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[ "A man is in a car." ]

[ "There are no cars on the track.", "A girl colors.", "The dog is swimming in the ocean.", "someone kicks a ball", "A person is outside.", "Slate created an exhibit entitled Norton Anthology of African-American Literature.", "A dog walks by a building." ]

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[ "It seems like there has been a climatic shift on the east coast because of the more wild winters." ]

[ "There hasn't been any climatic shift in the past five years.", "The house where Victor Hugo used to live has now been turned into a museum.", "Something? Jon asked.", "The child is rubbing his nose.", "It didn't surprise me to learn that it was less than half of people.", "The film has an orgy but there is no necrophilia.", "Modern Istanbul fashion prioritizes displaying the lower body." ]

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[ "There are a number of Byzantine mosaics inside the church." ]

[ "The church does not feature any biblical scenes on its walls.", "His mind never faulted in its single tunnel vision.", "The men are near the cannon.", "It is solely your skill.", "girls are playing outdoors", "A man is screaming.", "A girl is swinging." ]

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[ "There are animals on the beach." ]

[ "The dog is sleeping in his kennell.", "There is no suggestion that visibility has any impact on people's enjoyment of daily activities.", "A dog in a yard.", "Cassettes are obsolete, no one uses them anymore.", "A group of people are crossing the street.", "There is no gravity factor.", "A young girl is standing outside." ]

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[ "Shirika la Kimataifa la Nishati ya Nyuklia\nMakao makuu yapo kwenye Jiji la UM huko Vienna (Austria). Ofisi za kanda zipo Toronto and Tokyo, halafu kuna ofisi ndogo kwenye makao ya UM huko New York na Geneva. IAEA ina pia maabara ya uchunguzi katika Seibersdorf (Austria) na Monako." ]

[ "Jumuiya ya Nchi Huru\nJumuiya hii iliundwa tar. 8 desemba 1991 na viongozi wa Urusi, Belarusi na Ukraine. Makao makuu yapo Minsk kwenye mji mkuu wa Belarusi na mkutano wa wabunge hukutana Sankt Peterburg.+Nchi mwanachama wa kushirikishwa", "Myeyungano wa kinyuklia\nHapa duniani ni vigumu kupata myeyungano kwa sababu viini vya atomu huwa na chaji chanja na chanja - chanja huwingana. Hapa nguvu kubwa inahitajika kushinda kizuizi hiki kama vile joto na shinikizo kali ndani ya Jua. Hadi sasa imekuwa vigumu kujenga mitambo inayoweza kuzalisha na kutunza joto ya nyuzi mamilioni pamoja shinikizo inayohitajika kuanzisha na kudumisha myeyungano wa nyuklia.", "Nishati ya nyuklia\nMatatizo ya matumizi ya nishati nyuklia ni hasa pamoja na ajali nyuklia, kuathiriwa kwa watu na mnururisho kutoka ajali, fueli au takataka, utunzaji wa takataka nururifu, na mashaka juu ya gharama kwa jumla.", "Nishati mbadala\nMaendeleo hayo mwanzoni yalitokea Ulaya, hasa Ujerumani, Udani na Uingereza lakini baadaye Marekani na China ziliongeza pia jitihada zao kupanua chanzo hicho cha umeme. ", "Tanuri la nyuklia\n12. Iran", "Nishati ya nyuklia\nKiini cha atomi hufanywa na nyutroni na protoni. Kuna njia ya kupasua atomi hizi: kazi hiyo huitwa mwatuko nyuklia. Wakati wa mwatuko nyuklia nyutroni na protoni zinaachana na kuwa atomi mpya mbili, nyutroni kadhaa zinawekwa huru pamoja na sehemu ya nguvu iliyohitajika hadi sasa kushika chembe zote ndani ya kiini.", "N.E.M.A, Kenya\nNEMA ni shirika la serikali lililowajibika na usimamizi wa mazingira, na sera ya mazingira, nchini Kenya. Nema iko katika jiji la Nairobi.National Environmental Management Authority\nUNEP", "Nishati mbadala\nUwekezaji kwenye miradi ya nishati mbadala duniani ulifikia kiasi cha dola za Marekani bilioni 286 mwaka 2015, huku nchi za China na Marekani zikiongoza kwa uwekezaji. Kazi zinazohusiana na nishati mbadala duniani zinakadiriwa kufikia milioni 7.7. Nchi kama Iceland inatumia asilimia 85 ya mahitaji yake ya nishati kutoka nishati mbadala na hivyo kuwa nchi ya kwanza duniani kwa matumizi makubwa ya aina hii ya nishati. Kutokana na ripoti iliyotolewa na \"REN21\" (\"Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century\"', mwaka 2015 nishati mbadala ilichangia asilimia 19.2 ya matumizi ya nishati duniani. ", "Muungano wa mabenki ya Equity\nMuungano wa mabenki ya equity (kwa Kiingereza: Equity Group Holdings) ni shirika la kifedha katika Afrika Mashariki. Makao makuu yamo mjini Nairobi, Kenya, pamoja na matawi nchini Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda na Sudan Kusini.", "Nyuklia\nAsili yake ni Kilatini \"nucleus\" inayomaanisha \"kiini\". Inatumiwa hasa kama tafsiri ya Kiingereza \"nuclear\". Kwa Kiswahili neno hili linatumiwa hasa katika fani za fizikia kwa kutaja mambo yanayohusu kiini cha atomu, na pia biolojia kwa mambo yanayohusu kiini cha seli.", "Nishati ya nyuklia\nIlikuwa huko Marekani kwamba serikali iliingiza pesa nyingi katika ujenzi wa taasisi mpya na tangu mwaka 1942 mradi wa Manhattan ulilenga kutengeneza silaha ya nyuklia. Zaidi ya watu 100,000 walishiriki, wataalamu wa fizikia pamoja na wahandisi na wafanyakazi.", "Mahakama ya Kimataifa ya Jinai\nMahakama ya Kimataifa ya Jinai (Kifaransa: \"Cour Pénale Internationale\"; Kiing. International Criminal Court ambayo kawaida hujulikana kama ICC au ICCt ni mahakama ya kudumu ya kuwashtaki watu kwa mauaji ya kimbari, hatia dhidi ya ubinadamu, hatia za kivita na hatia ya ushambulizi (ingawa kwa sasa haiwezi kuwashtaki watu kwa hatia ya ushambulizi). Makao makuu yako Den Haag (Uholanzi).", "Shirika la Kimataifa la Nishati ya Nyuklia\nIAEA ina mikono mitatu:", "Al Jazeera\nAl Jazeera ina vituo vinne vikuu kote duniani, mjini London, Washington, DC, Kuala Lumpur na Doha. Ina milikiwa na serikali ya Qatar.[3] Hii ni moja kati ya stesheni chache iliyo na ofisi zake mjini Gaza na Harare.", "Tanuri la nyuklia\n15. Israel", "Nishati mbadala\nMwisho wa mwaka 2010 vituo vikubwa duniani vilikuwa :", "Tanuri la nyuklia\n14. Niger", "Federation Aeronautique Internationale\nShirikisho hili lilianzishwa mwaka 1905 mjini Paris na makao makuu yapo Lausanne, Uswisi. Shirika inatambuliwa kimataifa kam mtunza wa rekodi katika fani hizi pamoja na usafiri kwenye anga la nje.", "Financial Times\nFinancial Times (FT) ni gazeti la biashara la kimataifa kutoka nchini Uingereza. Ni gazeti ambalo hutolewa kila siku asubuhi na huchapishwa katika sehemu 24 huko London.[1] Gazeti hili, ni mshindani mkubwa kabisa wa gazeti lenye makao yake makuu huko New York City-Wall Street Journal. Hivi sasa, mhariri wake ni Lionel Barber.", "FIFA\nKisheria ni shirika binafsi lililoandikishwa huko Uswisi. Makao makuu yapo Zurich. Rais Joseph Blatter[1] ameongoza kwa muda wa miaka 18 kabla ya kumuachia Gianni Infantino, raia wa Uswisi. Fatma Samba Diouf Samoura wa Senegal ndiye Katibu Mkuu wake.", "Boma la Kale, Dar es Salaam\nUtawala wa Kampuni ya Kijerumani uliporomoka katika vita ya Abushiri na sasa serikali ya Berlin iliingia kati na kuchukua utawala moja kwa moja mikononi mwake. Makao makuu yalihamishwa kutoka Bagamoyo pasipo bandari kwa meli kubwa kwenda Dar es Salaam penye bandari nzuri. Boma la Kale liliendelea kutumiwa kama kituo cha forodha na baadaye kama gereza lenye wafungwa Waafrika hadi 200.[3]", "Benki ya Dunia\nMakao makuu yapo Washington DC nchini Marekani. Kikatiba mwenyekiti wa benki ni mtu wa Marekani.", "Kituo cha Mikutano cha Kimataifa cha Julius Nyerere\nKituo cha Mikutano cha Kimataifa cha Julius Nyerere ni ukumbi wa mikutano wa kisasa mjini Dar es Salaam nchini Tanzania.", "Nishati ya nyuklia\nPia suala la kutunza takataka nururifu halijapata usuluhisho. Takataka hiyo itaendelea kuwa nururifu na hatari kwa afya kwa kipindi cha miaka elfu kadhaa. Hadi sasa hakuna nchi iliyopata mahali pa kudumu ambako takataka hii inaweza kutunzwa salama kwa milenia inayokuja.", "Roentgeni\nRoentgeni ilitambuliwa mara ya kwanza na wanasayansi wa taasisi ya utafiti wa kinyuklia huko Darmstadt. Walifaulu kuitengeneza katika chombo cha nyuklia mara sita pia watafiti Wajapan walifaulu mara chache. Jina limekubaliwa kimataifa kuwa \"Roentgeni\" kwa heshima ya Konrad Röntgen.", "Shirika la Kimataifa la Nishati ya Nyuklia\nIAEA ni shirika la kimataifa linalopaswa kuangalia masharti ya mkataba wa kuzuia usambazaji wa silaha za nyuklia wa 1968.", "Vita baridi\nMwaka 1945 Marekani ilikuwa nchi pekee duniani yenye silaha za nyuklia. Lakini Umoja wa Kisovyeti iliweza kufuata na mwaka 1949 ikalipua bomu la nyuklia.", "CNN\nAtlanta (Makao Makuu) Boston Chicago Dallas Los Angeles Miami New Orleans New York City San Francisco Washington, D.C. Columbus Denver Houston Las Vegas Minneapolis Orlando Philadelphia Phoenix Raleigh-Durham Seattle Ofisi zingine duniani Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates (Makao Makuu ya Mashariki ya Kati) Baghdad, Iraki Bangkok, Thailand Beijing, Uchina Beirut, Lebanon Berlin, Ujerumani Bogotá, Colombia Cairo, Misri Dubai, United Arab Emirates Havana, Cuba Hong Kong Islamabad, Pakistan Istanbul, Uturuki Jakarta, Indonesia Tehran, Iran (until the 2009 election when foreign media where expelled from the country) Yerusalemu, Israel Johannesburg, Afrika Kusini Lagos, Nigeria London, Uingereza (Makao makuu ya bara ulaya) Madrid, Uhispania Mexico City, Mexico Moscow, Urusi Nairobi, Kenya New Delhi, India Paris, Ufaransa Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Santiago de Chile, Chile São Paulo, Brazil Seoul, South Korea Tokyo, Ujapani", "Nagasaki\nUmejulikana kimataifa kwa sababu uliharibiwa tarehe 9 Agosti 1945 na bomu la nyuklia la Kimarekani kama mji wa pili katika historia baada ya Hiroshima. Bomu hilo liliua watu 36,000 mara moja na wengine waliokadiriwa kuwa kati ya 70,000 na 100,000 walikufa baadaye kufuatana athira ya mnururisho wa kinyuklia.", "Kenya\nNairobi inaendelea kuwa kituo muhimu na cha kimsingi kwa mawasiliano na biashara cha Afrika Mashariki. Kinajivuna kuwa na miundo msingi ya uchukuzi na mawasiliano bora zaidi katika eneo hili, na wafanyi kazi wenye ujuzi. Makampuni mengi ya kigeni hudumisha matawi yao katika eneo hili ama ofisi za kuyawakilisha mjini Nairobi. Mnamo Machi 1996, Marais wa Kenya , Tanzania na Uganda waliifufua Jumuia ya Afrika Mashariki (EAC). Shabaha za EAC ni pamoja na kasawazisha kodi na ada zinazotozwa bidhaa, utembeaji huru wa watu na kuimarisha miundo msingi katika eneo hili. Nchi hizi tatu za Afrika Mashariki zilitia saini mkataba wa Customs Union Agreement mwezi wa Machi 2004.", "Nishati ya nyuklia\nNishati ya nyuklia (pia: nishati ya atomi, ing. nuclear energy) ni matumizi ya nishati inayopatikana ndani ya kiini cha atomi. Atomi ni kitu kidogo sana lakini inatunza ndani yake nishati kubwa ambayo ni ya lazima kwa kushika pamoja neutroni na protoni ndani ya kiini chake. Wakati muundo wa kiini cha atomi unabadilishwa, sehemu ya nishati hii inapatikana. Nishati inayotokea hapo inaweza kutumiwa katika mitambo. Inapatikana hasa kwa njia ya joto ambalo kwa kawaida linatumiwa kuchemsha maji yanayozungusha rafadha za kutengenezea umeme.", "Kamati ya Kimataifa ya Msalaba Mwekundu\nKamati ya Kimataifa ya Msalaba Mwekundu ni shirika la kimataifa ambalo ofisi yake kuu iko Geneva, Uswisi. Kifupisho chake ni kwa Kiingereza ni ICRC.", "Myeyungano wa kinyuklia\nKatika Jua letu atomi za hidrojeni zinayeyunganishwa katika mazingira ya shinikizo na joto kuu kuwa heli. Nishati inayopatikana hapa mi chanzo cha joto na nuru ya Jua. Kadri hidrojeni inapungua ndani ya nyota heli itayeyunganishwa ", "Intaneti\nInternet ni mtandao uliyosambaa duniani ulioundwa na mitandao mingi tofauti iliyoshikanishwa. Hufanya kazi bila kitengo cha serikali kuu. Hata hivyo, ili kudumisha uwezo wa mifumo tofauti kufanya kazi pamoja, nyanja zote za kifundi na sera ya msingi wa miundombinu na nafasi za jina kuu husimamiwa na Shirika la Intanet linalotoa majina na nambari (ICANN), lililo na makao makuu huko Marina del Rey, California. ICANN ndiyo yenye mamlaka ya kusitiri utaratibu wa utoaji wa vitambulisho vya kipekee kwa matumizi ya Intanet, pamoja na majina ya vikundi, anwani za Itifaki ya Intanet (IP), nambari ya vipenyezo katika itifaki ya usafiri, na takwimu zingine nyingi. Nafasi ya iliyounganishwa ya majina ya ulimwengu, ambapo majina na nambari za kipekee hutolewa, ni muhimu kwa mataifa katika kupata huduma za Intanet. ICANN huongozwa na halmashauri ya wakurugenzi wa kimataifa wanaotolewa kutoka jamii za, ufundi wa Intanet, biashara, elimu, na mengine yasiyo ya kibiashara . Serikali ya Marekani inaendelea kuwa na jukumu la msingi katika kuidhinisha mabadiliko katika shina la DNS lililoko katika kitovu cha mfumo wa eneo la majina. Jukumu la ICANN katika kuratibu zoezi la utoaji vitambulisho vya kipekee hulitofautisha kama shirika la kipekee lenye madaraka ya kuratibu Intanet ya kimataifa . Tarehe 16 Novemba 2005, Mkutano wa Dunia juu ya Jamii ya Habari, uliofanyika Tunis, uliunda Fora ya Utawala wa Intanet (IGF) kujadili masuala yanayohusiana na Intanet.", "Al-Qaeda\nKulingana na uchunguzi wa Pew, msaada kwa Al Qaeda umekuwa ukipungua katika dunia ya Kiislamu katika miaka ya kuongoza hadi 2008. Idadi ya wanaosaidia mabomu ya kujiua nchini Indonesia, Lebanon, na Bangladesh, kwa mfano, imeshuka kwa nusu au zaidi katika miaka mitano iliyopita. Nchini Saudi Arabia, asilimia 10 tu sasa wana mtazamo mwema wa Al Qaeda, kulingana na uchunguzi wa Desemba na Terror Free Tomorrow, yenye makao yake makuu Washington. ", "Shirika la Kimataifa la Usanifishaji\nISO iliundwa mwaka 1947 kama ushirikiano wa nchi 25 zilizoamua kuunganisha jitihadi zao za usafinishaji. Makao makuu yako Geneva (Uswisi). Hadi leo kuna nchi wanachama 163 kati ya mataifa 203 za dunia.", "Nishati ya nyuklia\nKuanzia hapo vituo vya matanuri nyuklia vilianza kusambaa haraka katika nchi za viwanda. Uwezo wa kuzalisha umeme ulikua haraka pia. Ilhali kituo cha kwanza Marekani kilikuwa na uwezo wa kilowati 100, kituo cha kwanza cha Kirusi na megawati 5, vituo vya baadaye vilifikia zaidi ya gigawati moja. Mnamo mwaka 1990 uwezo wa vituo vyote duniani ulikuwa wa takriban gigawati 300, na mwaka 2005 wa gigawati 366.", "Nishati ya nyuklia\nMajaribio ya kwanza ya kugundua unururifu yalitekelezwa mnamo mwaka 1890 na Antoine Henri Becquerel, Marie Curie na Pierre Curie na wengine.", "Al-Qaeda\nUshahidi umekuja kwa mwanga kwamba malengo ya awali ya mashambulizi huenda yalikuwa vituo vya nguvu za nyuklia pwani ya mashariki ya Marekani. Malengo hayo baadaye yalibadilishwa al-Qaeda, kwani waliogopa kwamba shambulizi kama hilo \"lingetoka nje ya mkono\". ", "Nishati ya nyuklia\nKama urani yote iliyopo mahali pamoja pa karibu inaruhusiwa kuathiriwa na neutroni zinazojitokeza, mchakato huo wa mmenyuko mfululizo unatokea haraka sana, katika sehemu ya nukta, na nishati yote hupatikana mara moja kwa umbo la mlipuko wa nyuklia. Mbinu hiyo inatumiwa katika bomu la nyuklia.", "Nishati ya nyuklia\nBaada ya ajali mbili za Chernobyl (Ukraine, mwaka 1986) na Fukushima (Japani, mwaka 2011) imeonekana ya kwamba gharama zilikuwa za juu mno.", "Bomu la nyuklia\nTangu Nagasaki hakuna bomu lingine lililotumiwa vitani. Milipuko yote iliyofuata ilikuwa ya jaribio tu, ama jangwani au baharini pasipo watu. Nchi zote ziliogopa uharibifu mkubwa kupita kiasi, ingawa hasa nchi kubwa za Marekani na Urusi ziliendelea kutengeneza maelfu ya mabomu.", "Megatani\nMara nyingi hutumiwa kwa kutaja nguvu ya mlipuko wa bomu la nyuklia. Mlipuko mkubwa kabisa wa bomu la nyuklia katika historia ilitokea mwaka 1961 kwenye kisiwa cha Novaya Zemlya nchini Urusi na nguvu ilikuwa megatani 50, yaani sawa na nguvu ya tani milioni 50 za kilipukaji aina ya TNT.", "Afrika Kusini\nAfrika Kusini iliwahi kuwa na silaha za nyuklia lakini ilizibomoa baada ya mwaka 1993.", "Shirika la Kimataifa la Nishati ya Nyuklia\nMkutano Mkuu mwenye wawakilishi wa nchi wanachama 144 unakaa mara moja kila mwaka. Unakubali bajeti na kuamua juu ya maswali yanayowekwa mbele yake na halmashauri, na mkurugenzi mkuu au na wanachama wenyewe.", "ICSU\nMakao makuu yako Paris, Ufaransa. Ina wawakilishi wa nchi 140.", "Razer Inc.\nKampuni hiyo ina makao makuu mawili huko Singapore na San Francisco, California, na imeorodheshwa katika soko la hisa la Hong Kong tangu Novemba 2017.", "Nishati ya nyuklia\nLakini gharama za kutengeneza matanuri nyuklia ni ya juu. Sababu yake ni hasa sheria nyingi zinazohusu majengo haya. Sheria hizi zimesababishwa na hatari ya ajali kubwa inayoweza kutoa uchafu hatari hewani na kwenye maji na kuhatarisha mali na afya ya wananchi. Gharama kubwa zinatokea pia baada ya muda wa matumizi wa kituo cha nyuklia kwa sababu kubomoa majengo na mashine kunachukua muda mrefu, hasahasa kwa sababu metali na saruji za sehemu za ndani zimekuwa nururifu na ubomoaji unapaswa kutekelezwa polepole na makampuni ya pekee, tena baada ya kipindi cha miaka baada ya mwisho wa kazi ya tanuri kwa kusubiri kupoa kwa unururifu.", "Nairobi\nNairobi imeibuka kuwa mojawapo kati ya miji mikubwa katika bara la Afrika. Mashirika mengi makubwa duniani yamefungua ofisi zao zinazoshuhudia eneo la Afrika ya Mashariki na Afrika ya Kati. Mojawapo ya mashirika haya ni ofisi za tawi la Umoja wa Mataifa (United Nations), UNEP. Kunazo pia ofisi za mabalozi wa nchi mbalimbali duniani.", "Tanuri la nyuklia\n13. Kanada", "Norwegian\nNorwegian (\"Norwegian Air Shuttle\") ni shirika kuu la ndege la Norwei. Lina makao makuu mjini Fornebu. Norwegian inasafiri katika miji 153 kote duniani.", "Nishati ya nyuklia\nHadi 2014 mahali pa aina hii hapajapatikana. Wala huko Urusi wala China wala Marekani ghala ya kudumu kwa takataka nururifu zimejengwa kutokana na mashaka kati ya wataalamu na wananchi kama mahali palipopendekezwa ni salama kweli. Uswidi, Ufini na Marekani zina mipango kwa ajili ya takataka nururifu sana. Nchi mbalimbali zina ghala kwa takataka yenye unururifu hafifu. Lakini kuna mifano ambayo imeonekana ya kwamba ghala hizi hazikufaa, kwa mfano baada ya miaka 20 maji yameingia mle.", "Nishati ya nyuklia\nAjali ya nyuklia ya Three Mile Island huko Marekani mwaka 1979 ambako teknolojia ya kupoza joto ndani ya tanuri ilikwama na fueli ya nyuklia ilianza kuyeyushwa; hakuna watu waliojeruhiwa na kupata hasara kiafya lakini hatari ilikuwepo kwa muda. Ajali ya nyuklia ya Chernobyl nchini Ukraine mwaka 1986 ambako tanuri nyuklia ilishika joto hadi kuharibiwa kabisa; idadi kubwa ya mata nururifu ilitoka nje; hadi leo (2014) kuna maeneo makubwa yasiyoweza kukaliwa na watu; hektari milioni 1.5 katika Ukraine, Urusi na Byelorusi haziwezi kutumiwa hadi leo. Wananchi 130,000 walipaswa kuondoka katika nyumba zao na hawajaweza kurudi. Takriban watu 50 walikufa kutokana na unururifu, na maelfu kadhaa (hadi 9000) wamekadiriwa kuwa walipata magonjwa ya kansa kwa sababu ya unururifu waliopokea. Katika nchi nyingi za Ulaya mazao mbalimbali yaliathiriwa na hayakuweza kutumiwa kwa muda wa wiki au miezi kadhaa kwa sababu upepo ulipeleka vumbi na mvua yenye nururisho ya Chernobyl kwa umbali wa kilomita elfu kadhaa. Ajali ya nyuklia ya Fukushima nchini Japani mwaka 2011 ilisababishwa na tetemeko la ardhi na mawimbi ya tsunami. Kituo kilikuwa na matanuri nyuklia 6 na 4 ambayo yaliharibika kabisa. Katika matanuri 3 fueli katika kiini cha tanuri iliyeyuka. Idadi kubwa ya mata nururifu ilitoka nje. Hata kama sehemu kubwa ya mata hii ilitelemka baharini kuna takriban watu 150,000 waliopaswa kuondoka katika nyumba zao ambao hawezi kurudi kwa miaka ijayo. Hakuna watu waliokufa mara moja kutokana na mnururisho lakini matibabu yanategemea kupatikana kwa wagonjwa wa kansa mbalimbali katika miaka ijayo, na idadi yao imekadiriwa kuwa kati ya 100 na 1000 kutokana na unururifu. Shughuli za kusafisha mahali zinaendelea kwa miaka ijayo kwa sababu bado kuna kiasi kikubwa cha maji nururifu ndani ya majengo.[4]", "Shirika la Kimataifa la Usafiri wa Anga\nShirika la Kimataifa la Usafiri wa Anga (Ing. International Air Transport Association - IATA ) ni umoja wa kimataifa wa makampuni ya usafiri kwa ndege. Makao makuu yake yako Montreal, Quebec nchini Kanada ambako kuna pia makao makuu ya Mamlaka ya Usafiri wa Anga wa Kiraia (International Civil Aviation Organization).\nIATA ilianzishwa mwaka 1945 kama ushirikiano wa makampuni makubwa ya ndege. Leo hii kuna takriban makampuni wanachama 240. Haya ni hasa makampuni ya kitaifa au maampuni makubwa ya kibiashara yanayotoa huduma za kimataifa. Shirika nyingi ndogo zinazohudumia nchi moja tu pia shirika za kukodi mara nyingi si wanachama.", "Urani\nIkiwa ni metali nururifu pekee inayopatikana duniani kiasili hutumiwa kwa utengenezaji wa umeme katika tanuri nyuklia. Takriban asilimia 16 ya umeme duniani hutengenezwa kwa njia hii, katika nchi kadhaa ni sehemu kubwa ya umeme. ", "Umoja wa Kimataifa wa Astronomia\nUmoja wa Kimataifa wa Astronomia (kifupi: UKIA) (kwa Kiingereza: International Astronomical Union - IAU au Union astronomique internationale, UAI) ni shirika la kimataifa linalounganisha mashirika ya wataalamu wa astronomia kutoka nchi mbalimbali. Lilianzishwa mwaka 1919 na ofisi yake iko mjini Paris, Ufaransa.", "Shirika la Kimataifa la Nishati ya Nyuklia\nHalmashauri ya Magavana inakaa mara tano kila mwaka na kufanya maazimio kuhusu mwelekeo wa kazi ya shirika; huwa na magavana 22 wanaochaguliwa na mkutano mkuu kwa muda wa miaka 2 halafu na magavana 13 wanaochaguliwa upya kila mwaka na halmashauri yenyewe.", "Bandari asilia\nNew York (Marekani) Kidaka cha San Francisco (Marekani) Mumbai au Bombay (Uhindi) Kingston (Jamaika) Sydney (Australia) Kidaka cha Manila (Ufilipino) Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) Bahia (Brazil) Falmouth (Uingereza) Freetown (Sierra Leone) Pearl Harbor (Hawaii) Fyord ya Oslo (Norway) Vancouver (Kanada) Kidaka cha Tokyo (Japani)", "IMF\nIMF (kifupisho cha International Monetary Fund) ni Shirika la Fedha la Kimataifa. Lilianzishwa mwaka 1946 kwa shabaha ya kuboresha ushirikiano katika mambo ya fedha duniani. Kuna nchi wanachama 189. Makao makuu yako Washington DC nchini Marekani. ", "Nishati ya nyuklia\nHadi mwaka 2014 ajali kadhaa zilitokea na kuathiri maoni ya watu duniani kuhusu nishati hii. Ajali zilizojulikana sana zilikuwa pamoja na:", "Nishati ya nyuklia\nLakini hasara za njia nyingine za kuzalisha nishati hutokea kwa njia ya ajali ndogo zinazoathiri watu wachache na eneo dogo zaidi katika mazingira ya vituo vya umeme au pale makaa yanapochimbwa au mafuta kusafirishwa. Kinyume chake ajali za nyuklia zina uwezo wa kuathiri watu wengi na maeneo makubwa jinsi ilivyoonekana katika ajali za Chernobyl na Fukushima. Gharama za kuhamisha maelfu ya watu, kuwajengea nyumba mpya, kujenga upya viwanda na kadhalika ni kubwa sana na hadi sasa hakuna kampuni iliyokuwa tayari kutoa bima kwa ajili ya ajali za nyuklia.[8]", "Shirika la Msalaba Mwekundu\nKongamano la Kimataifa la Msalaba Mwekundu na Hilali Nyekundu, ambalo hufanyika mara moja kila miaka minne, ndio taasisi ya juu zaidi katika Muungano huu. Huwaleta pamoja wajumbe kutoka Vyama vyote vya kitaifa na vilevile kutoka ICRC, Shirikisho na majimbo wanachama wa Mikataba ya Geneva. Katika kati ya mikutano, Tume Simamizi huwa na jukumu la kusimami utekelezaji wa maazimio ya kongamano hizo. Isitoshe, Tume Simamizi huratibu ushirikiano kati ya ICRC na Shirikisho. Inajumuisha wawakilishi wawili kutoka ICRC (akiwemo rais wake), wawili kutoka Shirikisho (akiwemo rais wake), na watu watano ambao huchaguliwa na Kongamano la Kimataifa. Tume Simamizi hukutana kila miezi sita hivi. Aidha, mkutano wa Baraza la Wajumbe wa Muungano hufanyika kila miaka miwili katika mfululizo wa mikutano ya Kikao Kikuu cha Shirikisho. Baraza la Wajumbe hupanga na kuratibu shughuli za pamoja za Muungano.", "Shirika la Kimataifa la Nishati ya Nyuklia\nWataalamu wa UM walikuwa wametambua maabara ya kinyuklia nchini Irak yaliyofichwa kinyume na masharti ya mkataba wa kuzuia usambazaji wa silaha za nyuklia. Katika miaka kabla ya uvamizi wa Irak na Marekani IAEA ilifaulu kuchunguza maabara na ofisi nyingi hadi Irak haikuwa tena na utafiti wa kuunda silaha za nyuklia isipokuwa serikali ya Marekani haikuamini taarifa za IAEA na kushambulia Irak hata hivyo. Kamati ya Nobel iliamua ya kwamba IAEA ilijitahidi kuzuia matumizi ya kijeshi ya nishati ya nyuklia na kujenga matumizi salama ya nishati hii.", "Shirika la Kimataifa la Nishati ya Nyuklia\nIAEA pamoja na mkurugenzi Mohamed ElBaradei ilipokea tuzo ya Nobel ya Amani mwaka 2005. Tuzo hili lilitolewa kwa sababu IAEA ilijitahidi kuzuia uvamizi wa Irak mwaka 2001.", "Nishati ya nyuklia\nSuala ambalo bado halina usuluhisho ni suala la bima. Hakuna kampuni inayoweza kutoa ahadi ya bima kwa uharibifu wote unaoweza kutokea baada ya ajali kubwa. Hata kama wataalamu wanaona uwezekano wa ajali kubwa ya aina hii ni ndogo sana, bado haiwezekani kupata bima kamili. Kwa hiyo ni azimio la serikali kuwa tayari kusaidia hapo kwa pesa za umma kama ajali kubwa inatokea.", "Shirika la Kimataifa la Nishati ya Nyuklia\nHata kama si moja kwa moja chini ya katiba ya UM inatoa taarifa zake kwa Mkutano Mkuu wa UM na Baraza la Usalama la UM.", "Novaya Zemlya\nHadi leo Novaya Zemlya ni kituo cha kijeshi na wakazi wengi ni wanajeshi na familia zao. Umoja wa Kisovyeti ulitumia visiwa kwa milipuko ya majaribio ya mabomu ya nyuklia; tar. 30 Oktoba 1961 mlipuko mkubwa wa kinyuklia katika historia ulitekelezwa hapa. Nguvu ya bomu ilikadiriwa kuwa na megatoni 50.", "Idara ya Uchunguzi wa Jinai, Kenya\nIdara ya Uchunguzi wa Jinai (kwa Kiingereza: Directorate of Criminal Investigations, kifupi: DCI au CID) ni kitengo cha Huduma ya Polisi ya Kenya ambacho jukumu lake kuu ni uchunguzi wa jinai. Inaongozwa na Mkurugenzi ambaye huteuliwa na Rais na kuripoti kwa Mkaguzi Mkuu wa Polisi. Makao makuu yako katika Barabara ya Kiambu, Nairobi.", "RETScreen\nMatumizi ya RETScreen imeamurishwa au kupendekezwa na mipango ya motisha ya nishati katika ngazi zote za serikali duniani kote, ikijumuisha UNFCCC na EU; Kanada, New Zealand na Uingereza; majimbo mengi ya Amerika na mikoa ya; miji na manispaa ya Kanada; na matumizi. Warsha za mafunzo ya RETScreen ya kitaifa na kimkoa zimetekelezwa kwa ombi rasmi la Serikali za Chile, Saudia, na nchi 15 za Afrika Magharibi na Kati, na Shirika la Nishati la Amerika ya Kilatino (OLADE).", "Shirika la Kimataifa la Hidrografia\nShirika hili lilianzishwa mwaka 1921 na mataifa 19 kwa jina la \"International Hydrographic Bureau\" (Ofisi ya Kimataifa ya Hidrolojia). Makao makuu yamepelekwa Monaco. Tangu 1970 iko jina la sasa.", "Tanuri la nyuklia\n2. U.K.", "Mkimbizi\nUkiwa na makao yake makuu mjini Geneva, Uswidi, Ofisi ya Ubalozi wa Umoja wa Mataifa wa Wakimbizi (UNHCR kwa kiingereza) (ulioundwa mnamo tarehe 14 Desemba 1950) hulinda na kuwasaidia wakimbizi baada ya ombi la serikali au la Umoja wa Mataifa na huwasaidia kurudi kwao au huwasaidia kutafuta makazi upya. Wakimbizi wote duniani wamo chini ya mamlaka ya Ubalozi wa Umoja wa Mataifa wa Wakimbizi isipokuwa Wapalestina wa Kiarabu waliokimbia lile lililokuja kuwa taifa la Kiyahudi kati ya 1947 na 1948 (angalia hapa chini). Hata hivyo, Wapalestina ambao walikimbia baada maeneo ya Kipalestina baada ya mwaka 1948 (kwa mfano, wakati wa vita vya siku sita vya 1967) wamo chini ya mamlaka ya UNHCR.", "Kenya Power and Lighting Company\nKenya Power and Lighting (KPLC) ni kampuni inayohusika na maambukizi ya umeme na usambazaji wa umeme nchini Kenya. KPLC ni kampuni ya kitaifa ya shirika la umeme inayosimamia upimaji wa mita ya umeme, toleo ya leseni, fakturering, huduma ya umeme wa dharura na mahusiano ya mteja.[1]. Makao makuu ya KPLC yako katika Electricity House, Harambee Avenue jijini Nairobi; inaendesha ofisi mingi kote nchini Kenya.", "Nishati ya nyuklia\nmbunguo nyuklia (nuclear decay), mwatuko nyuklia (fission), na myeyungano nyuklia (fusion).", "Tanesco\nKatika mwaka 1931 umeme ulipatikana kutoka katika makampuni mawili: \"Tanganyika Electric Supply Company Ltd. (Tanesco)\" na Dar es Salaam na Wilaya ya Electric Supply Company Ltd (Danesco).\nUsimamizi wa Tanesco unafanyika kwenye makao makuu ya Umeme Tanzania huko Ubungo, Dar es Salaam. ", "Shirika la Afya Duniani\nMakao makuu ya WHO yapo Geneva (Uswisi). Kuna ofisi sita za kikanda kama zifuatazo:", "UNODC\nMakao makuu yako Vienna, Austria.", "Bomu la nyuklia\nNishati inayopatikana kwa njia ya mmenyuko mfululizo wa kinyuklia ni kubwa sana. Bomu moja la nyuklia yatosha kuharibu kabisa mji jinsi ilivyotokea mnamo Agosti 1945 huko Hiroshima na Nagasaki. Mabomu hayo yalikuwa madogo sana kuliko mabomu yaliyotengenezwa baadaye.", "Scientology\nMakao makuu ya Scientology yako Marekani, katika kijiji cha Clearwater. ", "Italia\nMakao makuu ni jiji la Roma, lenye umuhimu mkubwa katika historia ya dunia nzima.", "Nishati ya nyuklia\nNishati ya nyuklia inayozalishwa kiteknolojia siku hizi inapatikana kwa njia ya mwatuko nyuklia yaani kwa kupasua atomi katika matanuri ya nyuklia.", "Myeyungano wa kinyuklia\nKama masi yake ni kubwa, angalau mara kumi ya Jua letu, mlipuko na kutokea kwa nyota ya nova inaweza kutokea. \nKuna majaribio ya kibinadamu ya kuiga mchakato huu katika mitambo lakini hadi sasa haikuwezakana bado kufikia teknolojia inayoruhusu kuzalisha umeme kwa njia hii. ", "Mashimo ya Ajabu Duniani\nShimo hili lipo upande wa kaskazini magharibi mwa nchi ya Canada katika mgodi wa Diavik ukiwa umeanzishwa mwaka 2003. Mgodi huu uzalisha kilo 1600 za almasi kila mwaka.", "Shirika la Msalaba Mwekundu\nKamati ya Kimataifa ya Msalaba Mwekundu (ICRC) ni taasisi ya kibinafsi ya kibinadamu iliyoanzilishwa mnamo mwaka wa 1863 mjini Geneva, Uswisi na Henry Dunant. Kamati hii inayojumuisha wanachama 25 ina mamlaka ya kipekee chini ya sheria ya kibinadamu ya kimataifa kulinda maisha na heshima ya walioathirika na migogoro mbalimbali ya kimataifa. ICRC imewahi kupatiwa Tuzo ya Amani ya Nobel mara tatu (mwaka 1917, 1944 na 1963). [2]", "Tanuri la nyuklia\nMnamo mwaka 2011 kulikuwa na matanuri nyuklia 437 zilizozalisha nishati nyuklia iliyokuwa takriban asilimia 5 za umeme duniani.\nMatanuri ya nyuklia ni mitambo ghali sana kwa sababu unururifu wa urani na plutoni ni kali, zinahitaji kufikia kiwango cha juu cha usalama. Tatizo lingine ni kiasi kikubwa cha takataka ya nyuklia inayohitaji kutunzwa salama kwa miaka mia elfu kadhaa. ", "Shirika la Msalaba Mwekundu\nKama ICRC, Shirikisho hili lina makao yake makuu mjini Geneva. Pia inaendesha ofisi za kudumu 14 za mikoa na ina karibu wajumbe 350 katika zaidi ya Jumbe 60 duniani kote. Msingi wa kisheria wa kazi ya Shirikisho ni katiba yake. Mtendaji wa Shirikisho ni sekretarieti, ikiongozwa na Katibu Mkuu. Sekretarieti huungwa mkono na vitengo vinne hususan \"Support Services\", \"National Society and Field Support\", \"Policy and Relations\" na \"Movement Cooperation\". Kitengo cha Movement Cooperation hupanga mwingiliano na ushirikiano na ICRC. Ofisi kuu zaidi ya Shirikisho ni Baraza Kuu ambalo hukutana kila baada ya miaka miwili pamoja na wajumbe kutoka Vyama vyote vya kitaifa. Miongoni mwa kazi nyingine, Baraza kuu huchagua Katibu Mkuu. Kati ya mikutano Baraza Kuu, Bodi ya Uongozi ndiyo huongoza shughuli za Shirikisho. Ina mamlaka ya kufanya maamuzi kwa niaba ya Shirikisho katika maeneo kadhaa. Bodi ya Uongozi inajumuisha rais na makamu wa rais wa Shirikisho, Mwenyekiti wa Tume ya Fedha, na wawakilishi ishirini kutoka kwa Vyama vya kitaifa. Husaidiwa na tume ya ziada nne: \"Disaster Relief\", \"Youth\", \"Health & Community Services\", na \"Development\".", "Trinitrotoluene\nMilipuko mikubwa hasa ya mabomu ya nyuklia hupimwa kwa \"kilotani\" au \"megatani\" za TNT. Bomu la nyuklia la kwanza lililotupwa na Marekani huko Hiroshima (Japani) mwaka 1945 lilikuwa na nguvu ya kilotani 15. Mabomu makubwa yaliyotengenezwa wakati wa vita baridi yalikuwa na nguvu zaidi; Marekani iliandaa mabomu hadi megatani 25; mwaka 1961 Umoja wa Kisovyeti (Urusi) ililipusha bomu la nyuklia la jaribio lenye nguvu ya megatani 50 huko kwenye kisiwa Novaya Zemlya.", "Myeyungano wa kinyuklia\nKuanzia uzito wa chuma myeyungano unahitaji nishati zaidi kuliko kuzalisha. Elementi nzito kuliko chuma zinatokea tu katika milipuko ya nyota nova na supanova penye joto na shinikizo kubwa mno katika milipuko hii. ", "RETScreen\nRETScreen inasimamiwa chini ya uongozi na msaada wa kifedha unaoendelea wa Kituo cha Utafiti cha CanmetENERGY Varennes cha Rasilimali za Asili za Kanada, idara ya Serikali ya Kanada. Timu kuu hushirikiana na mashirika mengine ya serikali na ya kimataifa, na msaada wa kitaalamu kutoka kwa mtandao mkubwa wa wataalamu kutoka kwa viwanda, serikali na shule. Washirika wakuu ni pamoja na Langley Research Center ya NASA, Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership (REEEP), Independent Electricity System Operator (IESO), Kitengo chaNishati cha UNEP cha Idara ya Teknolojia, Viwanda na Uchumi, Global Environment Facility (GEF), Mchango wa Kupunguza Kaboni wa World Bank, na Mpango wa Nishati Endelevu wa Chuo kikuu cha York.", "Transparency International\nTransparency International (kifupi TI) ni Shirika Lisilo la Kiserikali la kimataifa lenye shabaha ya kupambana dhidi ya rushwa na hongo kote duniani. Makao makuu yako Berlin (Ujerumani).", "Nishati ya nyuklia\nTanuri nyuklia la kwanza lililotengeneza umeme kwa ajili ya nyumba za watu na viwanda lilikuwa mwaka 1954 kituo cha Obninsk karibu na mji wa Moscow nchini Urusi, kikifuatwa na kituo cha Calder Hall, Sellafield huko Uingereza.", "Mahakama ya Kimataifa ya Jinai\nKufikia mwaka wa 2010, nchi 110 ni wanachama wa mahakama hayo, na nchi zingine 38 zimetia sahini lakini hazijapitisha kisheria Mkataba wa Roma. Hata hivyo, mataifa mengi, ikiwemo Uchina, Uhindi, Urusi na Marekani zinazidi kuyakosoa mahakama hayo na hazijajiunga nayo.", "Nike\nNike ni shirika la kimataifa la Marekani ambalo linashiriki katika kubuni maendeleo ya viwanda, na masoko duniani kote na mauzo ya viatu, nguo, vifaa na huduma mbalimbali. Kampuni hiyo iko karibu na Beaverton, Oregon, eneo la mji mkuu wa Portland. ", "Shirika la Kimataifa la Nishati ya Nyuklia\nKazi inatekelezwa katika idara sita za utawala, sayansi ya nyuklia na matumizi yake, nishati nyuklia, usalama wa nyuklia, ushirikiano wa kiteknolojia na usimamizi wa vituo vya kinyuklia duniani.", "Nishati ya nyuklia\nKupasuliwa kwa atomi (mwatuko nyuklia) hutekelezwa kwa kufyatulia neutroni zinazopiga kiini cha atomi na kukipasua. Kazi hii inatekelezwa kwa kutumia tabia nururifu ya urani au plutoni. Urani si elementi imara maana kila baada ya muda fulani atomi moja ya urani inajigawa na kutupa nje sehemu ya chembe za kiini chake, hasa nyutroni. Kama idadi kubwa ya kutosha ya urani inakusanywa mahali pamoja chembe hizo zitagonga kiini kingine cha urani na kusababisha kupasuliwa kwake. Hapo ni tena nyutroni mpya zinazoachishwa katika mazingira na kugongana tena na viini vingine vya atomi za urani na kadhalika. Mmenyuko huo unaendelea. Katika mitambo ya tanuri nyuklia mwatuko huo wa atomi unaongozwa na kuna kiasi fulani tu ya urani kinachoingizwa katika mchakato huo na kinachotokea ni mmenyuko mfululizo unaosimamiwa na kutumiwa kwa kuzalisha joto. Mwendo wa mmenyuko unatawaliwa kwa kuongeza au kupunguza vizuizi vya mata inayozuia mwendo wa nyutroni (kama vile kadimi, boroni au kinywe) kati ya vipande vya urani.", "Nishati ya nyuklia\nUrani ni elementi nururifu ya kufaa inayotokea kiasili ilhali imesambazwa katika ardhi bila kufikia kiwango cha kuanzisha mmenyuko [2]. Plutoni inatokea katika matanuri ya nyuklia.", "Tuzo ya Nobel ya Amani\n1985 Shirika la Madaktari wa Kimataifa kwa Kuzuia Vita ya Nyuklia", "Megawati\nKizio hiki hutumika kutaja uwezo wa vituo vya kuzalisha umeme. Kwa mfano kituo cha nyuklia huwa na uwezo wa megawati 500 - 1500. ", "Benki ya Zenith\nBenki ya Zenith (ZETH.LG) ni benki iliyoko Nigeria katika kisiwa cha Victoria, Lagos. Kufikia Novemba 2007, ilikuwa kampuni kubwa zaidi nchini Nigeria na kwote Afrika Magharibi, ikiwa na mitaji ya dola bilioni 21 kulingana na tangazo katika CNN. Bali na Nigeria, benki hii ina matawi nchini Ghana, Sierra Leone, Afrika ya Kusini, na Uingereza. ", "NATO\nNATO ni kifupi cha North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (Kifaransa: OTAN, Organisation du Traité de l'Atlantique Nord) au Jumuiya ya Mkataba wa Atlantiki ya Kaskazini ambayo ni ushirikiano wa kujihami ya kambi ya magharibi. Inaunganisha nchi nyingi za Ulaya pamoja na Marekani na Kanada. Nchi wanachama zimeahidi kuteteana kama moja inashambuliwa na nje. Makao makuu yapo Brussels." ]

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[ "L’ADSL (de l'anglais ) est une technique de communication numérique (couche physique) de la famille xDSL. Elle permet d'utiliser une ligne téléphonique, une ligne spécialisée, ou encore une ligne RNIS (en anglais ISDN pour ), pour transmettre et recevoir des données numériques de manière indépendante du service téléphonique conventionnel (analogique). À ce titre, cette méthode de communication diffère de celle utilisée lors de l'exploitation de modems dits « analogiques », dont les signaux sont échangés dans le cadre d'une communication téléphonique (similaire au fax, c'est-à-dire sur des fréquences vocales). La technologie ADSL est massivement mise en œuvre par les fournisseurs d'accès à Internet pour le support des accès dits « haut-débit ».\n\nDescription \nLe sigle ADSL vient de l'anglais , qui se traduit fonctionnellement par « [liaison] numérique [à débit] asymétrique [sur] ligne d'abonné ». La terminologie française officielle recommande l'expression , mais le sigle « ADSL » reste le plus largement utilisé dans le langage courant.\n\nComme son nom l'indique, la technologie ADSL fournit un débit asymétrique. Le flux de données est plus important dans un sens de transmission que dans l'autre. Contrairement à la technologie SDSL pour laquelle le débit est symétrique, donc équivalent en émission et en réception, le débit de données montant d'une communication ADSL () est plus faible que le débit descendant (), dans un rapport qui varie généralement .\n\nHistoire \nAlors qu'il étudiait les moyens de transmettre des informations à haut débit sur une ligne téléphonique, Joseph Lechleider, ingénieur aux laboratoires de recherche Bell, constata que lorsque les débits ascendant et descendant étaient identiques (SDSL), les interférences et les parasites étaient souvent trop nombreux et perturbaient la communication. Tenant compte du fait que ces nouvelles technologies seraient mises en œuvre dans un cadre où le but premier était de fournir du contenu, il imagina donc un moyen de favoriser la vitesse de téléchargement aux dépens de la vitesse d’émission et rendit ainsi la communication asymétrique. Le brevet fut déposé en 1988.\n\nEn France, le lancement commercial de l'ADSL a été effectué par France Telecom Interactive en 1999 ; l'ADSL a commencé à décliner au quatrième trimestre 2014 face à la concurrence de la fibre optique et du VDSL2 qui apportent un débit supérieur.\n\nPrincipe de fonctionnement \n\nLa ligne téléphonique qui relie le domicile d'un abonné à l'autocommutateur public qui dessert son quartier (le « central téléphonique ») est constituée d'une paire de fils de cuivre, en général continue entre ces deux points (la boucle locale). Les signaux utilisés pour la téléphonie classique RTC (sonnerie, numérotation multifréquences, voix) occupent une bande de fréquences qui généralement s'étend de environ. Le principe de l'ADSL consiste à exploiter une autre bande de fréquence, située au-dessus de celle utilisée pour la téléphonie, pour échanger des données numériques en parallèle avec une éventuelle conversation téléphonique. Grâce à cette séparation dans le domaine fréquentiel, les signaux ADSL qui transportent les données et les signaux téléphoniques qui transportent la voix circulent donc simultanément sur la même ligne d'abonné sans interférer les uns avec les autres.\n\nL'ADSL fait partie d'une famille de technologies semblables, regroupées sous le terme générique DSL (ou xDSL). Les différents membres de cette famille se différencient par leur nature symétrique ou asymétrique, les débits offerts, les longueurs de ligne compatibles avec une qualité de service déterminée, etc. Parmi ces technologies, on peut citer le SDSL et les VDSL et VDSL2 ; toutefois, la méthode SDSL de transmission exploite la totalité de la bande passante de la ligne téléphonique, et ne permet donc plus le partage de celle-ci entre un service de téléphonie analogique et la transmission SDSL.\n\nMise en œuvre \n\nL'ADSL nécessite l'installation d'équipements de communication spécifiques à cette technologie aux deux extrémités de la ligne téléphonique (souvent dénommée « paire de cuivre » dans le jargon des télécommunications ou encore boucle locale). Dans les locaux de l'autocommutateur public, l'équipement qui traite les signaux ADSL d'un groupe d'abonnés s'appelle un DSLAM (pour ). Chez l'abonné, l'équipement qui effectue la même fonction est soit un modem ADSL, soit un routeur ADSL (qui n'est autre qu'un routeur classique muni d'un modem ADSL interne).\n\nL'ADSL utilise un spectre de fréquences étendu sur un support physique qui n'était pas conçu pour cela à l'origine (la paire de cuivre). Cette technologie peut donc se révéler inexploitable sur des lignes d'abonnés qui présentent une trop forte atténuation pour les signaux de l'ADSL. C'est le cas lorsque la section de la paire cuivrée est trop faible ou lorsque la longueur de la ligne est trop importante. Le terme d'éligibilité technique est utilisé pour qualifier la compatibilité d'une ligne téléphonique donnée avec l'ADSL. Cette éligibilité peut être vérifiée sur les sites Web des fournisseurs d'accès.\n\nLe signal ADSL transite sur la paire cuivrée téléphonique au même titre que le signal téléphonique, et la cohabitation de ces deux types de signaux requiert l'installation de filtres destinés à séparer les fréquences respectives des deux flux. Au niveau de l'autocommutateur public, ces filtres sont installés sous la forme d'armoires de filtrage qui regroupent plusieurs centaines, voire plusieurs milliers de cartes électroniques de filtrage. Chez l'abonné, la séparation des deux flux est réalisée au moyen d'un filtre ADSL placé entre la prise téléphonique et la fiche de connexion du téléphone.\n\nDans le cas où la ligne n'est utilisée que pour l'ADSL (cas des lignes en ADSL nu ou en dégroupage total) un filtre n'a aucune utilité.\n\nLe signal à destination de l'ordinateur, arrive au modem qui extrait les données numériques du signal ADSL. Ces données sont ensuite transmises à l'ordinateur, par l'intermédiaire d'un câble Ethernet, d'un câble USB ou encore grâce à une liaison Wi-Fi.\n\nLes données numériques véhiculées par l'ADSL peuvent servir de support à une communication téléphonique (VoIP), ou à la diffusion de programmes de télévision numérique (le plus souvent en MPEG-2, mais aussi en MPEG-4). On voit donc apparaître des familles de modems ADSL évolués qui permettent de traiter ces flux de manière native. En France, c'est le cas de nombreuses « » proposées par les fournisseurs d'accès à Internet : Freebox, Livebox, Neuf Box, Alice Box ou DartyBox. Ces modems spécialisés sont munis de connecteurs qui permettent d'y raccorder directement un poste téléphonique (connecteur RJ-11) ou un téléviseur (connecteur péritel ou HDMI). Pour des raisons de commodité de mise en œuvre et de limitation de la consommation électrique, ces matériels se présentent souvent sous la forme de deux boîtiers distincts. Dans ce cas, le premier boîtier assure généralement la communication ADSL proprement dite, ainsi que le support des fonctions de téléphonie et de transmission de données informatiques. Le second boîtier supporte les services multimédias comme la réception des chaînes de radio et de télévision numérique, l'enregistrement et la restitution des flux audio et vidéo sur disque dur embarqué ou externe, la restitution de programmes en différé La communication entre les deux boîtiers peut emprunter un câble Ethernet, une liaison Wi-Fi, ou encore un système de courants porteurs en ligne.\n\nDétails de fonctionnement \n : Le terme de sous-porteuse utilisé dans les chapitres ci-dessous est un abus de langage. Il s'agit en réalité de porteuses parce qu'elles ne modulent pas une porteuse principale.\n\nDomaine fréquentiel \n : les chapitres ci-dessous concernent les modes ADSL, ADSL2 et Re-ADSL. Le mode ADSL2+ fait l'objet d'un paragraphe distinct en fin de chapitre.\n\nL'ADSL fait appel à la notion de sous-porteuses : la bande de fréquences comprise entre et environ est divisée de . À chaque intervalle est associée une sous-porteuse, qui donne un signal modulé. La n-ième sous-porteuse est donc matérialisée sous la forme d'un signal dont la fréquence de base vaut . Un modem ADSL peut donc être considéré comme la mise en parallèle d'un grand nombre de modems analogiques, chacun transmettant sur une fréquence différente : pour le premier, pour le second, pour le troisième, et ainsi de suite.\n\nLa sous-porteuse n'est pas utilisée, car elle correspond à un signal de fréquence nulle. Les sous-porteuses d'indice 1 à 255 sont théoriquement utilisables pour transmettre des données. Toutefois, les sous-porteuses ne sont en général pas exploitées en raison de la présence possible de signaux téléphoniques dans une gamme de fréquences proche des fréquences utilisées par ces sous-porteuses. Dans la pratique, lorsque l'ADSL est mis en œuvre sur une ligne téléphonique classique (analogique), les sous-porteuses d'indice 7 à 255 sont donc disponibles pour la communication ADSL proprement dite.\n\nL'ADSL2 et le Re-ADSL () sont des évolutions de la technologie ADSL d'origine. Grâce à une technique de modulation/démodulation améliorée, ces nouveaux modes permettent d'obtenir une meilleure immunité de la communication aux perturbations et un fonctionnement acceptable sur des lignes qui auraient été trop longues pour supporter une transmission ADSL classique.\n\nRépartition des sous-porteuses entre sens montant et sens descendant \nL'ADSL est considéré par les instances de normalisation comme une technologie destinée essentiellement au grand public mais aussi aux PME et aux TPE. Vis-à-vis des ressources disponibles sur Internet, cette catégorie de clients est en général davantage amenée à télécharger des informations (consultation d'un site Web, par exemple) qu'à envoyer des informations vers un site distant. Il a donc été décidé de favoriser le sens de la communication qui va du réseau vers l'abonné (descendant en français, en anglais), au détriment du sens qui va de l'abonné vers le réseau (montant en français, en anglais). C'est pour cela que l'ADSL est qualifié d’asymétrique : le nombre de sous-porteuses affectées au sens descendant est plus élevé que le nombre de sous-porteuses affectées au sens montant.\n\nQuand l'ADSL est mis en œuvre sur une ligne téléphonique classique (analogique : RTC), les sous-porteuses 7 à 31 sont affectées au trafic émis par l'abonné vers le réseau. Les , quant à elles, sont affectées au trafic reçu du réseau par l'abonné. En ADSL1, la sous-porteuse d'indice 64 sert de signal de référence (« porteuse pilote ») pour les deux sens de communication et n'est pas modulée. Dans les modes ADSL2 et supérieurs, le choix de la sous-porteuse utilisée comme pilote fait partie de la négociation préalable à la synchronisation.\n\nLes modems ADSL les plus récents comportent des systèmes de traitement numérique basés sur une technique d'annulation d'écho qui permet, si nécessaire, d'utiliser aussi les sous-porteuses d'indice inférieur à 32 pour transporter des données de la voie descendante. Dans la pratique, ce mode de fonctionnement n'apporte qu'un gain de débit limité, au prix d'une plus grande sensibilité aux perturbations, et il ne semble donc pas promis à une large mise en œuvre.\n\nIl existe deux variantes de l'ADSL que l'on utilise selon que la ligne d'abonné est une ligne téléphonique analogique (dans ce cas, on utilise l'ADSL annexe A) ou une ligne exploitée en RNIS (dans ce dernier cas, on utilise l'annexe B). Les paragraphes ci-dessus décrivent la répartition des sous-porteuses de l'ADSL annexe A. Comme la plage des fréquences utilisées par le RNIS est plus étendue que pour la téléphonie classique (RTC), et atteint la centaine de kilohertz (kHz), l'annexe B prévoit de réserver davantage de sous-porteuses inutilisées dans le bas de bande, et décale d'autant la frontière entre les sous-porteuses utilisées pour le sens montant et celles utilisées pour le sens descendant. L'annexe B est utilisée en Allemagne, par exemple, où la plupart des lignes du réseau téléphonique public étaient exploitées en RNIS.\n\nOn peut également signaler l'existence d'une autre annexe qui permet de disposer d'un plus grand nombre de sous-porteuses pour le sens montant (annexe M), au détriment du nombre de porteuses affectées au sens descendant. Cette option est relativement peu utilisée et n'est d'ailleurs pas autorisée sur le réseau public en France, car elle peut perturber par intermodulation une communication ADSL classique sur une ligne d'abonné adjacente (diaphonie, ou en anglais).\n\nModulation des sous-porteuses \n\nChaque sous-porteuse est modulée en amplitude et en phase, au rythme de par seconde (on notera toutefois que ce nombre n'est pas tout à fait exact, voir plus bas le paragraphe « supertrames »). Un symbole est un état de modulation qui peut représenter un plus ou moins grand nombre de bits d'information.\n\nLa complexité de modulation de chaque sous-porteuse est choisie en fonction de la qualité de transmission observée sur la ligne pour cette sous-porteuse. En effet, les modulations complexes permettent de transporter un nombre élevé de bits, ce qui favorise le débit, mais ce type de modulation est plus difficile à décoder au niveau du récepteur et est plus sensible aux interférences et donc plus susceptible de subir des erreurs de transmission provoquées par les éventuelles perturbations de la ligne. Le niveau de modulation de chaque sous-porteuse peut donc être ajusté pour transporter entre d'information par symbole. Le nombre de bits affecté à chaque sous-porteuse est déterminé en début de connexion, après une phase de mesure de qualité de la ligne effectuée par échange de signaux de test entre les deux équipements ADSL qui établissent la communication.\n\nStructure des informations\n\nTrames ADSL \nLes informations transportées par l'ADSL dans chaque sens de communication sont organisées en trames d'une taille égale à la somme des bits véhiculés par l'ensemble des sous-porteuses affectées à ce sens de communication. En supposant par exemple que le sens descendant utilise 40 sous-porteuses et que chaque sous-porteuse transporte par symbole, la taille de la trame correspondante est de , soit . Chaque sous-porteuse étant modulée à raison de symboles par seconde, ce sont donc qui sont envoyées à chaque seconde, et avec les chiffres de notre exemple, le débit brut du sens descendant s'établit à , soit .\n\nChaque trame contient des informations de service, des données utilisateur, et éventuellement des octets de redondance utilisés pour détecter et si possible corriger les erreurs. Ce mécanisme de détection et de correction d'erreurs, connu sous le nom de FEC (pour ) fait appel au code de Reed-Solomon. Chaque trame transporte donc des données qui ont été préalablement organisées sous la forme d'un ou plusieurs mot-code(s) ( en anglais) Reed-Solomon.\n\nSupertrames ADSL \nPour des raisons de synchronisation, les trames ADSL sont regroupées en « trains » de consécutives et complétées par une de contrôle qui contient des informations de service additionnelles plutôt que des données utilisateur. Ces groupes de sont désignés sous le nom de « supertrames ».\n\nLa présence d'une trame de contrôle pour chaque groupe de « prend de la place » en ligne et devrait normalement affecter le débit des données utiles. Pour éviter ce problème, la véritable rapidité de modulation de chaque sous-porteuse est non pas de par seconde comme indiqué plus haut, mais de symboles par seconde (environ par seconde), ce qui permet de transmettre exactement par seconde.\n\nCapacité de trafic\n\nSens descendant \nEn supposant que la qualité de la ligne le permette, chaque sous-porteuse peut utiliser des symboles de , et transmet symboles par seconde. Pour le sens descendant, on dispose de 223 sous-porteuses pour transporter des données utilisateur (ce sont les sous-porteuses 32 à 255, moins la sous-porteuse pilote 64). Sans autre limitation, le débit maximum théorique du sens descendant s'établirait donc à , soit .\n\nDans la pratique, ce débit est moindre pour deux raisons principales :\n la structure des mots-codes Reed-Solomon ne permet pas de transporter plus d'un certain nombre d'octets utilisateur dans chaque trame. Pour le sens descendant, le format utilisé pour les mots-codes accepte un maximum de à partager entre les données utiles et d'éventuels octets de redondance. Cette taille conditionne le débit maximum théorique qui s'établit à une valeur de , soit ;\n les caractéristiques de la ligne (atténuation, perturbations externes) font qu'il n'est souvent pas possible de transmettre par symbole, de manière fiable, pour chaque sous-porteuse.\n\nÀ cause de ces deux facteurs, le débit net maximum du sens descendant s'établit en général à une valeur intermédiaire, de l'ordre de quelques centaines à quelques milliers de kilobits par seconde. Par ailleurs, en fonction de l'abonnement souscrit (on parle de « paliers de débit »), le débit peut être volontairement limité par les équipements du fournisseur d'accès à Internet, indépendamment des possibilités techniques.\n\nEn ce qui concerne la limitation induite par le code Reed-Solomon, une modification ultérieure de la norme prévoit un format différent pour les mots-codes (tramage « S=1/2 »), qui permet de véhiculer presque deux fois plus de données utilisateur dans chaque mot-code. Lorsque ce format est mis en œuvre, le débit n'est plus limité que par le nombre de bits qui peuvent être transportés par l'ensemble des affectées au sens descendant. Le débit maximum théorique de l'ADSL s'établit alors à un peu plus de pour le sens descendant.\n\nCes valeurs ne s'appliquent pas à l'ADSL2+, qui utilise un nombre de sous-porteuses plus élevé.\n\nSens montant \nLe même calcul s'applique aux 31 sous-porteuses disponibles pour transporter les données dans le sens montant, et les mêmes restrictions existent à cause de la structure des mots-codes Reed-Solomon. Le débit maximum du sens montant s'établit donc à (cette valeur est la même pour l'ADSL2+).\n\nADSL2+ \n\nL’ADSL2+ est une évolution de l'ADSL qui utilise 511 sous-porteuses au lieu de 255, grâce à une extension de la bande de fréquences utilisées jusqu'à environ. Cette capacité accrue, associée à une structure de trame modifiée pour permettre le transport d'un plus grand nombre d'octets dans chaque trame, permet d'atteindre des débits de données de plus de dans le sens descendant. La capacité et le débit du sens montant restent inchangés par rapport à l'ADSL « classique ».\n\nToutefois, les performances accrues de l'ADSL2+ ne sont accessibles que dans de bonnes conditions :\n atténuation faible, qui dépend du type de câblage (section) et de la longueur de la ligne ;\n faible niveau de bruit, qui dépend de l'isolation de la ligne sur les câbles (blindage du câble, présence de paires voisines le long du même faisceau de câble utilisées pour d'autres services, comme le RNIS), de son implantation aérienne (plus exposée) ou enterrée ;\n absence de perturbations électromagnétiques puissantes le long du parcours (absence d’émetteurs radio AM à proximité) ;\n nombre faible d'épissures le long du câble (sources de bruit par écho et résonance) ;\n câblage de pose récente (à cause du vieillissement des isolants, les fuites de puissance augmentent avec le temps, et la résistance des conducteurs augmente par oxydation) ;\n nombre faible et qualité des filtres installés au domicile ou au central (l'offre de dégroupage partiel induit un filtrage mixte, source d'atténuation supplémentaire) ;\n bonne isolation et qualité du câblage de l'installation intérieure chez l'abonné (protection contre les sources de parasites induits par l'équipement électronique, les lampadaires halogène, les déclencheurs de tubes néon, les équipements de puissance, absence de câbles longs laissés « flottants » sur la prise d'extrémité).\n\nTransport des données \nComme expliqué plus haut, chaque trame ADSL élémentaire transporte un mot-code Reed-Solomon, lequel comporte des informations de service, des octets de redondance utilisés pour détecter et si possible corriger les erreurs, et un espace destiné aux données de l'utilisateur.\n\nTypiquement, les données utilisateur sont organisées sous la forme de cellules en protocole ATM, d'une longueur unitaire de , disponibles pour les données utilisateur proprement dites. Les de chaque cellule ATM contiennent les références du circuit virtuel ATM, ainsi que des informations relatives à l'organisation des données utilisateur au sein d'un groupe de cellules consécutives. À l'émission, les données issues de l'équipement informatique de l'abonné (paquets IP, messages PPP ou encore trames PPPoE) sont automatiquement fragmentées en tronçons de et réparties dans autant de cellules ATM que nécessaire. À la réception, les données transportées par chaque cellule sont extraites, et le message d'origine est automatiquement reconstitué avant d'être délivré à l'équipement destinataire.\n\nGestion des erreurs de transmission \nLes données redondantes transmises au sein de chaque trame ADSL permettent de détecter et, dans une certaine mesure, de corriger les erreurs de réception. Si l'erreur n'affecte que quelques bits dans la trame ADSL reçue, un mécanisme de correction d'erreur () incorporé au circuit de réception est en général capable de reconstruire les données abîmées. L'erreur est signalée dans les statistiques de réception sous la forme d'une « erreur FEC ». En revanche, si les données sont trop abîmées pour pouvoir être reconstituées, l'erreur est signalée sous la forme d'une « erreur CRC ». Dans certains cas, une erreur affecte l'en-tête d'une cellule ATM, et cette altération est détectée par le récepteur, qui la signale sous la forme d'une « erreur HEC ». Enfin, si le taux d'erreur est suffisamment grand, la structure de la trame ADSL elle-même peut être affectée au point que plus aucune donnée reçue n'est utilisable. On constate alors une perte de tramage (« erreur LOF ») qui peut aller jusqu'à la perte totale de synchronisation (« erreur LOS »). En présence de ce type d'erreur, le modem ADSL réagit le plus souvent en interrompant la communication et en entamant une nouvelle procédure de synchronisation depuis le début. C'est le phénomène connu sous le nom de « désynchronisation » par les internautes.\n\nLe protocole ATM ne supporte pas nativement de système de correction des erreurs. Quand se produit une erreur suffisamment sévère pour que le dispositif de correction d'erreur natif de l'ADSL (FEC) ne puisse pas la corriger, les cellules ATM affectées par l'erreur sont supprimées en réception. Il manque donc un segment dans les données utilisateur reçues par le destinataire. En général, une couche de protocole de niveau supérieur (TCP par exemple) fait le nécessaire pour demander la retransmission de ce segment manquant.\n\nRedistribution des bits entre sous-porteuses () \nLes modems ADSL maintiennent en permanence des statistiques sur la qualité de réception, qui est mesurée sur chaque sous-porteuse. Cette évaluation est faite au démarrage de la communication ADSL (phase de synchronisation) par l'intermédiaire de données de test émises sur chaque sous-porteuse et par l'échange d'informations entre les deux modems sur la qualité du signal reçu. Par la suite, les variations du rapport signal-sur-bruit de chaque sous-porteuse, représentatives de la qualité de réception, sont surveillées individuellement. Lorsqu'une sous-porteuse est affectée par des perturbations, le modem et l'équipement distant ont la possibilité d'échanger des requêtes qui leur permettent d'augmenter la puissance d'émission dévolue à cette sous-porteuse ou de réduire le nombre de bits transmis sur celle-ci, et de transférer la différence sur une sous-porteuse qui bénéficie de meilleures conditions de réception. Ce mécanisme est connu sous le nom de en anglais, et fonctionne de manière indépendante dans le sens montant et dans le sens descendant.\n\nLatence de transmission \nLe temps de latence constaté en réception dépend du mode de transport des cellules ATM au sein des trames ADSL. Il existe deux modes de transport qui affectent différemment les données :\n le mode « » dans lequel les bits sont transmis sur la base d'un ordre « premier entré, premier sorti ». Dans ce mode, la latence est minimum, mais une éventuelle perturbation du signal abîmera en général un grand nombre de bits adjacents d'une même cellule ATM, ce qui rend l'information impossible à reconstituer par le mécanisme de FEC. Il est donc fréquent de ne pas utiliser du tout la correction d'erreurs FEC en mode ;\n le mode « », dans lequel le modem envoie le premier bit de l'octet a, suivi du premier bit de l'octet b, etc., jusqu'au premier bit de l'octet k, suivi du second bit de l'octet a, du second bit de l'octet b, etc. jusqu'au dernier bit de l'octet k-1 et au dernier bit de l'octet k. Dans ce mode, lorsqu'une perturbation se produit, elle affecte en général un seul bit par octet, même si cela se produit dans un grand nombre d'octets. Dans ces circonstances, le mécanisme de FEC est en général capable de reconstruire l'information affectée par la perturbation. En contrepartie, la latence du mode est plus grande que celle du mode , puisque le récepteur doit attendre d'avoir reçu 'k' octets avant de pouvoir délivrer l'octet 'a', puis l'octet 'b'\n\nLes utilisateurs qui ont besoin d'un temps de latence faible (joueurs en ligne, par exemple) exploitent donc le mode de transmission quand l'opérateur le propose, tandis que les utilisateurs qui recherchent une bonne fiabilité de transmission préfèrent le mode . En mode fast path, le temps de latence typique est de l'ordre de , alors qu'il se rapproche plutôt des en mode .\n\nEstimation du débit maximal réel en fonction de la longueur de la ligne \nComme illustré par le tableau d'exemples ci-dessous, le débit maximal dans le sens descendant dépend du mode de modulation utilisé (ADSL1 / ADSL2 / ADSL2+) et de l'atténuation totale subie par les signaux durant leur trajet sur la ligne de l'abonné. Cette atténuation totale dépend de la longueur et du diamètre de chaque tronçon de la ligne.\n\nExemples de valeurs d'atténuation et de débits en fonction de la longueur de la ligne :\n\nEn fonction de la distance, on constate que l'ADSL2+ procure des débits plus importants que l'ADSL1 et l'ADSL2. Ce ratio doit toutefois être considéré avec prudence, car il ne tient pas compte d'une éventuelle utilisation du tramage qui permettrait de dépasser les en ADSL1 ou en ADSL2 dans les exemples les plus favorables cités dans le tableau.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nProblèmes de transmission \nL'ADSL peut parfois se révéler délicat à mettre en œuvre sur certaines lignes d'abonné. La bande de fréquences utilisée par les sous-porteuses de l'ADSL couvre en effet à peu près le domaine des fréquences radio correspondant aux « grandes ondes » et aux « ondes moyennes ». De nos jours, ces bandes de fréquences sont encore utilisées pour des émissions réalisées en modulation d'amplitude, lesquelles souffrent en général d'une réception de moins bonne qualité que celles réalisées en modulation de fréquence, avec des variations de signal parfois importantes, des craquements et sifflements qui résultent des perturbations extérieures. De ce point de vue, une communication ADSL peut être assimilée à une « transmission radio AM sur ligne téléphonique » et elle est donc sujette aux mêmes distorsions et perturbations.\n\nEn fonction du trajet emprunté par une ligne d'abonné entre le domicile et l'autocommutateur public, il n'est pas rare que des perturbations ponctuelles ou permanentes affectent les signaux ADSL. Si elles sont d'une nature continue, ces perturbations sont détectées et évaluées par les équipements ADSL au moment de la synchronisation, et les sous-porteuses correspondantes sont délaissées au profit de sous-porteuses plus fiables.\n\nMais les perturbations les plus gênantes pour les communications ADSL sont celles que l'on classe dans la catégorie du « bruit impulsionnel », car elles sont trop rapides pour être prises en compte efficacement par le dispositif de redistribution des données entre les sous-porteuses. Ce type de perturbation résulte en général d'un défaut d'antiparasitage d'un dispositif électrique : moteur de deux-roues, moteur électrique de lave-linge, pompe de chaudière, gradateur de lampe halogène, four à micro-ondes, néon défectueux… Mais il existe parfois des causes plus inattendues : une pluie d'orage sur une ligne téléphonique aérienne entraîne également ce type de perturbation du fait de la charge électrique accumulée par les gouttes de pluie. D'autres perturbations peuvent être provoquées par une ligne téléphonique adjacente qui fonctionne dans des conditions anormales, par un mauvais fonctionnement de l'éclairage public des rues, ou encore par un filtre défectueux au niveau de l'armoire de brassage située dans le bâtiment de l'autocommutateur public. Ces perturbations peuvent affecter la communication en tout point du trajet physique de la ligne d'abonné, et être suffisamment gênantes pour entraîner des pertes de synchronisations répétées, suivies d'autant de tentatives de rétablissement de la connexion. Dans de telles conditions, la communication devient rapidement inexploitable.\n\nCes phénomènes très complexes, heureusement rares, sont souvent mal perçus par les abonnés, qui ne comprennent pas que leur fournisseur d'accès ne soit pas toujours en mesure de faire le nécessaire pour que leur abonnement ADSL fonctionne de manière satisfaisante. De ce point de vue, pour un faible pourcentage d'abonnés, l'ADSL reste une technologie dont la fiabilité est aléatoire, contrairement aux offres d'abonnement basées sur une transmission optique (FTTH) car cette technologie est beaucoup moins sensible aux perturbations électromagnétiques.\n\nApplications de l'ADSL \nL'ADSL est en général associé à la notion d'accès Internet à haut débit. Toutefois, l'ADSL permet de transporter bien d'autres flux que le protocole TCP/IP. Il existe notamment des spécifications de transport de la téléphonie ou de la vidéo, segmentées en cellules ATM, directement dans l'ADSL. Dans la pratique, les services de téléphonie sur ADSL ou de diffusion de programmes de télévision via l'ADSL s'appuient tous sur une encapsulation des flux dans le protocole IP (parfois avec utilisation d'un circuit virtuel ATM consacré à chaque flux, pour des raisons de séparation et de qualité de service). La télévision sur ADSL, à présent très répandue, est donc de la vidéo sur IP. De la même manière, les offres de téléphonie sur ADSL proposées par les opérateurs sont implémentées par des protocoles de VoIP.\n\nEn dehors des particuliers, ces services intéressent également les entreprises, pour lesquels l'ADSL peut servir d'accès à un service de réseau privé virtuel (VPN) proposé par l'opérateur.\n\nOffres commerciales \nLes débits proposés par les fournisseurs d'accès à Internet sont en général exprimés en débits ATM. On a vu que les données utilisateur proprement dites sont transportées à raison de par cellule ATM, et que chaque cellule comporte un en-tête de . Il résulte de cette encapsulation que le débit constaté au niveau IP lors d'un transfert FTP, par exemple, est inférieur d'environ 20 % à la valeur de débit de l'abonnement.\n\nVoici quelques valeurs de débit ATM pour les offres commerciales ADSL destinées au grand public en 2004 :\n\nEn Belgique, le débit montant se situe entre et , le débit descendant entre 1 et . Ces débits varient en fonction de l'offre, certains opérateurs proposant une version à pour environ et un débit plus élevé moyennant finances. Dans la grande majorité des offres, le volume utilisable par mois est limité (de pour les offres les moins chères à 10, 30 voire en moyenne pour les offres plus élevées). Cette limitation freine le déploiement des usages massivement consommateurs de bande passante, comme le pair-à-pair, la vidéo à la demande…\n\nEn France, le débit montant est typiquement compris entre et , le débit descendant peut atteindre (IP) sur de courtes distances du central (pour ADSL2+) Pour l'ADSL le débit va jusqu'à et l'ADSL2 jusqu'à . Les lignes d'environ plus de ne sont pas éligibles à l'ADSL2+. Le ReADSL pour les lignes compris entre permet d'avoir un débit entre et . En , le débit moyen en France est de selon le site Ariase, Le volume n'est pas facturé (ni même souvent les suppléments de débit utilisable sur la ligne au-delà de ), l'utilisateur dispose alors d'une connexion permanente forfaitaire pour (toutefois les débits et tarifs dépendent aussi de la présence d'offres de services combinés, dites , pouvant comprendre aussi la téléphonie sur IP, la visiophonie, l'accès aux bouquets TV numériques et vidéo à la demande, le relais de téléphonie mobile à domicile, la télésurveillance). Pratiquement tous les FAI (Fournisseur d'accès à Internet) proposent un modem-routeur gratuit ou en location à prix modique (inférieur à ) compatible avec l'offre (l'utilisation de ce modem est parfois obligatoire pour certains services comme la téléphonie ou la télévision), et permettant le partage de connexion Internet sur un réseau local Ethernet et/ou Wi-Fi.\n\nEn Suisse, le débit montant varie actuellement entre , alors que le débit descendant se situe entre et . Les offres les plus courantes proposent un débit /500 pour une somme forfaitaire d'environ . De nouvelles offres à CHF 9,00 par mois proposent un débit descendant de comprenant ou une taxation horaire fixée à CHF 2,40 de l'heure, ou une taxation (au-delà des premiers ) liée au volume consommé qui est de CHF 0,19 le Mo, les deux modèles d'offre ayant une limite maximale de facturation située entre CHF 60,00 et 80,00. La clientèle visée par ces dernières offres se constitue des abonnés 56k. Récemment avec le dégroupage, certains FAI commencent à offrir des technologies concurrentes, par exemple VTX propose de l'ADSL2 et Swisscom, Green.ch eux offrent du VDSL.\n\nAu Japon, l'ADSL peut atteindre des débits descendants de à la source et un débit supérieur à à de distance (pour environ ). Le débit montant est typiquement de constant jusqu'à environ de distance.\n\nLa barre des sur cuivre pourrait être atteinte avec la mise en œuvre de la technologie (DSM).\n\nAu Cameroun, en 2009, Orange Cameroun commercialise des offres ADSL à des tarifs dégressifs : 128K descendants/64K montants au tarif de francs CFA mensuel (environ ) ; 512 K descendants/128 K montants pour mensuel (environ ).\n\nNotes et références\n\nVoir aussi\n\nArticles connexes\n\nLiens externes \n Recommandation ITU-T G.992.1 (« norme » ADSL) sur le site de l'UIT\n Recommandation ITU-T G.992.3 (« norme » ADSL2) sur le site de l'UIT\n ADSL ou SDSL : comment choisir ?\n\nProtocole de télécommunication\nLigne d'abonné numérique\nAccès à Internet\nProtocole réseau sur la couche physique" ]

