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287 (#375) ############################################ 7 Ring Spinners 160 $pl PA Pito Louretu House 8 Worsted Mules 70g Spli 63'$tretch 96f long PARTITION Rins Spinners 160 spl . 134" Pitch mon Ring Spinners 160 Sp. 344" Pitch Storage Space Mechanics Storage Room Shop for Yarns Storage Bins Store Room for Yarns PUSASHIO ROVER 24 HEADS 48 HOPNS FINISHING ROVER 24 HEADS 48 POBBINS FINISHING ROVER 29 JADS 49 OBLINS KUVING Le HEADS 3 HOBBIN ROWING 11 HEABS. ROERMS Top&Roving Start Room for French TDrawing Material Krop & Roving Store Room for French Drawing Material Gill Bax FINISHING ROVER 124 HEADS 15 BOBRINJ FICESLIING ROVER 24 HEADS 48 BORBLYS FINISHING ROVER 24 HEADS ta BOBRIS ROVING 18 HEADS 5 BOBBIKS. ROVING 18 HEADS 36 BOBBINS ISTERIFDINE LLLADS 36 POBUNS TIST INTERMEDIATE he HEADS 36 BOBPINS SLUBBING LB HEADS 36 BOBSTUS KEDUCING 18 HEADS 36 BORBINS 35 DROG his ADS I BOBBINS Gill Box 36 203 Gill Bux Gill Box KTIEWING HEADS SORTS LETRAWING 850 8 BOBBINS SLOUBTIG 18 HEADS 36 BOBBINS. REDUCING 18 HEADS 36 POBBITS DRAWING SIRADS TOBABD/ 2. DAVIMO HEADS 50BWINS PARTITION J2 DRAWING 8 BEADS A BOHINS 168 fy ID TAL IFNOTH rt AREA 38,592 San BREADTS 181 Fig. 83.—Plan illustrating French Drawing with Ring and Mule Spinning Plants Note.--Each of these two sets will approximately produce 5,000 lbs. per week of 48 hours. The two plants are divided off in order that one may be employed for whites and the other for colours. 287

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288 (#376) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING Meagre as the foregoing particulars are they will serve as types from which the manager may start upon an exploration into the many fascinating points dealt with in this chapter. In Fig. 82 a typical English spinning shed is illus- trated. This plan and the arrangements of the machines should be very carefully studied as typical. Many most important points are here illustrated which cannot be referred to at length in the text. In Fig. 83 a shed equipped with French drawing and half ring and half mule spinning is shown. The details of the drawing machines are continued in the table on the previous page. 288

[[102, 103, "Textile Machine"]]

292 (#380) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING » twist of such a diagram as Fig. 84, specially designed by Mr. King, of the Bradford Technical College. This judgment may be aided by the following recorded experiments : (a) Lustre yarn twists—5° to 12°. (6) Hosiery worsted twists—12° to 15º. (c) Normal worsted and soft woollen twists- 15° to 20° (d) Normal woollen twists—20° to 25°. (e) Twist for greatest strength—221° to 25°. () Twist for voiles, crépons, etc.-30° to 45°. 2. Insight as to the effect upon the fibre angle of the folding twist inserted. Thus, as shown in Fig. 85, there are six possibilities in twisting twofold yarns, of which the most important are :- (a) Converse twist-usually “ balanced in which the twofolding just balances the single twist, the result being that this yarn comes directly from the spinning frame in a straight, non-kinking state ; (6) Straight fibre twist — in which the two- folding twist just neutralizes the single twist, bringing the fibres longitudinally in the thread. This appears to be the best all- round twist, and is suitable not only for worsted yarns, but also for thick ropes and wire cables ; (c) Concurrent twist-in which the twofolding twist more than neutralizes the single twist , both fibre angle and twist angle being in the same direction. These three twists may be defined numerically as follows:-- 292

[[140, 141, "Textile Machine"]]

294 (#385) ############################################ TWISTING THEORIES AND PRACTICE Example: A 1/16's yarn is to be twisted into a 4/16's hosiery yarn. Find the single and fourfold twist. (1) 15° hosiery angle gives 8 turns per inch single; and (2) balanced twist gives 2 turns per inch for the folded yarn. The experimental yarn spinner should experiment with yarns in which the twofold twist much exceeds the single twist. Special twist effects—at comparatively little cost-are thus produced. The relative costs of producing the various types of single and twist yarns should also be worked out and graphed. Actual examples of the four types of twist yarns graphically illustrated in Fig. 86 are given in Fig. 87. In Fig. 88 a nomogram designed by Dr. Brodetsky, of the University of Leeds, is given, the use of which is so much in evidence that it need not here be described. All calculations relating to twist angles and turns per inch can be solved by merely placing a straight-edge correctly on this graph. It may be asked—Is there no variation in twist to be made for quality or for any other variable condition ? The answer is-Probably. But the foregoing par- ticulars are so satisfactory in the results they give that it will take a very clever spinner or cloth constructor to improve upon them within ordinary count limits.* It will be found that they act as a wonderful key to almost all twist problems; the few cases they do not cover being quite insignificant. Similarly the principles here enumerated so dominate everything else that they may be taken equally to apply to flyer, cap, ring or mule twisting. * For abnormally low and abnormally high counts there is probably a factor which has not yet been isolated nor taken into account: 295

