft and twist it is possible to alter (a) delivery, (6) twist, or (c) a and b combined. It is most usual to alter the delivery. It should also be noted that double-spinning (i.e. roving) cannot be employed on this frame, as the necessary twist must be inserted straight away for winding on. Frame yarns are usually less elastic than mule yarns. The machine is made in two forms one with 1 144

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145 (#201) ############################################ WOOLLEN FRAME SPINNING stationary ring-plate and lifting spindle-rail (Fig. 46a), and the other with lifting ring-plate and stationary spindle-rail (Fig. 46). The pitch of spindles and rings is varied from 21 in. to 5 in. to suit the width of con- denser bobbins and the size of cop or bobbin required. Special attention should also be given to the limits and control of the false twist, which must be much less for thick yarns than for thin yarns. The following comparative results from cloths woven from yarns spun on the mule and upon Platt's frame are illuminative and should be carefully studied : Frame Spun Yarn. Mule Spun Yarn: 34 in. 34 in. 30 in. Width in loom Width in grey state Width in finished state Length in loom Length in grey state Length in finished state Weight in grey, state Weight in fin shed state Warp, strength in lb. (6f in. X 7 in.) Warp, elongation in inches Weft, strength in lb. (fin. x 7 in.) Weft, elongation in inches 31} in. / 311 in. 301 in. 20 yd. 20 yd. 151 yd. 17 yd. 151 yd. 161 yd. 78 lb. 64 lb. 65.6 59.9 1•73 7.69 597 50.6 1.85 1.69 73 lb. 63 lb. Note should be made that the cost per spindle of the frame is about three times that of the mule (pre-war rates ros. 6d. and 30s. respectively), but space for space, or spindle for spindle, there are often outweighing advantages for the frame as distinct from the mule. For some classes of woollen yarns the product of this frame is even preferred to that of the mule-yarn for yarn ; but for hosiery and certain special yarns the mule product is better. Before passing on it should perhaps be noted that the K. 145

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146 (#202) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING frame has had much more brains " put into it than would appear on casual inspection. The two "lugs which represent the thickness of the spindle in the mule, (a) 1. (b) (e) (d) (c) Fig. 47.—The Woollen Spring Frame : various forms of Twist Tubes* the position of the twizzle to get a long drafting length with false twist in it, and the delivery from the twizzle to the drafting rollers are all matters involving much thought; experiment, and selection from many alternatives. * See “ Traité pratique de Filature de la Laine Cardée par Priault and Thomas, 146 3

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149 (#205) ############################################ WOOLLEN FRAME SPINNING This frame probably does not represent the last word on this problem, but it represents the most im- portant step taken so far in the solution of the fascinating basic problem here involved. In Fig. 47 other forms of “ twizzle " which have been tried on the Continent are illustrated, The Drury Direct Spinning Frame. This was an attachment to the condenser, and, as a consequence, its output was limited to the output of the card. Briefly it consisted of two endless bands between which twist was supposed to be rubbed into the condensed sliver. A " free-end" was supposed to be obtained by means of a needle-point acting with the rubbing-bands just as the sliver left the rings of the doffer. The yarn pro- duced on this frame, however, was so weak that it was obvious that very little twist was ever inserted. Yarns up to 1,500 yd. to the lb. were said to be satisfactorily produced on this frame. Perhaps the criticism should also be suggested that at the best the product was only a“ twisted condensed sliver” and not a spun thread." Relative Production of Platt's Frame and Mule with Respective Costings. The following calculations and the graphs (Figs. 48 to 51) give the bases of calcula- tion for both productions and costings. For the frame the calculation for production is very simple. If the spindles run at 3,000 revolutions per minute and a twist angle of 25° (2 turns per 1 in. for I skein) be taken as a basis for twist throughout, then the calculation stands :- For i skein (Yorkshire) . 3,000 X 60 2 X 36 X I X 256 per spindle per hour. This calculation is exceedingly simple and will cause no one any trouble. But this is the calculation for I skein only. Apply the principle of exaggeration and 9.76 lb. 149