[ "Pokémon Go est un jeu vidéo mobile de type freemium fondé sur la localisation massivement multijoueur utilisant la réalité augmentée. Le projet est créé conjointement par The Pokémon Company et Niantic, responsable du jeu vidéo mobile en réalité augmentée Ingress. Le jeu est disponible depuis sur les plateformes iOS et Android. Tout comme dans la série de jeux vidéo, le but est de capturer des Pokémon.\n\nAu lancement du jeu, celui-ci devient rapidement un phénomène de société. L'application, qui n'est pas encore téléchargeable officiellement dans tous les pays, dépasse localement ou mondialement le nombre de téléchargements de Twitter, Tinder, WhatsApp ou Snapchat, fait monter l'action de Nintendo de 93,2 % en une semaine à la bourse de Tokyo.\n\nSystème de jeu \n\nPokémon Go est un jeu en réalité augmentée. Le joueur dirige un avatar , dont il peut personnaliser l'apparence et la tenue à la création de son compte, sur une carte des environs utilisant la géolocalisation du joueur. Celui-ci doit ainsi se déplacer avec son téléphone pour se déplacer dans le jeu. Le joueur peut, sur son téléphone, observer à une certaine distance les environs, ce qui permet d'afficher les différents éléments du jeu à portée : Pokémon, PokéStops et arènes. Il peut ainsi parcourir le monde, capturer des Pokémons ou encore combattre dans des « arènes ».\n\nActions, objets et jouabilité \nLes Pokémons sont rencontrés lorsque le joueur se déplace, en cliquant dessus il peut les attraper à l'aide de Poké Balls, récupérées dans les PokéStops ou en gagnant des niveaux. Les Pokémons peuvent aussi être obtenus de deux autres façons, en faisant éclore des œufs de Pokémon ou en les échangeant à d’autre joueurs.\n\nLes PokéStops fournissent au joueur un certain nombre d'objets aléatoirement :\n Des œufs, qui contiennent des Pokémons et écloront si le joueur parcourt une certaine distance (, selon l’œuf) ;\n Des Poké Balls, indispensables à la capture des Pokémons ;\n Des potions, qui permettent de régénérer les points de vie d’un Pokémon si ceux-ci n’ont pas atteint 0 ;\n Des rappels, qui permettent de régénérer la moitié ou l’entièreté des points de vie d’un Pokémon si ceux-ci ont atteint 0 ;\n Des baies, qui aident à la capture des Pokémons mais ne remplacent pas les Poké Balls.\n\nLes arènes sont des lieux de combat, où les équipes du jeu s'affrontent, en utilisant les Pokémons qu’ils ont capturé au préalable, afin de couvrir le plus d'arènes possible à travers le monde.\n\nLe joueur doit se trouver à proximité de ces Pokéstops et arènes pour pouvoir agir avec dans le jeu même s’il peut les voir depuis une certaine distance, contrairement au Pokémons qui apparaissent seulement lorsque le joueur peut interagir avec eux.\n\nLe joueur dispose aussi d’un niveau, allant , qui augmentera en gagnant des points d’expérience, en effectuant différentes actions telles que capturer des Pokémons ou faire éclore des œufs. Le nombre de points d’expérience nécessaires pour changer de niveau augmente de façon exponentielle au fil du temps, passant de pour atteindre le , à pour passer du .\n\nLa répartition des PokéStops et les arènes sont à des lieux précis et fixes sur la carte, principalement à des points d'intérêts dans le monde. Elles sont définies à partir d'une base de données issue du jeu Ingress, édité également par Niantic, et complété par les joueurs de ce dernier qui ont proposé, au fil des années, divers centres d'intérêts qui leur semblaient intéressants.\n\nLors de la rencontre avec le joueur, chaque Pokémon se voit attribuer des points de combat, les PC (pour « points de combat »), qui définissent sa puissance. Plus le joueur a un niveau élevé, plus il rencontrera des Pokémon avec un grand nombre de PC. Cependant, des créatures de faible niveau apparaîtront encore également.\n\nContrairement aux autres jeux de la licence, le joueur n'a pas à combattre les créatures qu'il rencontre. Lorsque le joueur appuie sur un Pokémon visible sur la carte, le jeu passe dans un mode où le joueur peut lancer des Poké Balls afin d'attraper la créature. Le joueur peut rater son tir ou le Pokémon s'échapper (et éventuellement fuir), nécessitant fréquemment plusieurs Poké Balls lors d'une rencontre. Une fois le Pokémon attrapé, le joueur en devient le propriétaire et se voit attribuer de la poussière d'étoiles et des bonbons. Ces deux objets permettent de rendre les créatures plus fortes, en augmentant leurs points de combat (PC). Les bonbons permettent également de faire évoluer le Pokémon, ou un autre de la même espèce. Le joueur peut également transférer le Pokémon au professeur afin de gagner un bonbon supplémentaire et faire de l'espace dans son sac. En effet, le joueur a un nombre limité de Pokémon dans son sac. Le but du jeu est de capturer chaque espèce de Pokémon existante, afin de remplir le Pokédex, encyclopédie recensant les créatures connues. Certains Pokémon ne sont cependant accessibles que via des événements spéciaux organisés par Niantic, des raids ou par évolution.\n\nUne journée communauté est habituellement organisée chaque dernier samedi du mois, où un Pokémon apparaît très fréquemment ainsi qu'une version chromatique.\n\nÉquipes \nIl existe dans Pokémon Go trois équipes qui disposent chacune de leur spécialité :\n l’équipe Jaune - Intuition ;\n l’équipe Bleu - Sagesse ;\n l’équipe Rouge - Bravoure.\nLe choix d'une équipe se fait à partir du .\n\nChaque arène est défendue par une équipe, qui en a pris le contrôle en mettant un ou plusieurs Pokémon en défense. Le joueur peut alors affronter les membres des autres équipes dans les arènes afin de récupérer le contrôle de celles-ci ou défendre celles déjà protégées par son équipe en y ajoutant un de ses Pokémon. Il faut savoir qu'un joueur ne peut poser qu'un seul Pokémon par arène. On constate de nombreux incidents concernant des combats en arènes effectués par des bots. Ceux-ci combattent les Pokémons des équipes et laissent les arènes sans Pokemon après le combat. Niantic travaille actuellement pour trouver une mise à jour permettant de ne plus avoir ce problème.\n\nDepuis , il est possible d'acheter dans la boutique de Pokémon go un « Médaillon d'équipe » contre , afin de changer d'équipe. Cet objet ne peut être acheté qu'une fois par an.\n\nPokémon Go Plus \nvignette|droite|Le bracelet Pokémon Go Plus.\nPokémon Go Plus est un bracelet Bluetooth à basse consommation qui peut être utilisé pour jouer à Pokémon Go. Connecté par bluetooth à un téléphone avec Pokémon Go installé, le bracelet Pokémon Go Plus émet une vibration lorsque le joueur qui le porte est à proximité d'un Pokémon. Le joueur peut capturer le Pokémon en appuyant sur les boutons du bracelet, mais ne peut savoir ce qu'il a capturé avant de consulter l'application sur un téléphone mobile ou une tablette. Ce bracelet permet également de faire tourner les Pokéstops, qu'ils soient en arène ou classiques.\n\nLe bracelet, initialement prévu pour le lancement du jeu, est commercialisé à partir de , deux mois après la sortie du jeu sur mobile.\n\nUne application Pokémon Go sur Apple Watch lancée en décembre 2016 fonctionnait sur le même système, mais elle a été désactivé le 1 juillet 2019.\n\nDéveloppement\n\nConception \nLe , Google s'associe avec The Pokémon Company pour réaliser un poisson d'avril, lors duquel des internautes pouvaient capturer des Pokémons dans le service de cartographie Google Maps. Le jeu est un engouement mais reste éphémère, dans le contexte du avril. John Hanke, de la société Niantic qui travaille à ce moment-là sur le jeu Ingress, est intéressé par le concept.\n\nAprès avoir lancé sur smartphone l'application JCC Pokémon Online, The Pokémon Company et Nintendo lancent conjointement avec Niantic, ancienne filiale de Google responsable du jeu en réalité augmentée Ingress, Pokémon Go.\n\nLe projet est dirigé par Tsunekazu Ishihara de The Pokémon Company, de la levée de fonds au développement. L'ancien dirigeant de Nintendo, Satoru Iwata, a également influé sur le choix du développement mobile de Nintendo quelques mois avant sa mort en . Avant même de rencontrer les équipes de Niantic Labs, Ishihara a apprécié leur jeu précédent, Ingress, et veut alors transposer le même concept à l'univers de Pokémon.\n\nLors du développement, Ishihara apporte une attention particulière pour que la franchise soit respectée, au niveau de la jouabilité notamment. Certains partenariats de Google en 2014 pour leur poisson d'avril sont réutilisés : la société ayant fait les vidéos de présentation de la blague de Google pour les vidéos de présentation du jeu.\n\nLe jeu est dévoilé au public le .\n\nLe , le jeu est disponible sur Apple Watch.\n\nVersion bêta \nLe , Niantic annonce qu'une version bêta sera lancée plus tard dans le mois. Cette version, initialement disponible qu'au Japon, permet aux joueurs d'aider les développeurs à affiner le jeu avant sa sortie officielle. L'accès est toutefois restreint par un système d'invitation. Le , la bêta est étendue à l'Australie et la Nouvelle-Zélande puis aux États-Unis le . Cette période de test prend fin le , moins d'une semaine avant la sortie du jeu, provoquant la suppression des profils joueurs accumulés sur l'environnement de test.\n\nLancement de la première génération de Pokémon \nvignette|upright=1.5|\n\n \nPokémon Go est lancé en Australie et en Nouvelle-Zélande le , puis aux États-Unis le . Il est ensuite lancé en Allemagne le , le 14 au Royaume-Uni, le 15 au Portugal, en Espagne et en Italie, le 16 en Suisse, en Belgique et dans la plupart des autres pays européens, le 17 au Canada, le 22 au Japon, le 24 en France puis le 25 à Hong Kong. Le jeu sera dès lors distribués par les différentes plateformes de Google, Android et Apple.\n\nEn France, le lancement du jeu Pokémon GO est prévu initialement pour le , mais à la suite de l'attaque terroriste de Nice de la veille, la sortie de l'application est repoussée . Dans le contexte tendu des attaques terroristes et de l'État d'urgence, une source policière explique au journal Le Monde que . Par précaution, une des premières chasses Pokémon Go prévue dans les jardins du Luxembourg est interdite par le Sénat qui invoque le respect de la tranquillité des usagers, l'interdiction des opérations promotionnelles et l'entretien du jardin dont il a la charge, mais beaucoup de personnes étaient malgré tout présentes pour l'événement. Le jeu sort finalement en France le dimanche , plus d'une semaine après l'attentat de Nice.\n\nAu , le jeu est disponible dans .\n\nLancement des générations suivantes et des mises à jour \n\nDès , Niantic introduit la deuxième génération dans son jeu mobile. Cette initiative attire l'attention des joueurs à nouveau et il s'agit de l'une des mises à jour majeures.\n\nLa troisième génération est introduite en .\n\n2017 a vu notamment l’arrivée des combats de raids. Pour la première fois depuis la création du jeu, les joueurs peuvent désormais se réunir pour combattre un Pokémon de haut niveau dans le but de le mettre KO pour ensuite chacun le capturer. Cette innovation de Niantic a permis entre autres d’introduire les Pokémon légendaires dans le jeu (Combat de ). Depuis fin , les joueurs ont eu la chance d’affronter Lugia, Sulfura ou Entei par exemple. Depuis , les dresseurs se confrontent actuellement aux légendaires de la région Hoenn (Groudon, Kyogre et Rayquaza). Les fans de la franchise doivent se réunir autour de dix joueurs s'ils veulent avoir une chance de battre un combat de raid de .\n\nÀ l'occasion du premier anniversaire du jeu, le premier festival Pokemon Go est organisé au Grant Park de Chicago, en .\n\nLors de la pandémie de Covid-19, le jeu a été mis à jour avec la possibilité de jouer depuis de chez soi plus facilement, pour respecter les mesures de confinement dans de nombreux pays.\n\nAccueil\n\nCritique \n\nLe jeu reçoit à sa sortie des avis relativement favorables, Jeuxvideo.com lui attribuant la note de 18/20 en vantant . Le site Gameblog quant à lui attribue au jeu la note de 8/10, évoquant .\n\nIGN note le jeu 7/10 et déclare et que , laissant sous-entendre de possibles évolutions au travers de futures mises à jour.\n\nQuelque temps après la sortie du jeu, des joueurs se plaignent sur des forums américains de la difficulté de monter de niveau passé le niveau 25. Ils rapportent également que les Pokémon sont beaucoup plus durs à attraper passé ce niveau, poussant ainsi à l'achat de nombreuses « Poké Balls », ce qui conduit Ars Technica à sous-titrer que le jeu a été conçu pour faire dépenser leur argent aux joueurs.\n\nPopularité \nvignette|left|Groupe de joueurs de Pokémon Go à Hong Kong en Chine. \nLe jeu a rapidement été populaire à travers le monde. Dans certains pays où l'application n'était pas disponible, les joueurs utilisaient des moyens détournés pour y jouer. Au Canada, alors même que Pokémon Go n'est pas officiellement disponible, le jeu devient immédiatement populaire dès le début du mois de juillet : les propriétaires de téléphones mobiles pouvaient installer gratuitement le jeu sur leur Android en téléchargeant l'application sur un site web, ou en se déconnectant du iTunes Store canadien pour se connecter au iTunes Store américain pour ceux utilisant un iPhone. Pokémon Go est officiellement lancé au Canada le 17 juillet 2016.\n\nÀ son lancement, le jeu a suscité un fort engouement, atteignant en quelques jours la même part d'utilisation que Twitter. Alors que le jeu n'est disponible officiellement qu'aux États-Unis, en Nouvelle-Zélande et en Australie, Pokémon Go est installé sur 5,6 % des téléphones Android aux États-Unis en et dépasse le nombre d'installations globales de Tinder. De même, le nombre de recherches du terme « Pokémon » sur Google ont atteint un pic jamais atteint par la licence auparavant. Le , selon des outils d'analyses d'utilisation, le jeu dépasse l'utilisation moyenne des plus grands réseaux sociaux, dont WhatsApp, Snapchat et Tinder. Aux États-Unis, l'application a été téléchargée de fois, soit plus que Twitter et est utilisée plus longtemps que Facebook, Tinder, Snapchat et WhatsApp.\n\nLa recherche du jeu sur Internet est aussi très populaire. Le , YouPorn félicite Nintendo America car . Sur Wikipédia en anglais, le nombre de vues de la page de l'article « Pokémon Go » a été multiplié par 100, la page est passée de le à le .\n\nLe 2 août 2016, la barre des de téléchargements a été franchie selon App Annie, spécialiste du suivi des apps, qui estime que Pokémon Go rapporte plus de de dollars par jour.\n\nÀ la suite de plusieurs attentats sur son sol et à la crainte d'une baisse de la fréquentation touristique, la Thaïlande considère le phénomène Pokémon Go comme une occasion pour restaurer la confiance des touristes. Dans cette optique, le ministère du tourisme veut travailler avec les développeurs du jeu pour permettre l'installation de Pokéstops et d'arènes dans des lieux touristiques sécurisés.\n\nLe 10 août 2016, le Livre Guinness des records annonce que le jeu a battu le record du nombre de téléchargements en un mois pour un jeu sur mobile avec de téléchargements, a battu le record de revenu généré en un mois par un jeu sur mobile avec de dollars de revenus, a été le jeu sur mobile le plus téléchargé simultanément dans , a été le jeu sur mobile ayant généré le plus de revenus simultanément dans et a été le jeu sur mobile ayant atteint le plus rapidement les de dollars de revenus, lesquels ont été générés en seulement .\n\nFin août, dans le cadre de sa campagne présidentielle de porte-à-porte, l'ancien président Nicolas Sarkozy lance l'application Knockin, rapidement surnommée le \"Pokémon Go des sarkozystes\", en référence au principe de géolocalisation des militants et des personnes à rencontrer.\n\nLe 7 septembre 2016, soit tout juste deux mois après son lancement, le développeur du jeu, Niantic Labs, annonce que le jeu a été téléchargé de fois dans le monde et qu'il est disponible dans plus de .\n\nLe 27 février 2017, le développeur du jeu, Niantic Labs, annonce que le jeu a été téléchargé de fois dans le monde.\n\nAprès avoir démarré très subitement avec un pic de d'utilisateurs quotidiens en juillet 2016, l'application perd ensuite régulièrement en popularité, passant sous la barre des en septembre, puis sous la barre des en octobre.\n\nUn réseau social mêlant virtuel et réel \nPokémon Go est un des premiers jeux grands public à utiliser la réalité augmentée. Cette nouvelle façon d’allier géolocalisation et cette technologie ont bénéficié au succès du jeu.\n\nSelon une étude, Pokémon Go aurait connu un effet de masse dès sa sortie pour plusieurs raisons, la plupart des joueurs ayant débuté car leurs proches y jouaient aussi ou tout simplement car le jeu leur permettait de sortir. D’autre part la raison pour laquelle ils continuaient à jouer serait pour progresser dans le jeu lui-même et celles qui les pousseraient à arrêter seraient leur situation personnelle et les problèmes de jouabilité du jeu.Très vite le jeu permet à un grand nombre de joueurs de se rencontrer dans le monde réel et d’échanger des Pokémons, de combattre ensemble ou tout simplement de passer du temps ensemble. \n\nA sa sortie et depuis, Pokémon Go ne propose aucun moyen de discussion à ses joueurs. Des applications tels que Gochat ou RazerGo permettent de laisser un message aux joueurs qui se situent dans les environs du destinataire.\n\nEn cela Pokémon Go constitue un réel réseau social et un pont entre le jeu virtuel et le monde réel.\n\nPokémon Go prolonge l’expérience des jeux originaux, en offrant au joueur ce qui se rapproche le plus d’une vraie chasse aux petits monstres, augmentant de ce fait l’immersion dans le jeu. Des exemples de cette immersion existent à l’instar de Tom Currie, parti chasser les Pokémons à temps plein durant et déclarant « Je voulais vivre une aventure. Je travaille depuis six ans et cherchais désespérément une pause. Pokémon m’a donné la chance de vivre ce rêve. »\n\nType de public ciblé \nSelon une étude SurveyMonkey, aux États-Unis, le joueur type serait « une jeune femme blanche de , diplômée et qui gagnerait près de par an ». D'après l'étude, 63 % des personnes jouant au jeu sont des joueuses48.\n\nCommunication sur le jeu \nLa communication de Niantic est minimaliste avant la sortie du jeu la société préférant garder le projet secret le plus de temps possible.\n\nC’est seulement après de développement que la société lance un premier teaser vu plus de de fois sur YouTube en 2019 mais n’offrant aux joueurs aucune image du jeu.\n\nQuelques semaines avant sa sortie Niantic fait une apparition à l’E3 et montre pour la première fois des images du jeu au monde entier sans pour autant dévoiler de sortie officielle de l’application.\n\nDepuis la sortie du jeu Niantic communique plus régulièrement avec les joueurs à travers notamment le site internet du jeu ou via l’application, les tenants informés des événements et des mises à jour.\n\nImpact financier et économique\n\nPoids dans l'industrie mobile \nSelon un rapport publié peu après la sortie du jeu par Slice Intelligence, une firme spécialisée dans l’analyse de données digitales, à elle seule l’application générerait environ 28% des revenus de toute l’industrie mobile.\n\nModèle économique \nIl est fondé sur deux principales sources de revenus.\n\nFree-to-play\nSi de nombreux joueurs se contentent de jouer gratuitement à l'application, une petite partie d'entre eux (5 % en moyenne dans le cas d'applications similaires) achètent des objets virtuels qui permettent une progression plus aisée dans les niveaux de jeu. Dans ce cas, la moyenne des dépenses constatées approche les par mois30.\n\nPartenariats avec d’autres entreprises \nÀ son lancement au Japon, McDonald’s s’associe avec Niantic, ce partenariat aurait généré plus de de dollars.\n\nL'entreprise explique également que son modèle économique va s'appuyer sur les lieux parrainés : des boutiques pourront payer pour héberger des lieux d'intérêt dans le jeu (présence de Pokémon ou autre), ce qui leur permettra d'accroître leur trafic piétonnier31.\n\nNintendo \nvignette|upright=1.25|alt=Graphe montrant l'évolution du cours de l'action Nintendo|Évolution du cours de l'action Nintendo lors du mois de juillet 2016. La croissance se remarque dès le 7 juillet, date de sortie du jeu et la chute à partir du 24 juillet.\nLors de l'annonce de l'application, Serkan Toto, analyste spécialiste du marché mobile japonais, pense que .\n\nAlors que Nintendo ne possède que 32 % du capital de la franchise Pokémon et qu'une part dans la levée de fonds de Niantic, le cours de son action gagne 9,3 % dans les quatre jours suivant le lancement initial dans trois pays (les 5 et ), puis fait un bond de 24,52 % le , ajoutant quelque de dollars US à sa valeur, sa plus importante hausse en une journée depuis . Dans la semaine suivant le lancement du jeu, l'action de Nintendo gagne au total 93,2 % et clôture à (environ ).\n\nSelon le Financial Times, les investisseurs ne spéculent pas sur Pokémon Go mais sur les futures applications mobiles de Nintendo, qui pourraient être tout aussi populaires. Serkan Toto, consultant dans l'industrie vidéoludique, estime que . Nintendo promet de publier d'ici mars 2017 quatre autres jeux issus de ses franchises comme Mario, The Legend of Zelda ou Metroid. En décembre 2016, Mario est publié sur le système d'exploitation iOS mais les autres jeux sont retardés.\n\nLe , veille de fin de semaine, Nintendo publie un communiqué précisant que la firme n'a pas participé au développement du jeu et que son succès En conséquence, le lundi , l'action en bourse de Nintendo chute de 18 %, alors qu'elle avait doublé depuis le début du mois.\n\nNiantic \nDès les premiers jours de parution du jeu, le jeu rapporte 1,6 million de dollars par jour à l'entreprise pour la seule plateforme iOS. Trois semaines après le lancement de Pokémon Go, Citibank estime la valorisation de Niantic, non cotée en bourse, à de dollars et estime que les revenus de l'entreprise pourraient atteindre de dollars en 2016.\n\nLe 10 août 2016, le Livre Guinness des records annonce que le jeu a battu le record du nombre de téléchargements en un mois pour un jeu sur mobile avec de téléchargements, celui du revenu généré en un mois par un jeu sur mobile avec de dollars de revenus, a été le jeu sur mobile le plus téléchargé simultanément dans , a été le jeu sur mobile ayant généré le plus de revenus simultanément dans et a été le jeu sur mobile ayant atteint le plus rapidement les de dollars de revenus, lesquels ont été générés en seulement .\n\nEn seulement , Pokémon Go a généré un revenu de près de de dollars, ce qui en fait la première application mobile à avoir généré une telle somme d'argent.\n\nSelon le cabinet d'études App Annie, le jeu aurait généré de dollars en 2016.\n\nGrande distribution et commerce de l'électronique \nLe succès de Pokémon Go a inspiré la grande distribution. Avant même son lancement, certaines enseignes ont lancé des opérations marketing autour du jeu\n\nLes deux dernières semaines de juillet 2016, en France, le chiffre de vente connaît une augmentation de 130 à 250 % d'après un chef de produit de l'entreprise Boulanger. En Belgique, début août, les batteries externes sont en rupture de stock, les fabricants n'ayant pas anticipé l'accroissement des ventes consécutif à l'usage intensif des batteries qui se vident très rapidement.\n\nLocalisation des Pokémon et outils tiers \nDès la sortie du jeu, plusieurs outils émergent sur Internet afin de faciliter le jeu. Les plus populaires, dont Pokévision et Poké Radar, permettent d'afficher sur une carte la présence des Pokémon dans une zone et ainsi de les situer sans avoir à fouiller en se déplaçant. Ces outils récupèrent les informations du jeu en simulant des requêtes à des points GPS afin de déterminer la position des créatures. Au courant du mois de juillet 2016, John Hanke, fondateur de Niantic, admet à Forbes qu'il et que . Il menace également la suspension de ces outils dans un futur proche, puisqu'ils ne respectent pas les conditions d'utilisation de Pokémon Go.\n\nLe , une mise à jour du jeu est déployée et empêche le fonctionnement de ces services. De plus, la mise à jour retire une fonctionnalité défaillante depuis la sortie du jeu, qui affichait une distance approximative des Pokémon en nombre de pas. Initialement, cette fonctionnalité permet aux joueurs de localiser les Pokémon en se repérant grâce à la boussole et la distance évaluée par ce radar intégré. Cependant le rend impossible l'utilisation de cet indice et incite les joueurs à utiliser les services de localisation, plus précis. La suppression de la fonctionnalité et le bannissement des services provoque une forte réaction négative chez les joueurs, allant jusqu'à demander remboursement des Pokécoins, monnaie virtuelle du jeu, achetées via le magasin.\n\nCependant, Niantic teste une nouvelle mise à jour bêta utilisée par un millier de joueurs. Cette mise à jour, qui améliore la localisation des Pokémon, ajoute un radar à côté des Pokémon représentées à côté de l'image d'un pokéstop. En cliquant sur celui-ci puis sur un bouton « voir », la position du Pokéstop où se trouve le Pokémon recherché est marquée sur la carte par rapport à la position du joueur par un cercle rose avec la distance marquée en pas au-dessus du Pokéstop recherché. Cette mise à jour, très attendue des joueurs, a pour but d'inciter ces derniers à abandonner définitivement les outils tiers de localisation des Pokémon.\n\nDroit de la propriété \nPour répondre à la demande de certaines institutions et collectivités (ville d'Hiroshima, Musée d’Auschwitz-Birkenau, Musée de l’Holocauste à Washington) ne souhaitant pas être référencées dans le jeu, la société Niantic a mis en place d’une procédure « d’option de retrait qu'on peut déposer en passant par un formulaire en ligne. Sur son blog, Lionel Maurel, conservateur à la Bibliothèque de Documentation Internationale Contemporaine, estime que cela pose la question de savoir à qui appartient l’espace virtuel autour d’un lieu physique.\n\nControverses \n\nDès son lancement, le jeu a suscité de nombreuses polémiques, notamment aux États-Unis, en Australie et en Nouvelle-Zélande.\n\nCritiques morales et religieuses\nEn Turquie, Mehmet Bayraktutar, le chef de l’association officielle des imams Diyanet-Sen « condamne » le jeu car il « mine la valeur des lieux où les gens prient ». En effet, des Pokémon ont été trouvés dans une mosquée.\n\nEn Arabie saoudite et dans les Émirats arabes unis, une fatwa interdisant les Pokémon datant de 2001 est relancée. Pour le premier pays, des , et pour les deux, le jeu est comparable aux jeux d'argent. De plus, le mufti, plus haute autorité religieuse d'Arabie saoudite, affirme que la conception des personnages du jeu est fondée sur la théorie darwinienne de l'évolution des espèces rejetée par l'islam.\n\nEn France, le contre-amiral Frédéric Renaudeau, chef de la Direction de la protection des installations, moyens et activités de la défense (DPID) dénonce dans une note que .\n\nEn Russie le 11 août 2016 un blogueur, Ruslan Sokolovsky, a publié une vidéo sur Youtube dans laquelle on le voit attraper un Pokémon dans une église d'Ekaterinbourg, le « Temple sur le sang » bâtie sur le lieu de l'exécution de la famille impériale. Il a été arrêté le 2 septembre 2016 et placé en détention provisoire pour « incitation à la haine » et « insulte aux sentiments des croyants ». À la suite de son procès qui s'est ouvert le 13 mars 2017, il a été condamné le 11 mai à une peine de 1/2 de colonie pénitentiaire. Dans l'attente de son procès en appel, il a été assigné à résidence.\n\nFait divers \nalt=Panneau à messages variables Pokémon Go|vignette|Un panneau à messages variables avertissant les conducteurs à ne pas jouer à Pokémon Go au volant.En France, aux États-Unis et au Japon, la presse a fait l'écho de faits divers impliquant des joueurs de Pokemon Go, en particulier des accidents de la circulation causés par des conducteurs jouant au volant de leur véhicule.\n\nConfidentialité des données \nL'UFC Que choisir a mis en garde les consommateurs contre Pokémon Go, qu'elle juge . Elle indique également que Nintendo comme Niantic se référent au Safe Harbor, accord invalidé en octobre 2015 par la cour de justice de l'Union européenne car ne garantissant pas un niveau de protection adéquat aux données personnelles transférées aux États-Unis, et invalidé par la Cour de justice de l’Union européenne.\n\nDe nombreuses critiques concernant la confidentialité des données des joueurs émergent rapidement. En Égypte, le jeu est interdit pour le motif que Les Émirats arabes unis mettent en garde les utilisateurs susceptibles d'être espionnés.\n\nEn Iran, le jeu a été interdit par le Haut Conseil des espaces virtuels car, selon lui, la géolocalisation des utilisateurs poserait des « questions de sécurité ».\n\nD'autre part, le principe du jeu a été breveté alors que son auteur travaillait encore pour Google. Selon une enquête de The Intercept, Niantic a conservé la propriété du brevet qui précise que .\n\nAvant la version 1.0.1, Pokémon Go a eu un accès complet aux comptes Google des joueurs, notamment les e-mails, l’historique internet, ou encore les documents et photos placés sur Google Drive et Google Photos. La société Niantic parle d'une erreur corrigée depuis une mise à jour.\n\nInterdiction du jeu \nupright=0.8|vignette|Au Temple de Hsi Lai, un panneau interdit aux visiteurs de jouer à Pokémon Go à l'intérieur du monument.\nPlusieurs instances gouvernementales déconseillent à leurs armées de jouer à Pokémon Go : l'Iran via son Haut conseil du cyberespace, est le premier pays à interdire le jeu en évoquant des problèmes liés à la sécurité nationale. L'analyste Alireza Al-Davoud justifie l'interdiction en déclarant que . L'Indonésie, par la voix de son ministre de la Défense, interdit le jeu à ses policiers et militaires, sous prétexte que . Considéré comme , le jeu est également interdit dans l’enceinte des bases militaires de l'armée israélienne et l'armée finlandaise. L'armée thaïlandaise interdit à ses militaires et personnels de renseignement de jouer à ce jeu. Quant à l'armée canadienne, elle ne bannit pas le jeu mais dissuade ses soldats de jouer à Pokémon Go dans l'enceinte de ses bases.\n\nEn France, l'armée française et le commissariat à l'énergie atomique ont prohibé l'usage de Pokémon Go. Le 12 août 2016, le maire de Bressolles, Fabrice Beauvois, a pris un arrêté municipal interdisant sous prétexte notamment que l'application représente un danger provoquant .\n\nInégalités géographiques de la répartition des PokéStops \nLors de sa sortie, les PokéStops - définis à partir d'une base de données issue du jeu Ingress - ne sont pas distribués de manière égalitaire sur les territoires. Pour le quotidien Le Monde, de multiples facteurs expliquent ces inégalités, notamment la richesse patrimoniale d'un territoire (les Pokéstops étant généralement affectés à des lieux remarquables). Depuis 2018, de nouveaux Pokéstops ont été rajoutés dans les zones peu peuplées, et les joueurs de niveau 40 peuvent proposer des nouveaux emplacements.\n\nImpact environnemental \nCompte tenu de la forte consommation d'électricité liée à l'usage massif de l'application (celle des smartphones, des centres de donnnées et celle liée aux ventes de batteries externes) et de l'ampleur de son empreinte carbone, Global Footprint Network, ONG partenaire de l’ONU, a invité à plusieurs reprises les joueurs de Pokémon Go à se montrer très attentifs à leur consommation.\n\nNotes et références\n\nNotes\n\nRéférences\n\nAnnexes\n\nArticles connexes \n La licence Pokémon\n La série et la liste de jeux vidéo Pokémon\n\nLiens externes \n\n Site officiel\n Politique de confidentialité sur le site officiel.\n Conditions d'utilisation sur le site officiel.\n Pokémon Go sur le site officiel Pokémon.\n Pokémon Go sur le site officiel de Niantic.\n Pokémon Go sur le site officiel de Nintendo.\n\nBibliographie \n .\n\nGO\nCatégorie:Jeu vidéo sorti en 2016\nCatégorie:Jeu vidéo développé aux États-Unis\nCatégorie:Jeu Android\nCatégorie:Jeu iOS\nCatégorie:Jeu vidéo basé sur la localisation\nCatégorie:Jeu vidéo utilisant la réalité augmentée\nCatégorie:Phénomène de mode des années 2010\nCatégorie:Record\nCatégorie:Controverse autour du jeu vidéo\nCatégorie:Jeu Unity", "L’ICMP pour IPv6 () fait partie à part entière de l'architecture IPv6 et doit être complètement supportée par toutes les implémentations d'IPv6. ICMPv6 combine des fonctions antérieurement subdivisées à travers différents protocoles, tels qu’ICMP v4 (), IGMP (), et ARP (), et il introduit quelques simplifications en éliminant des types de messages obsolètes qui ne sont plus utilisés.\n\nRésumé \nL', version 6 (IPv6) est une nouvelle version d'IP. IPv6 utilise le protocole ICMP comme défini pour IPv4, avec quelques changements. Le protocole résultant est appelé ICMPv6.\nCet article décrit le format d'un ensemble de messages de contrôle utilisés par ICMPv6.\n\nICMPv6 est un protocole générique ; par exemple, il est utilisé pour rapporter des erreurs trouvées dans le traitement de paquets, effectuer des diagnostics, effectuer une découverte de voisinage, et rapporter l'appartenance à un . Pour cette raison, les messages ICMPv6 sont catégorisés en deux classes : et .\n\nLes datagrammes ICMP sont transportés à l'intérieur de datagrammes IPv6 dans lequel un en-tête d'extension peut aussi être présent. Un message ICMP est identifié par sa valeur 58 (0x3A) positionnée dans le champ de l'en-tête IPv6.\n\nICMPv6 (ICMP pour IPv6) \nICMPv6 est utilisé par les nœuds/hôtes IPv6 pour rapporter les erreurs trouvées dans le traitement de datagrammes, et pour effectuer d'autres traitements internes à cette couche, tels que des diagnostics (ICMPv6 « »).\n\nFormat des paquets \nLes paquets ICMPv6 ont le format . Le champ de 8-bits indique le type du message. Si le bit de poids fort a une valeur de zéro, il s'agit d'un message d'erreur, sinon c'est un message d’information. Le contenu du champ de dépend du type de message, et est utilisé pour créer un niveau additionnel de granularité de message. Le champ est utilisé pour détecter des erreurs dans le message ICMP à l'intérieur du message IPv6.\n\nMessages d'erreur \nLes messages d'erreur ICMPv6 sont similaires à ceux d’ICMPv4. Ils appartiennent à l'une des quatre catégories : Destination non atteignable, Paquet trop gros, , et Problèmes de paramétrage. \n\n 1 \n 2 \n 3 \n 4\n\nMessages informatifs\nL'autre type de messages ICMP est divisé en trois groupes : messages de diagnostic, messages pour la gestion des groupes , et messages de découverte de voisinage. (, et .)\n\n 128 \n 129\n\nFormat des datagrammes \n\n 0 1 2 3\n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1\n +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+\n | | | |\n +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+\n | |\n + +\n | |\n +---------------------------------------------------------------+\n\nMessage Source Address Determination \nUn nœud qui envoie un message ICMPv6 doit déterminer à la fois les adresses IPv6 de Source et de Destination de l'en-tête IPv6 avant de calculer la somme de contrôle. Si le nœud a plus d'une adresse , il doit choisir l'adresse source du message de la manière suivante :\n(a) Si le message est une réponse à un message envoyé à l'une des adresses du nœud, l'adresse Source de la réponse doit être la même.\n(b) Si le message est une réponse à un message envoyé en ou , d'un groupe dont le nœud est membre, l'adresse de la réponse doit appartenir au groupe.\n(c) Si le message est une réponse à un message envoyé à une adresse n'appartenant pas au nœud, l'adresse source devrait être l'adresse du nœud qui sera la plus utile au diagnostic de l'erreur. \n(d) Dans les autres cas, en fonction de la table de routage.\n\nTypes de messages ICMP \n\nListe complète disponible sur le site de l'IANA : http://www.iana.org/assignments/icmpv6-parameters\n\nVoir aussi\n\nLiens externes \n ICMPv6 version la plus récente ( et version précédente)\n Découverte sécurisée du voisinage ()\n Gisèle Cizault, IPv6, Théorie et pratique, O'Reilly, , évolution du livre\n\nRéférences\n\nCatégorie:IPv6", "Un contenu alternatif est un programme diffusé au cinéma mais qui n’est pas un film. Il peut s’agir d’un ballet, d’un opéra, d’un concert, d’un match sportif, de gaming, d’une émission de télévision… Le contenu alternatif peut aussi bien être retransmis en direct qu’en différé. L’arrivée du numérique a beaucoup contribué au développement des contenus alternatifs.\n\nHistorique \nL'un des premiers contenus alternatifs diffusés au cinéma est le concert de David Bowie, spécialement filmé et transmis en direct par satellite dans de nombreux cinémas du monde entier en 2003. En plus du concert, David Bowie répondait en direct aux questions de ses fans. Peter Gelb, directeur du Metropolitan Opera, a tout de suite vu le potentiel énorme que cette technologie pouvait représenter pour l’opéra.\nSelon Screen Digest, ces contenus représentaient 0,5 % des recettes des salles américaines qui constituaient, de par leur avancée en matière d’équipement numérique, les deux tiers de ce marché en 2009. Cette proportion devrait cependant diminuer les prochaines années : le marché américain représenterait 48 % de ce nouveau marché en 2014.\n\nOpéra et ballet \nDepuis ses débuts, le cinéma est lié à l’opéra. Comme l’explique Gérard Mortier , ancien directeur de l’opéra national de Paris, le cinéma a repris les codes de l’opéra en les rendant plus accessibles, et peut être aussi plus compréhensibles pour le grand public. La construction du glamour américain des années 1910 à 1930 s’inspire des figures mythiques de l’opéra : la femme fatale qu’est Carmen devient la Vamp des années 1920, une vingtaine de films s’inspirent du docteur Faust (homonymie), dont la première adaptation date de 1907 et la dernière, d’Alexandre Sokourov, de 2011. Les thèmes propres à l’opéra comme l’idée d’un destin immuable, la vengeance, la passion ou la tragédie se retrouvent à l’écran. De plus pour résoudre le problème de l’absence de son, les salles de cinéma avaient recours à des musiciens, des bruiteurs ou simplement des narrateurs. L’avènement du cinéma parlant transforme le lien entre les arts. Les films deviennent un mode de diffusion de la musique dite « classique ». Les thèmes se transforment aussi, soumis à une exigence de vraisemblance plus importante qu’à l’opéra. Pourtant, au début des années 2000, on observe un regain d’intérêt pour l’opéra à travers leur diffusion en direct dans des cinémas à travers le monde.\n\nEn 2006, Le Metropolitan Opera : en direct et en HD a été le premier à diffuser une série de spectacles en live et en haute définition. En quelques mois, les évènements en live proposés ont explosé des records d’audience. Depuis d’autres Opéras et Théâtres de grande envergure tels que le Royal Opera House, l’Opéra Garnier ou encore le Théâtre Bolchoï retransmettent leurs spectacles sur grand écran et en haute définition.\n\nComédies musicales \nParmi les contenus alternatifs, on distingue également les comédies musicales. En France, c’est Mozart, l’opéra rock qui ouvre le bal en 2011, suivi de Dracula, l'amour plus fort que la mort et Adam et Ève : La Seconde Chance en 2012.\n\nSport \nLes grands évènements sportifs investissent également le grand écran. Les finales de rugby, les matchs de NBA, ou encore Wimbledon sont diffusés au cinéma dans plusieurs pays. Les jeux olympiques de Vancouver en 2010 avaient d’ailleurs été retransmis dans plus de 60 cinémas au Canada. \n\nLa NBA a été pionnière dans le créneau du sport en 3D live. Le tout premier événement diffusé par la NBA date de 2007, lors du NBA All-Star Game 2007 à Las Vegas. Fort de son succès, la NBA a programmé de nombreux événements qui ont continué à faire progresser la diffusion des sports en 3D au cinéma.\n\nPourtant, malgré le succès des manifestations sportives dans les salles de cinéma américaines, le Centre national du cinéma et de l'image animée (CNC) semble opposer une certaine résistance à leur diffusion en France. La polémique autour du sport vient essentiellement de la peur que les films indépendants qui ont déjà du mal à trouver des salles pour leur exploitation, soient remplacés par ces contenus alternatifs. Le problème est le même pour la diffusion d’émissions de télévision très populaires au cinéma.\n\nConcerts et évènements musicaux \nLes concerts, retransmis le plus souvent en direct, sont devenus une base privilégiée pour les contenus alternatifs. On peut citer notamment le concert des Red Hot Chili Peppers en live depuis Cologne diffusé en août 2011 dans plusieurs villes de France et d’Europe à l’occasion de la sortie de leur dernier album ou de Metallica en juin 2010.\n\nMais des évènements musicaux encore plus originaux sont parfois créés. En 2012, plusieurs cinémas ont diffusé King of Pop, contenu composé des clips en version longue de Michael Jackson, ainsi que d’interviews de personnalités et d’un court-métrage lui rendant hommage.\n\nÉvènements exceptionnels \nEn de grandes occasions, le cinéma est le média idéal pour assister à un évènement unique, tel que l’investiture d’un nouveau Président, le centenaire de la naissance d’une personnalité...\n\nEnjeux \nLe marché des contenus alternatifs est aujourd’hui en devenir. En effet, les perspectives sont illimitées : de l’opération à cœur ouvert au match de football, la technologie peut retransmettre en 3D et en direct des manifestations diverses et variées. Comme l’explique Aerofilm, une des premières sociétés à avoir distribué des contenus alternatifs, les contenus existants sont encore peu variés mais les possibilités sont illimitées.\n\nOn considère, par exemple, la possibilité de proposer des jeux en 3D dans les cinémas. Les joueurs pourraient donc s’affronter sur grand écran. Selon le Syndicat National du Jeu Vidéo, 63 % des Français de 10 ans et plus ont déjà joué aux jeux vidéo. Il faut rappeler qu’aujourd’hui l’industrie du jeu pèse entre 39 et 55 milliards de dollars et qu’elle est un pôle d’innovation important.\n\nLes nouvelles technologies comme la 3D ajoutent une plus-value aux contenus alternatifs. Le succès mondial d’Avatar, la diffusion de publicités ou de manifestations sportives en 3D montrent bien le succès de la technique. Particulièrement apprécié pour les évènements sportifs comme le Super Bowl ou le rugby, le 3D devient une plus-value non négligeable tant pour les cinémas que pour les consommateurs. La diffusion du match de rugby France-Angleterre avait été un succès. Aux USA, c’est la finale de NBA qui remporte tous les suffrages. Les évènements sportifs en 3D semblent donc être une des tendances fortes des contenus alternatifs. Selon Judith Michel, Content Services Sales Manager chez XDC, . Elle met aussi en avant le fait que les évènements ne peuvent être rentables que s’ils sont d’envergure internationale. Elle émet aussi l’idée qu’il faudrait éventuellement repenser les salles en fonction des contenus proposés. \n\nLes contenus alternatifs engendrent des revenus supplémentaires pour les salles de cinéma du fait de la majoration du prix des places. Ils suscitent aussi l’intérêt de nouveaux publics. La diffusion du Metropolitan a attiré, par exemple environ 75 % de nouveaux spectateurs selon Aerofilms. L’intérêt pour le public est souvent financier, l’accès aux contenus culturels proposés étant bien moins cher que dans les stades ou les opéras par exemple. La qualité de retransmission est très bonne, tant au niveau du son que de l’image. Natalie Dessay, soprano française mondialement reconnue, déclare d’ailleurs dans une interview au figaro que l’initiative est géniale puisqu’elle a l’avantage de la proximité et du prix.\n\nPourtant, les distributeurs sont réticents face à l’émergence de ces contenus arguant une réduction du nombre de séances pour leurs films. Si on constate que, du fait de la ponctualité des évènements, la part des contenus alternatifs par rapport à la part des films est faible part, le débat reste ouvert, notamment concernant les manifestations sportives. Ce débat, en France, a en partie été réglé en janvier 2011 par un décret sur la diffusion des spectacles vivants.\n\nTechnique \nLa plupart des captations d’évènements en direct sont réalisées selon le même processus. D’abord, dans la salle ou sur le terrain, une dizaine de caméras HD reliées à un camion-régie filment en continu et transmet le signal son et vidéo à un satellite. Celui-ci renvoie le signal vers une station terrienne de télécommunication par satellite qui est programmée au préalable pour renvoyer le signal aux satellites réservés aux quatre coins du monde chargés d’arroser les salles. Le signal peut également être envoyé par satellite dans certains pays/continents.\n\nPour donner un exemple concret, on estime à 18 secondes le temps pour que le signal partant de Moscou parvienne aux salles de cinéma américaines.\n\nLorsqu’il s’agit d’une rediffusion, les cinémas utilisent un DCP (Digital Cinema Package). C’est un disque dur au format de projection des salles de cinéma. La plupart des spectacles en direct sont enregistrés avant qu'un prestataire transcode l’enregistrement à la norme DCP.\n\nCinémas et sociétés concernées \nDe nouvelles sociétés se sont lancées sur ce marché. Il peut s’agir de start-ups aussi bien que de distributeurs classiques intéressés par les contenus alternatifs. Parmi eux on peut citer Arts Alliance Media au Royaume-Uni, Côté Diffusion ou CielEcran, devenu Pathé Live en 2008, en France. Certains exploitants ont lancé leur offre, comme UGC avec ‘’Viva l’Opéra’’. Autre exemple notable : celui du distributeur indépendant Aerofilms basé en République Tchèque mais qui distribue également le programme METinHD en Pologne, Slovaquie, Bulgarie, Serbie, Roumanie, Croatie, Hongrie et Slovenie. Fin 2011, face à l’essor des contenus alternatifs, la société Akuentic a été créée pour référencer les évènements de ce type dans son agenda culturel.\n\nNotes et références \n\nCatégorie:Spectacle\nCatégorie:Sociologie du cinéma", "vignette|droite|Image dans le plan axial du cerveau obtenue par tomographie d'émission monophotonique utilisant le Tc-99.\n\nLa tomographie par émission monophotonique, en abrégé TEMP, ou même SPECT (de l'), aussi appelée tomoscintigraphie par émission monophotonique, est une technique qui repose sur le principe de la scintigraphie et qui permet d'effectuer des images ainsi que des reconstructions en trois dimensions d'organes et de leur métabolisme à l'aide d'un ensemble de gamma caméras tournant autour du patient.\n\nPrincipes \nvignette|250px|Tomographe d'émission monophotonique.\n\nPour effectuer une TEMP, il est nécessaire d'injecter préalablement au patient un produit radioactif émetteur de rayonnements gamma (constitués de photons). \nCe produit appelé radiopharmaceutique est choisi en fonction de ses propriétés chimiques pour se fixer sélectivement dans l'organisme et ainsi mettre en évidence certains processus biologiques.\n\nOn réalise l'image de la distribution du radiopharmaceutique à l'aide d'une gamma-caméra tournant autour du patient.\nCelle-ci est essentiellement constituée d'un collimateur (permettant la sélection angulaire des photons) et de détecteurs de rayons gamma.\nGrâce à un algorithme de reconstruction tomographique, la cartographie tridimensionnelle de l'activité radioactive est estimée et ainsi la distribution du radiopharmaceutique dans l'organisme.\n\nLe principe de la TEMP est assez proche de celui de la tomographie par émission de positon (TEP) dans le sens où il s'agit également d'une tomographie d'émission utilisant un radiopharmaceutique.\n\nCependant, en TEP on utilise des radiopharmaceutiques émetteurs de positons. Ceux-ci donnent naissance à une paire de photons et il est possible de localiser l'émission grâce à leur détection simultanée. On se passe ainsi de l'usage du collimateur. La TEP est donc en général une modalité plus sensible et plus résolue. Cela dit, la gamme de radiopharmaceutiques disponible en TEMP est bien plus étendue et cette modalité demeure irremplaçable pour de nombreuses applications. Enfin, sa mise en œuvre est bien plus simple que le TEP.\n\nComme l'émission de ces photons est atténuée en traversant les différents tissus de l'organisme, il est souvent nécessaire de corriger l'activité observée en corrigeant ce phénomène d'atténuation. On peut ainsi obtenir une valeur quantitative de la répartition radiopharmaceutique.\n\nApplications \nLes principales utilisations de la TEMP sont l'imagerie en cancérologie, dans les dysfonctionnements de la thyroïde ou du système lymphatique, la mesure du débit sanguin cérébral ou l'imagerie cardiaque ou osseuse. Dans la recherche en imagerie cérébrale, la TEMP est notamment utilisée pour visualiser l'activité dopaminergique au moyen d'un agoniste marqué à l'iode-123.\n\nImagerie de la perfusion myocardique \nGrâce à la tomographie d'émission monophotonique du myocarde synchronisé à l'ECG (TEMPS), il est possible d'étudier la fonction ventriculaire et la perfusion du myocarde simultanément.\n\nPrincipe \nUne TEMP est réalisée en même temps qu'un électrocardiogramme avec trois électrodes afin de donner une TEMPS.\n\nRésultats \nLes tomographies obtenues montrent l'état de la perfusion myocardique aux différentes étapes du cycle cardiaque.\nIl est possible, grâce à ces résultats, de simuler le mouvement du myocarde en repassant les images en boucle. On peut ainsi étudier sa cinétique globale et régionale ainsi que son épaississement.\nL'image obtenue est une \"somme d'image\" de diverses images synchronisées.\n\nImagerie de la perfusion au niveau cérébral \nPour l'étude du fonctionnement du cerveau, le scanner et l'IRM ne donnent qu'une image figée. La tomoscintigraphie monophotonique cérébrale permet d'en obtenir une image \"fonctionnelle\".\n\nPrincipe \nComme pour n'importe quelle TEMP, on injecte un marqueur radioactif. Le produit le plus souvent utilisé dans le cas du cerveau est l'HmPAO, dont la fixation augmente dans les zones cérébrales dont l'activité est la plus intense (crise d'épilepsie par exemple) et diminue dans les régions moins fonctionnelles. Cette méthode permet donc d'étudier des pathologies telles que la maladie d'Alzheimer, où l'on observe une diminution du flux sanguin due à la neurodégénérescence.\n\nRésultats \nGrâce à ce procédé, il est possible de repérer des régions du cerveau qui seraient atteintes par une quelconque pathologie, notamment l'épilepsie. En théorie, si la fixation du marqueur diminue dans une zone du cerveau, il s'agirait d'un foyer épileptique. Cependant, les relations entre zones d'hypoactivité et siège réel du foyer sont encore floues.\nEt au cours d'une crise d'épilepsie, on pourra observer une activité plus intense au niveau des zones concernées.\n\nInconvénients \nDans le cas d'une crise d'épilepsie toujours, la réalisation d'une TEMP est délicate. Le patient doit être sous surveillance par un médecin et sous EEG. Il faut également avoir le marqueur nécessaire à proximité au moment de la crise.\n\nSynonymes \n gammatomographie (ou gamma-tomographie)\n tomoscintigraphie monophotonique (tomographie à émission = tomoscintigraphie)\n\nNotes et références\n\nVoir aussi\n\nArticles connexes \n Scintigraphie\n Imagerie cérébrale\n Imagerie moléculaire\n\nCatégorie:Tomographie\nCatégorie:Médecine nucléaire", "Sysfs est un système de fichiers virtuel introduit par le noyau Linux 2.6. Sysfs permet d'exporter depuis l'espace noyau vers l'espace utilisateur des informations sur les périphériques du système et leurs pilotes, et est également utilisé pour configurer certaines fonctionnalités du noyau.\n\nHistoire \n\nPendant le cycle de développement du noyau 2.5 (branche expérimentale qui deviendra le noyau 2.6), le modèle de pilote Linux a été introduit afin de pallier certaines déficiences du noyau 2.4 :\n Il n'existe aucune méthode de représentation unifiée des relations pilote/périphérique.\n Il n'existe aucun mécanisme générique de 'branchement à chaud' (hotplug en anglais).\n Procfs était encombré d'une foule d'informations non liées aux processus.\n\nSysfs a été conçu pour exporter les informations présentes dans l'arbre des périphériques qui ainsi n'encombrerait plus procfs. Il a été écrit par Patrick Mochel. Maneesh Soni a plus tard écrit un patch permettant l'utilisation de la mémoire de masse par sysfs afin de réduire son empreinte en mémoire vive sur les gros systèmes.\n\nSysfs est un système de fichiers en mémoire qui était au départ basé sur ramfs. Ramfs a été écrit pendant la stabilisation du noyau 2.4.0. Grâce à sa simplicité et à l'utilisation de VFS, il fournit une excellente base afin d'en dériver pour créer de nouveaux systèmes de fichiers en mémoire.\n\nSysfs fut d'abord appelé ddfs (Device Driver Filesystem, système de fichiers pour pilotes de périphériques en anglais) et créé dans le but de debugger le nouveau modèle de pilote pendant son écriture. Auparavant, le debug était effectué en utilisant procfs pour exporter un arbre des périphériques, mais sous les recommandations insistantes de Linus Torvalds, il a été décidé d'utiliser un nouveau système de fichiers basé sur ramfs. Au moment de l'intégration au noyau 2.5.1 de ce nouveau modèle de pilote, il a pris le nom de driverfs.\n\nDurant l'année suivante de développement de la branche 2.5 du noyau, les capacités de l'infrastructure du modèle de pilote et de driverfs ont commencé à se montrer très utiles aux autres sous-systèmes. kobjects a été développé afin de fournir un mécanisme de gestion centralisée des objets et driverfs a été renommé sysfs afin d'exprimer son ignorance des sous-systèmes sur lesquels il repose.\n\nVue d'ensemble technique \n\nPour chaque objet ajouté dans l'arbre des modèles de pilote (pilotes, périphériques, classes de périphériques), un répertoire est créé dans sysfs.\nLa relation parent/enfant est représentée sous la forme de sous-répertoires dans /sys/devices/ (représentant la couche physique). Le sous-répertoire /sys/bus/ est peuplé de liens symboliques, représentant la manière dont chaque périphérique appartient aux différents bus. /sys/class/ montre les périphériques regroupés en classes, comme les périphériques réseau par exemple, pendant que /sys/block/ contient les périphériques de type bloc.\n\nPour les périphériques et leurs pilotes, des attributs peuvent être créés. Ce sont de simples fichiers, la seule contrainte est qu'ils ne peuvent contenir chacun qu'une seule valeur et/ou n'autoriser le renseignement que d'une valeur (au contraire de certains fichiers de procfs, qui nécessitent d'être longuement parcourus). Ces fichiers sont placés dans le sous-répertoire du pilote correspondant au périphérique. L'utilisation de groupes d'attributs est possible en créant un sous-répertoire peuplé d'attributs.\n\nQuelques bus\n\nPCI \n\nExporte les informations à propos des périphériques PCI.\n\nUSB \n\nContient à la fois les informations sur les hôtes et les périphériques USB.\n\nSysfs et l'espace utilisateur \n\nSysfs est utilisé par quelques utilitaires pour accéder aux informations concernant le matériel et ses pilotes (des modules du noyau, comme udev ou HAL par exemple). Des scripts ont été écrits pour accéder aux informations obtenues précédemment via procfs, et certains scripts permettent la configuration du matériel et de leur pilote via leurs attributs.\n\nArticles connexes \n\n Système de fichiers\n Point de montage\n tmpfs, le nom générique d'un système de fichier temporaire\n ramfs, sur lequel se base sysfs\n configfs\n kobject\n unionfs, une implémentation d'union mount\n\nLiens externes \n\n Driver model overview from the LWN porting to 2.6 series\n kobjects and sysfs from the LWN porting to 2.6 series\n Ramfs.\n\nCatégorie:Système de fichiers\nCatégorie:Linux", "WebDAV () est un protocole (plus précisément, une extension du protocole HTTP) défini par le groupe de travail IETF du même nom. Décrit dans la , WebDAV permet de simplifier la gestion de fichiers avec des serveurs distants. Il permet de récupérer, déposer, synchroniser et publier des fichiers (et dossiers) rapidement et facilement. L'objectif principal de WebDAV est de rendre possible l'écriture à travers le web et pas seulement la lecture de données.\nWebDAV permet à plusieurs utilisateurs d'éditer le contenu d'un dossier web simultanément. Il saura gérer les droits d'accès aux fichiers (ou dossiers), en verrouillant momentanément les fichiers et dossiers édités.\n\nExtensions \nVoici une brève description des extensions fournies par DAV :\n protection contre l'écrasement : mécanisme de verrouillage et de déverrouillage pour éviter les problèmes de synchronisation de mises à jour. Le protocole DAV supporte les accès exclusifs et partagés ;\n propriétés : métadonnées (titre, sujet, créateur, etc.) ;\n gestion des attributs de fichiers : copier, renommer, déplacer et supprimer des fichiers.\n contrôle d'accès : limitation d'accès à des ressources diverses. Généralement, DAV considère qu'un contrôle d'accès est déjà en place, et ne fournit pas de mécanisme d'authentification robuste : ;\n contrôle d'accès : WebDAV Current Principal Extension définit un protocole permettant au client WebDAV de découvrir les droits de l'utilisateur connecté ;\n gestion des versions : contrôle de versions des documents. Le contrôle des versions peut être mis en œuvre avec les extensions Delta-V ;\n calendriers : partage de calendriers CalDAV (à ne pas confondre avec Web Calendar Access Protocol qui partage des fichiers iCalendar avec WebDAV. Ce dernier est l'association de deux RFC : celle définissant WebDAV et celle définissant iCalendar) ;\n recherche et localisation : WebDAV SEARCH ex DASL définit un ensemble de méthodes de recherche et localisation d'information sur WebDAV.\n\nLes clients WebDAV \n BitKinex – sous Windows, gratuit, prend en charge WebDAV : HTTP et HTTPS (SSL).\nFichiers - gestionnaire de fichiers de l'environnement GNOME qui prend en charge WebDAV et autres protocoles (SSH, SMB, SFTP).\n Caja - fork de Fichiers pour la distribution Linux Mint, prend en charge les mêmes protocoles.\n Cyberduck – sous Mac OS et Windows, Donationware/GPL, supporte WebDAV : HTTP et HTTPS (SSL).\n Dolphin – sous GNU/Linux, navigateur qui prend en charge WebDAV. Les fichiers distants sont accessibles à toutes les applications du système d'exploitation.\n fusedav – un client basé sur FUSE\n Handy Backup – sous Windows, logiciel qui vous permet de sauvegarder via protocole WebDAV.\n Konqueror – sous GNU/Linux, navigateur qui prend en charge WebDAV.\n NetDrive – sous Windows, avec connexion au serveur, crée un lecteur local, gratuit pour une utilisation non commerciale, instable avec eGroupWare 1.8.001.\n WebDrive – sous Windows, avec connexion au serveur, crée un lecteur local, prend en charge WebDAV : HTTP et HTTPS (SSL)\n WinSCP - Version 5.7 et suivantes.\n Cryptomator - sous Windows, Mac OS, Linux, IOS, Android et autres plateformes (.jar).\n Sur Android, ES File Explorer\n\nSous Windows XP, les dossiers WebDAV se trouvent dans les \"Favoris réseau\".\n\nSous les systèmes GNU/Linux les dossiers WebDAV sont accessibles directement sur l'application de gestion de fichier dans les principaux environnements de bureaux (GNOME, KDE, Xfce).\n\nAlternatives \n File Transfer Protocol (FTP), est un protocole basé sur l'Internet Protocol (IP), permettant le transfert de fichiers dans un réseau. L'extension FTPS a été ajoutée pour sécuriser le protocole.\n SSH File Transfer Protocol (SFTP), est une extension du protocole Secure Shell (SSH) version 2.0, sécurise le transfert de fichiers.\n Le protocole Server Message Block (SMB) permet aux systèmes Microsoft Windows et aux clients open-source Samba d'accéder et de gérer des fichiers et dossiers distants.\n AtomPub, basée sur HTTP et permet la création et la mise à jour des ressources.\n CMIS (Content Management Interoperability Services), est basé sur les Web Services et permet une gestion plus fine des ressources.\n\nNotes et références\n\nVoir aussi\n\nLiens externes \n \n Extension pour Firefox offrant, comme sous Internet Explorer, le support des « dossiers web » au protocole WebDAV\n Serveur de test WebDAV\n Traduction RFC2518\n bibliothèque WebDav des eZ Components: permet d'implémenter en PHP 5 un serveur WebDAV respectant les RFC 2518 et RFC 4918.\n Mod webDav / Apache HTTP Server 2.2\n\nCatégorie:Protocole réseau sur la couche application\nCatégorie:XML", "Le métro de Madrid est le réseau de transports en commun métropolitain de l'agglomération de Madrid, capitale de l'Espagne. \n\nLe réseau est géré par la société Metro de Madrid S.A., filiale du Consortium régional des transports de Madrid. Cette dernière est une société de droit public appartenant à la Communauté de Madrid. Le Consortium assure également la coordination du réseau de bus géré par l'Entreprise municipale des transports de Madrid ainsi que du Cercanías, réseau ferroviaire desservant la banlieue qui appartient à la société nationale de chemin de fer espagnole, la RENFE.\n\nPar le nombre de stations, il est l'un des plus grands réseaux au monde.\n\nEn 2011, le métro de Madrid a transporté .\n\nHistorique \nL'histoire du métro de Madrid peut être divisée en 4 phases : \n de 1919 à 1951, les lignes à petit gabarit sont construites. \n de 1951 à 1978, le premier tronçon en surface et la première ligne à grand gabarit sont construits. \n entre 1978 et 1994, le métro est nationalisé et le groupement de transports de la capitale est mis en place.\n à compter de 1994, le réseau double de taille, connaissant une expansion sans équivalent en Europe à cette époque.\n\nLe projet \nthumb|Bureaux de la compagnie, édifice dessiné par Palacios.thumb|Bouche de métro \"Sevilla\", dessinée par Palacios, toujours en activité.\nLe , le premier tramway à traction hippomobile entre en service, huit ans avant le premier tramway à vapeur. \nDans le centre-ville, et en particulier autour de la gare de correspondance de Puerta del Sol, il y a déjà un tel trafic de tramways et de voitures à cheval que, dès 1892, la construction d'un métro est proposée. Pedro García Faria obtient une concession pour réaliser un réseau de cinq lignes, qui doit également pouvoir transporter des marchandises, mais les lignes ne seront jamais construites. \n\nLe réseau de tramway à cheval en pleine croissance est complètement électrifié entre 1906, mais le dernier tramway à vapeur ne sera retiré de la circulation qu'en 1931. En 1913 - la population de Madrid est alors de habitants - les ingénieurs Miguel Otamendi, Carlos Mendoza et Antonio Gonzales Echarte présentent un nouveau projet de réseau de métro. Celui-ci prévoit la construction de quatre lignes d'une longueur totale de dont l'itinéraire prévu correspond exactement à celles des lignes 1 à 4 actuelles. Miguel Otamendi dépose une demande de concession qui lui est accordée le . Antonio Palacios est l'architecte qui dessine le siège, les principales gares et bouches du métro jusqu'à sa mort en 1945.\n\nMiguel Otamendi et ses partenaires ont, au début, du mal à réunir l'argent nécessaire, malgré le soutien de la Banco Vizcaya. le roi Alphonse XIII qui, à titre personnel, suit avec grand intérêt le projet, vient au secours de l'entreprise en versant 1 million de pesetas. Le , la société Compañia Metropolitano Alfonso XIII (Compagnie métropolitaine Alphonse XIII) est créée avec un capital de 10 millions de pesetas. Les travaux de construction commencent le de la même année. À cause de la Première Guerre mondiale qui fait rage dans le reste de l'Europe, la livraison des matériaux de construction est fortement retardée. De plus, aucune entreprise espagnole ou européenne n'est en mesure de livrer les moteurs électriques des automotrices. Ceux- ci doivent être achetés au métro parisien.\n\nLa première ligne \nthumb|Sol, l'une des plus anciennes stations.\nLe , Alphonse XIII inaugure officiellement le premier tronçon de la ligne 1 d'une longueur de 4 kilomètres reliant Sol à Cuatro Caminos, située à l'époque à la limite de la ville et où se trouvait le dépôt. Dès le début de l'exploitation qui commence deux semaines plus tard, le nouveau moyen de transport connaît un grand succès. Exactement deux ans plus tard, le premier prolongement est ouvert jusqu'à la gare d'Atocha. En 1921, le premier escalator est installé, dont l'utilisation, au début, est payante.\n\nLe premier tronçon de la ligne 2 entre Sol et l'arène de Las Ventas est inauguré le , suivi le par l'ouverture de la ligne R (Ramal) longue de entre Ópera et la gare du Nord (Estación del Norte, aujourd'hui Príncipe Pío). La gare était située dans la vallée de Manzanares, dans un creux prononcé et les tramways, à l'époque n'arrivaient à parcourir que très lentement les rues pentues qui y conduisaient. La ligne R, malgré sa faible longueur, permet un gain de temps notable. \n\nAprès que le roi eut quitté le pays en 1931 et que la deuxième république espagnole eut été proclamée, la compagnie de métro madrilène changea sa raison sociale en Compañia Metropolitano de Madrid. La même année, elle installa le premier distributeur automatique de titres de transport. Le , le tronçon Goya - Diego de León entra en exploitation. Il s'agissait du premier tronçon de la ligne 4 qui fut toutefois exploité comme un embranchement de la ligne 2 jusqu'en 1958 et ne fut qu'à cette date relié aux autres tronçons construits par la suite (Le tracé des voies des deux lignes, à la station Goya, avec des jonctions sur deux niveaux, est l'héritage de cette exploitation en embranchement). \n\nthumb|Plan du réseau en 1951.\n\nPeu de semaines après le commencement de la guerre civile espagnole, le premier tronçon de la ligne 3 fut inauguré entre Sol et Embajadores le . Mais cinq jours plus tard le trafic sur la ligne R dut être arrêté : la gare de Nord était pratiquement coupée de la zone qu'elle desservait par les combats, si bien qu'il n'y avait quasiment plus de passagers. Bien que durant les trois années suivantes les troupes de Franco aient assiégé Madrid, le fonctionnement du métro fut assuré presque sans perturbation. Durant le siège, les rames de métro transportèrent également des cercueils et des cadavres dans les cimetières situés à l'est. Le petit embranchement entre Goya et Diego de León fut parfois fermé et utilisé comme arsenal. Le , il y eut dans ce lieu une puissante explosion qui fit un nombre de victimes inconnu. \n\nAprès la conquête de Madrid le par les troupes nationalistes, les employés socialistes et communistes furent congédiés et remplacés par des employés sympathisants. Quelques stations furent rebaptisées à la demande du régime phalangiste. Dès un agrandissement du réseau fut réalisé. En 1948 commença la suppression progressive de de tramway et son remplacement par de nouvelles lignes d'autobus et de métro ; ce processus s'acheva en 1972. Avec la mise en service de la partie du sud de la ligne 3 le , le réseau atteignit la longueur de 27,6 kilomètres.\n\n« Suburbanos » et trains à grand gabarit \nthumb|Lago, une des stations à faible profondeur (ligne 10).\nEn , le ministère des Travaux Publics publiait un plan de développement des transports pour Madrid. À côté de 50 kilomètres de nouvelles lignes de métro figuraient pour la première fois la construction de tronçons en surface portant la longueur totale des nouvelles lignes à 60 kilomètres. Les nouveaux Suburbanos (en français lignes de banlieue) devaient certes être exploités avec des rames similaires à celles utilisées pour le métro souterrain mais avec une distance entre les stations beaucoup plus élevée (jusqu'à au lieu d'une moyenne de 500 mètres) et en surface. \n\nMalgré une croissance économique et un essor démographique considérable - durant les années 1950 le nombre d'habitants était passé de 1,7 à 2,6 millions - il fallut attendre neuf ans pour que le réseau du métro s'agrandisse à nouveau. Le premier et également le dernier „Suburbano - la ligne S, devenue la ligne 10 - qui reliait la station Plaza de España à Carabanchel via Batán ouvrit le . Comme l'État avait pour la première fois pris en charge les coûts de construction, cette ligne devint jusqu'en 1979 la propriété de la société nationale Ferrocarril Suburbano de Carabanchel (Chemins de fer de banlieue de Carabanchel) ; la gestion de l'entreprise fut toutefois confiée dès le début à la compagnie de métro. Les quais n'avaient pas comme d'habitude 60 mètres de long mais 90 mètres, pour pouvoir faire circuler des trains plus longs. \nthumb|Plan du réseau en 1977. \n\nEn 1966, les quais de de la ligne 1 furent rallongés à . Le de cette année, la station de Chamberí fut fermée, car à la suite du rallongement, elle ne se trouvait plus qu'à 230 mètres de la station Iglesia. Chamberi et Arroyo Fresno (sur la ligne 7) sont les seules fermetures de station qui aient eu lieu sur le réseau de métro de Madrid. D'ailleurs, depuis le , la station de Chamberi a été rouverte en tant que Musée du Métro de Madrid.\n\nLes plans publiés en 1951 ne purent pas être mis en œuvre, en particulier pour les Suburbanos. Le plan de développement élaboré en 1961 par l'administration municipale resta également en grande partie sans suite. La ligne 5 compte parmi les rares réalisations : le premier tronçon entre Callao et des Carabanchel fut ouvert le . La ligne 5 fut la dernière ligne à petit gabarit construite.\n\nLe gouvernement approuva en 1967 un nouveau plan de développement qui fut révisé en 1971 et mis à jour en 1974. Il prévoyait la construction de nouvelles lignes qui correspondaient au futur tracé des lignes 6, 7, 8, 9 et 10 (en partie pour cette dernière). Pour pouvoir faire face au futur accroissement de la fréquentation, les lignes furent créées en utilisant un gabarit plus important. Le , eut lieu l'ouverture du premier tronçon à grand gabarit de la ligne 7 entre Pueblo Nuevo et Las Musas.\n\nNationalisation \nthumb|Sous l'Avenida de América se croisent 4 lignes (ici la ligne 6).\n\nLe début des années 1970 se sont avérées difficiles pour le métro de Madrid sur le plan économique. En 1974, le métro est déficitaire pour la première fois. L'entreprise dut combattre de plus en plus pour sa survie économique. Les tarifs augmentèrent alors que le déficit augmentait, l'infrastructure commençait à souffrir d'obsolescence, le vandalisme était en augmentation. Malgré l'ouverture de nouvelles lignes, financées par l'État, le nombre de passagers transportés reculait. Avec le décès de Franco le une nouvelle ère s'ouvrit en Espagne. \n\nEnfin le , le gouvernement plaça le Metro sous le contrôle direct du Ministère des Transports et transféra la gestion de l'entreprise à un conseil d'intervention. Le réseau mesurait alors 64,3 kilomètres de long. Le la société de métro fut nationalisée et devient la propriété de la ville et de la province de Madrid. La nationalisation permettait de disposer de plus de moyens permettant l'amélioration de l'infrastructure et des mesures de sécurité ce qui se répercuta positivement sur le nombre de passagers. \n\nLa tronçon Cuatro Caminos - Pacífico, première partie de la ligne 6 fut inauguré le . Le , les trains roulaient pour la première fois sur la nouvelle ligne 9 entre Sainz de Baranda et Pavones. Enfin, le , fut ouvert le premier tronçon de la ligne 8 (aujourd'hui partie nord de la ligne 10) de Nuevos Ministerios à Fuencarral ; cette ligne passait par la station Stade Santiago Bernabéu qui fut ouvert trois jours avant le début du championnat de monde de football de 1982. \n \n \nAvec l'ouverture du tronçon Plaza Castilla - Herrera Oria de la ligne 9, le réseau du métro de Madrid atteignait le une longueur de 100 kilomètres. Ce tronçon fut dans un premier temps coupé du reste de la ligne 9 et fut exploité comme une ligne isolée, sous la dénomination de ligne 9b, jusqu'en 1986, date de son rattachement au reste de la ligne. Le fut créée la société de droit public Consorcio de Transportes de Madrid réunissant tous les transports publics de la capitale. Le la ville et la région de Madrid transférèrent toutes leurs parts au nouveau consortium dont le Metro devint désormais la filiale. En 1989, 70 ans après l'ouverture de la première ligne, la compagnie de Métro était rebaptisée en Metro de Madrid SA. Le réseau s'étendit atteignant en une longueur de 114,4 kilomètres.\n\nUne expansion exceptionnelle \nEn 1993, le Consorcio Regional de Transportes définissait un nouveau plan de développement bien plus ambitieux que les plans précédents. L'objectif était que chaque habitant soit au maximum à 600 mètres de la station la plus proche (à cette époque ce n'était le cas que de 70 % des habitants). De plus le RER Cercanías devait être développé pour assurer une meilleure connexion avec le réseau du métro. En 1995 le Parti Populaire fit du métro un de ses chevaux de bataille pour les élections au Parlement Régional et obtint la majorité absolue en promettant de développer le réseau plus vite que lors de la législature précédente du PSOE. Pour limiter au maximum les coûts, un nouveau modèle économique fut défini. La responsabilité du financement fut transférée à une société Arpegio. Comme celle-ci était la propriété du gouvernement régional, elle disposait de vastes réserves foncières qui furent apportées en garantie aux banques. Dès qu'un quartier était desservi par une nouvelle ligne de métro, le prix du terrain augmentait rapidement ce qui permettait de financer une grande partie du projet. Les travaux étaient coordonnés par un responsable de chantier qui rendait directement compte au Parlement Régional.\n\nL'agrandissement du métro de Madrid fut le plus grand chantier de travaux publics de la seconde moitié des années 1990 en Europe et ne fut dépassé en taille que par la construction du métro de Séoul. Les coûts furent relativement restreints ; ils se sont établis en moyenne à 31 millions d'euros par kilomètre (hors coût d'acquisition du matériel ferroviaire). À titre de comparaison, à la même époque, le prolongement de la ligne du Jubilée à Londres eut un coût kilométrique 10 fois plus élevé. Dans la ville de Madrid, il y eut jusqu'à 6 tunneliers en fonction en même temps. Un des tunneliers de la société Mitsubishi établit un nouveau record mondial en forant 792 mètres de tunnel en un mois. \n\nthumb|left|Intérieur d'une rame de la ligne 8. \n\nEn le tronçon Ciudad Universitaria – Laguna acheva la boucle de la ligne 6 qui depuis fonctionne comme une ligne circulaire autour du centre-ville et qui est, avec 500 000 passagers quotidiens, la ligne la plus fréquentée du métro de Madrid. À la gare Príncipe Pío où, jusque-là, seule la ligne R aboutissait, fut construite une station de métro qui devint une station de correspondance importante où se croisent désormais 3 lignes de métro et 2 lignes des Cercanias. \n\nLe , la ligne S fut prolongée jusqu'à Nuevos Ministerios et connectée avec la partie Nord de la ligne 8 pour former la ligne 10. Le , le roi Juan Carlos inaugurait la ligne conduisant à l'aéroport de Barajas, qui devint la nouvelle ligne 8. Le de la même année, le premier tronçon de la ligne 11 entra en exploitation. Le , le métro de Madrid franchit pour la première fois les limites de la ville avec le prolongement de la ligne 9 jusqu'à Arganda del Rey. \n\nDans les années 1998/99 la ligne 7 fut construite en quatre étapes multipliant par 2,5 sa longueur d'origine et en la faisant passer du statut d'antenne isolée en la ligne est-ouest la plus importante du réseau. À la suite du prolongement de la ligne 10 jusqu'à Colonia Jardín le , la ligne 5 intégra le tronçon Casa de Campo - Aluche de l'ancien Suburbano.\n\nLa conclusion et le moment le plus fort de l'ensemble de ce programme de construction furent l'inauguration le de pas moins de 47 kilomètres de lignes de métro nouvelles, une première en Europe. Cet agrandissement comportait le prolongement de la ligne 10 jusqu'à Puerta del Sur dans la ville de Alcorcón, ainsi que l'ensemble de la ligne 12 Metrosur qui relie Alcorcón avec Móstoles, Fuenlabrada, Getafe et Leganés.\n\nLe réseau actuel \nLe réseau du métro de Madrid est long de 294 kilomètres et comprend 13 lignes et 301 stations. L'écartement des voies est de 1 445 millimètres (soit 10 millimètres de plus que l'écartement international).\n\nLe métro circule en souterrain, à l'exception de 3 tronçons en surface :\n le tronçon Puerta de Arganda – Arganda del Rey sur la ligne 9 \n le tronçon Lago – Casa de Campo sur la ligne 10 \n la tronçon Eugenia de Montijo - Campamento sur la ligne 5.\n\nLe métro de Madrid comprend 2 types de ligne : \n Des lignes à petit gabarit (lignes 1 à 5, ainsi que la ligne R). Sur ces lignes, les tunnels font 6,86 mètres de largeur et 5,36 mètres de haut. Ils sont la plupart du temps à faible profondeur et suivent en général le tracé des rues. \n\n Des lignes à grand gabarit (lignes 6 à 12). Les tunnels font 7,74 mètres de large et 6,87 mètres de haut et sont souvent à grande profondeur ce qui a permis l'emploi de tunneliers pour les lignes construites à partir de 1990, dont le diamètre a été alors porté à 8,07 mètres. La station la plus profonde est Cuatro Caminos, située sur la ligne 6, à 49 mètres de profondeur.\n\nDans l'ensemble du réseau, le rayon minimum est de 90 mètres et la pente maximum de 5 %. Les rails sont échantillonnés à le mètre. Ils sont directement posés sur le béton lorsque le rayon de courbure est réduit à 90 mètres, ainsi que dans les stations.\n\nRéseau métro \nthumb|Ligne 11 du métro de Madrid\nthumb|Ligne 9 du métro de Madrid\n50px\n\nRéseau « Metro Ligero » (tramway) \n\nthumb|Ligne 1 du métro léger de Madrid\n50px\n\nExploitation \nthumb|Entrée de la station Valdezarza (ligne 7) ; lors des chutes de neige, le fonctionnement du réseau largement souterrain est peu perturbé.\n\nHoraires et particularités du réseau \nLe métro de Madrid fonctionne quotidiennement de 6h à 1h30 du matin, cependant certaines stations ont des horaires spéciaux. L'intervalle entre les trains est variable d'une ligne à une autre. En règle générale, il est de 2 à 4 minutes aux heures de pointe, de 4 à 7 minutes et demie en journée et de 15 minutes après minuit.\n\nIl existe 6 dépôts qui comportent tous des ateliers d'entretien. Ils se situent aux stations Cuatro Caminos, Cuatro Vientos, Herrera Oria, Fuencarral, Loranca et Ventas. Le plus grand atelier d'entretien, utilisé pour les rames à petit comme à grand gabarit, se situe sur un terrain de 30 hectares situé entre Canillejas et Las Musas, qui sont les 2 dernières stations de la branche est des lignes 5 et 7. L'atelier est relié à ces lignes.\n\nSur toutes les lignes, le courant est fourni à la tension de 600 volts (courant continu) sauf sur les lignes 10 et 12 où la tension est de 1500 volts.\n\nLe courant est régulé par 83 sous-stations qui sont pilotées depuis la station Quevedo. L'ensemble de la circulation est contrôlé depuis un centre de régulation installé à la station Alto del Arenal. \n\nTrois lignes ont un mode de fonctionnement particulier :\n\nLa ligne R' (pour Ramal, en français branche) fait de long. Elle est desservie par deux rames de 4 wagons qui font la navette entre les stations Opera et Principo Pio. La ligne comporte 2 voies mais il n'y a qu'un seul quai dans chacune des stations, les trains se croisent en cours de route. L'une des stations comporte une voie de garage qui permet aux heures creuses de n'exploiter la ligne qu'avec un seul train.\n\nLa ligne 9 circule en surface sur . Elle utilise entre les stations Puerta de Arganda et Arganda del Rey une ancienne ligne utilisée pour le trafic de fret qui comporte uniquement 3 stations intermédiaires. Lorsque le bâti se sera densifié, de nouvelles stations seront construites. Malgré une fréquence réduite, un changement de train est opéré à Puerta de Arganda. En dehors de Madrid, des rames de 3 wagons circulent avec une fréquence réduite. Les passagers qui veulent entrer en ville doivent changer de train. La partie de la ligne située en dehors de l'agglomération appartient à la société Transportes Ferroviarios de Madrid, dont sont actionnaires le métro de Madrid et plusieurs autres entreprises. La ligne doit revenir à la Communauté Autonome de Madrid en 2028 à l'échéance de la concession actuelle. \n\nLa ligne 12 dite MetroSur (Métro du Sud) est située dans son intégralité à l'extérieur de l'agglomération madrilène ; elle relie par une voie en forme de boucle les villes périphériques de Alcorcón, Fuenlabrada, Getafe, Leganés et Móstoles. Elle n'est aujourd'hui reliée au reste du réseau que par la ligne 10. Elle est par contre interconnectée par 6 stations à 4 lignes de train de banlieue de la Cercanías. Bien que le trajet de la ligne traverse actuellement des zones dépourvues de construction, elle est complètement souterraine afin de ne pas gêner la future extension de l'agglomération madrilène.\n\nLa vitesse de pointe des rames est de ; elle atteint même sur le tronçon de surface de la ligne 9.\n\nTarification \nthumb|right|200px|Un billet simple, ancien titre de transport du Metro de Madrid\nthumb|200px|Machine automatique vente de titres de transport sur la multi\n\nDans le réseau du métro de Madrid nous retrouvons les suivants tarifs et titres de transport :\n\nL'Aéroport international de Madrid-Barajas est desservi directement par la ligne 8 du Métro de Madrid, cependant pour pouvoir entrer ou sortir des stations Aeropuerto T1-T2-T3 et Aeropuerto T4 il faut payer un supplément aéroportuaire de 3 € qui est vendu séparément, aussi bien aux porteurs de tout titre de transport simple, comme pour ceux porteurs de billets carnet de dix titres de transport. Seuls les usagers porteurs de l'abonnement de transports de la Communauté de Madrid ou de l'abonnement touristique sont dispensés de payer ce supplément.\n\nStations \nthumb|left|Entrée de la station Tribunal.\nthumb|La solution espagnole : le quai central est réservé aux personnes sortant des wagons, le quai latéral aux personnes montantes.\n\nLes stations ont une longueur variable d'une ligne à l'autre. Les stations des lignes à petit gabarit 1, 3 et 5 ont une longueur de 90 mètres, celles des lignes 2, 4 et R ont une longueur de 60 mètres. Les stations des lignes à grand gabarit ont toutes une longueur de 115 mètres. Plusieurs stations à 2 voies disposent d'un quai central et de 2 quais latéraux ; ainsi les flots des voyageurs montants et descendants peuvent être séparés (c'est la solution dite \"à l'espagnole\").\n\nDans 37 des 318 stations il existe une correspondance avec une autre station de métro ; dans 19 stations il existe une correspondance avec une ligne des Cercanías (trains de banlieue). Les correspondances ne sont pas toujours conçues de manière idéale : il est parfois nécessaire de parcourir de longs couloirs (le cas de Nuevos Ministerios) ou d'emprunter plusieurs escalators (le cas de Cuatro Caminos). Casa de Campo et Príncipe Pío sont les seules stations où la correspondance se fait quai à quai.\n\n94 stations (en ) répondent aux normes d'accessibilité et sont équipées de rampes et d'ascenseurs adaptés. C'est essentiellement le cas des stations des lignes construites après 1994 et celles reformées après cette date-là. La plupart des stations à petit gabarit ne sont pas accessibles aux personnes en fauteuil roulant à quelques exceptions près.\nthumb|Rame à petit gabarit de la ligne 4 à la station Mar de Cristal.\n\nLe sol et les murs des stations sont carrelés. Dans les stations construites à partir de 1980 (aprox.), les parois sont recouvertes de granit et de marbre et dans celles construites à partir de 1995 et celles aménagées depuis 1995, les murs sont recouverts de carreaux plastiques colorés.\n\nLa plupart des stations disposent d'un distributeur automatique de titres de transport, d'un guichet d'information et de magasins. Seulement les stations de la ligne 3 n'ont plus de guichet et ont augmenté la quantité de distributeurs automatiques.\n\nLes passagers qui se rendent à l'aéroport, peuvent déposer leurs bagages à la station Nuevos Ministerios.\n\nLe matériel roulant \nthumb|Rame de métro moderne (type 8000) sur la ligne 8 à la station Colombia.\nPresque toutes les rames à petit gabarit font partie de la série 2000 : elles font 2,30 mètres de large et ont été fabriquées par le fabricant de matériel ferroviaire CAF. Alors que la série 2000-A a été livrée de 1984 à 1993, la série 2000-B a commencé à être livrée à compter de 1998. Depuis fin 2005, de nouvelles rames de la série 3000 sont introduites sur le réseau et succèdent à la série 2000.\n\nLa série 6000 fut construite de 1988 à 1999 par un groupement constitué par CAF, GEC-Alsthom, Adtranz et Siemens. En 2002, le métro de Madrid a encore réceptionné quelque wagons intermédiaires non motorisés de cette série. \n\nÀ partir de 2002, des rames des séries 7000 et 8000 ont été livrées. Les premières ont été construites par AnsaldoBreda, les dernières par CAF, Alsthom et Siemens. Ces rames présentent la particularité de disposer d'une inter-circulation d'un bout à l'autre de la rame. Dans les rames de la série 8000 de la ligne 8 desservant l'aéroport, le nombre de places est réduit au profit de casiers à bagages.\n\nEn 2004, le métro de Madrid possédait 1550 wagons dont 718 à petit gabarit et 832 à grand gabarit.\n\nAprès avoir revendu 36 rames de la série 5000 au Métro de Buenos Aires en 2011 et 2012, le réseau a revendu en 2013 73 véhicules de la série 6000 pour 28 millions d'euros, toujours au réseau argentin.\n\nDéveloppements du réseau en cours ou planifiés \nthumb|Décoration murale à la station Retiro (ligne 2).\n\nVoici quelques extensions projetées du réseau : il s'agit d'abord de l'importante extension de la ligne 11 doublant la ligne 6 dans son rôle de ceinture à l'est et au nord de la ville et du prolongement de la ligne 3 de Moncloa à Concha Espina. \n\nEnsuite, l'extension des lignes 1 et 5 au nord-est vers Valdebebas, du prolongement au sud des lignes 3 et 11 pour rejoindre la ligne 12, de la jonction des lignes 2 et 7 à l'est vers El Cañaveral, de la création d'une antenne sur la ligne 5 à Canillejas vers Estadio Olimpico et d'une seconde sur la ligne 9 à Puerta de Arganda vers Los Berrocales. La ligne 10 verra sa parie nord séparée de son tracé habituel à partir de Chamartín en une nouvelle ligne 14. La ligne 9 verra son terminus nord déplacé à Montecarmelo. \n\nOn notera aussi la création de deux nouvelles lignes de Metro Léger (alias tramway) : la ligne 4 en navette entre Prado de las Bodegas et Estacíon de Las Rozas et la ligne 5 en troisième ceinture au sud-est de la ville.\n\nNotes et références\n\nVoir aussi\n\nBibliographie \n Robert Schwandl: Metros in Spain – The Underground Railways of Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia and Bilbao. Capital Transport, London 2001.\n\nArticles connexes \n Métro léger de Madrid\n Consortium régional des transports de Madrid\n\nLiens externes \n \n Consortium régional des transports de Madrid\n Présentation du plan de développement 2003-2007", "En droit civil français, la preuve est la démonstration de la réalité d'un fait, d'un état, d'une circonstance ou d'une obligation, dans le but de faire valoir une prétention, c’est-à-dire l’objet d’une demande à laquelle une partie engagée dans une procédure judiciaire sollicite qu'il lui soit fait droit. Il s’agit d’une notion fondamentale, car en cas de contestation, ne pas pouvoir prouver son droit revient à ne pas en avoir.\n\nIl existe deux systèmes de preuve en droit civil français : le système dit de preuve libre ou morale (qui permet l'utilisation de tous les modes de preuves) et le système de la preuve légale (qui reconnaît surtout les preuves par écrit).\n\nEn droit civil, le système de preuve libre est employé lorsqu'il s'agit de prouver des faits juridiques (à l'exception de la naissance et du décès), alors que le système de preuve légale est employé lorsqu’il s’agit de prouver des actes juridiques (contrats, testament, etc.) au-delà d'un certain montant fixé par décret (actuellement ). \n\nLe système de preuve est fixé par l’article 9 du code de procédure civile, qui énonce : .\n\nCharge de la preuve \n\nLa charge de la preuve est l'obligation faite à une partie au procès de prouver les éléments qu'elle avance à l'appui de ses prétentions. \n\nCelui qui a la charge de la preuve supporte le risque de la preuve. C’est-à-dire que s’il ne parvient pas à convaincre le juge, le fait qu’il allègue est jugé faux sans que son adversaire ait à prouver quoi que ce soit.\n\nPrincipes \nDeux adages de droit romain permettent de saisir les grands principes relatifs à la charge de la preuve :\n : « La charge de la preuve incombe au demandeur. » \n : « Celui qui allègue une exception en défense doit la prouver. »\n\nCette articulation se retrouve au sein de l'article du code civil, qui dispose : \n\nPlus généralement, un autre adage romain résume assez bien la situation dans la très grande majorité des cas : , c'est-à-dire : « La preuve incombe à celui qui avance l'existence d'un fait. »\n\nException : le cas des présomptions \nOn sait que contre un écrit établissant un acte juridique, on ne peut prouver que par un acte sous signature privée ou authentique, sauf exceptions d'impossibilité matérielle ou morale de se procurer un écrit, s'il est d'usage de ne pas établir un écrit, ou lorsque l'écrit a été perdu par force majeure. On sait également que les faits juridiques se prouvent par tous moyens, sauf exceptions (naissance, décès).\n\nCependant, au visa de l'article 1354 du code civil, «la présomption que la loi attache à certains actes ou à certains faits en les tenant pour certains dispense celui au profit duquel elle existe d'en rapporter la preuve ». De surcroît, au visa de l'article 1382 du Code civil, « les présomptions qui ne sont pas établies par la loi, sont laissées à l'appréciation du juge, qui ne doit les admettre que si elles sont graves, précises et concordantes, et dans les cas seulement où la loi admet la preuve par tout moyen ». \n\nAinsi, la charge de la preuve peut parfois être modifiée par le jeu de présomptions, présomptions dites \"légales\" lorsqu'elles découlent de la loi ou \"judiciaires\" (également appelées \"de fait\") lorsqu'elles découlent de faits et qu'elles sont admises par le juge.\n\nPrésomptions légales \nLa présomption légale, c'est-à-dire celle posée par la loi à propos de faits ou d'actes juridiques, tient ceux-ci pour certains et dispense celui au profit duquel elle existe d'en rapporter la preuve. Elle pourra être, selon sa force, simple, mixte, ou irréfragable.\n\nPrésomptions légales simples \nLa présomption légale est dite simple lorsque la loi en permet la preuve contraire par tout moyen. Ainsi, par exemple : \n Lorsqu’un départ d’incendie a lieu au sein d'un immeuble loué, le locataire est présumé être responsable de cet incendie (article 1733 du Code civil). Il peut toutefois apporter la preuve que l'incendie n'a pas été causé par sa faute mais par un événement qui ne lui est pas imputable (communication de feu, vice de construction, etc.).\n Lorsque deux personnes sont mariées, l'enfant que la mère met au monde est présumé être le fils du mari (Article 312 du Code Civil). S'il veut renier l'enfant, le père doit introduire une action en contestation de paternité et prouver (généralement par un test génétique) qu'il n'a pas conçu l'enfant.\n\nPrésomptions légales mixtes ou semi-irréfragables \nLa présomption « est dite mixte lorsque la loi limite les moyens par lesquels elle peut être renversée ou l’objet sur lequel elle peut être renversée ».\n\nPrésomptions légales irréfragable \nLa présomption est irréfragable « lorsqu’elle ne peut pas être renversée ». Ces présomptions ne se contentent pas de déplacer l’objet de la preuve, mais, de façon bien plus radicale, suppriment la nécessité de la preuve en posant le caractère incontestable de certaines affirmations.\n\nLe fait qui bénéfice de la présomption ne relève plus d’une logique probatoire : il est hors du débat. Il ne sert à rien de cherche à déterminer si le fait est exact ou non, il sera nécessairement considéré comme vrai. On appelle cela une fiction juridique.\n\nEn principe, le pouvoir de poser ainsi ce que le droit considère comme vrai n’appartient qu’au législateur, mais la jurisprudence s’est implicitement reconnu le pouvoir d’admettre des présomptions irréfragables.\n\nAinsi, par exemple:\n Lorsqu'un parent vend un bien en viager à l'un de ses enfants, cette opération est considérée comme une donation déguisée et on présume que l'acte a préjudicié aux autres héritiers (article 918 du Code civil), même si la preuve est rapportée que le viager a préjudicié à cet enfant.\n Un contrat devant être écrit sous peine de nullité dans un certain délai (exemple : CDD ou contrat de mission d'intérim) bénéficie d'une présomption irréfragable de nullité en l'absence de contrat signé produit devant le juge, de sorte que ne pourra être prouvée autrement que par une preuve parfaite (aveu judiciaire ou serment décisoire) la date de transmission du contrat, laquelle, si elle est intervenue en temps utile, rend valable ce contrat solennel, quoique non signé, dès lors que c'est par fraude que le cocontractant salarié a refusé de le signer dans le délai légal (cf. ).\n\nPrésomptions judiciaires ou \"de fait\" \nLes présomptions judiciaires ou \"de fait\" sont celles qui ne sont pas établies par la loi. Elles sont laissées à l'appréciation du juge, qui ne doit les admettre que si elles sont graves, précises et concordantes, et dans les cas seulement où la loi admet la preuve par tout moyen. \n\nAinsi, lorsqu'il est impossible de prouver directement un fait, le juge peut se satisfaire d'indices qui établissent indirectement le fait, à condition que ces éléments soient « graves, précis et concordants » (article 1382 du Code civil5). Il appartient ensuite au défendeur de prouver le contraire, puisqu'elles sont par nature réfragables.\n\nL'exemple classique en la matière est celui de la preuve du lien entre sclérose en plaques et vaccins contre l'hépatite B. Il est, a ce jour, impossible de prouver scientifiquement que les vaccins contre l'hépatite B entraînent des cas de scléroses en plaques. Néanmoins, de nombreux requérants ont pu obtenir réparation auprès des fabricants de vaccins en avançant divers indices, tels que la concomitance entre l'administration du vaccin et l'apparition de la maladie ou la prévalence statistique plus importante d'apparition du trouble chez les individus vaccinés. Il appartenait, dans ces cas, aux industriels pharmaceutiques d'apporter la preuve que la sclérose en plaques ne pouvait être causée par le vaccin. (Civ. , , ).\n\nObjet de la preuve\n\nPreuve du droit \n : .\n\nLa règle de droit n’a pas à être prouvée, et le juge fonde son avis en fonction de l’orientation que donnent les preuves par rapport au droit. \n\nÀ noter cependant deux exceptions :\n Les usages professionnels ne sont pas écrits et ont parfois la valeur de règle de droit. Il appartient à la partie qui s'en prévaut de la prouver via l'attestation d'une autorité compétente en la matière (les « parères », document délivré par un syndicat ou une chambre de commerce et d'industrie).\n La loi étrangère devait auparavant être prouvée par les parties, dans des modalités analogues à celles de la preuve des usages professionnelles (attestation des consulats en ambassades). Il appartient aujourd'hui au juge d'en rechercher la substance, sans que les parties ne soient obligées de participer à la recherche\n\nPreuve des actes et faits juridiques \nLes questions de fait doivent être prouvées par les parties. Selon qu'il s'agisse de prouver un fait juridique ou un acte juridique, les règles sont différentes et souffrent d'exceptions.\n\nPreuve des actes juridiques\n\nLe principe \nLa preuve des actes juridiques n'est pas libre et se fait par des procédés de preuve dits parfaits (selon le système de la preuve légale).\n\nEn effet, depuis l’Ordonnance de Moulins de 1566, le principe est la preuve par écrit des actes juridiques. Il en résulte deux conséquences :\n d’une part, l’acte doit être constaté par écrit en vue de sa preuve\n d’autre part, la preuve contraire à un écrit ne peut elle-même être faite que par écrit.\n\nCette règle s’explique par le fait qu’en matière d’acte juridique, il est possible de se préconstituer une preuve. On préfère alors privilégier l’écrit que l’on estime beaucoup plus fiable que le témoignage dont la crédibilité peut être mise en cause, et beaucoup moins arbitraire que les présomptions laissées à la discrétion du juge.\n\nL’exception \nIl existe des exceptions au principe du système de preuve légale, qui permettent alors de prouver selon le système de la preuve libre :\nlorsque l'acte concerne une somme de moins de ;\nlorsqu’il existe un commencement de preuve par écrit ;\nlorsqu’il a été matériellement ou moralement impossible d'exiger une preuve littérale (relations de famille, relations amoureuses, relations amicales entre passionnés d’automobiles, usages contraires en matière agricole, etc.) ;\nlorsque l'écrit a été perdu par cas fortuit ou de force majeure ;\nen cas de perte de l’original mais de présentation d’une copie qui en est la reproduction fidèle et durable.\n\nToutefois, l’impossibilité d’obtenir un écrit ne dispense pas de rapporter la preuve par tous moyens de l’acte allégué (Civ. , ).\n\nPreuve des faits juridiques\n\nLe principe : la liberté probatoire \nLe fait juridique est le plus souvent un événement imprévu dont il n'a pas été possible d'établir une preuve préconstituée. Ainsi l’article 1358 du Code civil autorise-t-il le recours à la preuve par tout moyen, « hors le cas où la loi en dispose autrement », et elle ne dispose pas autrement pour les faits juridiques, sauf pour quelques exceptions.\n\nExceptions à la liberté probatoire \nIl existe des faits juridiques dont la gravité a poussé le législateur à organiser le système de preuve s'y rapportant. Ainsi, la naissance ou le décès, par exemple, doivent être prouvés au moyen d'actes d'état civil qui sont des actes authentiques, formés par des officiers ministériels. \n\nIl y a aussi exception à la liberté probatoire d'un fait juridique lorsque celui-ci conditionne la validité d'un acte juridique duquel la validité est également subordonnée à la rédaction d'un écrit signé. Par exemple : un CDD ou un contrat de mission d'intérim est nul s'il n'est pas écrit et signé des deux parties dans les deux jours de la mise à disposition du salarié, sauf si le contrat a effectivement été transmis dans ce délai au salarié. Cette transmission est un fait juridique particulier qui ne peut dès lors être prouvé librement. Seuls l'aveu judiciaire et le serment décisoire peuvent prouver la date de cette transmission et faire échec à la présomption irréfragable de nullité mentionnée plus haut dans la section présomption irréfragable (cf. article 1354 du Code civil).\n\nModes de preuve\n\nLes preuves parfaites \nLes preuves parfaites peuvent être utilisées dans tous les systèmes de preuve. Il s’agit de l’écrit, de l’aveu judiciaire et du serment décisoire. Ces procédés de preuve parfaits sont admissibles en toute matière et lient le juge, qui doit en tirer les conséquences.\n\nLes preuves littérales \nLes preuves littérales sont celles qui sont rédigées par écrit. L'écrit est défini par l’article 1365 du Code civil comme « une suite de lettres, de caractères, de chiffres ou de tous autres signes ou symboles dotés d'une signification intelligible, quel que soit leur support. »\n\nIl existe deux preuves parfaites littérales : l’acte authentique et l’acte sous seing privé, auxquels est venu s’ajouter en 2011 l’acte contresigné d’avocat.\n\nL’acte authentique\n\nDéfinition \nLes actes authentiques sont définis par l'article 1369 du Code civil : « L’acte authentique est celui qui a été reçu, avec les solennités requises, par un officier public ayant compétence et qualité pour instrumenter. » Il s’agit par exemple de l’acte notarié, dressé par un notaire.\n\nLa loi du 13 mars 2000 a complété cet article par un second alinéa concernant les actes sur support informatique : « Il peut être dressé sur support électronique s'il est établi et conservé dans des conditions fixées par décrets en Conseil d'État. »\n\nL’établissement d’un acte authentique est parfois exigé, à peine de nullité, pour certains actes solennels (contrat de mariage, donation, hypothèque, etc.). Dans ce cas, l’acte authentique est en même temps une condition de validité du contrat et un moyen de prouver l’existence et le contenu de ce dernier.\n\nEn dehors de ces hypothèses, pour les contrats consensuels, conclus par le seul échange des consentements, cette formalité n’est pas nécessaire, ni pour établir la validité du contrat, ni pour le prouver. Mais il peut quand même être utile de recourir à l’acte authentique : l’acte sera mieux rédigé sur les conseils du notaire, le notaire aura conseillé les parties sur le bien-fondé de l’acte (ce qui explique que l’acte notarié soit dispensé de toutes les mentions manuscrites exigées par la loi pour protéger la partie faible). L’intervention du notaire prémuni aussi contre le risque de perte de l’acte. Enfin, l’acte authentique a force exécutoire, comme les jugements, ce qui permet de procéder à des mesures d’exécutions forcées en cas d’inexécution du contrat sans avoir à passer devant le juge.\n\nPour qu’un acte soit authentique, il faut qu’il réponde à trois séries de conditions :\nil doit être rédigé par un officier public, c'est-à-dire une personne officiellement investie de cette mission particulière. C’est le cas des notaires, des officiers d’état civil, des huissiers, des greffiers, etc.\nl’officier public doit être compétent, à la fois pour le type d’acte qu’on lui demande d’établir (compétence d’attribution) et quant au lieu où il intervient (compétence territoriale). Par exemple, un notaire n’a, en principe, de compétence que pour les actes privés, et dans le ressort de la cour d’appel dont il dépend.\nl’acte doit être établi dans les formes prévues par la loi. Certaines sont communes à tous les actes authentiques (signature de l’officier public et des parties, approbation des renvois et ratures, etc.). D’autres sont propres à chaque type d’acte. Par exemple, un acte notarié doit être rédigé en langue française, sur papier timbré, être lu aux parties, etc.\n\nEn cas d’irrégularité de forme, l’acte est nul en tant qu’acte authentique, mais il peut alors valoir acte sous seing privé s’il en remplit, par ailleurs, les conditions.\n\nPortée probatoire \nL’acte authentique est un mode de preuve par écrit qui permet de prouver l’existence et le contenu d’un acte juridique. Il faut distinguer selon qu’il s’agit de prouver l’origine ou le contenu de l’acte :\nEn ce qui concerne l’origine de l’acte (c’est-à-dire la date et la signature), on ne peut pas prouver contre l’acte authentique. En effet, l’acte authentique fait foi jusqu’à inscription de faux. Cela signifie que, pour prouver contre l’acte authentique, il faut d’abord le faire tomber en démontrant son caractère mensonger. La preuve contraire doit ainsi être rapportée dans le cadre d’une procédure spéciale dont le succès suppose démontrée une affirmation mensongère du notaire, ce qui n’arrive presque jamais.\nEn ce qui concerne le contenu de l’acte, il faut distinguer les énonciations qui émanent des parties et des témoins (qui ne font foi que jusqu’à preuve contraire, comme pour un acte sous seing privé) et les constations et affirmations faites par le notaire lui-même dans le cadre de sa compétence (qui font foi jusqu’à inscription de faux).\n\nL’acte sous signature privée\n\nDéfinition\n\nLes actes sous signature privée sont les écrits remplissant un certain nombre de conditions de formes mais qui ne sont revêtus que de la signature des parties au contrat, et non de celle d'un officier public. Ainsi, dans le cas des contrats synallagmatiques, selon l'article 1372 du code civil, une des conditions sera qu'il y ait autant d'originaux que de parties ayant un intérêt distinct (et qui s'obligent). Cette condition fait exception en matière commerciale.\n\nPortée probatoire\nLa valeur probante de l’acte sous seing privé est limitée puisqu'il ne fait foi que jusqu’à preuve du contraire :\n au niveau de leur contenu ;\n au niveau de leur origine ;\n au niveau de la date (voir date certaine) ;\n au niveau de la signature.\nMalgré tout, la preuve du contraire reste soumise aux mêmes limitations quant aux moyens de preuve.\n\nUn acte sous seing privé qui ne remplirait pas toutes les conditions de forme (signature manquante, date oubliée, etc.) ne perdra pas toute sa valeur probante. En effet celui-ci n'aura plus la valeur probante de l'acte sous seing privé mais, par contre, fournira ce que l'on appelle un commencement de preuve par écrit qui ouvre, en régime de la preuve légale, les possibilités de la preuve libre pour confirmer ce qui est contenu dans cet acte.\n\nDe plus, les dates des actes sous seing privé ne sont vérifiées et valables que dans trois cas :\n l'enregistrement administratif ;\n la mort de l'un des signataires (l'acte n'aura pas pu être établi après sa mort) ;\n la constatation de l'existence de l'acte dans un acte authentique.\n\nL'acte sous seing privé contresigné par avocat\nÀ la suite d'une proposition du rapport Darrois sur les professions du droit (2009), et en dépit de la protestation des notaires, la loi du , dans son article 3, a créé entre l’acte authentique et l’acte sous seing privé une troisième forme d’écrit : l’acte contresigné d’avocat.\n\nIl s’agit d’un acte sous seing privé qui bénéficie de certains avantages du fait qu’il a été contresigné par un ou des avocats.\n\nEn particulier, le contreseing atteste du fait que l’avocat a pleinement éclairé la ou les parties qu’il conseille, de la portée et des conséquences juridiques dudit acte. En conséquence, l’acte contresigné est dispensé des mentions manuscrites qui sont\nparfois exigées par la loi afin d’attirer l’attention de la partie faible, généralement le consommateur, sur la portée de son engagement. \n\nLa même règle a été édictée pour les actes notariés (art. 1369 C. civ.). On peut penser que les parties auront suffisamment été instruites par l’avocat ou le notaire. En revanche, l’acte contresigné par avocat n’a pas la force exécutoire, laquelle n’est\nreconnue qu’à l’acte authentique.\n\nLa copie\nEn 1804, les copies, faites à la main, étaient peu fiables. Aussi ont-elles été dotées par le Code civil d’une force probante très limitée. Elles n’ont été dotés d’aucune force probante d’autonomie : une copie peut certes être produite, mais si celui à qui l’on l’oppose demande la production de l’original, une telle exigence doit être satisfaite.\n\nMais l’évolution des techniques de reproduction de documents – carbone, microfiches, microfilms, photocopies, informatique, etc. – a nécessité une réforme en profondeur, opérée par la loi du . La loi a accru la valeur probatoire des copies devant la pression des établissements bancaires. Il était en effet devenu irréaliste de conserver la trace originale de tous les chèques. Aussi les banques avaient-elles pris l’habitude de reproduire les chèques sur microfilms avant de les détruire. Mais elles ne pouvaient alors plus produire les originaux. Afin de valider un tel procédé, le législateur a, de façon plus générale, conféré une force probante autonome aux copies. Il est désormais efficace, en vertu de l’article 1379 du Code civil, de produire une copie, alors même que la production de l’original n’est plus possible.\n\nAinsi l’article 1379 permet-il :\nd’une part de produire une copie quelles qu’en soit les qualités, si l’on peut par ailleurs en produire l’original sur demande de l’adversaire ;\nd’autre part de produire une copie que fera preuve indépendamment de l’original, mais elle doit alors présenter certaines qualités, décrites par le Décret 2016-1673 du .\n\nL’aveu judiciaire \nDéfinit à l'article 1383 du code civil, « l’aveu est la déclaration par laquelle une personne reconnaît pour vrai un fait de nature à produire contre elle des conséquences juridiques. Il peut être judiciaire ou extra-judiciaire. »\n\nDéfinit à l’article 1383-2 du code civil, l’aveu judiciaire est celui qui est réalisé devant une instance de justice. Sa force probante est absolue et le juge est obligé de juger en conséquence.\n\nL’aveu judiciaire « fait pleine foi contre celui qui l’a fait ». Ce qui veut dire qu’il permet de prouver un acte juridique, et de prouver contre un écrit. Il présente à ce titre deux caractères :\nil est irrévocable, c’est-à-dire que l’auteur de l’aveu ne peut pas se rétracter (sauf erreur de fait)\nil est indivisible, c’est-à-dire qu’il constitue un tout que l’on doit prendre comme tel, sans pouvoir en choisir ou en distraire tel ou tel élément.\n\nSi l'aveu est réalisé en dehors des instances judiciaires (dans une lettre, un enregistrement audio, fait devant témoin, etc.), il est dit extra-judiciaire, et alors il s’agit d’une preuve imparfaite. Une section est consacrée à l’aveu extra-judiciaire dans l’article.\n\nLe serment décisoire \nLe serment décisoire est organisé par les articles 1384 à 1386-1 du Code civil. \n\nLe serment décisoire est un serment fait par l'une des parties à la demande de l'autre. \n\nPar exemple : un débiteur, incapable de prouver qu'il a bien remboursé, pourra demander à son créancier de faire serment de ne jamais avoir été remboursé. La partie à laquelle il est demandé de prêter serment a trois possibilités :\nsoit elle prête serment et gagne son procès,\nsoit elle refuse et perd son procès,\nsoit elle réfère le serment à la partie adverse et met ainsi son sort entre les mains de l'autre partie.\n\nIl est très rarement utilisé mais il reste toujours recevable, notamment lorsqu'en l'absence d'éléments convaincants, l'issue du procès demeure insoluble. De fait, il ne peut porter sur l'état des personnes. En ce qui concerne les autres matières, le serment décisoire ne peut déférer sur des faits personnels et pertinents.\n\nSi l'instruction établit la fausseté d'un serment décisoire, celui qui en est l'auteur peut faire l'objet de graves poursuites (tribunal correctionnel), et le procès incriminé pourra être révisé en civil.\n\nLes preuves imparfaites \nLes preuves imparfaites ne peuvent être utilisées qu’en système de preuve libre. Il s’agit du témoignage, des présomptions de l’homme, du serment supplétoire, des écrits non signés, de l’aveu extra-judiciaire, et du commencement de preuve par écrit. Les preuves imparfaites ont une force probante limitée : le juge est libre vis-à-vis de leur appréciation.\n\nLe témoignage \nTout le monde peut témoigner, sous réserve d'accepter de prêter serment (on parle de serment supplétoire), et sachant que le faux témoignage est un délit. Mais le juge n'est pas lié par un témoignage, il n'est pas obligé d'en tenir compte. De plus la partie adverse peut refuser de l'écouter. La valeur juridique du témoignage est discutable car il est considéré comme suspicieux.\n\nEn France, les articles 200 à 203 du Code de procédure civile et l'article 441-7 du nouveau Code pénal réglementent le témoignage. Le témoignage peut être écrit sur papier libre, ou suivant le formulaire Cerfa 11527-03.\n\nLe témoignage peut revêtir les mêmes garanties qu'une constatation d'un huissier (mais gratuit sur le plan pécuniaire), toujours à condition de s'en tenir aux faits.\n\nPar exemple, en cas d'écoulement d'eau de pluie dans une maison, on peut constater que , et que . Le témoignage ne doit pas affirmer des liens de cause à effet, tels que \n\nLe témoignage est souvent la seule preuve contre les « refus de guichet ».\n\nLes présomption judiciaires\nÀ la différence des présomptions légales que la loi impose au juge, les présomptions de l’homme sont un mode de raisonnement probatoire d’origine judiciaire.\n\nLa force probante des présomptions de l’homme « est laissée à l'appréciation du juge, qui ne doit les admettre que si elles sont graves, précises et concordantes. »\n\nLe serment déféré d’office ou supplétoire\nLe serment déféré d’office (anciennement appelé supplétoire) est réglementé par les articles 1386 et 1386-1 du Code civil.\n\nIl est à la disposition du juge qui peut le déférer d’office lorsque, les preuves produites ne lui paraissant pas suffisamment convaincantes, il souhaite en compenser les insuffisances (mais en pratique, le juge préférera ordonner une expertise).\n\nLe serment supplétoire n’a pas de valeur probatoire en lui-même. Il ne peut que compléter un début de preuve existant. Il ne lie pas le juge qui est libre d’en tirer les conclusions qu’il lui plaira.\n\nL’aveu extra-judiciaire\nDéfinit à l', « l’aveu est la déclaration par laquelle une personne reconnaît pour vrai un fait de nature à produire contre elle des conséquences juridiques. Il peur être judiciaire ou extra-judiciare. »\n\nSi l’aveu est réalisé devant une instance de justice, il est dit judiciaire, et il s’agit d’une preuve parfaite. Une section est consacrée à l’aveu judiciaire dans l’article.\n\nSi l’aveu est réalisé en dehors des instances judiciaires (dans une lettre, un enregistrement audio, fait devant témoin, etc.), il est dit extra-judiciaire, et alors « sa valeur probante est laissée à l’appréciation du juge ». Les juges peuvent « s'estimer pleinement convaincus d'un aveu extra-judiciaire ».\n\nLe commencement de preuve par écrit\n\nDéfinition\nL’article 1362 du code civil définit le commencement de preuve par écrit comme l’« écrit qui, émanant de celui qui conteste un acte ou de celui qu'il représente, rend vraisemblable ce qui est allégué. »\n\nIl faut en principe un écrit : ce peut être un acte rédigé en vue de faire preuve, mais auquel il manque une des conditions exigées par la loi (signature, double original, mention manuscrite, copie non fidèle et durable, etc.), ce peut également être une lettre missive (correspondance qui n’a pas été rédigée en vue de faire preuve).\n\nIl faut que l’écrit émane « de celui qui conteste un acte ou de celui qu’il représente », c'est-à-dire du défendeur à l’allégation.\n\nIl faut enfin que l’écrit invoqué rende vraisemblable le fait allégué, ce qui relève de l’appréciation souveraine des juges du fond.\n\nPortée probatoire\nUn commencement par écrit ne suffit pas en soi à prouver un acte juridique. Mais son existence autorise le demandeur à l’allégation à compléter la preuve fournie, que l’on va considérée comme déjà à moitié apportée, en produisant des témoignages, en articulant des présomptions, ou encore en se prévalant d’indices tel un commencement d’exécution. Ces preuves complémentaires doivent nécessairement être extérieures au document qui constitue le commencement de preuve.\n\nAinsi un commencement de preuve en peut être utilisé dans le système de la preuve légale, pourvu qu’il soit « corroboré par un autre moyen de preuve ». Autrement dit, en lui-même, un commencement de preuve par écrit est une preuve imparfaite, mais il peut contribuer à former une preuve parfaite.\n\nEnregistrements déloyaux ou illégaux\nLes enregistrements obtenus de manière déloyale et/ou illégale ne sont pas admis comme mode de preuve dans un procès civil. Ainsi, le fait d'avoir enregistré une conversation téléphonique à l'insu de quelqu'un peut se retourner contre la personne auteur de l'enregistrement, qui peut se voir poursuivie et condamnée. Cette solution a été confirmée dans un arrêt de la civile de la Cour de cassation du .\n\nL'article 226-1 du code pénal ne punit les enregistrements à l'insu d'une personne que lorsque ceux-ci sont réalisés dans le but de porter atteinte à l'intimité de sa vie privée.\n\nEn revanche, les messages laissés sur des répondeurs téléphoniques et les SMS sont toujours acceptés.\n\nLe débat autour des preuves doit cependant respecter le contradictoire. Ainsi la Cour européenne des droits de l'homme peut regarder sous certaines conditions les enregistrements au travers de l'équité d'un procès dans l'administration des preuves (article 6.1 de la CEDH).\n\nBibliographie\n\nNotes et références\n\nArticles connexes \n\n Code civil français, voir le livre , titre , sur les contrats ou les obligations conventionnelles en général.\n Gestion de la preuve\n Mesure d'instruction in futurum\n Preuve en droit pénal français\n\nCatégorie:Droit civil en France\n*", "Jessica Diamond, née le à New York, est une artiste conceptuelle américaine connue pour ses dessins muraux et ses installations.\n\nBiographie \nJessica Diamond naît le à New York.\n\nElle explore les thèmes de l'anti-commercialisme, les rôles sociaux et sexuels dans ses œuvres.\n\nElle obtient son BFA de la School of Visual Arts en 1979 et son MFA de l'Université de Columbia en 1981. Elle expose ses œuvres dans le monde entier depuis 1983\n\nElle réalise une série de dessins muraux influencés et répondant au travail de l'artiste japonaise Yayoi Kusama.\n\nExpositions \n2006 - Freud and Contemporary Art; The Collection of the Sigmund Freud Museum Vienna, Austrian Cultural Forum, New York, NY\n\n2005 - Monuments For The U.S.A., CCA Wattis Institute for Contemporary Art, San Francisco, CA; travelling, White Columns, New York, NY\n\n2005 - L’Humanite mise a nu et l’art en FRAC, Meme, Oeuvres de la collection du FRAC Languedoc-Roussillon, France, Casino Luxembourg, Luxembourg\n\n2004 - Tenir le fil garder la corde, FRAC Languedoc-Roussillon, Montpellier, France\n\n2004 - The Big Nothing, The Institute of Contemporary Art, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA\n\n2004 - Analix Forever, Geneva, Switzerland (solo)\n\n2003 - Gelijk het leven is, Belgian and international art from the collection, Stedelijk Museum voor Actuele Kunst, Gent, Belgium\n\n2003 - Bright Lights Big City, David Zwirner, New York, NY\n\n2003 - Influence, Anxiety and Gratitude, MIT List Visual Arts Center, Cambridge, MA\n\n2002 - Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, Montreal, Canada (solo)\n\n2002 - Time is Free, Apexart, New York, NY\n\n2002 - Power, Casino Luxembourg, Luxembourg\n2002 - From the Observatory, Paula Cooper Gallery, New York, NY\n\n2002 - Einfach Kunst, Sammlung Rolf Ricke, Neues Museum, Nurnberg, Germany\n\n2001 - Art Gallery of York University, Toronto, Canada (solo)\n\n2001 - Televisions, Kunsthalle Wien, Vienna, Austria\n\n2001 - Work: Shaker Design and Recent Art, The Tang Teaching Museum and Art Gallery, Skidmore College, Saratoga Springs, New York\n\n2001 - L’Esprit de famille, Villa du Parc, Annemasse, France\n\n2001 - Sonsbeek 9, Arnhem, The Netherlands\n\n2000 - Birmingham Museum of Art, Birmingham, AL (solo)\n\n2000 - Le jeu des 7 familles, Musee d’Art Moderne et Contemporain, Geneva, Switzerland\n\n2000 - Ihr wart ins Wasser eingeschrieben: Aussstellungsprojekt im Packhof, Hann. Munden, Germany\n\n2000 - Food For The Mind, Staatsgalerie Moderner Kunst, Munich, Germany\n\n1999 - Stedelijk Museum Het Domein, Sittard, Holland (solo)\n\n1999 - Ota Fine Arts, Tokyo, Japan (solo)\n\n1999 - Zeitwenden, Kunstmuseum Bonn, Bonn, Germany\n\n1999 - Inaugural Exhibition, Stedelijk Museum voor Actuele Kunst, Gent, Belgium\n\n1999 - 100 Drawings, P.S. 1, Long Island City, NY\n\n1999 - Janviers en Bourgogne: Xn 99, Espace des Arts de Chalon-sur-Saône, Chalon-sur-Saône, France\n\n1998 - De beurs van Judocus Vijdt, Kunstkapital in Gent, Bijlokemuseum, Gent, Belgium\n\n1998 - Voor het Verdwijnt en daarna, S.M.A.K. in Watou, Watou, Belgium\n\n1998 - Vera Van Laer Gallery, Antwerp, Belgium (solo)\n\n1997 - Le Consortium, Dijon, France (solo)\n\n1997 - Heart, Mind, Body, Soul: American Art in the 1990s, Selections from the Permanent Collection, Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, NY\n\n1997 - At the Threshold of the Visible: Minuscule and Small Scale Art, 1964-1996, Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY (traveled)\n\n1997 - Arte All’ Arte, organized by Arte Continua and the community of San Gimignano, Italy\n\n1997 - Partito Preso Internazionale, Galleria Nazionale d’Arte Moderna, Rome, Italy\n\n1997 - Display, Charlottenborg Exhibition Hall, Copenhagen, Denmark\n\n1997 - Topping Out, Stadtische Galerie Nordhorn, Nordhorn, Germany\n\n1997 - Discrimination, Cruelty and Hope: The Anne Frank Project, Flint Institute of the Arts, Flint, Michigan\n\n1996 - Avant-premiere d’un Musee - Le Musee d’Art Contemporain de Gand, Institut Neerlandais, Paris, France\n\n1996 - Yayoi Kusama, Jessica Diamond, Galerie Fahnemann, Berlin, Germany\n\n1996 - Deitch Projects, New York, NY (solo)\n1996 - Galerie Analix, Geneva, Switzerland (solo)\n1996 - RIX, Linkoping, Sweden (solo)\n\n1995 - AM Rande der Malerei, Kunsthalle Bern, Bern, Switzerland\n1995 - Ripple Across The Water, Watari-um Museum, Tokyo, Japan\n\n1995 - Altered States, American Art of the 90’s, Forum For Contemporary Art, St. Louis, MO\n1994 - Art Unlimited, Multiples of the 1960s and 1990s form the Arts Council Collection, Corner House, Manchester, England\n\n1994 - The Institute of Cultural Anxiety: Works from the Collection, Institute of Contemporary Arts, London, England\n\n1994 - The Century of the Multiple, From Duchamp to the Present, Deichtorhallen Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany\n\n1994 - The MCA Collection: 1994 Collection, Museum of Contemporary Art, Sydney, Australia\n\n1994 - EV+A, Limerick, Ireland\n\n1994 - Wall to Wall, Serpentine Gallery, London, England\n\n1994 - Ynglingagatan 1, Stockholm, Sweden (solo)\n\n1993 - Galleria Massimo De Carlo, Milan, Italy (solo)\n\n1993 - Vierkant, Museum van Hedendaagse Kunst Gent, Gent, Belgium\n\n1993 - Jessica Diamond, Peter Santino, Galerie Analix, Geneva\n\n1993 - Aperto, Venice Biennale, Venice, Italy\n1992 - Irony and Ecstasy: Contemporary American Drawings, Zilkha Gallery, Wesleyan University, CT\n\n1992 - 20 Fragile Pieces, Gallery Analix, Geneva\n\n1992 - Just Pathetic, American Fine Arts Co., New York, NY\n\n1992 - American Fine Arts Co., New York, NY (solo)\n\n1991 - Galerie Fahnemann, Berlin, Germany (solo)\n\n1991 - Jablonka Galerie, Cologne, Germany (solo)\n\n1991 - Wealth of Nations, Centrum Sztuki Wspolczesnej Zamek Ujazdowski Castle, Warsaw, Poland\n\n1991 - Les Couleurs de l’Argent, Musee de la Poste, Paris, France\n\n1991 - Das Goldene Zeitalter, Wurttembergischer Kunstverein, Stuttgart, Germany - \n1991 - Words Without Thoughts Never To Heaven Go, The Centraal Museum Utrecht, Holland\n\n1991 - Words & #s, Museum of Contemporary Art, Wright State University, Dayton, OH\n\n1991 - Nachtregels/Night Lines, The Centraal Museum, Utrecht, Holland\n\n1991 - Biennial, Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, NY\n\n1991 - Anni Novanta, Galleria d’Arte Moderna, Comune di Bologna, Italy\n\n1991 - The Savage Garden, Fundacion Caja de Pensiones, Madrid, Spain\n\n1990 - In The Beginning, Cleveland Center for Contemporary Art, OH\n\n1990 - HYPERBATE, Sous-Sol, Ecole superieure d’art visuel, Geneva, Switzerland\n\n1990 - Just Pathetic, Rosamund Felsen Gallery, Los Angeles, CA\n\n1990 - Jessica Diamond, Mike Kelley, Interim Art, London, England\n\n1990 - Köln Show, Cologne, Germany\n\n1990 - Artedomani: Punto di Vista, Inconteri Internazionali d’Arte, Galleria Comunale d’Arte Moderna, Spoleto, Italy\n\n1990 - Artspace Annex, San Francisco, CA (solo)\n\n1990 - American Fine Arts Co., New York, NY (solo)\n\n1990 - Standard Graphik, Cologne, Germany (solo)\n\n1989 - American Fine Arts Co., New York, NY (solo)\n\n1989 - Amerikarma, Hallwalls, Buffalo, NY\n\n1989 - The Elements: Sex, Politics, Money & Religion, Real Art Ways, Hartford, CT\n\n1989 - Moskau-Wien-New York, Wiener Stadtische, Vienna, Austria\n\n1989 - Herbstsalon 1989, DuMont Kunsthalle, Cologne, Germany\n\n1989 - Heat the Roof, 106 Ridge Street, New York, NY\n\n1989 - Pathetique, Galerie Schmela, Düsseldorf, Germany\n\n1988 - Nostalgia as Resistance, Pop Project IV, Clocktower, New York, NY\n\n1987 - Infotainment, travelling exhibition: De Selby Gallery, Amsterdam; Galerie Montenay,el Sol, Paris, France\n\n1987 - Perverted by Language, Hillwood Art Gallery, C.W. Post Center, Long Island University, NY\n\n1986 - Cutting ‘Em Of At The Pass, Arts Festival of Atlanta, Atlanta, GA\n\n1986 - On View, The New Museum of Contemporary Art, New York, NY\n\n1985 - Infotainment, travelling exhibition: Texas Gallery, Houston, TX; Rhona Hoffman Gallery, Chicago, IL; Aspen Art Museum, Aspen, CO; Vanguard Gallery, Philadelphia, PA\n\n1985 - Objects in Collision, The Kitchen, New York, NY\n\n1985 - Hallwalls, Buffalo, NY (solo)\n\n1984 - Selections, Artist Space, New York, NY\n\n1984 - Too Young for Vietnam, White Columns, New York, NY\n\n1983 - Selections 22, The Drawing Center, New York, NY\n\nNotes et références\n\nAnnexes\n\nBibliographie \n \n Moos, David, and Jessica Diamond. Jessica Diamond. Toronto: Art Gallery of York University, 2001. Print.\n Pakesch, Peter, and Inge Scholz-Strasser. Freud and Contemporary Art: The Collection of the Sigmund Freud Museum, Vienna : April 25-July 8, 2006. New York: Austrian Cultural Forum, New York, 2006. Print.\n Schaffner, Ingrid, Bennett Simpson, and Tanya Leighton. The Big Nothing. Philadelphia, PA: Institute of Contemporary Art, 2004. Print.\n Felix, Zdenek. Das Jahrhundert Des Multiple: Von Duchamp Bis Zur Gegenwart. Stuttgart: Oktagon Verlag, 1994. Print.\n\nLiens externes \n \n \n\nCatégorie:Naissance en juin 1957\nCatégorie:Naissance à New York\nCatégorie:Élève de la School of Visual Arts\nCatégorie:Artiste contemporain américain\nCatégorie:Artiste conceptuel américain", "Les plaques d'immatriculation en Belgique sont assignées à une personne physique ou à une personne morale (entreprise).\n\nDescription \n\nLes plaques d'immatriculations belges, longtemps uniques en Europe de par leur petite taille, ont été adaptées depuis le 16 novembre 2010 au format plus large de type européen et affichent une Eurobande bleue. Elles présentent 6 ou 7 caractères rouge foncé sur fond blanc (1-ABC-123). \nDe par la couleur rouge foncé (RAL 3003), ces plaques gardent une singularité : elles sont les seules en Europe à ne pas présenter des caractères de couleur noire.\n\nLa plaque d'immatriculation arrière est fournie par l'État tandis que celle à l'avant doit être achetée chez un garagiste ou détaillant par le propriétaire, mais celle-ci doit être identique (carrée ou rectangulaire) à celle à l'arrière. Elle doit respecter les normes européennes concernant l'immatriculation (interdiction de plaques avec auto-collants ou de plaques découpées dans la masse : la plaque avant au format européen doit, pour toute nouvelle immatriculation depuis le , être aussi tamponnée (en relief)).\n\nLes plaques d’immatriculation belges sont attribuées non pas à un véhicule, mais à une personne physique ou à une société. Une personne qui change de véhicule peut transférer son numéro au nouveau véhicule (pour autant bien sûr que l'ancien numéro d'immatriculation soit applicable au nouveau véhicule). L'ancien numéro peut toutefois être radié, auquel cas un nouveau numéro sera attribué.\n\nLes anciennes plaques sans logo européen sont progressivement remplacées, au fur et à mesure des nouvelles demandes d'immatriculation, depuis le 16 novembre 2010, sauf pour les plaques personnalisées, ou par une demande payante de conversion d'une plaque ancienne à 6 ou 5 caractères en plaque personnalisée (son coût est de ).\n \nLa plaque arrière était jadis souvent attachée sur un porte plaque qui affiche une lettre B et une publicité pour le concessionnaire automobile ou parfois ornée d'un drapeau européen.\n\nLes nouvelles plaques au format européen (deux formats restent possibles : rectangulaire ou carré) sont de couleur rubis type RAL.3003 sur fond blanc. Il y a 7 caractères au lieu de 6, séparés par des tirets et non plus par des points, et le drapeau européen ainsi que le B y figurent, sur fond bleu, à gauche de la plaque.\n\nÉvolution des formats et couleurs \n 1899 à 1911 : Premières plaques avec des lettres noires sur un fond blanc.\n 1911 à 1919 : Numéros blancs sur plaque noire. Comme maintenant, seule la plaque arrière était fournie par l'état.\n 1919 à 1925 : Numéros blancs sur plaque bleue.\n 1925 à 1928 : Lettre blanche sur fond rouge suivie de chiffres.\n\nFond blanc et caractères rouges \n 1928 à 1951 : Chiffres rouges sur fond blanc.\n 1951 à 1961 : 1 lettre, 4 chiffres (dispositions possibles : A.1234, 1.A.234, 12.A.34, 123.A.4, 1234.A)\n 1962 à 1971 : 2 lettres, 3 chiffres (dispositions possibles : AB.123, 1.AB.23, 12.AB.3, 123.AB)\n 1971 à 1973 : 1 lettre, 3 chiffres, 1 lettre (A.123.B)\n 1973 : plaques jaune et noir sont fabriquées mais détruites sans jamais avoir été mises en circulation (AAA-001)\n 1973 à 2008 : 3 lettres, 3 chiffres (AAA-123)\n 2008 à 2010 (10 novembre) : 3 chiffres, 3 lettres (123-AAA), jusqu'à 999-CFQ.\n\nFond blanc et caractères rouge-rubis foncé \nDepuis le 16 novembre 2010 : rubis (rouge foncé) sur fond blanc, un chiffre-indice + 3 lettres + 3 chiffres (1-AAA-001).\n\nPour l'ancien Secrétaire d'État à la mobilité Etienne Schouppe, la nouvelle plaque devait être noire sur fond jaune, mariage de couleurs le plus visible selon des études menées dans le nord de la Belgique, mais les partis francophones ont refusé jugeant les couleurs trop « flamandes ». Le CD&V a alors proposé d'entourer la plaque d'un bandeau rouge, histoire de donner un caractère plus belge à la plaque. Mais Joëlle Milquet et Laurette Onkelinx sont restées sur leurs positions . \n\nLe rubis sur blanc a alors été choisi, cette association de couleurs a été critiquée par le VAB et Touring affirmant qu'en Belgique « le communautaire passe avant la sécurité ».\n\nLes plaques personnalisées et les anciennes plaques (plaque familiale, plaque historique à laquelle on est attaché) pourront à la demande être converties au nouveau format, mais avec l'ajout d'un 9 - en première position pour former la nouvelle composition (exemple ATH-001 deviendrait 9-ATH-001).\n\nVariantes en circulation\n\nVisualisation de la situation actuelle\n\nPlaques « standard » ancien format \nLes plaques d'immatriculation émises jusqu'en novembre 2010 sont à caractères rouges sur fond blanc, et mesurent sur (plus petit que les autres États européens).\n\nLes dernières versions de ces plaques « ancien format » comportent des combinaison de trois lettres et de trois chiffres : AAA-111 ou 222-BBB.\n\nLes motocyclettes mues par un moteur de plus de ont une plaque jaune avec des lettres et chiffres noirs. La première lettre est M. Depuis le 2 juin 2006, la première lettre des nouvelles immatriculations est W. Ces plaques ont une forme presque carrée, avec les trois lettres sur la première ligne et les trois chiffres sur la seconde. \nLes motos mues par un moteur de moins de et qui ne dépassent pas n'ont pas de plaque et sont appelées cyclomoteurs.\n\nCertaines plaques commencent uniquement et obligatoirement par les lettres suivantes :\n M et W : pour les motos, fond jaune avec chiffres et lettres noir.\n O : pour les véhicules ANCÊTRES, fond blanc avec chiffres et lettres rouges.\n U et Q : pour les remorques, fond blanc avec chiffres et lettres rouges en U, fond blanc avec chiffres et lettres noir en Q.\n CD : pour les véhicules de corps diplomatique, lettres CD en vert fond blanc avec chiffres et lettres rouges. \n Z : pour les plaques MARCHAND, fond blanc avec chiffres et lettres vert.\n ZZ : pour les plaques ESSAI, fond blanc avec chiffres et lettres vert\nles plaques EUR, EURO, OTAN et SHAPE, fond blanc avec chiffres et lettres bleu, ou que chiffres bleu\n\nJusqu'en 2000, les immatriculations composées de trois lettres suivies de trois chiffres (ex : ABC-123) ne comprenaient pas les lettres suivantes : I, M, O, Q, W. Elles ont été introduites par la suite afin d'augmenter le nombre de possibilités (outre leur utilisation pour les significations spéciales décrites ci-dessus).\n\nPour une raison mystérieuse, la série qui était en cours a été interrompue dans le courant de l'année 2000 à hauteur de l'immatriculation SRZ-999 afin d'intégrer ces cinq nouvelles lettres. À partir de cette date, une nouvelle série a recommencé au début de l'alphabet avec la particularité que toutes les nouvelles immatriculations comportaient automatiquement au moins un de ces cinq nouveaux caractères. La première immatriculation de la nouvelle série fut donc AAI-001.\n\nLorsque fut atteinte l'immatriculation SRW-999, dernière immatriculation avec une nouvelle lettre avant la fin SRZ-999 de l'ancienne série, la distribution reprit son cours normal (à partir de la plaque SSA-001) en incluant maintenant toutes les lettres de l'alphabet.\n\nRemarques : \n La lettre O est uniquement utilisée en première position (pour les véhicules ANCÊTRES) sauf sur les plaques personnalisées où elle peut figurer à toutes les places.\n La lettre I n'a pas été utilisée en première position. La série allant de IAA-001 à IZZ-999 n'a pas été distribuée.\n Les combinaisons représentant le sigle d'un parti politique (ex : CDH, VLD) ou formant certains mots (ex : CUL) n'ont pas été distribuées.\n\nLa dernière plaque de ce type fut fabriquée le vendredi 17 septembre 2010, à savoir 999-CFQ.\n\nPlaques « standard » au format européen \nDepuis le 16 novembre 2010, la Belgique équipe ses véhicules de plaques d'immatriculation aux dimensions européennes avec le drapeau européen, selon le règlement européen sur l'Eurobande déjà en vigueur dans l'ensemble des États membres de l'Union européenne. Celles-ci sont composées de la lettre B en bleu avec à droite de celle-ci 7 chiffres et lettres séparés par des tirets (1-AAA-001) (rouge foncé, rubis-bordeaux, type RAL 3003 (décision du Conseil des Ministres du 20 juillet 2010) sur fond blanc.\n\nLes plaques sont disponibles, au choix, en format rectangulaire ou carré. Des plaques carrées plus petites sont fabriquées pour les deux-roues (également possible pour les autres véhicules avec accord préalable du contrôle technique).\n\nLe modèle de numérotation est le suivant : 1 chiffre-indice + 3 lettres + 3 chiffres. L'indice a la signification suivante:\n indices 1 à 7 : plaques standard (1-AAA-001 à 7-YZZ-999).\n indice 8 (8-AAA-001 à 8-YZZ-999) : plaques internationales pour tous les fonctionnaires européens et les employés des institutions internationales situées en Belgique (elles remplaceront les plaques EUR, EURO, OTAN et SHAPE), en cours de suppression depuis le 7 octobre 2014\n\nL'indice 9 fut supprimé le 31 mars 2014, il s'agissait de plaques personnalisées de 6 ou 7 caractères, par exemple 9-FER-348 ou 9-B-1234 ou 9-001-OOP .\n\nComme précédemment, les plaques commençant par M, O, Q, TX, U, W et Z dans toutes les séries resteront réservées :\n O : véhicules historiques anciens (ancêtres), rouge foncé sur fond blanc\n M, W : motos, rouge foncé sur fond blanc (et non plus noir sur fond jaune comme auparavant)\n Q, U : remorques et caravanes, rouge foncé sur fond blanc (et non plus noir sur fond blanc comme auparavant)\n TX : taxis véhicules de location avec chauffeur (pour ces derniers : TXL, puis TXR et TXV), rouge foncé sur fond blanc\n Z : garagistes et revendeurs automobiles, chiffres verts sur fond blanc.\n\nIndépendamment du système précédent, certaines séries sont réservées selon le format de la plaque. La deuxième lettre d'une plaque ordinaire, remorque ou historique (et la première lettre après CD d'une plaque diplomatique) est ainsi:\n Y pour les plaques carrées (ex : 1-AYB-001 pour une voiture, 1-OYA-001 pour un old timer, CD-YA-001 pour une plaque diplomatique)\n Z pour les plaques de petit format (ex : 1-AZA-001 pour une voiture).\nAux débuts du système, tout ou partie de la série 1-AYA a été fabriquée par erreur au format standard.\nLe lien entre format de plaque et série Y et Z à partir de 1-EYA et 1-EZA.\n\nDepuis février 2014, la lettre O ne figure plus dans aucune série normale, et dès mai 2014 les lettres I, M, Q et W sont exclues des séries normales. Les lettres M, Q et W sont réintroduites avec la série 1-TAA-001 (septembre 2017).\n\nToutefois les lettres M, O, Q et W sont encore autorisées en indice de série (voir supra) et dans les combinaisons personnalisées.\n\nChangements à partir de juin 2013 et d'octobre 2014 \n\nDepuis le , une réorganisation des types de plaques est entrée en service progressivement. Ce nouveau système a été imaginé par le responsable de l'immatriculation des véhicules au sein du Cabinet du Secrétaire d'État à la Mobilité, Philippe Touwaide (Capitole), et est connu sous le nom du « plan Touwaide » :\n\nLe , plaque spécifique aux tracteurs agricoles commençant par la lettre G (Moniteur belge du 22 mai 2013), plaque unique qui est inversée pour les couleurs, fond rouge RAL 3020 et lettres blanches, G-LAA-001, où le G désigne la catégorie de la plaque (tracteurs) et le L leur utilisation (Landbouw/Agriculture).\n\nDepuis le 31 mars 2014, l'indice S est attribué aux cyclomoteurs circulant à moins de :\n S : cyclomoteurs (S-AAA-001 pour cyclomoteurs de classe A et S-BAA-001 pour cyclomoteurs de classe B et S-UAA-001 pour les véhicules sans permis). Au octobre 2016, on y ajoute S-BPA-001 pour les speed pedelecs, vélos électriques dont la vitesse maximale est entre 25 et . Ces plaques sont au format plus petit de 10 × .\n\nDepuis le 7 octobre 2014, les indices suivants ont été mis en service progressivement :\n M : motocyclettes (plaque M-AAA-001)\n Q : remorques (Q-AAA-001)\n O : Oldtimer (O-AAA-001, avec identification des types d'ancêtres en fonction de la catégorie de la seconde lettre)\n T : taxis (T-XAA-001 pour les taxis, et T-LAA-001 pour les taxis limousines)\n\nLe 2 mai 2016, ce seront les plaques suivantes qui seront mises en service : \n W : plaque temporaire semestrielle pour les personnes en transit WORLD, fond rouge RAL 3020 (WA-17-ABC) 17 = 2017\n X : plaque temporaire mensuelle pour l'exportation EXPORT, fond rouge RAL 3020 (XA-16-ABC) 16 = 2016\n\nAprès, ce seront les plaques suivantes qui seront mises en service :\n Y : plaque professionnelle de vérification technique annuelle, caractères vert British Racing (YA-16-ABC)\n Z : plaque professionnelle de démonstration commerciale annuelle, caractères vert British Racing (ZA-16-ABC)\n\nDiplomates et membres du personnel administratif et technique d'ambassades \n\nAncien format :\nLes premières lettres (CD) sont vertes, suivies d'un point (.) et 4 signes rouges, dans l'une des combinaisons suivantes (présentées par ordre chronologique d'émission) :\n quatre chiffres (CD.1234)\n une lettre et trois chiffres (CD.A123)\n trois chiffres et une lettre (CD.) (à partir de 2008).\n\nFormat actuel (depuis novembre 2010) : \nLa numérotation des plaques diplomatiques suit le modèle CD-AB123, en rubis sur fond blanc (l'usage du vert est abandonné), depuis avril 2014 tous les groupes de lettres seront séparés par des tirets : CD-AB-123\n\nFamille royale et dignitaires de la cour \nLa plaque ne comporte que des chiffres, du même format qu'une plaque standard. Les voitures utilisées par le Roi ou la Reine utilisent souvent de petits chiffres (de 1 à 10). Les voitures utilisées par les autres membres de la famille royale ont deux chiffres entre 11 et 99.\n\nHabituellement, le Roi utilise les immatriculations 1, 2 ou 7 pour les déplacements officiels.\n\nLors des cérémonies de sa prestation de serment, le Roi Philippe a utilisé la plaque « 1 » le matin sur une Mercedes 600 Pullman Landaulet, et après-midi sur une Mercedes S 350. Lors du passage en revue des troupes composant le défilé, c'était la plaque « 1 » Militaire apposée sur une Iveco. Une autre Mercedes 600 Pullman, non découvrable, restée en réserve disposait de la plaque 4. , la plaque 1 est apposée sur une BMW série 7.\n\nAutres plaques de la Famille royale:\n\n15 : Roi Albert II sur une Mercedes S 500\n20 à 40 : voiture de fonction\n41 à 45 : famille royale\n55 : chef de la Maison Militaire du Roi (Škoda noire)\n\nMinistres et Parlementaires \nCette plaque consiste en 1 lettre suivie par 1 à 3 chiffres.\n\nCe mode de numérotation n'a pas été modifié en 2010 (mais les plaques sont désormais au format européen).\n\nLa première lettre est A pour :\n les membres du gouvernement fédéral (la plaque A.2 est utilisée par le Premier Ministre),\n les ministres d'État, à partir d'A.26\n le Président de la Chambre des représentants, A.1\n certains hauts magistrats, A.100\n les gouverneurs de province, A.130\n quelques autres hauts responsables de l'État, \n les hauts responsables des organes de culte reconnus (y compris la laïcité). \n\nLa première lettre est P pour :\n le Président et les membres du Sénat, P.1 pour le président du Sénat et chiffres impairs entre P.7 et P.199\n les membres de la Chambre des représentants (P. 8 à P. 200, chiffres pairs et tous les numéros entre P. 201 à P. 300)\n les présidents et membres des parlements régionaux (Flandre, Wallonie, Bruxelles), à partir de P.300\n le président et les membres du Parlement de la Communauté germanophone,\n les membres belges du Parlement européen (P. 700)\n les véhicules des services automobiles officiels de la Chambre et du Sénat.