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307 (#399) ############################################ 1 CHAPTER XIII PROCESSES SUBSEQUENT TO TWISTING deco THE yarns spun may be required for the following purposes - I. For warp ; 2. For weft ; 3. For hosiery or knitting machines ; 4. For export; 5. For dyeing. The various points involved in each of the foregoing requirements are worthy of careful consideration. 1. For Warp.-Yarns for warps may be delivered in the following forms :- (a) On double-headed bobbins ; (6) On cheeses ; (c) In chain form-sized or unsized ; (d) On the loom beam or American “spool”-sized or unsized. The double-headed bobbin-save when the yarn may be warped directly from the bobbin upon which it has been spun or twisted-is a thing of the past, the cheese having almost entirely taken its place. Warps should be made from cheeses, each of the same build, and containing the same number of yards, thus ensuring all running off together and regular tension throughout. Under no circumstances should cheeses be ditioned.” Defects arising from such conditioning are innumerable. They may be hidden as warp but will cer- tainly show as weft. Far better invoice the additional con- 307

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308 (#400) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 重 ​percentage of water which is allowable under trade regu- lations. No irregular exposure of cheeses even to sun- light should be possible under any conditions whatever. If the yarn is to be delivered in chain form it may be "chained ” direct from one of the warping systems; or it may be first sized full width and then “ chained ”; or it may be “chained ” and then sized, and dried in as opened a state as possible. Under any circumstances the definition of warping should be borne in mind, viz, a definite number of threads, each at the same ten- sion, in a definite order, and of a definite length. If sized there will be the additional condition-regularly sized with an efficient agent and each thread separated from its neighbour. If yarns are to be delivered on the loom beam all the foregoing particulars may be desired with the additional conditions “ dressed to the required width, regularly wound and tightly tensioned on to the loom beam with equal tension from list to list” and with an end and end lease for drawing or twisting-in purposes. 2. For Weft.Some yarns are so delicate that they will not stand winding ; these must be spun on to spools, paper tubes, or cannettes, such fitting perfectly the shuttles of the looms which must weave them. If, however, yarns will stand winding, it may pay to wind, as irregularities may be taken out and the yarn from about three spinning spools wound on to one shuttle spool - thus markedly reducing the loom stoppages and increasing the weaving efficiency. Under any circumstances care must be taken never to mix wound and unwound spools, there is a " direction of the fibre on every yarn, and to weave alternate spools- wound and unwound—will inevitably result in a “ weft- barred " unsaleable piece. There are two reasons for winding which should not be overlooked. In woollen 308

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309 (#401) ############################################ RSTED SPOT PROGESSES SUBSEQUENT TO TWISTING mable anderen ci che ci 5 conditions in chaic his sodale be borne B ch at the e dennite hain rian- e loom de sired rig spinning, for example, it may be desirable to wind warp or weft into cop form, thus saving the changing of the shaper-rail, etc., on the mule as between warp and weft, and also saving tare. Again, the question of winding or not may depend upon the type of loom -or rather upon the type of “pick" and the length of shuttle-box. With a hard pick and a short shuttle- box it is impossible to prevent softly wound spools from “sluffing," i.e. the yarn shooting off the end of the bobbin as the shuttle is brought too suddenly to rest. This difficulty, however, would not arise with good spinning, a slinging ” pick, and a long shuttle-box and checking arrangement to bring the shuttle slowly to rest. 3. For Hosiery or Knitting Machines.—Tests carried out to decide the relative merits of the different systems of drawing and spinning for hosiery yarns have shown- (a) that there does seem to be an advantage of fullness in French or twistless drawing; and (6) that there is little or no difference between mule, flyer (special construction) and ring spinning. Yet hosiery manufacturers still incline to the mule- spun yarn. The probable reasons for this are- (1) Less loss in oil, the yarns being “dry" spun. (2) Sometimes more perfect workmanship, and (3) A greater length spun without a joining. The dire results of knots, slubs and bad places in yarn during the actual knitting operation need not be elaborated upon—they are self-evident. It will, there- fore, pay the hosiery yarn spinner to spin his yarns as perfectly as possible, and then to wind on to the conical- shaped cheese of large diameter so strongly favoured in the hosiery industry. Many hosiery manufacturers regard the perfect building up of the cheeses they use on to > ale Hoon . me. army 404 L. 309

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310 (#402) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 1 of so much importance that they prefer to do this winding themselves, and plants are often arranged with balanced sets of winding and knitting machines alongside one another. But under any circumstances the hosiery spinner will do well to bear in mind the difficulties of knitting, and to supply the hosiery manu- facturer with the most perfectly spun and wound yarn possible. 4. For Export.—The fundamental problem here is the tare” account. The many costs incident upon exporting yarns on bobbins or spools practically rule out these methods of delivery. For the home trade the “Spool Counting by Weighing" machine of Messrs. Avery and Co., is strongly to be commended. The idea is to place the skep, paper, etc., on the platform of the machine and balance (recording the weight); then to fill the skep with spools and weigh these spools by making ten or twenty representative spools as the unit for weighing, the pointer indicating the number of spools in the skep. Fig. 91 is an illustration of this type of machine. While not quite as accurate as counting,” it is much more accurate than any es- timating,” even by experienced hands. Practically all the export trade is done in yarns directly spun on to paper tubes, or wound on to cheeses or in hank form. Again conditioning should be avoided if at all possible. 5. For Dyeing.–Yarns may be dyed on the following methods : (a) Hank dyeing; (6) Warp dyeing; (c) Cop dyeing; and (d) Cheese dyeing. For hank dyeing the yarn must be reeled into hanks 9 ( 310

[[103, 107, "Textile Machine"]]

310 (#403) ############################################ Fig. 91. – Avery's Spool Counting by Weighing Machine

[[6, 11, "Textile Machine"]]

310 (#404) ############################################ Fig. 92. -Pirn Winder

[[6, 6, "Textile Machine"]]