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150 (#206) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING by this means find the difficulties. What will be the weight produced of 80 skeins ? Careful consideration will reveal three disturbing influences, all of which must be taken into account :- I. As 80 skeins is only fő the weight of I skein length for length, then, even if the length production of the frame be maintained, the weight production will fall in the proportion 1 of : As 80: 1 2. But the length production cannot be maintained as the twist for 80 skeins is 18 (259) as against 2 (25°) for i skein. Therefore, the delivery I . will be reduced (as spindle speed cannot be increased) in this proportion and, as a result, the weight production will again fall in the proportion of: As 18:2 On similar lines to the example given for I skein the lb. per hour for 5, 10, 20 and 80 skeins, also taking into account the relative twist, are plotted in Fig. 48 (a). 3. The third factor is still more difficult to tackle- the doffing time allowance varies in proportion to the skeins spun. Thus if each bobbin holds $ of 1 lb., then I doffing of i skein will take 256 X 1 X •125 X 36 X 2 •77 of a minute 3000 to spin. Now if 15 minutes be taken as doffing time the basis of calculation stands :- Time for spinning i skein •77 min. (T) Time for doffing I skein 15.00 min. (DT) 15•77 mins. Time for spinning I set of 1 skein Thus the theoretical calculated production of the frame will have to be considerably reduced, as follows :: 150

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151 (#207) ############################################ WOOLLEN FRAME SPINNING 1 1 - I skein : 3000 x 60 2 X 36 X I X 256 9.76 lb. per spindle per hour theoretical production of i skein. Then to allow for doffing :- As (15 + •77): 77:: 9.7 : x= .474 lb. per spindle per hour actual production of i skein. Now take the 80 skeins and deal with it in the same way. Thus if each bobbin holds f of 1 lb., then I doffing of 80 skeins will take 553 minutes to spin. Now if 15 minutes be taken as the doffing time the basis of the calculation stands :- Time for spinning 80 skeins 553 mins. (T) Time for doffing 80 skeins 15.0 mins. (DT) Time for doffing I set of 80 skeins 568.0 mins. Thus the theoretical calculated production of the frame will have to be reduced as follows :: 80 skeins : 3000 x 60 18 x 36 x 80 x 256 = .0135 lb. per spindle per hour theoretical production for 80 skeins with 18 turns per i in. Then to allow for doffing As (15 + 553) : 553 :: .0135: *=. 0131 lb. per spindle per hour actual production of 80 skeins. On similar lines the calculations for 5, 10, 20 and 40 skeins have been worked out and the results plotted (Fig. 48 (b)). It will be noticed that in the last calcula- tion all three factors-skeins, twist and time for doffing ---affecting output are taken into account. Two minor factors—waste and accidental stoppage or slower running-are ignored. For the mule the calculation is based upon three draws per minute, the draw being 2 yards (72 in. from tip of spindle, “in” to tip of spindle, “out" after the slight draw-in "_jacking-up). The method of pro- 1 151

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152 (#208) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING cedure here will be exactly the same as for the frame, based upon i skein, viz. : – 1. Calculate theoretical production ; 2. Reduce (or increase) production according to the skeins change ; 3. Reduce (or increase) production according to the twist change ; 4. Modify results 2 and 3 combined according to the relative times of actual spinning and doffing for the respective counts and twist. 1. For I skein (Yorkshire) 3 X 2 X 60 I skein x 256 = 1.4 lb. per hour per spindle. 2. On similar lines the calculations for 5, 10, 20, 40 and 80 skeins have been worked out for skeins change only, and the results plotted (Fig. 49 (a)). 3. But this is on the supposition that the extra twist required for the increasingly fine skeins can be obtained by extra spindle-speed, and this is only so up to about 20 skeins, when owing to the limit of spindle- speed having been reached the carriage must remain out longer during the "double-speed ” period. To illustrate the influence of twist only the following calculations are made on the supposition that in spinning i skein the spindles are running at their maximum speed with the carriage making 3 draws per minute :- For 1 skein (Yorkshire) 3 X 2 X 60 = I'4 lb. per hour 256 per spindle. For 5 skeins (Yorkshire) 3 X 2 x 60 x 2 (turns per i in. for 1 skein) = .62*lb. 256 x 45 (turns per i in. for 5 skeins) per hour. * Not strictly correct because spindle-speed is not effective during the running-in of the carriage. Thus if the time taken is t of a period for outward-draw and 7 of a period for inward-run, then t of 45 2 152