\n\nLa première lettre est E pour les présidents, membres ou services des exécutifs régionaux et communautaires.\n\nÀ l'avenir des plaques au format réduit moto seront réalisées pour les cyclomoteurs et motocyclettes des Ministres et Parlementaires dans les séries A.301 et A.401 ainsi que P.801 et P.901.\n\nMilitaires \nCelles-ci sont constituées d'un fond de plaque blanche avec des lettres noires et un drapeau belge situé à gauche.\n\nLes employés du quartier général de l'OTAN utilisaient anciennement une plaque rouge avec lettres blanches (SB) suivie d'un numéro. Les nouvelles plaques de tous les fonctionnaires internationaux commencent spécifiquement par 8.\n\nLe Roi utilise en tant que commandant en chef des forces armées, la plaque militaire 1.\n\nRemorques \n\nthumb|Ancienne plaque de remorque\n\nLes plaques de remorques commencent toujours par les lettres Q ou U. Format et couleurs ont évolué dans le temps:\n\nAnciennes versions :\n Petit format avec caractères rouges sur fond blanc.\n Format européen avec caractères noirs sur fond blanc. De plus, elles portent le drapeau européen du côté gauche de la plaque. Toutefois, l'ancienne version (caractères rouges) est encore largement répandue.\n\nÀ partir du 16 novembre 2010, le format européen avec caractères rouge foncé sur fond blanc est utilisé. Comme sur les plaques standard, un chiffre-indice est ajouté en première position (devant Q ou U).\n\nCependant, le chiffre indice fut remplacé par la lettre Q peu après, libérant l'intégralité du numéro de série (Q-ABC-123)\n\nOTAN \n\nPlaques attribuées au personnel (non Belge) de l'OTAN et des autres organisations internationales.\nPlaques attribuées particulièrement au personnel du SHAPE partie internationale.\n\nÀ partir du 16 novembre 2010, l'usage du bleu est abandonné, rubis (rouge foncé) sur blanc, un indice (8) - 3 lettres - 3 chiffres (8-AAA-001).\n\nÀ partir du 7 octobre 2014, toutes les organisations internationales reçoivent dorénavant les mêmes plaques que les citoyens belges (indice 1).\n\nInstitutions européennes \n\nLe personnel des institutions de l'Union européenne situées en Belgique pouvaient demander une plaque spéciale bleu clair avec les lettres EUR sur la gauche dans un cercle d'étoiles jaunes.\n\nÀ partir du 16 novembre 2010, l'usage du bleu est abandonné, le rubis (rouge foncé) sur blanc est utilisé, avec l'indice (8) - 3 lettres - 3 chiffres (8-AAA-001).\n\nÀ partir du 7 octobre 2014, toutes les organisations internationales reçoivent dorénavant les mêmes plaques que les citoyens belges (indice 1), y compris lorsque la case « plaque spéciale », qui existe toujours sur le formulaire de demande, est cochée.\n\nEurocontrol \nLe personnel d'Eurocontrol pouvait utiliser des plaques avec de caractères bleus portant trois chiffres suivis par les lettres EURO.\n \nÀ partir du 16 novembre 2010, l'usage du bleu est abandonné, rubis (rouge foncé) sur blanc, un indice (8) - 3 lettres - 3 chiffres (8-AAA-001).\n\nÀ partir du 7 octobre 2014, toutes les organisations internationales reçoivent dorénavant les mêmes plaques que les citoyens belges (indice 1).\n\nPlaques commerciales (plaques marchand et plaques essai) \n\nLes plaques commerciales ont 3 lettres et 3 chiffres ou depuis 25 juin 2008 : 3 chiffres, 3 lettres, verts sur fond blanc. À droite figure un millésime. Il y a deux types de plaques commerciales avec des conditions d'acquisition et d'utilisation différentes : Les plaques essai commencent par ZZ (ZZA-001 ou 001-ZZA), les plaques marchand commencent par Z (ZAA-001 ou 001-ZAA).\n \nÀ partir du 16 novembre 2010, l'usage du vert est conservé, un indice (1 à 7) - 3 lettres - 3 chiffres (1-ZZA-001) pour les plaques essai et (1-ZAA-001) pour les plaques marchand.\n \nElles peuvent passer d'un véhicule à un autre sans démarche administrative, sous certaines conditions. Ces plaques sont réservées à certains types d'entreprises (notamment liées au secteur automobile) ou services publics, leur délivrance est soumise à des quotas selon la taille de l'entreprise.\n\nJusqu'à il y a quelques années, les plaques commerciales étaient bon marché. Les concessionnaires en avaient beaucoup, et ces plaques étaient utilisées comme des plaques ordinaires par leurs amis ou relations, leur permettant de payer moins de taxes. La loi a changé, les plaques commerciales sont devenues beaucoup plus chères et la police effectue plus de contrôles. En conséquence, les abus et le nombre de plaques commerciales en circulation ont diminué.\n\nPlaques personnalisées \n\nDans l'ancien système, il était possible de réserver un numéro de plaque personnalisé, à six ou cinq signes. En juin 2008, une telle réservation coûtait minimum pour une plaque de 6 signes. Certaines combinaisons de signes étaient interdites (sigles de partis politiques, respect des conventions liées au type d'immatriculation).\n\nAvec le modèle européen (à partir du 16 novembre 2010) la personnalisation coûte désormais et est précédée du chiffre 9.\n\nDepuis le 31 mars 2014, la combinaison des plaques personnalisées a été totalement libérée :\nvignette|Photo d'une plaque d'immatriculation personnalisée belge à 1 caractèreL'immatriculation est de 1 à 8 caractères maximum, avec au moins une lettre. Toutes les combinaisons sont possibles – sauf uniquement des chiffres –, à l'exception des immatriculations commençant par A, E, P et CD. \n L'indice 9 des plaques personnalisées est supprimé, et remplacé en première position sur la plaque par le sceau « CV » (circulation/verkeer) de la .\n Les plaques personnalisées pour les véhicules sous statut ancêtre disposeront d'un autocollant « OLDTIMER » rouge marquant leur statut, la lettre O n'étant plus obligatoire dans ce cas.\nLa première plaque fabriquée et livrée a été « VI » le mercredi 2 avril 2014. Celle-ci n'a pas nécessité de paiement car la combinaison correspondante d'une ancienne plaque personnalisée précédée de 9- était déjà prise, d'où sa rapide production.\n\nEn novembre 2015, le coût des plaques personnalisées est passé à , par arrêté royal du 11 septembre 2015.\n\nAprès une baisse de la demande, le gouvernement belge annonce en septembre 2017, que le prix des plaques personnalisées est ramené à .\n\nRéférences\n\nLiens externes \n Site officiel de la DIV (Direction pour l'immatriculation des véhicules)\n plaques commerciales\nVoir aussi http://belgianlicenceplates.blogspot.nl/\n\nBelgique\nCatégorie:Transport routier en Belgique", "Alain Rousset, né le à Chazelles-sur-Lyon (Loire), est un homme politique français socialiste. Président de la région Aquitaine de 1998 à 2015 et président de l'Association des régions de France de 2004 à 2016, il est président du conseil régional de Nouvelle-Aquitaine depuis 2016 et député de la Gironde de 2007 à 2017.\n\nBiographie\n\nJeunesse, formation et parcours professionnel \nAlain Rousset naît dans la région du Forez, de parents gaullistes, qui l'élèvent dans le catholicisme militant.\n\nIl fait ses études à l'Institut d'études politiques de Paris (« Sciences Po ») dans la promotion de l’année 1974 ; il est également diplômé d'études supérieures juridiques. Il échoue à l'entrée à l'ENA.\n\nIl adhère au Parti socialiste et fait la connaissance de sa femme Murielle, professeur d’allemand, et du beau-père de celle-ci, Henri Stootz, dirigeant national d'après-guerre de la Jeunesse étudiante chrétienne (JEC) et proche d'André Labarrère. Grâce à son beau-père, il trouve un premier emploi en Aquitaine en devenant conseiller d’André Labarrère. Il est ensuite directeur de cabinet de Philippe Madrelle, présidents socialistes successifs du conseil régional d'Aquitaine, de 1979 à 1985, puis délégué à l’industrialisation du bassin de Lacq à la direction du développement régional du groupe Elf Aquitaine de 1986 à 1998.\n\nCarrière politique\n\nMaire de Pessac \nIl obtient son premier mandat électif en 1988 en se faisant élire conseiller général de la Gironde pour le canton de Pessac-2, en battant le sortant du Rassemblement pour la République (RPR), Robert Sicre. Réélu en 1994, il devient alors le de l'assemblée départementale, secondant son président Philippe Madrelle, en étant chargé du secteur de la solidarité. Il reste conseiller général jusqu'en 1998, date de son arrivée à la tête de l'exécutif régional.\n\nMais surtout, son implantation locale à Pessac est concrétisée par son élection comme maire de cette commune de la banlieue ouest de Bordeaux, lors des élections municipales de 1989. Il bat alors, au second tour, le sortant RPR Jean-Claude Dalbos avec 53,6 % des suffrages exprimés. Il est ensuite réélu dès le premier tour en 1995 (réunissant 65,51 % des scrutins) et en 2001 (obtenant 70,73 % des voix). À la tête de la troisième commune de l'agglomération bordelaise en nombre d'habitants, il devient bientôt l'une des principales figures de l'opposition aux maires RPR successifs de Bordeaux Jacques Chaban-Delmas puis Alain Juppé au sein de la Communauté urbaine de Bordeaux (CUB) dont il est l'un des vice-présidents de 1989 à 2004. En 2001, il décide, pour raisons de cumul de mandats, de laisser son fauteuil de premier magistrat à l'un de ses suivants de liste, Pierre Auger, mais reste délégué aux grands projets, au développement économique et à l'emploi jusqu'à son élection comme député en 2007, ainsi que vice-président de la CUB (bien que la gauche soit désormais majoritaire au sein de cet établissement intercommunal, à quatre sièges près, Alain Juppé avait été réélu à la présidence en 2001 face à Alain Rousset grâce à deux voix dissidentes) jusqu'en 2004. Le , il profite de la mise en retrait momentanée d'Alain Juppé de la vie politique locale et nationale (à la suite de sa condamnation judiciaire) pour prendre la tête de la Communauté urbaine, grâce à un « accord de gestion » passé avec la droite qui ne présente aucun candidat contre lui. Il le reste là encore jusqu'à son élection à l'Assemblée nationale en 2007, laissant alors sa place à un autre maire socialiste, celui de Blanquefort Vincent Feltesse.\n\nEn 2014, il fait partie de la liste de Jean Jacques Benoit pour les élections municipales à Pessac. Il est en dernière position de celle-ci. Sa liste est battue au second tour à la faveur du candidat de l'union de la droite et du centre, Franck Raynal. \n\nSes deux mandats à Pessac entre 1989 et 2001 ont été marqués par sa participation en 1990 à la création de Bordeaux Unitec, association visant à favoriser l’implantation dans une Cité scientifique et technologique du même nom, partagée avec les communes voisines de Talence et Gradignan, de nouveaux laboratoires de recherche, d’unités de recherche et développement, de petites et moyennes industries (PMI) et filiales de grands groupes, cela afin de « provoquer du développement industriel par l’organisation des transferts de technologie » et de « détecter et d’accompagner la création d’entreprises de technologies innovantes » en lien avec le domaine universitaire de Talence Pessac Gradignan. Alain Rousset préside l'association Bordeaux Unitec depuis sa formation. Toujours en 1990, il a également fondé le Festival international du film d'histoire de Pessac, en partenariat avec le journaliste et historien Jean Lacouture, sur la base d'un mariage entre l'image et l'Histoire, d'un hommage au réalisateur et acteur Jean Eustache (natif de Pessac), et le fruit du travail d'une équipe de professionnels du cinéma et d'historiens : Jean-Noël Jeanneney, Jean-Pierre Rioux, Stéphane Khémis, Jean Labib, Pierre-Henri Deleau, Michel Eimer, Anne-Marie Cocula et Pierre Sadran. Il fait également réaménager et réhabiliter le parc de Jozereau (en 1990) puis le bois et le quartier de Saige au sud (en 1997), ou encore transformer le château de Camponac en médiathèque (inaugurée en ). Par la suite, il participe également à la création en 2002 de l'Association de l'Écosite du Bourgailh, dont il est le premier président et finalement le président d'honneur.\n\nPrésident de la région Aquitaine\n\nPremier mandat (1998-2004) \n\nAux élections régionales du , il est choisi pour remplacer Henri Emmanuelli (d'abord désigné, mais frappé le par une condamnation à deux ans de privation des droits civiques dans le cadre du procès sur l'affaire Urba) comme chef de file régional des socialistes contre la majorité sortante RPR-UDF de Jacques Valade, en étant plus particulièrement la tête de liste PS en Gironde. Il fait campagne en présentant l'Aquitaine comme « une région qui s'endort » et la droite comme étant « incapable » de la réveiller, tout en ne réussissant pas à unifier dans une liste unique l'ensemble de la gauche plurielle, au pouvoir sur le plan national depuis l'année précédente. En Gironde, il rassemble néanmoins derrière lui le Parti radical de gauche (PRG) et le Mouvement des citoyens (France) (MDC). Ainsi, il doit faire face à son relatif manque de notoriété sur la scène régionale et aux candidatures dissidentes des Verts du député-maire de Bègles et conseiller régional sortant Noël Mamère dans les cinq départements et au Parti communiste français (PCF) dans trois départements sur cinq (l'union n'a été possible avec les communistes qu'en Dordogne et en Lot-et-Garonne), dont surtout en Gironde avec pour tête de liste le maire de Fargues (et lui aussi élu sortant de l'assemblée d'Aquitaine) Pierre Augey.\n\nLe jour du scrutin, sa liste en Gironde talonne celle de Jacques Valade, avec voix (27,72 % des suffrages exprimés) et 12 sièges sur les 36 à pourvoir de ce département, soit seulement 263 votes de moins (soit un écart de 0,05 points) avec l'union RPR-UDF du président sortant, et autant d'élus. S'y ajoutent, dans cette même préfecture, les 7,23 % et 3 conseillers régionaux obtenus par le PCF de Pierre Augey et les 6,58 % et 2 élus Verts de Noël Mamère. Sur l'ensemble de la région, le PS totalise 28 sièges (8 de plus que dans le conseil de la fin de la précédente mandature), soit autant que la majorité de droite sortante (3 de moins qu'avant le scrutin, pour 15 UDF et 13 RPR), associés à 8 communistes (2 de plus), 3 Verts (1 de plus) et 1 MDC (1 de plus) : la gauche plurielle détient alors 40 des 85 élus du conseil régional d'Aquitaine, soit un gain de 12 sièges par rapport à l'assemblée sortante. Les 8 conseillers de Chasse, pêche, nature et traditions (CPNT, 2 de moins) et les 9 membres du Front national (1 de plus) se posent, comme 6 ans auparavant, comme les parti charnières, empêchant toute majorité absolue. Jacques Valade ayant refusé les voix du FN, Alain Rousset est élu président du conseil régional d'Aquitaine le , à la majorité relative au troisième tour, avec les 40 voix des élus de gauche plurielle, contre 28 à Jacques Valade, 9 au FN Jacques Colombier et 8 au président de CPNT Jean Saint-Josse. C'est la première fois depuis l'élection au suffrage universel direct des conseils régionaux en 1986 que l'Aquitaine revient à la gauche, qui avait auparavant déjà dirigé la région de 1979 à 1985.\n\nSon premier mandat est marqué par la signature du Contrat de Plan État-Région 2000-2006 et par le lancement du schéma régional d'aménagement et de développement du territoire (SRADT), dit « Aquitaine Horizon 2020 », en 2003. La démarche d'élaboration de ces deux plans est présentée devant le conseil régional le : elle s'articule autour d'une « Conférence Aquitaine », réunie régulièrement à partir du , ainsi que de 18 ateliers de réflexion thématiques, sectoriels et territoriaux formés le , voulus pour mettre en concertation le conseil régional avec les autres acteurs publics en Aquitaine (État, départements et principales agglomérations). À la suite du résultat de cette conférence et de ses ateliers, le contrat de plan État-région 2000-2006 est adopté par le Conseil régional les 27 et et finalement signé avec le représentant de l'État le 19 avril suivant, pour un montant de 1.45 milliard d’euros. Il donne alors une grande importance au développement des infrastructures de transports (945,18 millions d'euros, dont 533,57 pour les équipements routiers et 411,61 pour le ferroviaire, le transport combiné et le développement portuaire). Il prévoit notamment de rouvrir la ligne ferroviaire transfrontalière Pau - Canfranc - Saragosse (fermée partiellement en 1970, la relance du tronçon Oloron - Bedous a été annoncé en 2007 et les travaux ont commencé en 2008), de « supprimer le bouchon ferroviaire de Bordeaux » en développant de nouvelles interconnexions vers l'Espagne, Toulouse ou le Massif central ou encore réaliser « une liaison rapide et sûre à vocation autoroutière entre Bordeaux et Pau pour l’horizon 2010 » (ce qui affirme l'attachement des différents acteurs, et notamment d'Alain Rousset, du projet de l'A65 initié en 1995 : la consultation des principales collectivités territoriales, chambres consulaires et associations représentatives pour la comparaison des différentes bandes de est menée de mai à , la décision ministérielle sur le choix de la bande de est finalement donnée le et l'appel de candidatures pour la mise en concession est lancé le , pour des travaux qui ont finalement commencé en 2008 et une ouverture, après une forte opposition des mouvements écologistes mais le soutien indéfectible d'Alain Rousset, le ).\n\nLe premier volet du schéma « Aquitaine Horizon 2020 », lui aussi élaboré, tout au long de l'année 2003, dans le cadre de la « Conférence Aquitaine » et d'« États généraux du SRADDT », a permis également de démontrer l'attachement de l'exécutif régional, emmené par Rousset, de voir se réaliser la ligne à grande vitesse (LGV) Sud Europe Atlantique (prolongement de la LGV Atlantique jusqu'à Bordeaux, pour ensuite rejoindre de là l'Espagne par la LGV Bordeaux-Espagne d'une part et Toulouse par la LGV Bordeaux - Toulouse d'autre part, d'ici à 2020). Initié en 1992, ce projet est véritablement relancé à partir de cette date, tant pour la ligne Sud Europe Atlantique (lancement des études d'Avant-Projet Sommaire pour la Phase 1 de travaux d'Angoulême à Bordeaux entre 2001 et 2003, et pour la Phase 2 de Tours à Angoulême entre 2004 et 2006, suivies des études d'utilité publique respectivement de février à et d'octobre à , des débuts de travaux prévus en 2011 et 2011 et finalement une mise en service espérée en 2015-2016) que pour les deux autres parcours de TGV (pour la LGV Bordeaux-Espagne : menée des études préalables en 2004 et 2005 et ouverture d'un débat public en 2006, et une mise en service voulue d'ici à 2020, malgré une polémique apparue en sur le tronçon Bordeaux-Bayonne ; pour la LGV Bordeaux - Toulouse : les études préalables sont menées en 2002 et 2003, puis le projet est retenu par le Comité interministériel d'Aménagement et de Développement du Territoire le , suivi d'un débat public de juin à ). Le , Alain Rousset a pris la présidence de l'association « Priorité TGV Sud Europe Atlantique » (qui réunit les quatre régions françaises d'Aquitaine, du Centre-Val de Loire, Midi-Pyrénées et Poitou-Charentes, les six communautés autonomes espagnoles des Asturies, d'Euskadi, de Cantabrie, de Castille-et-León, de Galice et de Navarre ainsi que les Commissions de coordination des Régions portugaises du Nord et du Centre). Il bénéficie sur tous ces dossiers d'un fort soutien également de la droite et du centre régionaux, notamment d'Alain Juppé ou François Bayrou.\n\nDeuxième mandat (2004-2010) \n\nAlain Rousset se présente à sa propre succession aux élections régionales des 21 et , marquées par un nouveau mode de scrutin (scrutin qui reste proportionnel mais à deux tours avec prime majoritaire, et avec désormais des listes candidates à l'échelle régionale comportant des « sections départementales »). Le président réussit cette fois à monter une liste d'union entre le PS, les Verts et le PRG, tandis que seul le PCF fait campagne à part sous la direction de la conseillère régionale sortante Annie Guilhamet. Il a deux adversaires principaux : le ministre délégué à l'Enseignement scolaire de l'époque et premier adjoint au maire de Périgueux (ancien premier magistrat de cette commune de 1997 à 2002) Xavier Darcos pour l'Union pour un mouvement populaire (UMP, nouveau grand parti de droite créé en 2002 pour soutenir le président réélu Jacques Chirac), d'une part, et le député des Pyrénées-Atlantiques et président de l'UDF François Bayrou, qui décide de se présenter sur la section départementale de Gironde de sa liste et se présente comme le troisième homme capable de ravir des voix tant à la gauche qu'à la droite. Rapidement, Rousset et Darcos orientent tous deux leurs attaques contre le candidat centriste, le président du conseil régional déclarant à son sujet : « Bas les masques ! Bayrou, c'est le vrai faux opposant qui n'assume pas sa position à droite. Je découvre par ailleurs le vide sidéral d'un homme politique qui s'est tout de même présenté à la présidentielle », et dénonçant en lui du « poujadisme », ou encore que : « C'est un candidat fantôme, qui survole l'Aquitaine en avion et découvre la région au fur et à mesure de la campagne. Je ne comprends pas sa popularité ». Il mène d'autre part une campagne active sur internet.\n\nFinalement, dans un contexte national marqué par une forte poussée de la gauche, Alain Rousset et sa liste d'union de la gauche hors PCF (qui, avec 4,35 % des suffrages, se voit empêché de fusionner pour le second tour) arrivent largement en tête, avec votes (38,42 %) et plus du double du score de l'UMP Xavier Darcos, arrivé second avec voix (18,4 %), et de l'UDF François Bayrou et ses suffrages (16,06 %). Le FN, toujours mené par Jacques Colombier, est la quatrième liste à réaliser un score lui permettant de se maintenir au second tour, avec 11,45 % des voix. Au second tour, malgré une fusion de l'UMP et de l'UDF derrière Xavier Darcos, Alain Rousset est nettement réélu avec bulletins prononcés en sa faveur (54,87 %) et une majorité absolue de 57 sièges (dont 43 socialistes, 9 Verts, 1 PRG et 4 Divers gauche) sur 85, contre votes (33,46 %) et 21 élus (12 UMP et 9 UDF) à la liste Darcos et suffrages (11,67 %) et 7 conseillers pour le FN. \n \nFort désormais d'une très nette majorité absolue au Conseil régional, le poids politique local d'Alain Rousset est également renforcé par le fait qu'il préside également, pendant une grande partie de ce deuxième mandat, la Communauté urbaine de Bordeaux de à , tout en étant porté le à la présidence de l'Association des régions de France (ARF), désormais très nettement marquée à gauche (avec 24 présidents de région sur 26 issus de ce camp politique, dont 21 socialistes). À ce titre, il est l'un des meneurs de la fronde des dirigeants socialistes de collectivités locales contre la réforme de l'acte II de la décentralisation proposé par le gouvernement de Jean-Pierre Raffarin, qu'il qualifie de « hold-up », de « retrait de l'État » voire de « désengagement massif de l'État » en ne jugeant pas suffisants les transferts financiers accompagnant les nouvelles compétences que doivent prendre en charge les territoires, les mettant, selon lui, en difficulté budgétaire et dans l'obligation d'augmenter les impôts locaux. Lui-même fait voter dans sa région une augmentation des taxes foncières, le taux d'imposition foncier en Aquitaine passant ainsi à 3,11 % en 2005, alors qu'il n'était que 2,7 % en 2004. Mais il le maintient ensuite à un niveau stable, à 3,17 %, à partir de 2006. L'impôt foncier par habitant se situe ainsi en moyenne à 30,95 euros, contre 22,42 euros en 2004 et une augmentation 38,01 %, ce qui, selon le site Linternaute.com, le place en sur 22 régions en termes d'augmentation de la fiscalité, se plaçant derrière l'Alsace notamment (l'une des deux seules régions, avec la Corse, avec la Corse, à être restée à droite : elle est placée par Linternaute.com en avec une croissance estimée entre 2004 et 2009 de 45,04 %, mais avec un taux d'imposition qui reste nettement inférieur à celui de l'Aquitaine, à 1,93 %, du fait que le niveau d'origine était particulièrement bas).\n\nPar la suite, sous la présidence de Nicolas Sarkozy, il s'oppose fortement aux conclusions des Commissions Attali de 2008 (notamment celle de supprimer les départements) et Balladur de 2009 et à la réforme des collectivités territoriales. Dans un entretien accordé à Libération, publié le , il présente sa vision de la décentralisation, estimant notamment que : « L’important est de procéder à une clarification des compétences en déterminant des blocs bien lisibles. On se retrouve avec des tours de table pléthoriques qui entraînent des surcoûts et un temps trop long de la décision publique. Au lieu de faire du Meccano institutionnel, réglons ces problèmes de doublons ». Il s'oppose dans le même temps au rapprochement proposé entre départements et régions, notamment sur le mode électoral, les présentant comme « deux collectivités aux logiques différentes », soit : « Le département a pour logique la proximité. La région mène une politique moins territoriale, plus immatérielle. Elle voit à long terme en pensant innovation, recherche, formation. Garder une collectivité qui se préoccupe de l’avenir est indispensable ».\n\nSur le plan de la politique régional, son deuxième mandat a surtout été marqué par la création, en coopération avec son homologue de la région Midi-Pyrénées Martin Malvy, du pôle de compétitivité de portée mondiale Aerospace Valley en 2005, autour de la recherche et des nouvelles industries sur l'aéronautique, l'espace et les systèmes embarqués. L'Aquitaine est aussi l'une des premières régions à développer le cadencement ferroviaire : les TER Aquitaine sont ainsi en grande partie cadencés depuis . La charte du Schéma Régional d'Aménagement et de Développement Durable du Territoire (SRADDT) \"Aquitaine Horizon 2020\" est adoptée définitivement en , après une concertation reposant sur une vingtaine de conférences territoriales et des États Généraux réunissant un millier de personnes . La de CPER (nouvellement dénommé \"contrat de projets\"), portant sur la période 2007-2013, est également négociée avec l'État, avec une signature le . S'appuyant sur la stratégie régionale définie dans le SRADDT et les orientations du Comité Interministériel d'Aménagement et de Compétitivité des Territoires (CIACT) de , 10 grands projets sont lancés pour un montant total de 1.3 milliard d'euros de crédits de l'État et de la Région, dans les domaines de la compétitivité et de l'attractivité des territoires, du développement durable, ainsi que de la cohésion sociale et territoriale.\n\nÀ la fin de la mandature, Alain Rousset doit faire face à de plus en plus de dissensions au sein de sa majorité, notamment avec une opposition de plus en plus vive des Verts au projet de la LGV ou de l'A65 (controversé en Aquitaine par les associations écologistes : l'autoroute doit traverser les coteaux du Béarn ainsi que les zones humides des Landes où vivent des espèces protégées tels le vison ou l'écrevisse à pattes blanches, cette dernière ayant disparu en à la suite d'un incident). Lorsqu'en , Alain Rousset présente un projet de « fonds carbone » destiné à compenser la construction de cet axe autoroutier, les conseillers régionaux Verts s'y opposent fortement, parlant d'« écologie bling bling » et estimant que : « Nous ne sommes pas contre la compensation mais ce fonds est une tartufferie écologique, renchérissent les Verts. Compenser avec des fonds publics, c'est aberrant. Rousset enterre le principe du pollueur-payeur. Ce n'est pas aux contribuables de payer mais au constructeur Eiffage. C'est la négation de l'écologie ». Plus tard, concernant la LGV, qui devient rapidement l'un des thèmes centraux des élections régionales de 2010. Ainsi, en , le député-maire de Bègles, et figure nationale des Verts et d'Europe Écologie, Noël Mamère, déclare que : « La LGV va être un des enjeux principaux des élections régionales. Il ne sera pas possible pour les écologistes de construire une majorité avec les socialistes si on ne revoit pas la copie ». Ce à quoi Alain Rousset répond que sa majorité, au Conseil régional, qui comprend notamment les élus du parti écologiste, a voté le projet de LGV dans le Sud-Ouest, mais aussi que « les Verts soutiennent partout la LGV. Pourquoi Europe Écologie est le seul groupe qui s’oppose en Aquitaine ? ». Dans un communiqué du , Europe Écologie Aquitaine rétorque à son tour que la position nationale des Verts, au niveau national, est « parfaitement claire et cohérente » en considérant que « la construction de nouvelles LGV n’est plus la réponse adaptée pour compléter le réseau des LGV existant à l’heure où, partout, il est urgent de prendre en compte les besoins sociaux et la dimension environnementale », et que « Alain Rousset travestit totalement la position des Verts au niveau national, dans le but de faire croire qu’il existerait des contradictions entre les écologistes aquitains et ceux des autres régions sur les projets de LGV ».\n\nEn , selon un sondage LH2, 40 % des personnes interrogées en Aquitaine citent spontanément Alain Rousset lorsqu'on leur demande le nom de leur président de région, ce qui en fait le cinquième chef d'exécutif régional le plus connu, loin derrière Ségolène Royal en Poitou-Charentes et Georges Frêche dans le Languedoc-Roussillon, mais pratiquement à égalité avec Martin Malvy dans les Midi-Pyrénées et Michel Vauzelle en Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. De plus, sur les 60 % ne le citant pas spontanément, 40 % répondent tout de même savoir qu'Alain Rousset est leur président de région après qu'on leur a dit son nom. En tout, seulement 36 % des personnes ayant répondu au sondage ne le connaissent pas. Dans son palmarès des patrons de régions 2010 publié le , le magazine L'Expansion place l'Aquitaine et son président de Conseil régional en des exécutifs régionaux les mieux gérés sur 21 (ils étaient au en 2004), et notamment pour la capacité de désendettement (derrière les Midi-Pyrénées de Martin Malvy et la Haute-Normandie d'Alain Le Vern), pour les impôts par habitant (derrière les Pays de la Loire de Jacques Auxiette, la région Poitou-Charentes de Ségolène Royal, la Bretagne de Jean-Yves Le Drian et la Bourgogne de François Patriat) et la pour les efforts d'investissement, mais en pour les charges de la décentralisation et en pour le poids des frais de personnel. Le mensuel économique résume ainsi son analyse de l'action d'Alain Rousset en Aquitaine : « Une région plutôt aisée, qui prélève peu, investit activement mais mène grand train côté frais de personnel ».\n\nTroisième mandat (2010-2015) \n\nDe nouveau investi par le PS pour les élections régionales en Aquitaine, il n'est rallié cette fois que par le PRG et le Mouvement républicain et citoyen (MRC). Comme en 1998, il a en effet face à lui une candidature verte sous l'étiquette Europe Écologie (ouverte aux mouvements régionalistes du Partit occitan et Eusko Alkartasuna) menée par la conseillère régionale sortante des Verts Monique De Marco et la fille de José Bové, Marie Bové, comme tête de liste en Gironde. S'y ajoute le Front de gauche, qui allie le PCF au Parti de gauche (PG), la Gauche unitaire (GU), Les Alternatifs et le Mouvement politique d'éducation populaire (M'PEP), avec pour chef de file Gérard Boulanger, avocat des parties civiles lors de l'affaire Papon et président d'honneur de la LDH (Ligue des droits de l'homme). La Majorité présidentielle rassemble autour de l'UMP le Nouveau Centre (NC), CPNT et La Gauche moderne (LGM), avec, comme en 2004, pour tête de liste régionale (et cette fois-ci également dans la section départementale de Gironde) Xavier Darcos, désormais ministre du Travail, des Relations sociales, de la Famille, de la Solidarité et de la Ville (et qui s'est fait battre à la mairie de Périgueux en 2008 par le socialiste Michel Moyrand, qui mène la liste Rousset en Dordogne). Les centristes pro-Bayrou du Mouvement démocrate (MoDem) sont pour leur part cette fois rassemblés derrière le député-maire de Lourdios-Ichère dans les Pyrénées-Atlantiques Jean Lassalle, qui lui aussi choisit lors de ce scrutin de changer de département pour sa candidature puisqu'il est tête de liste en Gironde.\n\nAlain Rousset réussit alors à obtenir un score pratiquement aussi élevé qu'en 2004 au premier tour (alors qu'il n'a plus le soutien des Verts), avec voix (37,63 %) contre (22,05 %) à Xavier Darcos et (10,43 %) à Jean Lassalle. Pour le second tour, il fusionne sa liste avec celles d'Europe Écologie (9,75 %) et du Front de gauche (5,95 %) pour donner une Union de la gauche, totalisant votes (56,33 %) et 58 sièges (40 PS, 9 Europe Écologie, 2 PG, 1 PCF, 1 Partit occitan, 1 PRG, 1 MRC et 3 Divers gauche) sur 85, soit plus du double que les suffrages (28,01 %) et 17 élus (13 UMP, 2 NC, 1 CPNT et 1 Divers droite) pour la Majorité présidentielle de Xavier Darcos, ainsi que les bulletins (15,65 %) et 10 conseillers du MoDem. La participation a toutefois été très faible lors des deux tours : à 49,56 % au premier et 52,91 % au second. Le , Alain Rousset est réélu à la présidence de l'ARF.\n\nDéputation et implantation à Bordeaux \n\nil est élu député aux élections législatives des 10 et ,dans la de Gironde (soit quatre cantons de la banlieue sud-ouest de Bordeaux : ceux de Gradignan, La Brède, Pessac-1 et Pessac-2). Il y avait remplacé le sortant socialiste depuis 1988 et maire de Cestas Pierre Ducout, qui renonçait alors à se représenter contre lui. Dans ce fief de la gauche, il avait été assez nettement élu au second tour face à la candidate de l'UMP, l'adjointe au maire de La Brède Sylvie Dufranc, par 60,46 % des suffrages exprimés contre 39,54 %. À l'Assemblée nationale, il siège au groupe Socialiste, radical, citoyen et divers gauche (SRC), est membre de la Commission de la défense nationale et des forces armées, président du groupe d'études sur l'aéronautique, vice-président de celui de la défense et membre de celui sur la chasse et les territoires, et est vice-président du groupe d'amitié France-Québec. Pour cause de cumul de mandats, il doit alors abandonner ses fonctions de au maire de Pessac et de président de la Communauté urbaine de Bordeaux. Il est réélu au premier tour des élections législatives du avec 55,51 % des voix, \n\nSes trois années passées à la tête de la CUB et les bons résultats de la gauche (pourtant battue sur le plan national) aux législatives dans les circonscriptions de l'agglomération bordelaise (6 sur 7, dont celle d'Alain Rousset mais aussi la 2 où la socialiste Michèle Delaunay contre Alain Juppé, revenu l'année précédente sur la scène politique locale et nationale après avoir purgé sa peine d'inéligibilité), le président de la Région est pressenti pour tenter de ravir la mairie de Bordeaux à la droite et à son premier magistrat, Juppé, pour les élections municipales de 2008. Il annonce officiellement sa candidature le . Il forme une liste d'Union de la gauche avec les Verts, le PRG et « Couleurs bordelaises », tandis que le maire sortant réunit autour de lui la quasi-totalité du centre et de la droite (l'UMP mais aussi le MoDem, seul le Nouveau Centre monte une liste distincte). Alain Juppé est finalement réélu dès le premier tour, avec 56,62 % des suffrages exprimés et 50 sièges sur 61, contre 34,14 % et 11 élus à Alain Rousset. Celui-ci démissionne immédiatement de son mandat de conseiller municipal.\n\nPrésident de la région Nouvelle-Aquitaine \nPour respecter la loi sur le cumul des mandats, il renonce à se présenter aux élections législatives de 2017.\n\nSynthèse des mandats et fonctions\n\nMandats actuels \n Président du conseil régional de Nouvelle-Aquitaine depuis 2016\n Président de l'Eurorégion Aquitaine-Euskadi\n\nAnciens mandats\n\nConseil régional d'Aquitaine \n Président du conseil régional d'Aquitaine de 1998 à 2015\n\nConseil municipal de Pessac \n au maire de Pessac de 2001 à 2007\n Maire de Pessac de 1989 à 2001. Réélu tête de liste PS au premier tour des élections municipales de 2001, il renonce aux fonctions de maire au profit de Pierre Auger\n Conseiller municipal de Bordeaux :\n\nCommunauté urbaine de Bordeaux \n Président de la communauté urbaine de Bordeaux entre 2004 et 2007\n Vice-président de la communauté urbaine de Bordeaux (1989-2004)\n\nConseil général de la Gironde \n Premier vice-président du conseil général de la Gironde de 1994 à 1998\n Conseiller général du canton de Pessac-2 de 1988 à 1998\n\nAutres fonctions \n Député de la de la Gironde de 2007 à 2017\n Président de l'Association des régions de France de 2004 à 2016\n Président depuis 1989 et cocréateur en 1989 de la Cité Scientifique et technologique de Pessac Bordeaux-Unitec\n Créateur et président depuis 1990 du Festival international du film d'histoire de Pessac\n Président de l'association Priorité TGV Sud Europe Atlantique depuis le \n Président de la commission « Arc Atlantique » du au \n Tête de liste de la gauche lors des élections municipales de 2008 à Bordeaux.\n Vice-président du Cercle de l'industrie, qui rassemble les Présidents des grandes entreprises industrielles depuis 2012\n\nNotes et références\n\nNotes\n\nRéférences\n\nLiens externes \n \n \n \n\nCatégorie:Conseiller régional d'Aquitaine\nCatégorie:Conseiller régional de Nouvelle-Aquitaine\nCatégorie:Personnalité liée à Bordeaux\nCatégorie:Personnalité du Parti socialiste (France)\nCatégorie:Député de la Gironde\nCatégorie:Maire de la Gironde\nCatégorie:Pessac\nCatégorie:Élève de l'Institut d'études politiques de Paris\nCatégorie:Président de conseil régional\nCatégorie:Conseiller général de la Gironde\nCatégorie:Député de la XIIIe législature de la Ve République\nCatégorie:Député de la XIVe législature de la Ve République\nCatégorie:Naissance en février 1951\nCatégorie:Naissance à Chazelles-sur-Lyon\nCatégorie:Député membre du Parti socialiste (France)", "L'anémie infectieuse des équidés (AIE) est une maladie infectieuse et contagieuse des équidés, due à un virus de la famille des Retroviridae. L'infection demeure souvent latente, mais peut s'exprimer cliniquement chez certains sujets. La maladie se traduit par une évolution le plus souvent chronique, semée d'épisodes aigus au cours desquels on constate de la fièvre, de l'abattement, de l'anémie, des œdèmes et de l'amaigrissement. Elle constitue une maladie virale majeure pour les Equidés, en raison de la pérennité de l'infection chez les sujets atteints et des pertes économiques qu'elle peut occasionner sur des sujets et des effectifs de grande valeur (chevaux de course).\n\nIl n’existe pas de traitement spécifique de l’AIE.\n\nChez les chevaux infectés, le virus subit une dérive de ses antigènes externes au cours du temps, ce qui rend très difficile l'obtention de vaccins capables de protéger contre toutes les souches de ce virus. Étant donné l'existence d'un phénomène semblable chez le virus de l'immunodéficience humaine, le virus de l'AIE peut servir de modèle animal pour la mise au point de vaccins contre la maladie humaine.\n\nL'anémie infectieuse des équidés est présente actuellement dans la plupart des pays, avec une fréquence très variable. En Europe, elle est rare dans toute la partie occidentale. En revanche, elle est fréquente en Roumanie. Des mouvements d’équidés en provenance de ce pays ont été à l’origine de l’émergence de foyers dans divers pays européens, dont la France.\nLa prévalence de l'infection en France est actuellement très faible, mais des foyers sont sporadiquement détectés.\n\nEn France, antérieurement inscrite dans la liste des maladies réputées contagieuses, elle est actuellement classée comme un danger sanitaire de .\n\nLe diagnostic est essentiellement sérologique : le test de Coggins (immunodiffusion en gélose) est la seule méthode de laboratoire reconnue officiellement au niveau international.\n\nHistorique \nL’AIE a été observée et décrite pour la première fois en France, dans la Haute-Marne, par Ligné en 1843.\nLes travaux de Carré et Vallée au Laboratoire de recherches de l’’École vétérinaire d’Alfort ont conduit au début du (1906-1907) à deux publications démontrant notamment la transmissibilité de la maladie et la nature ultra filtrable de son agent.\nIl a fallu attendre plusieurs décennies pour que Coggins et Norcross (1970) mettent au point le premier test sérologique fiable de diagnostic et dépistage de l’AIE par immunodiffusion en gélose, outil qui a permis à la fois des études épidémiologiques sur cette maladie et la mise en œuvre de mesures de lutte efficaces.\n\nQuelques années plus tard, plusieurs réunions internationales ont permis l’échange d’informations sur les résultats d’enquêtes épidémiologiques et de programmes de lutte contre l’AIE entre les personnes travaillant dans ce domaine : Lyon (1977), Moscou (1979)), Caracas (1980), Sao Paulo (1982)), Harbin (1983).\n\nAu cours des dernières décennies, les recherches ont porté surtout sur la biologie moléculaire du virus de l’AIE.\n\nEspèces affectées \n\nSeuls les équidés sont sensibles : cheval, âne, mulet et bardot. L’AIE n’est pas transmissible à l'homme ou à d'autres espèces animales que les équidés. Des essais récents ont montré la réceptivité au virus AIE de souris transgéniques pour le récepteur 1 du lentivirus équin et la cycline équine T1.\n\nRépartition géographique et importance\n\nRépartition géographique \nL'anémie infectieuse des équidés existe actuellement dans la plupart des pays, avec une fréquence très variable. En Europe, elle est rare dans toute la partie occidentale. En revanche, elle est fréquente en Roumanie : entre les années 2000 et 2004, ce pays a connu foyers d’AIE et déclaré équidés séropositifs ; plus de cas y étaient encore recensés en 2010 et plus de 400 cas en 2014. Au cours de ces dernières années, des mouvements d’équidés en provenance de ce pays ont été à l’origine de l’émergence de foyers dans divers pays européens, dont la France.\n\nLa prévalence de l'infection en France est actuellement très faible, mais des foyers sont sporadiquement détectés : 2001 (2 cas), 2005 (4 cas), 2007 (10 cas), 2009 (une quinzaine de cas dans le Var sur des chevaux de selle, 1 cas en Dordogne), 2010 (10 chevaux reconnus infectés dans 7 foyers localisés en Dordogne, Lot-et-Garonne, Gironde, Ille-et-Vilaine, Nord et Sarthe, 2012 (8 cas répartis dans 2 foyers localisés dans le Gard et le Vaucluse) et en 2014 (2 cas isolés dans le Gard).\n\nElle sévit également en Amérique, du nord, centrale et du sud ainsi qu’en Chine. Sa présence en Afrique, au Moyen-Orient et en Extrême-Orient est peu fréquemment déclarée, mais le virus y circule. Aux États-Unis, sa prévalence autrefois importante (534 tests positifs en 2001) a considérablement diminué du fait des contrôles systématiques réalisés.\n\nImportance économique \nL’importance économique de l’AIE est liée à sa gravité médicale et à la valeur éventuellement très élevée de certains chevaux affectés (chevaux de sport et de course).\nEn France, antérieurement inscrite dans la liste des maladies réputées contagieuses, elle est actuellement classée comme un danger sanitaire de . \n\nElle figure aussi parmi les maladies animales à déclarer à l’Organisation mondiale de la santé animale (OIE). Dans le Code sanitaire de l’OIE pour les animaux terrestres, l’AIE est traitée au chapitre 12.5.\n\nL’OIE a désigné trois laboratoires de référence pour l’AIE ; actuellement, un à Harbin (Chine) (Dr X. Wang), où s’est tenu en 1983 un Symposium international sur l’AIE, un à Ibaraki (Japon) (Dr M. Yamakawa) et un à Ames (États-Unis) (Dr E. Ostlund).\n\nÉtiologie \nLe virus de l'AIE est un ribovirus enveloppé, codant pour une transcriptase réverse, classé au sein de la famille des Retroviridae, dans la sous-famille des Lentivirinae (qui rassemble également les virus du Visna-maëdi du mouton, de l'arthrite-encéphalite caprine, et les virus responsables de l'immunodéficience humaine, simienne, féline et bovine). La transcriptase réverse permet la synthèse d’ADN à partir de l’ARN viral puis son intégration dans le noyau de cellules, entrainant ainsi une infection persistante.\n\nLa multiplication du virus de l’AIE est possible en culture de macrophages de chevaux infectés ou en infectant des macrophages de chevaux sains. Certaines lignées (par exemple la lignée Equine Dermis ou E.D.) peuvent être chroniquement infectées et utilisables pour la production d'antigène viral, notamment en vue de la préparation de réactifs de diagnostic.\n\nLe pouvoir pathogène du virus de l’AIE est variable selon la souche : certaines souches sont très virulentes (incubation courte, maladie mortelle) comme la souche Wyoming ; d’autres sont peu virulentes (incubation longue, maladie bénigne). In vivo, le virus se multiplie dans les macrophages.\n\nLe pouvoir antigène du virus de l’AIE est caractérisé par l'existence d'antigènes internes (p15, p26) et d’antigènes externes (gp90 et gp45).\n \nLes antigènes internes sont communs à toutes les souches virales et révélables par le test de fixation du complément, immunofluorescence et surtout par immunodiffusion en gélose, technique utilisée pour le diagnostic sérologique (test de Coggins).\n \nLes antigènes externes, spécifiques de souche, sont présents sur l'enveloppe virale et induisent la formation d’anticorps neutralisants. In vivo, ces glycoprotéines subissent, sous la pression des anticorps neutralisants produits par l’hôte, une dérive antigénique entraînant l'apparition et la sélection de variants antigéniques auxquels l'organisme s'adapte en produisant, avec un certain décalage, des anticorps neutralisant la nouvelle spécificité. Cette dérive antigénique semble rendre très difficile l’obtention de vaccins capables d’entrainer une immunité humorale permettant de protéger contre les variants successifs.\n\nL'immunité constatée in vivo, dans les conditions naturelles, est très variable selon les circonstances, depuis l’instauration d’une infection inapparente, témoignant d’une bonne résistance de l’hôte, jusqu’à une évolution fatale en quelques semaines, révélatrice d’une absence de résistance.\n\nClinique\n\nIncubation \nElle dure de quelques jours à plusieurs semaines (10 à 15 jours en moyenne).\n\nSymptômes \nL’AIE peut se présenter sous plusieurs formes cliniquesː suraiguë, aiguë, subaiguë, chronique, latente\n\nForme suraiguë \nElle est rare et atteint surtout les jeunes. Le début est brutal avec de la fièvre (41°C), un abattement intense, une anorexie et une atteinte intestinale. La mort survient en 1 à 3 jours.\n\nForme aiguë \n\n La phase de début est marquée par des symptômes généraux (fièvre à 40-41°C, accélération du rythme cardiaque et respiratoire, anorexie) et des symptômes locaux oculaires (larmoiement, muqueuse conjonctivale jaunâtre sur fond rouge, avec parfois des pétéchies).\n\n La phase d'état comporte une aggravation des symptômes généraux (abattement plus marqué,...) et oculaires (pétéchies plus nombreuses), et la formation de pétéchies sur la muqueuse buccale et la face inférieure de la langue. Certains chevaux présentent en outre, isolés ou associés, des symptômes d'atteinte hépato-rénale (polyurie, albuminurie), une diarrhée fétide, striée de sang, avec de légères coliques, des symptômes de myocardite et des œdèmes déclives (photo).\n\n La phase terminale est associée à une aggravation des symptômes précédents (œdèmes déclives nets,...), une émaciation musculaire importante et la mort survient après une évolution de 8 à 12 jours.\n\nForme subaiguë \nOn constate les mêmes symptômes que dans la phase aiguë, mais atténués et étalés dans le temps, survenant sous forme de crises durant quelques jours, entrecoupées de phases de rémission (plus ou moins longues) simulant une guérison. Au cours des crises, la température oscille entre 38 et 39°C, les œdèmes déclives sont nets et l'anémie marquée. L'animal s'amaigrit. Un avortement peut survenir.\n\nL'évolution est longue, pouvant aboutir à la mort (accès aigu) ou à la forme chronique.\n\n Œdèmes des zones déclives\n\nForme chronique \n\nElle succède aux formes précédentes ou peut survenir d'emblée. Elle se traduit par une évolution longue et des symptômes frustes : amaigrissement, baisse de forme, légère hyperthermie, tachycardie d'effort. Les muqueuses sont subictériques et l'anémie est plus ou moins accusée. \n\nDes épisodes aigus peuvent apparaitre. La mort survient au bout de plusieurs mois ou années.\n\nForme latente \nAprès une ou plusieurs crises, l’animal semble être guéri ; mais il demeure porteur du virus.\n\nLésions\n\nModifications hématologiques \nDifférentes modifications hématologiques peuvent être notées : de l’anémie, la présence de sidéroleucocytes (macrophages contenant de l’hémosidérine, catabolite de l’hémoglobine) avec un nombre supérieur à 14 pour leucocytes, parfois une leucopénie, une diminution du rapport albumine/globuline, une augmentation de la vitesse de sédimentation (pendant les crises).\n\nLésions viscérales\n\nMacroscopiques \n\nElles sont variables selon la forme évolutive.\n Lésions de septicémie (congestion généralisée, hémorragies, hypertrophie ganglionnaire et une congestion des nœuds lymphatiques) dans les formes suraiguës.\n Dans les formes aiguës, outre l'émaciation musculaire, les œdèmes sous-cutanés en partie déclive, l'hypertrophie des nœuds lymphatiques, des lésions de néphrite (reins pâles et hypertrophiés), on note trois lésions essentielles, mais inconstantes : une myocardite (myocarde couleur feuille morte, tigré à la coupe et friable, avec pétéchies), une hépatomégalie (foie couleur feuille morte, friable, pesant parfois 10 à 20 kg) et une splénomégalie (rate ferme, bosselée, pesant parfois 4 à 8 kg) (photo). Présence d'hémorragies intestinales.\n Dans les formes subaiguës et chroniques : idem mais la cachexie, l’anémie, et les œdèmes sont plus marqués.\n\nMicroscopiques \nElles consistent en une infiltration lymphocytaire et histiocytaire du foie, de la rate et des ganglions, une hémosidérose dans le foie, la rate, les ganglions et les poumons.\n\nÉpidémiologie\n\nÉpidémiologie analytique \n\n Les sources de virus sont représentées par les équidés malades (qui constituent le risque maximal de transmission) et les porteurs (qui jouent le rôle de réservoir).\nLa virémie commence 2 à 7 jours avant les premiers symptômes, atteint son maximum pendant la crise, puis diminue pour remonter à la crise suivante, entraînant la virulence de tous les organes (en particulier le foie, la rate, le rein, les poumons et les ganglions) et des sécrétions et excrétions (colostrum et lait en particulier). Chez les équidés infectés mais ne présentant pas de symptôme (entre les crises, ou chez les porteurs sains), la virémie est d'intensité variable, ainsi que le degré de risque de transmission.\n\n La résistance du virus est assez élevée dans le milieu extérieur (plusieurs semaines à plusieurs mois) ou dans les produits biologiques (le virus semble néanmoins inactivé par les techniques de purification des sérums thérapeutiques ou d'extraction des gammaglobulines).\n\n La transmission est essentiellement indirecte, à partir du sang, par piqûre, soit par des arthropodes piqueurs (des genres Tabanus, Stomoxys, Chrysops, etc.) intervenant comme vecteurs mécaniques, soit par des injections ou des prises de sang en série (transmission iatrogène) effectuées avec le même matériel. La transmission indirecte peut également se faire par les instruments de chirurgie, les objets de pansage, les mors, les harnais...\nLa transmission congénitale (infection du poulain in utero) est possible (de l’ordre de 10 p.100 chez les femelles infectées de façon latente). Les autres modes de transmission (lait, coït, alimentation) semblent exceptionnels.\n\n Différents facteurs, intrinsèques ou extrinsèques, peuvent moduler la sensibilité des sujets réceptifs : l'espèce (le cheval est plus sensible que l'âne et le mulet), l'âge (les jeunes ont une sensibilité plus importante), l'individu (pour une même souche de virus, la gravité est variable selon l'animal) ; certains facteurs favorisants (la fatigue, des corticoïdes) peuvent provoquer une crise chez les chevaux infectés latents.\n\nÉpidémiologie synthétique \n\nL'AIE est entretenue à l'état enzootique et disséminée par les chevaux infectés de façon inapparente (danger permanent). Sa transmission est facilitée dans les régions et à la période où les arthropodes sont abondants (zones humides, été,...) et dans les effectifs où sont pratiquées des injections nombreuses sans précaution.\n\nL'absence de transmission directe, la longueur de l'incubation, l'évolution variable d'un sujet à l'autre (fréquence des infectés de façon inapparente) font que la maladie prend souvent une forme sporadique dans les effectifs atteints.\n\nDiagnostic\n\nDiagnostic clinique \n\nIl est difficile en raison du polymorphisme clinique de la maladie.\nL’AIE est à évoquer dans les situations suivantes (éléments de suspicion) :\n Cheval atteint d'une maladie aiguë avec fièvre, abattement, tachycardie, anorexie, dyspnée d'effort, œdèmes ;\n Cheval atteint d'une maladie chronique associant à une baisse de forme, amaigrissement, œdèmes, hyperthermie modérée, anémie, et évoluant par crises ;\n Cheval avec syndrome anémique ;\n A l'autopsie, association d'une splénomégalie, d'une hépatomégalie et d'une myocardite.\n\nLe diagnostic différentiel est à faire avec des maladies septicémiques, l'artérite à virus, la leptospirose, la peste équine... dans les formes aiguës ; avec la tuberculose, la brucellose, la piroplasmose chronique, la dourine, une néphrite, une affection tumorale... dans les formes chroniques.\n\nRecours au laboratoire \nLe recours au laboratoire est indispensable en cas de suspicion clinique et pour détecter les porteurs sains.\n\nLe diagnostic virologique est possible mais non réalisé en routine. Le diagnostic hématologique (numération globulaire, recherche des sidéroleucocytes (macrophages contenant de l’hémosidérine, catabolite de l’hémoglobine : nombre supérieur à 14 pour leucocytes)... n'est pas spécifique et ne peut être qu'un élément de présomption. Il en est de même pour le diagnostic histopathologique.\n\nDiagnostic expérimental et dépistage \n\nIls sont essentiellement sérologiques : le test de Coggins (immunodiffusion en gélose) est la seule méthode reconnue officiellement au niveau international (Manuel de l’OIE) et en France. Un sérum étalon international, contenant la quantité minimale d’anticorps devant être détectée par les laboratoires, a été produit par le laboratoire de référence OIE situé à l'Alfort en 1977 (Pr Toma) et est disponible auprès de laboratoires de référence actuels de l’OIE.\nDes tests ELISA (détection des antigènes de surface, gp90 et gp45) sont utilisés dans certains pays ; toutefois, il est recommandé par l’OIE de soumettre au test de Coggins les sérums ayant fourni une réponse positive en ELISA, en raison de l’existence de rares réponses non spécifiques fournies par ce test.\n\nLe prélèvement est habituellement constitué par du sang en tube sec (sans anticoagulant).\n\nDes commémoratifs comme l’âge de l'animal, la date d'apparition des premiers symptômes et la date de l’éventuelle dernière occasion de contamination sont indispensables pour l’interprétation du résultat du test.\n\nEn France, seuls certains laboratoires sont habilités à réaliser le test de Coggins. Le laboratoire national de référence est actuellement le laboratoire de pathologie équine de l'ANSES à Dozulé. Plusieurs laboratoires départementaux d’analyses agréés peuvent également réaliser le test de Coggins : ce sont ceux des départements suivants : Manche, Loire-Atlantique, Mayenne, Orne, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, Sarthe et Seine-Maritime.\n\nTechnique utilisée : le test de Coggins utilise un antigène (p26) préparé à partir d'une culture cellulaire (ED) et un sérum positif. Ce test est parfaitement spécifique et sensible. Les résultats sont disponibles après 24 à 48 heures.\n\nL'interprétation du résultat doit tenir compte de la cinétique des anticorps précipitants détectés par le test. Ils apparaissent : \n en moyenne, entre 15 et 30 jours après l'infection et, au plus tard, 60 jours après l’infection ;\n au plus tard, 10 jours après le début de la fièvre chez l'animal malade.\n\n Chez un animal adulte infecté, ils persistent toute la vie.\n Chez un poulain sain, né de mère infectée, les anticorps d’origine colostrale sont présents pendant les premiers mois et disparaissent au plus tard vers le .\n\nUn résultat positif au test de Coggins obtenu avec le sérum d’un équidé adulte permet de conclure à l’infection de cet animal par le virus de l’AIE. Un résultat négatif sur un animal adulte ou un résultat quel qu’il soit sur un poulain né de mère infectée est à interpréter en fonction de la situation et des commémoratifs disponibles.\n\nTraitement \nIl n’existe pas de traitement spécifique de l’AIE.\n\nProphylaxie \nLa prophylaxie est essentiellement sanitaire. En effet, différents essais de création de vaccins contre l’AIE ont été réalisés ou sont en cours mais, à part en Chine, aucun vaccin n’a été utilisé en pratique. Les résultats de l’emploi du vaccin chinois de 1975 à 1990 sont difficiles à connaitre. Depuis cette date, la vaccination y a été arrêtée afin d’éviter l’interférence des anticorps post-vaccinaux avec le dépistage sérologique de l’AIE. \n\nEn prenant le virus AIE comme modèle du HIV, des essais de vaccination avec des immunogènes « consensuels » d’enveloppe (gp90) se sont révélés prometteurs. \n\n Milieu indemne d’AIE :\nLa règle de base de la prophylaxie sanitaire défensive est de n’introduire dans un effectif indemne que des équidés ayant fourni un résultat négatif à un test de Coggins et provenant d'un effectif régulièrement contrôlé (dans le cas contraire, il conviendrait de refaire un nouveau contrôle à l'issue d'une période de quarantaine de 45 à 60 jours).\n\nPar ailleurs, il convient d’appliquer en outre des mesures permanentes d'hygiène (matériel à injection unique, lutte contre les arthropodes...).\n\n Milieu infecté d’AIE :\n\nL'assainissement d'un effectif infecté d’AIE exige l'isolement strict des malades jusqu'à leur élimination (abattage ou conduite dans un lazaret), le dépistage des infectés latents parmi les autres sujets de l'effectif et leur isolement strict jusqu'à leur élimination, la désinfection des locaux et matériels, la lutte contre les arthropodes, l'utilisation de seringues à usage unique... \n\nDes contrôles sérologiques doivent être réalisés tous les 30 à 45 jours (avec isolement et élimination des animaux à résultat positif) jusqu'à l'assainissement total confirmé par deux contrôles négatifs sur l'ensemble de l'effectif à un intervalle de 45 à 60 jours.\n\nRéglementation sanitaire \n\nEn France, l’AIE était inscrite dans la nomenclature des maladies réputées contagieuses ; elle est actuellement classée comme un danger sanitaire de .\n\nMesures de police sanitaire \nElles sont précisées par les arrêtés du :\n\n Lorsque l'existence de l'AIE est confirmée (test de Coggins), l'établissement hébergeant l'animal est mis en interdit par arrêté préfectoral portant déclaration d'infection (APDI). Les chevaux atteints sont isolés, marqués (marque AI au feu à l'épaule gauche) et abattus dans les quinze jours. Tous les chevaux de l'établissement subissent un contrôle sérologique et les animaux à résultat positif sont traités comme précédemment. Les locaux sont désinfectés et désinsectisés. Des contrôles sérologiques ont lieu tous les mois jusqu'à obtention de résultats négatifs. \n L'arrêté préfectoral est levé lorsque deux contrôles pratiqués à 3 mois d'intervalle s'avèrent négatifs sur tous les équidés, tous les équidés infectés ayant été éliminés et les locaux désinfectés. \n L'Etat participe financièrement à ces mesures (visites, examens de laboratoire, indemnités d'abattage limitées à € maximum par équidé...).\n\nVice rédhibitoire \nL'AIE révélée par un test de Coggins positif est un vice rédhibitoire depuis 1990 (Décret du et arrêté du ). Le délai de rédhibition est fixé à 30 jours.\n\nMonte publique et monte artificielle \n Il n’existe plus d’exigence sanitaire réglementaire nationale pour la monte naturelle des équidés, mais chaque association nationale de race a la capacité d’imposer des mesures spécifiques (définies, pour chaque race, par le règlement de Stud-book), dont certaines peuvent concerner l’AIE. \n La réglementation pour la monte artificielle prévoit des conditions sanitaires d’admission des étalons dans les centres de collecte agréés pour le marché national ou communautaire, dont certaines concernent l’AIE (AM du ).\n\nÉchanges internationaux \n Échanges d’équidés intra Union européenne : il n’y a pas de dépistage obligatoire dans le cadre des échanges intra-communautaires, à l’exception des équidés en provenance de Roumanie.\n\n Importation d’équidés extra Union européenne : exclusivement équidés à résultat négatif au test de Coggins.\n\nNotes et références\n\nBibliographie \n\n Goret P., Michel C. et Toma B. L’anémie infectieuse des Equidés. L’Expansion Ed., Paris, 1968, 144 p.\n Toma B. et Pearson J. E. Equine infectious anaemia in Infectious and Parasitic Diseases of Livestock, Lefèvre P.-C. et al., 2010, Lavoisier éd. Paris, 1, 780 p.\n\nLiens externes \n\n World Assembly of Delegates of the OIE in May 2013 ː Equine infectious anemia\n Légifrance : Décret n° 2012-845 du 30 juin 2012 relatif aux dispositions générales organisant la prévention, la surveillance et la lutte contre les dangers sanitaires de première et deuxième catégorie\n Truffert M. : Bilan épidémiologique et réglementaire de l'anémie infectieuse des équidés en France, perspectives d'évolution, thèse doctorat vétérinaire, École nationale vétérinaire d'Alfort, 2011.\n\nCatégorie:Maladie infectieuse\nCatégorie:Santé du cheval\nCatégorie:Lentivirus", "thumb|250px|Zéolithe : gonnardite\nthumb|250px|Cristaux de zéolithe, vus au microscope électronique \nthumb|250px|Natrolite ; zéolithe de formule Na[SiAlO] (Val de Fassa à Monzoni (Italie). Le caractère fibreux de certaines zéolithes les rend susceptible de produire des mésothéliomes (comme l'amiante) si elles sont inhalées en fines particules\nthumb|250px|Natrolite - Auvergne\n\nUne zéolithe, ou zéolite, est un cristal formé d'un squelette microporeux d'aluminosilicate, dont les espaces vides connectés sont initialement occupés par des cations et des molécules d'eau.\n\nLes ions et les molécules d'eau sont mobiles au sein de la structure, ce qui permet d'une part des échanges ioniques, d'autre part une déshydratation partielle réversible, et la possibilité de remplacer l'eau par une autre phase adsorbée.\n\nLe caractère cristallin du squelette implique que les porosités de la structure sont toutes de même taille. Ces porosités peuvent autoriser ou non le passage de molécules, avec un pouvoir discriminant inférieur à 100 picomètres (). C'est pourquoi l'on qualifie les zéolithes de tamis moléculaires.\n\nHistorique\n\nLa découverte des zéolithes \n\nEn 1756, le minéralogiste suédois Axel Frederik Cronstedt découvre la première zéolithe minérale, baptisée stilbite. Il reconnaît les zéolithes comme une nouvelle classe de minéraux, constitués d'aluminosilicates hydratés et de terres alcalines. Du fait de son caractère intumescent quand ce minéral est chauffé par une flamme de chalumeau, Cronstedt appelle ce minéral « zéolithe » du latin zeolithus, du grec (zeô) ou (zein) : « bouillir » et (lithos) : « la pierre »).\n\nEn 1840, Alexis Damour observe que les cristaux de zéolithes peuvent être déshydratés de façon réversible sans aucune modification apparente sur leur morphologie et leur transparence.\n\nEn 1845, Schafhautle rapporte la synthèse hydrothermale du quartz par chauffage d'un gel de silice avec de l'eau dans un autoclave. En 1850, Way et Thompson clarifient la nature de l'échange d'ions dans les terres. En 1858, Eichhorn démontre la réversibilité de l'échange d'ions dans les zéolithes. En 1862, S. C. Deville rapporte la première synthèse hydrothermale d'une zéolithe, la levynite.\n\nEn 1896, après avoir observé que des liquides variés tels que l'alcool, le benzène et le chloroforme ont été occlus dans les zéolithes, Friedel développe l'idée que la structure des zéolithes déshydratées est constituée d'une matrice spongieuse ouverte. \n\nEn 1909, Grandjean observe que la chabazite déshydratée adsorbe l'ammoniaque, l'air, l'hydrogène et d'autres molécules. En 1925, Weigel et Steinhoff rapportent le premier effet de « tamis moléculaire » et notent que les cristaux de chabazite déshydratées adsorbent rapidement l'eau, l'alcool méthylique, l'alcool éthylique et l'acide formique mais non l'acétone, ni l'éther ni le benzène.\n\nEn 1927, Leonard décrit le premier usage des rayons X pour l'identification dans la synthèse minérale. Les premières structures des zéolithes sont déterminées en 1930 par Taylor et Pauling. \n\nEn 1932, McBain établit pour la première fois le terme « tamis moléculaire » pour définir les matières solides poreuses qui agissent comme des tamis à l'échelle moléculaire. Au milieu des années 1930, la littérature décrit les échanges d'ions, l'adsorption, les tamis moléculaires, les propriétés structurelles et minérales de zéolithes et relate la synthèse de nombreuses zéolithes. Barrer commence son travail de pionnier dans l'adsorption des zéolithes et leur synthèse. Il propose la première classification, basée sur des considérations de tailles moléculaires. En 1948, il rapporte la première synthèse complète d'une zéolithe analogue à la zéolithe naturelle mordénite.\n\nLes zéolithes naturelles \n\nthumb|Des cristaux de zéolite \"cultivés\" sur terre (en haut) sont plus petits et moins réguliers que ceux produits dans l'espace (en bas). Cette expérience conduite avec le \"Center for Advanced Microgravity Materials Processing at Northeastern University in Boston\" visait à mieux comprendre la synthèse des zéolithes pour notamment améliorer le traitement du pétrole et réduire les coûts des carburants\n\nDeux cents ans après leur découverte par Cronstedt en 1756, les zéolithes minérales (ou naturelles) sont considérées comme des constituants mineurs des roches basaltiques et volcaniques sans réelle application. À la fin des années 1950, les découvertes géologiques majeures révèlent l'ampleur des gisements de zéolithes naturelles dans les dépôts sédimentaires aux États-Unis d'Amérique. Ainsi, quelques zéolithes présentes en quantités importantes et très proches de dépôts minéraux d'importance commerciale, commencent à être commercialisées comme adsorbants. On exploite donc la chabazite, l'erionite, la mordénite et la clinoptilolite en quantité industrielle.\n\nLe Japon devient le plus gros utilisateur des zéolithes naturelles. La mordénite et la clinoptilolite sont utilisées comme adsorbants dans les opérations de séparation, de déshydratation et de purification de l'air. Les zéolithes naturelles trouvent aussi des applications dans l'industrie papetière, dans les ciments et les bétons, dans les engrais et comme additif alimentaire pour le bétail. Cette dernière application représente le plus gros débouché en volume pour les zéolithes naturelles.\n\nLes zéolithes synthétiques \n\nVers 1945, les travaux de Barrer poussent R.M. Milton à étudier la synthèse de zéolithe et à tester de nouvelles techniques de séparation et de purification de l'air. De 1949 à 1954, R.M. Milton et D.W. Breck découvrent un nombre significatif de zéolithes commercialement intéressantes, les zéolithes A, X et Y. Ainsi, en 1954, Union Carbide commercialise pour la première fois des zéolithes synthétiques comme une nouvelle classe de matériel industriel servant à la séparation et à la purification. Elles servent d'abord à la déshydratation des gaz réfrigérants et du gaz naturel.\nEn 1959, Union Carbide commercialise un procédé de séparation des isoparaffines utilisant des zéolithes : c'est la première utilisation industrielle utilisant les caractéristiques de type « tamis moléculaire » des zéolithes. La même année, Union Carbide commercialise une zéolithe de type Y comme catalyseur pour les réactions d'isomérisation ; c'est la première utilisation industrielle des propriétés catalytiques des zéolithes.\nEn 1962, Mobil Oil introduit des zéolithes synthétiques de type X pour catalyser le craquage de molécules (pour notamment valoriser des coupes lourdes des pétroles). De 1967 à 1969, Mobil Oil synthétise des zéolithes à haute teneur en silice et des zéolithes de type ZSM-5. En 1974, Henkel introduit les zéolithes A dans la fabrication des détergents en remplacements des phosphates trop polluants. \nEn 1977, l'industrie utilise largement les zéolithes : 22 000 tonnes de zéolithe Y sont usitées pour le craquage catalytique.\n\nOrigine \nUne zéolithe est un minéral microporeux appartenant au groupe des silicates, sous groupe des tectosilicates dans lequel il forme une famille comprenant des aluminosilicates hydratés de métaux des groupes A et A du tableau périodique des éléments, tels le calcium, le magnésium et le potassium.\n\nLes zéolithes sont naturelles ou synthétiques ; plus de 150 types de zéolithes ont été synthétisées et 48 zéolithes naturelles sont connues. On en a même trouvé sur Mars.\n\nZéolithes synthétiques : très pures et de structure uniforme, elles conviennent à diverses applications, dont la catalyse hétérogène en lit fluidisé (pour l’industrie pétrolière en particulier). \nOn peut fabriquer des structures zéolitiques naturellement inconnues, qui maximisent l’efficacité des opérations auxquelles elles sont destinées. Les recherches sur la synthèse des zéolithes sont importantes et encouragées par la croissance du marché. Elles ne nécessitent comme matière première que de la silice et de l'alumine, qui sont parmi les composants minéraux terrestres les plus abondants. Le potentiel de production des zéolithes synthétiques est donc presque illimité.\n\nZéolithes naturelles : elles se sont formées en plusieurs centaines ou milliers d'années, là où les roches et les cendres volcaniques ont réagi avec des eaux souterraines alcalines, ou dans les couches de dépôts organiques de bassins superficiels. Elles sont très rarement pures (plus ou moins contaminées par d'autres minéraux métalliques, du quartz ou d'autres zéolithes). Elles sont impropres à beaucoup d'applications industrielles où l'uniformité et la pureté sont essentielles. \n\nLa famille des zéolithes naturelles inclut :\n\nComposition\n\nComposition chimique \nthumb|right|AlO ou SiO tétraédriques\n\nLa composition chimique des différentes zéolithes est proche de celle des argiles : ce sont des aluminosilicates plus ou moins hydratés. La différence très importante sur le plan cristallographique est que les argiles présentent une structure feuilletée (phyllosilicates) ou fibreuse (sépiolite et palygorskite), tandis que les zéolites présentent une structure tridimensionnelle. C'est la même différence qu'entre le graphite (structure en feuillets hexagonaux) et le diamant (assemblage de structures tétraédriques).\n\nGlobalement, une zéolite est formée de trois composants :\n Le squelette , où la fraction d'aluminium b peut varier entre 0 et 1, et Al ou Si être remplacé par un autre élément ;\n Un cation de forme M, assurant la neutralité électrique de l'ensemble ;\n Une phase adsorbée, généralement formée initialement par de l'eau, .\n\nPar exemple :\n La natrolite a pour formule ;\n L'heulandite a pour formule .\n\nChacun des quatre sommets du tétraèdre est occupé par un anion d'oxygène O, et chaque anion d'oxygène est partagé par deux tétraèdres. De ce fait, le squelette d'une zéolite a toujours deux atomes d'oxygène pour un atome métallique.\n\nLa proportion Al/Si d'aluminium par rapport au silicium peut théoriquement varier de entre 0 et 1. En pratique, la proportion ne peut pas dépasser 1/2, du fait de la répulsion électrostatique entre les tétraèdres d'alumine qui ne favorise pas l'assemblage pour des proportions plus importantes.\nQuand la proportion d'aluminium est nulle, l'assemblage de tels tétraèdres forme de la silice, qui est un solide électriquement neutre.\n\nChaque AlO tétraédrique présent dans la structure apporte une forte charge négative qui doit être contrebalancée par un ou plusieurs cations, tels Ca, Mg ou K.\n\nL'eau présente lors de la synthèse participe initialement à la structure cristalline, en occupant les vides du squelette. Cette phase adsorbée et d'éventuels cations organiques peuvent être supprimés par traitement thermique ou par oxydation, tout en préservant le squelette cristallin.\n\nLes tétraèdres utilisés dans la structure ne sont pas limités à Al et Si, mais peuvent être centrés sur des atomes variés du moment qu'ils sont suffisamment peu électronégatifs : Si, Al, P, Zn, etc. Ces substitutions conduisent à des squelettes de structures similaires, mais qui peuvent présenter des propriétés originales : zincosilicates, borosilicates, gallosilicates, germanosilicates, etc. Les germanosilicates ont un squelette électriquement neutre, de même que les aluminophosphates de type AlPO4.\n\nStructure cristalline \n\nAssemblages de tétraèdres élémentaires \nLes zéolithes sont des polymères inorganiques structurellement complexes, basés sur un squelette tridimensionnel cristallin de tétraèdres de type TO4. T représente ici un atome générique : il s'agit généralement d'un atome de silicium, ce qui correspond à un tétraèdre SiO4, ou d'aluminium, formant un tétraèdre AlO4. Ces tétraèdres sont reliés les uns aux autres par les atomes d'oxygène, chaque atome d'oxygène étant donc en réalité partagé par deux tétraèdres. Pour rappeler ce partage, le tétraèdre est parfois noté TO4/2.\n\nLe squelette complet forme un réseau tridimensionnel, où chaque tétraèdre occupe un « sommet », et est relié à quatre voisins par une « arête » formée par la liaison O-T-O.\n\nCe squelette tridimensionnel peut s'analyser comme l'assemblage de ces tétraèdres en « anneaux » et en « cages ».\n\nAnneaux \nAu niveau élémentaire, les zéolites sont formées par des associations d'anneaux de différentes tailles. Un « n-anneau » est une chaîne linéaire constituée de n tétraèdres joints par les atomes d'oxygène, et refermée sur elle-même. Les valeurs les plus courantes rencontrées dans les zéolites sont des anneaux formés de 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, ou 12 unités, mais on a synthétisé des squelettes comportant des anneaux de 14, 18, et jusqu'à 20 unités.\n\nUn anneau peut être représenté de manière simplifiée par un polygone régulier, où chaque sommet est occupé par un tétraèdre, et où les milieux des segments sont occupés par des atomes d'oxygène. En réalité, cependant, le polygone n'est pas strictement régulier, car la distance entre l'oxygène et le centre du tétraèdre dépend de la nature du métal qui occupe le sommet T ; et les côtés du polygone ne sont pas droits, parce que la liaison T-O-T n'est pas droite, mais fait un angle de l'ordre de 140 à 165 degrés.\n\nIntuitivement, les « anneaux » sont les plus petits cycles qu'il est possible de parcourir dans le réseau. Plus précisément, dans l'ensemble des cycles que l'on peut définir dans le squelette d'ensemble, les « anneaux » proprement dits se caractérisent par le fait qu'ils n'ont jamais plus d'une arête en commun avec un cycle de taille inférieure (si deux cycles ont plus d'une arête en commun, le plus grand des deux n'est pas un « anneau »).\n\nChaque tétraèdre formant un « n-anneau » dispose de deux atomes d'oxygène non encore liés, par lesquels la structure tridimensionnelle va être établie.\n\nCages \nÀ un niveau intermédiaire, les zéolites sont formées de « cages », structures où chaque segment est partagé par deux « anneaux » connexes.\n\nDe même que pour les « anneaux », il est commode de représenter ces « cages » de manière simplifiée par des polyèdres, dont les facettes sont les « anneaux » précédents, qui étaient représentés par des polygones réguliers. Cependant, les facettes de ces cages ne sont pas nécessairement planes.\n\nIntuitivement, une « cage » est un espace vide dans la structure, délimité par des « anneaux ». Plus précisément, deux « anneaux » qui partagent un segment commun déterminent une cage unique, dont tous les anneaux et tous les sommets peuvent être déterminés de proche en proche (si un sommet est partagé par deux cycles d'une même « cage », ces deux cycles s'appuient en ce sommet sur trois arêtes d'une même « cage », et ces trois arêtes définissent le troisième des cycles de cette « cage » passant par ce sommet).\n\nUne cage se caractérise par le nombre de cycles de chaque type qui la compose. Ainsi :\n Une cage de sodalite est notée par la formule [46] : elle est formée par six « 4-anneaux » et huit « 6-anneaux ». Ici la cage est un polyèdre.\n Une cage de cancrinite est notée de même [46]. Noter que dans le squelette formé par une telle cage, les « 6-anneaux » ne sont pas coplanaires.\n\nUne cage se caractérise en partie par le plus grand des anneaux qui la forme. Si la taille de cet anneau est faible, seules les plus petites molécules pourront avoir accès à la cavité intérieure.\n\nQuand les tétraèdres forment une « cage », chaque sommet dispose encore d'un atome non lié, par lequel les « cages » vont pouvoir s'accrocher les unes aux autres et former le squelette cristallin.\n\nSquelette cristallin \nLa structure d'ensemble du « squelette » est formée par une répétition cristalline de « cages » de tailles variées, généralement des assemblages de petites cages laissant des apparaître des vides plus importants à l'intérieur d'une maille. Dans le squelette complet, chaque espace interne appartient à une « cage » plus ou moins grande ; et chaque « anneau » délimitant cette cage est partagé par une cage voisine : une molécule doit pouvoir traverser cet anneau pour passer directement de la cage à sa voisine.\n\nDe même que précédemment, c'est la taille des cycles qu'il faut traverser pour aller d'une maille à l'autre qui déterminera si la structure est perméable ou non aux molécules d'une taille donnée. Suivant l'agencement des « cages » dans la maille, le passage est généralement possible dans trois dimensions, mais des agencements particuliers peuvent conduire à des circulations restreintes à des feuillets ou à des « tunnels ».\n\nLe diamètre du pore qui permet le passage d'une maille à l'autre est un des paramètres importants de la structure des zéolites. Les structures les plus fréquentes sont reliées par des pores formés de 8-, 10- ou 12-anneaux, ce qui correspond respectivement aux zéolites à petits, moyens ou grands pores.\n\nUtilisation\n\nUsages industriels\n\nChimie \nLes zéolithes sont employées comme :\n échangeur d'ions ;\n piège moléculaire : les molécules piégées peuvent ainsi être analysées séparément ;\n tamis moléculaire : seules les molécules de certaines tailles et formes peuvent passer à travers la structure zéolitique. On peut ainsi :\n déshydrater des solvants organiques,\n déshydrater les gaz vecteurs des chromatographes,\n protéger les appareils sensibles à l'humidité,\n épurer l'eau des particules radioactives (barrage de zéolite installé par le CEA sur le site de Tchernobyl) ;\n catalyseurs : procédé technologique permettant de transformer de l’hydrogène afin de produire du méthane et de l'eau, en présence d'un catalyseur de nickel, de température et de pression, perfectionné par l'amélioration de l'effet catalytique grâce à la présence de zéolithe qui retire du mélange eau-gaz, l’eau qui a été produite, économisant, ainsi, l'énergie nécessaire à la transformation. Les cristaux de zéolithes peuvent être déshydratés de façon réversible sans aucune modification apparente sur leur morphologie et leur transparence, leur structure déshydratée étant constituée d'une matrice spongieuse ouverte ;\n séparateur des gaz : par exemple, élimination de HO, CO et SO des gisements de gaz naturel de basse qualité, mais aussi pour d'autres séparations comme celles des gaz nobles, de l’azote, du fréon et des formaldéhydes ;\n séparation industrielle oxygène-azote à partir de l'air, pour des productions faibles ou moyennes d'azote et d'oxygène purs (pour les gros tonnages, on utilise la distillation de l'air liquide).\n\nUne déshydratation écologique et économe en énergie est ainsi permise, à basse ou moyenne température — entre et — dite zéodratation. Ce procédé, qui s'apparente pour partie à la lyophilisation est néanmoins encore peu répandu.\n\nConstruction \nLa zéolithe synthétique est employée comme additif dans le procédé de fabrication du mélange béton-asphalte. Le développement de cette application commencée en Europe (Allemagne) dans les années 1990 a connu un grand intérêt dans le monde entier. En effet, il permet de diminuer le niveau de température pendant la fabrication et la pose du béton-asphalte, ayant pour résultat une consommation inférieure de combustible fossile, et de ce fait libère moins de dioxyde de carbone, d'aérosols et de vapeurs nocives.\n\nThermorégulation \nDes zéolithes peuvent être employés dans des collecteurs thermiques solaires. C'est leur grande chaleur d’adsorption, leur facilité d'hydratation et de déshydratation, et leur stabilité structurale qui sont exploitées. Cette propriété de forte hygroscopie est en effet couplée à une réaction exothermique inhérente au passage entre la forme déshydratée et la forme hydratée (chaleur d’adsorption), ce qui fait des zéolithes des collecteurs efficaces pour le stockage de l'énergie solaire par exemple.\n\nUsage médical \nLes systèmes de génération d'oxygène basés sur l’utilisation de zéolithe sont largement répandus pour produire de l'oxygène de qualité médicale. La zéolithe est utilisée comme tamis moléculaire qui extrait l'oxygène à partir de l'air, dans un processus qui absorbe l'azote atmosphérique. Ces systèmes sont notamment utilisés pour l'enrichissement de l'air en oxygène à destination des patients deficients pulmonaires. Ils peuvent être portables, remplaçant ainsi les petites bouteilles d'oxygène comprimé.\n\nLeur utilisation est également possible pour l’amélioration de la coagulation des saignements graves. On retrouve des produits utilisant cette technologie sous le nom de QuikClot ou Hemosorb. Le fabricant affirme que le matériel (granulé biologiquement inerte) peut être versé directement sur la blessure pour arrêter le saignement intense presque instantanément.\n\nDécontamination \nUn mois après la catastrophe survenue à la centrale de Fukushima Daiichi, l'opérateur japonais TEPCO a annoncé avoir immergé des sacs de zéolithe en mer, en vue d'absorber le césium radioactif.\n\nUsages domestiques \nLes zéolithes sont utilisées en tant qu'échangeur d'ions dans des applications domestiques telles que la purification ou l’adoucissement de l'eau.\n\nLa majeure partie des zéolithes synthétiques (zéolithe A) est réservée au marché des lessives. Elles y remplacent les phosphates. En 1992, ce marché s’élevait à 1,44 million de tonnes par an, soit environ un tiers du marché mondial.\n\nUsages agricoles \nDans l'agriculture, la clinoptilolite (zéolithe naturelle) est employée pour la fertilisation des sols, car elle fournit une source du potassium (engrais) lentement libéré. Si elle est préalablement dopée avec de l'ammonium, la zéolithe permet aussi une libération contrôlée d'azote. Des suggèrent que certaines cultures peuvent être cultivées sur des sols composés de zéolithe (ou d’un mélange zéolithe-terre) dans lesquels la zéolithe a été préalablement dopée ou enduite d'engrais et de micro-nutriments.\n\nSubstrat pour bonsaï \nLes zéolithes sont également employées par les amateurs et professionnels du bonsaï. Leur taux de rétention en eau (de l'ordre de 48 %), associé à un drainage efficace et une bonne capacité d'échange cationique (capacité à fixer et redistribuer les éléments nutritifs) en font un substrat aux vertus nombreuses. \nDe plus, les zéolithes restent stables dans le temps et ne se délitent pas à l'image de l'akadama. Les zéolithes pourraient bien à terme remplacer d'autres substrats importés du Japon et donc plus onéreux. Cependant, les zéolithes demeurent difficiles d'accès pour le simple particulier.\n\nStockage de l'énergie \nDu fait de leur haute densité de stockage énergétique, certaines zéolithes sont utilisées pour le stockage saisonnier de chaleur, permettant ainsi une plus grande utilisation de chaleur de sources renouvelables notamment, telle que l'énergie solaire thermique.\n\nDonnées économiques \nActuellement, la production annuelle mondiale de zéolithe naturelle est d’environ 4 millions de tonnes. La majorité de celle-ci, c'est-à-dire 2,6 millions de tonnes, est destinée au marché chinois, et employée principalement dans l'industrie des ciments. L'Europe de l'Est, l'Europe de l'Ouest, l'Australie, et l'Asie sont les principaux producteurs et fournissent la majeure partie des zéolithes naturelles du marché. Par comparaison, en 2004, l’Amérique du Nord produisait seulement s de zéolithe naturelle, soit seulement environ 1,5 % de la production mondiale. Il existe une usine de production en France à Honfleur.\n\nNotes et références\n\nVoir aussi\n\nArticles connexes \n Dioxyde de silicium, silicates\n Cancer, cancérologie, mésothéliome\n Toxicologie, écotoxicologie\n Catalyseur, catalyse\n\nLiens externes \n Groupe Français des Zéolithes\n Gisements de zéolithe du Massif central\n Site de l'International Zeolite Association (IZA)\n Érionite sur la base de données Euromin\n\n*\nCatégorie:Antihémorragique\nCatégorie:Stockage de l'énergie", "L'indice de coïncidence est une technique de cryptanalyse inventée par William F. Friedman en 1920 (publiée dans The Index of Coincidence and its Applications in Cryptography) et améliorée par son collaborateur Solomon Kullback.\n\nL'indice permet de savoir si un texte a été chiffré avec un chiffre mono-alphabétique ou un chiffre poly-alphabétique en étudiant la probabilité de répétition des lettres du message chiffré. Il donne également une indication sur la longueur de la clé probable.\n\nL'indice se calcule avec la formule suivante :\n avec n le nombre de lettres total du message, le nombre de A, le nombre de B, etc.\n\nEn français, l'indice de coïncidence vaut environ 0,0746. Dans le cas de lettres uniformément distribuées (contenu aléatoire sans biais), l'indice se monte à 0,0385. L'indice ne varie pas si une substitution monoalphabétique des lettres a été opérée au préalable. C’est-à-dire que si l'on remplace par exemple 'a' par 'z' et 'z' par 'a', l'indice ne changera pas.\n\nIndice de coïncidence pour les chiffrements polyalphabétiques \nDans le cas où plusieurs alphabets seraient utilisés mais que le nombre d'alphabets est inconnu, l'indice de coïncidence peut être un précieux allié pour déterminer ce nombre. On utilise alors la formule suivante :\n\n avec n le nombre total de lettres dans le message, m le nombre d'alphabets, IClangue l'indice pour la langue analysée et 0.0385 est un terme correspondant à un contenu uniformément distribué. En variant m, on peut comparer l'indice obtenu via cette formule avec l'indice réel provenant de la formule classique.\n\nRaisonnement mathématique \nSoit un alphabet de 26 lettres, un texte de longueur infinie et un tirage au sort aléatoire, sans biais. La chance d'obtenir une lettre donnée est de 1/26. Obtenir deux lettres identiques se monte à une probabilité de (1/26)2. La probabilité d'obtenir une paire de deux lettres identiques est de l'ordre de : 26*(1/26)2 = (1/26) = 0,0385 (La première lettre est tirée au hasard, la seconde a une probabilité de 1/26 d'être identique). C'est l'indice de coïncidence pour un message avec des lettres uniformément distribuées.\n\nIntroduisons maintenant un biais dans la distribution et raisonnons sur un texte de longueur finie. Nous avons un texte de 100 lettres et le nombre d'unités pour chaque lettre n'est pas identique. Disons que nous avons 20 lettres « A », 5 lettres « B », 7 lettres « C », ..., et un seul « Z ». Dans ce cas, la chance de trouver une paire quelconque de lettres identiques est : (20/100)*(19/99) + (5/100)*(4/99) + (7/100)*(6/99) + ... + (1/100)*(0/99). Nous avons alors une approximation de l'indice de coïncidence pour un langage qui suit cette distribution.\n\nAutres langues \nOn peut aussi obtenir une estimation de la langue utilisée dans un texte en regardant son indice de coïncidence, la distribution des lettres n'étant pas la même entre les langues. Les indices peuvent légèrement varier selon les sources et les textes considérés pour l'analyse. Friedman donne par exemple un indice de 0,0778 pour le français.\n\nExemple d'utilisation \nL'indice est très utile lors de la vérification automatique d'un déchiffrement, en particulier lors d'une recherche exhaustive de toutes les clés. Les clés incorrectes fournissent un indice très proche de l'indice de données aléatoires uniformément distribuées. Une clé donnant un indice plus élevé a donc des chances d'être la bonne. Pour un chiffrement tel celui effectué par la machine Enigma, cette utilisation est intéressante (bien qu'anachronique) car le pupitre de connexions d'Enigma effectue un chiffrement mono-alphabétique. Cela signifie que l'indice de coïncidence n'est pas affecté par la configuration du pupitre de connexions, et par conséquent l'espace de recherche des clés est réduit aux configurations possibles des rotors.\n\nUn tel procédé peut en théorie être utilisé sur tous les types de chiffrement lors d'une attaque automatisée, bien que cette méthode soit hors de portée des ordinateurs actuels pour les systèmes de chiffrement modernes.\n\nVoir aussi\n\nLiens externes \n http://jf.morreeuw.free.fr/vigenere/vigenere.html sur le déchiffrement du chiffre de Vigenère.\n http://www.apprendre-en-ligne.net/crypto/stat/ic.html\n\nArticles connexes \n Cryptanalyse\n Analyse fréquentielle\n Chiffre de Vigenère\n\nCatégorie:Cryptanalyse", "SMS.ac est le site Internet d'une entreprise américaine de communications via les téléphones portables (par les SMS et MMS), et est sise à San Diego (Californie). L'actuel directeur et chef du secteur exécutif se nomme Michael C. Pousti. \n\nCette entreprise avance qu'elle dispose sur le site de plus de 40 millions d'utilisateurs de portables venant de plus de 180 pays, et qu'elle peut passer par plus de 400 opérateurs mobiles dans le monde entier. Elle dit chercher à obtenir un site ayant une forme de « réseau social », et dit offrir par la même occasion des SMS gratuits.\n\nServices \n\nLe site SMS.ac cherche à être une sorte de communauté pour utilisateurs de téléphones portables. Les utilisateurs de leur service peuvent en fait envoyer aussi bien des messages multimédia (MMS) que des textes seuls (SMS) à n'importe quel portable, en utilisant soit leur téléphone portable, soit Internet. D'autres fonctions sont offertes, comme par exemple le téléversement d'images par tout utilisateur. En août 2005 a été lancée sur le site une « déclaration des droits du consommateur pour les utilisateurs de mobiles ». Le journal The Edge Malaysia du a écrit que « c'est un site privé dont les utilisateurs peuvent envoyer gratuitement des SMS, et avec lesquels le récepteur obtient des publicités accompagnant le message. »\n\nEn 2007, la société a lancé la marque FanBox, devenue empowr en 2016.\n\nControverse \n\nOn reproche à ce service qu'une technologie est utilisée avec une tentative de capturer de nouveaux membres par du pourriel. En effet les contacts par Hotmail de chacun des nouveaux membres à SMS.ac reçoivent un courriel d'inscription, sans que quoi que ce soit n'ait été demandé à ces nouveaux inscrits. Lors du lancement de l'enregistrement volontaire au service SMS.ac l'utilisateur est invité à se connecter par l'intermédiaire de son compte créé sur Hotmail, tout cela étant fait en dehors du site géré par Microsoft, prétendument pour de « meilleurs résultats » (dixit SMS.ac).\n\nEn acceptant le contrat pour ce service, le client a l'impression d'en être juste à importer le carnet d'adresses pour un service en ligne de courriel (tel que Gmail, Yahoo!, ou Hotmail). SMS.ac dit laisser le choix entre inviter à joindre le service « tous, certains, ou aucun de la liste des contacts », mais beaucoup jugent que ce processus est assez embrouillant et piégeur. Cela particulièrement parce que l'utilisateur est poussé à entrer le mot de passe en plus de son nom d'utilisateur (une adresse électronique) avant d'avoir terminé de compléter le procédé d'enregistrement. Du coup quasiment tous les nouveaux utilisateurs sont dupés par l'apparence du site et l'ambigüité des expressions utilisées.\n\nMéthode apparente \n\nDe plus, une base de données semble traiter les coordonnées fournies par la personne et/ou appartenant à son profil, de manière à obtenir une chance supplémentaire d'accès au service SMS.ac ; par exemple :\n supposons que la personne Nom Prénom dispose de l'adresse [email protected] \n après réception d'un courriel, il a accepté le service SMS.ac\n son nom ainsi que son prénom sont récupérés par l'intermédiaire du profil MSN associé à Alias \n un traitement inconnu sera lancé du côté de la base de données de SMS.ac \n des courriels seront alors créés et envoyés aux adresses de format NomPrénom@[nom d'un site gérant le courriel]\n\nUne fois que le nouvel utilisateur a signé en rapport avec la liste de contacts, on lui dit que SMS.ac enverra des courriels aux contacts présents dans le carnet d'adresses, jusqu'à ce qu'ils quittent SMS.ac ou jusqu'à ce qu'ils acceptent d'y participer. Dans les deux cas chacun des contacts reçoit un courriel de même type que celui reçu par le nouvel inscrit. Tout cela a produit une réaction négative de la part de celles et ceux qui n'ont jamais signé pour le service même, et qui en complément ont quand même reçu un message d'apparence trompeuse (le nom du nouvel inscrit est placé dans l'adresse du message, ainsi que le nom du domaine de SMS.ac : « Pré[email protected] »).\n\nQuelques détails \n\nUn ancien employé de SMS.ac a affirmé que quand des personnes deviennent membres, elles sont ajoutées automatiquement à plusieurs groupes de discussion, et que les comptes des portables des membres sont chargés d'honoraires lors de l'envoi de SMS au numéro enregistré. Il a également été affirmé que des messages sont produits par SMS.ac lui-même, qui les crée de façon qu'ils semblent venir de personnes physiques utilisant réellement le service. En mars 2005 le journal belge De Standaard a signalé que le service prétendument « libre » de SMS était au bout d'un certain temps un coût supplémentaire de 0,25 € (euro) par message (pour un déblocage de message).\n\nL'entreprise a signalé à quelques blogueurs de s'abstenir d'employer le terme « spam » lors de toute référence au service fourni par SMS.ac, mais finalement l'effet inverse a été obtenu. De plus, plusieurs utilisateurs ont indiqué que réussir à supprimer son adhésion à SMS.ac est difficile et très peu intuitif.\n\nNéanmoins la procédure de suppression de compte est indiquée sur le site sms.ac dans la partie « Aide » puis « Annulation de ton service » puis « comment annuler mon compte? » de la manière suivante (avec les fautes de grammaire d'origine) :\n\n« Pour supprimer ton compte, suis les étapes ci-dessous :\n\n- Sélectionne « \"Mon compte » dans le menu déroulant du coin supérieur droit de ta page de profil\n\n- Clique sur le lien supprimer du champ « État du compte »\n\n- Confirme la suppression de ton compte\n\nNote que tu devras répéter ce processus pour chaque identifiant utilisateur unique que tu as enregistré sur SMS.ac. »\n\nLiens externes \n Le site de SMS.ac\n Un commentaire en français sur [Emarketing Blog]\n\nCatégorie:Site de réseautage social\nCatégorie:Entreprise ayant son siège à San Diego", "LAction des chrétiens pour l'abolition de la torture (ACAT) est une association qui œuvre depuis sa création en France en 1974 pour le respect des droits de tout être humain, qu'il soit libre ou prisonnier. Elle milite tout particulièrement contre la torture et les mauvais traitements, pour l'abolition de la peine de mort partout dans le monde, et pour la défense du droit d'asile en France. Les fondatrices sont deux femmes, Hélène Engel et Edith du Tertre, qui ont été sensibilisées à la question de la torture à la suite d’une conférence du pasteur italien Tullio Vinay à son retour du Sud-Vietnam en 1974. \n\nAssociation chrétienne reconnue d'utilité publique, l'ACAT est membre de la Commission nationale consultative des droits de l'homme auprès du premier ministre. Œcuménique, elle regroupe des chrétiens protestants, catholiques et orthodoxes ainsi que des membres d'autres confessions et des laïcs.\n\nLa Fédération internationale de l'action des chrétiens pour l'abolition de la torture (FIACAT) a statut consultatif auprès des Nations unies, du Conseil de l'Europe et de la Commission africaine des droits de l’homme et des peuples. Elle est membre de la Coordination internationale pour la décennie de la culture de paix et de non-violence.\n\nPour promouvoir son action auprès du public et lui permettre de faire appel au don en confiance, l’association adhère au Comité de la Charte.\n\nQuelques actions \n\nEn , l'ACAT est à l'origine d'un coup de froid des relations entre la France et le Maroc. En cause : une plainte contre Abdellatif Hammouchi, le chef de la DGST marocaine. L'ACAT a en effet profité d'un voyage de Abdellatif Hammouchi à Paris, dans le cadre d'une rencontre du ministre marocain de l'Intérieur Mohamed Hassad avec ses homologues européens, pour demander aux autorités françaises de l'entendre au sujet de faits présumés de tortures envers deux citoyens marocains : Adil Lamtalsi et Naâma Asfari.\n\nEn , l'ACAT publie un rapport intitulé \"L'ordre et la force\" à propos de l'usage de la force par la police et la gendarmerie française, qui dresse un état des lieux des violences policières en France entre 2005 et 2015.\n\nEn , l'ACAT soutient une plainte déposée par une famille de la bande de Gaza contre l'entreprise française Exxelia pour complicité de crimes de guerre et homicide involontaire . Les plaignants, assistés par l’ACAT, sont des membres d'une famille dont trois enfants ont perdu la vie lors d’une frappe israélienne lors de la guerre de Gaza de 2014.\n\nL'association dépose un référé liberté en afin d'empêcher une exportation d'armes françaises vers l'Arabie saoudite, indiquant que ces armes peuvent être employées dans la guerre au Yémen, comme l'indique une enquête de Disclose.\n\nLe 11 mars 2020, l'ACAT a publié un rapport très critique sur les violences policières lors du maintien de l'ordre des manifestions en France, particulièrement depuis le mouvement des gilets jaunes. L'enquête cible les consignes gouvernementales données aux forces de l'ordre, et ne veut pas stigmatiser ses exécutants, les gendarmes et les policiers. Dans ce rapport l'ACAT alerte sur l'usage excessif et surtout offensif des LBD et des grenades lacrymogènes et de désencerclement, qui occasionnent de nombreux blessés et mutilés. Elle dénonce aussi le recours de plus en plus systématique de la tactique policière de la \"nasse\". Elle s'indigne des autorités judiciaires politiques et une justice à deux vitesses : impunité pour les policiers qui commettent des violences illégitimes, non port du matricule RIO pourtant obligatoire, procédure judiciaire longue de l'IGPN ; tandis que pour les manifestants interpellés, l'immédiateté et la sévérité des sanctions sont vues comme des mesures d'intimidation. Enfin l'ACAT fait plusieurs propositions comme la création d'un \"organe indépendant chargé d'enquêter sur les faits commis par des agents de police et de gendarmerie\", en mettant en cause l'impartialité des enquêtes réalisées par l'IGPN ou l'IGGN. Également elle invite le gouvernement à privilégier des solutions alternatives au maintien de l'ordre à la française : mise en place d'unités dédiées au dialogue (comme en Suède, Pays-Bas, Allemagne), et présence d'officiers de liaison dans les manifestations.\n\nDistinction \nEn 1989, l'ACAT s'est vu attribuer le Prix des Droits de l'homme de la République française.\n\nNotes et références\n\nLiens externes \n \n\nCatégorie:Torture\nCatégorie:Association ou organisme lié au christianisme\nCatégorie:Association ou organisme pour la défense des droits et des libertés en France\nCatégorie:Association française fondée en 1974\nCatégorie:Association française reconnue d'utilité publique\nCatégorie:Association membre du Comité de la Charte\nCatégorie:Association contre la peine de mort", "En cryptologie, la technique des coefficients H, aussi appelée technique de décorrélation, est une méthode permettant de prouver la sécurité de constructions cryptographiques, en particulier les algorithmes de chiffrement par bloc. Elle constitue une alternative aux preuves par jeux, qui reposent souvent sur des arguments hybrides, et aux preuves d'indifférentiabilité qui nécessitent un simulateur.\n\nLa technique a été introduite par le cryptologue français Jacques Patarin en 1991 pour l'analyse des constructions de Luby-Rackoff (dont DES est l'archétype), et formalisée autour de 2008. Cette technique a notamment permis d'étudier précisément la sécurité des constructions d'Even-Mansour (dont AES est un exemple) et les codes d'authentification CBC-MAC.\n\nL'objectif de la technique des coefficients H est de borner l'avantage d'un adversaire dont l'objectif est de distinguer deux systèmes aléatoires. En général, l'un des systèmes correspond à l'objet réel dont on souhaite prouver la sécurité (par exemple un chiffrement par bloc) et l'autre système est un modèle idéalisé (par exemple une permutation pseudo-aléatoire). L'analyse porte sur une étude combinatoire des échanges entre l'adversaire et chaque système (réel ou idéal), appelés dans ce contexte « transcriptions ». L'ensemble des transcriptions est réparti en deux catégories : les transcriptions « bonnes » (qui correspondent sommairement à un bon accord entre l'objet réel et l'objet idéal) et les « mauvaises ». Ces dernières correspondent à des situations dans lesquelles l'objet étudié se comporte de façon différente de son homologue idéalisé : si elles sont trop nombreuses cela facilite le travaille d'un attaquant. \n\nIl est alors possible de fournir une borne sur l'avantage adversarial, ou dans de nombreux cas lorsqu'une telle borne ne peut être obtenue, de construire explicitement une attaque puisqu'on obtient immédiatement un distingueur.\n\nHistoire et variantes \nLa technique des coefficients H a été formalisée, avec ce nom, en 2008 par Jacques Patarin. Cependant on en retrouve l'usage dans plusieurs travaux antérieurs , y compris dans sa thèse puis celle de Serge Vaudenay. De façon indépendante, Daniel Bernstein introduit en 1999 sous le nom de « théorème d'interpolation » un résultat qui est en fait une variante de la technique des coefficients H. Les origines fragmentaires, en français, et le manque de clarté dans les premiers travaux présentant la technique ont beaucoup freiné son adoption. À partir de 2014, plusieurs travaux ont donc revisité l'approche, clarifiant et simplifiant substantiellement la présentation et permettant une utilisation de la technique dans plus de contextes que ce qui était faisable auparavant. \n\nQuelques unes des constructions qui ont pu bénéficier d'une analyse au moyen de cette technique includent entre autres : les chiffrement de Feistel, MHCBC et MCBC, la construction d'Even-Mansour, CBC-MAC, EWCDM, OCB3, GCM-SIV.\n\nPrésentation de la technique \nSoit D un adversaire tentant de distinguer entre un modèle idéal et un objet réel. On note l'ensemble des transcriptions possibles, (resp. ) la distribution de probabilités des transcriptions issues de l'objet réel (resp. issues du modèle idéal). L'ensemble est partitionné en deux sous-ensembles disjoints .\n\nS'il existe tels que pour tout on a :avec et , alors , qui est ce que l'on cherche à démontrer. \n\nPour cela, la technique des coefficients H consiste à introduire une quantité définie comme suit. Fixons un entier positif N, notons l'ensemble des chaînes de N bits et soit une séquence d'éléments deux à deux distincts de . Soit une séquence d'éléments de . On note — ou simplement si le contexte de et est clair — le nombre d'éléments tels que:où est un ensemble fixé (dont les éléments seront appelés les « clés ») et est la fonction d'intérêt, dépendant de la situation étudiée. Pour chaque clé , est ainsi une fonction de dans . Ainsi, compte le nombre de clés qui envoient toutes les entrées vers les valeurs . Si on parvient à borner , alors on obtient en appliquant le résultat ci dessus une borne sur l'avantage de l'attaquant.\n\nPremières applications \nLes théorèmes qui suivent constituent des cas importants, et sont les bases de la technique générale de preuve. L'objectif est de prouver des résultats de sécurité de générateurs de fonctions et de permutations. Les preuves sont mentionnées dans . Avec cette technique, on obtient un jeux de conditions suffisantes pour établir la sécurité contre différentes classes d'adversaires. Des améliorations de la technique permettent d'obtenir des conditions nécessaires, et ainsi des bornes optimales.\n\nSécurité contre une attaque à clairs connus \nSoit et deux nombres réels, et . Si pour des valeurs aléatoires , de telles que les sont des éléments deux à deux distincts, avec probabilité nous avons ; alors une attaque avec clairs (aléatoires) connus possède un avantage borné , dans le jeu consistant à distinguer d'une fonction aléatoire. Ici comme dans la suite, cela signifie distinguer lorsque est tiré uniformément au hasard dans d'une fonction tirée uniformément parmi les fonctions de dans .\n\nSécurité contre une attaque à clairs choisis \nSoit et deux nombres réels, et . Si pour toutes les séquences , de éléments deux à deux distincts de , il existe un sous-ensemble de tel que et tel que pour toutes les séquences de nous avons ; alors dans une attaque non adaptative avec clairs choisis nous avons : , dans le jeu constitant à distinguer d'une fonction aléatoire.\n\nSécurité contre une attaque adaptative à clairs choisis \nSoit et deux nombres réels, et . Soit un sous-ensemble de tel que . Si pour toutes les séquences , d'éléments deux à deux distincts de et pour toutes les séquences , de nous avons ; alors pour une attaque adaptative avec clairs choisis nous avons : , dans le jeu constitant à distinguer d'une fonction aléatoire.\n\nAttaques à clairs et chiffrés choisis \nSoit un nombre réel, . Si pour toutes les séquences d'éléments deux à deux distincts , et pour toutes les séquences d'éléments deux à deux distincts , nous avons ; alors dans une attaque adaptative avec clairs choisis nous avons , où cette fois l'avantage est considété dans le jeu constitant à distinguer d'une permutation aléatoire de .\n\nIl est possible de généraliser ce résultat ainsi : soit et deux nombres réels, et . S'il existe un sous-ensemble de tel que :\n\n pour tout , nous avons ; \n pour chaque attaque adaptative à clairs et chiffrés choisis sur une permutation aléatoire , la probabilité que est où ici désigne les ou , , successifs qui vont apparaître ; \n\nAlors pour chaque attaque adaptative à clairs et chiffrés choisis avec clairs choisis nous avons : , dans le jeu consistant à distinguer d'une permutation aléatoire.\n\nGénéralisations \nIl y a beaucoup de variantes et de généralisations des théorèmes rappelés ci-dessus. Par exemple, les résultats sont aussi vrais si nous changeons par . Cependant, pour une utilisation cryptographique la première forme est généralement préférée, car il est plus souvent facile en pratique d'évaluer les exceptions où est en moyenne nettement inférieure à la borne, plutôt que les exceptions se produisant quand lui est nettement supérieure.\n\nNotes et références\n\nLiens externes \n\n Ashwin Jha et Nmridul Nandi, A Survey on Applications of H-Technique: Revisiting Security Analysis of PRP and PRF, 2019. ePrint IACR\n\nNotes\n\nRéférences \n\nCatégorie:Cryptologie", "Adolphe Lumanu Mulenda Bwana N'sefu, né le à Kabinda dans la province de Lomami (République démocratique du Congo), est un homme politique.\n\nCarrière politique \n\nMandat électif: \n\n Député National élu de la Circonscription électorale de Kabinda dans la Province de Lomami ( à ce jour ), 3ème législature ;\n Député National élu de la Circonscription électorale de Kabinda dans l'ex-Province du Kasaï Oriental ( au ), 2ème législature ;\n Premier Vice-Président du Groupe Parlementaire du PPRD (GP-PPRD) à l’Assemblée Nationale (Oct. 2006 – Nov. 2007) \n Député National élu de la Circonscription électorale de Kabinda dans l'ex-Province du Kasaï Oriental ( au ), 1ère législature.\n\nEn dehors de ces fonctions, il a assumé les fonctions technico-politiques suivantes : \n \n Premier vice-Président du Conseil National du suivi de l'Accord du (CNSA en sigle) ;\nDirecteur Général de l'Office National d'Identification de la Population (ONIP en sigle) depuis (Ordonnance n°14/067 du ) ;\nVice-Premier Ministre, Ministre de l’Intérieur, Sécurité, Décentralisation et Aménagement du Territoire (Ordonnance n° 11/0 du ) : du à ,\nMinistre de l’Intérieur et Sécurité : du au ,\nDirecteur de Cabinet du Président de la République : du au ,\nMinistre des Relations avec le Parlement : du au . Il est en même temps Rapporteur de l’Alliance de la Majorité Présidentielle (AMP)\nCoordonnateur du Bureau d’Études, Stratégies et Actions du PPRD (2004 à 2006)\nVice-Gouverneur chargé des Questions Économiques, Financières et de Développement de la Province du Kasaï Oriental : du au \nVice-Ministre à l’Intérieur chargé de la Territoriale et des Affaires Coutumières : du au \nDirecteur National Adjoint de la Police des Mines et des Hydrocarbures de la Police Nationale Congolaise ( - )\nConseiller au Collège Politique et Diplomatique au Cabinet du Président de la République : 1992-1997\nDirecteur de Cabinet du Ministre des Affaires Foncières (Avril – Oct. 1992)\nDirecteur de Cabinet du Ministre chargé des Relations avec le Parlement (Déc. 1991 – )\nConseiller Politique du Ministre de la Justice et Garde des Sceaux, Droits et Liberté des Citoyens (Oct. – Déc. 1991)\nConseiller Principal et Coordonnateur-Chef de Cellule d’Études au Ministère des Relations avec le Parlement ( – ),\nExpert au Conclave Politique de Kinshasa : 1993,\nDélégué de l’Enseignement Supérieur et Universitaire à la Conférence Nationale Souveraine (CNS) : 1991-1992.\n\nCarrière académique \n\nAdolpe Lumanu est détenteur d'un doctorat en sciences politiques et administratives.\n\nAdolphe Lumanu dispense des cours de sciences politiques aux Universités de Lubumbashi, Kisangani, ainsi qu'aux Facultés Catholiques de Kinshasa. Il est spécialiste de la politique congolaise. À ce titre, il enseigne le droit constitutionnel et les institutions politiques, l'histoire politique du Congo, la politique comparée et la communication politique.\n\nQuant aux fonctions technico-commerciales et administratives, Adolphe Lumanu a gravi presque tous les échelons au niveau universitaire. Professeur ordinaire, directeur de la Cellule d'Études Politiques et Administratives (CEPA) du Centre Interdisciplinaire d’Études et de Documentation Sociales (CIEDOS) de l'Université de Kinshasa. Il est consultant au journal du Débat National, d'où est sortie l'idée « Dialogue National ou Négociation politiques Inter-congolaises ». Il a à son actif plusieurs publications scientifiques. Il a bénéficié de plusieurs stages, missions, voyages, séminaires de formation organisés à travers le monde.\n\nNotes et références\n\nBibliographie\nAgbumana Motingia Dieudonné, Dictionnaire biographique des cadres de l’État Indépendant du Congo - Congo Belge et Congo Indépendant, 2005\nLes Missions de l'ONIP dans le contexte particulier de la RDC, \nLes Provinces du Congo. Création - Démembrement et Regroupement (1910-2015), Presses Universitaires du Congo- IDEBASE EDITIONS, 2015\n\nCatégorie:Ministre de la république démocratique du Congo\nCatégorie:Naissance en septembre 1952\nCatégorie:Naissance au Congo belge\nCatégorie:Professeur à l'université de Lubumbashi", "Les langues sara-bongo-baguirmiennes ou bongo-baguirmi sont un groupe de langues soudaniques centrales.\n\nClassification \nClassification selon Boyeldieu:\n\nLangues sara-bongo-baguirmi\nbongo\nmodo, 'beli, baka\noccidental\nfer, gula koto\n(branche)\ngula zura, 'bu'bu, gula mere, gula sara\nnduga, luto ?\nLangues sara\npéripherique: ndoka, wad, bagiro, na, tiye, kulfa, simé, 'demé\ncentral: sar, mbay, ngambay, 'bedjond, kaba P.\nautres: bulala, beraku, kenga, 'barma\n\nProto-langue \nLe proto-sara-bongo-baguirmi peut être reconstitué. Les tableaux présente sa lexique selon Boyeldieu:\n\nPlantes\n\nPoissons\n\nNotes et références\n\nBibliographie \nADAMI P., 1981, (avec la collaboration de Dj. DJARANGAR, J. FÉDRY, Ng. NASSITY et P. PALAYER), Lexique bediondo-français, Sarh, Centre d'Études Linguistiques-Collège Charles-Lwanga.\nADOUM KHAMIS, 1983, Phonologie, esquisse grammaticale et lexique du mango ou mbay de Doba (langue sara du sud du Tchad), Université de la Sorbonne Nouvelle (Paris III).\nANDERSEN T., 1981, A Grammar of Modo, A Preliminary Sketch, University of Aalborg (Denmark).\nAtlas Linguistique de l'Afrique Centrale (ALAC) : La république Centrafricaine, 1984, Paris-Yaoundé-Bangui, ACCT-CERDOTOLA-Équipe Nationale Centrafricaine.\nAtlas pratique du Tchad (dir. J. CABOT), 1972, Fort-Lamy-Paris, INTSH-IGN.\nBALLAH Dj. Ng., 1988, Morphosyntaxe du nom et des personnels en mbay, Brazzaville, Université Marien-Ngouabi.\nBALLAH Dj. Ng., 1993, Description phonologique du mbay, Grenoble, Université Stendhal (Grenoble III).\nBENDER M.L., 1989, Nilo-Saharan Pronouns/Demonstratives, Topics in Nilo-Saharan Linguistics (M.L. BENDER éd.), Hamburg, Helmut Buske Verlag (Nilo-Saharan 3), 1-34.\nBENDER M.L., 1992, Central Sudanic Segmental and Lexical Reconstructions, Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere (Frankfurt), 29, 5-61.\nBENDER M.L., 1997 (2ème éd.), The Nilo-Saharan Languages: A Comparative Essay, Munich-Newcastle, Lincom Europa.\nBLACHE J., 1964, Les poissons du bassin du Tchad et du bassin adjacent du Mayo Kebbi, Paris, ORSTOM.\nBOYELDIEU P., 1987, Les langues fer ('kara') et yulu du nord centrafricain, Esquisses descriptives et lexiques, Paris, Geuthner.\nBOYELDIEU P., 1989, Comparative Tones: Yulu/Kara vs. Sara Group (Kenga/Ngambay/ Mbay), Topics in Nilo-Saharan Linguistics (M.L. BENDER éd.), Hamburg, Helmut Buske Verlag (Nilo-Saharan 3), 249-270.\nBOYELDIEU P., 1990, Furu et Bagiro : l'extension oubanguienne des langues 'sara', Journal des Africanistes, 60 (1), 77-106.\nBOYELDIEU P., 1991, De deux à trois registres tonals : l'exemple des verbes sara-bongo-baguirmiens, Proceedings of the 4th Nilo-Saharan Linguistics Colloquium (M.L. BENDER éd.), Hamburg, Helmut Buske Verlag (Nilo-Saharan 7), 283-292.\nBOYELDIEU P., 1995, Modifications tonales et limites syntaxiques en bagiro (langue 'sara' de la République Centrafricaine), Cinquième Colloque de linguistique nilo-saharienne/Fifth Nilo-Saharan Linguistics, Actes/Proceedings (R. NICOLAÏ et F. ROTTLAND éds), Cologne, R. Köppe Verlag (Nilo-Saharan 10), 131-145.\nBOYELDIEU P., 1995, Présentation d'une étude comparative des propriétés tonales des langues sara-bongo-baguirmiennes, Cinquième Colloque de linguistique nilo-saharienne/Fifth Nilo-Saharan Linguistics, Actes/Proceedings (R. NICOLAÏ et F. ROTTLAND éds), Cologne, R. Köppe Verlag (Nilo-Saharan 10), 307-319.\nBOYELDIEU P., 1996, Mutation et réfection dans l'expansion des registres tonals : l'exemple des langues sara-bongo-baguirmiennes, Revue de Phonétique Appliquée (Université de Mons-Hainaut), 120, 163-178.\nBOYELDIEU P., 1998, Comparaison et reconstruction dans le domaine tonal : les langues sara-bongo-baguirmiennes, Faits de Langues (Numéro thématique 'Les langues africaines', R. KABORÉ et S. PLATIEL éds), 99-110.\nBOYELDIEU P., 2000, La langue bagiro (République centrafricaine), Systématique, textes et lexique, Frankfurt am Main, Peter Lang (Schriften zur Afrikanistik/Research in African Studies, 4).\nBOYELDIEU P., 2000, Identité tonale et filiation des langues sara-bongo-baguirmiennes (Afrique centrale), Köln, Rüdiger Köppe Verlag (Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika, Beiheft 10).\nBOYELDIEU P., 2005, La place des verbes composés dans un dictionnaire yulu-français, Paroles nomades. Écrits d'ethnolinguistique africaine. En hommage à Christiane Seydou, (U. BAUMGARDT & J. DERIVE éds), Paris, Karthala, 375-392. BOYELDIEU P., (sous presse), Compound Verbs and Modalities of Process in Yulu (Central Sudanic), Proceedings of the 8th Nilo-Saharan Linguistics Colloquium (University of Hamburg, 22-25 August 2001). BOYELDIEU P., (sous presse), Entre lac Albert et lac Tchad : l'expansion sara-bongo-baguirmienne, Actes du 13ème Colloque Mega-Tchad (Maroua, 2005). BOYELDIEU P. et P. NOUGAYROL, 2004, Les marques personnelles des langues SBB : traits systématiques et perspectives historiques, Systèmes de marques personnelles en Afrique (D. IBRISZIMOW et G. SEGERER éds), Louvain-Paris, Peeters (Afrique et Langage), 23 42. BROWN R., 1986, Noteworthy Features of Kresh Phonology and Orthography Proceedings of the Third Nilo-Saharan Linguistics Colloquium (F. ROTTLAND et L.N. OMONDI éds.), Hamburg, Helmut Buske Verlag (Nilo-Saharan 6), 53-79.\nCAPRILE J.P., 1968, Essai de phonologie d'un parler mbay, Bulletin de la SELAF, 8, 1-40.\nCAPRILE J.P., s.d. [1969 ?], Lexique mbaï-français, Lyon, Afrique et Langage (Document 2).\nCAPRILE J.P., 1971, La dénomination des couleurs chez les Mbay de Moïssala, Paris, SELAF (Bibliothèque 26).\nCAPRILE J.P., 1972, Études et documents sara-bongo-baguirmiens, Paris, Université René Descartes (Paris V), 2 vol.\nCAPRILE J.P., 1977, Quelques problèmes de phonologie en mbay de Moïssala, Études phonologiques tchadiennes (J.P. CAPRILE éd.), Paris, SELAF (Bibliothèque 63-64), 22 35.\nCAPRILE J.P., 1978, Le groupe des langues du Soudan central, Inventaire des études linguistiques sur les pays d'Afrique Noire d'expression française et sur Madagascar (D. BARRETEAU éd.), Paris, CILF, 239-253.\nCAPRILE J.P., 1981, Les langues sara-bongo-baguirmiennes et leur classification, Les langues dans le monde ancien et moderne (dir. J. PERROT), 1ère-2ème parties (Afrique subsaharienne-Pidgins et créoles), Paris, CNRS, 237-242.\nCAPRILE J.P., 1981, Le mbai-Moïssala, Les langues dans le monde ancien et moderne (dir. J. PERROT), 1ère-2ème parties (Afrique subsaharienne-Pidgins et créoles), Paris, CNRS, 243-257.\nCAPRILE J.P. et J. FÉDRY, 1969, Le groupe des langues 'sara' (République du Tchad), Lyon, Afrique et Langage (Archives linguistiques 1).\nCHABRÉLIE L., 1935, Notes sur la langue des Sara, avec un vocabulaire comparatif des différents dialectes, Journal de la Société des Africanistes, V, 2, 125-151.\nCLOAREC-HEISS F., 1995, Emprunts ou substrat ? Analyse des convergences entre le groupe banda et les langues du Soudan central), Cinquième Colloque de linguistique nilo-saharienne/Fifth Nilo-Saharan Linguistics, Actes/Proceedings (R. NICOLAÏ et F. ROTTLAND éds), Cologne, R. Köppe Verlag (Nilo-Saharan 10), 321 355.\nCLOAREC-HEISS F., 1998, Entre Oubanguien et Soudan central : les langues banda, Language History and Linguistic Description in Africa (I. MADDIESON and Th. J. HINNEBUSCH eds), Trenton-Asmara, Africa World Press (Trends in African Linguistics 2), 1-16.\nCORDELL D.D., 1983, The savanna belt of North-Central Africa, History of Central Africa, vol. 1 (D. BIRMINGHAM et Ph.M. MARTIN éds), Londres et New York, Longman, 30-74 & 280-283.\nDAHAB GABJANDA J., 1976, An Axiomatic Functionalist Analysis of the Phonology of Yulu, University of St Andrews.\nDANAY K., MAKODE M. et al., 1986, Dictionnaire sara-kaba-na - français, Kyabe (Tchad), Sarh, Centre d'Études Linguistiques-Collège Charles-Lwanga.\nDJARANGAR Dj. I., 1985, Esquisse phonologique du bediondo, Université nationale de Côte d'Ivoire.\nDJARANGAR Dj. I., 1986, Approche du système verbal du bedjond, Université nationale de Côte d'Ivoire.\nDJARANGAR Dj. I., 1988, Le système tonal du bédjondé (Sara/Tchad), Linguistique Africaine, 1, 31 47.\nDJARANGAR Dj. I., 1989, Description phonologique et grammaticale du bédjondé : parler sara de Bédiondo/Tchad, Grenoble, Université Stendhal (Grenoble III), 2 vol.\nDJARANGAR Dj. I., 1991, Analyse acoustique et interprétation des voyelles centrales du mbay, Linguistique Africaine, 6, 51-73.\nDJARANGAR Dj. I., 1991, Some Sara vowel inventories and vowel system predictions, Proceedings of the XIIth International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (Aix-en-Provence), 4, 378-381.\nDJARANGAR Dj. I., 1992, De la dispersion des voyelles dans l'espace linguistique sara, Bulletin de la communication parlée (Grenoble), 2, 89-104.\nDJARANGAR Dj. I., 1997, Essai de classification des langues sara, communication au Second World Congress of African Linguistics (Leipzig).\nDJEMADJIOUDJIEL N.L.Mb. et J. 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PERROT), 1ère-2ème parties (Afrique subsaharienne-Pidgins et créoles), 1981, Paris, CNRS.\nMAGNANT J.P., 1986, La terre sara, terre tchadienne, Paris, L'Harmattan.\nMALBRANT R., 1952 (2ème éd.), Faune du Centre Africain français (Mammifères et Oiseaux), Paris, Lechevalier (Encyclopédie Biologique XV).\nMANDESON E.B., 1984, Zɪ and its Related Forms in Baka discourse, Occasional Papers in the Study of Sudanese Languages, 3, 21-27.\nMOÑINO Y., 1995, Le proto-gbaya, Essai de linguistique comparative historique sur vingt-et-une langues d'Afrique centrale, Paris, Peeters (Langues et cultures africaines 20).\nMOÑINO Y. (éd.), 1988, Lexique comparatif des langues oubanguiennes, Paris, Geuthner.\nMORTIER R., 1941, Classificatie der Talen van Ubangi, Aequatoria, IV, 1, 1-8.\nMOSER, Rosmarie, 2004, Kabba: a Nilo-Saharan language of the Central African Republic, München, Lincom Europa (Lincom Studies in African Linguistics 63).\nMOUNDO NDIMAJIBAY N.-B., 1977, Les limites des modifications tonales en sar, Études phonologiques tchadiennes (J.P. CAPRILE éd.), Paris, SELAF (Bibliothèque 63-64), 45 58.\nNDETA F.M., 1988, Étude monographique des Baguiro, Bangui, École Normale Supérieure.\nNDJERASSEM Ng., 1982, Phonologie, morphologie et catégories grammaticales du ngambay de Benoye (Tchad méridional), Paris, Université de la Sorbonne Nouvelle (Paris III).\nNDOKO B.R., 1991, Esquisse phonologique du lútò, Université de Bangui (Faculté des Lettres et Sciences Humaines).\nNOUGAYROL P., 1989, Les groupes banda du Bamingui-Bangoran (RCA), Revue d'ethnolinguistique (Cahiers du LACITO, Paris), 4, 197-208.\nNOUGAYROL P., 1990, Langues et populations du nord-est centrafricain, Relations interethniques et culture matérielle dans le bassin du Lac Tchad (Actes du IIIème colloque Méga-Tchad), Paris, ORSTOM, 65-79.\nNOUGAYROL P., 1991, Le groupe dialectal gula (RCA) : spécificité et diversification, Proceedings of the 4th Nilo-Saharan Linguistics Colloquium (M.L. BENDER éd.), Hamburg, Helmut Buske Verlag (Nilo-Saharan 7), 313-323.\nNOUGAYROL P., 1991, Le système des personnels en bongo-bagirmi, Communication au 22ème Colloque Annuel de Linguistique Africaine (ACAL), Université de Nairobi.\nNOUGAYROL P., 1999, Les parlers gula (Centrafrique, Soudan, Tchad), Grammaire et lexique, Paris, CNRS Éditions.\nPALAYER P., 1970, (avec la collaboration de M. FOURNIER et E. MOUNDO), Éléments de grammaire sar (Tchad), Lyon-Fort-Archambault, Afrique et Langage-Collège Charles Lwanga (Études linguistiques 2).\nPALAYER P., 1977, Lexique de plantes du pays sar, plantes spontanées et cultivées, Sarh, Centre d'Études Linguistiques-Collège Charles-Lwanga, 2 vol.\nPALAYER P., 1989, La langue sar (sud du Tchad), Tours, Université de Tours, 2 vol.\nPALAYER P., 1992, Dictionnaire Sar-Français (Tchad), Paris, Geuthner.\nPALAYER P., 1992, Un syntagme nominal épithétique immédiat en sar, Linguistique africaine, 8, 109-124.\nPALAYER P., 1995, Présentation d'un dictionnaire sar-français avec attention particulière accordée aux adjectifs, Cinquième Colloque de linguistique nilo-saharienne/Fifth Nilo-Saharan Linguistics, Actes/Proceedings (R. NICOLAÏ et F. ROTTLAND éds), Cologne, R. Köppe Verlag (Nilo-Saharan 10), 245-273.\nPALAYER P., 2004, (avec le concours de A. GOUDJA KODNGARGUE et Ch. VANDAME), Dictionnaire kenga, Louvain-Paris, Peeters (A&L 6).\nPALAYER P., 2006, (avec la collaboration de M. SOLEKAYE), Dictionnaire démé (Tchad). Précédé de notes grammaticales, Louvain-Paris, Peeters (A&L 10).\nPARKER K., 1985, Baka Phonology, Occasional Papers in the Study of Sudanese Languages, 4, 63-85.\nPERSSON A.M., 1979, A Dialect Study of the Jur Beli Cluster, University of Khartoum.\nPERSSON A.M., 1981, Clause Types in Jur Modo, Occasional Papers in the Study of Sudanese Languages, 1, 110-121.\nPERSSON A.M., 1997, Grouping of the Bongo-Baka languages, Occasional Papers in the Study of Sudanese Languages, 7, 19-39.\nPERSSON J., 1981, Notes on the Phonology of Jur Modo, Occasional Papers in the Study of Sudanese Languages, 1, 43-54.\nPERSSON J., 1984, Some notes on Jur Modo Demonstratives, Occasional Papers in the Study of Sudanese Languages, 3, 61-65.\nPERSSON A.M. et J.R. PERSSON, 1991, Modo-English Dictionary with Grammar, Nairobi, SIL.\nROBERTS J.S., 2003, The Analysis of Central Vowels in Gor (Central Sudanic), Actes du 3e Congrès Mondial de Linguistique Africaine Lomé 2000 (Kézié Kyenzi LÉBIKAZA éd.), Cologne, R. Köppe Verlag (World Congress of African Linguistics - Congrès Mondial de Linguistique Africaine 3), 53-67.\nSAMPSON D.L., 1997, Update on Baka Phonology and Orthography, as of 1996, Occasional Papers in the Study of Sudanese Languages, 7, 114-120.\nSANTANDREA St., 1955, Brief Notes on Biŋa, Afrika und Übersee, 40, 1, 25-37.\nSANTANDREA St., 1963, A Concise Grammar Outline of the Bongo language, Rome, Sodality of St. Peter Claver.\nSANTANDREA St., 1964, A Tribal History of the Western Bahr el Ghazal, Bologne, Nigrizia (Museum Combonianum 17).\nSANTANDREA St., 1970, Brief Grammar Outlines of the Yulu and Kara languages, Rome, Printed by the Sodality of St. Peter Claver (Museum Combanianum 25).\nSANTANDREA St., 1976, The Kresh Group, Aja and Baka Languages (Sudan), Naples, Istituto Universitario Orientale.\nSANTANDREA St., 1981, Ethno-Geography of the Bahr El Ghazal (Sudan), Bologne, Editrice Missionaria Italiana (Museum Combonianum 37).\nSAXON Douglas E., 1980, The History of the Shari River Basin ca. 500 B.C.-1000 A.D., Los Angeles, University of California.\nSCHWEINFURTH G., 1873, Linguistische Ergebnisse einer Reise nach Centralafrika, Supplément à Zeitschrift für Ethnologie (1872), Berlin, Wiegandt et Hempel.\nSCHWEINFURTH G., 1875, Au coeur de l'Afrique, 1868-1871, Voyages et découvertes dans les régions inexplorées de l'Afrique centrale, Paris, Hachette, tome 1.\nSTEVENSON R.C., 1969, Bagirmi Grammar, University of Khartoum (Linguistic Monograph Series 3).\nTHAYER L.J., 1974, A Reconstructed History of the Chari Languages, Comparative Bongo-Bagirmi-Sara Segmental Phonology with Evidence from Arabic Loanwords, Urbana, University of Illinois.\nTHAYER L.J., 1976, A Comparative-Historical Phonology of the Chari Languages (Nilo-Saharan Languages of Central Africa), Naples, Institut Oriental de Naples (Supplément au n. 9 des Annales, vol 36, fasc. 4).\nTUCKER A.N., 1940, The Eastern Sudanic Languages, Londres, Dawsons of Pall Mall for IAI, vol. 1.\nTUCKER A.N. et M.A. BRYAN, 1956, The Non-Bantu Languages of North-Eastern Africa (with a Supplement on The Non-Bantu languages of Southern Africa by E.O.J. WESTPHAL), London-New York-Cape Town, OUP for IAI.\nTUCKER A.N. et M.A. BRYAN, 1966, Linguistic Analyses, The Non-Bantu Languages of North-Eastern Africa, London-New York-Cape Town, OUP for IAI.\nVANDAME Ch., 1963, Le Ngambay-Moundou, Phonologie, grammaire et textes, Dakar, IFAN (Mémoires 69).\nVANDAME Ch., 1968, Grammaire kenga, Lyon, Afrique et Langage (Études linguistiques 2).\nVOELTZ F.K.E., 2004, Verb extensions in Fer, Annual Publication in African Linguistics (Köln), 2, 95-107.\nYEMBELINE K.M., 1991, Esquisse phonologique du furu, Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere (Frankfurt), 26, 141-153.\n\nDocuments inédits \nBEALBAYE K.N., La langue 'dem de M-ə́sɔ̀-hóyōó.\nBOYD R., Questionnaire d'Inventaire Linguistique : kreish.\nBOYELDIEU P., Lexique 'barma (baguirmien).\nBOYELDIEU P., Lexique yulu.\nBOYELDIEU P., Lexique kaba de Paoua.\nCLOAREC-HEISS F., Lexique pluridialectal banda.\nCLOAREC-HEISS F., Les mammifères dans les langues banda.\nFÉDRY J., Questionnaire d'Inventaire Linguistique : sar.\nFÉDRY J., Questionnaire d'Inventaire Linguistique : kulfa.\nFÉDRY J., Questionnaire d'Inventaire Linguistique : na.\nFÉDRY J., Questionnaire d'Inventaire Linguistique : 'dem.\nFÉDRY J., Questionnaire d'Inventaire Linguistique : tiye.\nNOUGAYROL P., Lexique ndoka.\nNOUGAYROL P., Lexique nduga.\nNOUGAYROL P., Note sur le wada.\nNOUGAYROL P., Lexique bongo.\nPHILIPPSON G., Les noms de bovidés dans les langues bantu d'Afrique Orientale.\n\nVoir aussi\n\nArticles connexes \n linguistique\n liste de langues\n langues par famille\n langues nilo-sahariennes\n langues soudaniques centrales\n\nLiens externes \n \n Lexique comparatif historique des langues Sara-Bongo-Baguirmiennes\n The Sara Bagirmi Languages Project (John M. Keegan)\n\nCatégorie:Langue sara-bongo-baguirmienne", "Wiko est une marque commerciale créée à Hong Kong en 2010 pour le fabricant chinois Tinno puis déposée en France à l'INPI en 2011 par sa filiale française Wiko SAS, mais il existe antérieurement une marque française \"wico\" déposée en 2006 et exploitée dans les télécoms par deux entrepreneurs français. Contrairement à Archos et à Echo Mobiles, ses concurrents, Wiko ne conçoit pas ses appareils en France, mais les produits sont importés et commercialisés via la PME Wiko Mobile, basée à Marseille. Ceux-ci utilisent généralement le système d'exploitation Android et sont pourvus d'un double emplacement SIM. \n\nWiko était, début 2014, le sur le marché français des smartphones vendus sans abonnement, derrière Samsung, avec 10 à 15 % de part de marché.\n\nHistoire \nLa marque \" wiko \" est créée à Hong Kong en 2010 puis déposée en France à l'INPI en 2011, mais il existe antérieurement une marque française \" wico \" déposée en 2006 et exploitée dans les télécoms par deux entrepreneurs français.\n\nLa société Wiko Mobile est fondée en 2011 à Marseille par Laurent Dahan, Michel Assadourian et James Lin patron de la société chinoise Tinno via la holding revendiquant la marque \"wiko\" en France dont elle est une filiale à 95 %, puis à 100 % début 2018. Wiko représente environ 50 % du chiffre d'affaires de Tinno. Les 200 employés français assurent un service après-vente et commercial interne, depuis Marseille.\n\nÀ l'origine, les équipes françaises de Wiko envoient le cahier des charges au fabricant chinois Tinno, qui leur envoie des prototypes qu'ils modifient pour adapter le téléphone au marché français. Les analystes considèrent Wiko comme un fabricant chinois disposant d'un en France et basant sa communication (publicités, réseaux sociaux) sur cette image française afin de se faire passer pour .\n\nLors du premier trimestre de 2013, la marque représente 31,6 % des ventes sur internet et 10,5 % des ventes physiques ce qui la place au du marché français (hors offres opérateurs en boutique et sur site web) selon le cabinet GfK – généralement les téléphones de milieu et haut de gamme sont achetés avec des offres opérateurs (qui ne sont pas comptabilisées dans ce classement) ; pour les téléphones ayant des prix plus bas, ils sont souvent directement vendus hors opérateurs. Beaucoup de téléphones Wiko ont la possibilité d'accueillir deux cartes SIM, sauf le Wax, le Highway 4G, le KIte 4G, le Rainbow 4G et le Birdy 4G. En effet, ceux-ci utilisent la puce nvidia Tegra 4i, qui permet de capter le réseau 4G, mais sans pouvoir utiliser deux cartes SIM.\nLa société annonce compter, mi-2013, un million de clients et espérait en avoir le double à la fin de l'année 2013.\n\nEn 2016, 2017 et 2018 le chiffre d'affaires de la société Wiko en France serait voisin de 1 Milliard d'euros annuels avec plusieurs dizaines de millions de terminaux vendus chaque année en France.\n\nLe 14 janvier 2019 les sociétés Wiko et Wiko Global sont fusionnées, la première absorbe la seconde qui est radiée.\n\nLe 15 mars 2019 Le groupe annonce la mise en place d'une rupture conventionnelle collective, sur la base du volontariat. Il ne précise pas combien de postes sont concernés par cette restructuration.\n\nProduits \nL'entreprise classe ses téléphones en deux catégories : les « Mobiles » et les « Smartphones ». La catégorie et proposant des prix inférieurs à . La catégorie des « Smartphones » assure les meilleures ventes de la société avec trois gammes de produits.\n\nLa marque, à l'instar de certains de ses concurrents, propose la possibilité d'accueillir deux cartes SIM. \n\nEn février 2020, Wiko revendique la quatrième place en France derrière Samsung, Apple et Huawei. \n\nvignette|Wiko Rainbow 4G\nthumb|Logo du téléphone Wiko Cink Slim\n Gamme Cink :\n Cink, premier smartphone Wiko avec un écran \n Cink Slim avec un écran WVGA\n Cink King ( FWVGA). Cink King est sous Android Ice Cream Sandwich 4.0.4, Multi-touch, et dual-sim. Il a un écran LCD IPS de avec . Il est sorti en décembre 2012. Il est conçu par l'entreprise coréenne Enspert et fabriqué en chine par Tinno. Wiko est le revendeur. Il n'a pas de surcouche en dehors des icônes de certaines applications système ni d'applications pré-installées (mis à part les applications natives d'Android). Il mesure de long, de largeur et d'épaisseur. Il a une batterie 2000 mAh amovible. Il pèse . Il a un processeur dual-core à et de mémoire vive. L'écran n'a pas de traitement anti-rayures. Il a une caméra de 8 Mpx. Il filme en . Une autre caméra de face fait . Il a de mémoire flash extensible avec l'ajout d'une MicroSD jusqu'à . La mémoire vive est de .\n Cink Peax 1 avec un écran de qHD\n Cink Peax 2 avec un écran de qHD\n Cink Five ( HD) dernier mobile de la gamme.\n\n Hell : Cette gamme a la particularité d'être composée de smartphones avec une coque en aluminium. La gamme est constituée d'une phablette de HD, il s'agit du Wiko Darkside, utilisant un SoC MediaTek MT6589, qui est suivi par le Darkfull avec un écran de et une définition Full HD, puis le Darkmoon avec un SoC MediaTek MT6582, un écran de et une définition HD et enfin, le Darknight avec un écran de et une définition HD. \n\n Heaven : Cette gamme a la particularité d'être composée de smartphones avec un contour en aluminium. Elle inclut le Wiko Stairway, un smartphone de avec une définition HD, utilisant un SoC MediaTek MT6589, et le Wiko Highway, équipé d'un MediaTek MT6592T dévoilé au public en février 2014.\n\n Le smartphone Wax, a été dévoilé le 24 février 2014. Celui-ci est compatible 4G grâce au contrôleur contenu dans le SoC Tegra 4i de Nvidia qui permet des débits allant jusqu'à 100 Mbit/s (LTE de catégorie 3). Le Wax a un écran avec une diagonale de HD, dispose d'une mémoire de stockage de extensible via micro SD jusqu'à et d'une mémoire vive RAM d'. Il a deux capteurs photo, un de 8 MP et un frontal de 5 MP. Il est disponible depuis avril 2014.\n Gamme U :\n Ufeel : Cette gamme a la particularité d'être composé de smartphones avec un lecteur d'empreintes digitales. Celle-ci est constituée pour l'instant du uFeel (avec une mémoire vive RAM de 3 GO et un stockage interne de 16GO et un capteur photo de 13MP et un frontal de 5MP)ainsi que du uFeel lite (avec une mémoire vive RAM de 2 GO et un stockage interne de 16GO et un capteur photo de 8MP et un frontal de 5MP)\n Ufeel Lite\n Ufeel Prime\n UPulse\n Upulse Lite\n\nEn novembre 2015, la marque dévoile son nouveau Night Fever, un smartphone 4G qui brille dans la nuit grâce à des bandes phosphorescentes présentes sur les côtés du téléphone. Dans la foulée, Wiko annonce le lancement d'un bundle \"Love Pack Night Fever\" en édition limitée. En plus d'un Wiko Fever 4G blanc, l'acheteur recevra également quatre préservatifs phosphorescents. À noter que Wiko a également glissé un ticket Gold à l'intérieur d'un des bundle.\n\nEn janvier 2016, Wiko lance le Pulp 4g, un smartphone 4G avec un écran de HD (1280 x 720 pixels), processeur quatre cœurs ARM Cortex A53 à , de RAM, appareil photo de 13 millions de pixels sous Android 5.1, qui dispose de de mémoire de stockage.\n\nControverses\n\nContrefaçon de la marque Wico \nLa marque Wico est exploitée en France depuis 2006 par deux entrepreneurs français dans le secteur des télécoms. En 2010, Laurent Dahan dépose la marque Wiko en France puis la transfère à une holding basée à Hong Kong dont il détient 5% des droits. Ce montage permet de présenter Wiko comme une marque française tout en payant la fiscalité de la marque à Hong Kong. Les propriétaires de la marque antérieure Wico ont essayé, en vain, de négocier avec la SAS Wiko, qui leur propose une indemnité dérisoire puis les accuse d'être déchus de leurs droits. En représailles, les propriétaires de Wico attaquent en 2016 la SAS Wiko pour contrefaçon, réclamant 30 M€ d'indemnisation au titre des exercices 2011 à 2015. Depuis l'exercice 2015, Wiko ne publie plus ses comptes. Son bilan 2015 fait état d'un chiffre d'affaires de 220 millions d'euros. En 2016, Michel Assadourian communique \"nous avons commercialisé plus de dix millions de téléphones portables !\" soit un chiffre d'affaires supérieur à d'euros. Il ajoute qu'il souhaite \"faire de Wiko une marque emblématique dans le monde entier\". En dépit du conflit, la marque Wiko est cédée à la maison mère chinoise en 2017 pour une valeur de 170M€. Mais, la valeur de la marque comptant pour une large part dans la valeur de l'entreprise, la bourse de Shenzhen, suspend indéfiniment la cotation du titre de la maison mère qui rachète en 2018 les 5 % de sa filiale Wiko pour un montant de 40 M€. En 2017, Wiko confirme à nouveau 10 millions de téléphones vendus. Avec l'actualité internationale dans le secteur, le conflit entre Wico et Wiko pourrait s'étendre dans les nouvelles zones géographiques ou la marque veut s'installer, notamment aux États-Unis et en Chine.\n\nPlan Social \nAprès les années fastes, Wiko SAS connaît des difficultés et annonce en mars 2019 un plan social. A partir de septembre 2019, 90 salariés acceptent de partir sur la base du volontariat.\n\nOffres de remboursement \nLa marque Wiko est mise en cause par un consommateur dans la gestion d'une offre de remboursement (ODR). En effet, celui-ci s'est par exemple vu refuser le remboursement au motif qu’une des nombreuses mentions à entourer est surlignée au lieu d’être entourée.\n\nConditions de fabrication des smartphones \nEn novembre 2014, un reportage de l'émission Cash investigation (intitulé Les secrets inavouables de nos téléphones portables) accuse Wiko et d'autres grandes marques telles que Samsung, Apple, Nokia, Motorola, Sony, LG, Huawei, Blackberry, ZTE, HTC de collaborer avec un prestataire chinois faisant travailler des enfants pour la fabrication de ses smartphones.\n\nCollecte et transmission des données statistiques \nEn novembre 2017 il est révélé que Tinno, la société chinoise propriétaire de Wiko fabricant ses smartphones, reçoit des données techniques tous les mois via des applications préinstallées sur les appareils. Ces données sont collectées par Wiko sur les smartphones de ses clients sans leur consentement. À la suite de ces révélations l'entreprise française confirme l'existence de ce système et affirme ne pas géolocaliser ses smartphones tout en annonçant une nouvelle version de son application.\n\nMise en conformité avec les normes relatives au débit d'absorption spécifique \nEn juillet et octobre 2018, dans le cadre de la controverse relative à la commercialisation de téléphones portables non conformes, l'Agence nationale des fréquences a exigé, après contrôles, que la société Wiko mette à jour deux de ses modèles, le Wiko Tommy2 Bouygues Telecom et le Wiko View pour dépassement des normes réglementaires du débit d'absorption spécifique (DAS) pour le tronc.\n\nNotes et références\n\nAnnexes\n\nArticles connexes \n Wiko Cink Peax\n\nLiens externes \n \n\nCatégorie:Entreprise d'électronique ayant son siège en France\nCatégorie:Entreprise ayant son siège à Marseille\nCatégorie:Entreprise fondée en 2011\nCatégorie:Fabricant de téléphones mobiles" ]