311 (#405) ############################################ PROCESSES SUBSEQUENT TO TWISTING of suitable size and dyed in the machine specially designed for this purpose. Great care must be taken to avoid " ending" of the hanks or any other irregu- larity. Warp dyeing is usually effected by running the warp in chain form through the dyeing liquor. Great care is necessary to dye "head" and "tail ” alike. Some- ” times such warps are re-wound and woven as wefts. Under these circumstances it may be well to make the warp of the length, required for one thread to wind on to one spool, and to double the warp back one or more times in chaining, so that the beginning and the end form a given spool come from, say, the head end of the warp, and will then show no precise break or difference such as might be anticipated by head and tail coming together in the cloth. These yarns should always be “” weft-mixed " in weaving. Cop and cheese dyeing are now reasonably perfectly effected by machines in which the dyeing liquor is pumped through the cops or cheeses, which are held on perforated or spiral supports, first in one direction and then in the other direction. There is a great advantage in cop and cheese dyeing as compared with hank dyeing—the yarns need not be re-wound and the thread structure is not disintegrated. Again, no pains should be spared to render dyeing- whatever form may be adopted-as perfect as possible. Machinery to be Employed. - The only two . machines which should here claim attention are 1. The cheese winder; and 2. The spooler or weft-pirn winder. The cheese winder is illustrated in Fig. 93. It is placed on the market in a simple form known as the “split-drum winder,” and in a more complex form known as the Leeson or International winder (for 311

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312 (#406) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING . J&T BOYD LIA GLASCOW Fig. 93.-Cheese Winder-split-drum type 312

[[14, 15, "Textile Machine"]]

313 (#407) ############################################ CED PROCESSES SUBSEQUENT TO TWISTING 66 come ) cheeses). In the former case the split in the drum serves as the guide for the thread on to the cheese ; in the latter case there is a specially constructed guide which receives the thread — accurately tensioned—and directs it on to the revolving spindle or cheese. In both cases the possibility of the traversing guide concentrating the twist in the yarn in one direction and taking it out in the other direction must be guarded against- especially if the yarn is at all likely to be "set" in the cheese form. There are two types of pirn winders on the market. The Universal winder is representative of the first type, in which the pirn and spindle have a simple movement of rotation, the thread guide moving to direct the thread in controlling the building up of a firm, solid pirn. In the second type the pirn and spindle have not only a movement of rotation but a and go” movement to distribute the thread to ensure the building up of a firm, solid spool, the thread guide being stationary. In view of the tension of the thread being the dominant difficulty, the latter type of machine is worthy of careful consideration although the Universal winder type (Fig. 92) is so excellent that there is usually little to choose between the two. For particulars of the various warping, sizing, dressing and beaming machines, readers are referred to the standard books on these machines. Scouring and Setting Yarns.-Yarns are frequently scoured in the hank state. To effect this, the hanks must be securely held between two traversing tapes which carry them into and through the scouring bath- in which there are usually one or two “nips ”—but do not prevent the scouring liquor thoroughly cleaning them without felting or entanglement. The normal type 313

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316 (#410) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING 1 (a) To stretch the yarn as far as it can be stretched, or is likely to be stretched in the subsequent manufacturing processes; and (6) To boil the yarn in this stretched state to take out the marked irregular strains usually present, and also to dry in this stretched form. Why boiling takes out the strains and why they come in again on additional tension being applied is obviously a fascinating physical problem for research. It is evident that the drying time and temperature should be carefully taken cognizance of. Recent researches have suggested that the presence or absence of a medulla and the relative proportions of cuticle and cortex must also be taken into account. The physical behaviour of wool fibres appears, at least in part, to depend upon internal structure. Lustre also depends, in part, upon internal structure- hence the importance of the work at present being undertaken by Professor Cossar Ewart, F.R.S., of Edinburgh University. As shown in Chapter XII., p. 292, it is possible to so balance single twist and twofolding twist that a limp non-kinking yarn is directly taken off the spinning frame. How far such a yarn will serve the purpose of a “set” yarn is worth considering. It may а. also be well to consider which type of twofold twist --balanced, straight-fibre, or square-twist-best lends itself to “setting on the lines described above. But under any circumstances irregular fibre strains, fibre curvature and twist curvature must be taken into account, especially in cross-breds, in which materials irregularities are much in evidence. Certain hosiery fabrics are made unshrinkable by 316

[[194, 195, "Textile Machine"]]

318 (#412) ############################################ CHAPTER XIV THE TESTING OF WOOLS, TOPS AND YARNS, AND EXPERIMENTAL TESTING APPARATUS It is now generally recognized that even the smallest firm should have a small testing laboratory—that all materials should be compared with their standards— and that the productions of any and every firm should go forth accredited under reasonably guaranteed con- ditions. One mistake has often cost a firm many times over the cost of the equipment and maintenance of a suitable laboratory. The following equipment is essential :- 1. Microscope with 2 in., 1 in., and 3 in. objectives, with substage and eyepiece micrometer. 2. Experimental equipment for scouring, carbon- izing, blueing, bleaching, etc. 3. Hand carder (or small experimental set of draw- ing machines followed by knitting machine) for testing colour blends, etc. Lovibond's Tintometer would of course be an admirable addition for a coloured yarn spinner. 4. Conditioning oven. 5. Velvet-covered boards for top drawing. 6. Single thread strength-tester to grasp threads with little or no space in between and up to a short weaving length, say 18 in. 318

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318 (#413) ############################################ TV S AND TE APPARATUS CLOTH A B ***** THREAD at even the s laborator-t th their stari ad every fimi Sly guarante t a firm many nd maintenar ving equipaci nd f in. objet micrometer Fig. 95.-Extension Testing Machine scouring , at C. ental set at knitting mata etc. Lonika be an admin pinner. rawing grasp threat reen and in.