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153 (#209) ############################################ WOOLLEN FRAME SPINNING lb. per On similar lines the calculations for 10, 20, 40 and 80 skeins twists have been worked out and the results plotted (Fig. 49 (b)). But this is on the supposition that I skein is being spun throughout and the delivery of the sliver retarded to enable the spindles, running at a con- stant speed, to put in the twist. Thus in putting in the standard twist and also calculating for 80 skeins the draws per minute will be : .0019 hour x 80 sk. X 256 60 minutes x 2 yd. per draw ='324 draws per minute. An attempt may now be made to include both skein changes and twist changes, and instead of taking I skein as a basis (as in a and b) 20 skeins is taken as the basis. Thus : For 20 skeins (Yorkshire) 3х2х бо ху* = .0703 lb. per hr. 20 X 256 x 9 For 10 skeins (Yorkshire) 3 x2 x бо х9 •1950 lb. per 10 X 256 X 6.5 hour. For 40 skeins (Yorkshire) 3 х 2 х бо х9 = .0244 lb. per 40 X 256 X 13 hour. Thus less twist tends to increase output and more twist to decrease output. On similar lines the calculations are made and the results graphed for 5 skeins to 80 skeins and graphed in 5 Fig. 50 (a). For i skein under these conditions the mule would be making - 6.3 X I X 256 = 13:44 draws per minute. 2 X 60 will represent the twist influence. But, again, drafting-speed and double-speed of spindles may also be taken into account. These complexities perhaps explain why there is a tendency to control mule spinning by time-calculations." * The-spindle speed here 1944 revs. per minute. It is thus obvious that the speed of the carriage and not the revs. of the spindles is here the limiting factor. 9) 153

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154 (#210) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 4 1 For 80 skeins under these conditions the mule would be making :- ·00863 x 80 x 256 = 1:54 draws per minute. 2 xбо These conditions are, of course, unthinkable. But these several methods of calculation and the results plotted in Figs. 48 to 51 will serve as a useful basis for exploration into problems of this type. 4. The more perplexing matter must now be con- sidered of the effect on output of the doffing-for as costs of running will usually be a fixed charge, the cost per lb. of spinning any yarn skeins will depend upon the weight-time” calculation, which should now be worked out on the following lines :- (a) Take the time necessary to doff one set (DT); (6) Calculate the time necessary to spin one set (T); (c) Calculate the output per hour by carefully considering the relationships of (a) and (b); thus :- (a) By actually timing a mule it is found that it takes 8 minutes to doff* (say 300 spindles). (b) Taking 20 skeins as an example, with '125 lb. per bobbin, the time taken to spin one set will be •125 X 20 X 256 = 106 minutes for spinning 1 set. 3 X 2 (c) The time (spinning and doffing) taken to spin I set (i.e. '125 lb. per spindle) will be :- * Approximately 60 per cent. of this time is for spindle - doffing and 40 per cent. for condenser-bobbin changing. If desirable, the two terms may be treated separately, but an addition of 66.6 to the spindle-doffing time is usually sufficiently near to the actuality for all practical purposes. In these calculations the two terms are this combined. 154

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155 (#211) ############################################ WOOLLEN FRAME SPINNING Time for spinning 1 set = 106 mins. (T) Time for doffing and changing condenser bobbins 8 mins. (D T) Time for spinning and doffing I set = 114 mins. LE and the production per hour will be :- As 114: 60 : : •125 lb. : x lb. :.066 lb. per hour per spindle for 20 skeins. or •066 X 300 19.8 lb. per 300 spindles per hour, or 19.8 X 48 950 lb. of 20 skeins per 48 hours. The calculation for obtaining the output per hour per spindle for any skeins may now be readily thought out and reduced to the following rule :- Let S Skeins to be spun; Let P = Production (theoretical) of frame or mule for S skeins in lbs. per hour per spindle ; . Let DT Doffing-time in minutes for 1 set ; Let T Time in minutes for spinning I set of skeins given. Then Px T DT + 1 = Actual lbs. production of S skeins per spindle Ꭰ + Ꭲ per hr. = 20 Example 1 : Let S 3 x 2 x 60 Then P = 20 X 256 0703 lb. per spindle per hour of 20 skeins (theoretical production). Let DT = 8. Then I =- •125 x 20 x 256 = 106 minutes for spinning 3 X 2 I set of 20 skeins. Then *0703 X 106 (8 + 106) = .066 lb. per spindle per hour of eo skeins (actual production). 155

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156 (#212) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING . Example 2: Let S 40 3 X 2 X 60 Then P = = '0352 lb. per spindle per hour 40 x 256 of 40 skeins (theoretical production). Let DT = 9 Let T = 212 Then *0352 X 212 = '0339 lb. per spindle per hour of 40 skeins 9 + 212 (actual production). It should be noted, however, that this formula does not take into account the additional time taken owing to the additional twist. Thus it would probably stand :- Example 2a : S = 40 skeins 3 х 2 х бо х9 Р 40 X 256 X 13 = .0243 lb. per spindle per hour of 40 skeins. DT - 9 T Then .0244 +.212 = .023 lb. per spindle per hour for 40 skeins. 9 + 212 Such allowances as these, however, may be readily taken from actual practice and employed in the formula as shown. In Fig. 50 (b) the graph on this basis, based on Fig. 49 (a) but with doffing time taken into account and with no variation in production for varying twist, is given from I skein to 80 skeins. = 212 Having defined a method of obtaining the lbs. per hour per spindle, the spinning cost per lb. may now be readily ascertained. The requirements here are : (a) Total wages paid-say per week. 156