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[ "USB 2.0 devices use a special protocol during reset, called chirping, to negotiate the high bandwidth mode with the host/hub. A device that is HS capable first connects as an FS device (D+ pulled high), but upon receiving a USB RESET (both D+ and D− driven LOW by host for 10 to 20 ms) it pulls the D− line high, known as chirp K. This indicates to the host that the device is high bandwidth. If the host/hub is also HS capable, it chirps (returns alternating J and K states on D− and D+ lines) letting the device know that the hub operates at high bandwidth. The device has to receive at least three sets of KJ chirps before it changes to high bandwidth terminations and begins high bandwidth signaling. Because USB 3.0 uses wiring separate and additional to that used by USB 2.0 and USB 1.x, such bandwidth negotiation is not required." ]

[ "The most common cause is an infection of the intestines due to either a virus, bacteria, or parasite; a condition known as gastroenteritis. These infections are often acquired from food or water that has been contaminated by stool, or directly from another person who is infected. It may be divided into three types: short duration watery diarrhea, short duration bloody diarrhea, and if it lasts for more than two weeks, persistent diarrhea. The short duration watery diarrhea may be due to an infection by cholera, although this is rare in the developed world. If blood is present it is also known as dysentery. A number of non-infectious causes may also result in diarrhea, including hyperthyroidism, lactose intolerance, inflammatory bowel disease, a number of medications, and irritable bowel syndrome. In most cases, stool cultures are not required to confirm the exact cause.", "Solar concentrating technologies such as parabolic dish, trough and Scheffler reflectors can provide process heat for commercial and industrial applications. The first commercial system was the Solar Total Energy Project (STEP) in Shenandoah, Georgia, USA where a field of 114 parabolic dishes provided 50% of the process heating, air conditioning and electrical requirements for a clothing factory. This grid-connected cogeneration system provided 400 kW of electricity plus thermal energy in the form of 401 kW steam and 468 kW chilled water, and had a one-hour peak load thermal storage. Evaporation ponds are shallow pools that concentrate dissolved solids through evaporation. The use of evaporation ponds to obtain salt from sea water is one of the oldest applications of solar energy. Modern uses include concentrating brine solutions used in leach mining and removing dissolved solids from waste streams. Clothes lines, clotheshorses, and clothes racks dry clothes through evaporation by wind and sunlight without consuming electricity or gas. In some states of the United States legislation protects the \"right to dry\" clothes. Unglazed transpired collectors (UTC) are perforated sun-facing walls used for preheating ventilation air. UTCs can raise the incoming air temperature up to 22 °C (40 °F) and deliver outlet temperatures of 45–60 °C (113–140 °F). The short payback period of transpired collectors (3 to 12 years) makes them a more cost-effective alternative than glazed collection systems. As of 2003, over 80 systems with a combined collector area of 35,000 square metres (380,000 sq ft) had been installed worldwide, including an 860 m2 (9,300 sq ft) collector in Costa Rica used for drying coffee beans and a 1,300 m2 (14,000 sq ft) collector in Coimbatore, India, used for drying marigolds.", "Particularly since the mid-1960s there have been advances in understanding of the physics of plant physiological processes such as transpiration (the transport of water within plant tissues), the temperature dependence of rates of water evaporation from the leaf surface and the molecular diffusion of water vapour and carbon dioxide through stomatal apertures. These developments, coupled with new methods for measuring the size of stomatal apertures, and the rate of photosynthesis have enabled precise description of the rates of gas exchange between plants and the atmosphere. Innovations in statistical analysis by Ronald Fisher, Frank Yates and others at Rothamsted Experimental Station facilitated rational experimental design and data analysis in botanical research. The discovery and identification of the auxin plant hormones by Kenneth V. Thimann in 1948 enabled regulation of plant growth by externally applied chemicals. Frederick Campion Steward pioneered techniques of micropropagation and plant tissue culture controlled by plant hormones. The synthetic auxin 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid or 2,4-D was one of the first commercial synthetic herbicides.", "With the deactivation of USS Enterprise in December 2012, the U.S. fleet comprises 10 supercarriers. The House Armed Services Seapower subcommittee on 24 July 2007, recommended seven or maybe eight new carriers (one every four years). However, the debate has deepened over budgeting for the $12–14.5 billion (plus $12 billion for development and research) for the 100,000 ton Gerald R. Ford-class carrier (estimated service 2016) compared to the smaller $2 billion 45,000 ton America-class amphibious assault ships, which are able to deploy squadrons of F-35Bs. The first of this class, USS America, is now in active service with another, USS Tripoli, under construction and 9 more are planned.", "Ningbo, Wenzhou, Taizhou and Zhoushan are important commercial ports. The Hangzhou Bay Bridge between Haiyan County and Cixi, is the longest bridge over a continuous body of sea water in the world.", "Most of Hume's followers have disagreed with his conclusion that belief in an external world is rationally unjustifiable, contending that Hume's own principles implicitly contained the rational justification for such a belief, that is, beyond being content to let the issue rest on human instinct, custom and habit. According to an extreme empiricist theory known as phenomenalism, anticipated by the arguments of both Hume and George Berkeley, a physical object is a kind of construction out of our experiences. Phenomenalism is the view that physical objects, properties, events (whatever is physical) are reducible to mental objects, properties, events. Ultimately, only mental objects, properties, events, exist — hence the closely related term subjective idealism. By the phenomenalistic line of thinking, to have a visual experience of a real physical thing is to have an experience of a certain kind of group of experiences. This type of set of experiences possesses a constancy and coherence that is lacking in the set of experiences of which hallucinations, for example, are a part. As John Stuart Mill put it in the mid-19th century, matter is the \"permanent possibility of sensation\". Mill's empiricism went a significant step beyond Hume in still another respect: in maintaining that induction is necessary for all meaningful knowledge including mathematics. As summarized by D.W. Hamlin:", "Today the boundaries of the Ukrainian language to the Russian language are still not drawn clearly, with an intermediate dialect between them, called Surzhyk, developing in Ukraine." ]

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[ "Truly Human Truly Human (Danish: Et rigtigt menneske ), certified as \"Dogme #18\", is a 2001 Danish drama film written and directed by Åke Sandgren, and starring Nikolaj Lie Kaas, Peter Mygind, and . Produced by Lars von Trier's and Peter Aalbæk Jensen's company Zentropa, the film was created following the Dogme 95 rules, and is experimental in style and narrative.", "Nikolaj Lie Kaas Nikolaj Lie Kaas (born 22 May 1973) is a prominent Danish actor whose career rose in the 1990s and who is still actively working today. He has hosted the Zulu Comedy Galla on Danish TV three times. (2009, 2011, 2012)" ]

[ "Ed Stoppard Edmund \"Ed\" Stoppard (born 16 September 1974) is an English actor.", "Frederikke Dahl Hansen Frederikke Dahl Hansen (born 26 March 1994) is a Danish television and film actress best known for her role in the film \"Copenhagen\" as Effy.", "Sönke Möhring Sönke Möhring (born 12 October 1972) is a German actor.", "Tomas Villum Jensen Tomas Villum Jensen (born 12 April 1971) is a Danish actor and film director. He has appeared in 29 films and television shows since 1991. He starred in \"The Boys from St. Petri\", which was screened out of competition at the 1992 Cannes Film Festival.", "Alex Suhr Alex Suhr (7 October 1898 – 29 May 1964) was a Danish film actor. He appeared in 32 films between 1923 and 1963. He was born in Copenhagen, Denmark and died in Denmark.", "Knud Schrøder Knud Schrøder (28 July 1903 – 15 December 1976) was a Danish film actor. He appeared in 23 films between 1944 and 1965. He was born and died in Denmark.", "Willy Rathnov Willy Rathnov (13 May 1937 – 29 August 1999) was a Danish film actor. He appeared in 32 films between 1960 and 1988. He was born in Roskilde, Denmark and died in Denmark.", "Niels Andersen (actor) Niels Andersen (born 7 August 1942) is a Danish film actor.", "Carsten Norgaard Carsten Nørgaard (born 1963) is a Danish actor. Norgaard was born Frederiksberg, Denmark. He began his career playing the enigmatic Dolphin Man in the 1988 film \"The Fruit Machine\" (known as \"Wonderland\" in the USA). Norgaard also appeared in the Disney film \"\" (1994). His most recent appearance is as Rudolph Wegener in \"The Man in the High Castle\", a 2015 American alternate history TV series.", "Kenneth Moraleda Kenneth Moraleda (born 17 April 1973) is an actor.", "Morten Rudå Morten Rudå (1 June 1960 in Helsingør, Denmark) is a Norwegian actor.", "Bo Poraj Bohdan \"Bo\" Poraj-Pstrokonski (born 1973) is an English actor, best known for his film and television appearances, including the BBC sitcom \"Miranda\".", "Hjalte Flagstad Hjalte Flagstad is a Danish actor. He has become recognized for his tall and slim look.", "Jan Priiskorn-Schmidt Jan Priiskorn-Schmidt (born 22 February 1951) is a Danish film actor. He appeared in 25 films between 1960 and 1972. He was born in Copenhagen, Denmark.", "Preben Mahrt Preben Mahrt (28 July 1920 – 19 December 1989) was a Danish film actor. He appeared in 68 films between 1941 and 1976.", "Axel Strøbye Axel Strøby Jacobsen (22 February 1928 – 12 July 2005), known as Axel Strøbye was a Danish stage and film actor. He appeared in more than 100 films between 1951 and 2000.", "List of Danish actors This is a list of notable actors and actresses from Denmark.", "Dan Ekborg Dan Peder Clemens Ekborg (born 23 November 1955) is a Swedish stage and film actor. He is the son of actor Lars Ekborg and older brother of actor Anders Ekborg.", "Pål Kårbø Pål Kårbø (born 27 May 1973) is a Norwegian politician for the Christian Democratic Party.", "Yildiz Akdogan Yildiz Akdogan (born 29 April 1973) is a Turkish Danish politician. She was a member of the Folketing—the parliament of Denmark—for the Social Democrats between 2007 and 2011." ]

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[ "During the period in which the populares party controlled the city, they flouted convention by re-electing Marius consul several times without observing the customary ten-year interval between offices. They also transgressed the established oligarchy by advancing unelected individuals to magisterial office, and by substituting magisterial edicts for popular legislation. Sulla soon made peace with Mithridates. In 83 BC, he returned to Rome, overcame all resistance, and recaptured the city. Sulla and his supporters then slaughtered most of Marius' supporters. Sulla, having observed the violent results of radical popular reforms, was naturally conservative. As such, he sought to strengthen the aristocracy, and by extension the senate. Sulla made himself dictator, passed a series of constitutional reforms, resigned the dictatorship, and served one last term as consul. He died in 78 BC." ]

[ "On December 16, 2015, the Supreme Court of India mandated several restrictions on Delhi's transportation system to curb pollution. Among the measures, the court ordered to stop registrations of diesel cars and sport utility vehicles with an engine capacity of 2,000 cc and over until March 31, 2016. The court also ordered all taxis in the Delhi region to switch to compressed natural gas by March 1, 2016. Transportation vehicles that are more than 10 years old were banned from entering the capital.", "After being lit at the birthplace of the Olympic Games in Olympia, Greece on March 24, the torch traveled to the Panathinaiko Stadium in Athens, and then to Beijing, arriving on March 31. From Beijing, the torch was following a route passing through six continents. The torch has visited cities along the Silk Road, symbolizing ancient links between China and the rest of the world. The relay also included an ascent with the flame to the top of Mount Everest on the border of Nepal and Tibet, China from the Chinese side, which was closed specially for the event.", "During the 11th and 12th centuries the Catalan rulers expanded up to north of the Ebro river, and in the 13th century they conquered the Land of Valencia and the Balearic Islands. The city of Alghero in Sardinia was repopulated with Catalan speakers in the 14th century. The language also reached Murcia, which became Spanish-speaking in the 15th century.", "A month after having decreed the reform, the pope with a brief of 3 April 1582 granted to Antonio Lilio, the brother of Luigi Lilio, the exclusive right to publish the calendar for a period of ten years. The Lunario Novo secondo la nuova riforma printed by Vincenzo Accolti, one of the first calendars printed in Rome after the reform, notes at the bottom that it was signed with papal authorization and by Lilio (Con licentia delli Superiori... et permissu Ant(onii) Lilij). The papal brief was later revoked, on 20 September 1582, because Antonio Lilio proved unable to keep up with the demand for copies.", "The tram system that now criss-crosses the historic city centre complements walking and biking in it. The centre has been transformed into a pedestrian priority zone that enables and invites walking and biking by making these active modes of transport comfortable, safe and enjoyable. These attributes are accomplished by applying the principle of \"filtered permeability\" to the existing irregular network of streets. It means that the network adaptations favour active transportation and, selectively, \"filter out\" the car by reducing the number of streets that run through the centre. While certain streets are discontinuous for cars, they connect to a network of pedestrian and bike paths which permeate the entire centre. In addition, these paths go through public squares and open spaces increasing the enjoyment of the trip. This logic of filtering a mode of transport is fully expressed in a comprehensive model for laying out neighbourhoods and districts – the Fused Grid.", "The cottonseed which remains after the cotton is ginned is used to produce cottonseed oil, which, after refining, can be consumed by humans like any other vegetable oil. The cottonseed meal that is left generally is fed to ruminant livestock; the gossypol remaining in the meal is toxic to monogastric animals. Cottonseed hulls can be added to dairy cattle rations for roughage. During the American slavery period, cotton root bark was used in folk remedies as an abortifacient, that is, to induce a miscarriage. Gossypol was one of the many substances found in all parts of the cotton plant and it was described by the scientists as 'poisonous pigment'. It also appears to inhibit the development of sperm or even restrict the mobility of the sperm. Also, it is thought to interfere with the menstrual cycle by restricting the release of certain hormones.", "24th Street is in two parts. 24th Street starts at First Avenue and it ends at Madison Avenue, because of Madison Square Park. 25th Street, which is in three parts, starts at FDR Drive, is a pedestrian plaza between Third Avenue and Lexington Avenue, and ends at Madison. Then West 24th and 25th Streets continue from Fifth Avenue to Eleventh Avenue (25th) or Twelfth Avenue (24th)." ]

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[ "Penalties never result in a score for the offence. For example, a point-of-foul infraction committed by the defence in their end zone is not ruled a touchdown, but instead advances the ball to the one-yard line with an automatic first down. For a distance penalty, if the yardage is greater than half the distance to the goal line, then the ball is advanced half the distance to the goal line, though only up to the one-yard line (unlike American football, in Canadian football no scrimmage may start inside either one-yard line). If the original penalty yardage would have resulted in a first down or moving the ball past the goal line, a first down is awarded." ]

[ "Some historians and researchers argue that the emotional and affectionate activities associated with sexual-orientation terms such as \"gay\" and \"heterosexual\" change significantly over time and across cultural boundaries. For example, in many English-speaking nations, it is assumed that same-sex kissing, particularly between men, is a sign of homosexuality, whereas various types of same-sex kissing are common expressions of friendship in other nations. Also, many modern and historic cultures have formal ceremonies expressing long-term commitment between same-sex friends, even though homosexuality itself is taboo within the cultures.", "To determine what information in an audio signal is perceptually irrelevant, most lossy compression algorithms use transforms such as the modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) to convert time domain sampled waveforms into a transform domain. Once transformed, typically into the frequency domain, component frequencies can be allocated bits according to how audible they are. Audibility of spectral components calculated using the absolute threshold of hearing and the principles of simultaneous masking—the phenomenon wherein a signal is masked by another signal separated by frequency—and, in some cases, temporal masking—where a signal is masked by another signal separated by time. Equal-loudness contours may also be used to weight the perceptual importance of components. Models of the human ear-brain combination incorporating such effects are often called psychoacoustic models.", "Insect respiration is accomplished without lungs. Instead, the insect respiratory system uses a system of internal tubes and sacs through which gases either diffuse or are actively pumped, delivering oxygen directly to tissues that need it via their trachea (element 8 in numbered diagram). Since oxygen is delivered directly, the circulatory system is not used to carry oxygen, and is therefore greatly reduced. The insect circulatory system has no veins or arteries, and instead consists of little more than a single, perforated dorsal tube which pulses peristaltically. Toward the thorax, the dorsal tube (element 14) divides into chambers and acts like the insect's heart. The opposite end of the dorsal tube is like the aorta of the insect circulating the hemolymph, arthropods' fluid analog of blood, inside the body cavity.:61–65 Air is taken in through openings on the sides of the abdomen called spiracles.", "Animals typically use the color green as camouflage, blending in with the chlorophyll green of the surrounding environment. Green animals include, especially, amphibians, reptiles, and some fish, birds and insects. Most fish, reptiles, amphibians, and birds appear green because of a reflection of blue light coming through an over-layer of yellow pigment. Perception of color can also be affected by the surrounding environment. For example, broadleaf forests typically have a yellow-green light about them as the trees filter the light. Turacoverdin is one chemical which can cause a green hue in birds, especially. Invertebrates such as insects or mollusks often display green colors because of porphyrin pigments, sometimes caused by diet. This can causes their feces to look green as well. Other chemicals which generally contribute to greenness among organisms are flavins (lychochromes) and hemanovadin. Humans have imitated this by wearing green clothing as a camouflage in military and other fields. Substances that may impart a greenish hue to one's skin include biliverdin, the green pigment in bile, and ceruloplasmin, a protein that carries copper ions in chelation.", "Raleigh (/ˈrɑːli/; RAH-lee) is the capital of the state of North Carolina as well as the seat of Wake County in the United States. It is the second most populous city in North Carolina, after Charlotte. Raleigh is known as the \"City of Oaks\" for its many oak trees, which line the streets in the heart of the city. The city covers a land area of 142.8 square miles (370 km2). The U.S. Census Bureau estimated the city's population to be 439,896 as of July 1, 2014. It is also one of the fastest-growing cities in the country. The city of Raleigh is named after Sir Walter Raleigh, who established the lost Roanoke Colony in present-day Dare County.", "By the 2000 census, demographic changes including the end to slavery, immigration from Europe and Asia, assimilation of multiracial persons, and other factors resulted in a population in which 6.2% of the population identified as black, 40% as pardo, and 55% as white. Essentially most of the black population was absorbed into the multi-racial category by intermixing. A 2007 genetic study found that at least 29% of the middle-class, white Brazilian population had some recent (since 1822 and the end of the colonial period) African ancestry.", "These institutions, as well as certain regulated banks, had also assumed significant debt burdens while providing the loans described above and did not have a financial cushion sufficient to absorb large loan defaults or MBS losses. These losses impacted the ability of financial institutions to lend, slowing economic activity. Concerns regarding the stability of key financial institutions drove central banks to provide funds to encourage lending and restore faith in the commercial paper markets, which are integral to funding business operations. Governments also bailed out key financial institutions and implemented economic stimulus programs, assuming significant additional financial commitments." ]

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[ "The car is being driven" ]

[ "The car is broken down", "The Balanini pirates assisted the sultanate of Brunei by raiding opposing kingdoms.", "the man is hot", "The children sit by the bulletin board.", "the man has a shirt on", "A young child enjoys her food.", "An older man is talking on the phone." ]

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[ "Justin Cox Justin Cox (born December 9, 1992) was a Canadian football safety. He was most recently a member of the Saskatchewan Roughriders of the Canadian Football League (CFL). He attended West Point High School in Mississippi. He played collegiate football for two seasons at East Mississippi Community College before enrolling at Mississippi State for two more years.", "East Mississippi Community College East Mississippi Community College (EMCC), formerly known as East Mississippi Junior College (EMJC), is a community college in Mississippi. EMCC serves and is supported by Clay, Kemper, Lauderdale, Lowndes, Noxubee and Oktibbeha counties in east central Mississippi. The college has two principal campuses and offers courses at five other locations. One of fifteen community colleges in Mississippi, EMCC is the home of the 2011, 2013 and 2014 NJCAA National Championship EMCC Lions Football team." ]

[ "Lance Gunn Lance Cameron Gunn (born January 9, 1970) is a former American football defensive back who played one season with the Cincinnati Bengals of the National Football League. He was drafted by the Cincinnati Bengals in the seventh round of the 1993 NFL Draft. He played college football at the University of Texas at Austin and attended North Shore Senior High School in Cloverleaf, Texas. Gunn was also a member of the Frankfurt Galaxy of the World League of American Football.", "Porter College Benjamin F. Porter College, a residential college at the University of California, Santa Cruz, is located on the lower west side of the university, south of Kresge College and north of Rachel Carson College. The college was founded in 1969 as College Five and formally dedicated on November 21, 1981. On that day the college was given the motto \"Ars Longa, Vita Brevis\" (Art endures, Life is short), and a series of college symbols, including a faculty mace and a college bell, were inaugurated.", "LaGrange College LaGrange College is a private, four-year liberal arts and sciences college located in LaGrange, Georgia. Founded in 1831 as a female educational institution, LaGrange is the oldest private college in Georgia. It offers more than 55 academic and pre-professional programs, including graduate degrees in education. Affiliated with the United Methodist Church, LaGrange College has been ranked in the top 10 and as one of 10 “best values” among Southern comprehensive colleges by U.S. News & World Report.", "Malcolm Johnson (wide receiver) Malcolm Alexander Johnson (born August 27, 1977) is a former American football wide receiver who played two seasons in the National Football League with the Pittsburgh Steelers and New York Jets. He was drafted by the Pittsburgh Steelers in the fifth round of the 1999 NFL Draft. He played college football at the University of Notre Dame and attended Gonzaga College High School in Washington D.C.. He was also a member of the Ottawa Renegades of the Canadian Football League.", "College of the Canyons College of the Canyons, commonly referred to as COC, is a public two-year community college that operates within the Santa Clarita Community College District.", "Morgan Cox Morgan Cox (born April 26, 1986) is an American football long snapper for the Baltimore Ravens of the National Football League (NFL). He was signed by the Ravens as an undrafted free agent in 2010. He played college football at Tennessee.", "UNC Pembroke Braves football The UNC Pembroke Braves football team represents the University of North Carolina at Pembroke in college football, competing as an NCAA Division II independent. Pembroke plays its home games at the 4,000 seat Grace P. Johnson Stadium at Lumbee Guaranty Bank Field, which is located on-campus in Pembroke, North Carolina. Although only fielding a modern team since the 2007 season, Pembroke previously fielded teams between the 1946 and 1950 seasons as Pembroke State.", "Guilford College Guilford College is a small liberal arts college in Greensboro, North Carolina. Guilford has both traditional students and students who attend its Center for Continuing Education (CCE). Founded in 1837 by members of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), Guilford's program offerings include such majors as Peace and Conflict Studies and Community and Justice Studies, both rooted in the college's history as a Quaker institution.", "Santa Monica College Santa Monica College (SMC) is a public two-year community college in Santa Monica, California, United States. Founded as a junior college in 1929, SMC enrolls over 30,000 students in more than 90 fields of study. Although initially serving primarily pre-college high school students, the College quickly expanded its enrollment to educate college-age students and non-traditional students with the primary intention to transfer to a four-year university. Today, two thirds of students at Santa Monica College are enrolled part-time. With over 2,000 employees, SMC is a major employer in the Greater Los Angeles Area and has a significant impact in the region's economy.", "Justin Swift Justin Charles Swift (born August 14, 1975) is a former American football tight end who played four seasons in the National Football League with the Philadelphia Eagles and San Francisco 49ers. He was drafted by the Denver Broncos in the seventh round of the 1999 NFL Draft. He played college football at Kansas State University and attended Blue Valley High School in Stilwell, Kansas. Swift was also a member of the Frankfurt Galaxy, Houston Texans, Atlanta Falcons and Detroit Lions.", "Josh Wallwork Josh Wallwork (born c. 1975) is a former American football player. He attended Tracy High School in Tracy, California, and played college football for Gavilan College in Gilroy, California, before transferring to the University of Wyoming in 1995. He played for Joe Tiller's Wyoming Cowboys football team in 1995 and 1996. As a senior in 1996, he led all NCAA major college players in several statistical categories, including total offense yards (4,209), total offense per game (350.8), passing yards (4,090), and pass completions (286).", "Northeastern Oklahoma A&M College Northeastern Oklahoma A&M College, commonly referred to as NEO, is a two-year state residential college and fully funded by the U.S. state of Oklahoma located in the small former mining town of Miami, Oklahoma, with a variety of academic programs in Agriculture, Livestock Judging, Nursing, Physical Therapist Assistant, Theatre, Social Science, and other fields. Established as the Miami School of Mines in 1919, NEO currently has an enrollment of approximately two thousand students. The Golden Norsemen is the school mascot.", "Tony Oden Anthony Earl Oden (born June 30, 1973) is an American football coach and former player. Oden played collegiately as an outside linebacker at Baldwin–Wallace College in the early 1990s.", "Laurel Christian High School Laurel Christian High School is a Christian college preparatory school that was founded in 1982. It is located in Laurel, Mississippi (USA). The school offers a Christian-based classical education that is built on the time-honored trivium: grammar, logic, and rhetoric. Each subject taught at the school is taught within the framework of a Christian worldview. Bob Jones University has been a crucial sponsor of the school throughout the years.", "Chris Claiborne Christopher Ashon Claiborne (born July 26, 1978) is a former American college and professional football player who was a linebacker in the National Football League (NFL) for eight seasons. Claiborne played college football for the University of Southern California, and was recognized as an All-American. He was a first-round pick in the 1999 NFL Draft, and played professionally for the Detroit Lions, Minnesota Vikings, St. Louis Rams, and New York Giants of the NFL.", "Ohio State Buckeyes football The Ohio State Buckeyes football team is a college football team that competes as part of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I Football Bowl Subdivision, representing The Ohio State University in the East Division of the Big Ten Conference. Ohio State has played their home games at Ohio Stadium in Columbus, Ohio since 1922.", "Marietta College Marietta College (Latin: \"Collegium Mariettensis\") is a co-educational liberal arts private college in Marietta, Ohio, USA, (population 14,000+) which was the first permanent settlement of the Northwest Territory. The school offers 45 majors along with a number of minors, all of which are grounded in a liberal arts foundation. The school encompasses approximately three city blocks next to downtown Marietta and enrolls 1,200 full-time students. It is known for its Petroleum Engineering, Athletic Training, McDonough Leadership, and Physician Assistant programs, as well as its China Program.", "Pierson College Pierson College is a residential college at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut. Opened in 1933, it is named for Abraham Pierson, a founder and the first rector of the Collegiate School, the college later known as Yale. With just under 500 undergraduate members, Pierson is the largest of Yale's residential colleges by number of students.", "Chuck Ealey Charles \"Chuck\" Ealey (born January 6, 1950) is a former American Canadian football player for the Hamilton Tiger-Cats, Winnipeg Blue Bombers and Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League. Ealey played college football at the University of Toledo and high school football for Notre Dame High School in Portsmouth, Ohio.", "Tom Brown (wide receiver) Thomas William \"Tom\" Brown (born December 24, 1963) is a former professional American football player for the National Football League's Cincinnati Bengals. He played in just two games in the 1987 season after his collegiate career at Augustana College in South Dakota." ]

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[ "Friday the 13th (franchise) 2009 reboot's theatrical release, producers Brad Fuller and Andrew Form expressed an interest in producing another \"Friday the 13th\" film, citing the enjoyment they had working on the reboot. On October 1, 2009, Warner Bros. Pictures announced that it planned to release the \"Friday the 13th\" sequel on August 13, 2010. Subsequently, on December 10, 2009, Warner Bros. announced that it had pulled the sequel from the August 13, 2010 release slot and listed its release as \"TBD\" (to be determined). Warner Bros. also announced that Damian Shannon and Mark Swift were penning the sequel. On April 21, 2010, Fuller" ]

[ "Friday the 13th (franchise) 2016, \"Variety\" reported that Breck Eisner was in talks to direct the reboot. In September 2016, Paramount pushed back the reboot's release date from Friday, January 13, 2017 to Friday, October 13, 2017. On January 27, 2017, it was reported that the reboot's working title was \"Friday the 13th: Part 13\", Platinum Dunes was looking for someone to play a young Jason Voorhees, and production would begin in March 2017, slated for a Friday, October 13, 2017 release date. On February 6, 2017, it was announced that Paramount officially canceled the project due to the low box office grosses of", "Friday the 13th (franchise) 13, 2016 release date. In March 2015, it was announced that TV writer Nick Antosca would write the script. On October 20, 2015, The Wrap reported that Paramount pushed back the film's release date to January 13, 2017. On December 3, 2015, it was announced that Aaron Guzikowski was negotiating a deal to write a new script, but that Bruckner, who had purportedly left the project in 2015, would no longer be directing. On May 31, 2016, Fuller revealed that the reboot would be an origin story for Jason, and his mother would be in the film. On August 8,", "Friday the 13th (franchise) \"Rings\", and Paramount assigned the October 13, 2017 release date to its upcoming film, \"Mother!\". On October 10, 2017, Shannon and Swift revealed the title of their proposed sequel, \"Friday the 13th: Camp Blood – The Death of Jason Voorhees\". The rights to the franchise are slated to revert to New Line/Warner Bros. in 2018. However, Victor Miller, who wrote the original \"Friday the 13th\" screenplay, asserted that Horror Inc. derived its current copyright to the screenplay from Miller's transfer of copyright to Horror Inc.'s predecessor-in-interest, the Manny Company. Miller sent a Notice of Termination to Horror Inc. on January", "Friday the 13th: The Game Mask: The Rise Of Leslie Vernon\", \"Hatchet\" and \"Shocker\". Friday the 13th: The Game Friday the 13th: The Game is a survival horror video game formerly developed by IllFonic, and published by Gun Media. It is based on the film franchise of the same name. It was released on May 26, 2017 as a digital release and later released on October 13, 2017 as a physical release for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One. The game is an asymmetrical multiplayer game, pitting up to seven players controlling Camp Crystal Lake counselors against one player controlling Jason Voorhees. It is", "Friday the 13th: The Game Friday the 13th: The Game Friday the 13th: The Game is a survival horror video game formerly developed by IllFonic, and published by Gun Media. It is based on the film franchise of the same name. It was released on May 26, 2017 as a digital release and later released on October 13, 2017 as a physical release for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One. The game is an asymmetrical multiplayer game, pitting up to seven players controlling Camp Crystal Lake counselors against one player controlling Jason Voorhees. It is a semi-open world game, with players able to explore", "Friday the 13th (franchise) \"\" was released on January 20, 2018. In addition to the films, television series, and various literature based on the \"Friday the 13th\" franchise, there are over 100 licensed products that have grossed more than $125 million in revenue. Over the years, the characters of \"Friday the 13th\" have been marketed under various toy lines. In 1988, Screamin' Toys produced a model kit of Jason Voorhees. Six years later, Screamin' Toys issued a second model kit based on Jason's appearance in \"Jason Goes to Hell\". Both kits are no longer in production. In 1998, as part of McFarlane Toys' Movie", "Friday the 13th (franchise) the 11 films\", not including interviews with other film professionals like Wes Craven. Grove's book also includes previously unseen production photos which were acquired from private collections. Eight months after the release of Grove's book, Titan Books, in association with Sparkplug Press, released a detailed history on the \"Friday the 13th\" series. Peter M. Bracke released \"Crystal Lake Memories: The Complete History of Friday the 13th\" on October 24, 2005. The book chronicles the creation of the series up to the release of \"Freddy vs. Jason\". Bracke spent three years researching the series and collecting more than 200 interviews from", "Friday the 13th Part VII: The New Blood were considered for the job, including Italian filmmaker Federico Fellini. The film's original working title was \"Birthday Bash,\" chosen to conceal its identity as a \"Friday the 13th\" film. The entire production of this film was scheduled, completed, and released within seven months. Shooting took place from October to November 1987 in Baldwin County, Alabama, at Byrnes Lake off Highway 225, and in nearby Mobile. This film marks the first of four appearances by Kane Hodder as Jason, the only actor to ever reprise the role. Although C. J. Graham, who had portrayed Jason in \"Part VI\", was initially considered,", "Friday the 13th: The Game game was pushed back from the fall release date, multiplayer came out on May 26, 2017 and the campaign was released in Q3 2017. The initial release was digital exclusive, with a physical copy published on Friday, October 13, 2017. On June 11, 2018, Gun Media announced that it had canceled all future content updates including DLC for the game, citing a dispute between Cunningham and Victor Miller over rights, lawsuit and ownership of the original film as making it \"unfeasible now or in the future\". The studio still plans to offer maintenance patches. Miller won the lawsuit on September", "Friday the 13th (1980 film) Miller was still drafting the screenplay. After casting the film in New York City, filming took place in New Jersey in the summer of 1979, on an estimated budget of $550,000. A bidding war ensued over the finished film, ending with Paramount Pictures acquiring the film for domestic distribution, while Warner Bros. secured European distribution rights. Released on May 9, 1980, \"Friday the 13th\" was a major box office success, grossing over $39.7 million in the United States alone and $20 million international, making it the highest grossing film in the franchise in adjusted dollars. Critical response to the film", "Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter artist Tom Savini, who worked on the first film, returned for the sequel as he wanted to help kill off Jason, who he helped create. The film was originally scheduled to be released in October 1984, but Paramount pushed the date up to April 13, 1984. Upon its theatrical release, the film earned approximately $11 million on its opening weekend and grossed $32 million in the United States on a budget of $2.6 million, making it the fourth most attendance of any film in the \"Friday the 13th\" series with approximately 9,815,700 tickets sold. The film received generally negative reviews.", "Friday the 13th: A New Beginning a rain machine. The film is the only entry in the \"Friday the 13th\" film series to feature a hockey mask design with two blue triangles pointing downward, as opposed to the more common variant of three red triangles, with the lower two pointing upward. On January 13, 2012, La-La Land Records released a limited edition 6-CD boxset containing Harry Manfredini's scores from the first six \"Friday the 13th\" films. It sold out in less than 24 hours. \"Friday the 13th: A New Beginning\" opened on March 22, 1985, on 1,759 screens. The film debuted at number 1 on its", "Friday the 13th Part VIII: Jason Takes Manhattan committee filed a complaint against Paramount Pictures. Released on July 28, 1989, the film grossed $14.3 million at the U.S. box office, which was the lowest gross of the series at that time, second-lowest U.S. gross in the series to date. The film received both criticism and praise from critics for its implementation of humor, while others deemed it the worst film in the series thus far. It was followed by \"\", released in 1993. Two graduating high school students are aboard a houseboat on Crystal Lake. Jim tells his girlfriend Suzy the legend of Jason Voorhees, before playing a", "Friday the 13th (franchise) the delayed development of the \"Freddy vs. Jason\" project forced him to create another sequel in an effort to keep the franchise in the minds of audiences. Based on \"Jason Takes Manhattan\"s concept of taking Jason away from Crystal Lake, the 10th film would put the titular character in space. The film suffered from the loss of its biggest supporter, President of Production Michael De Luca, when he resigned from his position. Lack of support forced the finished film to sit for two years before finally being released on April 26, 2002, and it would go on to become the", "Friday the 13th: The Game Jarvis House, the setting of the , in 1984; and Pinehurst, the setting of the , in 1989. Camp Crystal Lake, Higgins Haven, and Packanack Lodge were the original available maps, while the Jarvis House and Pinehurst were made available in October 2017 and January 2018, respectively. The game's primary killer is Jason Voorhees, the series' most recurring antagonist. Nine different versions of Jason are playable, based on his appearances from the second, third, , , , , and films, the NES game, and make-up artist Tom Savini's own Jason created exclusively for backers of the game. Each Jason has", "Friday the 13th (\"I have lived\", implying death in the present), an omen of bad luck. In fact, in Italy, 13 is generally considered a lucky number. However, due to Americanization, young people consider Friday the 13th unlucky as well. The 2000 parody film \"Shriek If You Know What I Did Last Friday the Thirteenth\" was released in Italy with the title \"Shriek – Hai impegni per venerdì 17?\" (\"\"Shriek – Do You Have Something to Do on Friday the 17th?\"\"). Friday the 17th occurs on a month starting on Wednesday. According to the Stress Management Center and Phobia Institute in Asheville, North", "Friday the 13th (franchise) reclaim. A lawsuit seeking the parties' declaration of rights is currently pending in a federal court in Connecticut. On September 28, 2018, Miller won the rights against Cunningham, as the lawsuit is closed. By October 2018, it was announced that LeBron James, through his production company Springhill Entertainment alongside Vertigo Entertainment, is in talks to co-produce the next film. In November 2018, it was announced that screenwriter Clint Ford has written the prequel screenplay for the 13th installment of the franchise titled \"Friday the 13th: The Beginning\", as reported by Ain't It Cool News. On September 28, 1987, Paramount began", "Friday the 13th (franchise) a young age. Six weeks after her disappearance, her brother, Clay Miller (Jared Padalecki), comes to look for her. The pair reunite and work together to seemingly kill Jason. The original \"Friday the 13th\" was produced and directed by Sean S. Cunningham, who had previously worked with filmmaker Wes Craven on \"The Last House on the Left\" (1972). Cunningham, inspired by the success of John Carpenter's \"Halloween\" (1978), wanted \"Friday the 13th\" to be shocking, visually stunning, and \"[make] you jump out of your seat\". Distancing himself from \"The Last House on the Left\", Cunningham wanted \"Friday the 13th\" to", "The Funhouse teen-aimed horror film after the success of Paramount's \"Friday the 13th\" (1980). The film was shot on location in Miami, Florida. \"The Funhouse\" opened in 814 theaters in the United States on March 13, 1981. It earned $2,765,456 in its opening weekend and grossed $7,886,857 in total. The film was unsuccessfully prosecuted as a video nasty in the UK a few years after its release. Some commentators have questioned its attempted banning, given that the film is fairly tame in comparison to other entries on the list, leading some to suggest it was mistakenly chosen instead of the infamous \"Last", "Nick Antosca Zero\". He also co-produced 13 episodes of the horror series \"Hannibal\". Prior to that, he wrote for the MTV supernatural drama series \"Teen Wolf\", the ABC military drama series \"Last Resort\", and the NBC fantasy adventure series \"Believe\", the latter of which was created by Alfonso Cuarón. Antosca was in a screenwriting partnership for several years with novelist Ned Vizzini, who died in 2013. In March 2015, he was named as screenwriter of the upcoming \"Friday the 13th\" film. However, when a new director came on board, Antosca's script was discarded and a new screenwriter was hired to write a", "Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter is a 1984 American slasher film directed by Joseph Zito, produced by Frank Mancuso Jr., and starring Corey Feldman, Ted White, Kimberly Beck, and Crispin Glover. It is the fourth installment in the \"Friday the 13th\" film series. Picking up immediately after the events of \"Friday the 13th Part III\", the story follows a presumed-dead Jason Voorhees brought to the morgue, where he spontaneously revives and escapes. He then returns to Crystal Lake to continue his killing spree, targeting a family and a group of neighboring teenagers. Much", "Friday the 13th (1980 film) office gross, the film would have made $177.72 million in adjusted 2017 dollars. On July 13, 2007, \"Friday the 13th\" was screened for the first time on Blairstown's Main Street in the very theater which appears shortly after the opening credits. Overflowing crowds forced the Blairstown Theater Festival, the sponsoring organization, to add an extra screening. A 30th Anniversary Edition was released on March 10, 2010. A 35th-anniversary screening was held in the Griffith Park Zoo as part of the Great Horror Campout on March 13, 2015. Linda Gross of the \"Los Angeles Times\" referred to the film as a", "Friday on Elm Street told Rap-Up. On January 17, 2017, the official trailer for the album was released. It's a blend of \"The Blair Witch Project\", \"A Nightmare on Elm Street\", and \"Friday the 13th\". It's about a young woman running for her life, only to be disappointed, in tears, and haunted by a familiar yet frightening tune. On November 21, 2017, the tracklist was officially revealed, and the album's title was changed to \"Friday on Elm Street,\" as legal issues prevented the duo from naming it \"Freddy vs Jason.\" On January 13, 2017, the promotional single, \"Rapture\" featuring Tory Lanez was released. The", "Victor Miller (writer) playwriting class in New York City. \"Friday the 13th\" is Miller's most successful film, grossing $59,754,601 worldwide on a very low budget of $550,000. The original is the only one of the series that had Miller's involvement; it grew into a long series of sequels and became the highest grossing horror franchise in the United States, earning a worldwide total of $465,239,523. Miller says he hasn't seen any of the other \"Friday the 13th\" films because he does not approve of Jason Voorhees being the killer rather than Jason's mother as she was in the original. He also adapted two", "Friday the 13th Part VII: The New Blood in their sockets. The boxed set DVD release of all of the films and the single deluxe edition have all these scenes available as deleted scenes in rough workprint footage; however, the deluxe edition features more additional footage than the boxed set. On , BSX records released a limited edition CD of Fred Mollin's \"Friday the 13th Part VII\" and \"VIII\" scores. \"Friday the 13th Part VII: The New Blood\" opened on Friday, May 13, 1988 in 1,796 theaters, debuting at number 1 and earning $8.2 million its opening weekend. Ultimately, the film would go on to gross a total", "Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter six entries of the film series. The release was sold out in less than 24 hours of availability. The song \"Love Is a Lie\" by Lion is featured in the film, but not on the soundtrack. \"Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter\" opened on Friday, April 13, 1984, on 1,594 screens to weekend box office gross of $11,183,148; this was the sixth-highest of the year. The film would ultimately take in a total of $32,980,880 at the U.S. box office. It placed at number 26 on the list of the top-grossing films of 1984. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that", "David Bruckner a crew. The concept came from a Surrealist game called exquisite corpse, in which multiple people collaborate in order to complete an art project. When Gentry was unable to contribute to the horror anthology \"V/H/S\" (2012), he suggested Bruckner, who eventually co-wrote and directed the segment \"Amateur Night\". Also released in 2012, his short film \"Talk Show\" addresses the torture debate in mainstream media. Bruckner was set to direct a reboot of \"Friday the 13th\" for Paramount Pictures but was reported to have left in late 2015. He is set to direct the thriller \"Intrusion\", based on a screenplay by", "Jason X film was released on DVD on October 8, 2002. It was released on Blu-ray in 2013, with all of the films in the \"Friday the 13th: The Complete Collection\" set. Jason X Jason X is a 2001 American science fiction slasher film produced and directed by James Isaac. It is the tenth installment in the \"Friday the 13th\" film series and stars Kane Hodder in his fourth and final film appearance as the undead mass murderer Jason Voorhees. It also introduces his futuristic counterpart, Uber Jason. The film was conceived by Todd Farmer, and was the only pitch that he", "Friday the 13th Part 2 theatrical trailer. In 2011, it was released in a 4-disc DVD collection along with the first, third, and fourth films in the series. It was again included in two Blu-ray sets: \"Friday the 13th: The Complete Collection\", released in 2013, and \"Friday the 13th: The Ultimate Collection\", in 2018. In 1982, Gramavision Records released an LP album of selected pieces of Harry Manfredini's scores from the first three \"Friday the 13th\" films. On January 13, 2012, La-La Land Records released a limited edition 6-CD boxset containing Manfredini's scores from the first six films. It sold out in less than 24", "Slasher film 1978–1984 in an era referred to as the \"Golden Age\" of slasher films. Notable slasher films include \"The Texas Chain Saw Massacre\" (1974), \"Halloween\" (1978), \"Friday the 13th\" (1980), \"A Nightmare on Elm Street\" (1984), \"Child's Play\" (1988), \"Scream\" (1996) and \"I Know What You Did Last Summer\" (1997). Many slasher films released decades ago continue to attract cult followings. Slasher films adhere to a specific formula: a past wrongful action causes severe trauma that is reinforced by a commemoration or anniversary that reactivates or re-inspires the killer. Built around stalk-and-murder sequences, the films drawn upon the audience's feelings of", "Friday the 13th (1980 film) has been othered and devalued in line with the conventional aesthetic norms of the academy and official film culture, said to lack originality and artfulness, to possess no nominated or recognized auteur, and to be grossly sensationalist in its focus on Tom Savini's gory special effects.\" The film was nominated in 2001 for AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills. In April 2018, Camp No-Be-Bo-Sco, where the film was shot, held \"Crystal Lake Tours,\" an event dedicated to the making of the film which brought attendees to nine of the filming locations on the property. The event was attended to actress", "Last Shift in an abandoned police station. DiBlasi was influenced by the action film \"Assault on Precinct 13\" (1976), the horror film \"A Nightmare on Elm Street\" (1984), and the Charles Manson documentary \"Manson\" (1973). \"Last Shift\" premiered at the London FrightFest Film Festival on October 25, 2014. Magnet Releasing released it to video-on-demand on October 6, 2015. Anton Bitel of \"Sight & Sound\" called it the standout of FrightFest and wrote, \"\"Last Shift\" masterfully builds its tension towards an unexpected yet satisfying release that deepens and ambiguates everything that has preceded\". Staci Layne Wilson of Dread Central rated it 3.5/5 stars", "Jason Voorhees book covers Pamela Voorhees' journey to Camp Crystal Lake and the story of her pregnancy with Jason as she recounts it to hitchhiker Annie, a camp counselor who was killed in the original film. Wildstorm released another two-part special, entitled \"Friday the 13th: How I Spent My Summer Vacation\", that was released on September 12 and October 10, 2007. The comic book provides new insight into the psychology of Jason Voorhees as he befriends a boy born with a skull deformity. Wildstorm released a six-issue series called \"Freddy vs. Jason vs. Ash\", starring the two killers and Ash from the", "Friday the 13th (franchise) been a steady production of action figures, dolls, and statuettes, with more merchandise tying into the film \"Freddy vs. Jason\". Apart from video games and toys, the series has also seen the release of its films' soundtracks. In 1982, Gramavision Records released a LP album of selected pieces of Harry Manfredini's scores from the first three films. On September 27, 2005, BSX Records released a limited edition CD of Fred Mollin's scores. On January 13, 2012, La-La Land Records released a limited edition 6-CD boxset containing Manfredini's scores from the first six films. Beginning with \"Jason Goes to Hell\", each", "Friday the 13th (1980 film) the counselors, because she saw them all as responsible for Jason's death. A number of scenes from the film were recreated in \"Friday the 13th: Pamela's Tale\", a two-issue comic book prequel released by WildStorm in 2007. In 2016, the book \"On Location in Blairstown: The Making of Friday the 13th\" was released detailing the planning and filming of the movie. Film scholar Williams views \"Friday the 13th\" as \"symptomatic of its era,\" particularly Reagan-era America, and part of a trajectory of films such as \"The Texas Chain Saw Massacre\" (1974) and \"Race with the Devil\" (1975), which \"exemplify a", "Friday the 13th (franchise) into novels, and his adaptation of the original \"Friday the 13th\" was published in 1987, with novelizations of \"Part 2\" and \"3\" both being published in 1988. Hawke's first adaptation, \"Jason Lives\", introduced the character of Elias Voorhees, Jason's father, who was supposed to appear in the film before being cut by the studio. The book explains how Elias has Jason's body buried, instead of the planned cremation, after his death in \"The Final Chapter\". In 1994, four young adult novels were released under the title of \"Friday the 13th\". These stories focused on different people finding Jason's mask and", "Friday the 13th (franchise) Form decided they wanted to use pieces from the early films. Fuller said, \"I think there are moments we want to address, like how does the hockey mask happen.\" Shannon and Swift, writers of \"Freddy vs. Jason\", were brought on to pen the script for the new film,<ref name=\"Shan/Swif\"></ref> with Marcus Nispel, director of \"The Texas Chainsaw Massacre\" remake of 2003, hired in November 2007 to direct. When Harry Manfredini began working on the musical score for the 1980 film, the decision was made to play the music only alongside the killer so as not to trick the audience into", "Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter original film. Filming commenced in October 1983 to January 1984 in Topanga Canyon and Newhall, California, 6 weeks over-schedule. It was originally set to be released in October 1984, but Frank Mancuso, Sr. pushed the release date to April 13, leaving them 6 weeks to complete post-production. The only time Paramount helped with the film's production, they rented a house in Malibu for the filmmakers to stay and conduct editing sessions, with food brought to them by the studio. The film had a troubled production on set. As a result of the director's poor treatment and the film's budget, many", "Friday the 13th (franchise) comic book covers Pamela Voorhees' journey to Camp Crystal Lake and the story of her pregnancy with Jason as she recounts it to hitchhiker Annie, a camp counselor who is killed in the original film. The miniseries pre‑sold a combined 16,051 copies. WildStorm released another comic book special, titled \"Friday the 13th: How I Spent My Summer Vacation\", consisting of two issues that were released on September 12 and October 10, 2007. The comic book provides insight into the psychology of Jason Voorhees as he befriends a boy born with a skull deformity. The first issue of \"How I Spent", "Friday the 13th Part VI: Jason Lives less than 24 hours. \"Friday the 13th Part VI: Jason Lives\" opened on August 1, 1986, in 1,610 theaters and grossed $6.7 million its opening weekend. Ultimately, it would go on to gross a total of $19.4 million at the US box office, ranking at number 46 on the list of the year's top earners. Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 52% of 27 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating is 5/10. \"Variety\" describe the film as predictable but \"reasonably slick\". Caryn James of \"The New York Times\" called it \"a gory waste of", "Friday the 13th (franchise) for the 2018 inflation, \"Friday the 13th\" is the highest grossing horror franchise in the United States, with approximately $755.6 million. \"A Nightmare on Elm Street\" follows with $592.8 million, with the Hannibal Lecter film series closely behind with $588.7 million. Then comes \"Halloween\" with $557.5 million, \"Saw\" with $457.4 million, \"Scream\" with $442.9 million, \"Psycho\" with $376.3 million, \"The Texas Chainsaw Massacre\" with $304.6 million, and the \"Child's Play\" film series rounding out the list with approximately $203 million. The financial success has extended to home release, with more than five million DVDs sold by 2005. Shortly after the", "Rings (2017 film) critics and fans for the cancellation of Paramount's newest installment of the \"Friday the 13th\" franchise. Speaking at CinemaCon, Paramount Vice Chairman Rob Moore said that should the film prove successful, more sequels could recur annually, taking the place of Paramount's \"Paranormal Activity\" series. These plans were left in doubt following Moore's departure from the company. In a post-release interview, Moore's successor, Megan Colligan, said that \"time will tell\" if another sequel is in the cards. Following Colligan's departure, there has been no update on a sequel. Rings (2017 film) Rings (known in Japan as The Ring: Rebirth) is a", "Five Nights at Freddy's on Amazon mid-2017. Unlike previous book releases, \"Survival Logbook\" has no listed Amazon Kindle editions, with pages designed for physical writing as opposed to simply reading from a device. The book was released on December 26, 2017. Warner Bros. Pictures announced in April 2015 that it had acquired the rights to adapt the series to film. Roy Lee, David Katzenberg, and Seth Grahame-Smith were set to produce. Grahame-Smith stated that they would collaborate with Cawthon \"to make an insane, terrifying and weirdly adorable movie\". In July 2015, Gil Kenan signed to direct the adaptation and co-write it with Tyler Burton", "Friday the 13th Part 2 Mrs. Voorhees' head opening her eyes and smiling towards the camera. However, Miner removed the scene out of the final film as he never seriously considered it for the film’s actual ending. To this day, the footage of this alternate ending has yet to be released. The film was released theatrically on April 30, 1981, bringing in $6,429,784 its opening weekend. It played on 1,350 screens and would ultimately gross $21,722,776. It was the 35th highest-grossing film of 1981, facing strong competition early in the year from such high-profile horror releases as \"\", \"The Evil Dead\", \"The Howling\", \"My Bloody", "Camp Death III in 2D! Camp Death III in 2D! Camp Death III in 2D! is a Canadian horror comedy spoof movie of the \"Friday the 13th\" film series and is scheduled for a May 13, 2016, release. The film was partially financed by a successful crowdfunding campaign in August 2014. Director Matt Frame helped to promote the crowdfunding campaign by partaking in a world record 24-hour, 109 km non-stop walk in which he chained a coconut to his waist. The subsequent media coverage resulted in the film raising 100% of its goal. The film was shot over a 14-month period on Gabriola Island and", "Friday the 13th Part 2 the 13th superstition; however, after the popularity of the original film's surprise ending where Jason Voorhees attacks the heroine Alice, the filmmakers opted to continue the story and the mythology surrounding Camp Crystal Lake, a trend which would be repeated in the following films. Like the original film, \"Friday the 13th Part 2\" faced opposition from the Motion Picture Association of America, who noted its \"accumulative violence\" as problematic, resulting in numerous cuts being made to allow an R rating. The film was released theatrically in North America on April 30, 1981. Although it did not gross as much as", "1980s Kevin Bacon, Rob Lowe, Patrick Swayze, and River Phoenix. Horror films were a popular genre during the decade, with several notable horror franchises being born during the 1980s. Among the most popular were the \"Child's Play\", \"A Nightmare on Elm Street\", \"Friday the 13th\", \"Hellraiser\", and \"Poltergeist\" franchises. Aside from these films, the concept of the B horror film gave rise to a plethora of horror films that went on to earn a cult status. An example of such is the 1981 film \"The Evil Dead\", which marked the directorial debut of Sam Raimi. Several action film franchises were also", "Friday the 13th: The Game can't keep building content that may never see the light of day. That's bad business.\" Harry Manfredini, who created the soundtrack for the original film, composed the soundtrack of the video game. The physical copy was to feature original concept art from the game and liner notes in the packaging, but this ultimately proved false. During development, Gun released two tracks from the upcoming soundtrack, which released as \"Harry Manfredini Full Track - 01\" on November 9, 2015 and \"Harry Manfredini Full Track - 02\" on May 14, 2016. A trailer of the game released for PAX West 2016 featured", "Friday the 13th (1980 film) where a police officer and medical staff tend to her. When Alice asks about Jason, the officer says that there was no sign of any boy. Alice says \"Then he's still there\", as the lake is shown at peace. \"Friday the 13th\" was produced and directed by Sean S. Cunningham, who had previously worked with filmmaker Wes Craven on the film \"The Last House on the Left\". Cunningham, inspired by John Carpenter's \"Halloween\", wanted \"Friday the 13th\" to be shocking, visually stunning and \"[make] you jump out of your seat.\" Wanting to distance himself from \"The Last House on the", "Friday the 13th (franchise) the success of \"Halloween\" (1978), was written by Victor Miller and was produced and directed by Sean S. Cunningham. The films have grossed over $464 million at the box-office worldwide. Frank Mancuso, Jr., a producer of the films, also developed the television show \"\" after Paramount released \"\". The television series was not connected to the franchise by any character or setting, but was created based on the idea of \"bad luck and curses\", which the film series symbolized. While the franchise was owned by Paramount, four films were adapted into novels, with \"Friday the 13th Part III\" adapted by", "Friday the 13th Part III of selected pieces of Manfredini's scores from the first three \"Friday the 13th\" films. On January 13, 2012, La-La Land Records released a limited edition 6-CD boxset containing Manfredini's scores from the first six films. It sold out in less than 24 hours. \"Friday the 13th Part III\" was released theatrically in the United States on Friday, August 13, 1982. It was the first-ever 3-D film to receive a wide domestic release, opening on 1,079 screens. Of these screens, 813 were 3-D capable, while the remainder consisted of drive-in theaters which were unable to accommodate the format. In order to", "Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter \"Friday the 13th\" film, complimenting both its narrative and kills. Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter is a 1984 American slasher film directed by Joseph Zito, produced by Frank Mancuso Jr., and starring Corey Feldman, Ted White, Kimberly Beck, and Crispin Glover. It is the fourth installment in the \"Friday the 13th\" film series. Picking up immediately after the events of \"Friday the 13th Part III\", the story follows a presumed-dead Jason Voorhees brought to the morgue, where he spontaneously revives and escapes. He then returns to Crystal Lake to continue his killing spree,", "Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday save her but could not. She was never seen again. Creighton vowed revenge and from that moment on he spent his life in the study and pursuit of Jason. He became a bounty hunter just to fund his work in taking down his nemesis.\" \"Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday\" debuted in U.S. theaters on Friday, August 13, 1993, to a weekend box office total of $7.6 million across 1,355 screens. The film would go on to gross a final domestic total of $15.9 million, placing at number 86 on the list of the year's Top 100 earners. The", "Friday the 13th (1989 video game) It is an adaptation of the film franchise of the same name. It was developed as part of an \"aggressive expansion\" by LJN to focus on video games based on media licenses. \"Friday the 13th\" was released in North America exclusively in February 1989, as part of LJN's focus on creating video games based on licenses. It is considered by some as one of the worst games of all time. \"Game Informer\" lists the game among the most difficult horror games of all time. \"Michigan Daily\"s Matt Grandstaff called it a \"poor offering\" by LJN. \"GamePro\" listed it as the", "Jonathan Liebesman 6 October 2006, and proved another box office hit for Liebesman. The $16 million movie opened at No 2 at the US box office with $18.5 million. As of 31 December 2006, the film had grossed around $50 million worldwide, including over $39.5 million in the US. In 2007, it was initially announced that Liebesman would be the director of the \"Friday the 13th\" reboot but as of November 2007, Marcus Nispel, director of \"The Texas Chainsaw Massacre\" remake of 2003, replaced Liebesman. In 2008, Liebesman completed directing his third full-length feature film, \"The Killing Room\", a political thriller starring", "The Grudge (film series) \"The Grudge\" opened in North America. Later titled, \"The Grudge 2\", the film opened on October 13, 2006 in North America, to capitalize on Friday the 13th. The marketing worked, and the filmed grossed $10 million on its opening day. \"The Grudge 2\" topped the North American box office with $20.8 million overall, during its opening weekend. This was well below what most analysts had expected, and more than 44% less than the opening of the previous film. However, despite failing to reach expectations, it was enough to cover its $20 million production budget. In total, the film had grossed", "Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday the series due to its supernatural elements and elimination of Jason Voorhees as a physical character. Its conclusion, which references fellow film villain Freddy Krueger, established what would become \"Freddy vs. Jason\", released ten years later in 2003. In June 2003, five years after , An undercover government agent in Camp Crystal Lake lures Jason Voorhees into a trap set by the FBI, and armed men blow him to bits. His remains are sent to a morgue, where a coroner becomes possessed by Jason's spirit after eating Jason's putrid heart. Jason, now in the coroner's body, escapes the morgue. At", "Friday the 13th: The Game 28, 2018. On September 25, 2018, it was announced that Black Tower Studios would take over as the new development partner for the game. \"Friday the 13th: The Game\" received \"mixed or average\" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. \"Slightly above average or simply inoffensive. Fans of the genre should enjoy it a bit, but a fair few will be left unfulfilled,\" was Caitlin Cooke's conclusion on \"Destructoid\" with a score of 6.5/10. James Kozanitis of Game Revolution gave the game a score of 4 out of 5 stars, saying, \"Is it perfect? Not by a long shot. Indeed, you'll", "Friday the 13th (1980 film) film ensued in 1980 between Paramount Pictures, Warner Bros., and United Artists. Paramount executive Frank Mancuso, Sr. recalled: \"The minute we saw \"Friday the 13th\", we knew we had a hit.\" Paramount ultimately purchased domestic distribution rights for \"Friday the 13th\" for $1.5 million. Based on the success of recently-released horror films (such as \"Halloween\") and the low budget of the film, the studio deemed it a \"low-risk\" release in terms of profitability. It was the first independent slasher film to be acquired by a major motion picture studio. Paramount spent approximately $500,000 in advertisements for the film, and then", "Saturday the 14th is currently out of print, although Netflix currently has some copies available to rent and Amazon Prime video has it available for its members. Scream Factory announced a Blu-ray release of the film for release on January 15, 2019. Saturday the 14th Saturday the 14th is a 1981 American comedy horror film starring real-life husband and wife Paula Prentiss and Richard Benjamin, co-written and directed by Howard R. Cohen and produced by Julie Corman. Despite the implications of the film's title, it is a spoof of classic horror movies and not a parody of the \"Friday the 13th\" series or", "Jonathan Frid three days at Pinewood Studios in June 2011 filming a cameo appearance as a guest in the \"happening\" scene for the 2012 Tim Burton \"Dark Shadows\" film, which became his final film appearance. Frid died at Juravinski Hospital in Hamilton, Ontario, of pneumonia and complications after a fall. While some sources at the time variously reported the date of his death as April 13 or April 14, Frid's nephew, David Howitt, confirmed that Frid died in the early hours of April 14, 2012. Howitt added that while Friday the 13th \"makes for good press... it’s good to get it right.\"", "Friday the 13th Part VIII: Jason Takes Manhattan which featured an image of Jason looming over the New York City skyline. \"Friday the 13th Part VIII: Jason Takes Manhattan\" was released July 28, 1989 in the United States. The film entered the box office at number 5 for the weekend with earnings of $6.2 million. The film faced strong competition at the time of its release from such high-profile genre fare as \"\", and was considered one of the biggest disappointments at the summer box office. Ultimately, it would go on to gross a total of $14.3 million at the U.S. box office, ranking at number 70 on", "Friday the 13th: A New Beginning Friday the 13th: A New Beginning Friday the 13th: A New Beginning (also known as Friday the 13th: Part V) is a 1985 American slasher film directed by Danny Steinmann, and starring Melanie Kinnaman, John Shepherd, and Shavar Ross. It is the fifth installment in the \"Friday the 13th\" film series, after \"\" (1984). Narratively, \"A New Beginning\" departs from the Camp Crystal Lake setting and Jason Voorhees-themed mystery of the previous four installments and instead acts as a psychological horror film set at a fictional halfway house, where an adult Tommy Jarvis—who, as a child killed Voorhees—begins to fear", "Friday the 13th: The Game teamwork and planning, and is difficult to perform. A player may also control Tommy Jarvis, who becomes playable when certain conditions are met. Although the game was originally planned to be multiplayer only, a single-player mode via an update was announced for a Summer 2017 release, despite the stretch goal for to unlock it not being reached. The mode will consist of objective-based missions that will allow the player to take control of Jason against offline camp counselor bots. Some of the missions will be adaptations of the films, while others are original scenarios. On October 27, 2017, Gun released", "Friday the 13th Part 2 Warrington Gillette played Jason unmasked at the end of the film. Stuntman Steve Daskawisz (also known as Steve Dash) was credited as Jason Stunt Double but played the masked Jason throughout the rest of the film. Principal photography took place from October 3 and finished in November 1980, and primarily occurred in New Preston and Kent, Connecticut. Special effects artist Tom Savini was asked to work on the film but declined because he was already working on another project, \"Midnight\" (1982), in addition he didn't receive well to the concept of Jason as the killer in the film. Savini was", "Friday the 13th: A New Beginning 13th: The Ultimate Collection\" features only the first eight films of the franchise. Friday the 13th: A New Beginning Friday the 13th: A New Beginning (also known as Friday the 13th: Part V) is a 1985 American slasher film directed by Danny Steinmann, and starring Melanie Kinnaman, John Shepherd, and Shavar Ross. It is the fifth installment in the \"Friday the 13th\" film series, after \"\" (1984). Narratively, \"A New Beginning\" departs from the Camp Crystal Lake setting and Jason Voorhees-themed mystery of the previous four installments and instead acts as a psychological horror film set at a fictional halfway", "Friday the 13th (franchise) that John Carpenter made in 1978, but instead \"[codified] the formula\" of \"Halloween\", and \"[boiled] it down to its essentials\" so that it could be copied by other filmmakers. In his assessment, \"Friday the 13th\" changed the horror genre by purposefully not providing back‑stories for characters so that when the audience witnessed a character's death, they are \"strangely unaffected\". Instead, \"Friday the 13th\" focuses on the history and motivations of the killer, who would exact revenge not on the people directly responsible, but on innocent people—a formula Karnick notes was replicated in \"A Nightmare on Elm Street\", \"Child's Play\", \"Scream\",", "Friday the 13th: The Final Chapter gives a disturbed look while staring ahead. When \"Friday the 13th Part III\" was released, it was initially supposed to end the series as a trilogy, however there was no moniker to indicate it as such. In 1983, there were rumors that Paramount Pictures billed the fourth film as \"The Final Chapter\" as a result of them feeling embarrassed by their association with the series. Despite how Roger Ebert and Gene Siskel claimed this in their review of the film on \"At the Movies\", Paramount Pictures was aware that the slasher genre had been declining in interest. However, the idea", "Friday the 13th (franchise) all. The story, by Jeff Katz, was a sequel to the \"Freddy vs. Jason\" film in development before the former film had been theatrically released. After meeting with executives, the negotiations ended and the story was shelved. Following the success of \"Freddy vs. Jason\", the idea of including Ash was brought up again, but New Line ultimately decided they would put the story in comic book form and bring in James Kuhoric to write and Jason Craig to do the artwork. On January 9 and February 13, 2008, WildStorm released another two-issue miniseries, titled \"Friday the 13th: Bad Land\", which", "Jason X X\" began in the late 1990s while \"Freddy vs. Jason\" was still in development hell. With \"Freddy vs. Jason\" not moving forward, Sean S. Cunningham decided that he wanted another \"Friday the 13th\" film made to retain audience interest in the character. The film was conceived by Todd Farmer, who plays \"Dallas\" in the film, and was the only pitch he gave to the studio for the movie, having suggested sending Jason into space as a means to advance the film series. The film score was composed and conducted by Harry Manfredini. It was released by Varèse Sarabande on May", "Halloween (franchise) the Hannibal Lecter series, \"Psycho\", \"Saw\", \"Scream\", and \"The Texas Chainsaw Massacre\"—and adjusting for 2018 inflation is the highest-grossing horror franchise in the United States at approximately $761.3 million. The is followed by \"Friday the 13th\" at $755.6 million, followed by the \"Nightmare on Elm Street\" series with $703.3 million. The Hannibal Lecter film series closely follows in third with $737.6 million. Following \"Halloween\" is the \"Saw\" series with $580.9 million, \"Scream\" with $586.9 million, \"Psycho\" with $554.4 million, \"The Texas Chainsaw Massacre\" with $391 million, and the \"Child's Play\" film series rounding out the list with $249.6 million. \"Halloween:", "Friday the 13th (1980 film) at the time, no well-recognized or bankable actors; aside from well-known television and movie actress Betsy Palmer. The film would take in approximately $20 million in international box office receipts. Not factoring in international sales, or the cross-over film with \"A Nightmare on Elm Street\"'s Freddy Krueger, the original \"Friday the 13th\" is the highest-grossing film of the film series. To provide context with the box office gross of films in 2014, the cost of making and promoting \"Friday the 13th\"—which includes the $550,000 budget and the $1 million in advertisement—is approximately $4.5 million. With regard to the US box", "Halloween (franchise) consulting with the director to see what he feels. I could create a new score, we could update the old score and amplify it, or we could combine those two things. I'll have to see the movie to see what it requires.\" On December 20, 2017, it was announced that Nick Castle would be reprising his role as Michael Myers. Filming began on January 13, 2018, concluding on February 19, 2018. The film was released on October 19, 2018. John Carpenter composed the music to the first three films. For \"Halloween\", Carpenter chose to use a piano melody played in", "Friday the 13th are on the 13th. The 13th day of the month is slightly more likely to be a Friday than any other day of the week. On average, there is a Friday the 13th once every 212.35 days, whereas Thursday the 13th occurs only once every 213.59 days. In the 2010s there were three Friday the 13ths in 2012 and 2015, and two in 2013, 2017 and 2018. There will also be two in 2019 and 2020. In the 2020s, there will be three F13's in 2026, and two in 2020, 2023, 2024, and 2029. The rest of years have at", "A Nightmare on Elm Street but their parents, who hold a dark secret from long ago, might. Craven filmed \"A Nightmare on Elm Street\" on an estimated budget of $1.8 million, a sum the film earned back during its first week. The film was released on November 9, 1984, where it went on to gross over $25 million at the United States box office. \"A Nightmare on Elm Street\" was met with rave critical reviews and is considered to be one of the greatest horror films ever made, spawning a franchise consisting of a line of sequels, a television series, a crossover with \"Friday the", "Adam Green (filmmaker) in. The tapes were released into the video game on October 13, 2017 and received an extremely positive response from fans who enjoyed discovering the various easter eggs that Green put into his scripts tying \"Tommy Jarvis\" into other popular horror franchises. The tapes contain references to the horror IPs \"A Nightmare On Elm Street\", \"Halloween\", \"Shocker\", \"Hatchet\", and \"Behind The Mask: The Rise of Leslie Vernon\" and the movie \"E.T. The Extra-Terrestrial\", and a nod to Green's dog, Arwen. \"For the Love of Halloween\" (2018) is a feature-length documentary film about Green and his company ArieScope Pictures' 20 year", "Friday the 13th Part III originally released in 3D amongst other horror films such as \"Jaws 3-D\" and \"Amityville 3-D\", and is the only film in the series to be released in 3-D. The film was intended to end the series as a trilogy, however the film did not include a moniker in its title to indicate it as such. The film was theatrically released on August 13, 1982, grossing over $36.6 million at the US box office on a budget of $2.3 million despite negative reviews. The film was the first to remove \"\" from the number-one box office spot and became the second", "Friday the 13th: A New Beginning opening weekend with a gross of $8,032,883, beating the teen sex comedy sequel \"Porky's Revenge\", the biopic \"Mask\", Berry Gordy's martial-arts action musical \"The Last Dragon\" and the Disney dinosaur fantasy \"\". By the end of its theatrical run, the film would earn $21,930,418 at the domestic box office, placing it at number 41 on the list of 1985's top box office earners. The film faced competition throughout the first half of the year against horror releases \"Cat's Eye\" and \"Lifeforce\". Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 16% of 19 surveyed critics, both contemporaneous and modern, gave the film", "Friday the 13th Part III \"The Thing\", \"\", \"Visiting Hours\", \"\", \"Silent Rage\", \"The Beast Within\", \"Cat People\" and \"Venom\". As of 2014, it still stands as the fourth highest-grossing film in the \"Friday the 13th\" series and the third best selling in ticket sales; with approximately 11,762,400 tickets sold, it is surpassed only by the 1980 original with 14,778,700 tickets and Freddy vs. Jason with 13,701,900 tickets). The film also stands as the tenth highest-grossing R-rated film of 1982, the second-highest grossing horror film of 1982, the sixth largest box office opening of 1982, and adjusted for inflation it is the ninth highest-grossing slasher", "13th (film) directed \"Selma\" (2015), and Spencer Averick. Averick also edited the film. Produced and filmed in secrecy, \"13th\" was revealed only after it was announced as the opening film for the 2016 New York Film Festival, the first documentary ever to open the festival. The film was released on October 7, 2016 on Netflix. The companion piece \"13th: A Conversation with Oprah Winfrey & Ava DuVernay\" was released on January 26, 2017 in the United States and on January 31, 2017 worldwide on the service. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 96% based on 79 reviews, with", "Friday the 13th (1980 film) VHS, LaserDisc and DVD releases included the R-rated theatrical version). The uncut version of the film contains approximately 11 seconds of previously unreleased footage. In 2011, the uncut version of \"Friday the 13th\" was released in a 4-disc DVD collection with the first three sequels. It was again included in two Blu-ray sets: \"Friday the 13th: The Complete Collection\", released in 2013, and \"Friday the 13th: The Ultimate Collection\", in 2018. Contemporary scholars in film criticism, such as Tony Williams, have credited \"Friday the 13th\" for initiating the subgenre of the \"stalker\" or slasher film. Cultural critic Graham Thompson also", "Saw (franchise) United States and Canada at $457.4 million. This list is topped by \"Friday the 13th\" at $687.1 million, followed by the \"Nightmare on Elm Street\" series with $592.8 million, with the Hannibal Lecter film series closely behind with $588.7 million. Then comes \"Halloween\" with $557.5 million, the \"Scream\" series with $442.9 million and \"The Texas Chainsaw Massacre\" with $304.6 million, and lastly comes the \"Child's Play\" film series with approximately $203 million. On IGN's list of the top twenty-five movie franchises of all time, the \"Saw\" series ranked as 25th. Japanese video game company Konami currently owns the rights to", "Friday the 13th: The Series in 1989, a year before the TV series ended). The show's star, John D. LeMay, went on to star in \"\", guest star John Shepherd played Tommy Jarvis in \"\", and episode director David Cronenberg appeared in \"Jason X\". Fred Mollin, Rob Hedden, and Tom McLoughlin worked behind the scenes of both series. An antique dealer named Lewis Vendredi (played by R.G. Armstrong; \"Vendredi\" means \"Friday\" in French) has made a deal with the Devil to sell cursed antiques out of his shop, \"Vendredi's Antiques\", in exchange for wealth, magic powers, and immortality. In the show's first episode (\"The Inheritance\"),", "Friday the 13th: The Game a trailer teasing a new game mode called \"Paranoia.\" However on February 1, 2018 it was announced that development on Paranoia mode would be put on hold in order to focus on the new dedicated servers feature. Five primary maps are available, each of which are based on locations from the first five films, and each set concurrent with the films' time periods. Matches may take place at: Camp Crystal Lake, the setting of the first film, in 1979; Packanack Lodge, the setting of the second film, in 1984; Higgins Haven, the setting of the third film, in 1984; the", "Sean S. Cunningham film, he met Wes Craven, with whom he collaborated as a producer of Craven's exploitation horror film \"The Last House on the Left\" (1972). Cunningham went on to co-create and direct the slasher film \"Friday the 13th\" (1980), which was a major box-office success. He went on to produce several horror films throughout the 1980s, including \"House\" (1986) and its sequel, \"\" (1988). Cunningham was born in New York City and raised in Connecticut. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree from Franklin & Marshall College, and later earned an MFA from Stanford University. Cunningham's first jobs after graduating", "Friday the 13th: A New Beginning with hardcore drug use. Shot in California in 1984 on a budget of $2.2 million, \"A New Beginning\" was released theatrically in March 1985, and grossed $21 million at the U.S. box office, making it the second poorest performing film in the \"Friday the 13th\" series at the time with a steep decline from the previous two entries. The film was initially going to set up a new trilogy of films with a different villain for the series. However, after \"A New Beginning\"s disappointing reception from fans and steep decline in box-office receipts from \"The Final Chapter\", Jason Voorhees was", "Friday the 13th (1980 film) King, who recounted the making of the film to fans. As of 2018, \"Friday the 13th\" has spawned ten sequels, including a crossover film with \"A Nightmare on Elm Street\" villain Freddy Krueger. \"Friday the 13th Part 2\" (1981) introduced Jason Voorhees, the son of Mrs. Voorhees, as the primary antagonist, which would continue for the remaining sequels (with exception of the fifth movie) and related works. Most of the sequels were filmed on larger budgets than the original. For comparison, \"Friday the 13th\" had a budget of $550,000, while the first sequel was given a budget of $1.25 million.", "Friday the 13th: The Series title, the series has no story connections to the film series of the same title, as Jason Voorhees does not make an appearance, nor does any character connected to the films. In the United Kingdom it was allegedly listed on TV schedules as \"Friday's Curse\" though when going to advertisement breaks on ITV it was titled \"Friday the 13th: The Series\". The series and the films have several cast and crew ties, however. The show's producer, Frank Mancuso, Jr., was producer of the film series from \"Friday the 13th Part 2\" (1981) until the final installment distributed by Paramount (\"\"", "Friday the 13th: The Series featured in the \"Warehouse 13\" series are not evil by nature nor cursed, do not require a human sacrifice in order for them to function, and can be destroyed. Friday the 13th: The Series Friday the 13th: The Series is an American-Canadian horror television series that ran for three seasons, from October 3, 1987 to May 26, 1990 in first-run syndication. The series follows Micki and Ryan, owners of an antiques store, and their friend, Jack Marshak, as they try to recover cursed antiques, to put them into safety in the store's vault. Originally, the series was to be titled", "Jason Goes to Hell: The Final Friday Jeff Katz from a \"Freddy vs. Jason 2\" screenplay treatment he had written in 2004) and again in \"\". The \"Jason Goes to Hell\" depiction of Jason Voorhees is featured in 2017's \"\". Because of a continuity error in the film regarding Jason's damaged eye, his in-game character model is mirrored from his movie counterpart. As the Gun Media developers explained, \"In [\"Jason Goes to Hell\"], everyone kind of knows there was a mistake made with Jason's undermask. It's Jason's left eye that’s supposed to be damaged, 'cause in \"\" he takes the machete to the head. But in \"[Jason", "Friday the 13th: The Series Friday the 13th: The Series Friday the 13th: The Series is an American-Canadian horror television series that ran for three seasons, from October 3, 1987 to May 26, 1990 in first-run syndication. The series follows Micki and Ryan, owners of an antiques store, and their friend, Jack Marshak, as they try to recover cursed antiques, to put them into safety in the store's vault. Originally, the series was to be titled \"The 13th Hour\", but producer Frank Mancuso, Jr. thought this would turn away viewers and instead took the name \"Friday the 13th\" to deliberately draw in audiences. Despite this", "Christopher Shy 2008 Shy was the conceptual designer for the remake of \"Friday The 13th\" directed by Marcus Nispel. This marks Shy's second film with the director, Pathfinder being the first. Shy was the artist of the graphic novel for the 2013 PlayStation 3 video game, \"\", which ran on GodofWar.com from October 22, 2012 to March 19, 2013. In a review of \"Ascend\", \"Publishers Weekly\" opined that \"Shy's artwork for this quasi-religious melodrama is state of the art and then some\". In its review of \"Pathfinder\", \"Booklist\" wrote that \"Shy's artwork adds a dreamlike quality to Kalogridis' telling, blurring the symbolism", "Friday the 13th (franchise) he was ready to begin production, but that New Line Cinema was not. On June 5, 2013, \"The Hollywood Reporter\" reported that Warner Bros. had relinquished its film rights to the \"Friday the 13th\" series to Paramount as part of a deal that would allow Warner Bros. to co-produce \"Interstellar\". One week later, Derek Mears revealed that Paramount was working with Platinum Dunes to make a new installment \"as fast as possible.\" David Bruckner was set to direct the next installment of \"Friday the 13th\". After altering the release date numerous times, Paramount set the film for a Friday, May", "The Texas Chainsaw Massacre (franchise) and adjusting for the 2011 inflation, \"The Texas Chainsaw Massacre\" is the eighth highest grossing horror film series in the United States, with a combined gross of $304.6 million, only outperforming the \"Chucky\" film series with approximately $203 million. The series is led by \"Friday the 13th\" at $687.1 million, \"A Nightmare on Elm Street\" with $592.8 million, the Hannibal Lecter film series with $588.7 million, \"Halloween\" with $557.5 million, \"Saw\" with $457.4 million, \"Scream\" with $442.9 million, and the \"Psycho\" film series, with $376.3 million. Following the release of \"Leatherface\", the producers had the rights to make five more", "Boo! A Madea Halloween Boo! A Madea Halloween Tyler Perry's Boo! A Madea Halloween is a 2016 American comedy horror film directed, written, starring and co-produced by Tyler Perry. The idea for the film originated from a fictitious Madea Halloween movie that was mentioned in Chris Rock's 2014 film \"Top Five\". It is the ninth in the \"Madea\" series and the second \"Madea\" film (the first is \"Madea's Witness Protection\") to not be adapted from a stage play. The film was released on October 21, 2016, by Lionsgate, received generally negative reviews, and grossed $74 million, making it the second-highest grossing \"Madea\" film. A", "Derek Mears Hodder. He portrayed a Predator in the 2010 science fiction horror film sequel \"Predators\". Mears appeared in \"Ultraforce 2\" on the \"Superego\" podcast. He also appeared in the American sitcom \"Community\" in the episode \"Romantic Expressionism\". He appeared as a zombie, credited as \"Master-at-Arms\", in \"\". Mears appeared with other horror actor Tyler Mane of Rob Zombie's \"Halloween\" in \"Compound Fracture\". On June 5, 2013, it was reported that Warner Bros. had relinquished their film rights to the \"Friday the 13th\" series to Paramount as part of a deal that allowed Warner Bros. to co-produce \"Interstellar\". One week later, Mears", "Friday the 13th (franchise) Bracke's book, which he had also worked on, and drew from its structure and content. \"Curious Goods: Behind the Scenes of Friday the 13th: The Series\" by Alyse Wax, a retrospective focusing on the 1987 television series, was released in October 2015 by BearManor Media. In May 1986, Domark released a \"Friday the 13th\" game for the Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64, and ZX Spectrum. The plot involved the player picking a \"sanctuary\" and attempting to persuade others to hide there. Jason is \"disguised as a friend\" until he decides to attack the player. Three years later, LJN published a game", "Pi Day Die Day \"local talent\" including Tapp and Ari Lehman (\"Friday the 13th\"), as well as comedian Steve Sabo, who made a cameo appearance. One Stoplight Productions and Cullen Productions also received an additional $3,970 in funds through the crowdfunding website Indiegogo. \"Pie Day Die Day\" had a limited release in the United States on March 12, 2016. It premiered at the Cle-Zel Theatre in Bowling Green, and was screened at the Maumee Indoor Theatre two days later on Pi Day. It is also available on DVD. The film was given 2.5 out of 5 stars by Matt Boiselle of \"Dread Central\", who", "Friday the 13th Part VI: Jason Lives Friday the 13th Part VI: Jason Lives Friday the 13th Part VI: Jason Lives (also known on screen as Jason Lives: Friday the 13th Part VI) is a 1986 American supernatural slasher film and the sixth installment in the \"Friday the 13th\" film series. It was written and directed by Tom McLoughlin. Although the original concept called for Tommy Jarvis, the protagonist of \"\" and \"\", to become the new villain, the poor fan reception of \"A New Beginning\" prompted the producers to bring back Jason Voorhees as the series' antagonist. In resurrecting Jason, McLoughlin made Jason an explicitly supernatural", "Friday the 13th Part VII: The New Blood of $19.2 million at the U.S. box office, placing it at number 53 on the list of the year's top earners. Susy Flory of the Santa Clarita \"Signal\" wrote: \"It's Hollywood's idea of every teenager's dream—a bunch of lovely, nubile young girls, a rustic cabin in the woods, a stash of marijuana, and, gore galore courtesy of a zombie superhuman psycho killer.\" The \"Star-Gazette\"s Amnon Kabatchnik wrote that the film is \"geared to appeal to the viewers' baser instincts, horrific moments of graphic mutilation are interwoven with nude-and-sex sequences,\" adding: \"The offbeat Tina is reminiscent of Stephen King's \"Carrie\", but" ]

[ -1.2451171875 ]

[ 3.4921875, 4.51171875, 4.4375, -9.0703125, -7.66796875, 4.5859375, -1.998046875, -7.8125, -9.125, -6.88671875, -7.83984375, -9.9765625, -1.7685546875, 3.421875, -10.8203125, -4.07421875, 3.140625, -2.943359375, -11.453125, -11.2890625, -6.05078125, -7.05078125, -11.515625, -11.3515625, -10.8359375, -7.47265625, -11.6328125, -9.7734375, -7.82421875, -9.546875, -5.48046875, -11.6171875, -11.359375, -0.4555664062, -6.9921875, -5.28125, 3.587890625, -7.03515625, -4.1015625, -8.7109375, -2.515625, -7.76953125, -11.5546875, -9.1015625, -11.3515625, -10.7890625, -11.2578125, -11, -9.234375, -2.216796875, -9.921875, -7.2890625, -10.9296875, -11.265625, -11.109375, -11.4609375, 0.49804687500000006, -11.2265625, -8.1171875, -11.1875, -10.796875, -7.36328125, -8.25, -10.6953125, -10.3828125, -8.5390625, -8.3671875, -5.80859375, 1.337890625, -8.3828125, -8.234375, -7.33984375, -10.453125, 2.28515625, -10.890625, -11.5625, -7.33984375, -9.296875, -10.109375, 1.689453125, -5.21875, -8.75, -10.53125, -8.2421875, -10.6796875, -9.0234375, -4.7578125, -11.2890625, -10.1015625, -11.3046875, -10.2734375, -11.59375, 4.1484375, -8.5390625, -9.015625, -10.640625, -3.884765625, -11.6171875, -8.3828125, -7.94140625 ]

[ "A man owns a bike" ]

[ "A man is hiking up the mountain trail", "On a park bench.", "Two men are pulling a hose off a boat indoors.", "Gathered into one group.", "There is a crisis in the dehydrated food industry.", "The girl is in a bedroom.", "Paul Giamatti plays Johnny Depp in: Tim Burton's \"Johnny\"." ]

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[ "A man looks at people as he performs his bike trick" ]

[ "A man rides a skateboard in the park.", "High-cost loans can often force borrowers into defaulting.", "The football player is running for a touchdown.", "The Neptune Fountain's figures are the work of Giambologna in the 1500s.", "The surfer is wearing a yellow wetsuit.", "The man can ride a bike.", "They are slippers made of terry cloth." ]

[]

[]

[ "That would be awesome." ]

[ "That would be quite awful.", "A female in white is showing her invention.", "Yadda yadda yadda has a definitive meaning to all.", "They just said young Americans, without giving a specific age.", "In 133 B.C., the kingdom was given over to Roman control by Attalus III.", "More time", "janitor smiling while working" ]

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[ "기모노\n기모노()는 일본의 전통 의상이다. '일본 옷'이라는 뜻의 와후쿠(和服（わふく）)라고도 한다. ‘기모노’라는 단어의 본래 뜻은 ‘입는 것’ (きるもの)으로 메이지 유신을 거쳐서 서양 의복이 도입된 이후 현대에 와서는 일본만의 독자적인 전통 의상을 뜻하는 것으로 의미가 축소되었다." ]