[[41, 42, "Textile Machine"]]

319 (#415) ############################################ TESTING OF WOOLS, TOPS AND YARNS 7. Hank strength tester. * 8. Twist tester for short lengths. 9. Twist tester for long lengths. Io. Yarn examining machine with black and white cards for winding yarns on to; and II. Fine balances for accurate weighing. • SPUN.SILK AND - MERCOCOTTON • WOOLLEN Toz. -15oz: N 32 ELONCATION ELONGATION ARTIFICIAL SILK, •WORSTED: -12%202 7 (29/00 275 446 STRENGTH STRENGTH Fig. 97.-Graphs produced upon Neate's Extensometer” 66 A more elaborate equipment would contain :- (a) Photo-micrographic apparatus ; (6) Special microscopic attachments including polar- izer and analyser ; * In the cotton trade the standard Lea tests are 1800 · lbs. for Ring Warp; Counts Ібоо lbs. for Mule Warp; Counts and 1350 lbs. for Mule Weft Counts 319

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320 (#416) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING (c) The Schlumberger or Société Alsacienne or Dr. Ball's Top Analyser ; (d) Barker's Extension Tester; (e) Heal's Yarn Examiner ; ( Neate's Extensometer ; and (g) Special apparatus for knitting and weaving yarns to test the qualities and perfections or imperfections. In addition to the foregoing machines, etc., many modifications of these machines and some specially designed machines will certainly be required. Two of the most recently developed testing machines are illustrated in Figs. 95 and 96. In Fig. 95 Barker's Extension Testing machine is illustrated. This machine enables the cloth constructor with accuracy to work back from the finished cloth to the cloth in the loom with certainty in practically all cases saving that of heavily milled goods. Tensions or threads may also be accurately investigated. In Figs. 96 and 97 Neate's Extensometer and its graphs are illustrated. This machine gives the stress- strain diagram for yarns tested a single thread at a time. The characteristic curves for typical yarns as revealed by this machine are exceedingly interesting ; several examples are here given. This equipment should be satisfactorily housed and supplemented by a series of charts of the nomogram type posted up for convenient use. A perfect system of recording should be adopted. Systematic work in the testing laboratory will develop that confidence in the firm's productions which, in the long run, means con- tinued and increasing success in the factory itself. Suitable plans for small laboratories are given in Figs. 98 and 98a. 320

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321 (#417) ############################################ STED SPIN F - ! été Aluca Microscopy Benches 2- 94 high, fitted with drawers. Barkers Extension Tester Impact Testing Machine Desk Peess Balance Twist Testar O STE al ras threats tipata . 宮​島 ​Window w12d0w Window Vndow Balance Balance Office B26 Singe read Testep Tester xpanding Wrap Twist Testing Machine Swift Reel Hank an2 Card Balance Real Fig storests Machine Ivast Testing Mannine Machine for Testing the Wearing Qualities O Cloch's French Choth Testing Machine Fibre/Thread Testing Machine GAD Box Table for Extra Instruments Small Carding Engine for Storage Special Pattern Casss Goodbrand's Cloth Testing Machine Hank Testar Hans Tester Motor Single thread Tester Heads Testing Lachana 66 Fig. 98.—“Dry” Testing Laboratory < 321

[[18, 20, "Textile Machine"]]

322 (#418) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING The advantages of such laboratories and organi- zation actually in the works—if properly conducted -can hardly be over-stated. With a well-trained, - imaginative recorder or staff, problems of great value Window 8.6 wice 3.0 Window Fume Chamber Table with ground glass panel Per ching Roller Glass Panel Sink Tourimu LO Perching Poler Drsrca Scouring Table Conditioning Oven Sinh Felcing Shelves forces. Bottles etc. Machine Oven Pan OO Sink Shafting Klectricity Fig. 98a.--"Wet” Testing Laboratory will be found and solved which otherwise would be passed over unnoticed. Nothing can compensate in the case of even a small firm for the lack of at least one "research mind” ransacking among the several processes for possible gold mines. At least some 322

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323 (#419) ############################################ TED MY TESTING OF WOOLS, TOPS AND YARNS copper mine may be found and the gold mine is more than likely to be discovered occasionally. Perhaps it should here be noted that the introduc- tion of the laboratory into the works will immediately bring up the system of weights and measures to be employed. If the laboratory is working in Centigrade and the works in Fahrenheit, for example, serious mistakes are inevitable. ** * * * * Tags The laboratory should under no circumstances be limited to normal chemical and physical testing. Im- portant as this testing is, it is not nearly so important as much of the testing as yet only at its birth in which the technologist is at least as important as the scientist. The Textile Industries have much more need of the adoption of scientific methods throughout all the pro- cesses of manufacture than of particular scientific knowledge. No detailed reference can be made here to the equipment of a mechanical laboratory, but hardly second to the above equipment comes that of such a laboratory. A worsted drawer should investigate his tops and their resultant yarns ; a spinner should consider his rovings; and a manufacturer should require specific yarns, and his spinner deliver these to him. In addition it should be possible to adjust the finer parts of machines and to carry out experimental variations. »0» 7 unkt UUTA 323

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324 (#420) ############################################ CHAPTER XV DEFECTS IN RAW MATERIALS, TOPS AND YARNS DEFECTS in textile materials may be due to (a) The materials employed ; (6) The machines employed; and (c) The workers. In the following treatment the commoner defects coming under each of the above headings are briefly referred to. (a) The Materials Employed :- I. Lack of lustre due to the employment of a demi-lustre wool in place of a lustre wool; or of a lustre wool and mohair yarn in place of a pure mohair yarn. 2. Lack of strength due to the employment of wool with a weak staple. One year all the wool in Yorkshire had a weak place about half-way down the staple. 3. Lack of felting or milling property. Certain Cape and other wools markedly lack milling property. Fibres such as the Ovibos fibre lack this altogether. 4. Lack of fullness or "lift.” English wools “ are markedly different from Colonial cross- breds in this respect. Peruvian wools grown at a great height (14,000 ft.) tend to develop the English Down characteristic, -- - 324