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157 (#213) ############################################ WOOLLEN FRAME SPINNING (6) Output per week according to the skeins or other varying conditions, The frame may again be taken first as offering the most precise factors in the costing. If a spinner be required for 10 frame and two pieceners be required per frame of 300 spindles at the following rates : £ s. d. 1/10 spinner at £6 o o per week 2 pieceners at £I 10 o each per week 3 I2 O O 0 0 * £3 12 or 864d. wages per frame of 300 spindles per week. Then in frame spinning the cost per lb. of material will be : For I skein (Yorkshire) 864d. (per week wages) = 0·128d. per lb. ·474* x 47'5 300 (= lb. per week output) On similar lines the calculations for 5, 10, 20, 40 and 80 skeins have been worked out and the results plotted (Fig. 51 (a)). For a pair of mules the calculation stands :- £ s. d. Overlooker and minders at £6 o o per week (average) 6 pieceners at 41 10 0 per week (average). 3 0 O o 0 O o 9 0 or 2160d. wages per pair of mules each 300 spindles per week. Then taking the mule production table based on 20 skeins, the cost per lb. of material will be :: For 20 skeins (Yorkshire) 2160d. wages per week .88d. per lb. 0703.+ x 47.5 X 600(= lb. per week output) * Fig. 48 (b). † Fig. 50 (a). 157

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158 (#214) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING Below 20 skeins the increase in output will be affected by : (a) Increase in thickness of the yarn spun (increased output); (6) Increased proportion of time taken in more frequent doffing (decreased output). Above 20 skeins the decrease in output will be affected by :- (a) Decrease in thickness of the yarn spun (decreased output); (6) Increased twist necessary (decreased output); (c) Proportion of time taken in less frequent doffing (increased relative output). The calculations for 5, 10, 20, 40 and 80 skeins are graphed in Fig. 51 (b). The most practical frame and mule output curves should be plotted together to give a good idea of relative production. The production of the mule will also vary :- (a) in proportion to the number of spindles; (6) length of draw; and (c) several varying influences affecting its number of draws per minute. These matters, however, will usually be readily allowed for and the necessary data obtained with the necessary accuracy for each particular blend. * 本 ​The Folding or Twisting of Woollen Yarns. The principles involved in twisting are fully dealt with in Chapter XII (p. 289), but special reference to the limita- tions of folding or twisting in the case of woollen yarn is here called for. The problem involved may best be considered in list form under the headings " in favour of” and “ against.” 158

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159 (#215) ############################################ TWISTING sible; In favour of folding. Against folding. (for single) (for two-fold) 1. Yarn strengthened ; Finer material usually re- quired for spinning single yarn ; 2. Yarn softer spun; More time for spinning and twisting required ; 3. Several colour effects pos- Bursting of thread in finish- ing possibly limited ; 4. Special twisting and varied Special effects such as ran- natural effects possible. dom-most effective for single threads. The strength of woollen yarns is a dominant factor, a twist angle of 20° to 25° giving the best result. In the case of a single yarn-say 30 skeins--this angle will be attained by about 12 turns per inch. If a 2/60 skeins is to be produced, equalling a 30 skeins, then a material capable of being spun to 64 skeins must be employed, and to spin this with an angle of 25° it will be necessary to put in 16 turns per inch. This markedly increases the time taken in spinning, so that not only is there a loss because for the same length of 64 skeins spun only half the weight of material is treated, but there is an additional loss in production due to the additional twist to be inserted. Then on the top of this there is the twisting of the 64-skeins yarn into two-fold 60 skeins- say on a ring frame-with the most suitable turns per inch (see p. 144). Small wonder, then, that few two-fold woollen yarns are employed in any section of the industry. It may seem strange to suggest that a two-fold yarn may be softer than a single yarn ; but that such often is the case will be realized by studying the principles of twisting demonstrated in Chapter XII. Special colour effects-say black and white, brown and white; diamond three-fold twist in brown and white, etc.; and special material effects-say merino and 159

[[227, 228, "Textile Machine"]]