[ "나라별 교복\n가쿠란이라고 하는 남성 유니폼 비슷하게 생긴 옷은 해군 복장 비슷하게 생겼다. 복장은 주로 세일러 옷깃과 주름 치마로 구성되어 있다. 동계와 하계 구분에 따라 소매 길이와 면이 다르게 된다. 리본은 앞에 부착되어 있으며 끈으로 연결되어 있다. 가끔씩 리본 대신에 넥타이, 보로 타이, 스카프, 활 모양 장식으로 대체되기도 하다. 보통 색깔은 남색, 흰색, 회색, 연초록색, 검은색으로 구성된다.", "관례\n무로마치 시대(室町時代) 이후에는 민간에도 원복이 보급되었으며, 에도 시대(江戸時代)에는 구게를 제외한 무가와 서민들은 원복에서 에보시를 쓰는 대신 앞머리를 깎아 사카야키(月代) 형태의 머리 모양을 만드는 것으로 대신하게 되었다. 또한 에도 시대 이후에는 여성의 관례도 「모기」가 아닌 「원복」이라 불리게 되었으며, 결혼과 동시에 이루어졌다(미혼인 경우에도 18~20세 정도에 원복이 치러졌다). 여성의 원복은 수수한 옷을 입고 머리 모양을 마루마게(丸髷), 료와(両輪) 또는 삿코(先笄) 등의 형태로 바꾸어, 원복 전보다 화장을 짙게 하고 가네오야(鉄漿親)로부터 이를 검게 칠하는 의식을 받고 눈썹을 밀었다. 이만 검게 칠하고 눈썹을 밀지 않는 경우는 반원복(半元服)으로 불렀는데, 이것은 오늘날에도 일본 기온(祇園)의 마이코(舞妓)나 시마바라(嶋原)의 다유(太夫) 등 일부 하나마치(花街)에 남아 있다.", "한복\n바지는 복색, 재봉방법, 자수 등에 따라 홑바지, 가죽바지, 명주바지, 무명바지 등으로 이름을 구분한다.[24] 한복 바지와 서구식 바지가 다른 점은 구성은 대칭하지만 앞뒤 중심이 사선이어서 움직일 때 편하고 또 한편으로는 착용자의 위엄과 사회적 지위를 나타낸다는 데 있다. 따라서 치수가 분명히 정해져 움직임에 제한이 있게 되는 양장 바지와 달리 여유로운 한복 바지를 입으면 움직임에 상대적인 불편함을 덜 느끼게 되어 좌식 생활에 편했다.[25]", "가리기누\n원래는 민간의 사냥옷이었기 때문에 이름이 붙었고, 그 실용성으로 차츰 귀족들이 평상복으로 많이 입게 되었다. 그 뒤 후대로 내려오면서 공식 복장으로써의 색채가 늘어, 히타타레(直垂)에 이어 4위 이상의 관위를 가진 무가(武家)의 예복으로써 입게 되었다. 다만 가리기누를 입고 입궐해 천황을 알현하는 것은 일절 허용되지 않았다. 에도 시대에는 무늬가 있는 것으로 만들어 예복으로 입었다. 근대에 들어 일본 신토의 신직(神職)의 평상복이 되었다.", "한복\n생활 속의 움직임을 확보하는 의복을 선호하는 유목민의 복식과 유사하게 한복은 움직임의 편리함을 강조했기에[48] 한복 바지는 모내기와 씨름을 할 때도 착용이 가능했다.[49] 21세기에 이르기까지 기본적인 한복의 골격인 저고리,바지,치마라는 기본구조는 그대로 이어지되[33] 길이나 폭, 형태 등이 시대의 흐름에 따라 조금씩 변화하였다. 폭에 관해서는 넓은 바지, 좁은바지, 발목에 주름잡혀 좁은발목형태의 바지, 넓게 펼쳐진 밑단의 바지 등 폭과 길이가 다채로웠으며 허리 정도의 길이에 오는 저고리는 삼국시대까지만 해도 남녀 구분 없이 입었다.[50]", "히메\n고대 일본어에서 히메는 한자로 비매(比売 또는 毘売)라고 썼으며, 이는 남성에 대한 경칭인 히코, 한자로는 비고(彦、比古、毘古)에 대응되는 것이다. 때문에 일본 신화에 나오는 남녀 신들은 이름이 \"히코\"나 \"히메\"로 끝나는 경우가 많다.", "한복\n서민복(庶民服)은 서민들이 입던 옷으로 서민의 복식은 귀족 계층과는 달리 그 틀이 지속됐다. 개화기에 이르기 전까지 서민복은 별다른 변화 없이 저고리와 바지·치마가 기본을 이룬 고유 복식의 명맥이 이어졌다.[173] 보통 아이들의 한복으로 떠오르는 빨강 치마와 노란색 저고리 등도 혼인 전에 입었던 서민복에 해당한다.[174]", "한복\n치마는 한자로 裳(상) 혹은 裙(군)으로 쓰며 한복에서는 하의를 가리키되 여자 한복에 한정된다. 저고리의 경우 성별에 관계 없이 입었지만 치마는 여성만에 한정됐다는 사실이 다르다. 고구려 벽화와 경주 벽화분을 대조해볼 때 고구려 여성은 치마를 먼저 입고 그 위에 저고리를 입었으며 치마 주변(허리춤)에 띠를 두른 것으로 파악된다.[13] 그러나 치마를 입고 저고리를 입는 것은 고려 시대 전까지는 관습처럼 굳어지지 않았던 것으로 파악되고 있다.[14] 고구려 시대에는 서구형처럼 황금비례를 추구했으며 통일신라 시대에는 긴 치마를 저고리 위에 입어 당나라의 형태와 아주 유사한 형태를 띠었다.[15]", "하나미\n일본의 속담인 '꽃보다 경단'()은 이런 배경에서 나온 말로, 꽃 구경이라는 추상적인 행위보다는, 경단이라는 실제를 얻는 행위를 두고 말하는 말이다. 이뿐만 아니라 일본어에는 하나미와 관련이 깊은 말들이 적지 않게 있다. (참고로 일본의 만화 '꽃보다 남자'()는 이 속담에서 제목을 따온 것으로, 하나미와는 직접 관계가 없다.)", "로리타 패션\n로리타()패션은 도쿄나 오사카같은 일본 도시 등지에서 2000년대 급증한, 화려하고 과도하게 부풀린 치마로 상징되는 소녀 지향 스트리트 패션이다.\n그 특성 때문에 유달리 눈에 띄어서 스트리트 패션 중에서도 존재감이 특별하다.바로크, 로코코, 빅토리안처럼 역사에 존재하는 예술 양식과 소녀 시절에 동경할만한 공주님 이야기 이미지가 한데 섞여있다. 《로리타 의상 도락》(ロリータ衣装道楽)에서는 이렇게 저술했다. \"일본은 구미와는 종교 문화도 생활 양식도 다르기 때문에, 현실과 허구를 서로 엮어 자유로운 스타일을 짜낼 수 있었다.\"", "정형적 인물\n서양의 전통적 정형적 인물은, 고대 그리스·로마의 연극에 그 기원을 가진다. 근년의 것으로는, 이탈리아의 콤메디아 델라르테의 영향도 받고 있다.\n일본의 전통 예능에서는, 노라면 가면, 가부키라면 화장과 복장에 의해서 연기하는 역이 어떠한 캐릭터인지가 한눈에 알게 되어 있다. 분라쿠에서는 인형의 머리 부분은, 남녀 외, 연령·신분·성격에 따라서 다른 것을 사용한다.", "와라지\n와라지()는 일본의 전통 짚신이다. 조리와 혼동되기 쉽지만 모양이 약간 다르다. 와라지는 발목을 둘러 묶는 형태이기 때문에 조리보다 발에 밀착되어, 산행이나 장거리 보행에 알맞아 예전에는 여행의 필수품이었다. 전통적으로, 발가락이 약간 튀어나오게 신는다. 현재는 대체로 승려들이 신는다.", "일제 강점기\n1920년대에는 서양의 문물이 확산되면서 소수 양반가에서만 입던 양복과 드레스, 원피스, 정장 등이 시중에 확산, 중소도시의 중산층과 평민층에게도 확산되었다. 일본식 옷에 반감을 품은 지식인층은 의도적으로 양복을 사서 입기도 한다. 서양 문물의 영향을 받은 신여성과 모던보이들은 유교적 규범이 수그러든 자리에 사랑과 연애를 적극 받아들였다. 1930년 7월 16일자 한 일간지의 기사에는 이것이 상세히 묘사되기도 했다.", "히타타레\n히타타레와 비슷한 시기에 「다이몬 히타타레」(大紋直垂)・「스오우 히타타레」(素襖直垂)와, 갑옷 밑에 받쳐 입는 「요로이 히타타레」(鎧直垂)・「가타기누」(肩衣) 등이 생겨났다.고분 시대(古墳時代)부터 입기 시작했다고 알려져 있으며, 훗날에는 일반적인 일본식 의상처럼 가슴 앞으로 여미는 형식의 의복의 기원이 되었다. 즉 쇼쿠타이(束帯)나 노시(直衣)보다 오래 전에 일본에 존재하고 있었던 의복에서 비롯된다는 것이다.", "여장물\n여장물(女裝物)은 일본 만화의 한 종류이다. 남자가 여학교 같은 남자 금지의 장소에 여장을 하고 숨어들어 벌어지는 이야기를 그린다.", "원피스\n원피스(one piece, )는 윗옷과 아래옷(주로 치마)이 이어진 한 벌짜리 옷을 가리킨다. 일본어권과 한국어권에서는 뜻이 변질돼 “상·하의가 한 벌로 이어진 옷\"을 의미하는데, 영어로는 dress라고 한다.아동복, 여성용 외출복이나 실내복, 임부복, 단체복이나 제복, 간호사 등의 근무복, 특별한 의식에 입는 예복, 다른 옷 위에 덧입는 작업복 등 용도는 다양하다. 일상복으로 입는 경우 봄, 여름, 가을 동안에는 원피스 하나만으로 외출복이 되지만, 겨울에는 그 위에 외투를 걸쳐 입는 경우가 더 많다.", "기모노\n도메소데(留袖)는 결혼한 여성이 입는 기모노이다. 옷감의 색상에 따라 검은 바탕에 무늬를 넣은 구로토메소데 (黒留袖)와 여러 종류의 단색 바탕에 무늬를 넣은 이로토메소데 (色留袖)로 나뉜다. 두 종류 모두 무늬는 허리 아래 부분에만 새겨져 있다. 구로토메소데는 소매와 가슴, 등부분에 다섯 개의 가몬 (家紋, 가문)이 새겨져 있으며, 결혼한 여성이 입는 가장 격조 높은 예복으로 통한다. 결혼식에서 양가의 어머니가 입는 경우가 많다. 이로토메소데는 검은색 이외의 색으로 염색한 옷감으로 만든 도메소데를 말하며, 결혼식에서 주로 양가의 가까운 친척들이 입는다. 가몬은 세 개나 한 개 정도로, 구로토메소데보다 적게 새긴다. 일본의 궁중에서는 검은색이 상을 뜻하기 때문에 구로토메소데를 입지 않는 것이 관례이며, 훈장 수여와 같은 행사로 궁중에 입궐하는 경우, 이로토메소데를 정식으로 입어야 한다.", "가미시모\n가미시모()는 일본의 전통 의상 중 하나로, 남성의 정장이다. 일반적으로 가다기누와 하카마를 같은 옷감으로 만들어, 고소데 위에 입는다. 가다기누의 등과 가슴, 그리고 하카마의 고시이타의 네 곳에 가문의 문양을 넣어 입는다. 에도 시대에는 관직이 없는 사무라이의 예복으로 이용되어, 백성들이나 상인들도 이를 흉내내어 입는 경우가 많았기 때문에 현재에도 마쓰리와 같은 전통적인 행사 등을 할 때 착용하고 있다.", "기모노\n일본 의복은 5세기 초기부터 중국의 영향을 받았으며, 8세기 경에는 특히 여성층의 복식에서 당나라의 영향을 받아 옷깃을 여미는 법에 변화를 주었다.[2] 귀족 중심의 문화가 주를 이룬 헤이안 시대에는 중국의 의상을 일본의 풍토에 맞추어 개량하면서 의복이 양식화되고 매우 화려해졌다. 무로마치 시대에는 오늘날 소매가 좁은 기모노인 고소데를 속옷에서 일상복으로 입기 시작하였으며, 허리띠인 오비의 초기 형태도 등장하였다. 네덜란드인이나 포르투갈인의 방문으로 새·꽃·사람 등의 무늬를 여러가지 빛깔로 날염한 천인 사라사 (更紗)가 사용되기 시작하였다.", "면복\n면복(冕服)은 고대 중국에서 남성의 최고 등급의 예복을 말한다. 중국에 연원을 두고 있으며 동아시아 각국의 제왕이 면복을 착용하였다.", "한복\n포는 도포를 의미하는 말로서 외투의 일종이며 방한복으로서의 역할을 함과 동시에 예를 갖추는 자리에서는 꼭 입는다.[28] 두루마기도 사실상 포의 일종이다. 포는 중국과 일본의 의복과 한국의 의복을 구분하는 기준이 되기도 한다. 여성의 의복을 보았을 때 한복은 저고리-치마를 기본형으로 하고 포를 걸치지만 중국과 일본의 옷은 원피스에 해당하므로 그 형상이 다르다고 볼 수 있다.[29] 여자 한복에 저고리가 있다면 남자 한복에는 외의인 포가 있었으며 이는 삼국시대 이후로 고려와 조선에 이르기까지 한복을 아우르는 전통이었다. 남자 한복의 선을 나타내기도 했다.[30]", "일본어의 1인칭\n고대 일본의 남성명으로 자주 사용되었고 헤이안 시대 이후에는 신분이나 성별에 관계없는 일인칭으로 사용되었다. 현대에는 픽션에서 주로 ‘구게’()가 사용한다.", "나마하게\n나마하게()는 일본 아키타현 오가 시에서 열리는 전통 민속 행사이다. 원래는 정월 대보름 행사였다. 현재는 일본의 중요 무형 민속 문화재로 지정되어 있다. 12월 31일 그믐날 밤에 귀신의 탈을 쓴 청년들이 짚으로 만든 도롱이를 입고 손에 식칼과 나무통을 들고 '우는 아이는 없나?'를 외치며 집마다 돌아다니며 게으름뱅이를 혼내는 행사를 한다.", "한텐\n한텐(袢纏)은 일본의 전통적인 겨울 코트이다. 18세기 에도 시대에 처음 나왔다. '힛파리'라고도 한다. 한텐의 앞 주머니는 돈부리 ()라고 하며, \"가진 돈을 장부에도 적지 않고 계획없이 막 쓴다\"는 의미의 돈부리칸조(丼勘定)는 장인들이 돈부리에 돈을 넣어뒀다가 꺼내쓴 데에서 기원하는 말이다.", "망토\n오늘로는 별로 볼 수 없게 된 망토이지만, 숄 상태의 망토나 케이프 같은 형태로 볼 수 있다.\n일본에서는 제2차 세계대전 전부터 전후에 걸쳐, 구제 중학교나 구제 고등학교, 대학의 학생이, 방한벌로서 착용하고 있었던 적이 있다. 백선모, 굽이 높은 나막신에 흑망토라는 복장은, 밴 컬러 구제 고교생의 상징으로 여겨져 구제 고등학교의 기념상 등에 볼 수 있다. 현재는 학생이 망토를 착용하는 경우는 거의 없다. 1980년대 의 한 시기에 오사카부의 시텐노우지 중학교·고등학교에서는 방한벌로서 채용되고 있었다. 또, 졸업식에 착용되는 대학 예복을 망토라고 부르기도 한다.", "여장\n코스프레의 한 부분으로도 여장이 활용된다. 남성이 여성 캐릭터의 코스프레를 하는 경우도 일종의 여장으로 분류할 수 있는데, 현재 일본에는 남자를 대상으로 하는 코스프레 여성 의상 전문 통신판매도 존재하며, 여장 남자를 위한 코스프레 행사 및 동인 행사와 그곳에서의 여장 대회도 진행된다.", "히타타레\n남북조 시대의 동란으로 귀족 사회의 지위는 저하되었고, 히타타레는 구게(公家) 귀족의 평복으로써, 쇼쿠타이 ・ 노시 ・ 가리기누 등은 의식 등의 필요에 따라 착용되었다. 원래 일본에서 입궐할 때는 쇼쿠타이 ・ 이칸(衣冠) ・ 노시(直衣)만을 입도록 제한되었지만(노시는 특별히 천황의 칙허를 얻은 자에 한해 착용이 가능했다), 무로마치 시대에는 히타타레를 「시타스카타」(下姿)라 부르며 이를 입은 채 입궐하기도 했다. 더욱이 오닌의 난으로 무로마치도노(室町殿)에 천황이 일시 파천하면서 이러한 습관이 확산되었고, 셋케(摂家) 등을 제외하고는 시타스카타 차림으로 천황의 어전에 승전(御殿)하는 것이 허락되지 않았다. 에도 시대에 들어 복고적 풍조로 구게 사회에서는 가리기누가 다시 유행하기 시작했고, 시타스카타 차림으로 입궐하는 일은 없게 되었다.", "갈옷\n갈옷의 종류에는 남자는 갈적삼과 갈중이가 있으며, 여자는 갈적삼과 갈굴중이가 있다. 1950년대에서 1960년대까지도 제주의 주민들은 갈옷을 많이 입었으나 1970년대부터 복장이 현대화 되면서 갈옷 착용이 점차 줄어들었다. 또한 다양한 디자인으로 인해 외출복뿐만 아니라 침구류와 생활용품, 실내 장식 재료로 활용되고 있다.", "기모노\n오늘날 기모노는 여성들이 의례나 결혼식과 같은 특별한 행사가 있을 때 많이 입는다. 결혼하지 않은 여성이 입는 전통적인 기모노는 후리소데라고 부른다[2]. 후리소데는 소매가 길고 매우 넓으며, 자수나 염색을 이용한 화려한 무늬로 장식되어 있다. 일부 노년의 일본인들은 오늘날에도 기모노를 일상복으로 입는다. 남자들은 보통 결혼식과 다도, 공식적인 행사가 있을 때 기모노를 입는다. 전문 스모 선수들은 공식 석상에서는 항상 일본 전통 의상을 입어야 하기 때문에 기모노를 입고 등장할 때가 많다.[3] 이들은 보통 안감이 없는 면화 형태의 유카타와 같은 간편한 종류의 의상을 입는다.", "기모노\n기모노는 특별한 행사가 있을 때 착용하는 것이 일반적이다. 현대의 일본 여성들은 과거와는 달리 기모노를 입을 수 있는 기회가 많지 않기 때문에, 입는 과정이 복잡한 기모노를 직접 입는 것이 힘들다. 전형적인 여자 기모노 의상은 열두 가지 이상의 부분으로 나뉘기 때문에 이것을 입기 위해서는 공인된 전문 기모노 의상인의 도움이 필요하다. 이러한 의상인은 특별한 행사가 있을 때 미장원이나 가정 방문을 통해서 불려나와 기모노를 입혀준다.", "국민복\n국민복 ()은 1940년 11월 2일 일본 제국 정부에서 쇼와 천황의 칙령 형식을 빌려 공포한 \"국민복령\" (쇼와 15년 칙령 제725호)에 따라 정해진 일본 제국 내 남성을 위한 표준 제복이었다. \"국민복령\"은 전시의 물자 통제령 하에 있던 국민의 의복 생활을 간소·획일화하여 효율성을 도모키 위해 육군성의 주도로 만들어졌다. 형식은 일본 제국 육군의 군복을 베낀, 다섯 단추가 달린 국방색 한벌옷으로, 국민복령에서는 모자, 외투, 장갑, 각반, 구두에 이르기까지 소재, 색목 등을 자세히 정해놓았다.", "관례\n고대의 원복은 수호신인 우지가미(氏神)를 모신 사당 앞에서 어른의 옷으로 고쳐 입고, 미즈라(角髪)라 불리던 어린아이의 머리를 고쳐 어른의 그것과 같은 형태의 모습으로 틀어올렸는데, 이것을 간무리시타노 모토도리(冠下の髻)라 불렀고, 관례를 주관하며 대부에 해당하는 간노오야(冠親)가 관을 씌워 주었다. 이 간노오야는 무가(武家)에서는 에보시오야(烏帽子親)라고 불렸으며, 이들이 관례를 치르는 남성에게 에보시(烏帽子)라는 모자를 씌워 주었다(조정의 구게 및 헤이케 계통의 무가에서는 화장이나 눈썹을 밀고 이를 검게 칠하기도 했으며, 겐지 계통의 무가는 행하지 않는 경우가 많았다). 또한 그때까지 쓰던 이름 즉 유명(幼名)을 버리고 원복명(元服名), 즉 휘(諱)를 새롭게 받았다(이 경우 에보시오야의 이름에서 한 글자를 따서 짓는 경우도 많았다). 구게 여성이 관례를 올리는 경우는 그 의식을 모기(裳着)라고 하여, 성인이 된 여자에게 처음으로 치마를 입히던 것으로 헤이안 시대(平安時代)에서 아즈치모모야마 시대(安土桃山時代)를 거쳐 메이지 시대(明治時代)까지 존속했으며, 그 연령은 대체로 12세에서 16세였다(단 센고쿠 시대에는 정략 결혼에 대비하여 8세에서 10세 정도에 행해졌다).", "일본의 종교\n신토 (), 혹은 신도</b>는 일본 지역에서 발생한 애니미즘 신앙을 바탕으로 한 토착 신앙이다. 초기에는 자연물과 자연 현상 등을 신처럼 섬겼으나, 점차 조상이나 스가와라노 미치자네, 죽은 천황 등의 실존 인물들 또한 신으로 모시기 시작했다.[4] \"신토\"라는 용어는 《일본서기》에 처음으로 등장하였는데, 처음에는 종교 의식이나 신, 신들을 모시는 장소인 신사(神社)를 통틀어 일컫는 말이었다.[4] \"신토\"라는 용어가 현재와 같은 '일본 고유의 애니미즘 신앙'을 가리키게 된 건 12세기 이후의 일이다.[4] 에도 시대 이후 들어온 주자학 사상과 만나 교리가 체계적으로 정립되었으며, 메이지 시대 이후에는 국가의 주도로 신토의 교리를 학교에서 가르치기도 했다.[4] 제2차 세계 대전 이후 GHQ의 민주화 정책에 따라 교리 교육은 폐지되었고, 현재의 신토는 지역의 신사를 중심으로 종교 행사를 치르는 신사 신토로 남아 있다.[4]", "탈\n일본의 탈은 매우 오래되고, 정교한 극장식 전통의 일부이다. 비록 선사시대의 신화와 주술에 기원을 두고 있지만, 이 탈들은 정교한 예술의 형태로 발전되었다. 가장 오래된 탈은 기가쿠이다. 그 형태가 더 이상 전해오지는 않지만, 춤으로 표현되는 형식이지라고 추측된다. 부가쿠는 이것으로 부터 발전하여, 복잡한 움직이는 턱이 있는 탈을 쓴 춤극이 되었다.", "한복\n말 그대로 결혼식을 할 때 입은 한복을 뜻한다. 전통 혼례 시 신부는 다홍치마, 연두색 회장저고리에 원삼이나 활옷을 입고 큰머리를 얹고 용잠을 꽂으며 도투락 댕기[주해 5]를 늘이고 화관이나 족두리를 쓴다. 거기다 손을 감추기 위해 길게 덧댄 소매인 한삼을 착용했다. 신랑은 바지·저고리·조끼·마고자·옥색 두루마기·각대·사모를 쓰고 포선을 손에 든다.[167]", "소쿠타이\n소쿠타이(束帯)는 일본의 황실이나 귀족이 입는 전통 의상이다. 대부분 샤쿠를 잡고 칸무리를 쓴다. 현재 일본 황실 등에서는 거의 입지 않지만 천황의 즉위식 등에서는 입으며, 일반에서도 결혼식과 같은 행사에 입고 오는 사람도 있다.", "원복 (일본)\n원복()는 일본의 성인식 즉, 일종의 성인이 되기위한 과정이다. 무사시대에 남자가 어른이 되었다는 표시로 머리스타일과 옷을 어른식으로 바꾸고, 관(에보시)를 쓰는 의식을 말한다. 연령은 12~16세에 행해졌다.", "일본인\n현대 기모노의 기본형태는 발목까지 내려오는 길이에 소매는 길고 넓으며 목부분이 V자로 패여있고 단추나 끈이 없이 왼쪽 옷자락으로 오른쪽 옷자락을 덮어 허리에 오비를 둘러 묶는다. 목적에 따라 옷감의 종류, 모양, 색깔, 입는 법 등이 다르고 기혼 여성과 미혼 여성, 또 정식방문인지 가벼운 외출인지에 따라서도 옷모양이 달라진다.", "몸바사\n스와힐리 여성의 전통 의상은 캉가라 부르는 밝은 색으로 자국을 낸 목화천이다. 무슬림 여성은 부이 부이라 부르는 걸치는 천과, 히잡이라 부르는 머리 덮개를 함께 입으며 때때로 니캅이라 부르는 덮개를 쓴다. 남성은 키코이라 부르는 밝은 색깔의 띠인, 사롱의 형태를 입는다.", "일본인\n일본 의상의 최초의 형태는 관두의로 목부분에 구멍이 있어 머리를 넣는 기모노(着物)였다. 후에 불편하다 하여 앞을 가로로 가르고 앞쪽으로도 입을 수 있도록 고안하였다. 그리고 옆선의 트인 부분은 맞물려 박고 소매를 붙이게 되었다.", "훈도시\n훈도시(褌)는 일본의 성인 남성이 입는 전통 속옷으로, 면 재질로 되어 있다. 현대에는 서양식 팬티의 보급에 따라 거의 입지 않게 되었으며, 마쓰리와 같은 축제에 수영복으로 사용되는 경우가 가끔 있다. 로쿠샤쿠(6척), 쿠로네코, 모코, 에츄 등의 종류가 있다.", "유니클로\n1949년 3월부터 일본 야마구치현에는 Ogori shoji(남성복 전문 매장이 있으며, \"Men's Shop OS\"라 불렸음)라는 회사가 있었다. 1984년 5월부터, “Unique clothing warehouse”라는 이름으로 히로시마시 나카쿠에 유니섹스 캐주얼 의류매장을 열었다. 이 당시에 ‘유니클로’라는 이름이 탄생했으며, 이는 Unique clothing 의 줄임말이다. 1991년 10월에는 회사의 이름을 Ogori shoji에서 Fast retailing 으로 변경했으며, 1994년 4월까지 일본 전역에 100개의 유니클로 매장을 개점하였다.", "치마저고리\n치마저고리는 여자 한복의 치마와 저고리를 뭉뚱그려서 부르는 말이다. 남자가 입는 바지저고리는 바지와 저고리로 구성되어 있다.\n치마는 한 장의 천으로 된 스커트 모양의 아래옷을 말한다. 기장은 가슴에서 복사뼈까지이며, 어깨에서 끈으로 여미어 입게 된다. 저고리는 길이가 30 cm 정도의 짧은 상의로서, 통소매, 동정, 가슴에 늘어뜨리는 옷고름으로 요약된다. 저고리는 보통 치마보다 엷은색이 사용되며, 이 두 벌의 짝맞춤으로 여성의 의상이 된다. 소재는 비단이 많다.", "히후\n히후()는 일본 옷위에 덧입는 코트이다. 에도 시대에는 풍류인 등이 입었으나, 메이지 시대 이후는 변형되어 주로 여성이 입었다.", "기모노\n관습적으로, 직물과 염색을 규칙적인 형태로 가공한 기모노는 격식을 차리지 않은 것으로 본다. 격식을 차린 기모노는 전체 면이나 가장자리에 자유로운 형태의 디자인을 염색하여 입는다.[2] 헤이안 시대에는 기모노를 색채가 풍부한 두 개 혹은 그 이상의 겉옷을 각 옷의 색깔이 드러나도록 덧입었으며, 이러한 색상이 조합을 이루어 무늬를 나타냈다.[2] 오늘날의 기모노는 일반적으로 하나의 면만 입으며, 그 안에 하나 이상의 속옷을 입는다. 기모노의 무늬는 계절마다 다르게 나타날 수 있다. 예를 들어서 나비나 벚꽃 무늬가 새겨진 기모노는 봄에 입는 경우가 많으며, 물과 관련한 디자인의 무늬는 여름 동안에 많이 입는다. 가을 기모노에는 황갈색의 모미지나무 장식이 주를 이루며, 겨울에는 대나무, 소나무, 매화와 같은 디자인으로 꾸며진 기모노를 입는다.", "이로고노미\n이로고노미()란 일본인의 심리적 특징을 나타내는 개념의 하나이다. 근대의 민속학 국문학자인 오리구치 시노부에 의하여 주창되어 그의 사상체계의 중요한 핵심을 차지하는 개념이 되었다.\n이로고노미란 한자의 의미대로의 단순한 호색과 달리, 여러명의 뛰어난 여성을 부인으로 삼을 수 있는 남성의 능력 및 매력 그리고 그와 관계된 풍류,풍치등을 가리키는 말로써, 스키, 미야비, 야마토 고코로등의 심적 개념어와 동의로 파악하기도 한다. 오리구치에 따르면, 이러한 사상의 근저에는 뛰어난 여성을 얻는 일이 일본의 신토에서 여성이 무녀로서 갖는 영력을 획득하는 일을 의미하며, 남성이 그러한 여성의 영적 능력을 이용하여 정치적 지배권을 획득하게 되는 고대신앙의 잔재라고 한다.", "일본의 종교\n일본의 종교(日本-宗敎, )는 일본인들의 종교 문화 및 종교 생활을 통칭하는 말이다. 일본은 다수의 종교적 전통이 상호 영향을 주고받으면서 공존해왔기 때문에 종교 생활의 양상이 매우 다양하다. 때문에 일본인들은 종교 생활을 신앙 생활이 아닌 생활 관습으로 여긴다.[1]", "무녀\n일본에서는 무녀라고 하면 흰색 고소데(小袖)에 주홍색의 하카마를 입고 긴 머리를 뒤로 모아 묶고 있는 것이 전형적인 이미지이다. 이러한 무녀의 의상은 무녀장속(巫女装束)이라 불리며, 바지는 원래는 마치(襠)가 있었던 것이 메이지 시대 이후 교육자였던 시모다 우타코(下田歌子)가 여학생용 바지로서 안돈하카마(行灯袴)를 발명하여 호평을 받은 것을 계기로 같은 여성인 무녀들에게도 보급되었던 것이다. 따라서 현대에는 안돈형의 주홍색 하카마가 일반적이나, 전통적인 마치가 있는 하카마를 입는 신사도 있는가 하면 젊은 여성들의 취향에 맞추어 적자색 「고키(濃)」 하카마를 입기도 한다.\n제사에 종사하거나 신악을 추는 경우 등에는 치하야를 위로 걸쳐 입는 경우도 있다. 머리 모양도 긴 머리를 뒤로 모아 단지(檀紙)나 수인(水引) 같은 것을 가지고 묶는 것을 기본으로 하고 있지만, 머리카락 길이를 더하기 위해서 머리털을 더 붙이기도 한다.", "한복\n고구려 복식은 양성 모두 저고리가 엉덩이까지 내려왔으며 아래는 바지를 입어 귀부인일수록 바지의 폭이 넓어지는 특징이 있었다.[51] 다만 남자는 저고리와 바지를 입었고 여자는 저고리에 바지나 치마를, 혹은 저고리와 치마를 겸해서 입었다. 일반적으로 중국의 복식과 많이 다르지는 않으나 고구려의 경우에는 좌임, 우임, 합임(양쪽 어느 곳으로 모으지 않고 가운데로 모아 입은 형태) 등 세 종류가 공존하여 나타났고 상투나 자연스럽게 풀어헤친 머리 형태에는 분명한 차이가 있었다. 명주와 무명, 삼베를 이용하여 미적 측면도 추구한 점은 유목 민족과 구분지을 수 있다.[52] 또한 고구려인은 항상 전투복과 같은 옷을 입고 다녀 비상 사태에 대비했다는 기록이 있다.[53] 이는 고구려 사람들이 옷의 활동성을 중시했기 때문으로 복식이 뒷받침되었기에 전쟁에서도 능할 수 있었다. 고구려에서는 양잠이 발달했으며 옷감의 색 또한 다양해 흰색, 검정색, 노란색, 보라색 등이 쓰였다.[54]", "섹스 돌\n일본에서는 섹스돌이 \"더치 와이프\" ( 다치 와이푸)로 알려져 있는데, 지금은 상대적으로 값싼 섹스돌을 지칭한다. 이 명칭은 습한 나라에서 잘 때 팔다리를 땀에 젖은 이불에서 떨어뜨리기 위해 사용되는 등이나 대나무로 만든 장베개를 지칭하는, 아마도 영어 용어에서 유래했다. 오리엔트 인더스트리社는 일본의 하이엔드 실리콘 인형의 선도적인 제작사로 간주되는데, 싸구려 풍선 섹스돌의 이미지가 강한 용어 \"더치 와이프\" 와 자사의 인형을 구분하기 위해 1998년 경에 \"러브 돌\" ( 라부 도루) 이라는 또다른 단어를 사용하기 시작하였다. 이 용어는 고착화되어 현재는 일반적으로 하이엔드 러브 돌을 지칭하기 위해 사용된다.", "기모노\n에도 시대에 와서는 가부키나 우키요에 같은 서민 문화가 발달하면서 옷을 입는 방식에도 유행이 따르게 되었다. 넉넉하게 입는 형태가 유행하면서 미혼 여성의 옷 소매가 길어졌으며, 단순한 고정 끈의 역할이었던 오비도 묶는 방법이 다양한 형태로 발전해가면서 폭도 점점 넓어지고, 뒤로 묶는 것이 일반화되었다.[2] 예를 들어서, 옷을 꼭 맞는 수치로 말아서 만든 쓰이타케의 기모노는 옷의 솔기를 뜯어서 세탁하였기 때문에 오비도 가늘고 편리했으나, 옷 길이를 키에 맞추어 여분을 허리 위에서 말아올려 댄 오하쇼리가 있는 기모노는 오비의 폭을 두껍게 하여 맵시있게 입었다.[4] 이후에는 남자와 여자의 기본적인 기모노 형태가 크게 바뀌지 않고 계속 남아있게 된다. 기모노를 만드는 작업은 고급 재료를 이용한 특수한 기술을 사용하기 때문에 굉장한 예술 활동으로 여겨진다.[2]", "한복\n한복(韓服, , )은 한민족 고유의 옷이다. 역사적으로 한민족은 고유한 의복을 입으며 왕과 귀족은 여러 복식을 도입해 입으면서 유행을 만들어 내고 격식에 따라 다른 옷을 입기도 하였다.[1] 색이 들어간 천은 관복으로서 각 시대의 왕이 내린 복식금제에 따라 다른 양상을 띠기도 하였으나[2] 대다수의 평민들은 흰색 옷을 즐겨 입었으며 한복의 기본 구성인 치마와 저고리, 바지 등은 변치 않고 오랜 세월 동안 기본 골격을 유지하고 있다.[3]", "양복\n양복(洋服)은 서양식 의복을 뜻한다. 주로 남성이 입는 서양식 정장으로, 여성용 정장은 양장(洋裝)이다.", "일본의 문화\n기모노라고 불리는 일본의 전통의상이 있다. 여름에는 유카타라는 의상을 입는다.[[분류:일본의 문화| ]]", "한복\n긴 핀의 일종인 비녀는 쪽진 머리를 꼽아 두는 역할을 하였으며 장식 용도로도 사용됐다. 비녀의 길이나 재료도 색상이나 천의 종류와 마찬가지로 여성의 신분에 따라 나뉘었으며 상류층은 산호, 금, 은, 비취 등을 사용했으나 보통 사람들은 동, 뿔, 나무 등을 사용했다.[235] 비녀가 가체를 대체하게 되는 풍속이 더욱 보편화된 계기는 정조의 개혁이었으며 그 형태와 디자인 또한 더욱 다양해지고 재산 축적의 일환으로도 쓰이게 되었다. 길이는 33cm~40cm에 이르렀으며 결혼한 여성의 전유물이 되면서 청혼의 표시로 비녀를 보내는 풍습이 생겨나게 되었다.[236] 보통 결혼식에는 족두리를 착용했으며 겨울의 추위를 막기 위해서는 아얌을 착용했다. 남성의 경우 갓을 머리에 썼으며 모자와 흡사한 용도였다. 그 챙의 길이와 모양이 지위에 따라 달랐다.", "꽃보다 남자 (일본의 드라마)\n꽃보다 남자()는, 카미오 요코의 만화 《꽃보다 남자》를 원작으로 하여, 2005년·2007년에 TBS를 비롯한, 마이니치 방송(긴키 광역권), 주부닛폰 방송(주쿄 광역권), RKB 마이니치 방송 등 26개 JNN 지역 민방 네트워크를 통해서 전국적으로 일제히 송출된 일본의 텔레비전 드라마이다.", "귀갑\n귀갑()는 일본 갑옷의 하나로, 두정갑의 일종이다. 육각형 모양의 철판이나 단련한 가죽을 사슬로 연결한 뒤 두 장의 천이나 가죽 사이에 누벼 만들었는데, 그 모양이 마치 거북의 등딱지 같다 하여 \"귀갑\"이라는 이름이 붙었다.", "로리타 패션\n로리타 패션(, , )이란 일본 독자적 패션을 중심으로 한 무브먼트이다. 일본 뿐만 아니라, 다른 여러 나라에서도 주목을 끌고 있다. 또는 그러한 옷을 취향대로 입거나, 또는 입는 활동에 관심을 기울이는 사람을 두루 일컫는 말. 일본에서는 표준어인 ロリータ 외에도 ロリィタ라 표기하기도 한다.", "오시루시\n오시루시 () 혹은 어인장(御印章)는 일본의 황족들이 옷을 두르는 데 사용하는 휘장 또는 심벌 마크를 가리킨다. 한자나 그림을 사용한다.", "하카마\n하카마(袴)는 일본의 전통 의상이다. 바깥에 드러내는 겉옷이며, 하반신에 착용하는 하의이다. 허리에서 발목까지 덮으며, 가랑이가 져있고 스커트 모양도 있다.", "치마\n치마는 서로 다른 문화권과 다른 역사속에서 다른 방향으로 발전해왔다. 현대 서양 유럽권에서는 거의 대부분 여자가 입으며, 지역 풍습에 따라 남자가 입기도 한다. 남성의 전통 옷으로는 킬트나 푸스타넬라가 있다. 의상의 역사 연구가들은 18세기 또는 그 이전의 스커트 모양의 의상을 패티코트로 부르기도 한다.", "기모노\n현대 남자 기모노가 갖는 확연한 차이점은 옷감이다. 전형적인 남자 기모노는 채도가 낮은 검은 계통의 색상으로, 검은색, 남색, 녹색, 갈색이 일반적이다. 옷감은 광택이 없는 재질을 사용한다. 희미한 무늬로 짜여진 옷감은 캐주얼한 기모노에서 주로 찾아볼 수 있다. 좀 더 현대적인 기모노의 경우 밝은 보라색, 녹색, 파란색으로 염색되어 있기도 하다. 스모 선수도 적자색과 같이 꽤 밝은 계통의 기모노를 입고 등장하기도 한다.", "유카타\n유카타(浴衣)는 일본의 전통 의상이다. 일본 여관에서 목욕을 한 후나 본오도리, 불꽃놀이를 할 때 주로입는다.\n다른 전통 의상처럼 소매가 넓고 솔기가 바로 들어온다. 전통적으로 유카타는 대부분 남색으로 만들었다. 하지만 오늘날 색상과 디자인은 다양해졌다. 기모노와 마찬가지로, 젊은 사람들이 더 밝은 색깔을 자주 입는 편이다.", "기모노\n가장 격식을 갖춘 남자 기모노는 몬츠키하카마 (紋付袴)이다. 메이지 시대 이후부터 제 1 예장으로 정해진 것으로, 나가기 위에 하오리와 하카마를 입는 방식이다. 나가기와 하오리는 모두 검은색 비단에 가슴과 어깨, 등 부분에 다섯 가몬이 새겨져 있어야 한다. 가몬이 세 개일 경우 격식의 정도는 약간 낮아진다. 하카마의 경우 세로줄 무늬를 가진 견직물이나 폴리에스테르를 소재로 사용하며, 무늬가 없는 것은 약식으로 친다. 격식을 갖출 때는 장신구와 하얀 속옷 (나가쥬반) 또한 한 쌍으로 착용한다.", "한복\n일반적으로 옷에는 속옷부터 바지와 치마 등을 포함하는 하의, 셔츠나 남방을 가리키는 상의 등 그 쓰임새와 입는 용도에 따라 구분 지어져 있다. 한복에도 두루마기, 포, 바지, 마고자 등 착용 시 가장 기본부터 입는 옷부터 맨 위에 걸치는 두루마기에 이르기까지 다양한 종류가 존재하며 이들 중 가장 기본적인 요소를 구성하는 한복에 대해 다룬다.", "한복\n구군복(具軍服)은 군복의 다른 이름으로서[55] 조선시대에 임금 또는 무관에 해당되는 관직을 가진 벼슬아치나 지방의 수령이 입는 한복을 일컫는다. 오늘날의 장교 정복에 해당되는 복장으로 등급에 따라 노란 색에 소매만 붉은 색의 두루마기에 검은 색의 조끼를 걸친 것과 파란 색에 소매만 붉은 색의 두루마기에 검은 색의 조끼를 걸친 종류 등이 있다. 보통 군복의 안에 덧대어 입으므로 이를 \"군복의 속옷\"이라고 부르기도 한다. 구군복은 조선 전기부터 후기를 통틀어 가장 대표적인 무신의 복식이었다.[164] 이사벨라 버드 비숍이 쓴 《한국과 그 이웃나라들》에는 구한말 유럽식 군복을 입은 기병대와 구군복이 혼재하고 있는 모습이 서술되어 있다.[165][주해 4]", "턱시도\n턱시도()는 남성의 예복 중 하나로, 본래는 야간에만 착용하는 옷이다. 또한 야간의 예복인 연미복보다 약식인 것으로 알려져 있다.", "연미복\n연미복(燕尾服)은 남성이 밤에 입는 예복 중 하나이다. 연미, 즉 제비의 꼬리를 모방해 제작된 남성용 예복이다.", "기모노\n여자 기모노에 비해 남자 기모노 의상은 매우 단순하며, 전형적으로 신발을 제외한 다섯 부분으로 나뉜다. 소매는 여자 기모노와 다르게 밑부분까지 기모노의 몸체에 모두 붙어 있다. 이 때문에 허리에 두른 오비에 맞게 소매가 여자 기모노에 비해서는 약간 좁은 편이다.", "다비 (의상)\n다비(足袋, たび)는 일본의 전통 버선이다. 일본 전통 신발인 조리, 게타, 등을 신을 때 사용할 수 있게, 엄지발가락과 검지발가락 사이가 갈라져 있다.", "히타타레\n인세이(院政) 시기를 즈음해 무사가 중앙의 정치에 대두하게 되었고, 이들 무사의 평복이었던 히타타레도 무사의 지위 상승과 함께 정장으로써 인식되기 시작했다. 고분 시대의 남성 의복이나 대륙의 영향을 받은 쇼쿠타이, 노시 등은 윗옷을 하카마 밖으로 내서 입는 것이 통례였지만, 히타타레는 활동하기 쉽게 윗옷을 하카마 안으로 집어넣어서 입게 되었다. 정장의 지위를 얻으면서 히타타레는 그 위엄을 드러내기 위해 좁은 소매가 차츰 넓어지고 커지기 시작했고, 하카마도 복숭아뼈까지 올 정도로 길어졌으며, 넓은 소매가 전투에 방해가 될 지경이 되자 소매를 좁게 묶는 끈이 생겨났고, 갑주 아래 받쳐 입는 요로이 히타타레(鎧直垂)로써 사용되기에 이른다. 활을 당기는 것을 방해하지 않도록 활을 잡는 왼쪽 어깨 부분을 아예 드러내고 활을 쏘거나 한쪽 어깨를 고정시킨 채 갑옷을 입는 차림이 정착했다. 전쟁에서 적의 수급을 죽인 적의 시신의 오른쪽 히타타레 소매를 잘라 거기에 수급을 싸서 들고 가는 일도 있었다.", "히타타레\n고대 히타타레는 서민의 의복이었다. 하니와(埴輪)나 헤이안 ・ 가마쿠라 시대(鎌倉時代)의 에마키(絵巻)에 보이는 남성의 통수의(筒袖衣)가 히타타레의 기원이 되었고, 서민계급을 수용하면서 발전해온 일본의 무사 사회에서 공적인 의복으로써 착용하게 되었다.", "한복\n조끼와 달리 마고자는 만주 지방의 옷으로 원래 이름은 마괘 혹은 마괘자[36] 였고 흥선대원군이 1887년 만주에서 돌아오면서 들려왔다는 이야기가 가장 널리 알려진 이야기이다.[37][38] 그는 마고자로 추운 기후를 견딘 것으로 알려졌으며 보온효과에 더해 입기가 쉬워 백성들에게도 금방 퍼지게 되었다.[37][39] 남녀 모두 입는 겉옷으로 남자들은 여름이 아니면 반드시 입는다. 처음부터 성별 구분 없이 입지는 않았으며 남자만 입던 것이 후에는 상관 없이 남녀노소 입게 변하였고 앞에 섶이 생겨났다.[40] 형태상으로는 저고리보다 길이가 조금 더 길고 목 부분은 많이 파여 있어 깃과 동정을 따로 붙이지 않는다.[41]", "요바이\n요바이()란 밤중에 성교를 목적으로 모르는 사람의 침실에 침입하는 일본의 옛 풍습이다. 일반적으로 서일본에서 보이는 풍습으로, 간토 이북지방에서는 보이지 않는다고 한다. 婚, 嫁, 結婚 등의 글자를 예전에는 요바후(よばふ), 요바히(よばひ)라고 불렀으며, 이는 부르다는 뜻의 동사 요부(呼ぶ)의 재활용형인 つまどい, つままぎ 등과 더불어 구혼을 위해 남자가 여자의 침소에 들어오는 행위를 의미했다. 일본의 옛 혼인풍습은 결혼후에도 남자가 여자 집에 다니는 것이 보통이었으며, 이 때문에 이러한 행위도 요바이라고 불렀다. 요바이를 \"夜這い\"로 표기하게 되자 이 행위는 부모나 상대의 허락없이 이성의 침실에 몰래 침입하는 불순한 행위를 가리키게 되어 배덕한 일로 여겨져 없어지기에 이르렀다.", "호로\n호로(母衣)는 일본 군인의 복장 중 하나이다. 일본어로 幌, 保侶라고도 표기되기도 한다.", "날개옷 설화\n한국과 일본에서는 여자가 날개옷을 입어야 하늘나라로 갈 수 있는 선녀이다. 한국에서는 선녀가 아이를 데리고 가게된다.", "무라오족\n전통적으로 무람들의 결혼은 부모가 주선하며, 새신랑과 새신부는 아들이 태어날 때까지 함께 살지 않는다. 이들의 주거양식은 진흙으로 벽돌을 만들어 사용하며, 세 개의 방으로 구성되어 있다. 동물은 주거지에서 멀리 키운다. 남자의 전통의상은 큰 단추가 달린 저고리와 넓은 바지와 샌들을 신는다. 독신녀는 결혼할 때까지 두 갈래로 머리를 땋는다.", "아오자이\n현재는 대부분 여성만 아오자이를 입은 모습을 볼 수 있으며, 남성용 아오자이도 있다. 그러나 현대에서 남성용 아오자이는 결혼이나 전통 의식 등에 한정되어 남성이 아오자이를 입은 모습을 보는 것은 쉽지 않다.", "칸자시\n칸자시()는 일본의 전통 머리 장신구이다. 한자 뜻 자체는 '비녀'를 뜻하기에, \"일본 비녀\"라고도 불린다.", "일본 인형\n일본 인형()은 기모노를 입고 니혼가미를 땋은, 일본의 전통적인 풍속을 담은 인형의 총칭이다.", "프린세스 츄츄\n프린세스 츄츄(Princess TuTu)의 Tutu 는 발레리나는 입는 발레의상의 명칭이다. 불어발음으로서 우리발음으로도 튀튀라 읽을 수 있지만 본 작품이 일본에서 제작되어 일본어에 튀튀란 발음이 없고 ‘tu’을 ‘츄’로서 가까운 발음을 하고 있다. ‘츄츄’란 발음은 tutu의 일본식 발음인 것이다. 굳이 ‘튀튀’라 정하기보다는 ‘츄츄’란 어감이 작품의 성격과 잘 부합되어 원작 그대로의 제목을 사용하게 되었다.", "이케멘\n이케멘() 또는 이케맨은 미남(美男)을 뜻하는 일본어 속어이다. TBS에서 2008년 3월 21일 방송된 한 방송 프로그램에 따르면 일본의 잡지 《egg》의 1999년 1월호에서 편집자인 야노 토모코()가 '잘 나가는 남자'라는 뜻의 '이케테루멘즈()'를 줄여서 '이케멘'으로 사용한 것이 그 유래라고 한다. 일본에서는 2010년 현재 말이 널리 정착되어 언론에서 '이케멘 아무개'라고 표현하기도 한다.", "기모노\n메이지 시대를 거치면서 격식을 갖춘 기모노 차림은 현대적인 서양 의복과 일상복인 유카타로 교체되기 시작했다.[5] 메이지 천황의 칙령으로 경찰과 역무원, 선생의 복장이 서양식으로 바뀌었으며, 군대와 소년들의 교복 또한 서양식을 따르도록 하였다. 하지만 여성들은 계속 기모노를 입었으며, 남성들도 공식적인 자리 이외에는 기모노를 일상복으로 입는 경우가 많았다. 1920년대에는 여학생들이 학교 내외에서 일상복으로 원피스 형태의 하카마를 많이 입었는데, 다이쇼 시대 후반부터 세일러복을 제복으로 입는 경우가 늘어났다. 1923년 간토 대지진 당시 동작이 불편한 기모노를 입은 여성들이 약탈의 대상이 되기도 하였기 때문에, 다음 해 동경부인아동복조합 (東京婦人子供服組合)이 발족하면서 여성 의복의 서양화를 추진하였다.", "팔라웅족\n여인들의 전통복장은 거주하는 지역마다 다르다. 보통 흑백의 짧은 상의와 서로 다른 색깔로 장신된 옷을 입는다. 하의는 붉은 색 계열이며 보통 바지의 형태로 입는다. 남자들은 파란 색이나 하얀 색의 짧고 폭이 넓은 상의를 입고 긴 바지를 입는다. 머리는 흑백의 수건으로 덮는다. 어떤 마을에서는 남자들이 몸에 호랑이나 새, 꽃과 문신을 하기도 한다.", "기모노\n나가주반 (長襦袢, 또는 주반)은 기모노와 비슷한 형태를 가진 옷으로, 겉옷 안에 입는 남녀 공용 의상이다. 비단 기모노가 섬세하고 깨끗하게 다루는데 어려움이 있기 때문에, 나가주반을 입으면 착용자의 피부에 접촉하는 것을 막아주어 때가 타는 것을 막을 수 있다. 겉에 기모노를 입었을 경우에는 나가주반의 동정 부분만 보이게 된다.[13] 대부분의 나가주반은 떼어낼 수 있는 동정으로 만들어져 있기 때문에 겉옷에 맞게 바꿀 수 있고, 옷 전체가 아닌 동정만 따로 세탁할 수도 있다. 격식을 차린 나가주반의 색상은 하얀색이지만, 겉의 기모노처럼 아름답게 꾸미거나 무늬가 있는 경우도 종종 있다. 남자 기모노는 무늬와 색상이 절제되어 있기 때문에, 나가주반 또한 절제된 디자인과 색상으로 따라 입는다.", "일본 정교회\n한편 일본전통을 존중하여 교회의 토착화도 진행되었다. 어떤 서양인은 일본의 한 정교회 성당을 방문하였을 때 신도들이 입구에서 신발을 벗고 들어가는 모습을 보고 깜짝 놀랐다. 일본인들은 집에 들어갈 때 항상 신발을 벗는다. 하물며 하느님의 집에 들어가면서 어찌 신발을 벗지 않을 수 있겠는가? 그러므로 신발을 벗는 것은 단순히 문화적인 관습이 아니라, 그들 나름대로 기독교 가치를 지닌 기독교 행위이며 교회 안에 살아계신 하느님을 가족적인 관계 안에서 친밀하게 느끼는 관계로 이해하고 있다는 사실을 말해준다.", "여장\n소년, 청년 또는 성인 남성이 강인한 정신과 육체를 가지고 거친 언행과 행동거지를 더욱 드러내는 사회나 시대도 있었던 것처럼 여성적인 남자가 사회적으로 이상적인 것으로 여겨졌던 사회나 시대의 문화도 존재하는데, 헤이안 시대 일본의 귀족들은 여성적인 것을 이상으로 삼기도 했다. 1960년대부터 70년대에 걸쳐 「플라워 무브먼트」가 서구 사회에서 일어났는데, 남성이 여성적인 몸을 갖추는 것이 유행하였다. 그람룩이나 펑크 패션 등에서도 남성이 화려한 의상을 하고 립스틱을 바르기도 했다.", "한푸\n한푸(한복, )는 중국 한족고유의 옷이다. 한푸는 또 한장(漢裝), 화복(華服)이라고도 한다. 한푸란 주로 삼황오제(三皇五帝)부터 명나라 말기(17세기 중엽)까지 수 천 년 동안 한족 백성들이 입던 전통복식을 가리키는데 이들 모두를 한푸라 칭한다. 한푸란 명사는 처음에는 한인(漢人)의 전통복식에 대한 다른 민족들의 호칭이었다. 마치 호인(胡人)의 전통복식을 호복(胡服)이라고 칭하는 것처럼 한인의 전통복식도 상대적으로 한푸라고 불렀다. 역사적인 전승과 발전과정 중에 한푸는 선인들의 ‘인(仁), 의(義), 예(禮), 지(智),신(信)’이란 도덕내포와 순선순미(純善純美)한 중국 전통 복식예술의 중요한 상징을 충분히 펼쳐보였다.", "가부키\n가부키()는 일본의 전통 공연 예술이다. 모든 출연자는 남성이며, 노(能)와 달리 여성역을 맡은 배우는 여성적 발성을 한다. 전용 극장인 가부키자(歌舞伎座)에서 공연된다. 일본의 주요무형문화재이며, 유네스코 지정 세계무형유산으로 등록되어 있다.", "한국의 문화\n한복(韓服)은 한민족 고유의 옷으로, 북한은 조선옷이라고 부른다. 한복의 역사는 우선 삼국 시대로 거슬러 올라간다. 삼국시대에는 대체로 유(저고리), 고(바지), 상(치마), 포(두루마기)를 중심으로 관모(모자), 대(허리띠), 화(신발)가 더해졌다 저고리가 엉덩이까지 내려올 만큼 길고, 바지의 통도 넓었으며 남성과 여성이 함께 입는 남녀 공용이었다. 남북국 시대에는 한국 고유의 포는 서민들이 주로 입었으며, 귀족들은 평상복으로만 입었다. 여성들의 새로운 옷으로는 반비(半臂)가 있었는데,주로 귀족들이 저고리 위에 덧입었다. 고려 시대에는 복식 구조가 크게 변했다. 특히 귀족층이나 지배층에서는 중국 옷을 그대로 받아들여 입고, 서민층에서는 우리 고유의 복식을 계승하여 입어 복식의 이중 구조가 나타났다. 조선 시대에는 우리 고유의 복식이 서민복으로 뿌리 깊게 이어졌다. 중기나 후기에 들어서면서 한층 단순해지고 띠 대신 고름을 매기 시작하였으며, 두루마기의 종류도 다양해졌다. 말기에는양반과 서민의 옷 사이에 큰 차이가 없어졌다. 특히 여자 저고리는 후기로 가면서 길이가 짧아져 오늘날과 거의 같은 모양이 되었다. 마고자를 입기 시작하였고 서양 문물의 영향으로 조끼를 입기 시작하였다. 일제 강점기 때에는 여자들의 저고리가 짧아져서 오늘에 이르게 되었다. 오늘날에는 일반적으로 한복을 명절이나 특수한 날에만 입게 되었으며,사람들이 편하게 입을 수 있는 생활 한복이 보급되기도 하였다. 청학동에서는 아직도 한복을 일상복으로 입고 있고, 국악고등학교, 민족사관고등학교에서 교복으로 입고 있다. 택견 무술에는 하얀 한복을 입는 것이 통례이며, 첫돌, 환갑, 칠순, 팔순 등의 일부 생일에는 생일을 맞은 사람이 입기도 한다.", "로리타 패션\n프릴로 시작하여 지나치게 소녀 취미인 로리타 패션은, 서양에서는 일본만큼 지지받지는 못한다. 서양에서 10대는 늘 발돋움을 하고 있어서, 그들은 성숙을 목표로 하기에 귀여움보다는 섹시함으로 칭찬받는 것을 바라기 때문이라고 다케모토 노바라는 적고 있다.로리타 계열 브랜드의 관객은 주로 10대지만, 그중에선 10대가 지나도 로리타를 버리지 못하는 사람도 있다. 예를 들면, 장식이 지나치게 많아서 로리타를 못마땅하게 여기던 어머니가 로리타인 딸에게 영향을 받아서, 부모와 자식이 로리타 패션에 빠져버린 경우도 있다고 한다. 더욱이, 연배의 여성이 갸루나 로리타 패션을 동경하게 되는 이유를 다케모토 노바라는 ‘귀엽기 때문’이고, 어려운 이상이나 주장은 존재하지 않는다고 이야기하고 있다.서양인이 보았을 때 기이한 스트리트 패션 중에는, 갸루계열 패션도 있다. 로리타와 갸루는 여러 면에서 상반하는 존재이기는 하나, 10대를 넘어서도 갸루 옷을 애용하는 사람이 있어서, 갸루의 성지인 시부야의 쇼핑 센터 109에는 연배의 여성도 드문드문 볼 수 있다고 한다. 그러나, 사회적 시선 속에서는 10대 이상이 입기엔 심하다는 소리를 듣기 십상이다.다케모토 노바라는 나도 성인이 된 남성이지만, 로리타 패션을 애호하고 있고, 부모에게 비판받고 있다고 한다.다케모토 노바라는 서양 여성이 사회인으로서 아이덴티티를 확보해야만 한다고 생각하는 건 훌륭하지만, 양복을 고를 때까지 사회에 대해 생각해야함은 부자유로운 것은 아닌가, 하고 판단하고 있으며,10대를 넘어서도 로리타 패션을 계속 사랑하기 위해서는 자신의 감성이나 가치 기준에 절대적인 자신감과 깊은 생각을 가지지 않으면 어려운 일이라고도 이야기한다.또한 나중에 한 인터뷰에서 다케모토 노바라는 이렇게 쓰고 있다. 젊은 시절에는 자신이 사회에서 특별시되어있던 것을 몰랐다가, 어른이 되고나서 여러가지로 박해당했단 것을 깨닫고, 어머니에게 “왜 이렇게 될 때까지 내버려뒀던 거야?” 라고 어머니가 자신의 행동을 수정하지 않은 일에 대해 물어봤을 때, 어머니는 이렇게 말했다. “맨 처음에는 몇 번인가 수정하려했지만, 고쳐지지 않아서, ‘살아있으면 충분하다’고 생각하고 포기했다.”(또한, 다케모토 노바라는 컨트리나 PINK HOUSE를 저작 《소레이누》(それいぬ)에서 “컨트리 따위 제기랄같은 놀음! (カントリーなんて糞くらいあそばせ！)”라고 비판했지만, 그런 한편 컨트리에 조금 이끌려버렸음을 자기 비판하기도 하고, 나아가서는 의견이 바뀌었는지 《패치워크》(パッチワーク)의 “캐리어를 월경하는 자유와 의지” 맨 마지막에서 머리부터 발끝까지 PINK HOUSE를 입은 늙은 여성들을 칭찬하고 있다.또한, 다케모토 노바라는 소설가이지만, 부모는 좌익을 싫어하는 데다가 ‘책을 읽으면 좌익이 된다’고 굳게 믿었기 때문에 어릴 적에는 소설을 읽기 위해 고생했다.더군다나 《소레이누》(それいぬ)의 ‘황실예찬’에서, 자신을 좌익적인 인간이라고 적고 있다.", "기모노\n일반적으로 현대 일본에서는 기모노와 히요쿠를 겹쳐입는 것에 특별한 의의를 갖지 않으며, 오직 마이코와 게이샤만이 춤과 성적인 암시를 위해, 주로 목덜미를 강조하면서 이 겹쳐 입기 기술을 사용한다. 또한, 현대 일본의 전통 신토 결혼식에는 신부가 기모노를 히요쿠와 함께 입기도 한다.", "기모노\n고몬 (小紋)은 자잘한 무늬라는 뜻을 가진 기모노로, 옷 전체에 자잘하게 반복되는 무늬가 특징이다. 주로 격식을 차리지 않고 외출할 때 많이 입는 의상으로, 오비에 따라서는 식당과 같은 곳에서 예복으로도 입을 수 있다. 츠케사게와 마찬가지로 가봉한 상태에서 염색하여 만든다.", "한복\n한복 바지는 아랫도리에 입는 옷으로 고대에는 남자와 여자 모두 바지를 입었던 것으로 추정되나 조선시대에는 남자는 겉옷으로 입는 반면에 여자는 속옷으로만 바지를 입게 되었다. 한복 바지는 통이 넓어서 허리끈을 매어서 고정시킨다. 왼손으로 바지춤을 잡고 오른 손으로 바짝 당겨 왼쪽으로 접어 잡아 맨다. 한복의 바지의 발목 즉 바짓부리를 묶는 끈을 대님이라고 한다.[178] 대님은 명주처럼 얇은 옷감을 주로 사용하는데 개량된 한복에서는 단추나 매듭을 이용하기도 한다.[179] 대님과 비슷한 종류로 볼 수 있는 행전은 한복에서 발싸개로 한복 바지의 넓은 밑단을 정리하기 위해 입었다.", "파란자\n파란자(Паранджа)는 몸과 머리를 덮는 중앙 아시아의 전통 여성 의상이다.", "속옷\n속옷()은 남성이나 여성이 겉옷 안에 입는 옷이다. 내복(內服) 또는 내의(內衣)라고도 하는데, 보통 '내복'은 추운 계절에 속옷 위에 덧입는 방한용 옷을 의미한다.", "괘갑\n괘갑()은 고대 일본에서 사용된 갑옷으로, 찰갑의 일종이다.", "사모 (모자)\n사모(紗帽)는 과거 중국, 한국, 베트남 등 동아시아 국가들에서 문무백관들이 관복을 입을 때에 함께 착용하던 모자로, 검은 사(紗)로 만들며 뒤에 뿔이 2개 있는 것이 특징이다. 일본 도요토미 히데요시도 주변국의 영향을 받아 관백으로서 사모를 착용하였다고 전해진다. 현대 한국에서는 흔히 전통 혼례식에서 신랑이 쓰는 예모(禮帽)로 용도가 변경되었다.", "고딕 패션\n일본에서는 고스(\"Goth\")는 고딕(Gothic)의 약칭으로서 사용되는 것이 많지만, 이것은 해외에서는 약칭은 아니고 「고딕적(사상·복장)인 사람들」을 가리킨 말이 된다. 상술한 대로, 고딕 패션을 하고 있는 인간이 반드시 고딕적인 사상을 가지고 있는 것이 아니고, 또 고딕적인 사상을 가지는 인간이 반드시 고딕 패션을 하고 있다고는 할 수 없다.", "코로모가에\n코로모가에(衣替え/ころもがえ)는 을 일본에서 계절이 바뀔 때, 입을 옷 내놓고, 입지 않는 옷 넣어 두는 것을 말한다. 일반적으로 학교나 회사 등에서 같이 맞춰입는 교복/제목/사복 등을 각 절기에 맞추어 다같이 전환하는 것을 뜻한다. 대략 5월 말경부터 6월 중순까지 하복으로, 9월 말부터 10월 중순경까지 동복으로 전환한다. 춘추복이 있는 단체도 있어, 더욱 세분화 되기도 한다." ]

[ 8.6171875 ]

[ -6.71484375, -9.6640625, -13.0859375, -8.5703125, -13.078125, -9.9609375, -13.1875, -10.71875, -12.265625, -9.53125, -13.2109375, -10.0703125, -9.875, -6.45703125, -12.3203125, -6.2421875, -9.890625, -1.525390625, -2.779296875, -12.84375, -2.55078125, -13.1796875, -11.0078125, -6.6171875, -9.7890625, -12.84375, -8.46875, -12.328125, 5.22265625, -9.4453125, -4.80859375, -8.15625, -13.0625, -13.0859375, -12.9453125, -3.232421875, -9.1015625, -9.3671875, -12.4375, -2.94140625, -0.2192382812, -9.5078125, -12, -9.0859375, -7.2578125, -13.2109375, -13.1171875, -6.87890625, -11.8671875, -13.2109375, 0.8173828125, -9.96875, -11.9140625, 5.83203125, -13.1875, -13.21875, -9.515625, -9.109375, -12.3984375, -0.2486572266, -8.0546875, -11.375, 0.1765136719, -3.845703125, -12.9140625, -12.296875, -12.03125, -11.890625, -11.4609375, -10.5625, -7.890625, -6.41015625, 0.8950195312, -13.265625, -5.7734375, -10.703125, -11.984375, -8.1328125, -11.203125, -8.1015625, -9.328125, -12.7734375, -4.90625, -10.703125, 0.1091308594, -13.1953125, -12.7890625, -9.2890625, -10.421875, -10.734375, -9.6640625, -7.83984375, -5.89453125, -12.84375, -10.96875, -13.015625, -10.9375, -9.890625, -13.171875, -7.0234375 ]

[ "people are listening to music" ]

[ "the people watched the football game", "There are no rooms.", "The couples have never spoken", "an asian woman eats a meal", "I was short on cash so I needed a part-time job as well.", "A group of people is in a car.", "There is a group of people dancing in the streets." ]

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[ "But in statistical mechanics things get more complicated. On one hand, statistical mechanics is far superior to classical thermodynamics, in that thermodynamic behavior, such as glass breaking, can be explained by the fundamental laws of physics paired with a statistical postulate. But statistical mechanics, unlike classical thermodynamics, is time-reversal symmetric. The second law of thermodynamics, as it arises in statistical mechanics, merely states that it is overwhelmingly likely that net entropy will increase, but it is not an absolute law." ]

[ "The hourglass uses the flow of sand to measure the flow of time. They were used in navigation. Ferdinand Magellan used 18 glasses on each ship for his circumnavigation of the globe (1522). Incense sticks and candles were, and are, commonly used to measure time in temples and churches across the globe. Waterclocks, and later, mechanical clocks, were used to mark the events of the abbeys and monasteries of the Middle Ages. Richard of Wallingford (1292–1336), abbot of St. Alban's abbey, famously built a mechanical clock as an astronomical orrery about 1330. Great advances in accurate time-keeping were made by Galileo Galilei and especially Christiaan Huygens with the invention of pendulum driven clocks along with the invention of the minute hand by Jost Burgi.", "The library is based at two public sites: the Reading Room at the RIBA's headquarters, 66 Portland Place, London; and the RIBA Architecture Study Rooms in the Henry Cole Wing of the V&A. The Reading Room, designed by the building's architect George Grey Wornum and his wife Miriam, retains its original 1934 Art Deco interior with open bookshelves, original furniture and double-height central space. The study rooms, opened in 2004, were designed by Wright & Wright. The library is funded entirely by the RIBA but it is open to the public without charge. It operates a free education programme aimed at students, education groups and families, and an information service for RIBA members and the public through the RIBA Information Centre.", "In Miranda the court created safeguards against self-incriminating statements made after an arrest. The court held that \"The prosecution may not use statements, whether exculpatory or inculpatory, stemming from questioning initiated by law enforcement officers after a person has been taken into custody or otherwise deprived of his freedom of action in any significant way, unless it demonstrates the use of procedural safeguards effective to secure the Fifth Amendment's privilege against self-incrimination\"", "Unincorporated communities, localities and place names located partially or completely within the city include Chelsea, City Island, Great Island and Venice Park.", "Raleigh's industrial base includes banking/financial services; electrical, medical, electronic and telecommunications equipment; clothing and apparel; food processing; paper products; and pharmaceuticals. Raleigh is part of North Carolina's Research Triangle, one of the country's largest and most successful research parks, and a major center in the United States for high-tech and biotech research, as well as advanced textile development. The city is a major retail shipping point for eastern North Carolina and a wholesale distributing point for the grocery industry.", "Chinese characters are primarily morphosyllabic, meaning that most Chinese morphemes are monosyllabic and are written with a single character, though in modern Chinese most words are disyllabic and dimorphemic, consisting of two syllables, each of which is a morpheme. In modern Chinese 10% of morphemes only occur as part of a given compound. However, a few morphemes are disyllabic, some of them dating back to Classical Chinese. Excluding foreign loan words, these are typically words for plants and small animals. They are usually written with a pair of phono-semantic compound characters sharing a common radical. Examples are 蝴蝶 húdié \"butterfly\" and 珊瑚 shānhú \"coral\". Note that the 蝴 hú of húdié and the 瑚 hú of shānhú have the same phonetic, 胡, but different radicals (\"insect\" and \"jade\", respectively). Neither exists as an independent morpheme except as a poetic abbreviation of the disyllabic word.", "Labour runs a minority government in the Welsh Assembly under Carwyn Jones, is the largest opposition party in the Scottish Parliament and has twenty MEPs in the European Parliament, sitting in the Socialists and Democrats Group. The party also organises in Northern Ireland, but does not contest elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly. The Labour Party is a full member of the Party of European Socialists and Progressive Alliance, and holds observer status in the Socialist International. In September 2015, Jeremy Corbyn was elected Leader of the Labour Party." ]

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[ "We shouldn't go through so much trouble when there are better things to think of." ]

[ "It's no bother to think of it, plus we have nothing better to do anyways.", "The man was hunched on the bench near the trashcan.", "The frequent traveler program would have been managed by the Department of the Interior.", "The men are sleeping", "A man runs a 100m sprint.", "It was about 10 feet higher a few weeks ago and a girl died in it.", "There are some people near the mountains." ]

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[ "Elederly woman standing in the road side and she was in green coat with a black purse" ]

[ "A young woman waiting for the bus", "A naked man is playing the drums with his hands.", "A man stares at another man on a bicycle.", "The boy is climbing a tree.", "They fell asleep at the cross-examinations", "No investors have the ability to get a really good diversification.", "Two men climbing a net on a sailboat." ]

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[ "Kelly Taylor (90210) also affirming her love for both of them. In the seventh season, however, she finally stated that she had chosen Brandon. She nearly married Brandon, but the two decided that they were not ready. Following Jason Priestley's departure from the series, Jennie Garth became the officially billed lead, with the character of Kelly further maturing, reuniting romantically with Dylan, and starting her own PR firm. For the launch of the series \"Melrose Place\" in 1992, Jennie Garth made a multi-episode special guest appearance. During the final episodes of \"Beverly Hills, 90210\" season 2, Grant Show played his \"Melrose Place\" character" ]

[ "90210 (TV series) yet adhering to their parents' wishes. During the first two seasons, cast members from the original series made appearances, including Jennie Garth, Shannen Doherty, Ann Gillespie, Tori Spelling and Joe E. Tata. After the second season, however, they were not featured and were rarely mentioned. The primary connection between the two series was the new series' character of Erin Silver (Jessica Stroup), the half-sister of Kelly Taylor and David Silver from the original series. Tracy has a daughter of her own, Naomi Clark, who dates jock Ethan Ward, brief rival of Dixon, whom she soon breaks up with. Annie and", "Tiffani Thiessen best friend Jennie Garth's 2001 wedding to actor Peter Facinelli, with whom she co-starred on \"Fastlane.\" Garth and Thiessen's friendship has since come to an end. Her friendship with fellow \"90210\" star Tori Spelling also broke up, after Spelling's split from her first husband. In 2013, she participated in the One Bag party for April for Earth Month, in which the Glad company promoted \"clean, green living\". Thiessen was a teen idol during the 1990s, starting from her role as cheerleader Kelly Kapowski on \"Saved by the Bell\" and then playing bad girl Valerie Malone on \"Beverly Hills, 90210\". In", "Kelly Taylor (90210) into the very essence of teenage angst and brought her a huge cult following.\" Actors Jason Priestley, Grant Show, and Sara Foster have expressed admiration for Garth's work. In a 2009 article, Nellie Andreeva of \"The Hollywood Reporter\" called the character of Kelly \"organic to \"90210\"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s setting.\" Throughout the course of the first series, Kelly became one of the show's most developed characters. When introduced in 1990, she was presented as, on the surface, a stereotypical spoiled type who placed high value on posh appearances and material possessions. However, the character would become increasingly layered as the series progressed. The", "Kelly Taylor (90210) Ryan chose not to pursue a romantic relationship. In the second season, Kelly began to spend more time with Harry, much to the chagrin of his wife Debbie. It was implied that both Kelly and Harry had begun to develop feelings for each other. However, Garth refused to participate in a proposed story line involving an affair. Upon learning that Jackie was dying of cancer, Kelly was initially distant from her mother and protective of Erin (who is commonly called by her surname Silver), eventually causing Silver to move out and live with Jackie. The day after Silver's \"half-birthday,\" Jackie", "Kelly Taylor (90210) Kelly Taylor (90210) Kelly Marlene Taylor, portrayed by Jennie Garth, is a fictional character who was the female lead of \"Beverly Hills, 90210\" for the majority of the show's duration. Initially presented as a \"spoiled teen vixen\", the role was gradually expanded by producers. Subsequently, Kelly became instrumental in launching the first spin-off, was written with a more compassionate demeanor, overcame several perils and personal challenges, and attracted many romantic suitors and triangles. Appearing for the entirety of the series' run, the character is noted for her development from youth to adulthood. Kelly appears prominently in a majority of the", "Kelly Taylor (90210) more difficulties than they were aware of, and later, she and Andrea would become close friends. When Andrea was pregnant and was contemplating an abortion in season 4, Kelly was one of the primary people she reached out to. Toward the end of the second season, Kelly met a man named Jake Hanson (played by Grant Show), an emotionally guarded biker who was slightly older than she. While Jake ultimately resisted their romance, citing Kelly's age, he admitted to admiring her for her heart and kindness. This story line was used to launch the spin-off series \"Melrose Place\". Eventually, Kelly", "90210 (season 2) for at least one episode, as a socialite that locked horns with Naomi. Rumer Willis guest starred for several episodes as Gia, a \"punky, cute lesbian who isn't afraid to speak her mind.\" On July 20, 2009, \"E! Online\" reported that actor John Schneider had been cast as Liam's plastic surgeon stepfather. Jennie Garth signed up to return as her character Kelly Taylor. Ann Gillespie also signed on for a multiple episode arc for the character to mend the broken relationship with her daughters. Gillian Zinser was cast as Ivy Sullivan, a \"tomboy surfer chick\" and Kelly Lynch was cast", "Jennie Garth high school diploma in California. She continued taking acting classes and going to auditions almost daily, and soon landed the role of \"Erica McCray\" in the NBC television series \"Brand New Life\" (1989–90). Garth landed her first role in the television sitcom \"Growing Pains\". In 1990, she landed the role of Kelly Taylor in the series \"Beverly Hills, 90210\". Throughout the series, Garth's character went through several trials and tribulations, and dealt with difficult issues in her personal life and with her family. Garth appears in all ten seasons of the show. She directed two episodes which was the second", "Kelly Taylor (90210) series, quoting a Twitter message in which Garth stated, \"Love to the original cast and crew. And the new kids too.\" Kelly Taylor (90210) Kelly Marlene Taylor, portrayed by Jennie Garth, is a fictional character who was the female lead of \"Beverly Hills, 90210\" for the majority of the show's duration. Initially presented as a \"spoiled teen vixen\", the role was gradually expanded by producers. Subsequently, Kelly became instrumental in launching the first spin-off, was written with a more compassionate demeanor, overcame several perils and personal challenges, and attracted many romantic suitors and triangles. Appearing for the entirety of the", "Donna Martin Donna Martin Donna Martin Silver is a fictional character from the \"Beverly Hills, 90210\" franchise, portrayed by Tori Spelling from 1990 to 2000. Donna reprised her role in \"90210\" for a multi-episode arc in 2009. When Tori Spelling auditioned for the role, she auditioned with a different last name. Donna was introduced in the first season as Kelly Taylor's best friend. For the early part of the first season, the Donna character was a supporting role, but gradually became a main character with her own storylines. Donna grew up in a very wealthy Beverly Hills household, the only child of", "90210 (TV series) is revealed that Silver has bipolar disorder. Kelly Taylor is now a guidance counselor at West Beverly and has a son named Sammy. Kelly becomes Silver's guardian after their mother proves to be an inadequate caretaker for Silver due to her alcoholism. Kelly briefly dates Ryan, but discovers that he also slept with Brenda, re-creating the rift between the two friends. Following Brenda's discovery that she cannot have children, however, the women are drawn together in an accord once again. At the prom, Adrianna goes into labor. She gives birth to a daughter whom she gives up for adoption. It", "Andrea Zuckerman make medical advancements for people. This season, more so than any other, shows Andrea growing closer to the girls in the 90210 gang, with the famous Kelly/Brenda/Donna trio widening a bit to include Andrea, who was previously mainly close friends with just Brandon and Brenda. She forges her own strong bonds with both Donna and Kelly, which last the show's run. Soon after starting her relationship with Dan Rubin, Andrea met Jesse Vasquez at Jim and Cindy Walsh's 20th anniversary party, at which Jesse was working as a bartender to help pay for college while he attended CU for a", "Drake Hogestyn Pawn,\" however, it was soon revealed The Pawn was the presumed dead Roman Brady. Hogestyn quickly became a fan favorite and enjoyed many popular pairings, the most popular of which was the legendary one he shared with longtime co-star Deidre Hall. In 1998, while starring on \"Days\", Shelley Long wanted Drake to join her for an upcoming series, \"Kelly, Kelly\". He was set to star in both until the filming of the pilot episode of \"Kelly, Kelly\" conflicted with his schedule on \"Days\" and the role went to Robert Hays. In 1991, Wayne Northrop agreed to return to \"Days\" to", "90210 (TV series) in someways conservative. This is only applies to some areas of life, seeing that his dad runs an adult entertainment business. Another featured character is Erin Silver (who goes by her last name), Kelly Taylor and David Silver's half sister and Naomi's former best friend, until Silver's father's affair is revealed by Naomi, although she eventually reconciles her friendship with Naomi. She quickly befriends Annie and starts dating Dixon, who is somewhat taken aback by her not-so-90210 lifestyle, as she is a virgin who doesn't care about popularity. In a multi-episode arc that culminated in a very special episode, it", "Silver (90210) a Drama Series Multi-Episode Storyline. Silver (90210) Erin Silver, known mononymously as Silver, is a fictional character on The CW television series \"90210\", the fourth series in the \"Beverly Hills, 90210\" franchise. Portrayed by Jessica Stroup, the character was originally introduced in \"Beverly Hills, 90210\" as Kelly Taylor and David Silver's half sister. Silver, who is going simply by her last name, is introduced during the pilot and quickly becomes good friends with Annie Wilson, and develops a romantic interest in Annie's adopted brother Dixon Wilson, which quickly blossoms into a relationship. Before the first season, Silver warns Annie not", "Damian Roberts \"pushing\" Doran and Dieter Brummer (who plays Shane Parrish) to develop their characters instead of Simon. Black stated that Doran and Brummer \"became teen idol pin-ups as soon as they arrived in Summer Bay\". Damian developed a friendship with Shane, which an \"Inside Soap\" writer called \"an unholy alliance\". Damian went along with Shane's dubious scams and they often had scrapes with the law, but they always stuck up for each other. However, when Kelly Chan (Theresa Wong) enrolled at Summer Bay High both boys fell for her and things turned nasty. Brummer commented \"There's certainly a lot of tension", "Kelly Taylor (90210) Jake, who started a relationship with Kelly which led into early episodes of the spin-off. During Kelly's appearances, her relationship with Jake was largely on-and-off due to his discomfort with her youth. In the end, after weeks of trying to break up with Kelly, Jake pretended to cheat on her, prompting her to leave him. Afterward on both \"Beverly Hills, 90210\" and \"Melrose Place\", Kelly, Donna, Jake, and others made occasional comments concerning Kelly and Jake's brief relationship. In 2008, Kelly Taylor returned in the spin-off \"90210\", now working as a guidance counselor at her \"alma mater\" West Beverly Hills", "Paul Johansson Columbia. After quitting basketball he began writing, which in turn led to acting. Johansson landed his first role on the soap opera \"Santa Barbara\". He played Greg Hughes from 1989 to 1990. Soon he made appearances in other television shows such as \"Parker Lewis Can't Lose\" and \"Beverly Hills, 90210\", and later recurred on \"\" and starred on \"\". Johansson became well-known to fans of \"90210\" for playing John Sears, a fraternity brother who unsuccessfully vied for the affections of Kelly Taylor (Jennie Garth) and set up Steve Sanders (Ian Ziering) to burglarize a professor's office. The character returned for", "Beverly Hills, 90210 (franchise) Shenae Grimes and Tristan Wilds—who move to Beverly Hills with their family and enroll in West Beverly High. Like Brandon and Brenda 18 years before, Dixon and Annie meet several new friends who comprise the rest of the cast, including Erin Silver (Jessica Stroup), the half-sister of David and Kelly from the original series. The character Naomi Clark (AnnaLynne McCord) gained significant media attention throughout the first season, and was given increased focus at the onset of the second. Among the returning characters was Kelly Taylor, who appeared in a recurring role while serving as a guidance counselor at the", "John McBain (character) share their big day, by both getting married at the wedding being planned for Jessica and Brody. John and Natalie accept the offer of a double wedding. On the day of the wedding, Clint's employee, Vimal, stops the wedding and reveals the paternity switch he did on Jessica's child, and the fact that Natalie also had a paternity test done. Natalie then tells John that the paternity test for Liam says that Brody is the father, and John leaves her, devastated. John initially sleeps with Kelly Cramer (Gina Tognoni) to hurt Natalie but continues to do so for months. John", "Kelly Kapoor split was not amicable. After the divorce Ryan and Kelly continued to date. In Season 8, wanting to get Kelly away from Ryan, Pam sets her up with Cece's pediatrician, Ravi. When Ryan forces her to choose between the two, she chooses Ravi. At the beginning of Season 9, it was revealed that Kelly and Ravi got engaged and moved to Miami, Ohio. Kelly quit her job at Dunder-Mifflin, mistakenly believing she was moving to Miami, Florida, with Ravi. In \"Finale,\" it is revealed that Kelly is married to Ravi but she leaves him when Ryan returns, and they reunite.", "Donna Martin Joe proposed to Donna, but she tearfully refused and they broke up. Finally, on their college graduation night, Donna and David had sex and decided to move in together, causing a rift with her mother over this decision. But when David forged a check using Donna's name, Donna broke up with him once again. She then had a serious romance with Noah Hunter, but that eventually ended and in the final season, she got back together with David again. Donna and David got married in the show's series finale in 2000. In episode 4 of the spin-off \"90210\", Kelly and", "Silver (90210) Silver (90210) Erin Silver, known mononymously as Silver, is a fictional character on The CW television series \"90210\", the fourth series in the \"Beverly Hills, 90210\" franchise. Portrayed by Jessica Stroup, the character was originally introduced in \"Beverly Hills, 90210\" as Kelly Taylor and David Silver's half sister. Silver, who is going simply by her last name, is introduced during the pilot and quickly becomes good friends with Annie Wilson, and develops a romantic interest in Annie's adopted brother Dixon Wilson, which quickly blossoms into a relationship. Before the first season, Silver warns Annie not to trust Naomi Clark, informing", "Beverly Hills, 90210 (franchise) others and the roles which they have portrayed. The narrative's most widely seen character is Jennie Garth's Kelly Taylor, who was instrumental in launching two spin-offs, and has been used in the most episodes throughout the continuity. Also made famous via the first program was male lead Jason Priestley, who earned Golden Globe nominations and began a directorial career via the series, and actor Luke Perry, who won acclaim and drew comparisons to James Dean. The first series brought fame to several other cast members as well. \"Melrose Place\" featured former \"Dynasty\" and \"T.J. Hooker\" star Heather Locklear, whose performance", "Max Holden (One Life to Live) fling with Kelly Cramer (Gina Tognoni). He also reunites with Gabrielle, but it does not last. From 1999 to 2001, he pretends to be the son of Asa and Renee before being exposed by Todd Manning. In 2002, in a drunken Las Vegas escapade he awakes to find himself married to Roxy Balsom (Ilene Kristen), a union that quickly fizzles. When son Al dies of liver failure in the fall of 2003, at the advice of Luna's spirit, Max leaves Llanview to be with his and Luna's twins Frank and Leslie in North Carolina. Max returns in August 2007 for", "Erin Lindsay was established that she has been partnered with Jay Halstead for the past month. The first season coincided with the second season of \"Chicago Fire\", during which she was still dating Lieutenant Kelly Severide from Squad 3. In season 2, Lindsay was recruited for a DEA task force. In the episode \"Disco Bob\", Lindsay becomes disillusioned with the task force, with its seemingly-endless bureaucracy and the menial tasks her handler assigned to her (she was to spend a number of weeks with the target's wife, simultaneously pumping her for information and keeping her out of the task force's way), leading", "90210 (TV series) Kelly and Jackie reconcile before Jackie dies. Navid witnesses Adrianna buying drugs from Jasper which causes him to confront them. Liam finally confides to Dixon, Teddy and Ivy about the events on prom night as they try to figure out a way to get revenge on Jen. Their attempt to get revenge on Jen works, which makes Jen lose everything she has including her sister and boyfriend Ryan. Teddy begins to pursue Silver more and they share a kiss on the rooftop of the school. Teddy asks Silver out to the dance, but she declines. Navid is hospitalized when Jasper", "Kelly Taylor (90210) state that in the fourth season, when Kelly was prone to expressing her affections in a more gentle and compassionate manner, she made a greater impression on Brandon. While pursuing Jake on \"Melrose Place\", a confused Kelly eventually asks, \"Don't you think I'm pretty?\" This contrasts with her attitude one year later, when she becomes more interested in having others appreciate her for what lies beneath the surface. This development is standardized one additional year later, via her aforementioned second pursuit of Brandon Walsh, which ends in success. The evolution of Kelly's character led to developments both on-screen and off.", "Kelly Taylor (90210) her.\" Kelly faced several difficult issues and obstacles, often with the assistance of loved ones, including her occasionally difficult home life, being trapped in a fire, being tricked into joining a cult, and becoming temporarily addicted to cocaine. In addition to many other matters, she endured getting amnesia, shooting her rapist in self-defense, becoming unexpectedly pregnant and having a miscarriage, and learning that it would be difficult for her to have children because of a condition called endometriosis. In overcoming these matters, she was able to become a better person and help others. Tori Spelling's Donna Martin and Kathleen Robertson's", "Kelly Taylor (90210) David's recovery from drug use. Her status would become standardized throughout the course of the series' run. In addition to \"Melrose Place\", she would later be used to help launch the third spin-off, \"90210\" (with Garth being the first performer from the original show to be cast). This development would make Kelly Taylor the most prominent figure in the collective franchise, via the most appearances in episodes and series premieres. Shannen Doherty, who returned as Brenda in the third spin-off, reported that she and Garth, like their characters, had renewed their friendship, stating, \"Now we’re really good friends—and I love", "90210 (TV series) ex-boyfriend from Kansas, Jason, as a weapon to get back at her for hiding her relationship with Ethan. She becomes friends with a group of older girls and starts flirting with Ozzie, a rather alternative student, and later becomes attracted to a bartender named Liam, whom she soon finds out is actually her age and becomes a student at West Beverly High. Meanwhile, Ethan and Annie's relationship hits the rocks as he begins to rethink his life after a car accident and gets more or less attracted to Rhonda, the girl he hit. Soon Naomi and Liam begin a romance,", "Tad Martin is convinced and asks Krystal to marry him. She is wracked with guilt and keeps putting him off. When Tad finds out about the deception, he is angry, but decides to keep the secret. To make matters worse, David turns out to be Babe's biological father, and wants to bond with Babe and Krystal. When JR becomes angry at Babe and Jamie for their affair, he divorces her and gets sole custody of Bess. Babe and Krystal discover that Babe's son is still alive, living with Paul's sister Kelly Cramer (Heather Tom) and her husband Kevin Buchanan (Dan Gauthier) in", "Kelly Taylor (90210) reasons for Kelly's behavior first started to reveal themselves in episode 7, \"Perfect Mom\", when Kelly was forced to confront her mother's drug addiction and alcoholism. Several of her friends, particularly the Walsh family and Andrea Zuckerman, first came to appreciate Kelly's difficulties in life when they saw her handle this problem. During episode 13, \"Slumber Party,\" Kelly revealed that she was taken advantage of by a senior during her freshmen year in high school, which had led to a promiscuous lifestyle and reputation which deeply hurt her self-esteem. The others then began to realize that Kelly had been through", "90210 (season 2) producer Rebecca Sinclair said that second season will rely much less on original characters Jennie Garth, Tori Spelling and Shannen Doherty to boost ratings. As part of the changes, the season also promotes Matt Lanter as Liam Court from a recurring character from the 16th episode to a regular character, while character Ethan Ward (Dustin Milligan) was released from his contract due to the producers feeling his character had reached its conclusion. Trevor Donovan was cast as a charming, tennis prodigy and movie star son who is also Adrianna's first boyfriend. Former \"Law & Order\" actress Elisabeth Röhm signed on", "90210 (TV series) re-release of one of her films, which seems to reinvigorate Marla. However, when Annie arrives at Marla's home the next day, she discovers that she has committed suicide. Still reeling from his break-up with Ian, Teddy meets a new guy, Marco. He and Marco eventually begin dating. Jen returns to California and tells Ryan that she wants another chance at raising their son, which they eventually agree upon. While Silver is in the hospital, Adrianna takes the opportunity to get close to Navid by getting him drunk and telling him that they kissed. When Navid continues to reject her, Adrianna", "90210 (season 2) 90210 (season 2) The second season of \"90210\", an American television series, premiered in the U.S. on September 8, 2009 and ended on May 18, 2010. The season picks up at the end of summer after the events of last season's dramatic prom party. Rob Estes, Shenae Grimes, Tristan Wilds, AnnaLynne McCord, Ryan Eggold, Jessica Stroup, Michael Steger, Jessica Lowndes, and Lori Loughlin all return as series regulars from season one, while Dustin Milligan was released from his contract for \"creative reasons\". New executive producer Rebecca Sinclair said she felt the show needed a \"complete overhaul\". She hired new writing", "Jennie Garth key.\" In 2007, Garth appeared on season five of \"Dancing with the Stars\" and was paired with Derek Hough. They reached the semi-finals in the competition. Jennie Garth Jennifer Eve Garth (born April 3, 1972) is an American actress. She is known for starring as Kelly Taylor throughout the \"Beverly Hills, 90210\" franchise (1990–2000) and Valerie Tyler on the sitcom \"What I Like About You\" (2002–06). In 2012, she starred in her own reality show, \"Jennie Garth: A Little Bit Country\" on CMT. Garth was born in Urbana, Illinois, to John and Carolyn Garth. The youngest of seven children (though", "Bette Porter Bette's brief fling with her graduate student assistant, and that any potential sexual harassment proceedings from Jodi would further endanger the university's reputation. Immediately afterwards, Phyllis makes a pass at Bette at a bar, claiming she was always strongly attracted to her and could pursue a relationship with her now that Bette was no longer her employee, even if it meant leaving Joyce. A disgusted Bette quickly rejects Phyllis' advances and submits her resignation from the university. Also in this season, Bette reconnects with her heterosexual college crush Kelly Wentworth (Elizabeth Berkley), and the pair open an art gallery together.", "Kelly Taylor (90210) In a 1995 article on Garth, \"TV Guide\" reported that the show's creators made a conscious decision to place her character at center stage. An anonymous producer cites \"faith in Jennie as an actress,\" further stating that he and producer Aaron Spelling \"knew she had the chops to do it.\" This development would gradually lead to Kelly supplanting Brenda as the prominent female lead, as the former received what the producer called \"better story lines.\" Reportedly, these matters became a source of tension between Garth and Shannen Doherty, who played Brenda. Following Doherty's final appearance on the show in 1994,", "Ann Gillespie 1984, she appeared in a pilot, \"The Sheriff and the Astronaut,\" opposite Alec Baldwin. Gillespie is a graduate of Dwight Morrow High School in Englewood, New Jersey. In 2003 she earned her B.A. at Goddard College in Vermont. Ann Gillespie Ann Gillespie is a retired American actress who currently works as an Episcopal priest. She is perhaps best known for her recurring role as Jackie Taylor, mother to Kelly Taylor on the original \"Beverly Hills, 90210\". She reprised the role during the first season of \"90210\" as mother to both Kelly and Erin Silver. Gillespie made her acting debut in", "Finale (The Office) (Jenna Fischer) is pressed with questions about why she did not allow Jim to follow his dream after he has paid her so many romantic gestures. Jim attempts to disperse the resulting tension. Erin Hannon (Ellie Kemper) finally meets her birth parents (Ed Begley, Jr. and Joan Cusack), who had put her up for adoption. At the wedding, Kelly Kapoor (Mindy Kaling) arrives with her husband Ravi (Sendhil Ramamurthy), where Ryan Howard (B. J. Novak) surprises them with a baby, his son Drake, that he had with a former girlfriend who then abandoned them both. Jim tells Dwight that under", "Duncan Button hesitant at first but meets a girl, Kelly Saunders (Danielle Malone), who he really likes. They struggle to get together as Duncan can't understand what a girl like her would see in him but they eventually end up together and lose their virginity to each other. Kelly decides to end their relationship after he shows Ricky a naked picture of her. Realising he needs to grow up, he decides to leave to stay with the Ashworths in Spain. Ruth Deller of entertainment website \"lowculture.co.uk\" criticised Duncan during her monthly review on the popularity of soap opera characters, where she branded", "Sally Webster floods it. Natalie threatens Sally with legal action, causing them to fight in the Street. Sally has a brief fling with Chris Collins but eventually forgives Kevin and by Christmas 1997, the Websters are reunited. In 1999, she has an affair with Greg Kelly (Stephen Billington). Kevin finds out and he throws Sally out so she moves in with Greg and they agree on a divorce, but not custody of the girls. Greg hits Sally after an argument and she leaves him, asking Kevin to take the girls as Rita Sullivan (Barbara Knox) does not have room for all of", "Melissa Fumero 1979 by Daytime Emmy winner Robin Strasser. Fumero won the role of Adriana on her last day as a student at NYU. In late 2007 she decided not to renew her contract with the series, but remained on a recurring status to wrap up Adriana's storyline that concluded June 11, 2008. Fumero returned to \"One Life to Live\" in September 2008 for a 15-episode run. Fumero did a guest stint on \"OLTL\" on February 12, 2010, to help usher in the return of Kelly Cramer (Gina Tognoni). Fumero made her big-screen debut as the lead in the 2009 independent film", "Jack Abbott (The Young and the Restless) eventually she softened toward him and they began dating. Summer was initially upset that Jack was 'giving up' on her mom, but she eventually came to accept that Jack couldn't be expected to wait for something that might never happen. Jack and Kelly weathered Summer running off with fugitive Austin, and later marrying him. Jack, who had seen Kelly hugging Ben, learned that they were siblings with a family secret. When Jack decided it was time to move on with Kelly officially, he paid the comatose Phyllis a visit to say goodbye. Jack and Kelly later told Summer together about", "90210 (TV series) is also revealed that Brenda has adopted a child from China. Ethan begins to realize his feelings for Silver, which leads to a confrontation with Dixon and a kiss with Silver. At Naomi and Jen's (her sister) after-prom party, Liam sleeps with Jen. He is mad that Naomi told Jen about his past: he wanted to keep it a secret. However, he was not aware that Jen was Naomi's sister, and upon finding out is horrified. Naomi finds out about it but thinks that Annie was with Liam, not Jen. This culminates in a major fight between Annie and Naomi", "Kelly Taylor (90210) \"organic to \"90210\"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s setting\" in a 2009 article. On November 24, 2008, SOAPnet aired a \"Beverly Hills, 90210\" marathon titled \"Kelly's Leftovers\", dedicated to the character's love life. While discussing the \"Melrose Place\" spin-off in a 2009 interview, Grant Show, who played Jake Hanson in the original, stated that he would be open to appearing if Jennie Garth did so as Kelly Taylor. After being confirmed to direct a season 1 episode of the spin-off \"90210\", Jason Priestley commented that he hoped Jennie Garth would be among the actors present. Sara Foster, who was cast as Jen Clark in the", "90210 (TV series) a guilt-ridden friendship but later turned into a relationship. Jasper is different from any other boy Annie has dated. He is more quiet and mysterious compared to her past boyfriends. Dixon meets a girl named Sasha when he begins his DJing career and is performing near her in a yacht, to whom he lies about his real age. Navid and Adrianna's relationship continues to tremble when Adrianna continues to find Teddy alluring. In the meantime, Harry and Debbie face marital problems when Harry confides to Kelly about his family troubles. Naomi finds out that her SAT scores are not high", "Ferreira family his marriage in the process; Dan had bailed him out. He says he owes his father everything and he is not willing to hurt him. Dan attempts to woo Shirley again, forcing her to confess her relationship with Ash. This causes friction between the Ferreiras, and Ash breaks up with Shirley to keep the peace. Ronny's love life is equally unsettled. He begins dating Kelly Taylor (Brooke Kinsella), but ends the relationship when he discovers her past as a prostitute and begins dating Kelly's best friend, Zoe Slater (Michelle Ryan). This abruptly ends when Kelly witnesses Ronny kissing another woman.", "Frame Toby after herself because she does not get paid to be a maid between her job at the office, tending to her children and being a part-time maid. Ryan later tells Kelly (Mindy Kaling) that they have to break up again, saying he is going on a long term trip to Thailand with friends, before asking for sex one last time and for any money she possesses. It is revealed to the entire office that Jim (John Krasinski) bought his parents' house without asking Pam, mentioning to the camera crew that he is helping out his mother and getting a good", "Kelly Taylor (90210) was admitted to the hospital. After talking to Silver, Kelly gained the strength to visit their mother. Eventually, Kelly and Jackie made amends before Jackie's untimely death. Garth departed the series following season 2, later citing problems with the newly appointed show-runner, Rebecca Sinclair, and the direction the show took. Although not written out after her last appearance, she was mentioned several times later in the show, indicating that she was still around looking after her sister, just not on screen. With regard to Garth's long-running portrayal, Nellie Andreeva of \"The Hollywood Reporter\" acknowledged the character of Kelly as being", "Beverly Hills, 90210 Hills\". The show's episodes were originally issue-based until the producers decided it should become a teen soap opera. In the first season, the teenage characters (aside from David Silver and Scott Scanlon) were said to be in the eleventh grade, but due to the success of the show, their ages were retconned to be one year younger in the second season, making them tenth graders in the first. Jennie Garth had to audition fives times for the role of Kelly Taylor and was the first to be cast on the show. Gabrielle Carteris felt that she was too old to", "Naomi Clark revealed that Naomi speaks Spanish. Though their personalities differ at times, several of Naomi's issues parallel those of Kelly Taylor (Jennie Garth) from the original series. Early on in the show, she values her 'in-crowd' status and experiences repeated friction with a friend over a boy (as Kelly did). When Annie begins bonding with Ethan, Naomi reveals that the situation is likely to interfere with their friendship. Annie's eventual dismissal of this statement leads to a temporary rift between the girls. Also like Kelly, Naomi endures the experience of a family torn apart by adultery, and is later faced with", "Kelly Taylor (90210) had a new baby, Erin, got married, and put Kelly's childhood home up for sale. Self-consciousness over her figure, along with the anxiety she began to feel, caused her to lash out emotionally, abuse diet pills, and briefly lose control over her life. The character's physical appearance is shown to play a part in her development. At various points of the series, she won the title of Spring Princess at a dance, and was voted her school's most beautiful girl. Kelly is aware of her appeal, but not to the point of conceit; instead, she is sometimes shown to be", "90210 (season 3) promoted to series regular for the third season. On May 20, 2010, with the reveal of The CW's fall schedule, the series regulars for the third season were announced. Shenae Grimes, Tristan Wilds, AnnaLynne McCord, Ryan Eggold, Jessica Stroup, Michael Steger, Jessica Lowndes, Matt Lanter and Lori Loughlin were all announced to be continuing their roles on the show. It was also announced that Trevor Donovan, who plays Teddy Montgomery, was upgraded to series regular. In January 2010, it was confirmed that Jennie Garth would be leaving \"90210\" to focus more on her writing. Two days later it was announced", "Kelly Taylor (90210) spin-off, has stated that she was excited and nervous about meeting Garth, who she'd watched in the original series. In its biographical article on the actress, \"Yahoo!\" states that \"playing the popular tramp-turned-good girl Kelly through the years afforded Garth the opportunity to not only grow up on camera in front of America, but to fully develop her character and improve her acting chops each season.\" Additionally, Kelly Taylor has been cited by the media as an inspiration for the character Naomi Clark (AnnaLynne McCord), introduced in \"90210\". On September 2, 2010 (9/02/10), \"Reuters.com\" featured an article on the original", "90210 (season 4) Navid and Silver will be forced to act as parents and look after Navid's sister, who decides to stay in L.A. when her family moves to Switzerland. Navid will also hire Silver to work for him, so they can spend more time together. Kristin Dos Santos reported that Annie will begin a new profession after Marla's family contest the will left to her. Michael Ausiello later reported that she will become a professional escort. Liam will become a male model this season. Teddy will get \"married\" (Same-sex marriage is not recognized in Nevada.) to his boyfriend, Shane in the Las", "Cramer family apart to Asa had thrown her out of Buchanan mansion and Max moved on to date and marry Luna Moody. In 1994, Blair becomes romantically involved with Todd Manning. In 1995, Melinda's rebellious daughter Kelly Cramer arrives in Llanview, scarred by her childhood with her unstable mother and raised in various European boarding schools arranged by her aunt Dorian. Kelly comes to live with her cousin Cassie and Cassie's husband Andrew, and develops an infatuation with Dorian's husband David Vickers. Over time, Kelly and her family become close. Later, Kelly falls for both Joey and Kevin Buchanan. In 1997, Melinda", "Minor characters on Frasier it is revealed at the last minute that he had chosen love over career as the plane lands in Chicago, where he hopes to reunite with Charlotte. Kelly Easterbrook (Sela Ward) is a supermodel, part-time, in order to support her zoology PhD work. She and Frasier meet on a plane to Acapulco where Kelly is headed to observe spiny-tailed iguanas. After they spend the night together, she reveals that she is in the process of breaking up with a player from the Seattle Seahawks and \"doesn't want any publicity\". She doesn't want anyone to know that she and Frasier are", "90210 (TV series) where Annie is shunned by her peers, runs away, gets in her car drunk and accidentally runs over a man. This is a suspenseful way to end the season and definitely brings plot twist seeing that Annie is not sure whether or not this man survived. Season two begins with the end of summer school. Naomi unknowingly dates a married man in an attempt to get over Liam, who shows up at West Beverly on the first day of school after being absent for the entire summer. Silver and Dixon get back together, but break up when he finds out", "Silver (90210) Traffic\", Adrianna is not happy with Silver, Greg, and Maisy's relationship so she kidnaps Maisey from the daycare center. Silver and Navid team up together to try to find her. They later find her in a park with Maisey. Greg comes along and tells Silver that she had no right to introduce Maisey to her birth mother and breaks up with her on the spot. In \"No Good Deed\", Navid decides to attend Princeton University and everyone has a party for him. Silver finally realizes that she loves Navid but does not tell him. In \"Babes In Toyland\", Silver gets", "90210 (TV series) one knee, proposing to Annie. He says that he has always loved her and will not take \"no\" for an answer. After Annie tearfully accepts, the news spreads quickly to friends who share in the excitement. The episode ends with Annie and Liam hugging one another in a joyful embrace. Notes: The first actor to be cast was Dustin Milligan on April 1, 2008, followed by AnnaLynne McCord on April 14. Sachs found Milligan to be \"really funny\", and changed Ethan to better represent his personality. McCord was cast because, according to Sachs, \"she's someone who is worldly, and there's", "Gina Austin a festival. The festival is cancelled and Gina and Vanessa go camping instead. John mistakenly thinks Gina is showing signs of menopause and invites Colleen Smart (Lyn Collingwood) to talk to her. John invites Gina to a tourism convention in Hawaii, but she turns the offer down when she learns Xavier is in hospital after nearly drowning. Gina allows Kelly O'Mara (Martika Sullivan) to stay with the family on the provision nothing happens between her and Xavier. However, Kelly and Xavier begin dating and tell Gina, who allows Kelly to stay because she is a good influence on her son.", "Kelly Cramer is stabbed twice in the abdomen by a deranged Marty, who leaves her for dead on the bathroom floor. She is soon found by John and rushed to the hospital where the doctors reveal that she may have suffered either a liver or kidney laceration, but Kelly later recovers from her injuries, and eventually checks herself out of the hospital. Joey later finds out that Kelly was right all along about Aubrey and tells her he wants a second chance because he loves her and will divorce Aubrey. On July 21, 2011, Joey and Aubrey are officially divorced from each", "Martin Fowler (EastEnders) out, as Martin cannot risk trouble with the law, due to his previous convictions. It is not until Martin is confronted and forgiven by a bereaved Sonia that he finally begins to feel remorse for his actions and attempts to reform himself. After a few brief relationships, including a one-night stand with Kelly Taylor (Brooke Kinsella), Martin begins growing close to Sonia, and they fall in love. After Sonia helps him come to terms with the death of his brother, Martin decides to propose marriage. Amidst constant interference from Pauline, Martin and Sonia decide to elope. The newlyweds move in", "Life Begins at Forty (2003 TV series) Kelly shows up. Ray thought she needed a job there when he saw her, but then he realized that she was Kelly Kwan when they bumped into YP. They fought a lot at work because of disagreements. One day when Kelly was unhappy and got drunk, Ray wanted to carry her home, but he didn't know where she lives so he brought her to a hotel and rented a room. One of their colleagues saw it and spread the rumor around AW. They tried avoiding bumping into each other afterwards, but then they were assigned a job together by YP.", "90210 (TV series) Silver kissed Ethan. It is also revealed that Ethan has decided to stay in Montana with his father. Adrianna is desperate to become a normal teenager, giving up acting, and, much to Navid's dismay, their relationship is put under further pressure with the arrival of Teddy Montgomery, Adrianna's ex-boyfriend (to whom Adrianna lost her virginity). Meanwhile, the emotionally distant and guilt-ridden Annie has cut herself from society as much as possible, contributing to a growing discord between her and her brother, who is angry at her for sending him to summer school. Annie begins to date Jasper, which began as", "Beverly Hills, 90210 play a high school student. She first auditioned for Brenda because she thought that being a real life twin would help her chances, but the producers felt that she would be better for the part of Andrea. When Tori Spelling (Aaron Spelling's daughter) auditioned for the show, she used the name Tori Mitchell and auditioned for the role of Kelly Taylor, but she was eventually recognized and was instead cast as Donna Martin. Lyman Ward was originally cast as Jim Walsh in the pilot but was replaced by James Eckhouse, and Ward's scenes were cut and re-shot with Eckhouse. Kristin", "Kelly Severide it is revealed that she put signed a DNR order, leaving Severide to cope with her death. In Season 6, at the end of \"The Chance to Forgive\", Severide ends up kissing fellow firefighter Stella Kidd (whom he previously had a romantic fling with) in Molly's when it was closing for the night. In \"Where I Want to Be\", after learning about his failed relationships, Kidd reconsiders her living arrangements with Kelly by living in Herrmann's attic. In \"The Unrivaled Standard\", his old flame Renee Royce returns to Chicago and asks to testify at a hearing of a fellow firefighter,", "Kirsten Storms legal limit of 0.08. In November 2007, she pleaded no contest to the charges and was ordered to attend twelve Alcoholics Anonymous meetings, complete a 90-day alcohol education program, and pay $1,643 in fines. She also had her license suspended for six months and was placed on three years probation. Storms is close friends with \"General Hospital\" co-star Kelly Monaco, which was featured in the short-lived E! Entertainment reality show \"Dirty Soap\", which aired during the fall of 2011. It was confirmed in early 2013 that Storms was in a relationship with her former \"General Hospital\" co-star Brandon Barash. In", "90210 (TV series) covenant for Annie; nor does she think he should. Navid reveals that he isn't ready to have a baby, which causes Silver to dump him. She still wants to conceive a child and proposes to have a baby...with Teddy. At the very end of the season finale, Adrianna is boarding a plane to Las Vegas to kickstart her country music career because Dixon has not returned on time from the tour, but little does she know the car broke down and he had to hitchhike. As Dixon is on the phone with Navid telling him to stop Adrianna, a truck", "Maggie Pierce she grieves, and the two grow closer. It isn’t until Jackson's ex-wife April Kepner points out their bond that Jackson and Maggie realize their feelings for one another. In the fourteenth season, Maggie and Jackson initially try to bury their feelings, but Jackson decides to pursue her. They eventually begin a romantic relationship and attend Alex and Jo Wilson's wedding together. On April 5, 2014, \"TVLine\" reported that Kelly McCreary best known for her series regular role on The CW's short lived medical drama \"Emily Owens, M.D.\" and recent guest appearances on \"Scandal\" had been cast in a guest star", "Seasons of Melrose Place Seasons of Melrose Place This is a summary of the seven seasons of \"Melrose Place\", an American prime-time soap opera which was broadcast on Fox from 1992 to 1999. In 2004, Soapnet began repeating the series, and all episodes have been released on DVD. During its first season, \"Melrose Place\" was an earnest serial drama with low-key storylines focusing on young people who come to Los Angeles to realize their dreams. The series was introduced with a crossover story from \"Beverly Hills, 90210\" in which Kelly Taylor (Jennie Garth) pursues Melrose Place resident Jake Hanson (Grant Show), a laborer and", "Erin Hannon does Ryan. Erin seems to have a fun-loving and bubbly personality similar to Kelly Kapoor, although Erin is much more naïve. She admires Kelly's casual Friday outfit, commenting that she looks like J. Lo, and the two restart Michael's Cafe Disco after he shuts it down. The two also ride to Pam and Jim's wedding together with Andy, both listening to their iPods in the backseat. In \"Counseling\", she took the term \"disposable camera\" literally as she throws a disposable camera away after taking the last picture, commenting that she thinks disposable cameras are wasteful and you never get to", "90210 (season 4) love interest. It's going to be fun. It's kind of a mystery,\" he said in an interview with E!. Arielle Kebbel's character is described as a \"female Liam\". \"Entertainment Weekly\" reported that Sara Foster would return for three episodes in the latter half of the season, as Naomi's sister Jen Clark. Nick Zano was also cast as Preston Hillingsbrook, a playboy with a lot of cash to blow as the heir to his family's fortune. It was revealed that his character will first become friends with Annie, but will also get romantically involved with another woman on the show. La", "Carrie Heffernan mother Sophia, except that she died when Carrie was 15, leaving Carrie in a state of confusion. After difficult teenage years, Carrie met her future husband Doug Heffernan at a bar where she originally meant to spend the night with his friend Richie Ianucci (Larry Romano) but ended up with Doug instead. Carrie's best friend is Kelly Palmer (Merrin Dungey), the wife of Doug's best friend Deacon Palmer (Victor Williams). At the end of the series, the couple decide to adopt after struggling to conceive a child, having miscarried earlier in the series. In the series finale \"China Syndrome\", Doug", "The Mother (How I Met Your Mother) season 8 having never watched \"How I Met Your Mother\" before. She only learned of the character's importance after binge watching the show during the summer. The Mother was born on September 19, 1984. The Mother, joined by her roommate Kelly (Ahna O'Reilly), awaits the arrival of her boyfriend Max, only to receive a call informing her of his death. After the funeral service, she returns to the apartment to open Max's last gift to her — a ukulele. The Mother spends the next few years grieving the passing of the man she believes was her one true love. In", "90210 (TV series) feelings for Liam, he leaves to study abroad in France, leaving Annie and Liam to start a relationship. Annie begins to have other troubles, however, when her cousin Emily visits from Kansas. Emily starts to take over things in Annie's life; her friends, her acting roles, her internship, and her relationship with Liam. Annie and Liam find a way to prove Emily's scheming ways to everyone, running her out of town. Teddy has continued to struggle with his homosexuality and his feelings for Ian. After being blackmailed anonymously, and with encouragement from Ian, he decides to come out to his", "90210 (TV series) that series was cancelled, Sachs called Estes and explained the spin-off to him, and he thought it was a great idea. Sachs promised that although he was playing a parent, he would not \"be furniture... as in the seldom seen or heard parents who populate many youth-centric series, like the Walsh parents on the original \"90210\".\" The CW confirmed that Jennie Garth, Shannen Doherty, Tori Spelling and Joe E. Tata would be returning in recurring roles as their original characters. Sachs was familiar with Garth, and talked to her about a possible role in the series. Garth agreed to star", "Freddie Smith year. He also was ordered to pay $1400 in fines. Tabit wrote a letter to the judge asking for Smith to be spared prison. In July 22, 2018, Freddie became engaged to Alyssa Tabit. Freddie Smith Freddie Matthew Smith (born March 19, 1988) is an American television actor. He is known for his portrayal as Marco Salazar in the new franchise of \"90210\" aired on The CW. He is best known for his character Sonny Kiriakis, the first openly gay contract role on the daytime soap opera \"Days of Our Lives\". After high school, Freddie moved to Los Angeles, beginning", "New Guys only ended up killing it. Kelly Kapoor (Mindy Kaling) moved to Ohio with her fiancé Ravi and Ryan Howard (B. J. Novak) also moved to Ohio for \"unrelated reasons.\" Dwight Schrute (Rainn Wilson) learned that he is not the biological father of Angela Lipton's (Angela Kinsey) baby. While talking to the camera, Jim (John Krasinski) and Pam Halpert (Jenna Fischer) reveal that Jim was offered an entrepreneurial sports job by an old college friend based on an idea the two had in college. Jim tells the camera that he turned it down, because it would not be good for his", "One Life to Live storylines (1990–1999) – she seduced Viki’s son Joey (SORAS-ed yet again and played by Nathan Fillion). Dorian manipulated the boy into falling in love with her, and then lured Viki to her house to find them (on her scheduled wedding day to Sloane no less). But once again, Dorian’s revenge scenario backfired on her – she genuinely fell in love with Joey herself. Later, when Joey transferred his affections to Dorian’s niece Kelly Cramer (Gina Tognoni), she took it quite hard. David was not actually Victor's son – he was a con man who had learned of the existence of the son", "90210 (TV series) Vanessa as she has been trying to transform Liam into a star by managing his career. Annie and Dixon return from Paris after spending Annie's new-found wealth. Silver finds out by the end of the episode that her boyfriend's adopted daughter might be Adrianna's. Dixon has a mild stroke and is taken to the hospital. The doctor inform him that he need to avoid stress, but he's been under the pressure of hiding his newfound success with his music career without Adrianna. Liam consoles Silver, who learns that she may have the cancer gene that caused her mother's death two", "90210 (TV series) pushes him down the stairs at school because he finds out that Navid is telling people that he is a drug dealer. Navid remembers that it was Jasper who pushed him down the stairs and is determined to let Annie know he is a drug dealer. Navid asks Adrianna to admit to Annie that she bought drugs from Jasper. After Dixon realizes that Jen is the one who slept with Liam and not Annie, he opts to help Annie. Naomi also feels bad for Annie when she learns the truth about prom night. At the dance, Teddy and Silver share", "Jennie Garth most of any cast member. She won a Young Artist Award and was nominated for a Teen Choice Award for the role. She was also instrumental in launching the spin-offs \"Melrose Place\" and \"90210\", with the character of Kelly becoming a continuity icon by appearing in the most franchise episodes. Her successful role on \"Beverly Hills, 90210\" opened the door to several lead roles in made-for-TV films in the 1990s, including \"Danielle Steel's Star\" (1993), \"Without Consent\" (1994), \"Lies of the Heart: The Story of Laurie Kellogg\" (1994), \"Falling for You\" (1995), and \"An Unfinished Affair\" (1996). She also had", "Kevin Buchanan correct her own fertility problems, was looking to attempt to have their long-sought family. Kevin and Kelly find themselves getting into more and more arguments and inevitably break up. On the day of the wedding of Michael McBain to Marcie Walsh, Kevin and Kelly have a vicious argument at St. James Rectory and Kevin walks out on Kelly, leaving her weeping. Kevin learns Duke had comforted Kelly after their blowout, leading them to have sex before a freak tornado led to their being buried alive. When both Kelly and Duke are wheeled in needing surgery for severe injuries, a lack", "Kelly Taylor (90210) shows which compose the \"Beverly Hills, 90210\" franchise. In addition to her role in launching the spin-off \"Melrose Place\", Garth was the first performer from the original show to be cast in the third spin-off, \"90210\". Having appeared in the most series premieres, as well as the most episodes (313) of any figure throughout the continuity, she is the \"de facto\" central character of the \"Beverly Hills, 90210\" franchise. Garth's portrayal has earned recognition from critics and co-stars. In a 1995 article on the actress, \"TV Guide\"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Mary Murphy stated that, \"Her signature role—the sensitive, seductive, and tortured Kelly Taylor—tapped", "Silver (90210) is leaving, Silver stands there and waves them farewell. In \"O Holly Night\", Silver learns that Greg has a wife, but is currently divorcing her. Late on in the episode, Silver goes to visit Navid in Hospital after he got beat up. Just as she's about to go in, she overhears Navid confessing his feelings for Kat. Silver leaves right away, and ends up in the arms of her Greg. However, Silver didn't stay around long enough to hear Navid say he cares about Silver more than Kat. In Should Old Acquaintance Be Forgot?, Greg introduces Silver to his daughter", "John Reilly (actor) of the show in February 1995, when Sean and his on screen wife Tiffany left town. He returned to daytime television as Del Douglas on \"Sunset Beach\" for a short-term guest role during the show's first six episodes, and then later returned on various occasions during 1997-1999. Reilly played Kelly Taylor's oft-absentee father, Bill, in several episodes of \"Beverly Hills, 90210\". The character left the canvas when Bill Taylor was arrested and sent to jail, following a reconciliation with his daughter. On January 21, 2005, Reilly took over the role of Alistair Crane on the NBC soap opera \"Passions\". He", "Andrea Zuckerman Brandon while they rode a carousel. Throughout the episode Brandon and Andrea share several make-out sessions in anticipation of their \"big night\", and Brandon is shown finally expressing his attraction to her, telling his sister that he thinks she is pretty, and fantasizing about a \"sexy Andrea\" in a tight red dress, no glasses, and a serving apron. The episode concludes with Andrea deciding not to go through with a sexual encounter, persuaded instead by Kelly Taylor (who later herself enters a serious relationship with Brandon) to turn the promise of their sexual rendezvous into a way to get Brandon", "Kelly Cramer and they name the baby Zane. Reconciled and resigned to start over as a family, Kevin and Kelly relocate to London with Zane. In February 2010, Kelly returns to Llanview and receives devastating news that her mother Melinda has died of a heart attack. Dorian believes that Mitch Laurence, who has threatened the Cramer women, is behind Melinda's death. Kevin proposes to Kelly on the day of her mother's funeral, but she declines. Todd tries to convince Kelly to stay in Llanview and work for him at \"The Sun\", in part to annoy Blair; Kelly at first refuses, but is", "Joey Buchanan when she finds out. During a recurrence of her dissociative identity disorder, one of Viki's alternate personalities, Jean Randolph, holds Dorian hostage in a secret room beneath Llanfair in 1995. One of the conditions of her release is to end the relationship with Joey, which she does. Joey later becomes involved with Dorian's niece, Kelly Cramer (Gina Tognoni) in late 1995. Ultimately, Kelly leaves him for his brother Kevin. In 2003, Joey returns to Llanview, having become a pastor in his absence. He soon marries Jennifer Rappaport, but her struggle to fit into her new role as a pastor's wife", "Silver (90210) daughter of Mel Silver and Jackie Taylor, and the half-sister of Kelly Taylor and David Silver. She is re-introduced as a 15-year-old in the spin-off. She displayed some classic bipolar symptoms, including erratic, reckless behavior, racing speech, grandiose ideas, hypersexuality, lack of sleep, euphoria and confusion. As often happens during manic phases, Silver ended up making destructive decision, which ended with her at the train station, rambling and bewildered, running toward a speeding train. It was confirmed in the following episode as she was diagnosed with the disorder. Silver's bipolar disorder was revisited after Adrianna tampers with her medication when", "Luke Perry \"Biker Mice from Mars\", \"\", and \"The Night of the Headless Horseman\". Perry has guest-starred as gay characters in the sitcoms \"Spin City\" (1997) and \"Will & Grace\" (2005); he appeared as Carter Heywood's ex-boyfriend who subsequently fell in love with a woman on \"Spin City\" and played a geeky birdwatcher who caught the eye of Jack McFarland on \"Will & Grace\". In 2005 Perry was reunited with former \"90210\" co-star Jennie Garth when he guest-starred on \"What I Like About You\" in a loose parody of their \"90210\" characters' relationship. In 2008 Perry guest-starred as rapist Noah Sibert in", "90210 (season 4) it was announced that Lori Loughlin and Ryan Eggold would not be returning to the series' fourth season. However, Loughlin has already been asked to return for \"some episodes,\" by the former CW president, if her schedule permits it. The CW press release for their 2011–12 season, included all cast members Shenae Grimes, Tristan Wilds, AnnaLynne McCord, Jessica Stroup, Michael Steger, Jessica Lowndes, Matt Lanter, Trevor Donovan and Gillian Zinser. AnnaLynne McCord confirmed in an interview with \"Entertainment Weekly\" that the cast would be cut down by the new showrunners, though McCord was assured she would be back. Trevor Donovan", "Kevin Buchanan Grace had carried on an affair with Rae's then-husband. In revenge, Rae wanted to ruin Grace's life for having an affair with Rae's husband, Daniel. Rae is unsuccessful in convincing Kevin to stop seeing Grace. Kevin and Grace grow closer as journalists and companions covering a court case involving Lindsay Rappaport, eventually becoming engaged to marry. In October 1999, Kevin is distraught when Grace drowns at her adoptive grandfather, Asa Buchanan's summer house. Unable to cope, Kevin begins drinking heavily. His brother Joey and Joey's girlfriend Kelly Cramer move in with Kevin to help him cope with Grace's death. On", "90210 (TV series) wanted, Holly retaliates by attempting to sleep with Austin. Ironically the internship that Naomi received was given to her by Holly's mom, which causes family tension between Holly and her mom. Naomi hits Holly where it really hurts; she wins over Holly's mom. Annie finally gets her inheritance when she records Jeremy calling Marla a bitch. Liam gets into a motorcycle accident while trying to find Annie. A blonde woman named Vanessa, who hits Liam with her car, calls 911 and says that it was a \"hit and run\". When the winter premiere begins, Liam has been hanging out with", "Jennie Garth Jennie Garth Jennifer Eve Garth (born April 3, 1972) is an American actress. She is known for starring as Kelly Taylor throughout the \"Beverly Hills, 90210\" franchise (1990–2000) and Valerie Tyler on the sitcom \"What I Like About You\" (2002–06). In 2012, she starred in her own reality show, \"Jennie Garth: A Little Bit Country\" on CMT. Garth was born in Urbana, Illinois, to John and Carolyn Garth. The youngest of seven children (though their only child together), Garth spent much of her youth on a 25-acre horse ranch between Sadorus and Arcola, Illinois. For a time the family stayed", "The Lover (The Office) while he talks to Andy so Dwight will not hear their conversation, while using gestures to make it clear that they are discussing Dwight. He then gives the mallard to Ryan (B. J. Novak) and Kelly (Mindy Kaling) in the annex, meaning Dwight can hear the couple's bickering, and is forced to pay $10 to get it back. Jim finally summons Dwight to his office and tells him he knew about the recording device all along. Dwight admits to being jealous of Jim's promotion. Jim tells Dwight to wash his car as punishment. Jim then brings Pam into the conference", "Ethan Lovett up. Michael leaves, but not before he tells Ethan off, saying he should be more careful about what strangers he talks so boldly to because he’ll live longer. Kristina thanks Ethan, who asks what happened to her face and she says she tripped. Kristina, who appears to have a crush on Ethan, compliments his singing karaoke at the \"nonwedding\" party for Maxie Jones and Damian Spinelli. She also asks for his number in case she needs his help again. He programs it into her phone. On November 25, 2009, Ethan runs into Kristina at Kelly's as he is about to" ]