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325 (#421) ############################################ DEFECTS IN RAW MATERIALS e due mm 1 5. Lack of whiteness and brightness. Certain wools are very liable to black hair and coloured fibre. Snow-white Cape wools cannot be matched by certain other wools inferior in colour. Among English wools Lonks are noticeable for whiteness. (6) The Machines Employed :- I. A clear, neat “flyer-spun yarn cannot usually be matched with a cap or ring-spun yarn. 2. A French-drawn roving cannot be satisfac- torily matched by an English-drawn roving. 3. Irregularly driven spinning frames will yield yarns irregularly drafted and twisted, and of abnormally irregular strength. 4. Defective rollers will produce defective yarns. 5. Unsatisfactory drive from tin-drum to spindles, or in the mule from rim shaft to tin-drum, will produce irregular twist. 6. Any regularly repeating defect--whether in thickness or twist, or in irregular mixing or in irregular dye-taking—will be more or less emphasized in the fabric according to the relationship between the length of the defect in the yarn and the width of the piece into which the yarn is woven. 7. Any irregularly repeating defect such as may vary in repeat according to the emptying or filling of a bobbin or cheese should be avoided. (c) The Workers :- 1. Inefficient mixing of colours due to lack of forethought on the part of either the manager or of the workers is fairly frequently mulje a lista I T2TE: mphyrcze 3. /2278 pard س : landet TANIN 站 ​325

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326 (#422) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING to be observed in the spinning of coloured yarns. 2. Inefficient spinning due to harsh treatment in scouring and backwashing is very often in evidence. 3. Hanks "ended," thus producing a repeating defect in the woven or knitted garment, is a defect by no means uncommon. 4. Yarn on spools, etc., left carelessly in the sunlight is acted on, a repeating defect developing, in the fabric following the re- lationship between the length of the repeat of the defect, and the width of the fabric into which the defective yarn is woven. 5. Bad piecenings are a source of constant annoyance, leading to the stoppage of the machine and breakage of needles in knitting and to defective fabrics requiring "mending in woven styles. 6. Badly started and wound spools (spinning or twisting) frequently lead to tight picks and shady pieces. 7. Mixing of different runs ” leads to abso- lutely unsaleable pieces owing to marked (usually weft) bars which cannot be got rid of. 8. Warp stripes repeating on the number of bobbins or cheeses warped with due to re- versing on the mill. 9. Defective conditioning, leading to the mark- ing of every weft spool in the finished fabric and to varied tensionings in the piece. 10. The careless running of threefold yarn on to the spool or bobbin in place of the normal twofold. 60 326

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327 (#423) ############################################ SPATU DEFECTS IN RAW MATERIALS ब cing af Telesku rathy te is mora of CEE In 11. Defects due to the careless handling of the yarn. Defects such as these have been coming up every day in the works for the last fifty years, and, curiously enough, new types of defects are still appearing. Of all the foregoing b (6) and c (4) are perhaps the most interesting and may here be further considered with profit. Repeating defects such as these may come into yarns in the following ways :- 1. By "ending" in hank-dyeing. Here the defect will usually repeat on 36 in. or 54 in. according to the length of hank employed. 2. By “ending” in the warp-dyeing of weft yarns, in this case the length being so great that the defect appears as a weft bar or bobbin-width defect. 3. A repeating defect in the actual twisting. Thus in mule spinning there may often be traces of the approx- imately two-yard draw. Such defects as this, however, will be distributed by “running" over more than once during dressing while the yarn is alive. Thus in dressing a cotton warp for lustre goods the warp is first got on to a warper's beam, then run over on to another warper's beam to the loom beam; by this means irregular tensions and twists being distributed. Much tension seems to eliminate twist irregularities.* 4. An indirect dyeing defect is illustrated by c (4). A further illustration of this occurs in the mercerizing of yarns, in which irregularities may not show until the piece into which these yarns are woven is dyed. MIHA 1 5. An indirect twisting defect due, for example, to the effects of the “throw" in the split-drum winder - * If an irregularly twisted yarn is pulled tight the twists will be seen to distribute themselves along its length much more regularly than when it is allowed to rest slack. mleri 08 327

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328 (#424) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING and of subsequent setting of the irregularity rather than its redistribution. 6. A periodic roughening of the yarn, or even a periodic tightening of the yarn due to an irregular "run-off” during weaving, will also tend to produce a marked defect. The careful consideration of the pick" on the spool for weft yarns for Italians, cash- meres, etc., cannot be over-estimated. The actual appearance of these repeating defects in the loom may now be briefly considered. Three main conditions are in evidence : 1. In which the repeat of the defect on the yarn is less than the width of the cloth into which it is woven ; and is a measure of, or has a measure in common with; or is not a measure of, or has not a measure in common with, the width of the cloth into which it is woven; 2. In which the repeat of the defect is the same as, or is a multiple of the width of the cloth into which it is woven; and 3. In which the repeat of the defect is greater than, and has or has not a measure in common with the width of the cloth into which it is woven. In Fig. 99 these conditions are illustrated. The effects produced under (c) 4 are often clearly recorded by Neate's extensometer tests as shown in Fig. 97. But a volume of this size might well be filled with records of defects of this type. This section may well be concluded by reference to the useful method recently introduced into the University of Leeds of testing yarns for spinning efficiency or thread/ fibre strength by first testing the fibre strength by bring- ing the jaws of the testing machine close together and carrying out a series of tests, and secondly testing the same yarn well over the fibre length-say 18 in. If, then, the 18 in. tests be put into terms of the jaw tests we have 328

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330 (#426) ############################################ 1 WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING LIST XVI. ILLUSTRATING THE EFFECTS OF SPINDLE SPEED ON THE STRENGTH OF A YARN SLOW SPEED. (1833 r.p.m.) TESTS. FAST SPEED. (2800 r.p.m.) A Jaws B Jaws Close 18 in. apart A Jaws Close B Jaws 18 in. apart C.C. 1 2 C.C. 105 5:5 12-5 145 II 75 4 7:5 ” c.c. 20 20:5 20 18 19 20.5 22 22:5 25 26.5 19.5 18 18 175 20 20:5 20 20 19:5 2005 boob mo ang C.C. 22:5 155 28 26.5 27 26 20:5 17.5 16.5 17 19.5 23 205 24 22:5 21 21.5 21 175 16 7.5 II 705 9 9 Іо II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 2 11:5 II.5 II.5 8.5 995 12.5 10 IO 5 IO 10 10-5 7.0 7:5 8.5 407.3 161.0 423:5 184.0 Average 20.3 8 21:1 97 . •3119 thread fibre strength (spinning efficiency). 8 Fast speed . 20:3 907 Slow speed. 21.1 -46 thread fibre strength (spinning efficiency). a measuremmore or less exact-of the relative spinning efficiencies of the fibres in yarns so compared. The following list is taken as a basis for the various graphs illustrated in Fig. 100. The following brief description of these graphs will prove ample. GRAPH I.-This illustrates the usual method of 330

[[14, 14, "Textile Machine Part"]]

334 (#430) ############################################ WOOLLEN AND WORSTED SPINNING made between the "mean” and the "mode" of such curves and of the comparative "contours. contours." It is already obvious that some such mathematical treatment of results of this type may be employed with advantage, but as this type of work still appears to be in its infancy so far as it applies to normal textile examples, refer- ences only to such work are here given. In List XVII on page 336 an interesting series of Flyer, Cap, Ring and Mule Spun Yarns are dealt with under the two types of break, viz. "Fibre-break” and “18 in.-break." B B A A Fig. 100 (IV) Fig. 100 (VI) In addition to the foregoing defects there are many others which arise from time to time—so many, in fact, that one realizes fully why perfect yarns are not spun and perfect pieces woven. This all emphasizes the necessity of bringing into the works the researcher ready to attempt the discovery of any and every defect which arises. With a well-trained researcher, not only may there be a direct value in the results obtained, but a much more valuable indirect result-practice in every section of the works will steadily improve and all the workers will realize, more and more, the interesting problems which are coming up under their very eyes, and consequently may be expected to find in their 334

[]

336 (#432) ############################################ LIST XVII.-SINGLE THREAD TESTS OF 1/24's FLYER, CAP, RING AND MULE Spun. FLYER SPUN. CAP SPUN. RING SPUN. MULE SPUN. 1,850 revs. per min. 6,020 revs. per min. 5,320 revs. per min. 5,084 revs. per min. (8.5 per 1"). (8.5 per 1"). (8.5 per i'). (8.5 per 1'). Fibre-break 18"-break, Fibre-break.' 18"-break. Fibre-break. 18'-break. Fibre-break. 18"-break. Str. | Elon. Str. | Elon. Str. | Elon. Str. Elon. Str. (Elon. Str. Elon, Str. Elon. Str. (Elon. ins. C.C. ins. c.c. ins. 2.362 28.67 0.136 20.45 2.693 35 0.21 23.5 3,64 0.04 14 1.23 20.5 0.03 13.5 15.2 19.5 0.04 13.5 1.31 25 O.II 12.5 I.I2 Spinning Efficiency (578) (•67) (617) (•712) RING TWISTED. RING TWISTED. RING TWISTED. RING TWISTED. (6 per 1"). (6 per 1"). (6 per 1"). (6 per 1"). Fibre-break./ 18"-break. Fibre-break. 18"-break. Fibre-break. 18"-break. Fibre-break./ 18" break Str. (Elon. Str. Elon. Str. (Elon. Str. | Elon. Str. (Elon. Str. | Elon. Str. Elon. Str. (Elon. ins. ins. ins. ins. ins, ins. ins. IOI 0.21 57.5 3.13 | 81.5 0.14 54.5 3.34 75 0.20 49.5 2.52 85.5 0.14 52.5 3.21 65.5 0.10 43.5 1.42 бо O.II 34.5 2.01 50 0.10 36.5 1.62 60.5 0.10 42.5 1.72 Single Yarn Average C.C. ins. 27.65 0.02 C.C. 21.8 ins. C.C. ins. C.C. ins, c.c. ins. C.C. 2.47 | 26.67 0.09 | 18.4 2.306 26.15 0.09 17.7 Maximum 33.5 0.14 26.5 3.5 32.5 0.14 25.5 3.21 33 0.12 22.5 1 3.1 Minimum 22.5 C.C. 2-fold Yarn. Average C.C. C.C. C.C. C.C. C.C. ins. 77.35 0.1271 48,87 2.37 | 66.42 0.126 44.52 2.7 59.7 0.120 43.22 2.06 71.77 0'120 46.9 2.44 C.C. C.C. Maximum Minimum Twisting Efficiency (63) (.67 (-72) (65) o