[ 11.9765625 ]

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[ "The territory now contained within Bronx County was originally part of Westchester County, one of the 12 original counties of the English Province of New York. The present Bronx County was contained in the town of Westchester and parts of the towns of Yonkers, Eastchester, and Pelham. In 1846, a new town, West Farms, was created by division of Westchester; in turn, in 1855, the town of Morrisania was created from West Farms. In 1873, the town of Kingsbridge (roughly corresponding to the modern Bronx neighborhoods of Kingsbridge, Riverdale, and Woodlawn) was established within the former borders of Yonkers." ]

[ "In 1945, the British entrepreneur J. Arthur Rank, hoping to expand his American presence, bought into a four-way merger with Universal, the independent company International Pictures, and producer Kenneth Young. The new combine, United World Pictures, was a failure and was dissolved within one year. Rank and International remained interested in Universal, however, culminating in the studio's reorganization as Universal-International. William Goetz, a founder of International, was made head of production at the renamed Universal-International Pictures Inc., which also served as an import-export subsidiary, and copyright holder for the production arm's films. Goetz, a son-in-law of Louis B. Mayer decided to bring \"prestige\" to the new company. He stopped the studio's low-budget production of B movies, serials and curtailed Universal's horror and \"Arabian Nights\" cycles. Distribution and copyright control remained under the name of Universal Pictures Company Inc.", "Kenneth Gergen formulated additional classifications, which include the strategic manipulator, the pastiche personality, and the relational self. The strategic manipulator is a person who begins to regard all senses of identity merely as role-playing exercises, and who gradually becomes alienated from his or her social \"self\". The pastiche personality abandons all aspirations toward a true or \"essential\" identity, instead viewing social interactions as opportunities to play out, and hence become, the roles they play. Finally, the relational self is a perspective by which persons abandon all sense of exclusive self, and view all sense of identity in terms of social engagement with others. For Gergen, these strategies follow one another in phases, and they are linked to the increase in popularity of postmodern culture and the rise of telecommunications technology.", "Flares can also be used by the military to mark positions, usually for targeting, but laser-guided and GPS weapons have eliminated this need for the most part.", "In the late 19th and early 20th century several forms of pragmatic philosophy arose. The ideas of pragmatism, in its various forms, developed mainly from discussions between Charles Sanders Peirce and William James when both men were at Harvard in the 1870s. James popularized the term \"pragmatism\", giving Peirce full credit for its patrimony, but Peirce later demurred from the tangents that the movement was taking, and redubbed what he regarded as the original idea with the name of \"pragmaticism\". Along with its pragmatic theory of truth, this perspective integrates the basic insights of empirical (experience-based) and rational (concept-based) thinking.", "Regression testing focuses on finding defects after a major code change has occurred. Specifically, it seeks to uncover software regressions, as degraded or lost features, including old bugs that have come back. Such regressions occur whenever software functionality that was previously working correctly, stops working as intended. Typically, regressions occur as an unintended consequence of program changes, when the newly developed part of the software collides with the previously existing code. Common methods of regression testing include re-running previous sets of test-cases and checking whether previously fixed faults have re-emerged. The depth of testing depends on the phase in the release process and the risk of the added features. They can either be complete, for changes added late in the release or deemed to be risky, or be very shallow, consisting of positive tests on each feature, if the changes are early in the release or deemed to be of low risk. Regression testing is typically the largest test effort in commercial software development, due to checking numerous details in prior software features, and even new software can be developed while using some old test-cases to test parts of the new design to ensure prior functionality is still supported.", "The most famous groups are the chirigotas, choirs and comparsas. The chirigotas are well known witty, satiric popular groups who sing about politics, new times and household topics, wearing the same costume, which they prepare for the whole year. The Choirs (coros) are wider groups that go on open carts through the streets singing with an orchestra of guitars and lutes. Their signature piece is the \"Carnival Tango\", alternating comical and serious repertory. The comparsas are the serious counterpart of the chirigota in Cádiz, and the poetic lyrics and the criticism are their main ingredients. They have a more elaborated polyphony that is easily recognizable by the typical countertenor voice.", "Some of the greatest imports to Plymouth from the Americas and Europe during the latter half of the 19th century included maize, wheat, barley, sugar cane, guano, sodium nitrate and phosphate Aside from the dockyard in the town of Devonport, industries in Plymouth such as the gasworks, the railways and tramways and a number of small chemical works had begun to develop in the 19th century, continuing into the 20th century." ]

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[ "تاريخ العراق\nكانت حضارة سومر والمنطقة التاريخية في جنوب العراق. فمن أقرب الحضارة المعروفة في العالم، مما يجعل العراق واحدة من مهود الحضارة. امتدت الحضارة السومرية أكثر من 3000 سنة[11] وبدأت مع أول مستوطنة من أريدو في فترة عُبيد (منتصف الألفية السادسة قبل الميلاد) خلال فترة أوروك ( الألفية الرابعة قبل الميلاد) وفترات السلالات المبكرة (3 الف قبل الميلاد) حتى ظهور أشور وبابل في أواخر وأوائل الألف الثاني و الثالث على التوالي." ]

[ "العلاقات الإيرانية العراقية\nتأسست الدولة العباسية على يد المتحدرين من سلالة أصغر أعمام نبي الإسلام محمد بن عبد الله، ألا وهو العباس بن عبد المطلب، وقد اعتمد العباسيون في تأسيس دولتهم على الفرس الناقمين على الأمويين لاستبعادهم إياهم من مناصب الدولة والمراكز الكبرى، واحتفاظ العرب بها، كذلك استمال العباسيون الشيعة العراق للمساعدة على زعزعة كيان الدولة الأموية. نقل العباسيون عاصمة الدولة، بعد نجاح ثورتهم، من دمشق الشاميّة، إلى الكوفةالعراقية، ثم الأنبار قبل أن يقومموا بتشييد مدينة بغداد العراقية لتكون عاصمة الخلافةالإسلامية أصيبت الدولة الأموية بالضعف والقنوط.\nما ساهم في تقوية الجماعات والأحزاب الدينية والحركات السياسية المعارضة لحكمهم والتي كانت منتشرة بشكل أساسي في العراق وإيران، البعيدة عن حاضرة الخلافة في دمشق. وأبرز تلك الأحزاب التي عارضت بني أمية الحزب القائل بأحقية سلالة علي بن أبي طالب بالخلافة والحزب القائل بأحقية سلالة عباس بن عبد المطلب عم النبي محمد بالخلافة.\nكان الحزب الأول قد أطلق عدة ثورات خلال الحكم الأموي، أدت إلى مقتل العديد من مواليه وقادته، فقتل الحسين بن علي عام 680م وقتل زيد بن علي عام 740م بعد أن ثار في الكوفة. أما الحزب العباسي فقد تطور تطورًا تدريجيًا والتزم الهدوء طوال عهود القوة الأموية واستغل ضعف الاقتصاد لتفجير ثورته؛ فضلًا عن ذلك يرى الباحث عبد العزيز الدردوري أن العباسيين قد استغلوا أيضًا التمييز العنصري والطبقي الذي كان يمارسه الأمويون بين العرب وغير العرب في الوظائف والضرائب والجيش، فكونوا بذلك قاعدة شعبية عريضة لدى غير العرب خصوصًا في أوساط فلاحي الريف وعمال المدن الفقراء. وذهب الدردوري وعدد آخر من الباحثين العرب والمستشرقين لاستخلاص قاعدة مفاهدا بأن الدعوة العباسية كانت «ثورة دينية واجتماعية واقتصادية» ويراها البعض أيضًا «ثورة الفرس ضد العرب».", "علم الآثار في العراق\nشهدت أرض العراق قديماً قيام بداية الحضارة البشرية المعروفة على مستوى العالم والتي عرفت بمنجزاتها الحضارية والقيمة، وكان لها أيضاً علاقاتها وتأثيراتها الحضارية الواسعة مع مختلف حضارات ودويلات العالم القديم. وعلى هذا الأساس كان الاهتمام بآثار تلك الحضارات العراقية القديمة كبيراً . ذلك الاهتمام الذي تنامى وتعاظم بشكل متوازٍ مع تنامي الدوافع والغايات التي زار العراق لأجلها الكثير من الرحالة والباحثين والمهتمين سواءً من العرب أو الأجانب، والذين وضحوا في كتاباتهم ومؤلفاتهم شيئاً عن آثار هذا البلد، الذي قد ورد عن حضاراته القديمة وآثاره بعض الإشارات الكتابية في الكتب المقدسة كالقرآن الكريم أو العهد القديم وفي المؤلفات أو المدونات الكلاسيكية القديمة أيضاً، فعمد بعض من زار العراق، ولاسيما الأجانب منهم، إلى نقل واستنساخ ورسم بعض الآثار الشاخصة للعيان والعودة بها إلى بلدانهم ليتشكل الحافز والدافع الممهد للكثيرين غيرهم من المهتمين بهذا الجانب لأن يزوروا العراق ويبحثوا في أرضه عن تلك الآثار ذات القيمة المادية والفنية، والتي تخص أقواماً قديمة ورد ذكرها في العهد القديم، لتنطلق مع بداية القرن التاسع عشر أولى عمليات البحث عن الآثار العراقية بوساطة طرائق ووسائل عديدة روعي فيها عدم الإسراف في إنفاق المال والوقت والجهد فكان النبش والتخريب في بطون ابرز المواقع الأثرية سمة هذه الأعمال في تلك المدة، ناهيك عما استحوذ عليه من الآثار عن طريق المتاجرة، تلك الأعمال التي كان ابرز مموليها الحكومات والمؤسسات والجمعيات العالمية، ومنها على وجه الخصوص المتاحف الأوربية كالمتحف البريطاني ومتحف اللوفر الفرنسي، فتم بذلك نقل الكثير من الآثار العراقية عبر شخصيات أجنبية حملت الطابع السياسي والعسكري والاستخباراتي وأيضاً بوساطة مجموعة المغامرين والشخصيات المرتبطة بالمتاحف الأوربية، والتي وفدت إلى العراق في تلك المدة لأجل إخراج أكبر كمية ممكنة من الآثار بأتجاه أوروبا، قبل أن تبدأ مرحلة القرن العشرين الميلادي التي نشطت بها البعثات الأجنبية العاملة في العراق، والمتسمة بعض أعمالها الآثارية بالتنظيم والدقة مقارنةً مع الأعمال السابقة.\nإن ما تقدم مثل عوامل أو مسببات أو مراحل ممهدة لنشوء علم الآثار في العراق.", "ثقافة العراق\nووصل العراق إلى قمة مجدهِ في القرنين الثامن والتاسع الميلادي في عهد الحضارة الإسلامية أيام الخلافة العباسية حيث كانت بغداد ترأس ما كان في ذلك الحين أغنى الحضارات في العالم. إذ بلغ العراق العصر الذهبي في العهد الإسلامي وإنتشرت المدارس والجامعات الإسلامية في بغداد وصارت قبلة للعالم من حيث التطور العلمي والثقافي وإزدهار العلوم والاكتشافات المنوعة على كافة الأصعدة الميدانية، ومنها في علم الفلك والرياضيات والطب والبصريات والكيمياء والتاريخ والفلسفة وغيرها، وأنتشر وذاع صيت علماء بغداد في كافة انحاء العالم، خصوصا في عهد الخليفة العباسي هارون الرشيد.", "مصر ما قبل التاريخ\nاستمرت الحضارة العمراتية من حوالي عام 4000 إلى 3500 ق.م. تسمى الحضارة بهذا الاسم على اسم موقع العمرة الذي يقع نحو 120 كم جنوب البداري. والعمرة هي أول موقع تكتشف فيه تلك الحضارة بوضوح دون مزج مع حضارة جرزة اللاحقة، لكن هذه الفترة موثقة بشكل أفضل في موقع نقادة ولهذا يطلق عليها أيضا حضارة نقادة I. استمرت الأواني ذات الحافة السوداء في الظهور، ولكن ظهرت أيضا في تلك الحقبة الأواني ذات الخطوط البيضاء المتقاطعة - وهي نوع من الفخار تمت زخرفته بخطوط بيضاء قريبة ومتوازية متقاطعة مع مجموعة أخرى من الخطوط البيضاء القريبة والمتوازية. تقع الحقبة العمراتية بين 30-39 في نظام التأريخ التسلسلي لبيتري..", "بلاد الرافدين\nبلاد الرافدين (بالآرامية: ܒܝܬ ܢܗܪܝܢ بين نهرين، وتعني \"بلد النهرين\"، بالإغريقية: Μεσοποταμία ميسوپوتاميا، بمعنى ما بين النهرين) هي منطقة جغرافية تاريخية تقع في جنوب غرب آسيا. تعد من أولى المراكز الحضارية في العالم. وهي تقع حاليًا في العراق، سوريا وتركيا ما بين نهري دجلة والفرات. وأشهر حضاراتها هي حضارة سومر وأكد وبابل وأشور وكلدان والتي نشأت من العراق. ومع إزدهار الحضارات في بلاد ما بين النهرين وفي اوقات متزامنه ومتعاقبة تم إحتلال الأراضي المجاورة فأحتلت شرقًا أجزاء من إيران وتحديدا حضارة عيلام (وهي تعرف حاليا بمحافظة محافظة خوزستان) وأحتلت غربًا سوريا وصولًا إلى فلسطين حيث تم السبي البابلي في عهد نبوخذنصر. وبعد موت نبوخذنصر مرت حضارة ما بين النهرين في عهد الإنحطاط والتردي بينما نشأت وتطورت حضارة الفرس فتم احتلال بابل وما بعدها على يد قورش وأصبحت قطيسفون (حاليًا معروفة بإسم المدائن) جنوب شرق بغداد عاصمة لدولة الفرس حتى جاء ما يعرف بالفتح الإسلامي لبلاد العراق والشام على يد عمر بن الخطاب. وبقى العراق في حكم المسلمين حتى بنيت المدينة المدوّرة بغداد على عهد الحاكم العباسي المنصور، ثم أصبحت بغداد عاصمة للخلافة العباسية واعتبر ذلك العهد بالعصر الذهبي للحضارة الإسلامية. وفي عام 1920 أعلن ظهور أول حكومة مؤقتة في العراق بعد زوال حكم الدولة العثمانية، وبدأ عهد المملكة العراقية، ثم تحول إلى الحكم الجمهوري.", "تاريخ بلاد الشام\nكانت الثقافة النطوفية أول من استأنس الكلاب، وبمساعدة هذا الحيوان في الصيد وحراسة التجمعات البشرية قد يكون ساهم في نجاح إنتشارها. في شمال سوريا، شرق المنطقة الاناضولية من الشام، طورت الثقافة النطوفية في شايونو والمريبط أول حضارة زراعية كاملة إلى جانب الحبوب البرية، ودعمتها لاحقا بالخراف والماعز المدجن، والتي دُجنت أولا في الثقافة الزرزية في شمال العراق وإيران (والتي قد تكون قد تطورت عن الكبارية على غرار النطوفية).", "تاريخ العمارة\nالفترة المبكرة لهذه الحضارة كانت في جنوب شرق منطقة الأنضول في بلاد ما بين النهرين \" سوريا و العراق حالياً \" سنة 8000 قبل الميلاد , و عثر على بعض الأثار في جنوب شرق أوروبا تعود لسنة 7000 قبل الميلاد , و في وسط أوروبا سنة 5500 قبل الميلاد .", "العراق\nثم جاء العيلاميون ودمروا أور حوالي سنة 2000 ق.م.، وسيطروا على معظم المدن في بلاد الرافدين، بينما كان شمال البلاد تحت سيطرة الشوباريين.[44]", "قائمة متاحف العراق\nيوجد في العراق العديد من أنواع المتاحف تأتي في مقدمتها المتاحف الأثارية، والتي تحتوي على آثار تمتد من حوالي 60 ألف سنة أو إلى 35 ألف سنة والمتمثلة بآثار من عصور الإنسان القديم \"النياندرتال\" إلى العصور الإسلامية المتأخرة،[1] وأهم المتاحف الأثرية في العراق هو المتحف العراقي في بغداد ومتحف الموصل في نينوى إضافة إلى متحف الناصرية في ذي قار. تليها المتاحف التراثية مثل المتحف البغدادي في بغداد الذي يضم غالبية المعالم الحياتية لسكان بغداد الأوائل، ومتحف كرميان للفلكور في أربيل. يوجد في العراق أيضاً على متاحف للفن مثل المتحف الوطني للفن الحديث في بغداد والذي يحتوي على 7000 عمل تعود إلى فنانين مختلفين. كما يوجد متحفان للتاريخ الطبيعي هما متحف التاريخ الطبيعي في بغداد ومتحف التاريخ الطبيعي في البصرة. أما المتاحف الدينية منها متحف ذاكرة الإسلام فتوجد في محافظة كربلاء، التي تعد مركز السياحة الدينية في العراق.", "العراق\nوقد اشتهر هذا العصر بانتشار الديانات الزرادشتية واليهودية ثم المسيحية في العراق، [60] كما اشتهر هذا العصر بظهور عدة ممالك مستقلة تواجدت وحكمت في أجزاء من العراق مثل مملكة الحضر [61] ومملكة حدياب (20-116 ب م) [62] ومملكة ميسان (127 ق م- 128 أو 147 ب م) [63] ومملكة المناذرة والتي حكمها أسرة المناذرة العربية والتي كانت عاصمتها في مدينة الحيرة وحكمت في جنوب غرب العراق منذ حوالي سنة 300 م حتى سقوطها في الفتح الإسلامي سنة 602 م.[64]", "تاريخ العراق\nكان شمال العراق فيما بين عام 65000 قبل الميلاد و35000 قبل الميلاد موطنا لإنسان نياندرتال، والبقايا الأثرية اكتشفت في كهف شاندر[7]، ونفس المنطقة تضم عدد من مقابر ما قبل العصر الحجري الحديث، التي يعود تاريخها إلى حوالي عام 11،000 قبل الميلاد.[8] منذ ما يقرب من 10000 عام قبل الميلاد، فإن العراق (مع آسيا الصغرى وبلاد الشام) كان مركز للثقافة الإنسانية في العصر الحجري الحديث للإنسان القوقازي المعروفة باسم (عهد ما قبل الفخار لفترة العصر الحجري الحديث A) حيث ظهرت الزراعة وتربية الماشية لأول مرة في العالم، وامتاز العصر الحجري الحديث التالي (ما قبل الفخار لفترة العصر الحجري الحديث B) بالبيوت المستطيلة.", "تاريخ العراق\nكانت بابل دولة في وسط وجنوب العراق مع بابل عاصمة لها. وقد تأسست كدولة مستقلة من قبل ملك الأموريين اسمه SUMU مضت Abum في عام 1894 قبل الميلاد.[14] وخلال الألف الثالث قبل الميلاد، وضعت هناك التكافل الثقافي حميمة جدا بين السومريين والاكديين والتي تضمنت ثنائية اللغة على نطاق واسع.[19] وتأثير السومرية على الأكدية (والعكس بالعكس) هو واضح في جميع المجالات، من الاقتراض المعجمي على نطاق واسع، إلى التقارب النحوي، الصرفي، والصوتي.[19] وهذا ما دفع العلماء للإشارة إلى السومرية والأكدية في الألفية الثالثة قبل الميلاد باعتبارها sprachbund.[19]", "مصر\nتشتهر مصر بأن بها إحدى أقدم الحضارات على وجه الأرض حيث بدأ البشر بالنزوح إلى ضفاف النيل والاستقرار وبدأ في زراعة الأرض وتربية الماشية منذ نحو 10,000 سنة[5]. وتطور أهلها سريعًا وبدأت فيها صناعات بسيطة وتطور نسيجها الاجتماعي المترابط، وكوّنوا إمارات متجاورة مسالمة على ضفاف النيل تتبادل التجارة، سابقة في ذلك كل بلاد العالم. تشهد على ذلك حضارة البداري منذ نحو 7000 سنة وحضارة نقادة (4400 سنة قبل الميلاد - نحو 3000 سنة قبل الميلاد). وكان التطور الطبيعي لها أن تندمج مع بعضها البعض شمالًا وجنوبًا وتوحيد الوجهين القبلي والبحري وبدأ الحكم المركزي الممثل في بدء عصر الأسرات (نحو 3000 قبل الميلاد). وتبادلت التجارة مع جيرانها حيث تعد مصر من أوائل الدول التجارية. وكان لابتكار الكتابة في مصر أثرا كبيرا على مسيرة الحياة في البلاد وتطورها السريع، وكان المصري القديم مولعًا بالكتابة، كذلك شهدت مصر القديمة تطورا في مجالات الطب والهندسة والحساب.", "حمص\nأقدم معلومات عن الحضارة في حمص تعود لعام 2300 قبل الميلاد، ولقد حدد المؤرخون مدينة \"صوبة\" المذكورة في العهد القديم على أنها تسمية عبرية لمدينة حمص.[6] في عام 1274 قبل الميلاد حاولت القوّات المصرية خلال فترة حكم الفرعون رمسيس الثاني إدخال بلاد الشام تحت سيطرته فوقعت معركة قادش على الضفة الغربية لنهر العاصي بالقرب من المدينة،[10] وقد وصفت المعركة بكونها أكبر معركة ذات عربات في التاريخ، إذ شاركت بها بين 5000 إلى 6000 عربة، ولم تستطع جيوش الفرعون السيطرة على حمص وما بعدها، واكتفت بالجزء الجنوبي من بلاد الشام.[11][12] في القرن الرابع قبل الميلاد دخلت جيوش الإسكندر المقدوني سوريا وبعد وفاته تأسست الإمبراطورية السلوقية، التي أدخلت الحضارة والثقافة اليونانية إلى المنطقة، وأسس سلوقس نيكاتور ستة عشر مدينة في بلاد الشام منها أنطاكية واللاذقية وأفاميا وسلوقية وحمص أيضًا.[6] المؤرخ والفيلسوف اليوناني سترابو يذكر في مؤلفاته عن وجود سلالة هي \"Emesani إيمساني\" تقطن حول نهر العاصي جنوب أفاميا ولها مملكة مستقلة ومستقرة، وقد تكون تلك أول إشارة إلى حمص باسمها الحديث. يقول سترابو أنه بعد زوال الإمبراطورية السلوقية ومآل البلاد لحكم الإمبراطورية الرومانية على يد القائد بومبي وخلال حكم يوليوس قيصر، دخلت أسرة \"إيمساني\" في تحالف مع الجيش الروماني في عدة مواقع، من أجل الحفاظ على استقلال البلاد التابعة لسلطتها، ويقول سترابو أيضًا أن حدود مملكة حمص كانت من الرستن شمالاً إلى وادي البقاع غربًا وتدمر شرقًا ويبرود جنوبًا، وأنها كانت مملكة غنية بالمال وقوية بالرجال، وأنها أولى الممالك التي تحالفت مع الإمبراطورية الرومانية في الشرق.[2] بعد الملك سامبسيكروموس وهو أول ملوك السلالة أصبح إمبليكوس ملكًا، وهو من اتخذ حمص عاصمة له وقام بالعناية بها وتجميلها، إلى جانب تحسن معيشة أهلها بنتيجة الثروة المتدفقة من العائلة؛[2] وأثبتت المملكة قدرتها العسكرية من خلال مساعدتها الرومان في حصار الإسكندرية عام 48 قبل الميلاد، ثم لعبت دورًا بارزًا في الحرب الأهلية الرومانية بين مارك أنتوني وأوكتافيوس، حيث وقفت المملكة إلى جانب أوكتافيوس، وبتحريض من مارك أنتوني قام أليكسو شيقق أمبليكوس بالانقلاب على الملك وإعدامه ثم تتويج نفسه ملكًا عام 31 قبل الميلاد، ذلك لم يمنع أوكتافيوس الذي ناصرته المملكة من الفوز في الحرب الأهلية، وبنتيجة انتصاره خلع أليكسو وآل عرش المملكة إلى أمبليكوس الثاني، نجل أمبيلكوس الأول، كما أعدم أليكسو بتهمة الخيانة العظمى.عادت المملكة قوية ومزدهرة بعد الحرب الأهلية الرومانية ونعمت بالسلام من 20 وحتى 14 قبل الميلاد والتي أطلق عليها المؤرخون اسم \"العصر الذهبي\" للمملكة حمص القديمة.[2] واستمر الحال على ما هو عليه خلال القرن الأول، ويلاحظ أن الصناعات الحربية كانت متطورة في المملكة، إذ كانت ترفد الجيش الروماني بالرماة؛ كما أنها حافظت على تفوقها العسكري وتحالفها مع الرومان وساعدتهم في حصار القدس الذي تمّ عام 70، لإعادة السيطرة على المدينة.[2] في عام 73 توفي رابع الملوك سوهايمس وخلفه ابنه أليكسو الثاني، وعلى الرغم من استمرار التحالف مع الدولة الرومانية، غير أنه لأسباب غير معروفة فقد خفض الروماني درجة الحكم الذاتي للملكة، وربما يعود السبب في ذلك لعدم دقة تحديد نسب الملوك. رغم ذلك فقد استمرت السلالة بالحكم حتى عام 254 على الأقل، ومن المؤسف أنه لا معلومات دقيقة عن السلالة الحمصية بعد حكم أليكسو الثاني. يذكر أن السلالة الحمصية كسائر الممالك القديمة قد جمع ملوكها وأفرادها بين الإدارة والكهنوت، وإقامة الطقوس الدينية في المملكة.[2]", "قائمة القوى العظمى القديمة\nتعتبر سومر من أولى الحضارات في الشرق الأدنى القديم والتي كانت واقعة في بلاد ما بين النهرين (حديثا العراق) من فترة أقدم السجلات والتي ترجع إلى منتصف الألفية الرابعة ق.م وحتى صعود الحضارة البابلية في آخر الألفية الثالثة ق.م. ينطبق مصطلح سومري على كل متحدثي اللغة السومرية. تعتبر سومر (بالإضافة إلى مصر القديمة وحضارة وادي السند) أول مجتمع مستقر في العالم يتميز بكل الصفات المطلوبة ليكون \"حضارة\" كاملة. في النهاية امتدت الحضارة لتصبح أول إمبراطورية في التاريخ: الإمبراطورية الأكدية.", "العراق\nيشمل فن العمارة في وادي الرافدين عدة ثقافات مختلفة، ويمتد على فترة من الألفية العاشرة قبل الميلاد، عندما تم بناء الهياكل الدائمة الأولى، إلى القرن الثامن قبل الميلاد. ومن بين الإنجازات المعمارية العراقية هي تطوير التخطيط العمراني، وتصميم الدار ذات الفناء، وبناء الزقورة. وتأثر فن العمارة العراقي كذلك بجميع الحضارات التي أعقبت ذلك التاريخ من الحضارات الرومانية، والإيرانية، وغيرها. وعندما فتح العراق في عهد الخلفاء الراشدين بدأ فن العمارة الإسلامية في العراق، وتميزت عناصر العمارة الإسلامية بالمئذنة، والقبة، والصحن، والجامع، والأقواس، وغيرها.", "بلاد الرافدين\nذكر التوراة إن سفينة نوح رست في بابل أو قربها وإن النبي نوح (ع) هو أبو البشر بعد أن بيد جميع البشر في الطوفان، وهذا مما يؤمن به اليهود والمسيحيون. وفي الإسلام يوجد ما يقاربها فيروى عن بعض علماء المسلمين إن سفينة نوح رست في الكوفة وهي قرب بابل. ومن هناك قام أول مجتمع بشري بعد الطوفان ثم انتشر البشر إلى باقي البلدان، وبهذا تكون بلاد الرافدين هي منشأ جميع السلالات البشرية الموجودة حاليًا على سطح الأرض. ولكن الحضارات البشرية الأولى ظهرت في بلاد الرافدين وكانت بعد هذه الفترة بمدة ليست بالقصيرة وأنشأتها أقوام مهاجرة من بلاد مختلفة إلى وادي الرافدين وهذه الأقوام هي أولًا من السومريين وهم أقوام مهاجرين من مناطق جبلية يفصلها عن وادي الرافدين البحر كما ورد في الألواح الطينية (ما نقله السومريون عن أنهم تركوا موطنا في ارض جبلية يمكن الوصول إليها بحرًا)[1]، وقد اختلف كبار المؤرخين في تحديد الموطن الأصلي لهم وإن كان الأكثر على أنه من أواسط آسيا أو من جنوب آسيا. ثم أعقبهم الآراميون والعموريون وهم قبائل سامية بدوية هاجرت من الجزيرة العربية بسبب التصحر إلى بلاد وادي الرافدين الوفيرة بالماء والصالحة للزراعة وليؤسسوا الحضارات الأكدية والبابلية والكلدانية والآشورية، وكانت نهاية السومريين على يد العيلاميين القادمين من إيران والعموريين المهاجرين من الجزيرة العربية[2].", "العراق\nوفي 1792 قبل الميلاد، جاء حمورابي حيث قام بتطوير بابل من بلدة صغيرة إلى مدينة كبيرة، وأعلن نفسه ملكاً على هذه الدولة، وغزا حمورابي كلا من جنوب ووسط العراق، وكذلك عيلام في الشرق وماري إلى الغرب، وآشور في الشمال وحكم مملكته بالقانون حيث قام بتأسيس أول دستور دولة مكتوب في التاريخ والذي يعرف بشريعة حمورابي، والتي تتألف من 282 مادة قانونية وادعى حمورابي استلام هذه الشريعة من الإله شمش إله القانون في الميثولوجيا البابلية.[46]", "عراقيون\nتعد بلاد الرافدين من أقدم المناطق في العالم المأهولة بالسكان حيث أن كهوف شنايدر في شمال العراق وقرية جرمو في كركوك من العصر الحجري الحديث، وانطلقت الحضارة السومرية في جنوب العراق منذ أكثر من 7000 سنة، تم اختراع الكتابة مسمارية أول كتابة على وجه الارض وتم اختراع العجلة وبناء الدول وسن القوانيين وبناء أول مدن بتاريخ أور ولارسا ونيبور وغيرها من المدن. بعد ذلك برزت أول امبروطورية بتاريخ وهي الامبروطورية الآشورية والإمبراطورية البابلية الحديثة. ظل العراق جزء مركزي ومهم بالتاريخ القديم حتى بعد سقوط بابل عاصمة بلاد مابين النهرين (العراق حاليا). ظهرت المدائن العراقية شمال مدينة بابل كعاصمة الامبراطورية الساسانية وبعد دخول الإسلام إلى العراق أصبحت الكوفة بالقرب من مدينة بابل عاصمة الخلافة الإسلامية وبعدها أصبحت بغداد شمال مدينة بابل عاصمة الدولة العباسية.", "حسين علي محفوظ\nواكملت مقالي بعد المكالمة وكانت في وقتها رسالة إلى الدولة العراقية بشأن حسين علي محفوظ.\nيبدو من نافلة القول التأكيد على أن العراق بلد الحضارات واصل العلم ومهد الكتابة وأساس العديد من المخترعات والمعجزات العلمية التي ظهرت خلال العصور الماضية، وانه على أرضه خط الأجداد أول القوانين وصيغت أول التشريعات القانونية التي منها أنطلقت الروئ والافكار باجنحتها المختلفة لبقية ارجاء العالم من اجل ان تنير الدرب وتفتح افاقاً جديدة نحو حضارة ومدنية معاصرة غيرت مجرى التاريخ ونقلت عن طريقها تلك الدولة والأمم من حال إلى حال اخر.", "تاريخ العراق\nوفي أواخر عهد الإمبراطورية في العراق، قامت بمذابح عرفت ب<b data-parsoid='{\"dsr\":[40545,40561,3,3]}'>مذابح سيفو وتعرف كذلك ب<b data-parsoid='{\"dsr\":[40574,40596,3,3]}'>المذابح الآشورية أو مذابح السريان، وهي سلسلة من العمليات الحربية التي شنتها قوات نظامية تابعة للدولة العثمانية بمساعدة مجموعات مسلحة شبه نظامية استهدفت مدنيين آشوريين/سريان/كلدان أثناء وبعد الحرب العالمية الأولى.[64] أدت هذه العمليات إلى مقتل مئات الآلاف منهم، كما نزح آخرون من مناطق سكناهم الأصلية بجنوب شرق تركيا الحالية وشمال غرب إيران.[65]، واستقر بعض منهم في العراق.", "بغداد\nتُعد بغداد أكبر مدن العراق وأيضًا من كبريات مدن الشرق الأوسط وثاني أكبر مدينة عربية معاصرة بعد القاهرة في مصر. ومدينة بغداد من المدن التي ترتبط بتاريخ الخلافة العباسية إن لم يكن تاريخ العالم الإسلامي خلال القرون الخمسة من عام 150 هـ/767م إلى656 هـ/1258م، فكان أبو جعفر المنصور ثاني خليفة عباسي وأول من اتخذ بغداد عاصمة له بعدما قضى على منافسيه من العباسيين والعلويين في عام 145 هـ 762م، وبنى أبو جعفر المنصور على نهر دجلة عاصمته بغداد في عام (145 - 149 هـ) 710 ميلادية على شكل دائري، وهو اتجاه جديد في بناء المدن الإسلامية، لأن مـعظم المدن الإسلامية، كانت إما مستطيلة كالفسطاط، أو مربعة كالقاهرة، أو بيضاوية كصنعاء. ولعل السبب في ذلك يرجع إلى أن هذه المدن نشأت بجوار مرتفعات حالت دون استدارتها. ويُعتبر تخطيط المدينة المدورة (بغداد)، ظاهرة جديدة في الفن المعماري الإسلامي ولاسيما في المدن الأخرى التي شيدها العباسيون مثل مدينة سامراء وما حوته من مساجد وقصور خلافية فخمة. وإلى جانب العمارة وجدت الزخرفة التي وصفت بأنهما لغة الفن الإسلامي، وتقوم على زخرفة المساجد والقصور والقباب بأشكال هندسية أو نباتية جميلة تبعث في النفس الراحة والهدوء والانشراح. وسُمي هذا الفن الزخرفي الإسلامي في أوروبا باسم أرابسك.[68]", "المسيحية في العراق\nظهرت المسيحية في القرن الأول الميلادي حيث كان معظم سكان العراق يعتنقون المسيحية، وبعض منهم اليهودية والمجوسية والمانوية وعبادة الأوثان، وبعد دخول المسلمين للعراق تضاءلت أعداد المسيحيين بشكل كبير على مدى عدة قرون لأسباب عديدة منها فرض الجزية واعتناق الناس الإسلام. أقدم كنيسة في العراق موجودة آثارها في محافظة كربلاء قرب بلدة عين تمر وهي تعد من أقدم الكنائس في العالم.[10] يضع التقليد المسيحي دخول المسيحية لبلاد ما بين النهرين إلى القرن الأول الثاني. ففي \"أسطورة منديل الرها\" بحسب رواية يوسيبيوس يرسل الملك أبجر الأسود مستشاره حنانيا في طلب يسوع بعد أن سمع بمعجزاته ويدعوه إلى المجيء إلى مملكة الرها، غير أن يسوع يعطيه صورته منقوشة على منديل ويعتذر عن المجيء ويعده بإرسال مار أدي أحد تلامذته الاثنان والسبعون والذي ينشر المسيحية بمملكته.[11]", "تاريخ العراق\nفي القرن 3، البارثيين وبدوره خلفه سلالة الساسانية التي حكمت بلاد ما بين النهرين حتى حكم الخلافة الإسلامية في القرن 7، وبعد ذلك تم حله نقطة آشور (Assuristan). الساسانيين غزا الدول النيو الآشورية المستقلة من حدياب، Osroene، الحضر وأخيرا آشور خلال القرن 3.", "زراعة\nكان الإنسان البدائي يعيش على الصيد بشكل كبير و لذلك كان يتجول دائماً للحصول على الطعام و لكن تم اكتشاف الزراعة للأول مرة في الحضارة السومرية في بلاد الرافدين العراق حاليا.", "الاحتلال البريطاني للعراق\nالعراق لفظة بابلية أطلقت لأول مرة على إمارة أوروك وهي إحدى الإمارات في عصر دويلات المدن، والتي توسع حكما لاحقا ليشمل الأقاليم المجاورة. والعراق أو ما أصطلح عليه بتسمية أرض السواد أو بلاد الرافدين أو بلاد بابل، فيعد مكان جغرافي وتاريخي واحد على الرغم من اختلاف الأعراق والمذاهب المكونة له، فهو يشكل أمتدادا منفتحا طبيعا وبشريا لما جاوره من أقاليم عريية أرتبط معها، علاوة على أواصر التاريخ والجغرافية، فقد أرتبط بها بأواصر الدولة الواحدة على مر الأزمان، ففي عهد الدولتين والآشورية والتي يرجع تأريخها إلى ماقبل الألف الثالث قبل الميلاد، كان أمتداد الدولة على مجمل بلاد الشام والجزيرة العربية وصولا إلى مصر التي فتحها الآشوريون وضموها لممالكهم. وبقى العراق كيان ومكون واحد منذ الدولة العربية الإسلامية وحتى الدولة العثمانية التي قسمته إداريا إلى أربعة ولايات البصرة والموصل وشهره زور وتقع هذه الولايات الثلاث تحت هيمنة الولاية الرابعة الأم بغداد بأعتبارها العاصمة السابقة للخلافة.", "الطوابع البريدية والتاريخ البريدي في العراق\nأقدم خدمة بريدية عرفت في العراق كانت تدار من قبل الاشوريين؛ علماء الاثار عثروا على اعداد كبيرة من الرسائل التجارية مكتوبة بالكتابة المسمارية على الواح من الطين, ومحفوظة في ظروف طينية معنونة", "قائمة القوى العظمى القديمة\nتمركزت عيلام في شرق بلاد ما بين النهرين وهي أحد أقدم الحضارات المسجلة على الإطلاق. تمركزت عيلام في غرب وجنوب غرب إيران الحديثة حيث امتدت من أراضي محافظة خوزستان المنخفضة إلى محافظة إيلام (والتي تأخذ اسمها من عيلام) بالإضافة إلى جزء صغير من العراق. في الفترة العيلامية القديمة (العصر البرونزي المتوسط) كانت عيلام تتكون من عدة ممالك في الهضبة الإيرانية خاصة في إمارة أنشان، ومن منتصف الألفية الثانية ق.م تمركزت في شوشان في أراضي خوزستان المنخفضة. ", "الرفاعي (العراق)\nتأسست مدينة الرفاعي عام 1880 م وكانت قديماً ناحية صغيرة جميلة تغفو على ضفاف نهر الغراف ، تسمى بمدينة ( الكرادي ) نسبة إلى كنية أشهر تجارها في ذلك الزمن الحاج (عباس صالح الكرادي ) والذي كان يمتهن تجارة الحبوب كالحنطة والشعير وتخزينها على جانبي نهر الغراف لغرض تجميعها وتصديرها خارج العراق . \nوبعد تشكيل أول حكومية وطنية عراقية وتنصيب فيصل بن الشريف حسين (فيصل الاول) ملكا على العراق بسنوات فليلة وذلك في عام 1928م تم نرقية هذه المدينة ورفع صفتها الإدارية من ناحية إلى قضاء ( بموجب الارادة الملكية المرقمة 77 في 20 مايس عام 1928 ) ، وعند زيارة رئيس الوزراء السابق المرحوم ياسين الهاشمي إلى هذه المدينة في عام 1935 وبمقترح منه تم تغير اسمها من قضاء الكرادي إلى الاسم الجديد ( قضاء الرفاعي ) تيمناً وتكريماً لأسم الامام والقطب الصوفي الكبير (السيد احمد الرفاعي ) الموجود ضريحه المقدس شرق هذه المدينة في منتصف الطريق العام الرابط بين مدينة الرفاعي ومدينة العمارة .\nقبل حوالي خمسة الاف عام سادت على ربوع هذه الارض الطيبة أولى الحضارات الانسانية في العالم في مملكتين مهمتين للحضارة السومرية هما مملكة لكش 12كم جنوب شرق مدينة الرفاعي ومملكة أوما 23كم إلى الغرب منها وكانت هذه الارض الرحبة ساحة واسعة لنزهتهم وافراحهم وملاعب لهوهم وحملات صيدهم بالاضافة إلى اعمال الزراعة والرعي , وكانت أيضاً مسرحاً لحروبهم الطاحنة والطويلة حول المياه والتي استمرت لسنوات طوال قبل ان يأمر الملك السومري ( أونتمينا ) الذي حكم لكش قرابة 30عام بشق نهر الغراف الحالي الذي يأخذ مياهه من نهر دجله قرب مدينة الكوت .\nثم تعاقبت على هذه الارض أمم ودول وحضارات لا زالت اثارها واطلالها شاخصة إلى يومنا هذا في 140 موقع اثري أشرتها مديرية الاثار العامه تنتشر حول مدينة الرفاعي وضمن حدودها الادارية وبعضها في داخلها مثل الموقع الاثري المسمى محلياً ( أيشان أبو خشيبه ) والذي يقع في منتصف المدينة وتحيط به الاحياء السكنية من جوانبه الاربعه بعد ان منعت الدوله البناء في محيطه والغيت القطع السكنية الموزعة على مقترباته .\nوبالنظر لأهمية الموقع الجغرافي الذي تتمتع به مدينة الرفاعي لتوسطها خمس محافظات عراقيه وبمسافات تكاد تكون متقاربه هما ( العماره والكوت والديوانية والسماوة والناصريه ) ، ولكونها الأكبر مساحة من جميع مدن محافظة ذي قار بما فيها مركز المحافظة ( الناصرية ) ، وبمساحة 1345 كيلومتر مربع ، بالاضافة إلى كثافتها السكانية العالية وما يحيط بها من مدن ونواحي وقرى وكثرة مخرجاتها من الاعداديات والثانويات للبنين والبنات ، لذلك باشرت وزارة التعليم العالي والبحث العلمي العراقية بأفتتاح جامعة فيها وقام السيد الوزير بوضع الحجر الاساس لبناءها في عام 2011م وسميت بأسم ( جامعة سومر ) لأستلهام الروح العلمية للحضارة السومرية التي علمت العالم كيف يقرأ ويكتب عندما أخترعت أول حرف للكتابة في تاريخ البشرية ، وتضم هذه الجامعة الفتية الواعدة الان ( 6 ) ستة كليات بأقسام عديدة وفتحت الدراسة المسائية في بعض من كلياتها لأستقبال الاعداد الغفيرة من الطلبة الراغبين في اكمال دراستهم الجامعية الاولية وهي ماضية لأفتتاح كليات وأقسام علمية جديدة ، وباشرت هذه الجامعة وللعام الثاني بأستقبال طلبة الدراسات العليا في اثنين من كلياتها وهما كلية الإدارة والاقتصاد وكلية التربية الاساسية . \nتعوم مدينة الرفاعي على بحيرة واسعة من النفط وهذا ما اكدته الفرق الاستكشافيه للمسح الزلزالي بوجود كميات كبيرة من النفط الخام في جميع اراضي هذه المدينة ، وتمت المباشرة قبل سنوات قليله بأستخراج النفط وتصديره من أحد الحقول الواقعة في غربها المسمى ( حقل الغراف النفطي ) من قبل شركة النفط الماليزية ( بتروناس ) وقامت بأستخراج أكثر من 100 ألف برميل يوميا والعمل جار لتطويره ليصل انتاجه بعد سنتين إلى أكثر 230 ألف برميل يومياً . ويتطلع أبناء مدينة الرفاعي إلى مستقبل زاهر ومشرق لهم ولمدينتهم التي تختزن اراضيها هذه الكميات الهائله من النفط والذي يبلغ المنتج منه حاليا ثلثي ماتصدره محافظتهم ذي قار من النفط الخام .", "تاريخ سوريا\nيعتبر علماء الآثار سورية مركزا لإحدى أقدم الحضارات على وجه الأرض[1] .فهنا كانت بداية الاستيطان البشري وتخطيط أولى المدن واكتشاف الزراعة وتدجين الحيوانات ومعرفة وتطور الأبجدية هنا اكتشف (المنجل الأول والمحراث الأول)[2] هنا قامت المدن الأولى في التاريخ، مثل المملكة الأثرية إيبلا في شمال سورية بنت امبراطورية امتدت من البحر الأحمر جنوبا حتى تركيا شمالا وحتى الفرات شرقا مستمرة من عام 2500 إلى 2400 قبل الميلاد. تضم سورية إضافة لذلك العديد من الحضارات والمدن والممالك مثل مملكة ماري، وأوغاريت، وراميتا، والبارة، ودورا أوربوس، وسرجيلا، وكرك بيزة، وجرارة، وقاطورة، وعين دارة، وشمس، وباصوفان، والنبي هوري، وأرواد، وقطنا، وشهبا/ فيليبولس، وقنوات، وصلخد، وأفاميا، وحمو كار، وبعودة، والمناره، وتوتال، ودير سنبل، وإيمار، والدانا، وسرمدا وغيرها العشرات من المدن. إن كثرة الحضارات التي قامت وتقاطعت فوق الأرض السورية والغنى الكبير للمواقع التاريخية التي تعود لكافة العصور والحضارات تجعلها تجعل سورية مدخل وبوابة للتاريخ، فقد قامت على أرض سورية حضارات كثيرة وسكنها شعوب شتى يمكن تعدادها على الترتيب:السومريون، الأكاديون، الكلدان، الكنعانيون، الآراميون، الحيثيون، البابليون، الفرس، الإغريق، الرومان، النبطيون، البيزنطيون، العرب، وجزئيا الصليبيون، وأخيرا كانت تحت سيطرة الأتراك العثمانيون كما أنها خضعت للانتداب الفرنسي بين عامي 1920 و1946[3]", "الجغرافيا اليونانية الرومانية\nلم يضف اليونانيون شياً يذكر إلى ماجاءت به الحضارة العراقية والحضارة المصرية في مجال خلق الارض ونشأة الكون واذا تذكرنا قصة الخليقة العراقية وقصة خلق الارض في الحضارة المصرية نجد ان ما جاء به طاليس وأعتبره نظرية يونانية ماهو الا ترديد لما اكدت عليه الحضارتان العراقية والمصرية\nواذا تتبعنا حياة طاليس نفسه نجده متأثراً وناقلا للفكر المصري والعراقي فقد عاش طاليس في مدينة ميلطس المصرية مع جماعة من المفكرين والذي شغل تفكيره بالبحث في المادة وجوهر الاشياء وقد جهد هولاء المفكرون في تفريد مادة عامة وتجريدها من بين الموجودات وجعلها المادة الاولى في تركيب الاشياء وفي تفسير اختلافاتها وتغيراتها , فرأى طاليس في عنصر الماء المادة الاولى ,", "تركمان العراق\nظهور الشعوب التركية في العراق بدأت لأول مرة في القرن السابع الميلادي عندما تم تجنيد حوالي 1،000 الأوغوز الأتراك في الجيوش المسلمين من عبيد الله بن زياد.ومع ذلك، كانت هناك هجرة واسعة من الأتراك الأوغوز نحو الأناضول التي كانت في نهاية القرن التاسع والتي تثبت وجود تركمان العراق بشكل كبير. واستمرت موجات متعاقبة من الهجرة في ظل حكم الأتراك السلاجقة الذي تولى مناصب المسؤوليات العسكرية والإدارية في الإمبراطورية السلجوقية. علاوة على ذلك، مع توسع الدولة العثمانية، حيث تم فتح العراق من قبل سليمان القانوني عام 1534، وتلاها استيلاء مراد الرابع لبغداد في عام 1638، مما أسفرت عن أكبر عدد من الهجرة التركية إلى شمال العراق.", "السياحة في الوطن العربي\nلعل أبرز المعالم السياحية في العراق هي: المتحف الوطني العراقي في بغداد، وقصر بكوارا الذي شيده الخليفة العباسي المعتز، وقصر العاشق والمعشوق الذي بناه الخليفة المعتمد، وقصر الخليفة المعتصم، ومدينة كيش أول مدن الحضارة السومرية وتتميز بالحطام المتبقية من آثارها، ومدينتي نيبور وبابل حيث المعابد والمعالم الأثرية وهي أقدم المدن السومرية. وتشتهر نيبور كذلك بزقورتها الشهيرة الموجودة فوق تل ترابي، ويمكن مشاهدتها من مسافة بعيدة، مدينتي أور وأوروك اللتان اشتهرتا بالزقورة، وهي معابد للآلهة في الأساطير السومرية.", "عصور قديمة متأخرة\nالعصور القديمة المتأخرة هي الفترة التي يشير إليها المؤرخون بين العصور القديمة الكلاسيكية والقرون الوسطى في كل من البر الرئيسي الأوروبي وحوض المتوسط.\nالعصور القديمة تمتد بين إختراع الكتابة 3000 قم حتى بعثة النبي محمد 622 م وكانت هناك حضارات متزامنة وهم مصر والعراق وسوريا وكانت تسمى ببلاد الشام وهم الفينيقيين وفلسطين، في مصر كانت الكتابة الهيروغليفية، والفنيقيون هم الذين إخترعوا الابجدية أما في العراق فكانت توجد الكتابة المسمارية.\nالعرب واليهود كانوا في شبه الجزيرة العربية، أما العرب فقد غيروا الكتابة الأبجدية الفنيقية إلى العربية والمنحى من اليمين إلى اليسار واليونانيون غيروا الابجدية الفنيقية إلى الكتابة اللاتنية والمنحى من اليسار إلى اليمين.", "ثقافة روما القديمة\nتعد الحضارة الرومانية أو روما القديمة ، من أهم حضارات أوروبا بعد الحضارة الإغريقية. ولا يعرف المؤرخون كيف ومتى قامت روما. لكنها كانت تبسط سيطرتها على جميع شبه جزيرة إيطاليا جنوبي ما يعرف الآن بفلورنسا، وكان ذلك عام 275 ق.م وخلال القرنين التاليين تمكن الرومانيون من بناء إمبراطورية امتدت لما يعرف الآن بأسبانيا حتى جنوبي آسيا عبر الساحل الشمالي لإفريقيا وضموا فيما بعد كل ما تبقى من أوروبا إلى إمبراطوريتهم . وقد اندمجت فيها الثقافة الإغريقية.", "العراق\nوواحدة من تلك الممالك الصغيرة التي تأسست في عام 1894 قبل الميلاد احتوت على بلدة إدارية صغيرة تعرف ببابل ضمن حدودها. وظلت بابل قليلة الأهمية لأكثر من قرن، حيث طغت عليها الدول القديمة والأكثر قوة في ذلك الوقت من أمثال آشور، وعيلام، وإيسن، وإشنونة، ولارسا.[45]", "خط زمني لتاريخ العالم\nمع العصر البرونزي وبداية الكتابة في الحضارة السومرية كانت حضارات أخرى قد بدأت بالنشوء مثل، الحضارة الكيكلادية ونورتي شيكو ومن ثم عيلام في إيران وقيام الأسرة الأولى في مصر وبناء ستونهنج في نسخته الأولى، وقد شهد هذا العصر أول استخدام معروف لورق البردي من قبل المصريين، ونشوء حضارة وادي السند والمملكة المصرية القديمة وحضارة المايا وبدايات النصوص الأدبية السومرية، ومن ثم اكمال الملك خوفو للهرم الاكبر، والفترة نفسها شهت انقراض الماموث، وشهد التاريخ بعد ذلك قيام أول إمبراطورية قوية في بلاد الرافدين وشمال سوريا وهي الإمبراطورية الأكدية وتبع ذلك تدجين الحصان، وظهور قوانين حمورابي، وظهور يونان المايسينية وبداية هيمنة الحثيون على منطقة شرق المتوسط.", "الفرات الأوسط\nتتكون منطقة الفرات الأوسط من 5 محافظات النجف، كربلاء، الديوانية وبابل، المثنى.تعتبر هذه المنطقة من اقدم المناطق التي ظهرت عليها الحضارة في العالم حيث شهدت هذه المنطقة بروز دويلات المدن السومرية الرئيسية سنة 6000 ق.م المتمثلة في مدن نيبور كيش أيسن وشورباك دويلات المدن السومرية الاولى التي ساهمت في اختراع الكتابة السومرية وتطوير الزراعة وانشاء مدن وتشريع قوانين.\nاصبحت منطقة الفرات الأوسط في العصر البابلي عاصمة الامبراطورية البابلية الأولى واصبحت مدن بابل،كوثى و لارسا عاصمة للامبراطورية البابلية الممتدة من الخليج جنوباً إلى البحر المتوسط شمالاً.\nبعد سقوط الامبراطورية البابلية الثانية تعرضت المنطقة للإحتلال وظهرت ممالك مستقلة عن الامبراطوريتين الفارسية والرومانية في منطقةالفرات الأوسط متمثلة في مملكة المناذرة وعاصمتها الحيرة القريبة من مدينتي النجف والكوفة .\nبعد انتشار الاسلام في العراق وفي عصر الخليفة علي بن أبي طالب تحول مركز الخلافة الاسلامية من المدينة إلى منطقة الفرات الأوسط في مدينة الكوفة اصبحت مركز للخلافة وعاصمة الخلافة.\nإلى يومنا هذا تعتبر منطقة الفرات الأوسط من أهم مناطق العراق من الناحية الدينية والتاريخية حيث يوجد فيها مراقد علي بن أبي طالب في النجف الخليفة الرابع لدى المسلمين السنة والامام الأول لدى المسلمين الشيعة بالإضافة إلى مرقدي الحسين بن علي سبط رسول االله والامام الثالث لدى الشيعة المدفون في كربلاء واخيه العباس بن علي . اضافة إلى وجود مرقد النبي حزقيال ذو الكفل في ناحية الكفل التابعة لمحافظة بابل الذي يعتبر من أهم المقامات الدينية قدسية لدى اليهود ومقام ولادة النبي إبراهيم وغيرها من الآثار التاريخية التي تعود لحقب مختلفة من عصر فجر السلالات إلى العصر الإسلامي .", "العراق\nبعد أن تمكن الفرس الأخمينيون من احتلال بلاد الرافدين في سنة 539 ق م بقيادة كورش الكبير، [51] إندلعت عدة ثورات ضد الحكم الفارسي من قبل البابليين إلا أنها باءت بالفشل، [52] ولم ينته حكم الأخمينيين في العراق إلا في سنة 330 ق م، حيث سقط بعد أن تمكن الإغريق بقيادة إسكندر المقدوني من هزم الفرس في معركة غوغميلا الشهيرة التي وقعت في العراق بين الموصل وأربيل، [53] جعل إسكندر مدينة بابل عاصمة لإمبراطوريته [54] لكن بعد وفاته تولى سلوقس الأول الحكم في بلاد الرافدين، وقام ببناء مدينة سلوقية وجعلها عاصمة إمبراطوريته بدلاً من بابل، [55] ولم ينته حكم السلوقيين في العراق إلا في القرن الثاني قبل الميلاد بعد أن تمكن الفرس الفرثيون هذه المرة من احتلال العراق. وقد عرف العصران الأخميني والسلوقي ببروز العلوم البابلية للعالم القديم حيث ظهر عدة فلكيين ورياضياتيين من بابل مثل كيدينو وبيروسوس وسلوقس السلوقي.[56] في أواسط القرن الثاني قبل الميلاد تمكن الفرس، وهذه المرة عن طريق الفرثيين، من السيطرة على الحكم في العراق، وجعل الفرثيون من مدينة قطسيفون (التي تعرف باسم مدينة المدائن اليوم) عاصمة لهم. حكم الفرثيون بالبداية من سنة 240 ق م إلى سنة 224 ب م، [57] تمكن خلالها من حكم العراق لفترة وجيزة في سنة 115 ب م بعد أن شن الإمبراطور الروماني تراجان حملة ناجحة وتمكن من الاستيلاء على بلاد الرافدين، إلا أن الرومان انسحبوا من العراق في عصر وريثه هادريان.[58] ضعف بعدها حكم الفرثيين وظهرت أسرة أخرى من الفرس لتحكم العراق وهم الساسانيون الذين بدأ حكمهم من سنة 226م وانتهى حكمهم في سنة 651م بعد الفتح الإسلامي للعراق.[59]", "العراق\nيعود تاريخ الموسيقى في العراق إلى عهود قديمة بقدم العراق نفسه، وتطورت الموسيقى عبر الحقب المتعددة، فمن أقدم قيثارة في العالم (القيثارة السومرية)، إلى اختراع ، ومن إضافة الوتر الخامس له، إلى الايقاعات والمقامات العراقية المختلفة. وتطورت الموسيقى العراقية بشكل ملحوظ بداية القرن العشرين على يد الأخوين صالح الكويتي وداود الكويتي، ووصل عدد المطربات في أربعينيات القرن إلى ما يقارب الأربعين مطربة، ثم عرفت الموسيقى العراقية بعد ذلك العديد من الملحنين الذي رفدوا الأغنية العراقية، مثل: عباس جميل، ناظم نعيم، محمد نوشي، رضا علي، كمال السيد، كوكب حمزة، طالب غالي، حميد البصري، طارق الشبلي، مفيد الناصح، جعفر الخفاف وطالب القرغولي وغيرهم.", "كردستان العراق\nفي عصور ما قبل التاريخ كانت هذه المنطقة موطنا لثقافة الإنسان البدائي كالآثار التي عثر عليها في كهف Shanidar. وكانت المنطقة المضيفة للثقافة جارمو قبل الميلاد حوالي 700 سنة. في موقع أقرب العصر الحجري الحديث في بلاد آشور هو في تل حسونة، مركز ثقافة حسونة، حوالي عام قبل الميلاد 6000. كان يعيش في المنطقة من قبل فرع الشمالي من الاكديين، عرفت فيما بعد باسم الآشوريين، وأيضا إلى حد ما من قبل هورريانس. وكان يحكمها الإمبراطورية الأكادية من 2334 قبل الميلاد حتى 2154 قبل الميلاد. ويشهد ملوك آشور من القرن الثامن قبل الميلاد 23 وفقا لقائمة الملك الآشوري، ودول المدن الآشورية مثل آشور وEkallatum بدأت تظهر في المنطقة من منتصف القرن الثامن قبل الميلاد 21. قبل حكم الملك Ushpia حوالي 2030 قبل الميلاد، ومدينة آشور ويبدو أنها كانت مركزا إقليميا الإدارية الإمبراطورية الأكادية، تورط من قبل أقراص ،,[5] خاضعة لسرجون الأكدي زميل لهم وخلفائه..[6] كبير بنيت المدن من قبل الآشوريين، بما في ذلك آشور ونينوى وGuzana، Arrapkha، Imgur-إنليل (Balawat)، المتخثر إنليل وKalhu (Calah / نمرود). واحدة من المدن الآشورية الرئيسية في المنطقة، ولوحظ اربيل (أربا، ILU)، عن عبادة المتميزة من عشتار,[7]، وسميت المدينة \"سيدة عشتار\" من قبل السكان الآشوريين لها.[8] الآشوريون حكمت المنطقة في الفترة من القرن الثامن قبل الميلاد 21. كان يعرف المنطقة وآشور، وكان مركز الإمبراطورية الآشورية المختلفة (لا سيما خلال الفترات 1813-1754 قبل الميلاد، 1385-1076 قبل الميلاد، والإمبراطورية الآشورية الجدد من 911-608 قبل الميلاد. بين 612 و605 قبل الميلاد سقطت الإمبراطورية الآشورية، وأنه تم تمريرها إلى البابليين الجدد، وأصبح في وقت لاحق جزءا من المرزبان آثورا داخل الإمبراطورية Achaemenian 539-332 قبل الميلاد، حيث كانت تعرف باسم آثورا، اسم الأخمينية لآشور.[9][10] وانخفض إلى منطقة ألكسندر حكمت بعد ذلك الأكبر في 332 قبل الميلاد، والإمبراطورية السلوقية اليونانية حتى منتصف القرن الثامن قبل الميلاد 2 (تم تغيير اسمها وسوريا، ومن فساد اليونانية آشور)، عندما انخفض إلى ميثريدتس أنا من بارثيا. وشبه مستقلة من المملكة الآشورية وكان مركز هزوانيون في اربيل في القرون المسيحية الأولى.[11][12][13][14] وفي وقت لاحق، وقد تأسست في المنطقة من قبل الرومان في إقليم آشور الروماني لكن استعادت فترة وجيزة من قبل الساسانيين الذين أسسوا المرزبان من Assuristan (الساسانية آشور) في ذلك حتى الفتح العربي الإسلامي. وأصبحت المنطقة مركزا للكنيسة المشرق الآشورية والسريانية ازدهار التقاليد الأدبية خلال فترة حكم الساسانيين.[15][16][17]", "تاريخ عمان القديم\nشهدت منطقة بلاد الرافدين بزوغ العديد من الحضارات منذ القدم ومن أبرز هذه الحضارات السومريين والكلدانيين والاكاديين والبابليين. \nحيث اعتمد السومريون على استيراد خامات أساسية من عمان مثل الأحجار والنحاس واللبان، ولذلك ازدهرت موانئ عمان الشمالية ومدينة أور جنوب العراق،وكان لوساطة تجار دلمون دور مهم في تنفيذ العديد من الصفقات بين الطرفين. كما كانت عملية التجارة تتم برا عبر واحة ليوا وهجر إلى جنوب العراق أو عبر سواحل الخليج، حيث خصصت مراس تجارية كبرى جنوب العراق. وازدهرت العلاقات في العصر السومري زمن سرجون الأول الأكادي وحفيده نارام سن، وان كانت قد شهدت بعض المواجهات بين حكام عمان وسومر خاصة زمن حاكم مجان (مانو دانو).وفي العصر البابلي وبسبب ازدهار مدنيات العراق وارتفاع مستوى معيشة سكانها، زادت حاجة البابليين إلى سلعمجان والهند عبر سواحل عمان، فزادت كميات السلع التجارية، وتنوعت وأصبحت تشمل سلعا كمالية مثل الأحجار الكريمة والعاج والجلود بجانب الاخشاب واللبان والبخور، بحيث تم أستيراد كميات من منتجات الهند من منطقة جوجيرات بوساطة تجار عمان، وأصبحت بابل مركزا مهما لتجميع تلك السلع والمنتجات.\nكما كانت عمليات التجارة بين عمان وجنوب العراق تتم عبر نظم تجارية ألتزم بها الجانبان، حيث تتم عمليات التفريغ عبر وسيط محلي (وكيل) يتولى ضمان التسليم ودفع القيمة، ثم عملية لتوزيع بين بقية مدن العراق القديم، وكثيرا ما قام التجار والوكلاء المحليون من العراق بمرافقة تجار عمان إلى موانئهم للإشراف بأنفسهم على عمليات الشحن وترتيب الصفقات.\nوقد كانت هناك فترات فتور وضعف في العلاقات بين عمان وحضارات العراق بسبب اضطراب الأمن في حضارات جنوب العراق أو محاولة آشور تشجيع التجارة البرية عبر الممرات الجبلية الشمالية الموصلة إلى عاصمته نينوى،لكن الملك سنحاريب الآشوري (704-681 ق.م) عاد لينشط التجارة بين الجانبين عبر مياه الخليج.\nكما كانت لعمان إسهامات عديدة في نقل تأثيرات حضارية بين الطرفين الهندي والعراقي عبر رحلات سفنها، فبجانب المحاصيل نقلت مؤثرات فنية خاصة بالنقوش والرسومات على الأواني والأختام بين الطرفين، كما تشابهت أختام بلاد السند وجوجرات مع أختام بلاد سومر وبابل، وظهرت الفنون والتماثيل الهندية من الأحجار والعاج في منازل أهل العراق،كما ظهرت أدوات منزلية وحلي نسائية تتشابه في صناعتها بين الطرفين، أما النموذج المعماري لبناء المنازل فقد تشابه أيضا خاصة في استعمال الطين ونظام الغرف والحجرات، وهو ما يدل على أوجه التشابه بينهما عبر عمليات التبادل التجاري الذي قامت به سفن عمان. وقد احتوت تشريعات حمورابي على جوانب تتعلق بأسعار السلع وأمن التجار وتحديد الموازين والمكاييل وراحة التجار والوكلاء وحرية التنقل وضمانات للصكوك والصفقات، ولذلك أزدهرت في زمنه تجارة عمان مع العراق.", "إنسان\nبدأت الحضارات من قبل بدء التاريخ، والحضارة هي التطور الاجتماعي الذي ترك أثرا لا يزال موجودا ويمكن رؤيته في وقتنا الحاضر\nفظهرت الحضارة في بلاد العراق كأول حضارة يشهدها التاريخ وذلك في 6000 ق م، وتركت معالم كثيرة منها برج بابل وبوابة عشتار وحدائق بابل المعلقة، ثم ظهرت الحضارة الفرعونية حوالي 4000 عام ق م، والحضارة الفرعونية تركت معالم لا ينساها العالم أهمها أهرامات الجيزة الثلاثة وأبو الهول ومعبد الكرنك وآثار الأقصر واسوان، وكلها حضارة فرعونية في مصر.", "تارتيسوس\nتارتيسوس (باليونانية : Τάρτησσος ، بالاتينية: Tartessus) هو الاسم الذي عَرَّفَ به الإغريق أول حضارة في الغرب. وريثة الثقافة المغليثية، متموقعة في المثلث المتكون حاليا من مقاطعات أونبة وإشبيلية وقادش، على الساحل الجنوبي الغربي لشبه الجزيرة الايبيرية. كان محور هذه الحضارة نهر تارتيسوس ، الذي سماه الرومان \"بيتيس\" (كان اسمه قبل ذلك \"Oleum flumen\" = نهر الزيت) و سماه العرب بالوادي الكبير. ومع ذلك ، ليس هناك شيء مؤكد، فالعديد من الباحثين يموقعون نهر تارتيسوس عند مصب أوديال و نهر تينتو ، أو في مصب الجوادينا، و كلها أماكن تقع في مقاطعة ولبة. وضع التاريسيون لغة و كتابة تختلف عن الشعوب الأوروبية المجاورة، متأثرة بالثقافة الفرعونية والفينيقية.", "تاريخ العراق\nكانت مملكة آشور الأكدية السامية تقع في ما هو الآن شمال العراق، موجودة كدولة أمة من أواخر 25 وأوائل القرن 24، قبل الميلاد إلى 605 قبل الميلاد. بعد هذا نجا ككيان سياسي جغرافي حتى القرن 7 م.[14] تركزت على نهر دجلة العليا، في شمال بلاد ما بين النهرين (الحاضر شمال العراق)، التي جاءت للحكم الإمبراطوريات الإقليمية عدة مرات عبر التاريخ. كان اسمه على اسم العاصمة الأصلي، المدينة القديمة من آشور (الأكادية: 𒀸𒋗𒁺 𐎹 Aššūrāyu. الآرامية: אתור Aṯur، العبرية: אַשּׁוּר آشور. العربية: آشور اشور).", "جامعة الدول العربية\nشهدت المنطقة العربية صعود وسقوط العديد من الحضارات القديمة: الحضارات العربية القديمة سبأ. معين. حضرموت. مملكة أوسان.حمير. كندة بالإضافة إلى حضارة مصر القديمة، حضارة روما، حضارة آشور، حضارة بابل، الحضار الفينيقية، حضارة قرطاج، الحضارة الكوشية، والحضارة النبطية.", "موسيقى عراقية\nالموسيقى العراقية وأحياناً تعرف بالموسيقى الرافدينية أو موسيقى بلاد ما بين النهرين هي الموسيقى التي تعود جذورها إلى بلاد ما بين النهرين والمعروفة باسم العراق.\nيعود تاريخ الموسيقى في العراق إلى عهود قديمة بقدم العراق نفسه وتطورت الموسيقى عبر الحقب المتعددة فمن أقدم قيثارة في العالم إلى اختراع العود ومن إضافة الوتر الخامس له إلى الايقاعات والمقامات العراقية المختلفة. وتطورت الموسيقى العراقية بشكل ملحوظ بداية القرن العشرين على يد الأخوين صالح الكويتي وداود الكويتي، ووصل عدد المطربات في أربعينيات القرن إلى ما يقارب الأربعين مطربة، ثم عرفت الموسيقى العراقية بعد ذلك العديد من الملحنين الذي رفدوا الأغنية العراقية بأجمل الأغاني مثل عباس جميل، ناظم نعيم، محمد نوشي، رضا علي، كمال السيد، كوكب حمزة، طالب غالي، حميد البصري، طارق الشبلي، مفيد الناصح، جعفر الخفاف وطالب القرغولي وغيرهم. كذلك يزخر العراق بالعديد من الأصوات الكبيرة في مجال العراق، فمن القرن المنصرم نذكر ناظم الغزالي, داخل حسن, زهور حسين, فؤاد سالم حسين نعمة، رياض أحمد، قحطان العطار، مائدة نزهت، أنوار عبد الوهاب، ستار جبار وكاظم الساهر وغيرهم الكثير.\nويعرف العراق في المقام الأول لتراثها الغني المقام الذي تنتقل شفويا من جانب سادة المقام في سلسلة متصلة من انتقال قيادة وحتى الوقت الحاضر. يعتبر مقام العراقي ليكون شكل أنبل والكمال من مقام. كما يوحي الاسم، هو الأصلي إلى العراق، وقد كان من المعروف لحوالي 400 سنة في بغداد والموصل وكركوك. يتم تنفيذ ذلك من قبل مغنية ('قاري) وثلاثة من العازفين لعب السنطور (آلة القانون مربع)، jawzah (rebab / سنبلة الكمان)، dumbek (طبلة القدح)، وانضم في بعض الأحيان من قبل رق (الدف). آل Chalghi البغدادي هو اسم الفرقة التي تنفذ هذه الموسيقى، وآل المقام آل العراقي هو مجموعة من القصائد سونغ إما مكتوبة في واحدة من 16 مترا للغة العربية الفصحى أو في اللهجة العراقية. ومن المسلم به هذا النوع من الفن من قبل منظمة اليونسكو بأنها \"التراث غير المادي للبشرية\". لسوء الحظ، بسبب الغزو الكارثي للولايات المتحدة، ويجري تهديد هذا الشكل الفني مع الاعداد المتزايدة من الطلبة والاساتذة. \nوكما هو معروف في العراق للحصول على صك يسمى العود (مشابه للعود) وrebab (مشابه للالكمان)؛ نجومها تشمل أحمد مختار ومنير بشير. حتى سقوط صدام حسين، وكانت محطة الإذاعة الأكثر شعبية لإذاعة صوت الشباب. لعب مزيج من موسيقى الروك الغربية، والهيب هوب وموسيقى البوب، والتي كان يتم استيرادها عبر الأردن بسبب العقوبات الاقتصادية الدولية. وقد أنتج العراق أيضا عربية رئيسية نجمة البوب في المنفى في كاظم الساهر. وكذلك الأغاني الشعبية من التركمان العراقي المعروف، وعبد الرحمن كيزيلاى هو اسم القيادي.", "تاريخ العراق\nعبيد الفترة: 5300 - 4100 قبل الميلاد (العصر الحجري الحديث الفخار النحاسي) فترة أوروك: 4100 - 2900 قبل الميلاد (أواخر النحاسي إلى البرونزي المبكر العمر I) أوروك XIV-V: 4100 - 3300 قبل الميلاد فترة أوروك الرابعة: 3300 - 3000 قبل الميلاد فترة Jemdet نصر (أوروك III): 3100-2900 قبل الميلاد[13] عصر السلالات المبكرة (العصر البرونزي القديم II-IV) السلالات المبكرة I الفترة: 2900-2800 قبل الميلاد أوائل عصر السلالات الثاني: 2800-2600 قبل الميلاد (جلجامش) أوائل عصر السلالات الثالث ألف: 2600-2500 قبل الميلاد أوائل عصر السلالات IIIB: ج. 2500-2334 قبل الميلاد آشور حوالي عام 2400 قبل الميلاد في وقت مبكر الإمبراطورية الأكدية الفترة: ج. 2334-2218 قبل الميلاد (سرجون) فترة قوتيان: يمكن. 2218-2047 قبل الميلاد (عصر البرونزي القديم الرابع) فترة اور الثالثة: ج. 2047-1940 قبل الميلاد عصر الأسرات حوالي 2035 قبل الميلاد الآشورية", "ثقافة العراق\nوبالعودة إلى انطلاقة الكرة العراقية، نجد عملياً إنها انطلقت قبل فترة طويلة من تأسيس الاتحاد العراقي لكرة القدم، ففي عام 1931م تأسيس أول نادي عراقي، وهو نادي القوة الجوية ثم كان تأسيس نادي النقل عام 1937م، لتزداد عدد الفرق العراقية بعدها، وإن كانت العديد من الفرق الموجودة حالياً لم تبصر النور حتى مرحلة الستينات من القرن العشرين.", "تاريخ العراق\nاصبحت شمال بلاد ما بين النهرين الدولة الناطقة باللغة الأكادية من آشور في القرن 25 قبل الميلاد في وقت متأخر. جنبا إلى جنب مع بقية بلاد ما بين النهرين كان يحكمها ملوك الأكادية من 24 إلى أواخر منتصف القرن 22 قبل الميلاد، وبعد ذلك أصبحت مرة أخرى مستقلة.[12]", "مدينة مرد\nوأول تنقيب للمكان كان بعد دخول الاحتلال الأمريكي للعراق حيث قامت القوات البولندية التي تواجدت في محافظة الديوانية بالتعاون مع جامعة القادسية بأول تنقيب للمدينة عام 2005 ثم استمرت بثلاث مواسم تنقيبية لطلبة قسم الأثار في جامعة القادسية، حيث وجدوا فيهِ آثار تعود لحضارات مختلفة كالحضارة الأكدية والساسانية والبابلية القديمة والعصر الإسلامي الأول لذلك تعتبر مدينة مرد شاهداً على العديد من الحضارات ومن أبرز القطع الأثرية التي وجدت فيها هو ختم يعود لملك أكدي بالاضافة إلى فخاريات ونقود", "العراق\nجغرافياً، يعتبر الخليج العربي المنفذ البحري الوحيد للعراق على العالم، حيث يبلغ طول الساحل البحري للعراق حوالي 58 كيلومتراً، ويعد ميناء أم قصر في البصرة من أهم الموانئ المطلة على الخليج.[18] ويمر نهرا دجلة والفرات من شمال العراق إلى جنوبه، واللذان كانا أساس نشأة أولى المراكز الحضارية في العالم على بلاد ما بين النهرين، والتي قامت في العراق على مر التاريخ وعلى امتداد 8000 سنة، على يد والسومريين والآشوريين والبابليين. ومن بين ما أنتجته حضارة بلاد ما بين النهرين اختراع الحرف من قبل السومريين.[19] وسن أول القوانين المكتوبة في تاريخ البشرية بما يعرف في المصادر التاريخية بشريعة حمورابي،[20] ويرجح أن العراق كان به أول متحف في العالم وهو متحف أنغالدي - نانا والقائمة به الأميرة أنغالدي ابنة نبو نيد، ويعود تاريخه لحوالي 530 قبل الميلاد[21][22][23][24] بأور في محافظة ذي قار.", "ثقافة العراق\nيحتضن العراق على عكس العديد من بلدان العالم العربي، ويحتفل بإنجازات ماضيه في العصر البابلي والآشوري حيث تؤكد الآثار المكتشفة عن حضارة عريقة سادت ثم بادت في وادي الرافدين، وعثر على الكثير من آثار الآشوريين والسومريين في العراق، ولقد تغير هذا الأمر بعد غزو العراق عام 2003 حيث تعرضت معظم آثاره للتخريب والسرقة أو التحطيم من قبل جماعات إرهابية، فالعراق كان يوماً مهد الحضارة القديمة في بلاد ما بين النهرين وثقافة سومر، حيث تم فيه اختراع الكتابة والعجلة. وتنتشر في العراق أماكن أثرية كثيرة تحتوي على مباني ضخنة تسمى الزقورة، وهي عبارة عن معابد مدرجة كانت تبنى في سوريا والعراق ومن أشهر الزقورات عالمياً هي زقورة أور في العراق قرب مدينة الناصرية، وزقورة عقرقوف قرب العاصمة بغداد، ويبلغ عددها حوالي 28 زقورة في العراق.", "المرأة في العراق\nكان للمرأة في العصر السومري مكانة خاصة فقد بدأت بمهام الأمومة من ذلك الزمن فكانت تعتني بالأطفال وتعد لهم الطعام وتنظف مكان عيشهم وتهتم بكل ما يوفر لهم الراحة بالإضافة إلى مساندتها للرجل في مهامه فكانت تعينه في الصيد و الدفاع عن الأسرة وإعداد الأدوات والمستلزمات التي كانت تصنع من المواد الطبيعية كالحجارة وغيرها كما يعتقد أن المرأة العراقية هي من تنبهت إلى زراعة البذور حيث إنها أول من سكن المروج الخضراء فكانت تصنع الطعام لصغرها من الحنطة والشعير بعد أن اكتشفت طريقة زراعتها ، ويعتقد أيضا أنها أول من استأنست الحيوانات الأليفة وكان ذلك قبل اكتشافها للزراعة ، كانت الأرض تعني الأم بالنسبة لهم فكما أن الأم هي مصدر العطاء والتكاثر شبهت الأرض بها فكانوا يعبدون الأم الأرض ويقدسونها بكونها الأم الألهة ،وبعد تشريع القوانين ، كانت هناك قوانين تختص بالمرأة في مختلف الشرائع التي توالت على بلاد الرافدين فقد تضمنت اصلاحات أورو كاجينا الإجتماعية تنظيم الأسرة ومكانة المرأة في الدولة السومرية ، وتعرضت أيضا شريعة أور نمو مؤسس سلالة أور الثالة السومرية إلى تشريع القوانين المختصة بالمرأة الباكر والمتزوجةوالمطلقة و لم يغفل حمورابي عن تشريع قوانين تخص المرأة والأسرة فقد خصص ثلاثين مادة قانوينة تعنى بالمرأة والأسرة في شريعته ، فكانت المرأة في ذلك العصر تتمتع بحريتها وبحقها في العيش حيث كانت تشارك في إدارة الدولة وشراء العبيد وتقسيم الأرزاق والطبابة والغناء والكهانة وغيرها ويذكر التاريخ عدة ملكات حكمن بلاد وادي الرافدين كالملكة شبعاد و سميراميس و كوبا با وغيرهن .", "جورنال عراق\nجريدة جورنال عراق أول جريدة عراقية وعربية. صدرت في السنة الأولى من حكم الوالي داود باشا عام 1816 بغداد. وقد جاءت بعد قرنين من صدور أول صحيفة أسبوعية عرفتها البشرية وهي \"ريلاسيون\" في ستراسبورج عام 1605. وبذلك فهي سبقت أول صحيفة مصرية \"الوقائع المصرية\" باثني عشر عاما .. حيث لم تصدر إلا عام 1828 عندما أمر بتأسيسها محمد علي باشا. وجورنال عراق (جريدة العراق)، هي أحد انجازات الوالي المملوكي داود باشا (1767-1831)، الذي حكم بغداد للفترة (1816-1831 ) وكان له دور كبير في العديد من الانجازات التحديثية في تاريخ العراق الحديث. ولا يتفوق عليه بذلك إلا الوالي العثماني الآخر مدحت باشا، الذي كانت لديه انجازات أخرى كبيرة منها المطبعة التي صدرت عنها جريدة الزوراء التي صدرت عام 1869، ويؤرخ خطأ انها أول جريدة عراقية. وقد كانت جورنال عراق تطبع في مطبعة حجرية باللغتين العربية والتركية حالها حال جريدة الزوراء، وتوزع على قواد الجيش وكبار الموظفين وأعيان المدينة، كما تعلق نسخ منها على جدران السراي. وكانت تحتوي على وقائع العشائر وأخبار الدولة العثمانية وأوامر الوالي والإصلاحات الواجب إجراؤها وما أشبه.", "تاريخ العراق\nبلاد ما بين النهرين هو من المواقع التي شهدت تطورات ثورة العصر الحجري الحديث من حوالي 10،000 قبل الميلاد. حيث تم التعرف على المنطقة على أنها تحتوي او \"مستوحاة بعض من أهم التطورات في تاريخ البشرية بما في ذلك اختراع العجلة، وزراعة محاصيل الحبوب الأولى وتطوير النص الكتابي، الرياضيات، علم الفلك والزراعة.\"[10]", "تاريخ مصر القديمة\nحضارة نقادة 1 (3900 - 3650 قبل الميلاد)\nوقد وجدت آثار هذه الحضارة في أكثر من موقع ابتداء من مصر الوسطى وحتى الشلال الأول، وهي ترتبط حضاريا بحضارة العَمرة (جنوب شرق العرابة المدفونة بمركز البلينا بمحافظة سوهاج الحالية). فقد تميزت بوجود صلات تجارية مع الواحة الخارجة غربا والبحر الأحمر شرقا ووصلت إلى الجندل الأول في الجنوب.\nكانت نقادة جبانة لاحدى المدن المصرية الهامة وهي مدينة \"نوبت\" (قرية طوخ التابعة لمركز نقادة محافظة قنا حاليا) والتي كانت مركزا لعبادة الإله ست.\nعثر في جبانة نقادة على بعض الدبابيس وأدوات أخرى صغيرة مصنوعة من النحاس، أما عن مساكنهم فقد كانت بسيطة تشيد من اغصان الأشجار التي تكسى بالطين. وأما مقابرهم فقد كانت عبارة عن حفرة بيضاوية قليلة العمق، وكان المتوفي يدفن في وضع القرفصاء ويلف أحيانا بجلد ماعز. وشهدت حضارة نقاده 1 تحسن صناعة الأدوات الحجرية وتطور تقنيات حرق الفخار، يتميز ففخار نقادة الأولى باحمراره كما كانت عليه نقوش في اشكال هندسية. ومع تطور نقادة إلى حضارة نقادة 2 نحو 3500 قبل الميلاد تقدم تصنيع الأواني الحجرية وأتقنت صناعة الفخار كما بدأ المصري القديم يزين القوارير الفخارية برسم الإنسان والحيوان والنباتات.", "المسيحية في العراق\nعندما فتحت الجيوش العربية الإسلامية العراق في القرن السابع، وجدت أمامها حوالي سبعة ملايين عراقي، لغتهم الثقافية والدينية هي السريانية، بمن فيهم الجماعات العربية في إمارة المناذرة في الحيرة. أما من الناحية الدينية فقد كانت غالبيتهم الساحقة تابعة للكنيسة النسطورية، وهنالك أقليات من أتباع الكنيسة اليعقوبية وكذلك اليهود والمندائية. لقد رحب المسيحيون العراقيون بالفاتحين المسلمين، إذ كان للصراع الدائر بين الروم والفرس تأثير سلبي كبير على حياتهم المادية والدينية، وهذا ما أدى إلى كره السريان ويأسهم من كلتا الدولتين، فكانوا يطمحون إلى التخلص من هذا الاستبداد بأية وسيلة كانت، لذا عندما جاءت الجيوش العربية الإسلامية عام 637 إلى بلاد النهرين رحب بهم العراقيون أملًا في التخلص من واقع الظلم والاستبداد الذي ذاقوه من قبل الفرس والروم مئات السنين، وقد حصلوا فعلًا على عهود بالأمان من قادة جيوش المسلمين ومن الخلفاء.", "الوطن العربي\nتشتهر مصر بأنها أقدم الحضارات على وجه الأرض حيث بدأ الإنسان المصري بالنزوح إلى ضفاف النيل واستقر وبدأ في زراعة الأرض وتربية الماشية منذ نحو 10,000 سنة[239]. وتطور أهلها سريعًا وبدأت فيها صناعات بسيطة وتطور نسيجها الاجتماعي المترابط، وكوّنوا إمارات متجاورة مسالمة على ضفاف النيل تتبادل التجارة، سابقة في ذلك كل بلاد العالم. تشهد على ذلك حضارة البداري منذ نحو 7000 سنة وحضارة نقادة (4400 سنة قبل الميلاد - نحو 3000 سنة قبل الميلاد). وكان التطور الطبيعي لها أن تندمج مع بعضها البعض شمالًا وجنوبًا وتوحيد الوجهين القبلي والبحري وبدأ الحكم المركزي الممثل في بدء عصر الأسرات (نحو 3000 قبل الميلاد). وتبادلت التجارة مع جيرانها ونشأت فيها الكتابة بالطريقة الهيروغليفية. يماثلها في ذلك سكان دجلة والفرات الذين بدؤا الكتابة أيضا نحو 4000 قبل الميلاد بطريقة الخط المسماري. وكان طبيعيًا أن يتبادلا التجارة والتعامل الحضاري الذي يرجع له الفضل في تطور الإنسانية جمعاء. وكان لابتكار الكتابة في مصر أثر كبير على مسيرة الحياة في البلاد وتطورها السريع، وكان المصري القديم مولعًا بالكتابة، ويمكن للباحث العصري تتبع الحضارة المصرية ليس فقط عن طريق ما خلفه قدماء المصريين من آثار على الأرض من معابد وأهرامات، وإنما عن طريق فك لغز الكتابة المصرية القديمة وقراءة التاريخ حيث كان المصريون القدماء يكتبون عن كل شيء في حياتهم، من تمجيد للملوك، وعقود سلام مع بلاد الجوار، وكتابات في الأخلاق والحكمة، ومخطوطات دينية، ومخطوطات في الطب والهندسة والحساب، بل حتى الرسائل بين أفراد العائلة أو رسائل بين أصدقاء.", "تاريخ العراق\nكان العرب غالبية سكان العراق منذ العصور الساسانية.[6] حكمت العراق الإمبراطوريات المحلية: السومرية، الأكادية، والبابلية، والآشورية، وأيضاً الإمبراطوريات الأجنبية؛ وفي العصر الوسيط، غزتهُ االأمبراطوريات الأخمينية، السلوقية، وكذلك إمبراطوريات البارثيين والساسانيين خلال العصر الحديدي والعصور الكلاسيكية القديمة، وفتحه المسلمون في عصر الخلفاء الراشدين في القرن السابع بعد أن أزاحوا الدولة الساسانية، وأصبح العراق مركزا للدولة الإسلامية في خلافة علي بن أبي طالب، ثم كان العصر الذهبي للعراق خلال عهد الخلافة العباسية في العصور الوسطى، وبعد سلسلة من الغزوات والفتوحات أصبح العراق تحت حكم البويهيين والسلاجقة الأتراك ثم سقط بيد المغول عام 1258م، ثم أصبح العراق ضمن سيطرة الدولة العثمانية في القرن السادس عشر، ولكن بشكل متقطع كان تحت السيطرة الإيرانية الصفوية والمملوكية.", "كردستان العراق\nوفي عهد الخليفة عمر بن الخطاب فتحت أجزاء من المنطقة حيث كانت تحت سيطرة الامبراطورية الساسانية ثم بدأ الإسلام بالأنتشار بين الناس ودخل الأكراد للإسلام وأصبحت المنطقة جزءًا من دولة الخلافة الإسلامية وبقيت المنطقة كذلك في عهد دولة الخلافة الأموية، والعباسية وكان للأكراد إمارات وممالك مستقلة لكنها ظلت قريبة من دار الخلافة ولقد دخلها المغول بعد أن سقطت بغداد وولاية البصرة وذلك بعد أن هاجم الأكراد جيش المغول فقاد هولاكو حملة وتمكن من دخول كردستان ومن ثم توجه نحو بلاد الشام.", "العراق\nوقد اشتهر عصر السلالات السومرية الأول بظهور عدة حكام مشهورين منهم جلجامش صاحب ملحمة جلجامش (التي تعتبر أقدم ملحمة في التاريخ) [40] وظهر أيضاً حكام آخرين مثل إيتانا والملكة شبعاد ولوغال زاغيسي وغيرهم.[41]", "السياحة في العراق\nالعراق مهد الحضارات تزخر أرضه بالكثير من الآثار والمواقع الأثرية المختلفة والمتعددة باختلاف الحقبة والحضارات التي نشأت فيه وامتدت اليه فمنذ نشأة الخلق وجنات عدن إلى حضارات ما قبل التاريخ وحضارة أور و والحضارات السومرية والبابلية والآشورية والآرامية والرومانية واليونانية والفارسية والإسلامية. ومن برج بابل وبوابة عشتار إلى الزقورة ومدينة الحضر وايوان كسرى والملوية والمدرسة المستنصرية وغيرها الكثير.", "طوارق\nتعد حضارة الجرمنتيين أسلاف الطوارق الحضارة التي ينتمي إليها أول إنسان عرفه التاريخ كما تقول المصادر، وقد تشتت جزء من الجرمنتيين هذه القبيلة البدئية الكبرى، وانتقل إلى وادي النيل شرقاً، وبلاد الرافدين (سومر)، وإلى اليونان وبلاد اللاتين شمالا مؤسسا لأكبر شتات عرفه التاريخ.[74] وقد أسس الجرمنتيون دولة عظمى منذ أكثر من عشرين قرنا في الصحراء الليبية وحضارة متطورة كما يؤكد عالم الآثار البريطاني ديفيد ماتينغلي، وكانت مدينة جرمة في وادي الآجال عاصمة دولتهم.[75]", "البحار السبعة\nظهر المصطلح \"البحور السبعة\" في أوائل عام 2300 قبل الميلاد في شعر الكاهنة أنخيدوانا السومرية لإلهها . كانت السومرية هي الحضارة والمنطقة التاريخية في جنوب بلاد مابين النهرين التي تعرف بالعراق حديثا. وهي واحدة من أقدم الحضارات في العالم وهي معروفة بمهد الحضارة.\nوقد امتدت الحضارة السومرية لأكثر من 3000 سنة.", "كرواتيا\nالمنطقة المعروفة باسم كرواتيا اليوم كانت مأهولة بالسكان في فترة ما قبل التاريخ. إذ اُكتشفت حفريات لبشر بدائيون يرجع تاريخها إلى أواسط العصر الحجري القديم في شمال كرواتيا، خاصةً في كرابينا.[6] كذلك تم العثور على بقايا حفريات تعود إلى العصر الحجري الحديث والعصر النحاسي في جميع أنحاء البلاد.[7] أكبر نسبة من المواقع هي في وديان الأنهار في شمال البلاد، ومن أهم الحضارات والثقافات التي وجد آثار لها ستارشيفو وفوشيدول وبادن.[8][9] كذلك كان للعصر الحديدي آثاره الخاصة التي تعد أوائل ثقافات هالشتات الإيليرية والقلط ولا تين.[10]", "العراق\nكانت الحاجة إلى الدفاع الذاتي وتحصين المنطقة الخصبة بين الرافدين من الثغرات الخارجية، إضافةً إلى تطوير وسائل على نهري دجلة والفرات.[38] من الدوافع الرئيسة التي ساعدت على تشكيل الحضارة الأولى في بلاد الرافدين في بلاد ما بين النهرين، فقاموا بتسوير مدنهم ومد القنوات المائية للري، وبعد سنة 6000 ق.م. ظهرت القرى والتي أصبحت مدناً في الألفية الرابعة ق.م.، وأقدم هذه المستوطنات البشرية هي إريدو وأوروك (وركاء) في الجنوب حيث أقيمت بها معابد من الطوب الطيني وكانت مزينة بمصنوعات معدنية وأحجار، وتم تطوير الكتابة فيها حيث اخترعت بها الكتابة المسمارية. وكان السومريون رواد الكتابة والثقافة ومن ثم انتشرت شمالاً لأعالي منابع نهر الفرات، وأهم المدن السومرية التي نشأت في وقتها كيش والوركاء وأور وأداب ولجش وأوما ومدن أخرى.[39]", "تاريخ العراق\nاحتل وغزا عدة اقوام بلاد ما بين النهرين بعد وفاة الملك نابونيدوس ملك الحضارة الآشورية وباني بابل، بما في ذلك كورش الكبير عام 539 قبل الميلاد، والاسكندر المقدوني عام 331 قبل الميلاد، الذي توفي هناك عام 323 قبل الميلاد. في القرن الثامن قبل الميلاد 6، وأصبحت بابل جزءا من الإمبراطورية الأخمينية، ثم غزاها الاسكندر وبقيت تحت الحكم اليوناني وتحت السلالة السلوقية منذ ما يقرب من قرنين من الزمان. وترك بابل كعاصمة فبعد تأسيس سلوقية على نهر دجلة، صارت عاصمة الإمبراطورية السلوقية الجديدة. واستمرت الحضارة الآشورية في الوجود ككيان جغرافي وسياسي، وكان يعرف من قبل ماثورا الاخمينيين.", "تأسيس العراق الحديث\n*الحقبة الأولى- أو المملكة العراقية الأولى", "تاريخ العراق\nتأسست الدولة العباسية على يد المتحدرين من سلالة أصغر أعمام نبي الإسلام محمد بن عبد الله صلى الله عليه وسلم، ألا وهو العباس بن عبد المطلب، وقد اعتمد العباسيون في تأسيس دولتهم على الفرس الناقمين على الأمويين لاستبعادهم إياهم من مناصب الدولة والمراكز الكبرى، واحتفاظ العرب بها، كذلك استمال العباسيون الشيعة للمساعدة على زعزعة كيان الدولة الأموية. نقل العباسيون عاصمة الدولة، بعد نجاح ثورتهم، من دمشق ، إلى الكوفة، ثم الأنبار قبل أن يقوموا بتشييد مدينة بغداد لتكون عاصمة لهم، والتي ازدهرت طيلة ثلاث قرون من الزمن، وأصبحت أكبر مدن العالم وأجملها، وخصوصا في عهد الخليفة هارون الرشيد والذي أقترنت بغداد بأسمه في روايات الف ليلة ولية وفي باقي الاداب العالمية[44] ، لكن نجمها أخذ بالأفول مع بداية غروب شمس الدولة العباسية ككل. تنوّعت الأسباب التي أدّت لانهيار الدولة العباسية، ومن أبرزها: بروز حركات شعوبية ودينية مختلفة في هذا العصر، وقد أدّت النزعة الشعوبية إلى تفضيل الشعوب غير العربية على العرب، وإلى جانب الشعوبية السياسية، تكوّنت فرق دينية متعددة عارضت الحكم العبّاسي. وكان محور الخلاف بين هذه الفرق وبين الحكام العبّاسيين هو «الخلافة» أو إمامة المسلمين.", "تاريخ بلاد الشام\nموجة أخرى من الخروج من افريقيا يمكن رؤية آثارها في موقع بوكر تخطيط في النقب لحضارة من العصر الحجري القديم العلوي بين 52 و50 ألف عام قبل الميلاد، وبقايا بشرية في كسار عقيل، شمال شرق بيروت، بمستوى XXV تظهر أنها للإنسان الحديث. تظهر هذه الحضارة تشابها مع موقع بادوشان أوريغناكان في إيران، ولاحقا السيبيلية الأولى في مصر من 50 ألف ق.م. . يرى ستيفن أوبنهايمر أن ذلك أثر هجرات جماعات من الإنسان الحديث (ولعله قوقازي\\أبيض) رجوعا لإفريقا في تلك الفترة.", "ثقافة زرزية\nثقافة زرزية هي ثقافة أثرية كانت في أواخر العصر الحجري القديم والميزوليتي في جنوب غرب آسيا، وتقدر الفترة للثقافة ما بين 18،000 إلى 8،000 سنة قبل الميلاد، وتنسب الثقافة إلى كهف زارزي في كردستان العراق، حيث وجدت هناك الكثير من الأدوات الحجرية الصغيرة (ما يصل إلى 20٪ من الاكتشافات).", "التمور في العراق\nيعد العراق من اقدم مواطن زراعة النخيل في العالم، اذا كان أول ظهور موثق لشجرة نخيل التمر في العالم القديم في مدينة اريدو التاريخية الواقعة في جنوب العراق (حوالي 4000 ق.م) والتي كانت منطقة رئيسية لزراعة نخيل التمر، كما يوجد في المتحف العراقي ختم يحتوي على رجلين بينها نخلة تمر يعود الى عصر الاكديين (حوالي 2730 ق.م). وتحتوي مسلة حمورابي (حوالي 1754 ق.م) على سبع قوانين متعلقة بالنخيل منها قانون يفرض غرامات كبيرة على من يقطع نخلة، وقوانين اخرى تتعلق بتلقيح الاشجار وبالعلاقة بين الفلاح ومالك الارض وعقوبات على الاهمال وعدم العناية حيث تَفرض على الفلاح ان يدفع ايجار البستان كاملا الى المالك اذا سبب اهماله او عدم عنايته بالاشجار الى قلة انتاج التمر. كان الاشوريون يقدسون اربعة اشياء هي نخلة التمر والمحراث والثور المجنح والشجرة المقدسة.", "إيران\nتم تحديد ظهور شوشان بواسطة التأريخ بالكربون المشع كمدينة تعود في وقت قريب من 4395 قبل الميلاد.[50] وهناك العشرات من مواقع ما قبل التاريخ في الهضبة الإيرانية تشير إلى وجود الحضارات القديمة والمستوطنات الحضرية في الألف الرابع قبل الميلاد..[51][52][53] وخلال العصر البرونزي كانت إيران موطنا لعدة حضارات مثل حضارة عيلام، جيروفت و حضارة(زايندة رود: Zayandeh River Culture ) وأبرز هذه الحضارات المتقدمة كانت جنوب غرب إيران إلى جانب تلك الموجودة في بلاد ما بين النهرين. تطور الكتابة في عيلام في الألف الرابع قبل الميلاد كان يوازي تطور الكتابة في سومر.[54] و استمر وجود المملكة العيلامية حتى ظهور الامبراطوريات الأخمينية .", "حضارة كرمة\nوجود الحضارة النوبية منذ 2500 عام قبل الميلاد، وأن هذه الحضارة استطاعت عبر التاريخ أن تحتفظ بلغتها ونفس الأجناس الذين أسسوها، والاكتشافات الحديثة أظهرت أن العلاقة بين الإنسان والماشية في هذه المنطقة كانت علاقة حياة مشتركة، فيها الكثير من التفاصيل التي تحتاج إلى الدراسات خصوصاً بعد ظهور دلائل قاطعة تثبت بأن \"مروي\" قامت كإمارة ثم تحولت إلى دولة بتأثير مباشر من \"كرمة\". موضحاً أن \"كرمة\" هي أهم حضارة نوبية، والحفريات أثبتت أنها من زمن العصر الحجري، \nعندما غزت قبائل الهكسوس مصر , تمتعت النوبة باستقلالية , وشكلت مملكة كرمة علي الجانب الشرقي لنهر النيل عند الشلال الثالث بين القرن العشرين ومنتصف القرن السادس عشر ق م , ومدت هذه المملكة نفوذها الي النوبة السفلي في مصر , وورثت ثقافة المجموعة الثالثة , وتركزت حضارة كرمة حول مدينة كرمة في السودان , وتعد من أقدم الممالك الأفريقية التي نافست مصر.", "مملكة الحضر\nمملكة الحضر أو مملكة عربايا هي من أقدم الممالك العربية في العراق في الجزيرة الفراتية وتحديداً في السهل الشمال الغربي من وادي الرافدين الذي هو غرب العراق وشرق سوريا حالياً، تمركزت مملكة الحضر في مدينة الحضر إلى الجنوب الغربي من مدينة الموصل على مسافة 110 كيلومتراً. وتبعد عن مدينة آشور القديمة حوالي 70 كيلومتراً. ظهرت مملكة الحضر في القرن الثالث الميلادي وحكمها أربعة ملوك استمر حكمهم قرابة المائة عام.", "فترة العبيد\nفترة العبيد (5300 - 4000 قبل الميلاد) هي فترة ما قبل تاريخية تخص الشرق الأدنى.منح تل العبيد الواقع غرب مدينة اور في جنوب العراق، ضاحية ذي قار اسمه لفخار العصر الحجري الحديث العائد لفترة ما قبل التاريخ ومنح اسمه أيضا لحضارة العصر الحجري النحاسي التي تمثل أول المستوطنات في السهل الرسوبي لجنوب بلاد ما بين النهرين. ثقافة العبيد بدأت منذ حوالي 5300 قبل الميلاد وأستمرت حتى بداية فترة أوروك 4000 قبل الميلاد. اختراع عجلة الفخار وبداية العصر النحاسي تقع في فترة العبيد.", "العراق\nسميت المنطقة التي تشكل معظم أنحاء العراق وصولاً إلى منابع دجلة والفرات خلال عصور ما قبل الميلاد بـ\"بلادُ مَا بَيْنَ النهْرَينِ\" والتي جاءت من التسمية والتي تعني \"(أرض) ما بين النهرين\".[27] كما عرفت المنطقة خلال فترة القرون الوسطى بتسمية عِراقُ العَرَب، وذلك تفريقاً لمنطقة عِرَاقُ العَجَم والتي تقع غرب إيران حالياً.[28] وشملت عراق العرب ، والفرات، جنوبي تلال حمرين ولم تشمل شمال العراق، ومنطقة الجزيرة الفراتية .[29] أما تسمية العِرَاق فتعود إلى حوالي القرن السادس الميلادي، ويعتقد أن أصل التسمية تعود إلى تعريب لمدينة أوروك (الوركاء) السومرية.[30] بينما يعتقد باحثون آخرون أن التسمية مشتقة من الفارسية الوسطى عيراق والتي تعني \"الأراضي المنخفضة\".", "العراق\nعرض أول فيلم في العراق في عام 1909[439]، لكنه لم يكن هنالك أي نشاط أو محاولة لتصوير الأفلام في تلك الفترة وما بعدها. أما بعد دخول الإنجليز، فقد عرضت دور السينما الأولى، مثل سينما الزوراء في شارع الرشيد، أفلاماً كانت معظمها من الأفلام الصامتة الأمريكية التي يجلبها البريطانيون.", "تاريخ مصر القديمة\nكانت هذه الحضارة الممهدة لوحدة الحضارة المصرية التي ظهرت على وجه الأرض.\nالدفن :\nأتبعت جبانات نقادة الثانية التقاليد السائدة فيما قبل الاسرات من دفن الموتى في الهيئة المثنية\nحضارة نقادة الثانية (3650 - 3300 قبل الميلاد)\nتعد حضارة نقادة الثانية اوسع انتشارا وتقدما من الحضارة السابقة وقد وجدت اثار تدل عليها في نقادة نفسها، وفي مواقع أخرى في الشمال (في طرخان، جرزة، وابوصير الملق)، وفي الجنوب (في بلاد النوبة) في وادي السبوع، عمدا، عنيبة.\nقادت نقادة الثانية إلى وحدة البلاد بعد ذلك في العصور التاريخية حيث نجد تعميقا للصلات التجارية السابقة، وكذلك بعض المناوشات بين الجنوب والشمال وقد ظهرت في هذه الفترة أول ارهاصات للرسوم الجدارية في الكوم الأحمر قرب مدينة إدفو نحو عام 3500 قبل الميلاد. وظهر الفخار الملون برسوم مراكب واشكال الإنسان والحيوان والطير.", "التشريع في العراق القديم\n(ومما لا مراء فيه ان يكون تدوين القوانين والانظمة القانونية والاجتماعية في تثبيت الأعراف الاجتماعية التي تسير بموجبها المجتمعات معياراً اوثق في تقييم مستوى تلك الحضارة العمراني ودالة ومؤشراً حضارياً على توطيد التنظيم الاجتماعي وتغلغل روح النظام والقانون والتماسك الاجتماعي). وما جاء من شرائع وقوانين لحضارة ما بين النهرين تؤكد أولى الخطوات والمحاولات الإنسانية في المسيرة التارخية الطويلة عبر العصور للوصول إلى تنظيم مجتمع متحضر قبل أكثر من أربعة آلاف عام.", "بلاد الرافدين\nالامبراطورية الاكدية كانت أول امبراطورية ناجحة تبقى أكثر من جيل وترى التعاقب السلمي للملوك. الامبراطورية كانت قصيرة نسبيا، حيث غزاهم البابليون في غضون بضعة أجيال.ويلاحظ ان العراقيين القدماء لم يكونوا يعبدون ملوكهم ابدا وانما كان السائد بينهم هو ان الملك ممثل للاله ونائب عنه وليس هو الاله على خلاف ما كان سائدا لدى الفراعنة حيث أن الفرعون هو الاله نفسه وكان ملوك العراق يستمدون الشرعية من كونهم ممثلين للاله لكي يتمكنو من حكم الجماهير.", "تاريخ العراق\nوأقدم ذكر لمدينة بابل يمكن العثور عليها في لوحة طينية من عهد سرجون الأكادي، التي يعود تاريخها إلى القرن الثامن قبل الميلاد 24. بعد انهيار سلالة أور-III في أيدي العيلاميين (2002 قبل الميلاد التقليدية، 1940 BC قصير)، وسيطر الأموريين على معظم بلاد ما بين النهرين، حيث شكلت سلسلة من الممالك الصغيرة. خلال القرون الأولى ما يسمى \"فترة العمورية\"، كانت دول المدن أقوى اسن وارسا، على الرغم من شمشي أدد-I اقتربنا من توحيد المناطق الأكثر الشمالية حول آشور وماري. تأسست واحدة من هذه السلالات العمورية في ولاية مدينة بابل، والتي سوف تتخذ في نهاية المطاف على الآخرين وتشكيل أول إمبراطورية البابلية، خلال ما يسمى أيضا الفترة البابلية القديمة.", "عصر ما قبل التاريخ\nبدأت الحضارة في مصر قبل نحو 150.000 سنة ، ويرجح أن الإنسان ظهر على أرض مصر لأول مرة منذ ذلك التاريخ . وقد وفد إليها أقوام من ليبيا ومن الصومال وقبائل آسيوية من الجنس السامي. وظل المصريون القدماء منذ أواخر العصر الحجري القديم (110 آلاف عام قبل الميلاد) فرعاً من سلالات البحر المتوسط الجنوبية ، واعتبروا أنفسهم أمة قائمة بذاتها وأطلقوا علي أنفسهم \"تاوي تم\" أي أهل مصر أو ناس الأرض.", "تاريخ الصحافة العراقية\nوخلال القرن التاسع عشر صدرت جريدة الموصل في مدينة الموصل في 25 حزيران عام 1885 وتوقفت أكثر من مرة وبشكل نهائي عام 1934 اما الجريدة الثالثة التي صدرت في العراق فكانت جريدة البصرة والتي صدرت في ولاية البصرة في 31 / 12 / 1889 وهي لسـان حال الحكومة العثمانية كسـابقتها وكان ذلك في فترة حكم السلطان عبدالحميد الثاني وتوقفت هذه الجريدة بعد احتلال القوات البريطانية للمدينة عام 1914 اما أول مجلة انشئت في العراق ولم تكن حكومية فهي مجلة / اكليل الورد/ التي اصدرها الآباء الدومنيكان في الموصل في كانون أول 1902 واستمرت في الصدور حتى عام 1909 . ", "المياه في الوطن العربي\nوفقاً لهذا يتبين لنا انه لم تسبق حضارة ضفاف الفرات أية حضارة أخرى في حوض الفرات ولم تستثمر مياه الفرات بقدر استثمارها في صنع الحضارات في العراق ولم تسكن مجموعة بشرية في حوض الفرات في التاريخ القديم والحديث بحجم المجموعات البشرية في العراق.", "حرب الملوك\nوفد العرب على شكل قبائل رحل بدو من الجزيرة العربية إلى العراق وجنوب شرقي تركيا، وأسسوا حضارة السومريين، وقد عمل السومريون على بناء تلك الحضارة الأولى بالكتابة المسمارية، وساعد أيضا خبرتهم العالية في مجال ميدان هندسة الري والزراعة وصناعة الأدوات المختلفة والتجارة الداخلية والخارجية، وأسسوا العديد من المدن مثل مدينة أوروك. وقد امتد تأثير الحضارة السومرية إلى العيلاميين في الأحواز، وبلاد الأناضول، ومصر. وخاض السومريون العديد من الحروب مع العيلاميين، كما ازداد تأثير نفوذ ملوك كيش العرب إلى أن سيطر الأكاديون العرب على بلاد سومر سنة 2350 قبل الميلاد. ثم بسطوا نفوذهم على بلاد بابل وشمال بلاد ما بين النهرين وعيلام وسوريا وفلسطين وأجزاء من الأناضول وامتد إلى الخليج العربي، حتى دانت لهم كل المنطقة. وبذلك أسس أول امبراطورية معروفة في التاريخ بعد الطوفان. بعد الفتح الإسلامي انتشرت القبائل العربية خارج الجزيرة العربية وانتشروا في بلاد أفريقيا والأندلس والسند، وقد رحل الكثير من القبائل العربية إلى العراق، وبالنسبة لإفريقيا، فقد رحلت قبيلة بنو هلال إلى بلاد المغرب، ورحلت قبيلة قضاعة إلى مصر، ورحلت قبيلة بني حسان إلى ما يعرف اليوم باسم مورتانيا ورحلت قبيلة بني كنز إلى السودان وبلاد النوبة.\nالعرب هم أكثر شعب ضعيف من ناحية القتال لكنه يخلف كثير فلذلك الجميع يختار الشعب العربي لان الكثرة قوي وبالذات حلف الدي.في.دي يعتدون على بنات حلف الكلاشنكوف قبسسة لان حريهم تلد كثير", "عصر فجر السلالات\nلم تتوحد البلاد بعد تحت مملكة كبيرة واحد بل كانت مجموعة من الحضارات المتناثرة. يقسم العلماء هذه الحقبة من تاريخ العراق إلى ثلاثة عصور. يعتبر السومريون هم أصحاب أقدم حضارة مدنية متطورة بالعراق وربما بالعالم. نضجت تلك الفترة فن الكتابة والزراعة وفن المعمار والأدب والأساطير وأسس علاقة الملك بالرعية. انتهى عصر فجر السلالات بقيام سرجون الأكدي العراق سنة 2350 ق م وتأسيس الامبراطورية الأكادية.\nنجحت فترة أوروك ، التي شهدت تشكيل الولايات الأولى ، المدن الأولى ، واختراع الكتابة ، وتتميز هذه الحقبة بوجود دول لا تزال متخلفة وصغيرة ، وتسمى بـ \" مدن المدن \". يتم توحيد هياكلها مع مرور الوقت ، حتى نهاية الفترة التي تميزت بدستور إمبراطورية الأكدية . من وجهة نظر ثقافية ، هذه الكيانات السياسية المختلفة متجانسة نسبياً ، وتشارك في حضارة رائعة تشع في جزء كبير من الشرق الأوسط . إن مدن أرض سومر (أوروك ، أور ، لجش ، أوما ، نفر ، إلخ) ، الواقعة في أقصى جنوب بلاد ما بين النهرين ، هي الأكثر نفوذاً. يحدها من الشمال ممالك مستوطنة سامية تغطي جزءاً كبيراً من بلاد ما بين النهرين وسوريا (كيش ، ماري ، تل براك ، إبلا ، إلخ).", "أربيل\nتُعد أربيل من أقدم المدن التي استمر بها الإستيطان البشريّ بالعالم، و يرجع تاريخ استيطان هضاب قلعة أربيل إلى خمس آلاف سنةٍ قبل الميلاد، وتعاقبت عليها سيطرة العديد من الحضارات مثل الآشورية والبارثية والسلوقية والساسانية وصارت جزء من الدولة الأموية وبعدها الدولة العباسية ثم الدولة العثمانية قبل أن تصبح ضمن حدود المملكة العراقية منذ عام 1920.", "قائمة متاحف العراق\nكان أول مَتحف تأسس في العراق هو المتحف الوطني العراقي حيث تأسس عام 1923 ويعتبر من أقدم وأكبر المَتاحف العراقية، يَقع حالياً في منطقة العلاوي في بغداد ويحتوي على العديد من المجموعات الآثرية التي تؤرخ تاريخ بلاد ما بين النهرين، ويعود سبب إنشاء المَتحف إلى البعثات التي كانت تَقوم بأجراء التنقيبات في العراق في أوائل العشرينات، حيث وجدو أن يَجب وضع الآثار في مكان آمن ولقد أنشئت الحكومة العراقية مَتحف وطني آنذاك يَضم آثار التنقيبات، ولقد ترأسته أول مَديرة المس غيرترود بيل البريطانية، في فترة لاحقة.[2]", "عصر فجر السلالات\nعصر فجر السلالات هو من عصور بلاد ما بين النهرين القديمة بدأ عصر فجر السلالات في العراق حوالي سنة 2800 ق م واستمر لمدة ستة قرون والذي \nيعرف بالعصر السومري القديم. و تعرف كذلك بإسم \"السلالة القديمة\" أو \"السلالة الحاكمة\" .", "الناصرية (مدينة)\nأشتهرت مدينة الناصرية المعروفة بأسمها التاريخ أور عاصمة المملكة السومرية وأصبحت المدينة أولى الحضارات التي تأسست في العالم حيث يعود تأريخها إلى ما قبل الحضارة العبيدية 7000 ق.م حيث ضمت أول مدينة في التأريخ وهي مدينة اريدو، التي تم ذكرها في قائمة الملوك السومرية. وعلى أرضها قامت الحضارة السومرية في ممالك (أور، لجش، أوروك). وفيها ولد النبي إبراهيم الخليل التي لا تزال آثارها قائمة في المدينة، وإلى جنبها بيت إبراهيم. شكلت جزءا مهما في الحضارات (الأكدية، والبابلية الآشورية)، وكانت مصدرا مهما للثروات الوطنية لتلك الامبراطوريات، لمحاصيلها الزراعية المهمة والأسماك حينها. كما كانت تمثل التأريخ الديني لحضارة بلاد مابين النهرين المتعاقبة مع مدينة نفر.[2][3] تراجعت أهمية مدينة أور خلال العصور المتعاقبة من الحضارات البابلية والأشورية والفارسية واليونانية. وخلال العهد الفارسي عام 609م شهدت منطقة ذي قار المعروفة اليوم بأسم الناصرية معركة بين قبائل العرب والفرس أنتصر فيه العرب على الفرس.[4]", "تاريخ النقل\nوفي الحضارة الإسلامية، تم بناء العديد من الطرق في جميع أنحاء الخلافة الإسلامية. وكانت تلك الطرق أكثر تطورا ونموا من مثيلاتها في غيرها من البلدان، وخاصة تلك التي في بغداد العراق، والتي تم تزفيتها بالقطران في القرن الثامن الميلادي لأول مرة في التاريخ. وكان القطران المستخدَم في ذلك يُستخرَج من النفط الموجود في الحقول النفطية المتوفرة بكثرة بتلك المنطقة، وذلك من خلال التقطير الإتلافي[1].", "سومر\nالحضارة السومرية من الحضارات القديمة المعروفة في جنوب بلاد الرافدين[1] وقد عرف تاريخها من الألواح الطينية المدونة بالخط المسماري. وظهر اسم سومر في بداية الألفية الثالثة ق.م. في فترة ظهور الحيثيين لكن بداية السومريين كانت في الألفية السادسة ق.م. حيث استقر شعب العبيديين بجنوب العراق وشيدوا المدن السومرية الرئيسية كأور ونيبور ولارسا ولجاش وكولاب وكيش وإيزين وإريدو واداب (مدينة). واختلط العبيديون بأهل الشام والجزيرة العربية عن طريق الهجرة أو شن غارات عليهم. وبعد عام 3250 ق.م. وكانت خاصة بهم وابتكروا الكتابة على الرقم الطينية وهي مخطوطات ألواح الطين (انظر مسمارية). وظلت الكتابة السومرية 2000 عام، لغة الاتصال بين دول الشرق الأوسط في وقتها.", "مصر القديمة\nفي الجنوب، وازت حضارة النقادة حضارة البداري، وبدأت في التوسع على طول النيل بنحو 4000 ق.م في وقت مبكر أثناء حضارة النقادة، استورد المصريين القدماء حجر السج من إثيوبيا، الذي استخدم في نقل الريش بالإضافة لأشياءً أخرى.[15] على مدى فترة حوالي 1000 سنة، تطورت حضارة النقادة من مجتمعات زراعية صغيرة إلى حضارة قوية كان لقادتها السيطرة الكاملة على الناس والموارد في وادي النيل.[16] وسعى قادة النقادة على بسط سيطرتهم على مصر شمالاً على طول نهر النيل بتأسيس مراكز قوة في هيراكونپوليس ثم في أبيدوس.[17] وتاجروا مع النوبة في الجنوب، وواحات الصحراء الغربية في الغرب، وثقافات شرق البحر المتوسط في الشرق.[17]", "المعتصم (ناحية)\nحضارة سامراء (5500-4800 ق م) تم العثور عليها في الموقع الغني في تل الصوان حيث تم العثور على دلائل لزراعة الكتان مما يثبت وجود ثقافة مستقرة وتركيب اجتماعي منظم لدرجة عالية. تتميز هذه الحضارة بشكل رئيسي بالاواني الرخام المنقوشة بشكل دقيق على خلفيات سوداء بفعل وضعها بالافران، واشكال دقيقة لحيوانات وطيور واشكال هندسية. ان هذا الطراز المنتشر من الرخام.. وهو من اوائل الطرز المنتشرة على مساحة واسعة من شرق دجلة تم اكتشافه أول مرة في سامراء. ان حضارة سامراء كانت الحضارة السباقة في فترة عبيد من حضارة وادي الرافدين.", "تأسيس العراق الحديث\nتأسس العراق كدولة مستقلة من الولايات العثمانية الثلاث (الموصل، بغداد، البصرة حيث كانت بغداد هي الولاية الكبرى والمهيمنة على باقي الولايات في الرقعة العراقية، فكان كيانأ سياسيا واجتماعيا وجغرافيا متماسكا منذ دولة بابل التي كانت عاصمتها بابل التاريخية وكذلك في عهد الغساسنة والمناذرة وصدر الإسلام، حيث كانت تسمى هذه الرقعة الجغرافية والاجتماعية بالعراق بلد الثغور ورغم ذلك نجد من عارض تأسيس المملكة العراقية وهم:", "تاريخ العراق\nتأسس العراق من ولايات بغداد والبصرة والموصل العثمانية السابقة. واستمر الحكم العثماني على العراق حتى الحرب العالمية الأولى عندما وقف العثمانيون إلى جانب ألمانيا ودول المركز. وبعد إعلان الحرب،تمكن الجيش البريطاني من الدخول إلى بغداد في 11 آذار 1917. خسر البريطانيون 92000 جندي في حملة بلاد الرافدين. وكانت خسائر العثمانيين غير معروفة لكن القوات البريطانية أسرت 45000 أسيراً من الجيش العثماني. وبحلول نهاية عام 1918 كان هنالك 410000 جندياً بريطانياً منتشراً في المنطقة،[66] منها 112000 كقوات مقاتلة.[67]", "دور مندلي\nويرجع تاريخ المدينة إلى أكثر من 6000 عام قبل الميلاد، وعموماً فإن هذه السهول التي تقع تحت التلال والجبال تعتبر من أوائل المناطق التي أستوطنها الإنسان بعد هجرته الكهوف في الجبال، ثم ظهرت المدنية الأولى على تخومها والتي توجتها السومرية كأول حضارة مثقفة، يمكن الإستدلال على ملامحها. وقد أكدت الحفريات التي قامت بها الحكومة العراقية عام 1966 وجود مدينة عامرة يستعمل النهر في معاشها وفيها بيوت وحياة متحضرة. وقد كانت بساتينها مرتعا للدول الفارسية المتعاقبة والسلوقية حتى قدوم الفتح الإسلامي حيث وردت في كتب المؤرخين العرب بأسم (البندجين) الموروث من تلك الحقب. حيث قال عنها ياقوت الحموي في معجمه (بلدة مشهورة من طرف النهروان من ناحية الجبل من أعمال بغداد. . وقد خرج منها خلق من العلماء محدثون وشعراء وفقهاء وكتاب). وقال عنها المرحوم العلامة أنستاس الكرملي في مجلة لسان العرب إن الاسم الأصلي لها هو (وندنيكان) :إنها جمع وندنيك الفارسية ومعناه (الملاكون الطيبون) وكان قد ذكرها هيرودوتس المؤرخ بأسم (أردريكا) وقال عنها ان فيها عيون نفط.", "ثقافة العراق\nعرض أول فيلم في العراق في عام 1909، لكنه لم يكن هنالك أي نشاط أو محاولة لتصوير الأفلام في تلك الفترة وما بعدها. أما بعد دخول الإنجليز، فقد عرضت دور السينما الأولى، مثل سينما الزوراء في شارع الرشيد، أفلاماً كانت معظمها من الأفلام الصامتة الأمريكية التي يجلبها البريطانيون." ]