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341 (#437) ############################################ INDEX Acid, action of, 66, 234 African cottons, 8 American cottons and cotton wastes, 8, 10 Angle of twist, 238, 289-306 Animal oil, 340 Areas of card clothing wire teeth, 80 Automatic doffers, 59-63 feeds, 42-48 Auty, Mr., comments on carding and card-setting, 101-103 BACKING-OFF, 123, 128, 129 Balanced twist, 292 Ball and creel feed, 44, 47, 86 Belgian or tape condenser, 61, 62, 88-93 Bend of card wires, 73–75 Blamire's feed, 44-47, 86 Blend, factors affecting, 13, 33 laying out, 32 Blender, requirements of, 12 Blending, calculations, 14-25 colour, 22, 263, 265 method of, 26, 27, 263 object of, 13 operations, 26, 27 Blends, principles of costing, 17 typical, 24 Bobbin leading flyer, 224 Botany noils, 3, 4 Box bends, 96 British card clothing, 50, 82 Brodetsky's nomograms, 18, 295 Calculations, gill boxes, 193–202 knocker-off motions, 203, 204 lifter motion, 247–251 proportionate twist, 118, 299 spindle gill box, 200 turn-off from machines, 149–156, 212, 260, 283 twist, 113-122, 280 Cap frame, caps, 243, 244 doffing motions, 256-258 spindles, 242, 243 Card clothing, 63-85 angle of setting wire, 74 British and Continental, 50, 82 counts of wire, 68–72, 80–82 fancy, 50, 54, 73, 77, 82, 84, 91, 96, 102-104 foundations, 65–73, 76–78 Garnett, 63, 64 insertion of teeth, 63, 64, 67 nailing, 64, 65 table, 72, 82 wire for fancy, 77 Card grinding, 100 operation of, 101 Card wires, 63–78 micrographs of, 101 Carding, contacts, 41, 57, 95 objects of, 34 passage of material through machine, 35-38 roller setting, 49, 50, 51, 101 roller speeds, 39, 40, 49, 50 rollers, size of, 50, 96 Carding machines, calculations on production, 39, 99 construction of, 93-97 driving of, 97, 98 factors effecting production, 39– 41 points in working, 35-42, 52, IOI-103 Carriage (mule), drive of, 123 72, 82 CALCULATIONS, card clothing, 68– carding, 50, 52, 68–72, 75, 80-82, 97-99 drafts, 52, 175 equal drafts, 176 gauge points, 193-195, 197–202 341

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342 (#438) ############################################ INDEX 125, 126 Célestin Martin's woollen frame, Drafts, carding, 39-41, 52 142, 143 cone drawing, 208 Chain-driving of card, 99 doublings and, 175-177 of spring frames, 131 drawing box, 209–211 Cheese winding, 307, 311-313 equal, 176 Cheviot cards, 50 spinning, 110, III, 236, 237 Clearing arrangements on the card, Drag, 203, 225 35-37 Drawing boxes, 202-212 Colour blending, 22-25, 261-270 calculations, 208–212 Condensers, 37, 59-63 cone, 204 double dofter, 60-62 French, 183, 184, 208–212 double rubber, 89 machinery sets, 276, 277, 281 endless tape, 61, 62 open, 192, 202-204 rubbing motion of, 89 twist, 186–191 series tape, 61, 62 Drive of mule carriage, 123, 124, single doffer, 59 Condensing, objects of, 59, 87-90 spindle, 127, 129 Cone drawing, 191, 192, 204-208, Dry spun yarn, 182, 211, 212, 228- 214, 232, 271 232, 259, 260, 288 disadvantages of, 204, 225–227 Dusting willey, 29 Construction of cops, 131, Continental system of carding, 50,82 EGYPTIAN cotton, 8, 10 Continuous woollen spinning Electricity in card clothing, 66 frames, 141-158 in wool, 66 Conveyer tubes, 30, 32, 33 English or open drawing system, Copping rail, 131 192, 202-204 Counter fallers, 131 Equal drafts, 176 Counting machine, spool, 310 Export, yarns for, 307, 310 Counts and crown of card clothing, Extension testing machine, 320 67, 68, 72, 82 Extensometer (Neate's), 320 Creels, 213 Ewart, Prof. J. Cossar, 3 Defects in raw materials, tops FACTORIES, design of, 167, 288 and yarns, 324-337 Faller actions, 123-136 Delivery from carding engines, wire, 123-136 58-63 Fancy, clothing of, 50, 54, 73, 77, Design of woollen and worsted 82, 84, 91, 96, 102–104 factories, 167, 288 setting of, 84, 102-104 Details of card clothing, 72, 82 Fearnought or Cockspur teaser, Devil or Fearnought, 28, 30-32 28, 30-32 Diameters of yarns, 114, 189, 298 Feed roller clothing, 63 Doffers, automatic, 58-63 Feeding and delivery carding, 42– double ring, 60-62 44,. 58-63 single ring, 59, 62 machines, intermediate, 45~48, Doffing comb, 89 85-87 stripper, 89 Feeds of carder, 42-44 Double film cards, 90 Felting card, 58 Doubling or twisting frames, 158– Fettling, 35, 36 163 Fibre movement, 108–113, 177--182 Drafting, 107-113 Fibres, tests for, 328 and ratching, 182–186 vegetable, 5, 9, II calculations, 175–177, 193–202, Fillet clothing, 66 Fineness of card wire, 70, 71, 72 theories of, 107 Finisher boxes, 276, 277, 281 twist, 113 Fish oils, 340 210 342 H