[ 4.4609375 ]

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[ "It was mostly sunny in Colorado." ]

[ "It was snowy often in Colorado Springs.", "A baseball player is sitting inside watching TV.", "Yes, uh-huh.", "Men standing around a pile of fish and a truck.", "Ireland doesn't have a long or notable literary history.", "Haggle and make sure to scrutinize any product you buy here.", "A boy has an animal." ]

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[ "Hughesy &amp; Kate Hughesy & Kate is an Australian radio station drive show on the KIIS Network. The show is hosted by Dave Hughes and Kate Langbroek with anchor Jack Laurence.", "Kate Langbroek Katherine Elizabeth Wilhelmina Beuving Langbroek is an Australian television and radio personality of Jamaican, Jewish and Dutch heritage. She was a radio announcer on the 3RRR programme \"Breakfasters\" and has been a panelist for Network Ten's talkshow \"The Panel\"." ]

[ "Kim Hill (broadcaster) Kim Hill (born 1955) is a New Zealand broadcaster who currently presents the programme \"Saturday Morning\" on Radio New Zealand National, a public radio station. She was named International Radio Personality of the Year in 2012.", "Johnny Vaughan Jonathan Randal Vaughan (born 16 July 1966) is a television and radio personality and a film critic. He was the main presenter of \"Capital Breakfast\" alongside Lisa Snowdon on 95.8 Capital FM between 2004 and 2011.", "9am with David &amp; Kim 9am with David & Kim is an Australian morning show which premiered on Monday 30 January 2006 on Network Ten. It aired live from 9am - 11am weekday mornings, and was hosted by musician and former \"Getaway\" reporter David Reyne and former National Nine News presenter and journalist Kim Watkins. Fill in presenters have included Ann-Maree Biggar, Christi Malthouse, Corinne Grant, Kathryn Robinson, Stephen Quartermain and music mogul Ian Dickson.", "Mike Kellogg Michael S. Kellogg (born 1941) is an American radio announcer and personality. He was known as the senior announcer with Moody Radio and host for \"Music Thru The Night\" until his retirement in 2014.", "Jenny Kendall-Tobias Jenny Kendall-Tobias (born Guernsey 1967) is a presenter on BBC Guernsey, where she presents the morning show (9:30am to 1pm) featuring local news, interviews and music.", "Good Morning Scotland Good Morning Scotland is a Scottish breakfast radio news programme. It is broadcast on BBC Radio Scotland weekdays from 06:00 to 09:00. Established in 1973, it is the longest-running radio show broadcast from Scotland and remains one of the most popular. Weekend editions, broadcast between 08:00 and 10:00, were introduced in early 2015.", "Where Are They Now? (Australian TV program) Where Are They Now? is a television show that aired on Australia's Seven Network. It was hosted by David Koch, presenter of Seven's breakfast television program \"Sunrise\" and former Sunrise co-presenter Melissa Doyle.", "Lewis Hobba Lewis Hamilton Hobba is an Australian radio presenter, television presenter and comedian. He co-hosts the afternoon drive time programme, \"Drive with Veronica & Lewis\", with Veronica Milsom on youth radio station, Triple J.", "Keith Cunningham Keith Cunningham or \"K.C.\" (born 30 October 1979) is a multi award winning Irish Radio Presenter, Producer and Radio Programmer.", "Kirsten Drysdale Kirsten Drysdale (born 1984) is an Australian television presenter and journalist. She is a writer and presenter on ABC consumer affairs comedy programme, \"The Checkout\". She was a researcher and presenter for \"Hungry Beast\" and a researcher for \"The Hamster Wheel\", \"The Hamster Decides\" and \"The Gruen Transfer\". She has also occasionally appeared on Radio National, where she hosted \"Talking Shop\", a weekly show about marketing and consumer behaviour.", "Karl Stefanovic Karl Stefanovic (born 12 August 1974) is an Australian Gold Logie-winning television presenter. Stefanovic is currently a co-host of the Nine Network's breakfast program, \"Today\".", "The Grill Team The Grill Team is an Australian breakfast radio show that broadcasts weekday mornings from 6 am to 9 am AEST on Triple M Sydney. It commenced broadcasting on 17 August 2009.", "Ken Sparkes Ken Sparkes (20 July 1940 – 11 September 2016) was an Australian radio presenter, television personality (actor, singer, host), disc Jockey and voice-over artist, he also worked as an investigative journalist, sportscaster/commentator and launched briefly a pop career and co-founded his own record label. He was a presenter of radio programs, including presenting the breakfast program on Adelaide's 5KA. His early career was at Melbourne's 3UZ, before launching a career in television in the mid-60's.", "Mark Carruthers Mark Carruthers OBE (born 1965) is a Northern Irish broadcaster and journalist, from Limavady. He currently presents a number of television and radio programmes for BBC Northern Ireland.", "Heart Breakfast with Wes Venn Heart Breakfast with Wes Venn was a radio show broadcast 6am to 10am weekdays on Heart's Milton Keynes station, Heart 103.3 (now Heart Home Counties). It was hosted by Wes Venn and sponsored by Pilling Renault. Wes now presents the drivetime show on 96.4 Eagle Radio in Surrey and North Hampshire.", "Mojo in the Morning Mojo in the Morning is a long-running American morning radio talk show that runs weekdays from 6am–10am, with a warm-up show running from 5am-6am Eastern Time. The show first launched on February 21, 2000 on Channel 955 in Detroit. It can also be heard on 104.5 WSNX-FM in Grand Rapids, Michigan and WVKS 92.5 KISS FM in Toledo, Ohio.", "On This Day in History On This Day In History was a feature on the BBC Radio 1 breakfast show in the UK between 1988 and 1993. It was devised by the programme's presenter at the time, Simon Mayo.", "Bob Kevoian Robert James \"Bob\" Kevoian (born December 2, 1950) is a retired American radio host of the nationally syndicated radio show \"The Bob & Tom Show\" together with his partner, Tom Griswold. The show is broadcast from WFBQ's studios in Indianapolis, Indiana.", "Liam Renton Liam Bradley Renton is an Australian radio personality. He was a newsreader on the kids TV show the Big Breakfast in the 1990s and formerly hosted the breakfast show on 96Five in Brisbane. He also formerly hosted the weekly countdown show Australia’s Hot 25 countdown heard on more than 500 Christian Stations throughout Australia.", "Georgie Bingham Georgie Bingham (born London 30th September 1976) is a British radio and television presenter best known for her role as host of the Weekend Sports Breakfast on talkSPORT." ]

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[ "In the late 17th century, the bell was re-cast." ]

[ "The bell has not been re-cast during its life.", "Something like underwater psychology, or some crazy field like that.", "There were no headsets in the crowd.", "THe men are playing tennis.", "My heart erupted with gratitude.", "The parents are not to blame in this situation.", "For whatever it is." ]

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[ "The effect on Eastern European countries that were not admitted to NATO was brought in the third category." ]

[ "The third category of arguments was the most important.", "some people walk on a beach", "Three children playing outside.", "Some men are practicing.", "The man's feet are touching the ground.", "Children running on a beach.", "A group of people are near a police van." ]

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[ "Zas (vuori)\nVuori on saanut nimensä ylijumala Zeuksesta. Erään version mukaan Zeus olisi syntynyt saarella vuorella olevassa niin kutsutussa Zeuksen luolassa (myös Zasin luola).[1] (Samaa tarinaa kerrotaan myös mm. Kreetalla sijaitsevista Díktin luolasta ja Ídan luolasta.)" ]

[ "Titlis\nTitlis (3 238 m) on Sveitsin Urin Alpeilla sijaitseva vuori. Se sijaitsee Obwaldenin ja Bernin kantoneiden rajalla lähellä Engelbergiä, joka on kuuluisa muun muassa maailman ensimmäisestä pyörivästä kabiinihissistään. Vuorella on lumipeite ja pakkasta ympäri vuoden.", "Falakró\nFalakró (, ”Kalju”) eli \"Boz Ntag\" (Μποζ Νταγ, , , ”Harmaa vuori”) on vuori Itä-Makedoniassa Pohjois-Kreikassa lähellä Bulgarian rajaa. Sen korkeus on 2 232 metriä.\nFalakró sijaitsee Dráman alueyksikössä Itä-Makedonian ja Traakian alueella. Vuoren korkein huippu on nimeltään Profítis Ilías (Προφήτης Ηλίας). Muut korkeimmat huiput ovat Ágios Pávlos (Άγιος Παύλος, 1 768 m), Ágio Pnéfma (Άγιο Πνεύμα, 1 629 m), Várdena (Βάρδενα) ja Chionótrypa (Χιονότρυπα). Vuorella sijaitsee hiihtokeskus.", "Ural (vuoristo)\nMaantieteellisessa kirjallisuudessa käsitteellä ”Ural” on monia merkityksiä. Ensiksi, sitä käytetään Uralvuoriston nimenä. Toiseksi, Uraljoki alkaa Uralvuoriston eteläosista ja laskee etelään Kaspianmereen. Kolmanneksi, sillä tarkoitetaan aluetta vuoriston ympärillä, sen yhtenäistä kultturia ja talouskytköstä (engl. Great Urals). Tällä ei tarkoiteta vuoristoaluetta ja sen ylänköalueita. Tämä ei myöskään sisällä polaarista Uralia, joka on asumatonta erämaata, tai muutakaan Pohjois-Uralin osia. Toisaalta se kyllä sisältää eteläosien ympäristössä Cis-Uralin, Trans-Uralin sekä osia Länsi-Siperian alankoa.\nUral on suhteellisen matala vuorijono, jonka kallioperä muostuu magmakivestä ja sedimenttikivestä. Korkeimmat huiput sijatsevat Uralin pohjoisissa, missä sijaitsee myös vuorijonon korkein huippu Narodnaja (1 894 m), ja eteläosissa, missä korkein huippu on Jamantau (1 640 m). Matalat vuoret löytyvät keskisestä Uralista, missä huippujen keskikorkeus 600–800 m. Vuoristossa on lukuisia karstiluolia. Vaigatšin ja Novaja Zemljan saaret muodostavat Uralin jatkeen mantereen pohjoispuolella.\nUralin vuoristo ja erityisesti Trans-Ural on kuuluisa monien eri metallien rikkaista malmivaroistaan. Malmit, joista huomattavimmat ovat rauta-, kupari-, kulta- jne. malmioita, sijaitsevat pääasiassa vuorijonon itärinteillä, ja ne muodostavat eräitä maapallon rikkaimpia malmioita. Lisäksi alueella on runsaasti korukiviä eli puolijalokiviä, kuten esimerkiksi jaspista, kristallia, malakiittiä, serpentiiniä, akaattia, onyksia ja muuta, löytyy erityisesti vuoriston metamorfisista kivilajeista maanpinnan alta.\nUralvuoriston alueiden maisemalliset ja ilmastolliset piirteet sekä ihmistoiminnan vaikutukset ovat vaikuttaneet alueisiin monin eri tavoin. Ilmasto vaihtelee pohjoisosan ilmastosta, missä heinäkuussa ilman lämpötila on noin 6–8 °C, eteläiseen kuivalla arolla olevaan ilmastoon, missä keskilämpötila on 22 °C. Ilmastoon vaikuttaa moneta tekijät. Näitä ovat etäisyydet Atlantilta ja Jäämereltä sekä arktiselta alueelta, Siperiasta ja Keski-Aasian korkeapainealueelta. Merkittävintä ilmastolle on Atlantilta saapuvan länsituulen tuoma merellinen ilman kosteus. Uralvuoristo on länsituuleen nähden poikittain, joten länsirinteet ovat kosteammat kuin itärinteet. Tämä ero korostuu talvella, kun länsirinteiden metsissä on runsaasti lunta verrattuna itärinteiden ohuempaan lumipeitteeseen. Sademäärissä ero on 100–150 millimetriä. Kesien kuumuus ja talvien kylmyys koettelee Trans-Uralisia alueita enemmän kuin Cis-Uralisia, missä säävaihtelut ovat länsirinteitä suuremmat erityisesti keväisin ja syksyisin.", "Harz\nAsutus levittäytyi alueelle vasta noin tuhat vuotta sitten. Antiikin aikaan alue oli tiheän metsän vuoksi luoksepääsemätön. Vuonna 968 läheltä Goslarin kaupunkia löydettiin hopeaa, ja vuoristoon perustettiin useita kaivoksia seuraavien vuosisatojen aikana. Kaivosten ehdyttyä 1800-luvulla alue koki rappion ja ihmiset hylkäsivät kaupunkeja, mutta matkailu on eheyttänyt jälleen Harzin taloutta. Nykyään vuoristo on merkittävä matkailukohde, jossa merkittäviä keskuksia ovat Harzburg ja Lauterberg[1]. Siellä lomailee kesällä retkeilijöitä ja talvella urheilunharrastajia.", "Ída\nVuori on lähes puuton, puustoa on ainoastaan sen alarinteillä. Aiemmin puustoa oli enemmän. Yli 2 000 metrin korkeudessa ei ole kasvillisuutta lainkaan. Vuorelta on louhittu kultaa, kuparia ja rautaa. Nykyisin Psiloreítiksen ympäristö muodostaa suojelualueen. Skínakas (Σκίνακας) -huipulla 1 750 metrin korkeudessa sijaitsee Kreetan yliopiston observatorio. Vuoren itäpuolella sijaitsee Nídan ylätasanko. Tasangon laidalla vuoren itärinteessä 1 495 metrin korkeudessa sijaitsee Ídan luola (\"Idaío ántro\"), jota pidettiin antiikin aikana Zeuksen syntymäpaikkana (yhdessä Díktin luolan kanssa). Paras polku vuorelle kulkee Nídan tasangolta.", "Zanes\nZanes (monikko, , ”Zeukset”) olivat joukko antiikin aikaisia Zeus-jumalaa esittäneitä pronssipatsaita Olympian pyhäkköalueella Kreikassa. Niiden nimi oli peräisin Zeuksen nimen doorilaisesta muodosta \"Zan\".\nZanes-patsaat oli kustannettu niillä rahoilla, jotka Olympian kisoissa vilppiä tehneet joutuivat maksamaan sakkona. Patsaat oli asetettu riviin Olympian temenos-alueelta eli \"Altiksesta\" Olympian stadionille johtaneen kulkureitin varten, ja jokaiseen patsaaseen oli kirjoitettu, kenen sakkorahoilla ja minkä teon vuoksi se oli pystytetty. Näin ne toimivat eräänlaisena häpeärangaistuksena sekä kilpailijalle että koko tämän kotikaupungille. Sijaintipaikan ansiosta kaikki kisapaikalle matkalla olleet urheilijat joutuivat kulkemaan niiden ohi. Tämän oli tarkoitus kannustaa muita välttämään vilppiä.", "Aconcagua\nAconcagua on Amerikan mantereen ja eteläisen pallonpuoliskon korkein vuori (6962m[1]). Sitä korkeampia vuoria on ainoastaan Aasiassa. Aconcagua sijaitsee Andien vuoristossa Mendozan maakunnassa Argentiinassa aivan Chilen rajan tuntumassa. Sen ympärillä on monia muita yli 5000 metrin korkuisia vuoria. Vuoren nimi on peräisin ketšuankielisestä ilmauksesta ”Ackon Cahuak”, joka tarkoittaa ”kivistä vartiopaikkaa”.", "Zaden\nKeskiaikaisia vuosikirjoja ja nykyistä Zedazenin paikannimeä (sanoista \"Zeda Zadeni\" eli \"Ylempi Zaden\") lukuun ottamatta aikalaislähteitä tai arkeologista todistusaineistoa Zadenin kultista ei kuitenkaan ole. Useat nykytutkijat ovat arvelleet Zadenin olleen georgialainen versio luuvien Santas-jumalasta tai heettiläisten Sandon-jumalasta, mutta myös yhteyttä zarathustralaisuuden Yazataan on ehdotettu.", "Veles (jumala)\nSamanlainen asetelma voidaan havaita eteläslaavien keskuudessa. Heillä nimi Veles esiintyy vain paikannimissä: niistä tunnetuin on Velesin kaupunki Makedoniassa, jonka ylle kohoaa profeetta Elian kukkula (profeetta Elia korvasi paljolti Perunin kristinuskon saapumisen jälkeen). Vieläkin parempi esimerkki on kroatialainen Voloskon kaupunki, joka sijaitsee meren rannalla Učka-vuoren Perun-nimisen huipun juurella. Länsislaaveilla nimi esiintyy pääasiassa 1400- ja 1500-luvun tšekkiläisissä lähteissä, joissa se tarkoittaa joko lohikäärmettä tai paholaista.", "Päijänne\nErään arvelun mukaan Päijänne voisi juontua päijätä-verbistä, joka merkitsee varoittamista. Tällöin nimi voisi olla peräisin ehkä 1000-luvun tienoilta, kun karjalaiset hyökkäilivät Hämeeseen, ja käyttivät usein Päijänteenkin vesistöä. Paikalliset olisivat tehneet merkkitulten ketjun, jonka avulla tieto vainolaisista olisi kantautunut Päijänteen perukoiden asutuskeskuksiin jo ennen vihollislaivaston ilmestymistä näköpiiriin. Päijänteen rannalla sijaitseva 192 metriä korkea saari Päijätsalo olisi voinut olla merkittävin tähystys- ja varoituspaikka. Päijätsalon hyvät näköalat yli järven ovat edelleen tunnetut, ja siellä on nykyisin näköalatorni. Teoria tuntuu kuitenkin epäuskottavalta, sillä päijätä-verbiä ei ole tavattu kuin Pohjois-Karjalan Kiteellä.[12]", "Montes Apenninus\nMontes Apenninus on karu vuorijono Kuun Maahan näkyvän puoliskon pohjoisosissa. Johannes Hevelius nimesi vuoriston Italian Apenniinien mukaan. Vuorijono kohoaa korkeimmillaan yli 5 000 metriin. Vuoriston keskellä on Belan kraatteri, joka sijaitsee Mons Bradleyn ja Mons Hadleyn välimaastossa.", "Mons Huygens\nMons Huygens on Kuun korkein vuori (muttei sen korkein kohta). Se on 5,5 km korkea, ja se sijaitsee Montes Apenninus -vuorijonossa. Sen vieressä on Mons Ampère -vuorijono. Se on nimetty hollantilaisen matemaatikon ja fyysikon Christiaan Huygensin mukaan. IAU nimesi vuoren virallisesti vuonna 1961.", "Zakat\nZakat () eli almuvero on yksi viidestä islamin peruspilareista. Sana \"zakat\" merkitsee puhdistumista ja sitä pidetään eräänlaisena uskonnollisena verona. Periaatteessa se maksetaan kerran vuodessa yksityiskohtaisten sääntöjen mukaan – eri omaisuudesta lajeista maksetaan erisuuruisia määriä almuveroa. Käytännössä almuvero on pyrkinyt muuttumaan historian myötä viranomaisten keräämäksi tavanomaiseksi veroksi.", "Kamerun\nEpäsäännöllinen vuorten, kukkuloiden ja tasankojen ketju, joka tunnetaan Kamerunin vuorijonona, ulottuu rannikon Kamerunvuorelta melkein Tšadjärvelle saakka Kamerunin pohjoiskärjessä – Kamerunvuori on 4 095 metrin korkuisena maan korkein huippu. Alueella on lauha ilmasto, erityisesti Läntisellä ylätasangolla, vaikka sademäärät ovatkin suuria. Sen maaperä kuuluu Kamerunin hedelmällisimpiin etenkin tuliperäisen Kamerunvuoren ympäristössä. Tuliperäisyys on luonut alueelle kraatterijärviä. Yksi niistä, Nyosjärvi, sylkäisi 21. elokuuta 1986 ilmaan hiilidioksidia surmaten 1 700–2 000 henkeä.", "Vuorikiipeily\nRanskalainen tiedemies Horace Bénédict de Saussure ideoi Mont Blanc -vuoren valloituksen luvaten siitä huomattavan palkinnon. Vuorikiteiden keräilijä, myöhemmin vuorioppaana toiminut Jacques Balmat sekä Chamonixin kylälääkäri Michel Paccard nousivat Länsi-Euroopan korkeimman vuoren huipulle 1786.[1][2]", "Pahan jälkeläinen\nMyöhemmin Päivänsäde Nuijamäyrä lähti kohti Salamandastronia, Liekkiliskon vuorta. Salasmandastronia asuttavat maineikkaat kaukopartiojänikset. Vuorta hallitsevat mäyrävaltiaat. Entisen valtiaan kuoltua vuorelle saapuu hetken kuluttua uusi valtias - aivan kuten oli ennustettu. Päivänsäteestä tuli vuoren uusi valtias. Swartt Kuusikynnen vaimo Sinimarja synnytti keskitalvella pojan ja kuoli kohta synnytyksen jälkeen. Poikanen joutui Redwallin luostariin, jossa vanha mäyrä Bella ja abbedissa Meriam antoivat hänelle nimen Verho. Nuori hiirineito Muratti otti Verhon kasvatuksen tehtäväkseen. Verho ei kuitenkaan sopeutunut luostarielämään, vaan varasteli tavaroita. Hillerinuorukaisen yritettyä myrkyttää siili Myrtin, hänet karkotettiin luostarista. Muratti lähti seuraamaan myyräystävänsä Tonkelin kanssa Verhoa. ", "Zaōn hyppyrimäki\nKeväällä 2013 vanha vauhtimäki purettiin ja sen jälkeen alettiin rakentaa kokonaan uutta vauhtimäkeä samalle paikalle. Uuteen vauhtimäkeen asennettiin Ski-Line-latu-ura. Remontin yhteydessä myös alastulorinne muotoiltiin uudelleen, rakennettiin uusi hiihtohissi ja tuomaritorni sekä uusittiin hyppyrimäen valaistus. Tammikuussa 2014 järjestettiin ensimmäiset kilpailut uudessa hyppyrimäessä. Joulukuussa 2015 alastulorinteeseen asennettiin muovitus ja hyppyrimäki FIS-sertifioitiin uudelleen. Sertifioinnissa K-piste siirtyi 90 metristä 95 metriin ja HS-piste siirtyi 100 metristä 106 metriin, samalla hyppyrimäki nimettiin Kuraray Zao Schanzeksi. Vuonna 2016 HS-piste siirrettiin 103 metriin ja kesällä 2017 HS-piste siirrettiin 102 metriin.", "Prut\nUkrainalaisen tarinan mukaan Prut-niminen nuorimies nukahti kerran puun alle. Hänet herätti kaunis tyttö nimeltään Hoverla, ja he rakastuivat toisiinsa. Hoverlan isä oli kuitenkin vuoren tsaari, ja saatuaan tietää parin romanssista isä kirosi tyttärensä. Koska Hoverla ei voinut elää rakkaansa kanssa, hän hyppäsi alas vuorenkielekkeeltä. Hänen niin tehdessään nousi raivokas tuuli, joka runteli puita ja maastoa. Sen nostattaman pölyn viimein laskeuduttua laakson paikalle oli noussut vuori. Prut kuuli Hoverlan äänen kutsuvan häntä vuorelta, ja hän juoksi pois liittyäkseen Hoverlaan, palaamatta koskaan takaisin. Tarinan mukaan vuorta on siitä lähtien kutsuttu Hoverlaksi, ja jokea puolestaan Prutiksi.", "St. Helens (vuori)\nSt. Helens on Kaskadien vuorijonoon kuuluva tulivuori Skamanian piirikunnassa, Washingtonin osavaltiossa Yhdysvaltojen länsirannikolla. Tutkimusmatkailija George Vancouver nimesi vuoren ystävänsä brittiläisen diplomaatti Alleyne Fitzherbertin mukaan. Alkuperäiskansojen nimet \"Lawala Clough\" ja \"Low-We-Lat-Klah\" tarkoittavat savuavaa vuorta. St. Helens on Yhdysvaltain nuorin- ja aktiivisin tulivuori. Sen purkautumiskartio on syntynyt kokonaan viimeisen 2 200 vuoden aikana, ja vanhimmatkin tuhkakerrokset ovat vain 40 000 vuotta vanhoja. Nuoresta iästään huolimatta, vuori on ollut varsin hiljainen, lukuun ottamatta vuosien 1831-1857 välistä aktiivista aikaa. Vuoren rauhallisuus houkutteli lähistölle paljon turisteja retkeilemään ja kalastamaan kristallin kirkkaisiin vesiin. Kaikki kuitenkin muuttui vuoden 1980 purkauksen jälkeen, jonka seurauksena St. Helensistä on tullut maailman tutkituin vuori.", "Yamagatan prefektuuri\nDewan kolme vuorta ovat vuorostaan kolme pyhää vuorta, jotka muodostavat perinteisen pyhiinvaellusreitin šintolaisuuden shugendō-haaran seuraajille. Näistä yhdellä, Hagurovuorella, on tunnettu viisikerroksinen pagodi. Zaovuori on kuuluisa talviurheilukeskus, joka tunnetaan talvella ”lumihirviöistään” (jäätyneistä lumen peittämistä puista).", "Zajin\nEsimerkkejä:", "Etelä-Afrikan siirtomaahistoria\n1700-luvun lopulla pohjoisten ngunien keskuudessa syntyi poliittisia levottomuuksia liiallisen väestönkasvun ja kaupallisen kilpailun seurauksena. Koska ngunien hallitsema itäinen rannikkoalue rajoittui Intian valtamereen, Lohikäärmevuoristoon ja eurooppalaisten hallitsemaan Kapmaahan, kasvavan väestön vaatiman uuden viljelysmaan hankkiminen oli mahdollista vain sisäisten sotien avulla. Ngunien väliset etniset yhteenotot johtivat uudenlaisen sotilaallisen ja hallinnollisen järjestelmän syntymiseen. ”Mustaksi Napoleoniksi” kutsutun Shaka Zulun johdolla alueen johtavaksi voimaksi nousi uusi vahva zuluvaltio.[5]", "Ozarkvuoret\n\"Ozark\"-sanan uskotaan tulevan ranskan kielen ilmauksesta \"aux arcs\", joka olisi lyhennelmä sanonnasta \"aux Arkansas\" tai viittaus Arkansas-joen mutkiin (\"arcs\").", "Zaōn hyppyrimäki\nZaōn hyppyrimäessä on järjestetty vuosittain kansallisia kilpailuja sen valmistumisesta asti. Vuodesta 2000 alkaen on järjestetty myös Continental Cupin kilpailuja. Vuodesta 2012 alkaen siinä on järjestetty naisten maailmancupin osakilpailuja.", "Puncak Jaya\nVuorta ympäröivä ylänkö oli asutettu ennen eurooppalaisten saapumista saarelle. Vuoren nimi amungkalin kielellä on Nemangkawi. Puncak Jaya nimettiin 'Carstenszin pyramidiksi' hollantilaisen tutkimusmatkailija Jan Carstenszoonin mukaan. Hän oli ensimmäinen eurooppalainen, joka näki huipulla sijaitsevat jäätiköt harvinaisen kirkkaana päivänä vuonna 1623. Carstenszoonia ei uskottu Euroopassa, kun hän kertoi nähneensä lunta lähellä päiväntasaajaa. Vuorikiipeilijöiden keskuudessa nimi Carstenszin pyramidi on yhä käytössä. Puncak Jayan jäätikön saavutti ensimmäisenä hollantilainen tutkimusmatkailija Hendrik Albert Lorentz vuonna 1909 yhdessä kuuden Borneosta tuodun dajakkikantajan kanssa. Ensinousun huipulle teki kuuluisa vuorikiipeilijä Heinrich Harrer yhdessä Templen, Kippaxin ja Huizengan kanssa vuonna 1962.", "Zugspitze\nZugspitze on Saksan korkein vuori, joka kohoaa 2962 metrin korkeuteen. Se kuuluu Wettersteinin vuoristoon.[1] Zugspitze sijaitsee Saksan (Garmisch-Partenkirchenin piirikunta, Baijerin osavaltio) ja Itävallan (Reutten piirikunta, Tirolin osavaltio) raja-alueella.", "Náxos\nNáxos sijaitsee Egeanmeressä Kykladien saariryhmän keskellä. Se on saariryhmän saarista suurin ja Kreikan saarista kymmenenneksi suurin. Náxos on Kykladeista vehrein, sillä sen ja koko Kykladien korkein vuori Zas eli Zeus (1 004 metriä) kerää jonkin verran sadepilviä saaren tuntumaan. Myös saaren vesivarat ovat paremmat muihin Kykladeihin verrattuna. ", "Vasilítsa\nVasilítsa () on vuori Pohjoisessa Píndos-vuoristossa Luoteis-Kreikassa. Sen korkeus on 2 249 metriä.\nVasilítsa sijaitsee Epeirokseen kuuluvan Ioánninan alueyksikön ja Länsi-Makedoniaan kuuluvan Grevenán alueyksikön rajalla noin 42 kilometriä länteen Grevenán kaupungista. Nykyisin vuori tunnetaan ennen kaikkea hiihtokeskuksestaan. Se perustettiin vuonna 1975 ja sai kansallisen hiihtokeskuksen nimityksen vuonna 1991. Vuoren alue on osa Pohjoisen Píndoksen kansallispuistoa.", "Heves (lääni)\nSuuri osa lääniä kuuluu Unkarin Suureen alankoon, mutta läänin pohjoisosassa alkaa kumpuileva Karpaattien esimaasto. Mátra-vuoriston korkein kohta Kékes (1 014 m) on myös Unkarin korkein kohta. Läänin kaakkoisrajalla virtaa Tisza. Hevesin alue on tunnettu viininviljelystään, erityisesti Egerin alue, josta on myös peräisin kuuluisa viinilaatu Egri Bikavér, joka ensimmäisten kanistereissa Suomeen tuotujen erien keskinkertaisen tason vuoksi sai kansan suussa lempinimen ”Erkin pikakivääri”.", "Gellértinvuori\nGellértinvuori on nimetty Unkarin suojeluspyhimyksen Pyhän Gellértin mukaan. Legendan mukaan hänet työnnettiin piikkitynnyriin ja vieritettiin jyrkältä vuorenrinteeltä alas Tonavaan. Gellért oli italialaissyntyinen piispa, jolla oli tärkeä rooli Unkarin kääntymisessä kristinuskoon. Hän sai surmansa pakanallisessa kapinaliikkeessä vuonna 1046. Kapinalliset tappoivat monia piispoja ja pappeja, kunnes Andreas I kukisti heidät. Nykyään Pyhän Gellértin muistomerkki hallitsee Elisabetin sillan puoleista vuorenrinnettä.", "Dionysos\nNimen alkuosa viittaa todennäköisesti ylijumala Zeukseen, jonka genetiivimuoto on kreikaksi \"Dios\"; loppuosan merkitys on epävarma, mutta se saattaa viitata Nysa-vuoreen, jolla Dionysos varttui. Dionysos tunnettiin myös nimillä \"Eleutherios\" (\"Vapauttaja\") ja \"Soter\" (\"Pelastaja\"). Toisinaan hänestä käytettiin myös nimeä \"Lyaios\", joka myös tarkoittaa \"Vapauttajaa\". Nimitys johtui siitä, että Dionysoksen ajateltiin vapauttavan ihmisen huolista ja murheista.", "Ída\nÍda () tai Ídi (Ίδη) eli Psiloreítis (Ψηλορείτης) on vuori Kreetan saarella Kreikassa. Sekä sen korkeus että prominenssi ovat 2 456 metriä. Ída on Kreetan korkein vuori ja Kreikan kaikista vuorista yhdeksänneksi korkein. Vuoren alue muodostaa luonnonpuiston ja geopuiston nimellä Psiloreítiksen geopuisto (Γεωπάρκο/Φυσικό Πάρκο Ψηλορείτη, \"Geopárko/Fysikó Párko Psiloreíti\"). Se on osa Euroopan geopuistojen verkostoa (EGN) ja samalla Unescon geopuistojen verkostoa (GGN).", "Jura (vuoristo)\nRanskassa Juravuoristo käsittää pääosan Franche-Comtén aluetta sekä itäisimmän osan Rhône-Alpesin alueesta. Etelässä se ulottuu hieman myös Savoijin ja pohjoisessa Alsacen alueelle. Sen alueella on pääosa Ainin, Doubs’n, Juran ja Territoire de Belfortin departementeista. Pohjoisessa Reinin laakso erottaa Juran Saksan puolella olevasta Schwarzwaldista.\nSveitsissä Juravuoristo käsittää maan luoteisimman osan Basel-Landschaftin, Solothurnin, Juran, Bernin, Neuchâtelin, Vaudin, Aargaun, Zürichin ja Schaffhausenin kantoneissa. Sveitsissä Juravuoriston alue on teollistunut jo 1700-luvulta lähtien ja muodostunut etenkin kelloteollisuuden keskukseksi. Siellä onkin melko suuria kaupunkeja korkealla vuoristossakin, esimerkiksi La Chaux-de-Fonds, Le Locle, ja Sainte-Croix. Alueen asukasluku on kuitenkin 1960-luvulta lähtien ollut laskusuunnassa. Sveitsin Jura on yksi Sveitsin kolmesta maantieteellisestä alueesta; muut ovat Sveitsin Mittelland ja Sveitsin Alpit.", "Mazamet\nKaupunkikunta sijaitsee Montagne Noiren (suom. 'Musta vuori') juurella ja sen läpi virtaavat sekä Thiré- että Arnette-joet. Joista johtuen kaupungin ilmasto on kohtuullisen kostea, mutta kuitenkin leuto. Toisaalta Mazamet’n kaupungin ympäristössä on runsaasti järviä, jotka mahdollistavat monipuolisen vapaa-ajan viettämisen. Myös luonnolla ja eritoten Mustalla vuorella on oma osuutensa ihmisten elämässä. Orbiel-joki saa alkunsa kaupungin alueella sijaitsevalta Montaud-vuorenhuipulta.", "Zas\nZas on kunta A Coruñan maakunnassa, Espanjassa. Se on myös osa Galiciaa. Zasin asukasluku vuoden 2016 alussa oli 4756.", "Píndos\nPíndos on Kreikan laajin vuoristo ja Smólikaksen lisäksi myös monet muut maan korkeimmista vuorenhuipuista sijaitsevat sen alueella. Vuoriston pituus on noin 160 kilometriä ja se ulottuu Albanian rajalta Korintinlahdelle ja aina Peloponnesoksen niemimaan pohjoisosaan. Vuoristo on syntynyt noin 65 miljoonaa vuotta sitten, ja se on geologisesti Alppien jatke Balkanilla. Píndosta kutsutaan usein ”Kreikan selkärangaksi”. Vuoristo jaetaan usein \"Pohjoiseen Píndokseen\" (Βόρεια Πίνδος, \"Vóreia Píndos\"), joka sijaitsee Epeiroksen ja Länsi-Makedonian välissä, ja \"Eteläiseen Píndokseen\" (Νότια Πίνδος, \"Nótia Píndos\"), joka sijaitsee Epeiroksen ja Thessalian välissä. Píndoksen osia ovat muun muassa Athamaniká- eli Tzoumérka-vuoret sekä Ágrafa-vuoret.", "Päijänne\nPäijänne oli viimeisen jääkauden jälkeen osa Yoldiamerta ja myöhemmin Ancylusjärven lahti. Maankohoamisen vaikutuksesta se kuroutui erilliseksi järveksi noin 6500eaa. Päijänteen vedet virtasivat alun perin pohjoiseen Hinkuan- ja Kalajoen kautta Pohjanlahteen. Saimaan laskukynnys alkoi kuivua maankohoamisen epätasaisuudesta johtuen. Kun laskujoki lopulta kuivui, tulvi Saimaa Pielavedellä olevan kynnyksen yli ja Saimaalle syntyi uusi lasku-uoma. Saimaan vedet laskivat Päijänteen kautta Perämereen varsin kauan. Maankohoamisen epätasaisuus aiheutti myös Päijänteellä lasku-uoman madaltumisen ja Päijänne alkoi tulvia nostaen vedenpinnan Saimaan tasolle. Näin Päijänne ja Saimaa muodostivat Suomen luonnonhistorian suurimman järven. Tätä kutsutaan Sisä-Suomen suurjärveksi. Vaihe kesti vain pari sataa vuotta, kun epätasainen maakohoaminen katkaisi yhteyden Pielavedellä.[8]", "Mobutu Sese Seko\nKorostaakseen afrikkalaista identiteettiä Mobutu nimesi maansa uudelleen Zaireksi lokakuussa 1971.[4] Hän määräsi kaikki luopumaan kristityistä nimistä ja 1972 hän otti itselleenkin uuden afrikkalaisperäisen nimen Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu Wa Za Bang</i>a[1] (”Kaikkivoipa voitontahtoinen taistelija, joka kulkee valloituksesta toiseen tulta kylväen”), joka lyheni arkikäytössä muotoon Mobutu Sese Seko.[5] Länsimaisten pukujen tilalle tuli abacost-niminen vaate, jonka käyttäminen oli pakollista virkamiehille ja ministereille. Lisäksi Kongon suurimmat kaupungit saivat uudet afrikkalaiset nimet – esimerkiksi Léopoldvillestä tuli Kinshasa, Elisabethvillestä Lubumbashi ja Stanleyvillestä Kisangani.[6][8][9]", "Óssa\nKreikkalaisessa mytologiassa vuori syntyi, kun kaksi jättiläistä, Otos ja Efialtes, halusivat kiivetä Ólympokselle. Siksi nämä kasasivat kokoon Óssan ja läheisen Pílio- eli Pelionvuoren. Apollon kuitenkin surmasi jättiläiset. Antiikin aikana vuoren länsirinteiltä saatiin roomalaisten suosimaa harvinaisempaa vihreää porfyyriä sekä vihreää marmoria. Vuorella palvottiin erityisesti Demeteriä.", "Christ of the Ozarks\nChrist of the Ozarks () on Jeesus-patsas Magnetic Mountain -vuoren huipulla Eureka Springsin kaupungissa Arkansas’n osavaltiossa Yhdysvalloissa. Nimi Ozark viittaa Ozarkvuoriin, joiden alueella patsas ja sen patsashankkeen alullepanijan Gerald Lyman Kenneth Smithin maatila sijaitsee. Patsas valmistui vuonna 1966. Patsas on 20 metriä korkea, ja sen on valmistanut Emmet Sullivan. Se on yksi Smithin perustamista \"pyhistä hankkeista\", jotka hän tarkoitti houkuttelemaan matkailijoita seudulle.", "Yliopistonmäki\nMäki tunnettiin 1500-luvun loppupuolen asiakirjoissa nimillä Suur-Vatsela eli Mannisvuori, mutta pisimpään mäki on tunnettu Ryssänmäkenä. Yleisesti nimen arvellaan tulevan Turkua miehittäneiden venäläisistä sotilaista, mutta todennäköisemmin se tulee Jacob Ryss (Rydz) -nimisestä porvarista, joka omisti taloja mäellä. Suomi–Neuvostoliitto-Seuran Turun piiritoimikunnan esityksestä Ryssänmäki nimettiin Vesilinnanmäeksi 1940-luvulla. Tämä nimi juontaa juurensa vuonna 1940 mäen laelle valmistuneesta Vesilinna-nimisestä vesitornista. Nykyisen nimensä Yliopistonmäki sai, kun Turun yliopisto siirtyi Turun kauppatorin reunalta uusiin rakennuksiinsa 1950-luvulla.", "Zikavirus\nVirus eristettiin ensimmäisen kerran vuonna 1947 Ugandassa kuumeisesta reesusmakakista. Virus nimettiin löytöpaikan, Zika-nimisen metsän, mukaan. Ihmisellä tartunta todettiin ensimmäistä kertaa Nigeriassa vuonna 1954. Ensimmäinen epidemia-aalto havaittiin vuonna 2007 Micronesiassa Yapin atollilla, jolloin 180 ihmistä sai tartunnan. Vuonna 2013 Ranskan Polynesiassa oli epidemia. Vuoden 2015 toukokuussa zikavirus havaittiin Brasiliassa, minkä jälkeen se levisi Latinalaisessa Amerikassa epidemiaksi. Yhteys sikiöiden kehitysvaurioon havaittiin Brasiliassa marraskuussa 2015.", "Zanes\nPausaniaan mukaan ensimmäinen patsas pystytettiin 98. olympiadin kisojen (388 eaa.) jälkeen. Tuolloin eräs thessalialainen nimeltään Eupolos tuomittiin sakkoihin, koska oli lahjonut kolme kanssakilpailijaansa nyrkkeilyottelussa. Muita tapauksia olivat muun muassa ateenalainen Kallippos, joka lahjoi vastustajansa 112. olympiadin kisojen (332 eaa.) viisiottelussa, sekä aleksandrialainen Sarapion, joka tuomittiin pelkuruudesta hänen paettuaan juuri ennen 201. olympiadin kisojen (25 jaa.) pankration-ottelua. Erikoista kyllä, vilpistä tuomittujen voittajien nimiä ei kuitenkaan poistettu virallisista voittajien luetteloista.", "Ferekydes\nFerekydes esitti maailmanhistorian rationalisoimalla kreikkalaisen pantheonin eli jumaltaruston. Hänelle jumalten kuningas ei ollut Zeus vaan Zas, \"hän joka elää\". Hänen isänsä oli Khronos, \"aika\", josta vesi, maa ja tuli saavat alkunsa, pikemmin kuin Kronos. Ferekydeellä ei esiinny jumalmyyteille tyypillistä isän ja pojan välistä vihamielisyyttä. Khronos ja Zas sotivat Ofionia, \"käärmemiestä\", vastaan. Zas juhlistaa voittoaan kutomalla puvun Khthonielle eli maaäidille, josta tulee Ge, maan pinta.", "Yhdysvaltain presidentti\nPresidenttien mukaan on nimetty useita vuoria. Mount McKinley oli nimensä vaihtoon asti Pohjois-Amerikan korkeimman vuoren nimenä. Nykyisin korkein presidentin mukaan nimetty vuori on Mount Lincoln Coloradossa (4354m.). Joista tunnetuimpia ovat Jefferson River ja Madison River, jotka laskevat Missouriin. Rio Roosevelt sijaitsee Amazoniassa ja nimettiin Theodore Rooseveltin käynnin kunniaksi.[7]", "Ymittós\nHymettos-vuoren nimi on alkuperältään esikreikkalainen ja sen on usein ajateltu olevan peräisin kreikkalaisten tuloa edeltäneiltä pelasgeilta. Toisaalta se on yhdistetty etymologisesti myös vuorella kasvavaan timjamiin. Antiikin aikana Hymettos tunnettiin erityisesti hunajastaan, joka sai makunsa timjamista ja muista alueen yrteistä. Sitä ylistivät muun muassa Vergilius ja Plinius vanhempi. Vuoresta louhittiin myös arvostettua marmoria, vaikkakin se hävisi tässä suosiossa läheiselle Pentelikon (nyk. Pentéli) -vuorelle. Alueen arkeologisiin löytöihin lukeutuvat muun muassa lukuisat antiikin aikaiset rajamerkit, jotka on kaiverrettu vuoren kallioon.", "Vóras\nVóras () eli Kaïmaktsalán (Καϊμακτσαλάν, myös \"Kaimakchalan\" tai \"Kaïmáki\", Καϊμάκι) eli Nidže () on vuori ja vuorijono Kreikan Keski-Makedonian sekä Makedonian tasavallan rajalla. Sen korkeimman huipun korkeus on 2 528 metriä ja prominenssi 1 758 metriä. Vóras on Kreikan kaikista vuorista kolmanneksi korkein ja Makedonian tasavallan vuorista viidenneksi korkein.\nVóras erottaa Péllan alueyksikön Kreikan puolella Makedonian tasavallan Mariovon alueesta. Vuoren huipulla Makedonian tasavallan puolella on Pyhälle Elialle omistettu alun perin serbialainen kirkko. Kreikan puolella on muun muassa hiihtokeskus.", "Dom (vuori)\nDom vuori on mattertal-ja Saastal laaksojen välissä. Useat sen sivujoista laskeutuvat Rhône jokeen. Aivan sen läheisyydessä on useita 4000 metriä korkeita vuorenhuippuja. Pohjoispuolella ovat Lenzpitzen, Nadelhorn, Stecknadelhorn huiput. Täschhorn on sen lounaispuolella. Vuorelta voi myös havaita muita tunnetuimpia vuoria muutaman kilometrin päässä, kuten Weisshorn, Matterhorn ja Dufourspitze vuoret. Lähin tunnettu kaupunki on Zermatt joka sijaitsee Mattertal-laakson yläosassa.", "Etna\nEtna tunnettiin muinaisen Rooman aikoihin latinaksi nimellä \"Aetna\", joka oli peräisin vuoren kreikankielisestä nimestä \"Aitna\". Sen puolestaan uskotaan kehittyneen joko kreikan sanasta \"aitho\" (”palaa”) tai foinikian kielen sanasta \"attano\". Arabit kutsuivat vuorta nimellä \"Gibel Utlamat\" (”vuoren tuli”); tämä nimi muuttui myöhemmin muotoon \"Mons Gibel\" ja lopulta Etnan nykyiseksi sisiliankieliseksi nimeksi \"Mongibeddu\".", "Bárrás\nBárrás, suomeksi Paras, on Skandeihin kuuluva vuori Omasvuonon kunnassa Pohjois-Norjassa. Se sijaitsee Lyngenvuonon eteläpäästä alkavan laakson, Signaldalenin (pohjoissaameksi Čieknalvuovdi ja suomeksi Singalanouta) eteläpäässä. Signaldalen haarautuu Stordaleniksi ja Barasdaleniksi ja Paras on näiden jyrkkäseinäisten laaksojen välissä. Vuoren korkeus merenpinnan tasosta on 1 419 metriä. Vuoren jyrkkyyttä kuvaa parhaiten korkeusero noin 100 metrin korkeudella merenpinnasta olevan Signaldalenin eteläpään ja Paraksen huipun välillä. Tällä alle kolmen kilometrin matkalla on korkeuseroa noin 1 300 metriä. ", "Zazu\nZazu on fiktiivinen lintu, joka on esiintynyt Disneyn \"Leijonakuningas\"-elokuvasarjassa sekä tv-sarjassa \"Timon ja Pumba\".", "Zakumi\nZakumi on Etelä-Afrikan jalkapallon MM-kilpailujen virallinen kisamaskotti. Zakumin kehittäjä on kapkaupunkilainen Andries Odendaal. Zakumin nimi tulee sanoista \"ZA\", joka Etelä-Afrikan maatunnus ja \"kumi\", joka tarkoittaa kymmentä usella afrikkalaisella kielellä. Zakumi on leopardi.", "Kaaba\nSen itäiseen kulmaan on kiinnitetty nykyisin hopeisella kehyksellä koossa pidetty musta kivi, joka perinteisen näkemyksen mukaan on Aatamin ajoilta, peräisin paratiisista.[1] Alkuperältään musta kivi on mahdollisesti meteoriitti. Vaihtoehtoisena mahdollisuutena on esitetty, että kyseessä on Saudi-Arabian Rub’ al-Khaliin osuneen meteoriittitörmäyksen lasittamaa ainesta Wabarin (Al-Hadida) meteorikraaterista.[5] Pyhiinvaellukseen kuuluu temppelin kiertäminen seitsemään kertaan ja mustan kiven suuteleminen tai koskettaminen mikäli mahdollista. Hyväksyttävänä pidetään myös kiven osoittamista, sillä läheskään kaikki eivät käytännössä fyysisesti pääse (ehdi) koskettamaan kiveä säädettynä aikana. Kivi on musta, mutta tarinan mukaan se oli alun perin paratiisista tullessaan maitoa valkoisempi, mutta muuttui sitä suudelleiden pyhiinvaeltajien syntien vuoksi mustaksi. [1]", "Zunbil\nVuoristokansat lienevät irrottautuneet sasanidien vallasta näiden Bysantin valtakunnan vastaisten sotien aikana. Lopulta sasanidit kukistuivat islaminuskoisten arabien hyökkäyksissä. Maantieteeltään helposti saavutettavissa olleet alueet, kuten Sistan, Khorasan ja Tokharia valloitettiin 600-luvun loppupuolella, mutta arabit eivät olleet kiinostuneita valtamaan Hindukušin vuoristoalueita. Heidän sotaretkensä vuorille rajoittuivat lähinnä ryöstöretkiin. Zunbil-hallitsijat hallitsivat Zamendawarin nimellä tunnetusta keskuksestaan käsin. Arabikronikoitsijat tarinoiden mukaan varhainen muslimiarmeija eteni aina Zamendawariin saakka, jossa he vahingoittivat \"Zunin vuorella\" sijainneen pakanallisen pyhätön epäjumalankuvia osoittaakseen niiden olevan elottomia esineitä. Syvemmälle vuoristoon he eivät kuitenkaan edennet ja Zunbil säästyi islamin leviämiseltä vielä sukupolvien ajan.", "Día\nKreikkalaisen mytologian mukaan Kreetalla syntynyt ylijumala Zeus yllättyi katsoessaan kerran, mitä Kreetalla tehtiin. Kreetalaiset olivat keihäin ja jousin aseistautuneina jahtaamassa villivuohia.[6] Rhea oli synnyttänyt Zeuksen Díkti-vuorella sijaitsevaan Díktin luolaan piiloon isältään Kronokselta.[15] Luolassa sotaisat puolijumalat tanssivat hänen ympärillään kilpiään ja aseitaan kalisuttaen, ettei Zeuksen itku olisi kantautunut luolasta Kronoksen korviin.[15] Zeus sai luolassa maitoa Amalthea-nimiseltä vuohelta.[15] Kreetan vuohet olivat Amalthean jälkeläisiä. Tämän vuoksi Zeus rakasti vuohia. Suutuksissaan Zeus päätti tappaa kaikki kreetalaiset. Hän puhalsi mereen salaman ja merestä nousi valtava hirviö. Muut jumalat yrittivät tuloksetta saada Zeusta muuttamaan mieltään. Meren jumala Poseidon kysyi Zeukselta, kuinka tämä saattaisi surmata luolassa kilpiään ja aseitaan kalisuttaneet puolijumalat. Poseidonin kysymys sai Zeuksen luopumaan aikeistaan. Zeus heitti tämän jälkeen kaksi korppua kohti Kreetaa. Hirviö yritti syödä korput, mutta Zeus kivetti hirviön ja korput salamallaan. Näin syntyivät Día ja pienet Paximádin ja Petalídin saaret.[6]", "Kreeta\nZeusta tuli taisteltuaan kymmenen vuotta titaaneja vastaan Olympos-vuorelta hallitseva kuningas. Sittemmin Zeus kantoi prinsessa Europan härän muodossa Kreetalle. He rantautuivat Mátalassa ja jatkoivat sieltä Gortyniin, jossa Zeus makasi Europan vuorilta hakemansa plataanin juurella. Plataanista tuli ikivihreä ja kuolematon, ja kerrotaan, että se kasvaisi edelleen Gortynissa. Europa synnytti Zeukselle Rhadamanthyksen, Sarpedonin ja Minoksen.[39] Joidenkin mukaan Zeus olisi myös haudattu Kreetalle, kun taas toiset puhuvat hänen olevan kuolematon.[40] Väitettyjä hautapaikkoja ovat esimerkiksi Zoun luola[40] Zonianássa Réthymnon alueyksikössä ja Gioúchtas-vuori Iraklionin läheisyydessä.[41] Gioúchtas-vuoren profiilin sanotaan muistuttavan makaavan Zeuksen sivuprofiilia.[41]", "Zao\nZao voi tarkoittaa:", "Zs\nZs tarkoittaa seuraavia:", "Dzjaržynskin mäki\nPaikan nimi oli ennen vuotta 1958 \"Svjataja Hara\" (, ), mutta Neuvostoliiton aikana mäki sai nimensä Neuvosto-Venäjän salaisen poliisin johtajan Feliks Dzeržinskin ja hänestä nimensä saaneen Valko-Venäjän sosialistisen neuvostotasavallan paikkakunnan mukaan.", "Gros Mornen kansallispuisto\nPuisto on saanut nimensä Newfoundlandin toiseksi korkeimmasta vuoresta, joka on 806 metriä korkea. Gros Morne kuuluu Long Range -vuoriketjuun, joka on Appalakkien erillinen jatke. Long Range on kulunut jäänne 1,2 miljardia vuotta vanhasta vuoristosta.", "Pikes Peak\nPikes Peak on Kalliovuorilla Colorado Springsin kaupungin lähistöllä El Pason piirikunnassa Coloradon osavaltiossa sijaitseva 4 302 metrin korkuinen vuori. Vuori on nimetty amerikkalaisen sotilaan ja tutkimusmatkailijan Zebulon Piken mukaan.", "Zao (yhtye)\nZao (IPA: ˈzeɪoʊ, ) on yhdysvaltalainen yhtye kotoisin Greensburgista, Pennsylvaniasta ja yksi metalcore-suuntauksen aloittajayhtyeistä. Vuonna 1993 Parkersburgissa, West Virginiassa perustetussa Zaossa on soittanut useita muusikoita, ja yksikään alkuperäisjäsen ei enää soita yhtyeessä.", "Nanga Parbat\nNanga Parbat (, tunnetaan myös nimillä Nangaparbat Peak ja Diamir) on maailman yhdeksänneksi korkein vuori. Nanga Parbat tarkoittaa \"alastonta vuorta\". Nanga tarkoittaa alastonta sekä urdun että hindin kielellä, ja parbat tarkoittaa vuorta hindin kielellä. Šerpat, Himalajan seudun alkuperäisasukkaat, kutsuvat Nanga Parbatia \"ihmissyöjäksi\" tai \"paholaisen vuoreksi\".", "Forssa\nForssan pinta-ala on neliökilometriä[2] ja keskimääräinen on väestötiheys noin Expression error: Unrecognized punctuation character \"[\". asukasta neliökilometriä kohti. Vesistöjen osuus pinta-alasta on pieni, mutta tärkeän elementin kaupunkikuvassa muodostaa Loimijoki, jonka alkupäässä kaupunki sijaitsee. Muita merkittäviä vesistöjä ovat osittain Forssassa sijaitseva Kaukjärvi ja vihreän liikkeen syntypaikkana tunnettu Koijärvi.[3]", "Ólympos\nÓlympos sijaitsee kreikkalaiseen Makedoniaan kuuluvan Pierian alueyksikön ja Thessaliaan kuuluvan Lárisan alueyksikön rajalla noin 18 kilometriä länteen pohjoisen Egeanmeren rannikosta, noin 80 kilometriä etelään Thessalonikin kaupungista ja noin 260 kilometriä pohjoiseen Ateenasta.[3] Vuori muodostaa Thessalian pohjoisrajan. Sen pohjoispuolella sijaitsee Makedonian tasanko. Eteläpuolella Témpin eli Tempen sola erottaa Ólympoksen Óssavuoresta.[6] Vuori sijaitsee suhteellisen erillään muista Kreikan korkeimmista vuorista, joista suuri osa, mukaan lukien toiseksi korkein vuori Smólikas, sijaitsee Píndosvuoristossa.", "Zankle\nKaupunki itsessään oli rakennettu alavalle maalle lähelle sen satamaa. Satama oli luonnonsatamalahti, jota suojasi sirpin muotoinen nimellä Akte tunnettu niemi. Niemen edustaa on pidetty kreikkalaisen mytologian vesipyörre Kharybdiksen paikkana. Kaupunki ja sen satama olivat keskeisellä paikalla merireittien ja salmen liikenteen hallitsemisen kannalta, ja sen ympäristö oli hyvää maatalousmaata, mikä teki kaupungista vauraan ja menestyneen. Kaupungin lähellä oli vuorijono, joka ulottui Peloros-niemeltä Tauromenioniin. Ainakin osa siitä tunnettiin Khalkislaisina vuorina (\"Khalkidikon oros\"). Roomalaisaikana vuorijono tunnettiin nimellä \"Mons Neptunius\".", "Mount Ossa (Tasmania)\nMount Ossa on Tasmanian korkein vuori. Se on 1 617 metriä korkea. Näkyvyys huipulta on kirkkaina päivinä jopa 30 kilometriä. Mount Ossa on suosittu vaelluskohde. Edestakainen matka Arm Riverin pysäköintialueelta huipulle ja takaisin on 36 kilometriä. Nousu on rankka vetisissä ja lumisissa olosuhteissa.", "Reettiset Alpit\nReettiset Alpit (, ) on Alppien osa. Se sijaitsee pääosin Sveitsissä Graubündenin kantonissa, mutta ulottuu myös Itävallan, Liechtensteinin ja Italian alueelle. Korkein huippu Piz Bernina, 4 049 metriä, kohoaa Italian ja Sveitsin rajalla. Sveitsin ainoa kansallispuisto \"Sveitsin kansallispuisto\" on vuoriston itäosassa. Vuoristo on saanut nimensä Reetian eli Raetian alueesta tai sitä asuttaneesta samannimisestä kansasta. Raetia oli Rooman imperiumin provinssina vuodesta 15 eaa. lähtien.", "Ídan luola\nÍdan luola (; myös Idéo(n) Ándro(n)) eli Zeuksen luola on luola ja arkeologinen kohde Kreetan saarella Kreikassa. Se sijaitsee 1498 metrin korkeudessa Ídavuoren itärinteellä Nídan tasangon länsilaidalla saaren keskiosissa. Luola tunnetaan myös nimellä Spiliára tis Voskopoúlas (Σπηλιάρα της βοσκοπούλας, ”Paimentytön luola”).[1]", "Antiikin Khalkidike\nAntiikin aikana Pallenen ja Sithonian välinen lahti tunnettiin nimellä Toronenlahti tai Mekybernanlahti, ja Akten ja Sithonian välinen lahti nimellä Singoksenlahti. Niemimaan korkein vuori Athos tunnettiin tällä nimellä jo antiikin aikana, ja usein nimeä käytettiin myös koko Akten niemestä. Toiseksi korkein vuori tunnettiin nimellä Kissos (nyk. Chortiátis). Seudun merkittäviin kulttipaikkoihin lukeutui Ammon Zeuksen pyhäkkö.", "Venäjän maantiede\nTaiga on maailman suurin yhtenäinen metsäalue. Venäjällä on maailman suurimmat metsävarat,[3] joiden ansiosta se tunnetaan ”Euroopan keuhkoina”. Vain Amazonin sademetsät sitovat niitä enemmän hiilidioksidia, joten Venäjän metsistä tulee paljon happea Euroopan lisäksi koko maailmalle.[10] Taiga ulottuu paksuna vyöhykkeenä Suomen rajalta Verhojanskvuoristolle koillisessa ja etelässä jopa Baikaljärven etelärannalle. Lisäksi taiga ulottuu yksittäisinä alueina myös laajemmalla, kuten Uralvuoriston eteläosiin ja Amurin jokilaaksoon Kiinan rajalle.[3] Taiga voidaan jakaa Jenisen erottamaan läntiseen ja itäiseen alueeseen. Läntisessä osassa kasvaa kosteilla alueilla kuusia ja pihtoja kuivimmilla alueilla pensaikkoja, ruohikkoja ja mäntyjä. Itäisessä osassa kasvaa myös samoja lajeja, mutta lehtikuuset ovat kuitenkin hallitsevia. Havumetsä ei kuitenkaan ole aivan yhtäjaksoista, sillä seassa kasvaa myös koivuja, leppiä ja pajuja.[1]", "Zeus\nRaamattu mainitsee Zeuksen kaksi kertaa:\nKun Paavali ja Barnabas olivat Lystran kaupungissa ja asukkaat näkivät Paavalin parantavan ramman miehen, he pitivät heitä jumalina ja sanoivat Paavalin olevan Hermes ja Barnabaan Zeus. Zeuksen pappi halusi uhrata väkijoukon kanssa ja toi sonneja ja seppeleitä. (Apostolien teot 14:8–13.) Lystran lähistöltä 1909 löydetyt kaksi vanhaa piirtokirjoitusta todistavat, että tuossa kaupungissa palvottiin näitä kahta jumalaa. Toisessa piirtokirjoituksessa viitataan ”Zeuksen pappeihin” ja toisessa mainitaan ”Suuri Hermes” ja ”taivaan ylijumala Zeus”. ", "Prinssi Albertin vuoret\nPrinssi Albertin vuoret on vuorijono Victorianmaassa, Etelämantereen itäosassa. Se on pohjois-eteläsuunnassa 370 kilometriä pitkä ja ulottuu Priestleystä Ferrariin. Vuoret ovat saaneet nimensä prinssi Albertin eli kuningatar Viktorian puolison mukaan. Sir James Clark Ross nimesi ne jo vuonna 1841, mutta britit kartoittivat niitä vasta 1900-luvun puolella. Yhdysvaltalaiset ja uusiseelantilaiset jatkoivat kartoitustyötä 1950- ja 1960-luvuilla.", "Ólympos\nNimestään huolimatta Ólymposvuorella ei ole yhteyttä Olympian kisoihin, jotka saivat nimensä Peloponnesoksen niemimaalla lähes 300 kilometriä vuoresta etelään sijaitsevasta Olympian lehdosta, joka oli panhelleeninen Zeuksen kulttipaikka.[12] Ólymposvuoren lähellä sen koillispuolella sijaitsi sen sijaan Dionin kaupunki, joka oli Makedonian valtakunnalle tärkeä Zeuksen kulttipaikka.[4]", "Ellsworth-vuoret\nJonon pohjoisosan muodostavat Sentinel-vuoret (koordinaatit ). Monet Sentinel-vuorten huipuista nousee yli neljän kilometrin korkeuteen ja jonoon kuuluukin mm. koko Etelämantereen korkein huippu, Vinsonin massiivi (4892m). Muista huipuista mainittakoon suomalaisen Veikka Gustafssonin valloittama Mount Sisu. Vuoriston löysi Lincoln Ellsworth Antarktiksen ylilennollaan vuonna 1935 ja nimesi sen ilmaistakseen vuorten merkityksen maamerkkinä jäätikön keskellä (sana \"sentinel\" tarkoittaa vartiomiestä). Vuoristo kartoitettiin vuosina 1958–1961.", "Zaz (laulaja)\nIsabelle Geffroy, tunnetaan paremmin lempinimeltään Zaz (s. 1. toukokuuta 1980 Tours, Ranska) on ranskalainen laulaja-lauluntekijä joka sekoittaa jazzia, ranskalaista musiikkia, soul-musiikkia sekä akustista musiikkia keskenään. Hän on kuuluisa hitistään ”Je veux” hänen ensimmäiseltä albumiltaan \"Zaz\", joka julkaistiin 10. toukokuuta 2010. Zaz on myynyt yli 3,4 miljoonaa albumia maailmanlaajuisesti ja on tällä hetkellä yksi menestyneimmistä ranskalaisista laulajista maailmalla.", "Zeuksen luola (Náxos)\nZeuksen luola (myös \"Zasin luola\") on luola Zas-vuorella Náxoksen saarella Kreikassa. Se sijaitsee vuoren luoteisrinteessä Filótin kylän kaakkoispuolella noin 630 metrin korkeudessa.\nPaikallisissa myyteissä luola on paikka, jossa ylijumala Zeus vietti lapsuutensa. Hänen syntymäpaikakseen esitetään sen sijaan joku Kreetalla sijaitsevista luolista (Díktin luola tai Ídan luola). Zas-vuorella Zeus sai muun muassa hallintavaltansa tunnusmerkin salaman, jonka kotka hänelle toi. Luolassa on useita kammioita ja niissä on useita stalagtiitteja ja stalagmiitteja.", "Orvinin vuoret\nOrvinin vuoret (, ) on yli 100 kilometriä pitkä vuoristo Kuningatar Maudin maalla, Etelämantereella, Wohlthatin vuorten ja Mühlig-Hofmann -vuorten välissä. Vuoriston korkein kohta Sandeggtind Peak (3 055 m) sijaitsee Conradin vuoret -nimisessä osassa Orvinin vuoria. Vuoristo on nimetty Anders Kristian Orvinin mukaan, joka oli Norjan Polaari-instituutin johtaja vuosien 1958 ja 1959 välillä.", "Liesjärven kansallispuisto\nTammelan ylängön maaperä on karua moreenia, minkä johdosta sitä ei raivattu viljelykseen, kuten ympäröiviä alavia savimaita, vaan se säilyi metsäisenä ja harvaan asuttuna. Puiston alue on lähes kokonaan tuuheaa metsää, jota rikkovat pienet suot. Metsistä lähes puolet on tuoretta kuusimetsää; paljon on mustikka- ja puolukkakankaita. Alueella on myös matalia harjuja, joista tunnetuin on kahden järven, Kyynärän ja Liesjärven, välissä kulkeva kapea Kyynäränharju.[2]", "Naksos (Kykladit)\nFilótin kylästä kaakkoon sijaitsevat hyvin säilyneen Cheímarroksen tornina (\"Pýrgos Cheimárrou\") nykyisin tunnetun, hellenistisellä kaudella rakennetun pyöreän tornin rauniot. Plákassa lähellä Ágios Arsénioksen kylää on puolestaan suorakulmaisen tornin jäänteet. Niin kutsutussa Zeuksen luolassa Zas-vuorella on ollut Zeuksen kulttipaikka.", "Pikes Peak International Hill Climb\nPikes Peak International Hill Climb (tunnetaan myös nimellä The Race to the Clouds) on vuosittainen auto- ja moottoripyöräkilpailu, jossa noustaan Coloradossa sijaitsevan Pikes Peak-vuoren huipulle. Kisassa ajetaan 20 kilometriä pitkä tie, joka vie reitin 2 800 metristä 4 300 metrin korkeuteen. Tiellä on kaikkiaan 156 mutkaa. Suomalaisista rallikuskeista Ari Vatanen voitti kisan vuonna 1988 Peugeot 405 T16 autolla, tehden tuolloin reittiennätyksen.", "Tigris\nTigris on itäisempi kahdesta suuresta joesta, Tigris ja Eufrat, joista Kaksoisvirtainmaa eli Mesopotamia on saanut nimensä. Tigris on noin 1900 kilometriä pitkä. Irakin pääkaupunki Bagdad sijaitsee Tigriksen länsirannalla. Historiallisesti tärkeät Niniven, Ktesifonin ja Seleukeian kaupungit ovat myös sijainneet sen varrella.[1] Myös Saddam Husseinin kotikaupunki Tikrit sijaitsee joen varrella ja on saanut nimensä sen mukaan.", "Kinshasa\nKongo itsenäistyi 1960-luvun puolivälissä ja aiemmat muuttoliikkeen rajoitukset hävisivät, samalla kun maan sisäiset levottomuudet ajoivat ihmisiä kaupunkiin. Vuonna 1965 kenraali Joseph-Désiré Mobutu kappasi vallan ja pisti päätöksen levottomuuksille. Maa koki vallankaappauksen jälkeen useamman vuoden kestäneen taloudellisen kasvun ajan. Léopoldville nimettiin uudelleen Kinshasaksi kylän mukaan, joka oli sijainnut lähellä Léopoldvillen alkuperäistä perustamispaikkaa. 1970-luvun alussa afrikkalaistamispolitiikkaa jatkettiin ja kansalaisia vaadittiin esimerkiksi vaihtamaan nimensä afrikkalaisiin nimiin ja Kongon nimi muutettiin Zaireksi. Politiikan takia monet ulkomaalaiset yhtiöt lähtivät Zairesta ja maa ajautui talouskriisiin. Kinshasa jatkoi kasvuaan talousongelmista huolimatta, mutta sen kehitystä hankaloittivat huonosti toimiva julkinen sektori, jota joskus kutsuttiin kleptokratiaksi. Syyskuussa 1991 palkkoihinsa tyytymättömien sotilaiden mellakat Kinshasassa levisivät pian muihin kaupunkeihin ja johtivat ulkomaalaisten avustustenkin tyrehtymiseen. Sotilaat mellakoivat jälleen tammikuussa 1993. Vuoteen 1997 mennessä Kinshasan talous oli raunioina. Esimerkiksi Kinshasaan keskittynyt Kongon teollinen tuotanto puolittui. Laurent-Désiré Kabilan ja hänen ulkovaltojen tukemien joukkojensa onnistui lopulta syrjäyttää presidentti Mobutu vuoden 1997 toukokuussa.", "Sáos\nSáos hallitsee Samothrákin maisemia. Se on entinen tulivuori, mikä näkyy myös vuoren muodossa. Sáoksen nimi liittyy etymologisesti koko saaren sekä myös Sámoksen nimeen, ja viittaa esikreikkalaisessa kielessä vuoren korkeuteen. Tähän viittaa myös vuoren toinen nimi Fengári (”Kuu”), sillä vuoren sanotaan korkeutensa vuoksi peittävän Kuunkin. Kreikkalaisessa mytologiassa vuori oli paikka, jonka huipulta Poseidon seurasi Troijan sodan tapahtumia.", "Zazan kieli\nZaza, joskus myös zazaki, on itäisessä Anatoliassa Eufrat- ja Tigris-jokien välillä puhuttu indoeurooppalainen kieli. Se kuuluu iranilaisen kielihaaran luoteisryhmään. Zazan sukukieliä ovat kurdi, persia ja belutši. Se jakaantuu pohjoiseen ja eteläiseen zazaan. Kielellä on 1,64 miljoonaa puhujaa. ", "Za\nZa tarkoittaa seuraavia:", "Azerbaidžan\nAzerbaidžanin pinta-ala on 86600 neliökilometriä, joka vastaa neljännestä Suomen pinta-alasta. Alueesta lähes puolet on vuoristoa. Maan kaakkoisosan rannikon kukkuloilla on subtrooppinen ilmasto, ja siellä kasvatetaan teetä, sitruunoita ja appelsiineja. Laajimmat tasangot sijaitsevat maan keskiosassa. Sinne virtaa Kaukasukselta kahdeksan suurta jokea. Kura-Arasin alanko on saanut nimensä Kurajoen ja sen suurimman sivujoen Arasin mukaan. Kura on padottu, ja näin syntynyt Mingetšaurin tekoallas (Mingəçevirin tekoallas) on maan suurin sisävesialue, ja siitä saadaan vesivoimaa ja kasteluvettä.[3]", "Sahan tasavalta\nSahan pinta-alasta yli 70 prosenttia on ylänköä tai vuoristoa.[1] Manneralue voidaan jakaa pinnanmuotojensa mukaan viiteen osaan. Jäämeren rannikko maan pohjoisosassa ja etelään työntyvät jokilaaksot ovat alankoa (korkeus alle 200 metriä). Näistä Lenajoen laakso ulottuu maan etelärajalle asti. Maan länsiosa kuuluu Keski-Siperian ylänköön, jonka korkeus vaihtelee 500 ja 700 metrin välillä. Eteläosa kuuluu puolestaan Aldain ylänköön, jonka korkeus vaihtelee 650 metrin ja kilometrin välillä. Aldain ylängön eteläpuolella, Sahan etelärajan tuntumassa kohoaa Stanovoivuoristo, jonka korkein kohta Sahan puolella on 2482 metriä. Sahan kaakkoisosaan ulottuvat Džugdžurvuorten läntisimmät osat. Sahan itäosa kuuluu Itä-Siperian ylänköön, jonka korkeimmat kohdat Sahan alueella ovat Verhojansk- ja Tšerskivuoristot. Verhojanskvuoriston korkein kohta on 2959 metriä. Tšerskivuoriston ja samalla koko Sahan korkein vuori Pobeda kohoaa 3147 metriin.[3]", "Vuori\nMaapallon korkein vuori on Mount Everest. 1800-luvun alkuun asti Ecuadorissa sijaitsevaa Chimborazo-vuorta pidettiin maailman korkeimpana, mikä johti useaan vuorenhuipun valloitusyritykseen. Läntinen maailma löysi Dhaulagirin vuonna 1808, ja sitä pidettiin maailman korkeimpana vuorena yli 30 vuotta, kunnes Kanchenjunga anasti siltä tittelin. Vuoteen 1852 asti Kanchenjungan uskottiin olevan maailman korkein vuori. Brittien mittaukset kuitenkin osoittivat Mount Everestin olevan korkein ja Kanchenjungan vasta kolmanneksi korkein vuori. Aurinkokunnan korkein tunnettu vuori on Marsissa sijaitseva 27 km korkea Olympus Mons.", "Kailas\nKailasvuori (sanskritiksi: कैलाश पर्वत, \"Kailāśa parvata\"; tiibetiksi: གངས་རིན་པོ་ཆེ, \"Gangs Rin-po-che\", ’lumien jalokivi’; kiinaksi: 冈仁波齐峰, \"Gāngrénbōqí fēng\") on 6 714 metriä korkea vuori Länsi-Tiibetissä, Manasarowar- ja Rakshastaljärvien pohjoispuolella. Vuorelta saavat alkunsa jotkin Aasian pisimmistä joista, muun muassa Indus, Sutlej ja Brahmaputra. Kailas on neljän eri uskonnon – hindulaisuuden, buddhalaisuuden, jainalaisuuden ja bönin – pyhä vuori. ", "Dom (vuori)\nDom on 4 545 metriä korkea vuori Sveitsissä, Valais'n Alpeilla. Se on osa Mischabelhörnerin massiivia. Se on Alppien kolmanneksi korkein vuori. Vuoren entinen nimi Mischabel tulee saksankielisestä sanasta heinähanko, koska massiivin korkeimmat huiput ovat lähellä toisiaan ja antavat näin kuvan ylöspäin suuntautuvasta heinähangosta. Vuoren nykyistä nimeä Dom on verrattu katedraalin ja kupoliin. Vuoren länsipuolella on Randan kaupunki ja sen itäpuolella Saas-Feen kylä ja laskettelukeskus.", "Chalkidikí\nKreikkalaisessa mytologiassa niemimaa oli paikka, jonne sijoittui gigantomakhia eli olympolaisten jumalten taistelu gigantteja vastaan. Giganttien johtaja Enkelados haudattiin elävältä Kassandran niemelle. Hänen uskottiin aiheuttavan seudun maanjäristykset yrittäessään päästä ylös haudastaan. Niemi sai myöhemmin nimensä Makedonian kuninkaasta Kassandroksesta, joka perusti alueelle Kassandreian kaupungin. Sithonian niemi sai nimensä Poseidonin pojasta Sithonista, ja Athos puolestaan samannimisestä gigantista, joka heitti Zeusta suurella kivellä.", "Kongo (joki)\nEurooppalaiset antoivat joen nimeksi ensin \"Zaire\", joka oli väännös paikallisesta jokea merkitsevästä sanasta. Jokea alettiin kutsua Kongoksi 1700-luvun alussa Kongon kuningaskunnan mukaan, joka sijaitsi joen alajuoksulla. Vuosina 1971–1997, kun Kongon demokraattisen tasavallan nimenä oli Zaire, maan hallitus nimesi joenkin Zaireksi. Muualla maailmassa jokea kutsuttiin edelleen Kongoksi.", "Karpaatit\nLännessä Karpaattien vuoristo alkaa Itävallan puolelta läheltä Wieniä, jossa sen erottaa Alpeista vain Tonavan laakso. Tšekinmaalla vuoristo tuskin erottuu Tšekin läntisistä reunavuorista. Slovakian pääkaupungin Bratislavan kohdalla Alpit ja Karpaatit lähestulkoon kohtaavat. Suurin osa Slovakiasta kuuluu Karpaattien alueeseen, korkeimmillaan Länsi-Karpaatit ovat Puolan ja Slovakian rajaseuduilla. Täällä olevasta alueesta käytetään nimitystä Korkea Tatra, johon myös Gerlachovský štít kuuluu. ", "Gran Sasso d’Italia\nAntiikin roomalaisille Gran Sasso oli maailman napavuori, \"Fiscellus mons\". Keskiaikaan mennessään sen nimeksi oli vakiintunut \"Monte Corno\". Renessanssikirjailija Francesco Zucchi De Montereale käytti kirjoittamassaan runossa vuoresta ensimmäisenä nimitystä \"Gran Sasso\". Karttoihin nimi kuitenkin ilmestyi vasta 1700-luvun lopulla, minkä jälkeen sen käyttö vähitellen yleistyi.", "Lýkaio\nVuoren nimi viittaa mahdollisesti susiin (kreik. \"lýkos\"). Kreikkalaisessa mytologiassa vuori on saanut nimensä Arkadian ensimmäisen kuninkaan Lykaonin mukaan. Kerrotaan, että ylijumala Zeus halusi tarkkailla ihmisten oikeamielisyyttä. Siksi hän saapui kuolevaiseksi naamioituneena Lykaonin vieraaksi tarkkaillakseen oikea- ja väärämielisiä, jolloin kuningas uhrasi jumalalle uhrilahjan. Kertomuksesta on erilaisia versioita, mutta lopulta Zeus kuitenkin muutti Lykaonin sudeksi kostoksi julmasta kohtelusta.", "Zonianá\nKreikkalaisen mytologian mukaan Idavuorella (nyk. myös Psiloreítis) asui idalaisia daktyleita, joiden tehtävänä oli suojella Zeusta tämän ollessa pieni. Daktyleiden synnystä kerrotaan monia erilaisia tarinoita. Erään tarinan mukaan nymfi Ankhialen koskettaessa Oaksian maata, juoksi maasta kymmenen idalaisiksi daktyleiksi kutsuttua miestä. Zonianánkin halki virtaava Mylopótamos-joki tunnettiin antiikin aikana nimellä Oaksis. Joki saa alkunsa Psiloreítikselta. Oaksian maa voi tarkoittaa myös antiikin Aksosta, jonka alaisuuteen Zonianánkin alue kuului.[7]", "Taurusvuoret\nTaurusvuoret (, tunnetaan myös nimillä \"Ala-Dagh\" ja \" Bulghar-Dagh\") on vuoristo, joka sijaitsee Anatolian ylängön eteläosassa ja seuraa Välimeren rannikkoa. Vuorijono alkaa lännestä Egridir-järven alueelta ja ulottuu Eufrat-joen yläjuoksulle. Monet sen huipuista ulottuvat yli kolmen kilometrin korkeuteen, korkeimpana Demirkazik (3 756 m). Kalkkikiveen on vuosisatojen kuluessa muodostunut luolia, vesiputouksia ja maanalaisia jokia. ", "Zane Grey\nSuoritettuaan loppututkinnon vuonna 1896 Grey avasi hammaslääkärin vastaanoton New York Cityssä, mutta kalastus ja baseballin pelaaminen olivat hänen mieliharrastuksiaan. Pian Grey jätti hammaslääkärin työn kirjoittaakseen kirjan. Romaani perustuu hänen sukulaisensa Betty Zanen rohkean päättäväiseen toimintaan, joka pelasti Fort Henryn tukikohdan brittisotilaiden ja intiaanien hyökkäykseltä syyskuussa 1782. \"Betty Zane\" julkaistiin vuonna 1903, mutta se kävi huonosti kaupaksi. \nGreyn kirjoja pitävät monet Villin lännen kirjallisuuden lukijat alan parhaimpina, ja hänen tyylillään on monia jäljittelijöitä. Kirjoissa on jännitystä, niissä kuvataan Villin lännen luontoa ja intiaaneja. Kulttuuriset ryhmät, jotka olivat lukijoille eksoottisia, kuten navajot ja mormonit, ovat hänen kirjojensa pääasiallista ainesta. Näitä ryhmiä hän kuvaili syvällisesti, paljon aikaansa edellä olevalla tavalla. Grey kuvasi yleensä intiaanit joko jaloina ja jäljittelyn arvoisina tai pahojen valkoisten uhreina. Grey oli yksi ensimmäisistä viihdekirjailijoista, joka käsitteli mormoniuskoa vakavasti. ", "Tai’an\nNähtävyyksistä tunnetuin on kaupungille nimensä antanut, maailmanperintökohteena tunnettu, 1,5 kilometriä tasangon yläpuolelle kohoava Taivuori (Taishan), jonka huippu sijaitsee linnuntietä seitsemän kilometriä Tai’an kaupungitalon pohjoispuolella. Vuorta pidettiin jo Qin-dynastian aikaan (221-207 eaa.) yhtenä Kiinan viidestä pyhästä vuoresta ja yleensä näistä kaikkein pyhimpänä. Vuorella on usean uskonnon temppeleitä, erityisesti buddhalaisia ja taolaisia temppeleitä." ]

[ 11.9375 ]

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[ "The earth was kissed by Kal." ]

[ "The earth kissed Kal.", "Jon took it.", "A man is inside playing with rocks", "The AEO2001 was published towards the end of 2000.", "A girl in a dress jumping off a house.", "Three women are all wearing purple.", "A food truck serving people" ]

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[ "However, the collapsing Ottoman economy could not sustain the fleet's strength for too long. Sultan Abdülhamid II distrusted the admirals who sided with the reformist Midhat Pasha, and claimed that the large and expensive fleet was of no use against the Russians during the Russo-Turkish War. He locked most of the fleet inside the Golden Horn, where the ships decayed for the next 30 years. Following the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress sought to develop a strong Ottoman naval force. The Ottoman Navy Foundation was established in 1910 to buy new ships through public donations." ]

[ "The Premier League is particularly popular in Asia, where it is the most widely distributed sports programme. In Australia, Fox Sports broadcasts almost all of the season's 380 matches live, and Foxtel gives subscribers the option of selecting which Saturday 3pm match to watch. In India, the matches are broadcast live on STAR Sports. In China, the broadcast rights were awarded to Super Sports in a six-year agreement that began in the 2013–14 season. As of the 2013–14 season, Canadian broadcast rights to the Premier League are jointly owned by Sportsnet and TSN, with both rival networks holding rights to 190 matches per season.", "Dominic became the spiritual father to several Albigensian women he had reconciled to the faith, and in 1206 he established them in a convent in Prouille. This convent would become the foundation of the Dominican nuns, thus making the Dominican nuns older than the Dominican friars. Prior Diego sanctioned the building of a monastery for girls whose parents had sent them to the care of the Albigensians because their families were too poor to fulfill their basic needs. The monastery was at Prouille would later become Dominic's headquarters for his missionary effort there. After two years on the mission field, Prior Diego died while traveling back to Spain. When his preaching companions heard of his death, all save Dominic and a very small number of others returned to their homes.", "In February 1918, he was appointed Officer in Charge of Boys at the Royal Naval Air Service's training establishment at Cranwell. With the establishment of the Royal Air Force two months later and the transfer of Cranwell from Navy to Air Force control, he transferred from the Royal Navy to the Royal Air Force. He was appointed Officer Commanding Number 4 Squadron of the Boys' Wing at Cranwell until August 1918, before reporting to the RAF's Cadet School at St Leonards-on-Sea where he completed a fortnight's training and took command of a squadron on the Cadet Wing. He was the first member of the royal family to be certified as a fully qualified pilot. During the closing weeks of the war, he served on the staff of the RAF's Independent Air Force at its headquarters in Nancy, France. Following the disbanding of the Independent Air Force in November 1918, he remained on the Continent for two months as a staff officer with the Royal Air Force until posted back to Britain. He accompanied the Belgian monarch King Albert on his triumphal reentry into Brussels on 22 November. Prince Albert qualified as an RAF pilot on 31 July 1919 and gained a promotion to squadron leader on the following day.", "In 1469, following the Treaty of St. Omer, Upper Alsace was sold by Archduke Sigismund of Austria to Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. Although Charles was the nominal landlord, taxes were paid to Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor. The latter was able to use this tax and a dynastic marriage to his advantage to gain back full control of Upper Alsace (apart from the free towns, but including Belfort) in 1477 when it became part of the demesne of the Habsburg family, who were also rulers of the empire. The town of Mulhouse joined the Swiss Confederation in 1515, where it was to remain until 1798.", "In December 1831, he joined the Beagle expedition as a gentleman naturalist and geologist. He read Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology and from the first stop ashore, at St. Jago, found Lyell's uniformitarianism a key to the geological history of landscapes. Darwin discovered fossils resembling huge armadillos, and noted the geographical distribution of modern species in hope of finding their \"centre of creation\". The three Fuegian missionaries the expedition returned to Tierra del Fuego were friendly and civilised, yet to Darwin their relatives on the island seemed \"miserable, degraded savages\", and he no longer saw an unbridgeable gap between humans and animals. As the Beagle neared England in 1836, he noted that species might not be fixed.", "Under Governor Miguel Ahumada, the education system in the state was unified and brought under tighter control by the state government, and the metric system was standardized throughout the state to replace the colonial system of weights and measures. On September 16, 1897, the Civilian Hospital of Chihuahua was inaugurated in Chihuahua City and became known among the best in the country. In 1901 the Heroes Theater (Teatro de los Héroes) opened in Chihuahua City. On August 18, 1904, Governor Terrazas was replaced by Governor Enrique C. Creel. From 1907 to 1911, the Creel administration succeeded in advancing the state's legal system, modernizing the mining industry, and raising public education standards. In 1908 the Chihuahuan State Penitentiary was built, and the construction on the first large scale dam project was initiated on the Chuviscar River. During the same time, the streets of Chihuahua City were paved and numerous monuments were built in Chihuahua City and Ciudad Juárez.", "Queen's popularity was stimulated in North America when \"Bohemian Rhapsody\" was featured in the 1992 comedy film Wayne's World. Its inclusion helped the song reach number two on the Billboard Hot 100 for five weeks in 1992 (it remained in the Hot 100 for over 40 weeks), and won the band an MTV Award at the 1992 MTV Video Music Awards. The compilation album Classic Queen also reached number four on the Billboard 200, and is certified three times platinum in the US. Wayne's World footage was used to make a new music video for \"Bohemian Rhapsody\", with which the band and management were delighted." ]

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[ "Several girls were wearing the same colored shirt walking outside." ]

[ "A group of men were wearing the same colored shirt.", "The boy slid down the hill on his stomach.", "This debt will remain unpaid, by both my family and myself.", "A family is posing for a picture.", "The Globe feels that she is less than a perfect 10", "Our work has shown that leadership does not need to change.", "Blue houses are located around the slopes." ]

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[ "Two women are outside" ]

[ "They are at school watching a football game", "A person passes a construction worker.", "He was meek and wasn't any threat.", "A girl is sitting down to eat.", "A frat boy passes out.", "The chairs took up most of the available space.", "The WSJ belives that fake names are never given to pizza deliverers." ]

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[ "Orontid Armenia formally passed to empire of Alexander the Great following his conquest of Persia. Alexander appointed an Orontid named Mithranes to govern Armenia. Armenia later became a vassal state of the Seleucid Empire, but it maintained a considerable degree of autonomy, retaining its native rulers. Towards the end 212 BC the country was divided into two kingdoms, Greater Armenia and Armenia Sophene including Commagene or Armenia Minor. The kingdoms became so independent from Seleucid control that Antiochus III the Great waged war on them during his reign and replaced their rulers." ]

[ "The War on Terrorism is a global effort by the governments of several countries (primarily the United States and its principal allies) to neutralize international terrorist groups (primarily Islamic Extremist terrorist groups, including al-Qaeda) and ensure that countries considered by the US and some of its allies to be Rogue Nations no longer support terrorist activities. It has been adopted primarily as a response to the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States. Since 2001, terrorist motivated attacks upon service members have occurred in Arkansas and Texas.", "According to the traditional narrative, several companions of Muhammad served as scribes and were responsible for writing down the revelations. Shortly after Muhammad's death, the Quran was compiled by his companions who wrote down and memorized parts of it. These codices had differences that motivated the Caliph Uthman to establish a standard version now known as Uthman's codex, which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today. There are, however, variant readings, with mostly minor differences in meaning.", "The scholarly term for research concerning Somalis and Greater Somalia is known as Somali Studies. It consists of several disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, linguistics, historiography and archaeology. The field draws from old Somali chronicles, records and oral literature, in addition to written accounts and traditions about Somalis from explorers and geographers in the Horn of Africa and the Middle East. Since 1980, prominent Somalist scholars from around the world have also gathered annually to hold the International Congress of Somali Studies.", "Armenians constitute the main population of Armenia and the de facto independent Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. There is a wide-ranging diaspora of around 5 million people of full or partial Armenian ancestry living outside of modern Armenia. The largest Armenian populations today exist in Russia, the United States, France, Georgia, Iran, Ukraine, Lebanon, and Syria. With the exceptions of Iran and the former Soviet states, the present-day Armenian diaspora was formed mainly as a result of the Armenian Genocide.", "Electric recording which developed during the time that early radio was becoming popular (1925) benefited from the microphones and amplifiers used in radio studios. The early electric recordings were reminiscent tonally of acoustic recordings, except there was more recorded bass and treble as well as delicate sounds and overtones cut on the records. This was in spite of some carbon microphones used, which had resonances that colored the recorded tone. The double button carbon microphone with stretched diaphragm was a marked improvement. Alternatively, the Wente style condenser microphone used with the Western Electric licensed recording method had a brilliant midrange and was prone to overloading from sibilants in speech, but generally it gave more accurate reproduction than carbon microphones.", "After DNA replication is complete, the cell must physically separate the two copies of the genome and divide into two distinct membrane-bound cells.:18.2 In prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) this usually occurs via a relatively simple process called binary fission, in which each circular genome attaches to the cell membrane and is separated into the daughter cells as the membrane invaginates to split the cytoplasm into two membrane-bound portions. Binary fission is extremely fast compared to the rates of cell division in eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cell division is a more complex process known as the cell cycle; DNA replication occurs during a phase of this cycle known as S phase, whereas the process of segregating chromosomes and splitting the cytoplasm occurs during M phase.:18.1", "Contract law covers obligations established by agreement (express or implied) between private parties. Generally, contract law in transactions involving the sale of goods has become highly standardized nationwide as a result of the widespread adoption of the Uniform Commercial Code. However, there is still significant diversity in the interpretation of other kinds of contracts, depending upon the extent to which a given state has codified its common law of contracts or adopted portions of the Restatement (Second) of Contracts." ]

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[ "Caladenia flindersica Caladenia flindersica is a plant in the orchid family Orchidaceae and is endemic to South Australia. It was first formally described in 2006 by David Jones who gave it the name \"Arachnorchis flindersica\". The type specimen was collected in Alligator Gorge in the Mount Remarkable National Park and the description was published in \"Australian Orchid Research\". In 2008 Robert Bates changed the name to \"Caladenia flindersica\" and published the change in \"Journal of the Adelaide Botanic Garden\". This orchid occurs in the Flinders Ranges and Northern Lofty botanical regions of South Australia.", "Adelaide Botanic Garden The Adelaide Botanic Garden is a 51 ha public garden at the north-east corner of the Adelaide city centre, in the Adelaide Park Lands. It encompasses a fenced garden on North Terrace (between the Royal Adelaide Hospital and the National Wine Centre) and behind it the Botanic Park (adjacent to the Adelaide Zoo). The Adelaide Botanic Garden and adjacent State Herbarium, together with the Wittunga and Mt Lofty Botanic Gardens, are administered by the Botanic Gardens of South Australia, a State Government statutory authority." ]

[ "Caladenia argocalla Caladenia argocalla, commonly known as white beauty spider orchid, is a plant in the orchid family Orchidaceae and is endemic to South Australia. It is a ground orchid which grows singly or in loose groups and has a single, hairy leaf and one or two white to greenish-white flowers on a wiry, hairy stalk. The total population is thought to be between 2,000 and 4,500 and it is classed as an \"Endangered\" species.", "Australian Botanic Garden Mount Annan The Australian Botanic Garden Mount Annan is a 416 ha botanical garden located in a hilly area of the south-western Sydney suburb of Mount Annan , between Campbelltown and Camden, New South Wales. It is the largest botanical garden in Australia, specializing in native plants, with a collection of over 4000 species. Officially opened in 1988, it was known as Mount Annan Botanic Garden, until 2011.", "Caladenia alpina Caladenia alpina, commonly known as mountain or alpine caladenia, is a plant in the orchid family Orchidaceae and is native to subalpine areas of south-eastern Australia and to New Zealand. It has a single fleshy leaf and a thin wiry flowering spike bearing two white flowers with red bars on the labellum. In New Zealand this orchid is sometimes known as \"Caladenia lyallii\".", "Caladenia zephyra Caladenia zephyra is a plant in the orchid family Orchidaceae and is endemic to South Australia. It was first formally described in 2006 by David Jones who gave it the name \"Arachnorchis zephyra\". The type specimen was collected in the Carappee Hill Conservation Park and the description was published in \"Australian Orchid Research\". In 2008 Robert Bates changed the name to \"Caladenia zephyra\" and published the change in \"Journal of the Adelaide Botanic Garden\". This orchid occurs in the Eyre Peninsula botanical region of South Australia. The specific epithet (\"zephyra\") is a Latin word meaning \"west wind\".", "State Herbarium of South Australia The State Herbarium of South Australia (sometimes called the South Australian Herbarium) is located in Adelaide, South Australia. It is one of several State and Commonwealth herbaria in Australia. The \"Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources\" is the state agency which is responsible for the Herbarium, but the \"Board of the Botanic Gardens and State Herbarium\" (established by an Act of Parliament, most recently the \"Botanic Gardens and State Herbarium Act 1978\") is charged with its establishment and maintenance.", "Caladenia sanguinea Caladenia sanguinea, commonly known as red spider orchid or crimson daddy long-legs, is a species of orchid endemic to South Australia. It has a single sparsely hairy leaf and one or two dark red flowers with long, thin sepals and petals.", "Caladenia testacea Caladenia testacea, commonly known as honey caps, or honey caladenia is a plant in the orchid family Orchidaceae and is endemic to New South Wales. It is a ground orchid with a single, sparsely hairy leaf and up to three white to yellowish-green flowers with brownish tips and a darker back.", "Caladenia leptoclavia Caladenia leptoclavia, commonly known as the thin-clubbed spider orchid, is a plant in the orchid family Orchidaceae and is endemic to New South Wales. It is a ground orchid with a single hairy leaf and a single pale cream-coloured to yellow flower with dark reddish stripes.", "Pterostylis macrosepala Pterostylis macrosepala is a plant in the orchid family Orchidaceae and is endemic to New South Wales where it grows on the central-west slopes. It was first formally described in 2006 by David Jones and given the name \"Bunochilus macrosepalus\". The description was published in the journal \"Australian Orchid Research\" from a specimen collected in the Conimbla National Park. In 2010, Gary Backhouse changed the name to \"Pterostylis macrosepala\". The specific epithet (\"macrosepala\") is derived from the Ancient Greek word \"makros\" meaning \"long\" and the New Latin word \"sepalum\" meaning \"sepal\".", "Caladenia barbarossa Caladenia barbarossa, commonly known as the common dragon orchid is a species of orchid endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. It can be distinguished by its distinctive labellum which is attractive to species of male thynnid wasps.", "Caladenia lodgeana Caladenia lodgeana, commonly known as Lodge's spider orchid, is a species of orchid endemic to a restricted area of the south-west of Western Australia. It has a single, hairy leaf and up to three cream, red and pink flowers and a labellum which lacks the red tip common to many other similar caladenias.", "Caladenia ferruginea Caladenia ferruginea, commonly known as the rusty spider orchid, is a species of orchid endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. It has a single, hairy leaf and up to four rust-coloured flowers with a white, red-tipped labellum.", "Anstey Hill Recreation Park Anstey Hill Recreation Park is a 362 ha protected area established in 1989 and located approximately 19 km northeast of Adelaide, South Australia. The park is a significant reserve of bushland in the foothills of the Mount Lofty Ranges and is home to rare or vulnerable native plants and animals, and problematic invasive species. It is managed by the City of Tea Tree Gully, the Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources and a volunteer group—The Friends of Anstey Hill. The park is designed for recreational walking and has no visitor facilities. It is managed in association with the regional planning initiative known as of Yurrebilla, the Greater Mount Lofty Parklands.", "Caladenia bryceana subsp. bryceana Caladenia bryceana\" subsp. \"bryceana, commonly known as the dwarf spider orchid, is a plant in the orchid family Orchidaceae and is endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. It has a single spreading, hairy leaf and a single green to apricot-coloured flower. It is a small orchid and difficult to find, even when quite abundant in a particular location. It is found in the far south-west corner of the state, unlike subspecies \"cracens\" which grows near Kalbarri.", "Caladenia denticulata subsp. denticulata Caladenia denticulata\" subsp. \"denticulata, commonly known as the yellow spider orchid, is a plant in the orchid family Orchidaceae and is endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. It has a single erect, hairy leaf and one or two yellowish flowers which have a white labellum with pale red markings.", "Caladenia caesarea subsp. caesarea Caladenia caesarea\" subsp. \"caesarea, commonly known as the mustard spider orchid, is a plant in the orchid family Orchidaceae and is endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. It has a single spreading, hairy leaf and up to three mustard-coloured flowers with red stripes. It was originally described as a subspecies of \"Caladenia filamentosa\" but the rich colour of its flowers and prominent labellum separate it from that species.", "Caladenia grampiana Caladenia grampiana, commonly known as the Grampians spider orchid is a plant in the orchid family Orchidaceae and is endemic to the Grampians National Park in Victoria. It is a ground orchid with a single hairy leaf and a one or two pale tawny-yellow or pinkish flowers similar to those of \"Caladenia oenochila\".", "Mount Lofty Botanic Garden First opened in 1977, the crescent-shaped Mount Lofty Botanic Garden is situated on 97 hectares on the eastern slopes of Mount Lofty in the Adelaide Hills east of Adelaide in South Australia. The cooler, wetter location suits plants from temperate climates which are difficult to grow on the Adelaide Plains. Amongst the native Australian flora there are tree ferns, as well as exotic cultivated plants from cool climates including Rhododendron and Magnolia and the National Species Rose Collection. The Mount Lofty Botanic Garden, together with the Adelaide and Wittunga Botanic Gardens, is administered by the Botanic Gardens of South Australia, a State Government statutory authority.", "Caladenia bicalliata subsp. bicalliata Caladenia bicalliata\" subsp. \"bicalliata, commonly known as the limestone spider orchid or dwarf limestone spider orchid, is a plant in the orchid family Orchidaceae and is native to the south-west of Western Australia and coastal areas of South Australia. It has a single erect, hairy leaf and one or two cream-coloured flowers with reddish-brown tips.", "Caladenia sp. Kilsyth South Caladenia sp. Kilsyth South, known as Kilsyth South spider orchid, is an extremely rare ground orchid endemic to Kilsyth South, a suburb of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. The flower was discovered in 1991 and described by the local ecologist Dr. Graeme Lorimer." ]

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[ "Consumer fireworks fired between 18:00h and 02:00h on New Year's Eve. In the United Kingdom, fireworks cannot be sold to anyone under the age of 18 and are not permitted to be set off between 11pm and 7am. Exceptions are made for New Year, Bonfire Night (5 November), the Chinese New Year and Diwali. Fireworks are available from specialist stores year round and their use is also permitted throughout the year within the specified time limits. The sale of Categories 1 (Indoor), 2 (Garden) and 3 (Display) are available to the general public — with Category 4 (Professional) being restricted to permit" ]