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343 (#439) ############################################ INDEX 01, 2013 . 19 u Flat bands, 96 Micrographs, 9, 101 Flocks, 7 Mixtures of wool, 261, 263–266 Fluted rollers, 217-220 Mule carriage, drive of, 123, 124, Flyer leading bobbin, 222-225 125, 126 Folding yarns, 158-160, 289-306 Mule, spindles, 134, 135 Foundation of card clothing, 65–73, woollen, 105–140 76–78 worsted, 259 French comb, 260 Mungo, shoddy and extract, 5 drawing machinery, 183, 184, Musk ox (Ovibos), 187 208–212, 287 Front drafts and roller drives and NAILING card clothing, 64, 65 speeds, 193, 195, 197, 209, 210, Noils, 2-5 245 Nomograms, 18, 295 Non-drying oil, 339 GARNETT clothing, 63, 64 Number of operations in drawing, opener, 63, 64 276, 277, 281, 287 Gauge of wire, 72 Gauge points, 193–201 Oil, application of, 28 Gauges, carder's, 50, 51 emulsions, 338 Gill boxes, 193–202 in card clothing, 66 four head, 193 objects of, 27 intersecting, 202 properties of, 338 O.P.S., 196-198 vegetable, 340 2-spindle, 200 Oiling blends, 26 Gilling for short wools, 202 Open drawing, 192, 202–204 Glycerine, electric action, 219 O.P.S. gill box, 196–198 Graphs, 18, 147, 148, 231, 304, 330-335 PERUVIAN cotton, 58 Grinding various card rollers, 100 Pick on spool or tube, effects of, 329 Hand spinning, 106 Piecening on mule, 107, 108 Hard twist, 292 Pirn winder, 313 Hopper feeds, 42, 43 Platt's woollen spinning frame, Hosiery twist, 239, 309 143 yarns, 309 Pointed spindle, 134, 135 Porcupine or French system of INDIAN cotton, 8 drawing, 183, 184, 208–212 Intermediate feeding machines, 45- Porcupines, particulars of, 211 48, 85-87 Processes, woollen yarn production, Intersecting gill boxes, 202 105-171 Iron twist, 294 worsted yarn production, 172– 288 JACKING motion, 129 Production, calculations on, 139, 147-156, 212, 260, 283 KNOCKING-OFF motions, 203 graphs on, 147, 148 “LIE" of slivers in carding, 46–48 QUADRANT action, 124-136 Lifter motion (Scaife's), 249 Quality terms, 110, 236 motions, 247-251 Lubricating wool, 26–28 RATCH, 182–186 Reciprocal diameters of yarn, 294 MARL yarns, 269, 270 Re-manufactured materials, 5, 7 Mechanical control in mule spinning, Ring doffers, 59, 60 123-139 spinning, 142, 242 Melange yarns, 261, 266-269 twisting frame, 163, 188 2 macie, -10/ EL 343

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(#440) ################################################ INDEX Rollers, press, hard and soft, 217 Take up in twist yarns, 296-306 Roving calculations, 174-184, 276, Tape or Belgian condenser, 61, 62 277 Teaser or self-acting willey, 28-30 weights for worsted yarns, 248, Tenterhook teaser, 31 279 Testing laboratories, 318-323 Rubbers (condenser), 58-65 oil, 340 Tummers, 103 Turn-off from machines, 139, 147- SAXONY cards, 12 156, 212, 260, 283 Scaife lifter motion, 249 Turns per inch for twist angles, 289– Scotch feed, 45, 46, 85 296 Scrolls, 125, 127, 130, 138 Twist-angles, 238, 289-291 Self-acting teaser, 28 Twist theories, 106, 113-122, 289– Setting of card clothing, 63, 64 306 of fancies, 84, 102-104 Twisting yarns, 158–163, 269, 289- of strippers and workers, 49-51, 296 101-103 Twisting yarns or doubling frames, Sheet card clothing, 66 163 Shoddy, mungo, and extract, 5 Silk, 11 Use of carding, 34-38 Singeing yarn, 317 of cone drawing, 192, 204-208 Single doffer condenser, 59 of lifter motion, 247–251 ring doffer, 59, 60 Sliver feeding appliances, 210 VEGETABLE fibres, 5, 9, II Slubbing billey, 38 dyeing, 261, 262 Soft twist, 238, 293 Special materials employed in WASTES, cotton, 5, 9, 10 woollen manufacture, 9, II soft and hard, 5 Speed of cards, etc., 97-99 Weigh box, 281 Spindle draft, 106-107, 112, 130 Weights of roving, 279 drive, 126, 127 Willey, double swift, 28, 29 gill box, 201 Willeying, 28-33 Spindles, flyer, cap, and ring, 241- Willow or willey, the, 28-30 Winding, and against," 244 160 Spinning calculations, 110-122, 138-140, 149-157 Winding on, 224, 249, 329 Spinning drafts, 279, 280 Wires for card clothing, 63-85 Spinning frames (continuous or Woollen and worsted mules, 105- ring), 284, 286 140, 259 mule, woollen, 105-140 spinning of, 105-140, 259-260 mule, worsted, 259–260 structure of, 123-138 twist, 113-116, 238, 239 Woollen carding, 34-104 Spool counting machine, 310 Spools, formation of, 247-251 Yarn, costing of, 168–171 Square topped spindles, 134-135 diameters of, 296 twist, 293 dry spun, 182, 211, 212, 228, 232, Squaring bands, 138 Stockings, samples, 7 fancy, 161-163 Straight fibre twist, 292, 293 folding of, 158-160, 289-306 Strains in wool fibres, 314-316 scouring and setting, 313-316 singeing, 317 TACHOGRAPH records, 231 strengths of, 330-337 * for 259, 260, 288 PRINTED BY Cassell & COMPANY, LIMITED, LA BELLE SAUVAGE, LONDON, E.C.4. F.30. 1022

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