[ "Professional Indoor Football League Professional Indoor Football League The Professional Indoor Football League (PIFL) was a professional indoor football league that played four seasons from 2012 to 2015. Like the Lone Star Football League, the PIFL was mainly composed of teams formerly part of Southern Indoor Football League (five former SIFL teams and one expansion team in total). Despite the name, this PIFL had no connections to the original Professional Indoor Football League. The PIFL began in 2012 with six teams in the southeastern United States, five of which joined from the Southern Indoor Football League, and the expansion Knoxville NightHawks. On March 10,", "Professional Indoor Football League were eligible to be active (eligible to play) on game days. The PIFL recognized a number of awards for their players and coaches. Professional Indoor Football League The Professional Indoor Football League (PIFL) was a professional indoor football league that played four seasons from 2012 to 2015. Like the Lone Star Football League, the PIFL was mainly composed of teams formerly part of Southern Indoor Football League (five former SIFL teams and one expansion team in total). Despite the name, this PIFL had no connections to the original Professional Indoor Football League. The PIFL began in 2012 with six teams", "Champions Professional Indoor Football League the league's first Commissioner. On August 14, 2014, it was announced at the league website that they have merged with the Lone Star Football League to create what they say is the largest indoor football league in the country. Champions Professional Indoor Football League The Champions Professional Indoor Football League (CPIFL) was an indoor football league based along the Midwestern United States region. The league began play in February 2013. In August 2014, the CPIFL and Lone Star Football League (LSFL) completed a merger to form Champions Indoor Football (CIF) to begin play in 2015. During the off-season, teams held", "Professional Indoor Football League (1998) Professional Indoor Football League (1998) The Professional Indoor Football League (PIFL) was the second league to successfully play indoor football as a paid pro-league sport, after the Arena Football League (AFL). Since the AFL had a patent given in 1990 on the gameplay of \"Arena Football\" (mainly the endzone nets), the PIFL played with mostly the same rules, but without the endzone nets. The PIFL only lasted one season (1998) under that name. The PIFL was started by Richard \"Dick\" Suess. Suess was deeply involved in football on the semi-pro and minor league level, and was editor–publisher of the \"Minor", "Northwest Flower and Garden Show the display gardens by a panel of three judges. Crystal medals had been given until 2012. The show has other special awards that are given to display gardens by various judges: The Floral Competition is judged by floral professionals for first, second, and third place, along with People's Choice and Best Use of Show Theme. The City Living display awards are: Northwest Flower and Garden Show The Northwest Flower & Garden Show (also known as the Northwest Flower & Garden Festival) is an annual exhibition of horticulture and gardening held in Seattle, Washington, for five days each February. It is", "Indoor Professional Football League a new league called the Indoor Football League. This left the league with only four teams: Honolulu, Utah, Colorado and Louisiana. The Utah Catzz soon folded as well, leading to the demise of the Pro Indoor Football League. The Pro Indoor Football League was reformed as the Indoor Professional Football League and the three remaining clubs from the old league; the Hawaii Hammerheads (formerly Honolulu Hurricanes), the Rocky Mountain (Colorado Springs) Thunder (formerly Colorado (Denver) Wildcats) and the Louisiana Bayou Beast were joined by three new franchises in Boise, Idaho; Biloxi, Mississippi; and Austin, Texas. The league was going to", "Oaklawn Garden Oaklawn Garden is also home to smaller species of native wildlife. Historic items relevant to local cultural history, as well as railroad and local traffic history are on display in the museum exhibit of Oaklawn Garden. The museum segment consists of an outdoor collection and an indoor exhibit. The outdoor collection was started around 1975 and is integrated into the botanical garden and park. The indoor exhibit was started circa 1987 and is housed in a former florist shop which was built at Oaklawn Garden in 1957. In 2009, the botanical garden, park and museum are privately owned but open", "Indoor Professional Football League have 8 clubs but the Arizona (Tucson) Mirage and the Syracuse Blitz folded. During the off season, the Indoor Professional Football League saw major changes with the loss of three of its charter franchises: Rocky Mountain, Hawaii and Texas. However, the league saw the addition of four new franchises with the fourth new addition expanding the league beyond six franchises. The new clubs were Shreveport-Bossier City, Portland (OR), Omaha and Mobile. The Indoor Professional Football League approved the relocation of the Baton Rouge-based Louisiana Bayou Beast to Alexandria, Louisiana and announced the team would be known as the Louisiana Rangers.", "Indoor Professional Football League Indoor Professional Football League The Indoor Professional Football League (IPFL) was the new incarnation of the Professional Indoor Football League (PIFL), which started in 1998. Two of its teams (the Madison Mad Dogs and the Green Bay Bombers) left the league and their owner, Kerry Ecklund, founded the Indoor Football League in 1999. The IPFL led a troubled three-year existence, and died after its 2001 season, with its most successful teams joining up with the National Indoor Football League. The IPFL was unique among indoor football leagues in that it sanctioned the use of a white football, manufactured by Rawlings,", "Indoor Professional Football League The Bayou Beast's relocation to Alexandria left the league with no club still remaining in its city that it started operations in. Mississippi defeated Portland in the Championship. The Fort Wayne Safari was announced as an expansion team for the 2002 season, which never occurred. Indoor Professional Football League The Indoor Professional Football League (IPFL) was the new incarnation of the Professional Indoor Football League (PIFL), which started in 1998. Two of its teams (the Madison Mad Dogs and the Green Bay Bombers) left the league and their owner, Kerry Ecklund, founded the Indoor Football League in 1999. The IPFL", "Professional Indoor Football League (1998) teams\", on all official publications. Professional Indoor Football League Commissioner Mike Storen stated, \"The Professional Indoor Football League is happy to acknowledge the uniqueness of the Arena Football League's patented net system and method of play on the basis that this settlement will allow the Professional Indoor Football League to expand in an orderly fashion.\" The PIFL proposed European Division was set to kick off in November 1998 with teams in England and Ireland. A six-team tournament was planned for August 22, 1998 in Manchester, England. Terry Smith was the PIFL European League Director and was the head coach of", "Champions Professional Indoor Football League Champions Professional Indoor Football League The Champions Professional Indoor Football League (CPIFL) was an indoor football league based along the Midwestern United States region. The league began play in February 2013. In August 2014, the CPIFL and Lone Star Football League (LSFL) completed a merger to form Champions Indoor Football (CIF) to begin play in 2015. During the off-season, teams held open tryouts for free-agent players to earn invites to pre-season camps. Free agent tryouts ranged from October to January depending on the individual team. Pre-season typically ran the duration of February and could involve exhibition games with teams inside", "Major Indoor Soccer League (1978–92) Wings joined the National Professional Soccer League; Dallas Sidekicks and San Diego Sockers helped found the Continental Indoor Soccer League. The concept was initially so popular that in 1981, it helped pave the way for the creation of another indoor sports league, the Arena Football League, and subsequently the entire sport of indoor \"gridiron\" football. During the MISL All-Star Game at Madison Square Garden, National Football League promotions director Jim Foster sketched a design of what a football field would look like on the back of a 9x12 manila envelope. That inspiration gave birth to the concept now known as", "Professional Indoor Football League (1998) the Great Britain Spartans. The Spartans were a very successful European minor American football club, trying to move up to the pro level. The Spartans played two exhibition games in the US on April 27, 1998, at the Madison Mad Dogs and on April 29, 1998, at the Green Bay Bombers. They lost both games, 12–29 to Madison and 34–55 to Green Bay. The proposed European Division never started play. Professional Indoor Football League (1998) The Professional Indoor Football League (PIFL) was the second league to successfully play indoor football as a paid pro-league sport, after the Arena Football League", "Champions Professional Indoor Football League brought together the top indoor football teams in the Midwest from existing leagues such as the Arena Football League, Indoor Football League, and the American Professional Football League to fill the new league. The CPIFL is bringing back rivalries from the past. Tulsa (Oklahoma Defenders) vs. Wichita (Wild), Lincoln (Haymakers) vs. Omaha (Beef), Lincoln vs. Sioux City (Bandits) and Omaha vs. Sioux City are a few examples. The league gained its first member on August 11, 2012, when the Bandits officially announced their intentions to join the CPIFL. Also on August 11, the league voted that James Bain would be", "British Indoor Rowing Championships The races are separated Men, Lightweight Men, Women, and Lightweight Women - with these further split into age categories. All competitors over 16 race 2,000 m (the Olympic rowing distance) with shorter time-based events for Juniors.There are also team races where teams of four race 3,000 m as a relay. In 2014, it was announced that the event had been taken over by British Rowing and would be rebranded as the British Rowing Indoor Championships. The first event under the new name was held on 8 February 2015 at the Lee Valley VeloPark. British Indoor Rowing Championships The British Indoor", "Atlanta Botanical Garden landscapes to display a variety of plants. Near the entrance are formal gardens, such as the Japanese garden and the rose garden. Two woodland areas, the Upper Woodland and the Storza Woods feature large trees and shade-loving flowers and undergrowth. The Children's Garden features whimsical sculptures, fountains, and interpretive exhibits on botany, ecology, and nutrition. The Dorothy Chapman Fuqua Conservatory contains indoor exhibits of plants from tropical rainforests and deserts. The rain forest room of the Fuqua Conservatory is also populated by tropical birds, turtles, and several exhibits of poison dart frogs, the last of which is a collaboration in", "The Four Horsemen (professional wrestling) The Four Horsemen (professional wrestling) The Four Horsemen was a professional wrestling stable in Jim Crockett Promotions (Mid Atlantic Championship Wrestling) and later World Championship Wrestling. The original group consisted of Ric Flair, Arn Anderson, Ole Anderson, and Tully Blanchard. Flair and Arn Anderson have been constant members in each incarnation of the group except once following Anderson's neck injury, when Curt Hennig was given his spot in the Horsemen. Ric Flair was originally brought in as a cousin of the Minnesota Wrecking Crew (Gene Anderson and Ole Anderson) in Mid-Atlantic Championship Wrestling in the 1970s. After leaving the Crew", "Professional Indoor Football League (1998) response, which included video tapes and other evidence refuting the Arena Football League's allegations. On July 22, 1998, the day after receiving the PIFL's legal papers, the Arena Football League withdrew its Motion for Preliminary Injunction in a lawsuit in Federal Court in Chicago. This ended the Arena Football League's efforts to challenge the practices of any competing professional \"indoor\" football league and clarified that its patent essentially applied to its end zone rebound nets, not any and all efforts to play American football indoors. On November 12, 1998, The Professional Indoor Football League (PIFL) and the Arena Football League", "Professional sports leagues in the United States with a previous XFL that played one season in 2001), are likewise in a similar level of uncertainty; the AAF so far has signed far fewer NFL players \"per capita\" than the UFL did, while the XFL has not signed any players yet. Indoor american football leagues outside the auspices of the Arena Football League have historically played at a level somewhere on the margins between minor-professional and semi-professional. As of summer 2017, four indoor leagues; the National Arena League, American Arena League, Indoor Football League and Champions Indoor Football; survive. Indoor leagues are notorious for their instability, with teams", "2014 Champions Professional Indoor Football League season The CPIFL merged with the Lone Star Football League over the offseason, to create Champions Indoor Football (CIF). 2014 Champions Professional Indoor Football League season The 2014 Champions Indoor Football season was the second and final season of the Champions Professional Indoor Football League (CPIFL). It was the result of the brainchild of Sioux City Bandits owner Bob Scott. The regular season began on Friday, February 28 when the Lincoln Haymakers lost to the Wichita Wild in Nebraska, 62–10. It finished on Saturday, June 7. The league champion was the Wichita Wild, who defeated the Sioux City Bandits by a", "Professional Indoor Football League (1998) Mad Dogs 41 at #1 Louisiana Bayou Beast 42 (at Pete Maravich Assembly Center) Following the championship game, the Professional Indoor Football League held an on-the-field awards ceremony. Those honored were as follows: The Professional Indoor Football League earlier announced its 1998 All-Star teams as chosen by the PIFL coaches. The Green Bay Bombers lead the list with five first team selections, including top vote getter quarterback Jay McDonagh. He was joined on the offensive first team by teammates Chris Perry and Heath Garland (both receivers), Louisiana's Michael Lewis (WR), Chris Cloud (center) and Matt Huerkamp (kicker), Colorado's Rob Satterly", "Utsav Rock Garden child signifies the famous quote - see no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil. The tree with sprinkling water, a place is given for birds shows the policy of live and let live. There is an indoor modern art museum in the garden with a wide variety of art made from pearls, painted on glass. Marriage Hall is one of the excellent places of the garden. Indoor marriage hall seems to be a real marriage ceremony going on and people are busy in giving pose to the camera. The clicking sound of camera will add to the feeling of", "Papua New Guinea Sculpture Garden were given considerable input into the project, thus intentionally dispersing ‘curatorial authority’ such that, in contrast to most museums, the ‘tribal’ artists are lent considerable ‘voice’ in the final display of their works, and in choose how and what works to display. Similarly, the Garden foregrounds the individuality of the artists – identifying them by name on each piece, which rarely, if ever, occurs in museum displays of ‘traditional’ tribal art. An essential part of the six-month process was a variety of collaborative programs: daily site tours, bamboo flute performances by the carvers, a public lecture series, Friday night barbeques,", "Stoic categories Stoic categories The term Stoic categories refers to Stoic ideas regarding categories of being: the most fundamental classes of being for all things. The Stoics believed there were four categories (substance, quality, disposition, relative disposition) which were the ultimate divisions. Since we do not now possess even a single complete work by Zeno of Citium, Cleanthes or Chrysippus what we do know must be pieced together from a number of sources: doxographies and the works of other philosophers who discuss the Stoics for their own purposes. The present information comes from Plotinus and Simplicius, with additional evidence from Plutarch of", "Stoic categories is. If on the contrary this \"configuration\" is really existent- something distinct from the underlie or Matter, something residing in Matter but itself immaterial as not constructed out of Matter, then it must be a Reason-Principle, incorporeal, a separate Nature. Stoic categories The term Stoic categories refers to Stoic ideas regarding categories of being: the most fundamental classes of being for all things. The Stoics believed there were four categories (substance, quality, disposition, relative disposition) which were the ultimate divisions. Since we do not now possess even a single complete work by Zeno of Citium, Cleanthes or Chrysippus what we", "Hugo Award for Best Professional Magazine science fiction or fantasy and which had published four or more issues with at least one issue appearing in the previous calendar year. Awards are also given out for non-professional magazines in the fanzine category, and for semi-professional magazines in the semiprozine category. The award was first presented in 1953, the first year any Hugo Award was given, and with the exception of 1954 was given annually through 1972 when it was retired in favor of the newly created professional editor category. For the 1957 awards, the category was split into American and British magazine categories, a distinction which was", "Shakespeare Garden (Evanston, Illinois) and Garrett–Evangelical Theological Seminary. The garden is wide by long and is divided into eight flower beds. The four outer beds are designed informally, while the four inner beds are knot gardens; the outer and inner beds are separated by boxwood plants. The borders of the garden are lined with hawthorn trees, many of which were imported from France when the garden was first planted. The more than fifty varieties of plants in the garden were either mentioned in Shakespeare's works, common in the Tudor period in England, or are cultivars of plants in the other two categories. The garden", "2014 Champions Professional Indoor Football League season 2014 Champions Professional Indoor Football League season The 2014 Champions Indoor Football season was the second and final season of the Champions Professional Indoor Football League (CPIFL). It was the result of the brainchild of Sioux City Bandits owner Bob Scott. The regular season began on Friday, February 28 when the Lincoln Haymakers lost to the Wichita Wild in Nebraska, 62–10. It finished on Saturday, June 7. The league champion was the Wichita Wild, who defeated the Sioux City Bandits by a score of 46–41 in the 2014 Champions Bowl. The season MVP was Rocky Hinds of the Wichita Wild.", "Electronic sports at the 2017 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games Electronic sports at the 2017 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games Electronic sports was contested at the 2017 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games as a demonstration sport. Medals won in this sport were not included in the official overall medal tally. Four video game categories were contested at the games, which include \"Hearthstone\", \"\", \"The King of Fighters XIV\", and \"Dota 2\". All 64 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) from Asia and Oceania were eligible to send players for the qualification phase for Electronic sports. A two month qualification process was conducted with players and teams securing qualification for the", "Canadian Major Indoor Soccer League serve a two- or four-minute penalty depending on the severity of the offense. A single game is composed of four 15-minute quarters. In the few instances where doubleheaders are scheduled, the games will then be shortened to two 20-minute halves. During exhibition matches if the teams are tied at the end of the regulation time, a penalty shootout will occur to determine the winner. Canadian Major Indoor Soccer League The Canadian Major Indoor Soccer League or CMISL is a professional indoor soccer league that began full league play in January 2008. The league's president is Felix Barraza. The indoor league's", "The Garden of Words display materials and film viewings for each of the works, a replica of the shoes designed by Takao was also on display. The Garden of Words The film focuses on Takao Akizuki, an aspiring 15-year-old shoemaker, and Yukari Yukino, a mysterious 27-year-old woman he keeps meeting at Shinjuku Gyoen National Garden on rainy mornings. While Takao is skipping his morning class to design shoes, Yukari is avoiding work due to personal problems in her professional life. Yukari tells Takao nothing about herself, including her name, while Takao opens up to her, sharing his passion for shoes by offering to make", "Garden Media Guild across the UK, Europe, Japan and the USA. The Guild has held its prestigious Awards Lunch since 1992. The annual ceremony (currently held at the Savoy Hotel, London) takes place every November. Awards are made for outstanding contributions in the following categories: Garden Media Guild The British Garden Media Guild, (formerly The Garden Writers' Guild), is a trade organisation for professional garden writers, journalists, photographers, broadcasters and members of allied trades. The Guild was established in 1991 to improve the quality of garden writing, photography and broadcasting by improving links between the gardening mass media and the horticultural industry and", "Display rules they receive a gift that they are not happy about or “masking” their negative emotions with a polite smile. As well, people learn to de-intensify emotions in situations such as suppressing the urge to laugh when somebody falls or neutralizing their emotions such as maintaining a serious poker face after being dealt a good hand. Display rules determine how we act and to what extent an emotion is expressed in any given situation. They are often used to protect one’s own feelings or those of another person. The understanding of display rules is a complex, multifaceted task. Display rules are", "Electronic sports at the 2017 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games final tournament by May 2017. The players registered through an online portal by Alisports, a subsidiary of Alibaba Group. 25 September 26 September 25 September 25 September 26 September 25–26 September Electronic sports at the 2017 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games Electronic sports was contested at the 2017 Asian Indoor and Martial Arts Games as a demonstration sport. Medals won in this sport were not included in the official overall medal tally. Four video game categories were contested at the games, which include \"Hearthstone\", \"\", \"The King of Fighters XIV\", and \"Dota 2\". All 64 National Olympic Committees (NOCs)", "Multiplexed display Multiplexed display Multiplexed displays are electronic display devices where the entire display is not driven at one time. Instead, sub-units of the display (typically, rows or columns for a dot matrix display or individual characters for a character oriented display, occasionally individual display elements) are multiplexed, that is, driven one at a time, but the electronics and the persistence of vision combine to make the viewer believe the entire display is continuously active. A multiplexed display has several advantages compared to a non-multiplexed display: Multiplexed displays can be divided into two broad categories: Most character-oriented displays (such as seven-segment displays,", "We Are the Night (film) the film only touches upon what they have been through and feel, but regardless I highly recommend this.\" Crave Online's reviewer wrote that \"The vampires on display here are tragic creatures, certainly, but also fun-loving homicidal maniacs. The movie has action, gore and genuine drama to spare. It’s the best vampire movie since Let The Right One In, and if given the choice to watch either film over and over again I’d pick We Are The Night every time, because it’s fun as hell.\" He went on to give the film the score 8.5/10. Hoollywood News gave the film four", "Flower garden separately or as part of gardens having some other primary function. In the West, the idea of gardens dedicated to flowers did not become common until the 19th century, though in fact many modern gardens are indeed flower gardens. Flower gardens are, indeed, a key factor in modern landscape design and even architecture, especially for large businesses, some of which pay to have large flower gardens torn out and replaced entirely each season, in order to keep the color patterns consistent. A functional garden used to grow flowers for indoor use rather than outdoor display is known as a cutting", "Software categories payment. Freeware never has an associated fee. Things like minor program updates and small games are commonly distributed as freeware. Though freeware is cost free, it is copyrighted, so other people can't market the software as their own. This classification has seven major elements. They are: platform and management, education and reference, home and entertainment, content and communication, operations and professional, product manufacturing and service delivery, and line of business. Software categories Software categories are groups of software. They allow software to be understood in terms of those categories instead of the particularities of each package. Different classification schemes consider", "Canada national indoor lacrosse team Canada national indoor lacrosse team The Canada national indoor lacrosse team represents Canada in international tournaments of indoor lacrosse. It is the best national box lacrosse team in the world, having won all four World Indoor Lacrosse Championships, starting with the 2003 ILF World Indoor Lacrosse Championship held in Canada. Team Canada has never lost a game in the tournament. Their biggest rivals are the Iroquois Nationals, who have finished in second place in all four tournaments. Team Canada consists of primarily of professional players from the National Lacrosse League. Many players also play Major Series Lacrosse or in the", "Professional Indoor Football League (1998) players, including some of the best players, quitting. In 1999, the PIFL essentially \"split\" into two leagues. Keary Ecklund, owner of the Green Bay Bombers and Madison Mad Dogs, took his two teams and form the Indoor Football League. On January 4, 1999, the remaining teams of the PIFL renamed the league to the Indoor Professional Football League. August 7, 1998 — # 3 Green Bay Bombers 19 at # 2 Madison Mad Dogs 46 August 9, 1998 — # 4 Colorado Wildcats* 51 at # 1 Louisiana Bayou Beast 67 (at Riverside Centroplex) August 15, 1998 — #2 Madison", "UEFA stadium categories UEFA stadium categories UEFA stadium categories are categories for football stadiums laid out in the UEFA Stadium Infrastructure Regulations. Using these regulations, stadiums are rated as category one, two, three, or four (renamed from elite) in ascending ranking order. These categories replaced the previous method of ranking stadiums on one to five star scale in 2006. A stadium must be category four to host games in the playoffs of the qualifying stage for the UEFA Champions League or any game in the main competition. Category four is also required to host any game in the main competition of the UEFA", "Prisoner security categories in the United Kingdom one of four types of establishment depending on their needs, age and the nature of the offence they have been accused or convicted of: Since 2002, in Scotland, prisoners have been assigned to one of three categories: Prisoners (adult and young, male and female) are classified in a similar way to the English/Welsh system: Prisoner security categories in the United Kingdom Prisoner security categories in the United Kingdom are one of four classifications assigned to every adult prisoner for the purposes of assigning them to a prison. The categories are based upon the severity of the crime and the risk", "Cibodas Botanical Garden botanic garden. Only 114 of the plant species present in the garden are native to West Java. Its herbarium contains approximately 4,852 preserved specimens of plants. The collections are divided into outdoor and indoor sections. The indoor section houses plants within glasshouses, including cacti and orchids. The outdoor section is divided into a sakura garden, algae garden, rhododendron garden, fern garden, and medicine garden. In April 2014, the botanic garden opened a new section, the House of Nepenthes (\"\"), containing 55 species and 47 hybrid species of nepenthes. The Cibodas bryophyte park, or \"Taman Lumut Cibodas\", is part of the", "University of Oxford Botanic Garden as possible to reduce the possibility of it becoming extinct. The South West corner of the Botanic Garden is home to a modern medicinal plant collection. Here you will find 8 beds, each growing plants with a connection to medicine used to treat a particular type of disease or illness. There are beds for The plants growing in these beds contain many different natural products and fall into at least one of the following three categories: One bed in the northwest corner of the garden contains a display of bearded irises each May. Examples include \"Iris\" 'Eileen' and \"Iris\" 'Golden", "Indoor bioaerosol have been revealed to have bioaerosol sources related to their particular environmental characteristics. According to previous studies, major indoor environmental factors influencing bioaerosol concentration include relative humidity, characteristics of air ventilation systems, seasonal variation, temperature, and chemical composition of the air. Other factors, such as the type of home, building material, geographical factors, do not seem to have significant impacts on respirable fungi and bacteria (important constituents of bioaerosols). Relative humidity is one of the most widely studied influencing factors for indoor bioaerosols. Concentrations of two categories of bioaerosols, endotoxin and airborne fungi, are both positively related to indoor relative", "Indoor games and sports Indoor games and sports Indoor games and sports are a variety of structured forms of play or competitive physical activity, typically carried out either in the home or in specially constructed indoor facilities. Most card games are played with a pack of 52 playing cards, which are divided equally into four suits: spades, clubs, hearts and diamonds. Each suit has the numbers 2 to 10 followed by the picture cards – Joker, Queen and King – and the ace with a single pip. In some games the ace is treated as a 1, in others as better than a king.", "Are Years What? (for Marianne Moore) mind. It is a gift to the city and all who visit.\" \"Are Years What?\" is considered by some to be di Suvero's \"breakthrough work.\" Are Years What? (for Marianne Moore) Are Years What? (for Marianne Moore) is a sculpture by American artist Mark di Suvero. It is in the collection of the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, in Washington, D.C., United States. The sculpture is named after poet Marianne Moore's \"What Are Years\". From May 22, 2013 through May 26, 2014, the sculpture resided temporarily in San Francisco, as part of the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art's Mark", "Madison Square Garden Madison Square Garden Madison Square Garden, colloquially known as The Garden or in initials as MSG, is a multi-purpose indoor arena in the New York City borough of Manhattan. Located in Midtown Manhattan between 7th and 8th Avenues from 31st to 33rd Streets, it is situated atop Pennsylvania Station. It is the fourth venue to bear the name \"Madison Square Garden\"; the first two (1879 and 1890) were located on Madison Square, on East 26th Street and Madison Avenue, with the third Madison Square Garden (1925) further uptown at Eighth Avenue and 50th Street. The Garden is used for professional", "Canadian Major Indoor Soccer League Canadian Major Indoor Soccer League The Canadian Major Indoor Soccer League or CMISL is a professional indoor soccer league that began full league play in January 2008. The league's president is Felix Barraza. The indoor league's model is planned to be used to establish a professional soccer league outdoors in Canada as well. As the league has become affiliated with the Professional Arena Soccer League in the United States, the Edmonton Drillers and Saskatoon Accelerators played four soccer games and the Calgary United FC played eight games against the PASL teams in 2009. Edmonton and Saskatoon played two home games", "Toronto Indoor the first singles event by beating Anders Järryd, with Peter Fleming and Järryd taking the doubles title. Joakim Nyström took both titles the following year with victory against Milan Šrejber in the singles and partnering Wojciech Fibak to the doubles title. After the four-year break, Ivan Lendl took the final singles title, while Patrick Galbraith and David Macpherson won the doubles. Toronto Indoor The Toronto Indoor (also known as \"Toronto Molson Light Challenge\" from 1981-1985, \"Corel North American Indoor\" in 1986 and \"Skydome World Tennis\" in 1990) was a professional men's tennis tournament played on indoor carpet courts, held at", "Champions Indoor Football Champions Indoor Football Champions Indoor Football (CIF) is a professional indoor American football league created in 2014 out of the merger between the Champions Professional Indoor Football League (CPIFL) and Lone Star Football League (LSFL), plus one team from the Indoor Football League and two expansion teams. Players are paid $75 – $125 per game before taxes. No other benefits are provided. The merger which formed the CIF was announced on August 22, 2014, after it had been rumored that the CPIFL and LSFL had been in discussions of a possible merger since July 31, 2014. The Gary Dawgs, originally", "Champions Indoor Football the championship game was known as the \"Champions Bowl\", so the CIF used the same name for their title game. Champions Indoor Football Champions Indoor Football (CIF) is a professional indoor American football league created in 2014 out of the merger between the Champions Professional Indoor Football League (CPIFL) and Lone Star Football League (LSFL), plus one team from the Indoor Football League and two expansion teams. Players are paid $75 – $125 per game before taxes. No other benefits are provided. The merger which formed the CIF was announced on August 22, 2014, after it had been rumored that", "Geilston Garden dominate the display. The garden is open from March to October annually. The adjacent Geilston House is not open to the public. Geilston Garden Geilston Garden is a property of the National Trust for Scotland, north-west of Cardross, Argyll and Bute. Geilston Garden was developed more than two hundred years ago with a date given for its development being 1797, combining several features (traditional walled garden, kitchen garden, wooded area). The walled garden has a dominating 100-foot Wellingtonia (\"Sequoiadendron giganteum\") in the centre of the lawn. The Geilston burn wends its way through the north of the estate towards the", "Garden Garden A garden is a planned space, usually outdoors, set aside for the display, cultivation, or enjoyment of plants and other forms of nature. The garden can incorporate both natural and man-made materials. The most common form today is known as a residential garden, but the term \"garden\" has traditionally been a more general one. Zoos, which display wild animals in simulated natural habitats, were formerly called \"zoological gardens\". Western gardens are almost universally based on plants, with garden often signifying a shortened form of \"botanical garden\". Some traditional types of eastern gardens, such as Zen gardens, use plants sparsely", "Categories of rallies Categories of rallies Rallying makes up the majority of the \"grassroots\" of amateur motorsport, especially in the United Kingdom. Motor Clubs will usually run one or more rallies each year. Rallies fall into many categories each with different rules and aimed at different skill levels. The two basic categories are special stage rallies and road rallies. In a stage rally, competitive driving takes place on closed roads or off the public highway. Stage rallies are the basis for WRC and professional rallying. The emphasis of stage rallies is on speed and driving ability. Navigation of such events is based heavily", "Indoor bioaerosol human health effects and the indoor environment provides a unique exposure situation, concerns about indoor bioaerosols have increased over the last decade. Indoor bioaerosols may originate from outdoor air and indoor reservoirs. Although outdoor bioaerosols cannot easily migrate into large buildings with complex ventilation systems, certain categories of outdoor bioaerosols (i.e., fungal spores) do serve as major sources for indoor bioaerosols in naturally ventilated buildings at specific periods of time (i.e., growing seasons for fungi). Major indoor sources for bioaerosols at residential homes include human occupants, pets, house dust, organic waste, as well as the heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC)", "The Four Horsemen (professional wrestling) and Banks, each with four fingers held up. Both Four Horsewomen groups were at the Mae Young Classic tapings on July 14, 2017, where Baszler defeated Zeda, Mia Yim, Candice LeRae and Mercedes Martinez to advance into the finals, losing to Kairi Sane. Three of the Four Horsewomen of UFC would reappear on WWE Evolution where Duke and Shafir interfered on Baszler's behalf to win the NXT Women's Championship from Kairi Sane. The Four Horsemen (professional wrestling) The Four Horsemen was a professional wrestling stable in Jim Crockett Promotions (Mid Atlantic Championship Wrestling) and later World Championship Wrestling. The original", "Trial garden Trial garden A garden grown specifically for the purpose of testing and evaluating plants is called a trial garden. Universities, plant breeders, and garden-industry companies frequently have trial gardens, as do many private and public botanical gardens and professional garden journalists. In the classic trials model, newly developed varieties of plants are compared with the closest similar industry standard plant throughout their life cycle—from germination/propagation through maturity, from seed to harvest. By growing new varieties side-by-side with existing ones, researchers can determine whether these new varieties are indeed better, and, if so, in what respects. The Muck Crops Research Station,", "Are Years What? (for Marianne Moore) Are Years What? (for Marianne Moore) Are Years What? (for Marianne Moore) is a sculpture by American artist Mark di Suvero. It is in the collection of the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, in Washington, D.C., United States. The sculpture is named after poet Marianne Moore's \"What Are Years\". From May 22, 2013 through May 26, 2014, the sculpture resided temporarily in San Francisco, as part of the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art's Mark di Suvero exhibition at Crissy Field. This 10-ton sculpture is made of nine red-orange steel I-beams, welded together, with one section suspended as a giant", "You Are What You Eat the American Association of Nutritional Consultants, a controversial organisation which seeks to enhance the reputation of Nutritional and Dietary Consultants by consolidating them into a professional organisation. It offers examination and certification, or association membership which does not require an examination but requires the payment of the $60 membership fee. \"You Are What You Eat\" was also the title of an American film from 1968. The phrase \"You are what you eat\" was first expressed by Ludwig Feuerbach in 1863 (German: \"Der Mensch ist, was er iszt.\"). You Are What You Eat You Are What You Eat is a dieting", "Categories for the Working Mathematician Categories for the Working Mathematician Categories for the Working Mathematician (CWM) is a textbook in category theory written by American mathematician Saunders Mac Lane, who cofounded the subject together with Samuel Eilenberg. It was first published in 1971, and is based on his lectures on the subject given at the University of Chicago, the Australian National University, Bowdoin College, and Tulane University. It is widely regarded as the premier introduction to the subject. The book has twelve chapters, which are: Chapters XI and XII were added in the 1998 second edition, the first in view of its importance in string", "Indoor Professional Football League which was easier to see in the artificial lighting conditions. The league's slogan was \"Great Football, No Gimmicks\". In 1999, IPFL was headed by a new commissioner, Mike Storen, and the league offices were moved to Atlanta. Before the Pro Indoor Football League folded, the league was looking into replacing the two folded franchises of Minnesota and Texas and expanding the league back to 8 teams or even beyond to 10 or 12 teams for what was supposed to be its second season. However, the league took a major hit when Madison and Green Bay left the league to form", "Categories (Aristotle) answering the question \"what is it?\" What is said to be \"in\" a subject is a predicate that does not describe it as a whole but cannot exist without the subject, such as the shape of something. The latter has come to be known as inherence. Of all the things that exist, Then we come to the categories themselves, whose definitions depend upon these four forms of predication. Aristotle's own text in Ackrill's standard English version is: Of things said without any combination, each signifies either substance or quantity or qualification or a relative or where or when or being-in-a-position", "American Professional Football League record. After the 2012 season, several teams left to start the Champions Professional Indoor Football League, including the Kansas Koyotes, which was sold off. An attempt was made at a 2013 season, but only one team, North Texas Crunch, played any kind of schedule. In 2015, the Crunch became one of four teams to join the North American Indoor Football League for its inaugural season. American Professional Football League The American Professional Football League (APFL) was an indoor football league that was founded in 2003. After the 2012 season, most of the teams left to start the Champions Professional Indoor", "Northwest Flower and Garden Show Northwest Flower and Garden Show The Northwest Flower & Garden Show (also known as the Northwest Flower & Garden Festival) is an annual exhibition of horticulture and gardening held in Seattle, Washington, for five days each February. It is the largest garden show west of Philadelphia and is regarded as the second largest garden show in the country. It is held at the Washington State Convention Center, and has been since the first year. The show has lush, fully built display gardens (which are judged for awards), over 100 educational and entertaining seminars, and a garden marketplace exclusively for plants,", "Indoor kite come in all varieties. There are two-line and four-line indoor kites that are capable of performing most of the same tricks and maneuvers as an outdoor kites. Indoor kites are often flown in time to music and indoor kite festivals occur regularly, complete with the demonstrations and competitions that take place at ordinary kiting events. Indoor kite Indoor kites are kites designed to fly in a windless environment. While principally designed for indoor use, they can also be flown outdoors when insufficient wind would render conventional kite-flying impossible. They are flown by using the relative wind provided by the motion", "Ewing and Muriel Kauffman Memorial Garden the green garden and offers a sheltered gathering place for visitors and a site for fragrant seasonal plants, and in winter, the garden's citrus, camellia and gardenia collections. The garden's orchid collection can also be found in the \"boots\" of the orangery's four large pindo palm trees. The Orangery's annual winter holiday display is a seasonal highlight, and a must-see during a Plaza area visit. Parterre Garden: The Parterre “Canal” Garden is home to a majestic long pool, where bronze figures Jazz I and Jazz II, by local artist Tom Corbin dance in the water. The long canal pool is", "Oaklawn Garden was started around 1975 with items donated by the City of Germantown, railroad companies as well as local schools, businesses and individuals. The indoor segment of the museum is situated in a separate building which was erected in 1957 as a florist shop to sell flowers grown at Oaklawn Garden. The building served its original purpose until circa 1987. Since then, the building was used to house the indoor part of the collection of historical items. The botanical garden and park at Oaklawn Garden are home to a variety of flora and smaller wildlife in a park-like setting. Prominent in", "Garden knowledge and experience of using plants. Some professional garden designers are also landscape architects, a more formal level of training that usually requires an advanced degree and often a state license. Elements of garden design include the layout of hard landscape, such as paths, rockeries, walls, water features, sitting areas and decking, as well as the plants themselves, with consideration for their horticultural requirements, their season-to-season appearance, lifespan, growth habit, size, speed of growth, and combinations with other plants and landscape features. Consideration is also given to the maintenance needs of the garden, including the time or funds available for", "Prisoner security categories in the United Kingdom Prisoner security categories in the United Kingdom Prisoner security categories in the United Kingdom are one of four classifications assigned to every adult prisoner for the purposes of assigning them to a prison. The categories are based upon the severity of the crime and the risk posed should the person escape. There are three different prison services in the United Kingdom, and separate services for the three Crown Dependencies. Her Majesty's Prison Service manages prisons in England and Wales, and also serves as the National Offender Management Service for England and Wales. Prisons in Scotland are managed by the Scottish", "2013 World Indoor Bowls Championship seconds to play their shot, and if they run out of time, the hooter will sound and their bowl is removed. However, players can use up to four time-outs in a match - which resets the clock to 60 seconds - and are given an extra time-out if the match goes to a tie-break set. 2013 World Indoor Bowls Championship The 2013 World Indoor Bowls Championship was held at Potters Leisure Resort, Hopton-on-Sea, Great Yarmouth, England, in January 2013. The event was sponsored by Fred. Olsen Cruise Lines and was the 35th annual World Indoor Bowls Championships. The men's singles", "Prisoner security categories in the United Kingdom Prison Service and prisons in Northern Ireland are managed by the Northern Ireland Prison Service. The Isle of Man and the Channel Islands also have their own prison administrations. Prisons in England and Wales are divided into several categories relating to the age, gender and security classification of the prisoners it holds. Male adult prisoners (those aged 18 or over) are given a security categorisation soon after they enter prison. These categories are based on a combination of the type of crime committed, the length of sentence, the likelihood of escape, and the danger to the public if they were", "Display board Generally placed on a table, they are more stable and able to stand while still giving a theater-like view. Header boards can be added to the top display board and an easel stand can be attached to the back. In North America, display boards are often used by students in the public school system for science, social studies, and English projects. Outside the classroom, students use display boards to promote clubs, recognize athletics and display art projects. The purpose of the display board in that context is to catch the viewer's attention and explain what was performed and what was", "Given to the Wild Given to the Wild Given to the Wild is the third studio album by English indie rock band The Maccabees. The album was first released in the United Kingdom on 9 January 2012, where it debuted at number four on the UK Albums Chart and number thirty-one on the Irish Albums Chart. The album has seen four single releases: \"Pelican\" (released on 30 December 2011), \"Feel to Follow\" (4 March 2012), \"Went Away\" (28 May 2012), and \"Ayla\" (10 September 2012). Metacritic has calculated a Metascore of 69 out of 100 for the album, based on 20 reviews, giving the", "Are Years What? (for Marianne Moore) mobile with wire, shaped like a \"V\". \"Are Years What? (for Marianne Moore)\" is signature of di Suvero's monumental early 1960s \"open-work constructions.\" These works utilize cast-off construction materials like chains, metal bars, and ladders. This sculpture is the first that di Suvero built, from beginning to end, with I-beams and using a crane, solely by himself. \"Are Years What?\" was originally in the collection of the artist, then the collection of Enrico Martignoni of Winnemucca, Nevada. Hirshhorn director James Demetrion first saw the sculpture when it was on display in Brooklyn's Prospect Park. The sculpture was acquired by the", "Society of the Four Arts Garden Club, in partnership with property owners, The Society of the Four Arts. Seven society ladies and one gentleman planned the original gardens in the 1930s, to incorporate a series of garden rooms with different themes. Its original purpose was to display the diversity of tropical plants suitable for landscaping in the South Florida climate. Seven demonstration gardens illustrate different styles of landscaping and information on drought and heat tolerant plants. Founder Mrs. J.S. Phipps built a Spanish façade to demonstrate plantings suitable for a Spanish-style house. Mrs. Joseph F. Gunster created a moonlight garden of white-blooming vines and shrubs.", "Madison Square Garden Company Square Garden Corporation became a charter member of the National Basketball Association with the New York Knicks. On August 17, 2016, MSG acquired a 12% stake in digital media, broadcasting, and events company Townsquare Media from GE Capital. On July 31, 2017, MSG acquired a controlling stake in professional video gaming team Counter Logic Gaming. In addition to owning the Madison Square Garden arena in Manhattan, New York City, The Madison Square Garden Company is divided into two entities. Madison Square Garden, L.P. used to operate the Hartford Civic Center (now the XL Center), an indoor arena in Hartford, Connecticut,", "Indoor American football in 2012. Dozens of former and current professional outdoor football players also have invested money into indoor football franchises. The following is a list of arena and indoor football leagues: Indoor American football In the United States, indoor football is football played at ice hockey-sized indoor arenas (as opposed to certain NFL teams which have large indoor stadiums, such as the New Orleans Saints who play in the Mercedes-Benz Superdome). While varied, the rules of indoor football are designed to allow for play in a smaller arena. The indoor football season typically begins in mid- to late-winter and ends by", "Pay and display coupon is displayed on the dashboard or hung from the top of a door window facing the roadside. Multiple coupons are used if the parking time exceeds the allowance given for a single coupon, though this is not always permitted. The system is widely used in Singapore and Brazil, and in parts of some countries such as New Zealand, Malaysia, Austria, Ireland and Israel. Pay and display A pay and display machine is a type of ticket machine used for regulating parking in urban areas or in car parks. It relies on a customer purchasing a ticket from a machine", "Northwest Flower and Garden Show gardening supplies, botanical art, vintage garden art and locally sourced artisan gourmet foods - the largest Marketplace of any garden show in the U.S. The Northwest Flower & Garden Show serves the west coast of North America from Alaska and Vancouver, BC to San Francisco, California, as well as the western US. Attendance has ranged from 60,000–65,000. The show runs from Wednesday through Sunday, and is typically held in February. There are three main components: approximately 22 display gardens built in three days and ranging from in area, over 350 exhibitors selling garden-related products, and over 100 free seminars on", "Camden Children's Garden Camden Children's Garden The Camden Children’s Garden is operated by the Camden City Garden Club, Inc and is located on the Camden Waterfront, across from downtown Philadelphia. This venue was created in 1999 and is designed for children and families. This garden features a variety of themed educational exhibits for children for creative and imaginative play, such as the Dinosaur Garden, a Giant Picnic Garden, Storybook Gardens, Red Oak Run and Tree House, Cityscapes Garden and more! The facility includes indoor attractions such as the Philadelphia Eagles Four Seasons Butterfly House, Plaza de Aibonito, a Puerto Rican tropical greenhouse exhibit,", "Tulsa Botanic Garden an indoor structure of the same size. Staff offices, which have been in the Harwelden mansion, will move to the center in the fall of 2014. The Garden announced progress on their first capital campaign, titled \"\"Reaching for Generations,” on October 2, 2014. The campaign, whose goal is to raise $17 million, will fund the construction of four gardens: The A.R. and Marylouise Tandy Floral Terraces will be a formal garden, set on four acres, that will showcase colors and textures throughout the season, using ornamental plants including perennials, shrubs and bulbs. The Children’s Discovery Garden is designed as a", "What Are You Going to Do to Help the Boys? song was written for both piano and voice. The song is a call to action. It encourages listeners to buy liberty bonds, especially if they are staying home while soldiers fight overseas. The voice states that it doesn't matter one's age, where he is from, or who he is. Uncle Sam expects everyone to help in the war effort. The chorus is as follows: The sheet music can be found at Pritzker Military Museum & Library. What Are You Going to Do to Help the Boys? \"What Are You Going to Do to Help the Boys?\" is a World War", "Categories (Peirce) can be unified in just three steps. The following passage is critical to the understanding of Peirce's Categories: I will now say a few words about what you have called Categories, but for which I prefer the designation Predicaments, and which you have explained as predicates of predicates. That wonderful operation of hypostatic abstraction by which we seem to create \"entia rationis\" that are, nevertheless, sometimes real, furnishes us the means of turning predicates from being signs that we think or think \"through\", into being subjects thought of. We thus think of the thought-sign itself, making it the object of", "Indoor soccer professional association football players from Liga MX. Indoor soccer is known in Brazil as \"showbol\", with several current regional leagues. Formal national leagues have also formed in Bolivia, Colombia, Uruguay, Ecuador and Peru. However, the most common variation of indoor soccer played in Brazil is Futsal. Indoor soccer is also played in several European countries. In the United Kingdom, Masters Football is the most well-known competition. Tournaments among Masters teams (consisting of veteran former players from professional 11-a-side teams from each country) are regularly played. In Spain, some over-30 ex-professionals represent their clubs in the Liga Fertiberia which plays a", "Madison Square Garden home of the Ringling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey Circus and Disney on Ice; all four events are now held at the Barclays Center in Brooklyn. It served the New York Cosmos for half of their home games during the 1983–84 NASL Indoor season. Many of boxing's biggest fights were held at Madison Square Garden, including the Roberto Durán–Ken Buchanan affair, and the first Muhammad Ali – Joe Frazier bout. Before promoters such as Don King and Bob Arum moved boxing to Las Vegas, Nevada Madison Square Garden was considered the mecca of boxing. The original ring, which was brought", "Indoor American football Indoor Football (CIF), along with the American Arena League (AAL) and National Arena League (NAL), are slated to play. Both CIF and the AAL are mergers of existing leagues. The CIF was formed from a merger of the Champions Professional Indoor Football League and the Lone Star Football League in 2015. The AAL was formed in late 2017 as the combination of three leagues that each played one season: the Can-Am Indoor Football League, Arena Pro Football, and Supreme Indoor Football. Many leagues have also been plagued with internal dissension. For example, the National Indoor Football League (NIFL) was characterized", "Champions Professional Indoor Football League not have a divisional split. The second round of the playoffs was considered the CPIFL Championship game to crown the league champion each year. In August 2012, Sioux City Bandits' managing partner, Bob Scott, generated the idea of a league that would be run by team owners, and not by a president. The idea came after the Bandits had spent two years in the American Professional Football League. The focus was to build the highest level of indoor football in the Midwest by adding teams to the league, linking \"well-established teams currently coming from Iowa, Missouri and Kansas.\" The CPIFL", "Hiroshima Botanical Garden 18.3 hectares and keep about 234,000 plants for 11,400 taxa. The Garden undertakes a variety of activities, including research, to create awareness in people about the plant life and is divided into several segments, including research laboratory, conservatory, begonia display house, fuchsia display house, phylogenic garden, rock garden, Japanese garden, and camellia garden. There are 6 greenhouses for tropical plants, subtropical plants, water lilies, fuchsia, orchidaceae, cactus and begonias. They offered the nature experience programs to students. In the garden more than 50 kinds of birds can be seen. Hiroshima Botanical Garden The is located in Saeki-ku, Hiroshima in western", "Chicago Blitz (indoor football) Chicago Blitz (indoor football) The Chicago Blitz are a professional indoor football team based in Villa Park, Illinois. The Blitz were members of American Indoor Football (AIF) in 2015 and 2016 and the Continental Indoor Football League (CIFL) in 2014. They played their home games at the Odeum Expo Center. The Blitz briefly joined the regional Midwest Professional Indoor Football (MPIF) for the 2018 season, but ceased operations once again after three games. The Blitz came into existence in January 2014, after the Chicago Slaughter announced that they would be sitting out the 2014 season just one month before the", "Machiavelli and the Four Seasons Niccolò Machiavelli. The unusual title stems from a conceit found throughout the cover, although not in the tracks themselves, that this is actually an album by a group called \"Machiavelli and the Four Seasons\". The liner notes include an essay on the band's music, written with gushing praise. Track titles are also given, entirely revolving around the words \"I\", \"Love\", \"You\" and \"Baby\". A hidden track at the end of the actual album, entitled \"Phillip Glass's Arse\", is a melodic, a cappella harmonised song that gives a representation of what Machiavelli and the Four Seasons might actually sound like. TISM", "Bellevue Botanical Garden the holiday light festival Garden d'Lights where numerous three-dimensional plant and animal sculptures made from bundled Christmas lights are on display in numerous nature-themed scenes through the garden. Hundreds of volunteers work to help make the show happen each year. The event runs for 36 days beginning the first Saturday after Thanksgiving. Bellevue Botanical Garden Bellevue Botanical Garden (21.4 ha / 53 acres) is a botanical garden located at 12001 Main Street, Bellevue, Washington. It is open daily; admission is free. The garden area includes display gardens, woodlands, meadows and wetlands. Its specific collections include: an alpine rock garden, dahlia", "Professional football (gridiron) football leagues to form. Only one significant aspect of the patent, the large rebound nets the AFL has used since its debut to keep balls in play, was fully protected; the patent expired in 2007, although no other professional indoor league has adopted rebound nets since. As of 2011, two national leagues (the AFL and the Indoor Football League), along with several regional professional and semi-pro leagues, are in operation. As of 2011, no professional indoor football league has had any significant presence in Canada (despite an abundance of hockey arenas that are ideal for the game); only one indoor", "Society for Information Display to the three winners after Display Week. Best Prototype Award are given to the best/most disruptive prototype in the peer-reviewed I-Zone at Display Week. Display Industry Awards are given to the best new display component, display application, and display of the year, industry-wide ICDM is the International Committee for Display Metrology, part of SID’s Definitions and Standards Committee charged with setting standards for display metrology. ICDM is largely focused on the production of the Information Display Measurements Standard, which has about 140 display measurements covering every area of displays. The standard includes nearly every display technology for multiple user types,", "What Are You Going to Do to Help the Boys? What Are You Going to Do to Help the Boys? \"What Are You Going to Do to Help the Boys?\" is a World War I era song released in 1918. Gus Kahn wrote the lyrics. Egbert Van Alstyne composed the music. It was published by Jerome H. Remick & Co. of Detroit, Michigan. Artist E.E. Walton designed the sheet music cover. It features Uncle Sam inside a red, white, and blue question mark. He is holding his beard and looking down at liberty bonds. To the left of this image it reads, \"Buy a Liberty Bond!\" on some editions. The", "What Are They Doing in Heaven? What Are They Doing in Heaven? \"What Are They Doing in Heaven?\" is a Christian hymn written in 1901 by American Methodist minister Charles Albert Tindley. , it has become popular enough to have been included in 16 hymnals. The song has sometimes been recorded under the titles \"What Are They Doing?\" and \"What Are They Doing in Heaven Today?\". The question mark is often omitted. The song may also be known by its first line, \"I am thinking of friends whom I used to know\". The song consists of four verses and a refrain, each four lines long. In", "What Are The Theosophists? What Are The Theosophists? \"What Are The Theosophists?\" is an editorial published in October 1879 in the theosophical magazine \"The Theosophist.\" It was compiled by Helena Blavatsky and it was included the 2nd volume of the \"Blavatsky Collected Writings.\" Arnold Kalnitsky wrote in his thesis that in this article \"we find a rather expansive statement of... [Blavatsky's] thoughts at that moment about the status of the movement, the Theosophical Society, its objectives, and the issues it was confronting.\" He wrote that the article begins with a question whether the Theosophists \"are they what they claim to be\": researchers of the", "Rajouri Garden Rajouri Garden Rajouri Garden is a market and residential neighbourhood in West Delhi, India. The Main Market and Nehru Market are the key markets of the area. The population is largely Punjabi people who migrated to Delhi following the Partition of India from Pakistan in 1947. The postal code of Rajouri Garden is 110027. It is the headquarters of the West Delhi district of Delhi. Rajouri Garden is also home to many western style indoor shopping malls. These malls are located next to the Rajouri Garden Delhi metro stops. The malls include, TDI Mall, TDI Paragon Mall, Shoppers Stop, City" ]

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[ "Mark Twain provided humorously telling evidence for the frequent unreliability of back-translation when he issued his own back-translation of a French translation of his short story, \"The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County\". He published his back-translation in a 1903 volume together with his English-language original, the French translation, and a \"Private History of the 'Jumping Frog' Story\". The latter included a synopsized adaptation of his story that Twain stated had appeared, unattributed to Twain, in a Professor Sidgwick’s Greek Prose Composition (p. 116) under the title, \"The Athenian and the Frog\"; the adaptation had for a time been taken for an independent ancient Greek precursor to Twain's \"Jumping Frog\" story." ]

[ "Numerous men from Detroit volunteered to fight for the Union during the American Civil War, including the 24th Michigan Infantry Regiment (part of the legendary Iron Brigade), which fought with distinction and suffered 82% casualties at the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863. When the First Volunteer Infantry Regiment arrived to fortify Washington, DC, President Abraham Lincoln is quoted as saying \"Thank God for Michigan!\" George Armstrong Custer led the Michigan Brigade during the Civil War and called them the \"Wolverines\".", "The relative pitches of individual notes in a scale may be determined by one of a number of tuning systems. In the west, the twelve-note chromatic scale is the most common method of organization, with equal temperament now the most widely used method of tuning that scale. In it, the pitch ratio between any two successive notes of the scale is exactly the twelfth root of two (or about 1.05946). In well-tempered systems (as used in the time of Johann Sebastian Bach, for example), different methods of musical tuning were used. Almost all of these systems have one interval in common, the octave, where the pitch of one note is double the frequency of another. For example, if the A above middle C is 440 Hz, the A an octave above that is 880 Hz (info).", "Any individual made a member of the Order for gallantry could wear an emblem of two crossed silver oak leaves on the same riband, ribbon or bow as the badge. It could not be awarded posthumously and was effectively replaced in 1974 with the Queen's Gallantry Medal. If recipients of the Order of the British Empire for Gallantry received promotion within the Order, whether for gallantry or otherwise, they continued to wear also the insignia of the lower grade with the oak leaves. However, they only used the post-nominal letters of the higher grade.", "The ancient trade route between India and Tibet that passed through Kathmandu enabled a fusion of artistic and architectural traditions from other cultures to be amalgamated with local art and architecture. The monuments of Kathmandu City have been influenced over the centuries by Hindu and Buddhist religious practices. The architectural treasure of the Kathmandu valley has been categorized under the well-known seven groups of heritage monuments and buildings. In 2006 UNESCO declared these seven groups of monuments as a World Heritage Site (WHS). The seven monuments zones cover an area of 188.95 hectares (466.9 acres), with the buffer zone extending to 239.34 hectares (591.4 acres). The Seven Monument Zones (Mzs) inscribed originally in 1979 and with a minor modification in 2006 are Durbar squares of Hanuman Dhoka, Patan and Bhaktapur, Hindu temples of Pashupatinath and Changunarayan, the Buddhist stupas of Swayambhu and Boudhanath.", "The role and functions of the CIA are roughly equivalent to those of the United Kingdom's Secret Intelligence Service (the SIS or MI6), the Australian Secret Intelligence Service (ASIS), the Egyptian General Intelligence Service, the Russian Foreign Intelligence Service (Sluzhba Vneshney Razvedki) (SVR), the Indian Research and Analysis Wing (RAW), the Pakistani Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), the French foreign intelligence service Direction Générale de la Sécurité Extérieure (DGSE) and Israel's Mossad. While the preceding agencies both collect and analyze information, some like the U.S. State Department's Bureau of Intelligence and Research are purely analytical agencies.[citation needed]", "Old Persian is the Old Iranian dialect as it was spoken in south-western Iran by the inhabitants of Parsa, who also gave their name to their region and language. Genuine Old Persian is best attested in one of the three languages of the Behistun inscription, composed circa 520 BC, and which is the last inscription (and only inscription of significant length) in which Old Persian is still grammatically correct. Later inscriptions are comparatively brief, and typically simply copies of words and phrases from earlier ones, often with grammatical errors, which suggests that by the 4th century BC the transition from Old Persian to Middle Persian was already far advanced, but efforts were still being made to retain an \"old\" quality for official proclamations.", "These views on religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience, along with the social contract, became particularly influential in the American colonies and the drafting of the United States Constitution. Thomas Jefferson called for a \"wall of separation between church and state\" at the federal level. He previously had supported successful efforts to disestablish the Church of England in Virginia, and authored the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. Jefferson's political ideals were greatly influenced by the writings of John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton whom he considered the three greatest men that ever lived." ]

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[ "History of the Kansas City Chiefs History of the Kansas City Chiefs The following is a detailed history of the Kansas City Chiefs, a professional American football franchise that began play in 1960 as the Dallas Texans. The team was a charter member of the American Football League (AFL), and now is currently part of the National Football League (NFL) (they are not associated with an earlier Dallas Texans NFL team that only played for one season in 1952). The Texans won the AFL Championship in 1962, and the team relocated to Kansas City, Missouri the following year. In 1966, the Chiefs won their second AFL", "Kansas City Chiefs Kansas City Chiefs The Kansas City Chiefs are a professional American football team based in Kansas City, Missouri. The Chiefs compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league's American Football Conference (AFC) West division. The team was founded in 1960 as the Dallas Texans by businessman Lamar Hunt and was a charter member of the American Football League (AFL). (They are not associated with the NFL Dallas Texans.) In 1963, the team relocated to Kansas City and assumed their current name. The Chiefs joined the NFL as a result of the merger in 1970.", "Eric Murray (American football) Eric Murray (American football) Eric Murray (born January 7, 1994) is an American football strong safety for the Kansas City Chiefs of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at the University of Minnesota. The Kansas City Chiefs selected Murray in the fourth round (106th overall) of the 2016 NFL Draft. He was the 17th cornerback drafted and the second cornerback selected by the Chiefs after third round pick KeiVarae Russell. On May 17, 2016, the Kansas City Chiefs signed Murray to a four-year, $2.96 million contract that includes a signing bonus of $599,803. Entering organized team activities,", "Alex Ellis (American football) injury designation by the Chiefs on October 2, 2018. After going unclaimed on waivers, he was placed on the Chiefs' injured reserve. Alex Ellis (American football) Alexander Colby Ellis (born February 10, 1993) is an American football tight end for the Kansas City Chiefs of the National Football League (NFL). He was signed by the Tennessee Titans as an undrafted free agent after the 2016 NFL Draft. He played college football at Tennessee. Ellis attended the University of Tennessee, where he played as a tight end for the Tennessee football team. On May 9, 2016, Ellis signed with the Tennessee", "History of the Kansas City Chiefs the first forty-two minutes of the game. Backup quarterback Damon Huard, who led the Chiefs on a 5–2 record in Green's absence, never played a down in the playoff loss to—coincidentally—the eventual Super Bowl champion Indianapolis Colts. <nowiki>†</nowiki> = Interim head coach History of the Kansas City Chiefs The following is a detailed history of the Kansas City Chiefs, a professional American football franchise that began play in 1960 as the Dallas Texans. The team was a charter member of the American Football League (AFL), and now is currently part of the National Football League (NFL) (they are not associated", "James Winchester (American football) James Winchester (American football) James Winchester (born August 6, 1989) is an American football long snapper for the Kansas City Chiefs of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at University of Oklahoma. Winchester signed with the Philadelphia Eagles as an undrafted free agent on August 11, 2013. He was released by the team on August 25 during the Eagles first round of roster cutdowns. Winchester was signed by the Kansas City Chiefs on March 13, 2015. On January 23, 2017, Winchester signed a five-year, $4.45 million contract extension with the Chiefs. On September 17, 2017, in Week", "Neil Smith (American football) Neil Smith (American football) Neil Smith (born April 10, 1966) is a former American football defensive end in the National Football League. He played for the Kansas City Chiefs from 1988 to 1996, the Denver Broncos from 1997 to 1999, and the San Diego Chargers in 2000. Before his NFL career, he played for the University of Nebraska where he was All-American in 1987. He also co-owned an Arena Football team, the Kansas City Command. Born in New Orleans, Smith graduated from McDonogh No. 35 Senior High School in the city. The Chiefs, who had the third pick, made it", "Eric Fisher (American football) Eric Fisher (American football) Eric William Fisher (born January 5, 1991) is an American football offensive tackle for the Kansas City Chiefs of the National Football League (NFL). He was drafted by the Chiefs first overall in the 2013 NFL Draft. He played college football at Central Michigan University. A native of Rochester, Michigan, Fisher attended Stoney Creek High School, where he was an All-State honorable mention lineman for the football team. Regarded as a two-star recruit by Rivals.com, he was not ranked among the best offensive tackle prospects in his class. According to Fisher, this was due to him", "Mike Mercer (American football) Mike Mercer (American football) Michael Mercer (born November 21, 1935) is a former American football kicker and punter who played for six teams from (1961–1970). In the American Football League, he played for the Oakland Raiders, the Kansas City Chiefs and the Buffalo Bills. He was a member of the Chiefs' 1966 AFL Championship team that played in the first AFL-NFL World Championship Game. Mercer's 9 yard field goal attempt was blocked by Larry \"Wildman\" Eisenhauer and recovered by Don Webb, with about 3 minutes left, in the Oakland Raiders 43-43 tie with the Boston Patriots on October 16, 1964.", "Otis Taylor (American football) Otis Taylor (American football) Otis Taylor (born August 11, 1942) is a former American college and professional American football player, for Prairie View A&M University and the American Football League's Kansas City Chiefs. Standing 6-foot-3 and weighing 215 pounds, Taylor possessed sure hands during his career and served as a devastating downfield blocker, springing Chiefs running backs for many long runs. Taylor was selected in the 1965 AFL draft (Chiefs) and the NFL draft, by the Philadelphia Eagles. After a famous \"baby-sitting\" incident, in which Taylor \"escaped\" from NFL scouts, he was signed for the Chiefs by their legendary scout", "Barry Richardson (American football) was waived by the Titans. On October 22, 2013, Richardson signed with the Detroit Lions. He played one game for the Lions, but was cut on November 5. Barry Richardson (American football) Barry Devon Richardson (born May 15, 1986) is a former American football offensive tackle. He was drafted by the Kansas City Chiefs in the sixth round of the 2008 NFL Draft. He played college football at Clemson. Richardson was selected by the Kansas City Chiefs in the sixth round (170th overall) of the 2008 NFL Draft. He signed a three-year contract with the team on June 25, 2008.", "Barry Richardson (American football) Barry Richardson (American football) Barry Devon Richardson (born May 15, 1986) is a former American football offensive tackle. He was drafted by the Kansas City Chiefs in the sixth round of the 2008 NFL Draft. He played college football at Clemson. Richardson was selected by the Kansas City Chiefs in the sixth round (170th overall) of the 2008 NFL Draft. He signed a three-year contract with the team on June 25, 2008. He played in six games in 2008, with no starts. He was waived during final cuts on September 6, 2009, but was re-signed to the team's practice squad", "Jordan Black (American football) Jordan Black (American football) Brian Jordan Black (born January 28, 1980) is a former American football offensive tackle. He was drafted by the Kansas City Chiefs in the fifth round of the 2003 NFL Draft. He played college football at the University of Notre Dame. Black has also been a member of the Houston Texans, Jacksonville Jaguars, New Orleans Saints, and Washington Redskins. Black played high school football for Dallas Christian School in Mesquite, Texas from 1995–1998, during which time the team won multiple Texas State championships. Black's jersey, #77, was retired by Dallas Christian School in 2003. Black played", "Eric Fisher (American football) a holding penalty which resulted in a loss of 10 yards. On the second attempt from the Steelers' 12-yard line, the Chiefs failed the two-point conversion, resulting in their elimination from the playoffs as they lost to the Steelers by a score of 18-16. Eric Fisher (American football) Eric William Fisher (born January 5, 1991) is an American football offensive tackle for the Kansas City Chiefs of the National Football League (NFL). He was drafted by the Chiefs first overall in the 2013 NFL Draft. He played college football at Central Michigan University. A native of Rochester, Michigan, Fisher attended", "Mark Donovan (American football) and sales for the National Football League. From 2003 to 2009 he was senior vice president/operations for the Philadelphia Eagles where he focused on bringing events to Lincoln Financial Field. Donovan joined the Chiefs in 2009 becoming Chief Operating Officer. In January 2011 he became president of the Chiefs. Mark Donovan (American football) Mark Donovan (born February 15, 1966) is the fifth president of the Kansas City Chiefs. Donovan was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and graduated from Brown University in 1988 where he was a quarterback and team captain. He completed 120 of 239 passes for 1777 yards in the", "Otis Smith (American football) Chiefs announced that Smith would join their staff as defensive quality control coach. Otis Smith (American football) Otis Smith III (born October 22, 1965 in New Orleans, Louisiana) is a retired American football cornerback, and currently an assistant coach of the Kansas City Chiefs. Smith attended East Jefferson High School in the late 1980s. Originally signed with the Philadelphia Eagles as a rookie free agent in 1990. He spent five seasons with the team before joining the New York Jets in 1995. He signed with the New England Patriots in 1996, starting nine games, including the playoffs and Super Bowl", "Frank Jackson (American football) time. He was an American Football League All-Star in 1965. He played on the Texans' 1962 AFL Championship team, winning the longest pro football game ever played up to that time in the AFL Championship game against the two-time defending AFL Champion Houston Oilers. Frank Jackson (American football) Frank Hardin Jackson (born April 14, 1939) is a former American football wide receiver. He played college football at Southern Methodist University (SMU) and professionally with the American Football League's Dallas Texans, the Kansas City Chiefs, and the Miami Dolphins. As a halfback, he scored four touchdowns (two rushing, two receiving) for", "Kansas City Chiefs football games. Prior to each home game, a former Chiefs player, called the honorary drum leader, bangs on a drum with a large drum stick to start the Tomahawk chop. The Chiefs' fan base has expanded across the world like many other NFL teams. However, there is a Twitter account dedicated to Chiefs fans in the UK and has been recognized by the Kansas City Chiefs and is their official UK fan page. They have many dedicated fans writing articles and interviewing players of the team such as Tamba Hali. Arrowhead Stadium is also recognized by Guinness World Records as", "Darrell Hill (American football) ever demand a triple team from the opposing team on punt coverage. Darrell Hill (American football) Darrell Frederick Hill (born June 19, 1979) is a former American football wide receiver in the National Football League for the Tennessee Titans and the Kansas City Chiefs. He played college football at Northern Illinois University. He wore number 80. Hill possesses a 4.2 time in the 40-yard dash and a 44-inch vertical jump. Hill attended Mount Carmel High School in Chicago. Where he played Football, Basketball, and Track and Field. In 1997 Hill was an All-State, All-Area, and All Catholic League Wide Receiver.", "1969 American Football League season a four team playoff tournament with the second place teams in each division also participating. 1969 American Football League season The 1969 American Football League season was the tenth and final regular season of the American Football League (AFL). To honor the AFL's tenth season, a special anniversary logo was designed and each Kansas City Chiefs player wore a patch on his jersey with the logo during Super Bowl IV, the final AFL-NFL World Championship Game prior to the merger of the two leagues. The Chiefs defeated the Oakland Raiders in the final AFL Championship Game, then soundly defeated the", "Joe Mays (American football) Joe Mays (American football) Joseph Lamont Mays (born July 6, 1985) is a former American football linebacker. He played college football at North Dakota State and was drafted by the Philadelphia Eagles in the sixth round of the 2008 NFL Draft. Mays also played for the Denver Broncos, Houston Texans, Kansas City Chiefs and San Diego Chargers. Mays attended Hyde Park High School in Chicago, Illinois. He did not play football until his junior year of high school. He earned first-team all-conference honors in both his junior and senior years. He was named a first-team all-city selection as a senior", "Michael Grant (American football) Razorback track team and earned NCAA All American honors and an NCAA championship in the 400 meter relay as a freshman. Michael Grant (American football) Michael Grant (born March 30, 1986) is a former American football cornerback and safety. He was signed by the Jacksonville Jaguars as an undrafted free agent in 2008. He played college football at Arkansas. Grant has also been a member of the Kansas City Chiefs, Washington Redskins, Florida Tuskers and Cleveland Browns of the National Football League, and the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League. Grant grew up in Decatur, Georgia, where he made", "Kansas City Chiefs awards determined by the players and coaches. It has been awarded since 1966. The award was named after former Chiefs running back Mack Lee Hill beginning in 2001. Kansas City Chiefs awards This page details awards won by the Kansas City Chiefs, a professional American football team from the National Football League. The Chiefs have never had a winner of the Coach of the Year award, Offensive Rookie of the Year, Defensive Player of the Year, or NFL MVP. The Chiefs are tied with the Chicago Bears for the most winners of the Walter Payton Man of the Year award with", "Ed White (American football) a leader. He was one of the most feared offensive linemen in the game. You talk to guys like Howie Long and Matt Millen who had to go against Big Ed. They hated it.” Chargers center/guard Dennis McKnight has called White “probably the best all-around offensive lineman in the league in terms of run blocking and pass blocking.” Kansas City Chiefs offensive tackle Kyle Turley has called White the best coach he'd ever had. Ed White (American football) Edward Alvin White (born April 4, 1947) is a former American football player. After retiring from football, White has worked as a", "Javier Arenas (American football) Javier Arenas (American football) Javier E. Arenas (born October 28, 1987) is a former American football cornerback. Arenas played college football for the University of Alabama, earned consensus All-American honors, and was a member of a BCS National Championship team. He was drafted by the Kansas City Chiefs in the second round of the 2010 NFL Draft. He has also played for the Arizona Cardinals, New York Jets, Atlanta Falcons, and Buffalo Bills of the NFL. Arenas also had a brief stint with the Ottawa Redblacks of the Canadian Football League. Arenas was born in Tampa, Florida. He attended Robinson", "Tommie Agee (American football) Tommie Agee (American football) Thomas Lee Agee (born February 22, 1964) is a former American football running back in the National Football League for the Seattle Seahawks, Kansas City Chiefs, and Dallas Cowboys. He played college football at Auburn University. Agee attended Maplesville High School, where he earned All-state honors in football, basketball, and track. He also practiced baseball. He accepted a football scholarship from Auburn University. His best season came as a redshirt freshman playing in a wishbone offense, on a backfield that included Bo Jackson, Lionel James and Brent Fullwood. He was third on the team with 115", "Albert Lewis (American football) Albert Lewis (American football) Albert Ray Lewis (born October 6, 1960) is a former American football player who played in the National Football League for the Kansas City Chiefs and the Los Angeles/Oakland Raiders. Considered one of the best cornerbacks in league history, Jerry Rice once said that Lewis was the \"toughest\" cornerback he faced. Lewis is a father of three children all of which played or currently play sports in college; his son Julian Lewis is a former defensive back for the University of New Mexico. Lewis was a 3rd round draft pick (61st overall) by the Chiefs in", "History of Kansas City Chiefs quarterbacks Edwards. The following is a list of franchise records accomplished by Texans/Chiefs quarterbacks from 1960–2013. History of Kansas City Chiefs quarterbacks 31 quarterbacks have started for the National Football League's Kansas City Chiefs since their franchise began. The team has also had numerous backup quarterbacks that have stolen the spotlight from the starters. Under Len Dawson, the Texans/Chiefs won three American Football League championships and appeared in two Super Bowl championship games. Dawson was named Most Valuable Player following the Chiefs' victory in Super Bowl IV. Dawson played a total of 13 seasons with Kansas City and retired with many", "Alex Ellis (American football) Alex Ellis (American football) Alexander Colby Ellis (born February 10, 1993) is an American football tight end for the Kansas City Chiefs of the National Football League (NFL). He was signed by the Tennessee Titans as an undrafted free agent after the 2016 NFL Draft. He played college football at Tennessee. Ellis attended the University of Tennessee, where he played as a tight end for the Tennessee football team. On May 9, 2016, Ellis signed with the Tennessee Titans as an undrafted free agent. On September 2, 2016, Ellis was waived by the Titans as part of final roster cuts.", "Eddie Murray (American football) Eddie Murray (American football) Edward Peter Murray (born August 29, 1956) is a former kicker in the National Football League for the Detroit Lions, Kansas City Chiefs, Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Dallas Cowboys, Philadelphia Eagles, Minnesota Vikings and Washington Redskins. He played college football at Tulane University. Murray grew up in Victoria, British Columbia and attended Spectrum high school, where he practiced soccer, track, cricket and rugby, because it didn't have an American football team. After graduation, he spent a year working with a fork lift in a lumber yard. He played junior football for the Saanich Hornets of the Lower", "Richard Jordan (American football) Richard Jordan (American football) Richard Lamont Jordan (born December 1, 1974) is a former American football linebacker who played two seasons with the Detroit Lions of the National Football League. He was drafted by the Detroit Lions in the seventh round of the 1997 NFL Draft. He played college football at Missouri Southern State University and attended Vian High School in Vian, Oklahoma. Jordan was also a member of the Kansas City Chiefs. Now lives in Alpharetta ga and is starting a volleyball team Jordan was drafted by the Detroit Lions with the 239th pickin the 1997 NFL Draft. He", "Donald Washington (American football) Donald Washington (American football) Donald David Washington III (born July 28, 1986) is an American football defensive back who is currently a free agent. He played college football for the Ohio State Buckeyes and was drafted in the fourth round of the 2009 NFL Draft by the Kansas City Chiefs. He played high school football at Franklin Central High School in Indianapolis. Washington has also played for the Toronto Argonauts and Hamilton Tiger-Cats. Washington enrolled at Ohio State in 2005, but spent the season performing on the scout team. He was named the team's Outstanding Freshman in 2006, starting nine", "Richard Jordan (American football) played for the Lions from 1997 to 1999. He signed with the Kansas City Chiefs on January 18, 2001. He was released by the Chiefs on September 2, 2001. He signed a two-year future contract with the Chiefs on January 30, 2002. Jordan was released by the Chiefs on September 1, 2002. Jordan was signed by the Detroit Lions on October 1, 2002. Richard Jordan (American football) Richard Lamont Jordan (born December 1, 1974) is a former American football linebacker who played two seasons with the Detroit Lions of the National Football League. He was drafted by the Detroit Lions", "Kansas City Chiefs awards Kansas City Chiefs awards This page details awards won by the Kansas City Chiefs, a professional American football team from the National Football League. The Chiefs have never had a winner of the Coach of the Year award, Offensive Rookie of the Year, Defensive Player of the Year, or NFL MVP. The Chiefs are tied with the Chicago Bears for the most winners of the Walter Payton Man of the Year award with 5. The most recent winners of major NFL awards are Marcus Peters (Defensive Rookie of the Year) and Eric Berry (Comeback Player of the Year), both awards", "Jeff Allen (American football) by the Texans after reaching an injury settlement. On October 16, 2018, Allen signed with the Kansas City Chiefs. Allen is married to Marrisa Holden, a former Illinois soccer player. They have one daughter and son together. Jeff Allen (American football) Jeff Allen (born January 8, 1990) is an American football guard for the Kansas City Chiefs of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football for Illinois. Allen was drafted by the Chiefs in the second round of the 2012 NFL Draft. He has also played for the Houston Texans. After graduating from Chicago's King High School, Allen", "1966 American Football League draft 1966 American Football League draft The 1966 American Football League draft was held on Saturday, November 27, 1965. The AFL added the Miami Dolphins as an expansion team in 1966 to bring its total to nine franchises for its seventh season. The only Hall of Famer to come out of this draft was Jan Stenerud, who was picked by the Kansas City Chiefs in the third round of the Red Shirt portion of the draft. This was the last competitive draft of the American Football League before the AFL–NFL merger agreement, which was announced in June 1966. The next draft", "Dave Rowe (American football) Dave Rowe (American football) David Homeyer \"Dave\" Rowe (born June 20, 1945 in Neptune City, New Jersey) is a former American football defensive tackle in the NFL for the New Orleans Saints, the New England Patriots, the San Diego Chargers, the Oakland Raiders, and the Baltimore Colts. Rowe formerly worked as college football television analyst for 30 years. In 1987, Rowe was the color analyst alongside Gayle Sierens, who became the first female NFL play-by-play announcer when she called a Seattle Seahawks–Kansas City Chiefs matchup for NBC. Rowe played college football at Penn State and high school football at Deptford", "1966 American Football League Championship Game 1966 American Football League Championship Game The 1966 American Football League Championship Game was the seventh AFL championship game, played at War Memorial Stadium in Buffalo, New York, on January 1, 1967. It matched the Western Division champion Kansas City Chiefs (11–2–1) and the Eastern Division champion Buffalo Bills (9–4–1) to decide the American Football League (AFL) champion for the 1966 season. The host Bills entered as two-time defending champions, but the visiting Chiefs were three-point favorites, mainly because of their explosive and innovative offense led by head coach Hank Stram. The Bills were a more conventional team with a", "Kirk Farmer (American football) Kirk Farmer (American football) Kirk Farmer (born August 27, 1979) is a former American football quarterback. He played college football at Missouri. He was signed by the St. Louis Rams as an Undrafted free agent in 2003. He also played for the Kansas City Chiefs and the Frankfurt Galaxy. Farmer attended Jefferson City High School along with future All-American, and Missouri teammate, Justin Smith. He passed for 770 yards, ran for 673 and accounted for 31 touchdowns in 1997 as Jefferson City won the state 5A championship while also a regular on Jeff City's basketball team that was ranked as", "Barry Rubin (American football) Barry Rubin (American football) Barry Rubin is the Head Strength and Conditioning Coach of the Kansas City Chiefs. Rubin was born on June 25, 1957 in Monroe, Louisiana. In 1976, Rubin began playing for the LSU Tigers football team as a running back and punter. Following the 1977 season, he transferred to Northwestern State University, where he was a punter and a tight end. While there, he played alongside future NFL players Bobby Hebert, Mark Duper, Joe Delaney and Gary Reasons. In 1979, he set a school record with a 75-yard punt and was named to the Jewish All-American team.", "Butch Lewis (American football) at Regis Jesuit in Aurora, Colorado where he was a Parade Magazine All-American, and played his college football at the University of Southern California. Butch Lewis (American football) Butch Lewis (born December 1, 1987) is a former American Football offensive lineman. Lewis was signed by the Kansas City Chiefs as an undrafted free agent in 2011. Following the 2011 NFL Preseason, Lewis was waived by the Chiefs. After clearing waivers, Lewis was signed to the Chiefs practice squad. Lewis was released from the practice squad on September 8, 2011. Shortly after, Lewis was re-signed to the practice squad, only to", "Jesse James (American football) and eventual #1 seed. In Week 2, against the Kansas City Chiefs, James recorded a career-high 138 receiving yards and a touchdown in the 42–37 loss. Jesse James (American football) Jesse Dylan James (born June 4, 1994) is an American football tight end for the Pittsburgh Steelers of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Penn State, and was drafted by the Steelers in the fifth round of the 2015 NFL Draft. James attended South Allegheny Middle/Senior High School in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. where he was a two-time Second-team All-State selection in both football and basketball. He", "Andrew Wylie (American football) Andrew Wylie (American football) Andrew Wylie (born September 19, 1994) is an American football offensive tackle for the Kansas City Chiefs of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Eastern Michigan University. Over the course of four seasons, Wylie made 44 starts for the Eagles. He was named third team All-MAC his senior season. Wylie signed with the Indianapolis Colts as an undrafted free agent on May 15, 2017. He was released during final cuts on September 2, 2017 and was signed to the Colts' practice squad two days later. He was released by the Colts on", "Brandon Flowers (American football) Brandon Flowers (American football) Brandon Lavar Flowers (born February 18, 1986) is a former American football cornerback. He played college football at Virginia Tech, and was drafted by the Kansas City Chiefs in the second round of the 2008 NFL Draft. Flowers played high school football while attending Atlantic Community High School, where he earned first-team all-area and all-conference honors. He was teammates with Omar Jacobs and David Clowney. Flowers then attended Hargrave Military Academy for prep school in 2003. At Hargreaves, he was teammates with Jonathan Hefney, Brian Soi, DJ Ware, and Justin Harper. He also starred in basketball", "Logos and uniforms of the Kansas City Chiefs Logos and uniforms of the Kansas City Chiefs The Kansas City Chiefs, a professional American football franchise from the National Football League, are known for their unique \"KC\" arrowhead logo and red and white uniforms—both almost unchanged since the franchise's relocation in 1963. From 1960 to 1962, the team was known as the Dallas Texans and had very similar team logos and uniforms. When the Texans began playing in 1960, the team's logo consisted of the state of Texas in white with a yellow star marking the location of the city of Dallas. Originally, Hunt chose Columbia Blue and Orange", "James O'Shaughnessy (American football) James O'Shaughnessy (American football) James O'Shaughnessy (born January 14, 1992) is an American football tight end for the Jacksonville Jaguars of the National Football League (NFL). He was drafted by the Kansas City Chiefs in the fifth round of the 2015 NFL Draft with the 173rd overall pick. He played college football at Illinois State from 2010-2014. O'Shaughnessy was drafted by the Kansas City Chiefs in the fifth round, 173rd overall, in the 2015 NFL Draft. During O'Shaughnessy's two years in Kansas City, he recorded eight receptions for 86 yards. On April 29, 2017, the Chiefs traded O'Shaughnessy and a", "Jeff Lloyd (American football) Bills before the season started, and played in 9 games for the Bills in 1976. The Chiefs signed him after the 1977 season. He played in all 16 regular season games for the Chiefs in 1978, starting 4 and recovering one fumble. Jeff Lloyd (American football) Jeffrey John Lloyd (born March 14, 1954) is a former American football player. He played college football at West Texas A&M and played in the National Football League primarily as a defensive end for the Buffalo Bills and the Kansas City Chiefs. Lloyd played as an offensive lineman in college and was selected to", "Dave Rowe (American football) Township High School. Dave Rowe (American football) David Homeyer \"Dave\" Rowe (born June 20, 1945 in Neptune City, New Jersey) is a former American football defensive tackle in the NFL for the New Orleans Saints, the New England Patriots, the San Diego Chargers, the Oakland Raiders, and the Baltimore Colts. Rowe formerly worked as college football television analyst for 30 years. In 1987, Rowe was the color analyst alongside Gayle Sierens, who became the first female NFL play-by-play announcer when she called a Seattle Seahawks–Kansas City Chiefs matchup for NBC. Rowe played college football at Penn State and high school", "Richard Gordon (American football) Richard Gordon (American football) Richard Lee Gordon (born June 7, 1987) is an American football tight end who is currently a free agent. He was drafted by the Oakland Raiders in the sixth round of the 2011 NFL Draft. He played college football at the University of Miami. Gordon was drafted by the Oakland Raiders in 2011 and would later sign with the team. On October 15, 2013, Gordon was signed by the Pittsburgh Steelers. On December 7, 2013, he was waived. On December 18, 2013, Gordon was signed by the Kansas City Chiefs. On August 31, 2014, he was", "Ryan Taylor (American football) Ryan Taylor (American football) Ryan Lawrence Taylor (born November 16, 1987) is an American football tight end who is currently a free agent. He played college football at North Carolina. Taylor was drafted by the Green Bay Packers in the seventh round of the 2011 NFL Draft. He has also been a member of the Baltimore Ravens, Cleveland Browns, Miami Dolphins, and Kansas City Chiefs. Taylor attended Mount Tabor High School in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, and played on all sides of the ball. During his time on the team, he was a two time all-conference selection and went 12-2 in", "Robert Holmes (American football) joined the Saskatchewan Roughriders of the Canadian Football League during the 1976 season, playing 5 regular season games and the Western Final. Several years later he returned to Regina to live. Robert Holmes (American football) Robert Earl Holmes (October 5, 1945 – April 14, 2018) was an American football running back who played collegiately at Southern University and professionally in the American Football League for the Kansas City Chiefs, and in the National Football League for the Chiefs, the Houston Oilers, and the San Diego Chargers. He was an AFL All-Star in 1969, and played with the Chiefs in their", "John Tait (American football) John Tait (American football) John Bernard Tait (born January 26, 1975) is a former American football offensive tackle, who played for both the Kansas City Chiefs and the Chicago Bears of the National Football League. He was selected with the 14th overall pick in the 1999 NFL Draft by the Kansas City Chiefs out of Brigham Young University and played for the Chiefs for five years. He is a 1993 graduate of McClintock High School in Tempe, Arizona. At Brigham Young University, Tait started 38 games during his three-year college career. Tait was an All-America pick his final season and", "Albert Lewis (American football) the Chiefs Hall of Fame on March 4, 2007. In 1999, Lewis bought \"Greystone\", a horse ranch north in Centreville, Mississippi. In July 2008, Lewis, along with former Chiefs teammate Kevin Ross, was named to the NFL Network's \"Top 10 Cornerback Tandems\" list. Albert Lewis (American football) Albert Ray Lewis (born October 6, 1960) is a former American football player who played in the National Football League for the Kansas City Chiefs and the Los Angeles/Oakland Raiders. Considered one of the best cornerbacks in league history, Jerry Rice once said that Lewis was the \"toughest\" cornerback he faced. Lewis is", "Ryan Taylor (American football) Tim Semisch. Taylor signed with the Kansas City Chiefs in May 2015. On September 5, 2015, the Chiefs cut Taylor. Ryan Taylor (American football) Ryan Lawrence Taylor (born November 16, 1987) is an American football tight end who is currently a free agent. He played college football at North Carolina. Taylor was drafted by the Green Bay Packers in the seventh round of the 2011 NFL Draft. He has also been a member of the Baltimore Ravens, Cleveland Browns, Miami Dolphins, and Kansas City Chiefs. Taylor attended Mount Tabor High School in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, and played on all sides", "Sean Ryan (American football) Sean Ryan (American football) Sean P. Ryan born March 27, 1980) is a former American football tight end in the National Football League for the Dallas Cowboys, New York Jets, Miami Dolphins, New Orleans Saints, San Francisco 49ers and Kansas City Chiefs. He was drafted by the Dallas Cowboys in the fifth round of the 2004 NFL Draft. He played college football at Boston College. Ryan attended St. Joseph's Collegiate Institute, where he played defensive end. He was a three-time all-league and all-city selection. He was named to the All-state team as a senior. He also practiced basketball and lacrosse.", "Leon Williams (American football) waived him on September 15, 2009. After spending the 2009 season with the New York Sentinels, Williams signed a future contract with the Dallas Cowboys on January 12, 2010. He was placed on injured reserve on December 31, 2010. Williams signed with the Kansas City Chiefs on May 16, 2012. He was cut prior to the 2012 season but was again signed by the team in December 2012. Leon Williams (American football) Leon Williams is a former American football linebacker. He was drafted by the Cleveland Browns in the fourth round of the 2006 NFL Draft. He played college football", "Eric Hicks (American football) Eric Hicks (American football) Eric David Hicks (born June 17, 1976) is a former American football defensive end. He was signed by the Kansas City Chiefs as an undrafted free agent in 1998. He played college football at Maryland. Hicks was also a member of the New York Jets and the Detroit Lions. Hicks attended Mercyhurst Preparatory School in Erie, Pennsylvania from 1991 to 1994 after transferring there before his sophomore year. As a senior, he posted 6.0 sacks, and 68 tackles. He was also named First Team All-Metro. In 2006, he received the Distinguished Alumni Award. Hicks attended the", "Robert Holmes (American football) Robert Holmes (American football) Robert Earl Holmes (October 5, 1945 – April 14, 2018) was an American football running back who played collegiately at Southern University and professionally in the American Football League for the Kansas City Chiefs, and in the National Football League for the Chiefs, the Houston Oilers, and the San Diego Chargers. He was an AFL All-Star in 1969, and played with the Chiefs in their defeat of the Oakland Raiders in the 1969 AFL Championship Game and in their crushing of the NFL's champion Minnesota Vikings in the fourth and final AFL-NFL World Championship Game. He" ]

[ "Milwaukee Chiefs (AFL) Milwaukee Chiefs (AFL) The Milwaukee Chiefs were a professional American football team based in Wisconsin that competed in the third American Football League in 1940 and in 1941. The team played its home games in the Dairy Bowl at State Fair Park in West Allis, a suburb just west of Milwaukee. Originally formed as an expansion team for the minor league formerly known as the American Professional Football Association for the 1940 season, the new team joined fellow AFL members Cincinnati Bengals and Columbus Bullies in becoming charter members of a new major-league AFL (the triple defection triggered the demise", "Milwaukee Chiefs (AFL) and the subsequent U.S. entry into World War II put all plans for football to a halt. In September 1942, league president William B. Cox announced the suspension of league activities until after the war, but the league – and the Chiefs – never returned. Milwaukee Chiefs (AFL) The Milwaukee Chiefs were a professional American football team based in Wisconsin that competed in the third American Football League in 1940 and in 1941. The team played its home games in the Dairy Bowl at State Fair Park in West Allis, a suburb just west of Milwaukee. Originally formed as an", "Philippines national American football team Philippines national American football team The Philippines national American football team or the Philippines national tackle football team, represents the Philippines in international American football competitions. The team is under the American Tackle Football Federation of the Philippines (ATFFP), which was founded by Bernaro “Dodi” Palma II in 2009. American Football has been in the Philippines since as early as 2001 with the flag football variant being introduced first. A flag football league was established with its teams defeating teams from China and Singapore. Around 2010, tackle football is introduced with a league on the standard variant of football being", "Kaizer Chiefs F.C. Kaizer Chiefs players with a Wikipedia article see \" On 29 October 2012, Kaizer Chiefs announced that they had registered a rugby sevens team to participate in the inaugural 7s Premier League. Kaizer Chiefs F.C. Kaizer Chiefs Football Club is a South African football club based in Johannesburg that plays in the Premier Soccer League. The team is nicknamed \"Amakhosi\" which means \"Lords\" or \"chiefs\" in Zulu, and the \"Phefeni Glamour Boys\". They currently play most of their home matches at Soccer City in Nasrec, Soweto, which is commonly also referred to as the FNB Stadium. They are one of", "Russia national American football team Russia national American football team The Russia national American football team () is the official American football senior national team of Russia. The team was formed in 1992 alongside the Russian League of American Football. American football first appeared in the USSR in 1989, when in the summer two Oklahoma high school football teams (\"Stars\" and \"Boomers\") played three exhibition games in Moscow, Leningrad, and Tallinn, Estonia. These games generated great excitement, which became the impetus for the creation of American football teams in the USSR. Taturyan Edgar, the founder of the Soviet teams became the coach of the USSR", "Julian Wilson (American football) 2016. He was released by the team on September 27, 2016. On January 7, 2017, Wilson signed a reserve/future contract with the Chiefs. He was waived by the Chiefs on May 4, 2017. Julian Wilson (American football) Julian Wilson (born October 25, 1991) is an American football cornerback for the Calgary Stampeders. He played college football at Oklahoma. Wilson was born in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma to Faye Wilson and Darrell McCowan, who was a two-year letterman in football at Oklahoma State in 1991–92. Wilson attended Southmoore High School in Moore, Oklahoma, where he was a two-sport athlete in football and", "Jason Dunn (American football) a blocking tight end for the Chiefs; former teammate Tony Gonzalez was the primary receiving tight end. On February 27, 2008 after spending eight years with the Chiefs, he was released by the team. On July 2010, Dunn was hired as the offensive line coach at Lafayette High School in Kentucky. On July 2013, he was hired as the special teams coordinator at Kentucky State University. Jason Dunn (American football) Jason Adam Dunn (born November 15, 1973 in Harrodsburg, Kentucky) is a former American football tight end and current college football coach. He is currently the special teams coordinator and", "Egypt national American football team Egypt national American football team Egyptian League of American Football was founded in 2013 and has been spreading the game in Egypt since then. It was granted a full membership by IFAF in 2014. The Egyptian League of American football is the country's top league, which is composed of 6 teams. The country's national team had its first match on 13 December 2014 against the Moroccan national team at the GUC stadium for the qualifications of the 2015 IFAF World Championship; The team lost 26-6. The Egyptian League of American Football (ELAF) was founded in 2013 by Mo'men Naiem and", "American Samoa national under-20 football team once every two years to decide the qualification spots for Oceania Football Confederation (OFC) and representatives at the FIFA U-20 World Cup. The following players were called up for the 2018 OFC U-19 Championship from 26 May to 2 June 2018. Names in \"italics\" denote players who have been capped for the Senior team. \"Caps and goals updated as of 28 June 2016 after the game against the Cook Islands.\" American Samoa national under-20 football team The American Samoa national under-20 football team is the national U-20 team of American Samoa and is controlled by Football Federation American Samoa. The", "Kaizer Chiefs B estimated that the club has over 16 million supporters. They have a local rivalry with Orlando Pirates, a fellow Soweto team which Chiefs founder Kaizer Motaung played for in his early playing career. Kaizer Chiefs are known as Amakhosi by its fans. Their headquarters is \"Kaizer Chiefs Village\", in Naturena, six kilometres south of Johannesburg. Kaizer Chiefs B Kaizer Chiefs B is a South African football (soccer) club based in Johannesburg that plays in the PSL Reserve League. The team is nicknamed \"Amakhosi\" which means \"lords\" or \"chiefs\" in Zulu and \"Phefeni Glamour Boys\". They currently play most of their", "Kaizer Chiefs F.C. Kaizer Chiefs F.C. Kaizer Chiefs Football Club is a South African football club based in Johannesburg that plays in the Premier Soccer League. The team is nicknamed \"Amakhosi\" which means \"Lords\" or \"chiefs\" in Zulu, and the \"Phefeni Glamour Boys\". They currently play most of their home matches at Soccer City in Nasrec, Soweto, which is commonly also referred to as the FNB Stadium. They are one of the most supported clubs in the country, drawing an average home attendance of 13,686 in the 2016-17 season, the highest in the league. The team has a strong local rivalry with Orlando", "Jack Allen (American football) City Chiefs, but was waived two days later. Jack Allen (American football) Jack Allen (born September 24, 1992) is an American football center who is currently a free agent. He played college football for Michigan State. His younger brother Brian Allen was the 111th overall pick in the fourth round of the 2018 NFL Draft by the Los Angeles Rams. Allen attended Hinsdale Central High School in Hinsdale, Illinois. He was also a State Champion in wrestling while in high school. He received first-team Associated Press All-America honors in 2015 while playing for the Michigan State Spartans football team. That", "Hartford Chiefs Hartford Chiefs The Hartford Chiefs was the final name of the American minor league baseball franchise representing Hartford, Connecticut, that played in the Eastern League (then Class A) between 1938 and 1952. The Hartford team, which played at Bulkeley Stadium, was known as the Bees from 1939–43 and in 1945; it was called the Laurels in 1938 and 1944 (although Baseball America's \"Encyclopedia of Minor League Baseball\" calls the 1938 team the \"Bees\"); and then renamed the \"Chiefs\" for the final seven years of its existence, 1946–52. It was affiliated for all 15 of its seasons with the Boston Braves,", "Kansas City Chiefs 23–7 to claim the team's first Super Bowl championship. Dawson was named the game's Most Valuable Player after completing 12-of-17 passes for 142 yards and one touchdown, with 1 interception. The following season, the Chiefs and the rest of the American Football League merged with the National Football League after the AFL–NFL merger became official. The Chiefs were placed in the American Football Conference's West Division. From 1960 to 1969, the Chiefs/Texans won 87 games, which is the most in the 10-year history of the AFL. In 1970, the Chiefs won only seven games in their first season in the", "Israel national American football team Israel national American football team The Israel national American football team is the official American football senior national team of Israel. The team formed in 2012 mainly of Israeli Football League players and coaching staff. The first international American football game played by Israel was played 17 May 2012 in Baptist village near Petah Tikva, when the Israeli national team met Maranatha Baptist Bible College. For Israeli players it was first ever game on 100 yards field in 11 players team. In the IFL American football is played on 60 yard fields by 9 player teams (in 2012, the IFL", "Egypt national American football team joining the new season soon. Jersey colors: Cairo Gorillas : new team with the name Gorillas in 2015, joining the ELAF starting the new season of 2016 . Jersey colors: and Egypt national American football team Egyptian League of American Football was founded in 2013 and has been spreading the game in Egypt since then. It was granted a full membership by IFAF in 2014. The Egyptian League of American football is the country's top league, which is composed of 6 teams. The country's national team had its first match on 13 December 2014 against the Moroccan national team at", "Poland national American football team Poland national American football team The Poland National American Football team represents Poland in international American football competitions. The team is controlled by the Polish American Football Association. The team was formed in 2012, consisting mainly of Polish American Football League players and coaching staff. In addition to players from the Polish league, players from the York Lions, Braunschweig Lions, Kouvola Indians and Kristiansand Gladiators have also participated in games. The first international American football game played by Poland was played 2 February 2013 in the Atlas Arena in Łódź, when the Polish national team met the Swedish national team", "Kansas City Chiefs 2009 season, the Chiefs, as well as the other founding teams of the American Football League, wore \"throwback\" uniforms to celebrate the AFL's 50th anniversary. For the first time in team history, the Chiefs wore their red jersey with red pants forming an all red combo in their home opener against the Dallas Cowboys on September 15, 2013. Arrowhead Stadium has been the Chiefs' home field since 1972 and has a capacity of 76,416, which makes it the sixth-largest stadium in the NFL. The stadium underwent a $375 million renovation, completed in mid-2010, which included new luxury boxes, wider concourses", "Poland national American football team many Polish, Czech, and German clubs. In 2015 Poland is competing in the IFAF level qualifying playoff circuit for the first time. Poland national American football team The Poland National American Football team represents Poland in international American football competitions. The team is controlled by the Polish American Football Association. The team was formed in 2012, consisting mainly of Polish American Football League players and coaching staff. In addition to players from the Polish league, players from the York Lions, Braunschweig Lions, Kouvola Indians and Kristiansand Gladiators have also participated in games. The first international American football game played by", "Russia national American football team in group \"C\" and was promoted to group \"B\". In 2004, the team took third place in the European Championship in the \"B\" group. In 2012, they did not appear. Due to the long absence, the team moved to group \"C\". Russia national American football team The Russia national American football team () is the official American football senior national team of Russia. The team was formed in 1992 alongside the Russian League of American Football. American football first appeared in the USSR in 1989, when in the summer two Oklahoma high school football teams (\"Stars\" and \"Boomers\") played three", "Brazil national American football team contested the World category in the months of June and July 2010 in Sweden. Below is table of the representative American football matches played by a Brazil national team at test level up until 16 December 2017. Roster accurate as of April 29, 2015. Brazil national American football team The Brazilian national American football team represents Brazil in international American football. It is run by the Brazilian Confederation of American Football (; CBFA). The team was first convened in 2007 due to an opportunity to play a friendly game with Uruguay. The Brazilian team was first formed with players drafted", "Kansas City Chiefs Cheerleaders Bears, the Chiefs also have the \"Rumble\", a drum line consisting of male and female musicians who pump up the crowd at each home game, and at various community events with the cheerleaders and KC Wolf. A Chiefs Cheerleader, Susie, rides a horse called \"Warpaint\" out the tunnel before every home game and after each Chiefs touchdown. This had been done until 1989, at which time the tradition was retired, however, in 2009, for the Chiefs (and the American Football League's) 50th Anniversary, Warpaint was brought back. Aside from the squad, the Chiefs also has the \"Red and Gold Girls\",", "Brazil national American football team Brazil national American football team The Brazilian national American football team represents Brazil in international American football. It is run by the Brazilian Confederation of American Football (; CBFA). The team was first convened in 2007 due to an opportunity to play a friendly game with Uruguay. The Brazilian team was first formed with players drafted from regional (state or city) tournaments that had various shapes and sizes. These tournaments included beach American football, flag football and touch football. The tryouts included interstate matches, physical tests and the availability of the athletes to participate since none of them were professionals.", "Kaizer Chiefs B Kaizer Chiefs B Kaizer Chiefs B is a South African football (soccer) club based in Johannesburg that plays in the PSL Reserve League. The team is nicknamed \"Amakhosi\" which means \"lords\" or \"chiefs\" in Zulu and \"Phefeni Glamour Boys\". They currently play most of their home games at Soccer City in Nasrec, Soweto, which is commonly also referred to as the FNB Stadium. The club is unarguably the biggest football club in the country in terms of success. It is also the most supported club in South Africa and the neighbouring countries of Botswana, Zimbabwe, Zambia etc. It has been", "Hungary national American football team Hungary national American football team The Hungarian National American Football Team is the official American football senior national team of Hungary. They are organized by the Hungarian American Football Association (Magyar Amerikai Football Szövetség, MAFSZ). They get their players from teams of the Hungarian American Football League, mostly from Budapest Wolves (26), Budapest Cowbells (16) and Győr Sharks (6 participants). The Hungarian national team has been founded in 2013. The head coach was Lee Hlavka, the offensive coordinator was István Kovács and the defensive coordinator was Karim Trabelsi. They played their first game with Czech Republic in Budapest, where they", "Great Britain national American football team in Mexico, which resulted in the resignation of head coach, Wayne Hill. The Great Britain U-19 American Football team represent the nation in international competition of youth American Football. The Great Britain Women's Team were founded in 2012 and represent the nation in Women's American football. In the 2015 European Championships, the team finished as runners-up, losing to Finland 50-12, their first ever defeat, in the final. BAFA also runs three flag football teams for men, women and under-19s. Great Britain national American football team The Great Britain national American football team, known as the GB Lions represents the UK", "American football positions American football positions In American football each team has 11 players on the field at one time. The specific role that a player takes on the field is called his position. Under the modern rules of American football, teams are allowed unlimited substitutions; that is, teams may change any number of players after any play. This has resulted in the development of three \"platoons\" of players: the offense (the team with the ball, which is trying to score), the defense (the team trying to prevent the other team from scoring, and to take the ball from them), and the special", "Israel national American football team respectively, to the A Championship then planned to be held in Germany in 2018. The Israel delegation of 45 players and 18 coaches was the largest ever Israeli delegation sent international for a single sport competition. Israel national American football team The Israel national American football team is the official American football senior national team of Israel. The team formed in 2012 mainly of Israeli Football League players and coaching staff. The first international American football game played by Israel was played 17 May 2012 in Baptist village near Petah Tikva, when the Israeli national team met Maranatha Baptist Bible", "Mexico national American football team players comes from teams from the ONEFA, Mexico's main college football league. Mexico's junior team competed in the 2009 IFAF Junior World Cup in Canton, Ohio from 27 June to 5 July 2009. Mexico national American football team The Mexico national American football team (Spanish: \"Selección de fútbol americano de México\") represents Mexico in international American football competitions. The team is controlled by the Mexican American Football Federation. Mexico has participated in competitions such as the Aztec Bowl, the IFAF World Cup, and the IFAF Junior World Cup. Mexico finished second place in both the 1999 and 2003 IFAF World", "American Samoa national football team American Samoa national football team The American Samoa national football team () represents American Samoa in association football and is controlled by the Football Federation American Samoa, the governing body of the sport in the territory. American Samoa's home ground is Veterans Memorial Stadium in Pago Pago and their head coach is Larry Mana'o. Regarded as one of the world's weakest teams, until November 2011 they were the joint lowest FIFA ranking of all countries registered for full internationals. The team holds the world record for the largest defeat in an international match, set after their 31–0 loss to Australia.", "Japan national American football team half that included 2 interceptions and 29-yd field goal block eventually lost to the United States 18-43. In their 2nd match, Japan defeated Mexico 35-7 with a strong effort on offense and defense. The win ensured the Japanese a rematch with the United States for the Gold Medal. Team Japan would lose to the United States 12-59 in what is the national team's largest loss in history. Japan national American football team The Japan national American football team represents Japan in international American football competitions. The team is controlled by the Japan American Football Association, and has been one of", "Japan national American football team Japan national American football team The Japan national American football team represents Japan in international American football competitions. The team is controlled by the Japan American Football Association, and has been one of the world's strongest international teams since it began participating regularly in international tournaments in the 1990s, and currently possesses the second most American Football World Cups (1999, 2003). Japan won the inaugural 1999 IFAF World Championship and won again in 2003. In 2007 they advanced to the final, losing to the United States 23–20 in overtime. In 2010 Japan beat Germany 24–14 in the inaugural Germany-Japan Bowl.", "Australia national American football team Australia national American football team The Australia national American football team, nicknamed the Australian Outback, represent Australia in international American football (gridiron) competitions. The team is organised by Gridiron Australia, the national governing body for the sport. Organised gridiron football in Australia dates to 1983, with the national governing body, Gridiron Australia, being formed in 1996. Australia was a charter member of the International Federation of American Football (IFAF), and competed in the inaugural 1999 IFAF World Cup. They have since competed in the Oceania Bowl in 2005 and the Samoa Bowl in 2011, among other international competitions. Australia competed", "Philippines national American football team Neros which were newly formed by the time of the association's establishment. This association uses its funds for international games, a free league and for charity events. The core of the national team is composed of players from this association and has adopted the moniker \"All-Star Aguilas\". This team is also known as the \"Aguila All-Stars\" All-Star Aguilas won their first match against an international opposition when they won over the Korean Tigers at their second meeting at the PHIL-KOR Cup in February 2016. Philippines national American football team The Philippines national American football team or the Philippines national tackle", "History of the Kansas City Chiefs before Super Bowl IV, Ed Sabol of NFL Films approached Vikings coach Bud Grant about being wired for sound for the game. Grant declined, but Chiefs coach Hank Stram accepted. As both the Chiefs and the cameras rolled, Stram clamored for his team to run \"65 toss power trap\" and to \"keep matriculating the ball down the field.\" Stram became the first-ever coach to be wired for NFL Films, and ironically, as a coach in the rival AFL. The Chiefs used the game as a crusade for the American Football League and wore \"AFL-10\" patches honoring the league's 10-year existence.", "American Samoa women's national football team American Samoa women's national football team The American Samoa women's national football team represents American Samoa in international women's association football. The team is controlled by the Football Federation American Samoa (FFAS) and managed by Beulah Oney, a former player. The Veterans Memorial Stadium is their home ground and their only goalscorer is Jasmine Makiasi, with only one goal. American Samoa never qualified for a FIFA Women's World Cup, but entered the OFC Women's Nations Cup once, in the 1998 edition. The country also participated twice in the Pacific Games women's football tournament. Due to its poor results, American Samoa", "American Samoa national football team to New Caledonia and Vanuatu ensured that once again American Samoa exited at the group stage. Their group stage stats: Played 5, Lost 5, Scored 0, Conceded 26. Players selected to compete in the First Round of the 2018 World Cup qualifiers against Samoa, Tonga and the Cook Islands.\"Caps and goals updated as of September 4, 2015.\" American Samoa national football team The American Samoa national football team () represents American Samoa in association football and is controlled by the Football Federation American Samoa, the governing body of the sport in the territory. American Samoa's home ground is Veterans Memorial", "1940 American Football League season declared league champions after compiling an 8-1-1 record, just edging the 7-2 of the Milwaukee Chiefs. \"W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, Pct.= Winning Percentage, PF = Points for, PA = Points against\" Standings includes forfeits (Buffalo forfeited to New York due to the field being unplayable, November 17, 1940; Cincinnati forfeited to Buffalo due to injuries preventing the Bengals from fielding a complete team, November 24, 1940) The league's coaches selected the all-league team: 1940 American Football League season The 1940 American Football League season was the first season of the third American Football League. The", "Mexico national American football team Mexico national American football team The Mexico national American football team (Spanish: \"Selección de fútbol americano de México\") represents Mexico in international American football competitions. The team is controlled by the Mexican American Football Federation. Mexico has participated in competitions such as the Aztec Bowl, the IFAF World Cup, and the IFAF Junior World Cup. Mexico finished second place in both the 1999 and 2003 IFAF World Cup, losing both times to Japan. They did not participate in the 2007 Cup, but returned to competition in the 2011 Cup. They qualified for the 2015 Cup. Players are usually the selected", "Serbia national American football team division: Serbia national American football team The Serbian National American Football Team is the official American football senior national team of Serbia. They are organized by the Srpska asocijacija američkog fudbala (SAAF). They get their players from teams of the Central European Football League. Serbia is currently competing in European Championship B division along with Czech Republic, Great Britain and Italy. In 2012 Serbia won European Championship C Division after beating Switzerland in final and advanced in B division. In 2013 Serbia won 5th place in European Championship B division after win over Spain 30–0. Squad for 2013 European Championship", "Serbia national American football team Serbia national American football team The Serbian National American Football Team is the official American football senior national team of Serbia. They are organized by the Srpska asocijacija američkog fudbala (SAAF). They get their players from teams of the Central European Football League. Serbia is currently competing in European Championship B division along with Czech Republic, Great Britain and Italy. In 2012 Serbia won European Championship C Division after beating Switzerland in final and advanced in B division. In 2013 Serbia won 5th place in European Championship B division after win over Spain 30–0. Squad for 2013 European Championship B", "Josh Keyes (American football) Josh Keyes (American football) Josh Keyes (born January 23, 1993) is an American football linebacker for the Houston Texans. He played college football at Boston College. Keyes was signed as an undrafted rookie on May 5, 2015. On September 5, 2015, he was waived. On September 7, 2015, Keyes was signed to the practice squad. On September 24, 2015, he was released from the practice squad. On October 20, 2015, Keyes was signed to the Chiefs' practice squad. On November 3, 2015, he was released by the team. On November 18, Keyes returned to the Buccaneers and was re-signed to" ]

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[ "There are people in the park." ]

[ "A man and woman walking in the park.", "The Caleornia Plaza project brought functional structures but was very expensive.", "The man in green under the tree is sweeping up trash.", "The F-22 program was an extreme design challenge.", "When the EPA made these decisions, they ignored any comments that they had received.", "The woman is smoking a cigarette.", "2000 tons is the weight of the croseis." ]

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[ "Video game console and Magnavox. In 1972, Magnavox released the Magnavox Odyssey, the first home video game console which could be connected to a TV set. Ralph Baer's initial design had called for a huge row of switches that would allow players to turn on and off certain components of the console (the Odyssey lacked a CPU) to create slightly different games like tennis, volleyball, hockey, and chase. Magnavox replaced the switch design with separate cartridges for each game. Although Baer had sketched up ideas for cartridges that could include new components for new games, the carts released by Magnavox all served the" ]

[ "Atari 2600 Atari 2600 The Atari 2600 (or Atari Video Computer System or Atari VCS before November 1982) is a home video game console from Atari, Inc. Released on September 11, 1977, it is credited with popularizing the use of microprocessor-based hardware and games contained on ROM cartridges, a format first used with the Fairchild Channel F in 1976. This contrasts with the older model of having dedicated hardware that could play only those games that were physically built into the unit. The 2600 was bundled with two joystick controllers, a conjoined pair of paddle controllers, and a game cartridge: initially \"Combat\",", "PlayStation (console) PlayStation (console) The PlayStation (officially abbreviated to PS, and commonly known as the PS1 or its codename, PSX) is a home video game console developed and marketed by Sony Computer Entertainment. The console was released on 3 December in Japan, 9 September 1995 in North America, 29 September 1995 in Europe, and 15 November 1995 in Australia. The console was the first of the PlayStation lineup of home video game consoles. It primarily competed with the Nintendo 64 and the Sega Saturn as part of the fifth generation of video game consoles. The PlayStation is the first \"computer entertainment platform\"", "1970s in video gaming 1970s in video gaming The 1970s saw the development of some the earliest video games, chiefly in arcade versions, but also several for the personal computer and the earliest games consoles. The so-called first generation of consoles first went on sale between 1968 and 1977 and included the Magnavox Odyssey, Telstar, Home Pong and Color TV-Game Their typical characteristics were: The second generation, first on sale 1976–88, were more advanced. Consoles first available in the late 1970s included the Fairchild Channel F, Atari 2600, Bally Astrocade and Magnavox Odyssey². The first handheld console, the Microvision, was released in 1979. Typical", "Fairchild Channel F and the Saba Videoplay, Nordmende Teleplay and ITT Tele-Match Processor, from Germany and also Dumont Videoplay and Barco Challenger from the Barco/Dumont company in Italy and Belgium. Fairchild Channel F The Fairchild Channel F, F for Fun, is a home video game console released by Fairchild Semiconductor in November 1976 across North America at the retail price of $169.95. It was also released in Japan in October the following year. It has the distinction of being the first programmable ROM cartridge–based video game console, and the first console to use a microprocessor. It was originally named Video Entertainment System, or", "Fairchild F Videocarts Fairchild F Videocarts The Fairchild Channel F is a game console released by Fairchild Semiconductor in November 1976. It has the distinction of being the first programmable ROM cartridge–based video game console, and the first console to use a microprocessor. It was launched as the Video Entertainment System, or VES, but when Atari released their VCS the next year, Fairchild renamed its machine. Twenty-six cartridges, termed 'Videocarts', were officially released to consumers during the ownership of Fairchild and Zircon, the first twenty-one of which were released by Fairchild. Several of these cartridges were capable of playing more than one game", "Sega Saturn Sega Saturn The is a 32-bit fifth-generation home video game console developed by Sega and released on November 22, 1994 in Japan, May 11, 1995 in North America, and July 8, 1995 in Europe. The successor to the successful Sega Genesis, the Saturn has a dual-CPU architecture and eight processors. Its games are in CD-ROM format, and its game library contains several arcade ports as well as original games. Development of the Saturn began in 1992, the same year Sega's groundbreaking 3D Model 1 arcade hardware debuted. Designed around a new CPU from Japanese electronics company Hitachi, another video display", "Atari 7800 Atari 7800 The Atari 7800 ProSystem, or simply the Atari 7800, is a home video game console officially released by the Atari Corporation in 1986. It is almost fully backward-compatible with the Atari 2600, the first console to have backward compatibility without the use of additional modules. It was considered affordable at a price of US$140. The 7800 has significantly improved graphics hardware over the 2600, but uses the same audio chip. It also shipped with a different model of joystick from the 2600-standard CX40. The 1986 launch is sometimes referred to as a \"re-release\" or \"relaunch\" because the Atari", "Dreamcast Dreamcast The is a home video game console released by Sega on November 27, 1998 in Japan, September 9, 1999 in North America, and October 14, 1999 in Europe. It was the first in the sixth generation of video game consoles, preceding Sony's PlayStation 2, Nintendo's GameCube and Microsoft's Xbox. The Dreamcast was Sega's final home console, marking the end of the company's 18 years in the console market. In contrast to the expensive hardware of the unsuccessful Sega Saturn, the Dreamcast was designed to reduce costs with \"off-the-shelf\" components, including a Hitachi SH-4 CPU and an NEC PowerVR2 GPU.", "Cassette Vision support 48 bits instruction which was way faster than systems using a separate ROM at the time. Using 8-bit ROM though a BUS would have divided the speed by 4. Although having only the ROM on the cartridge would have reduced their cost drastically, it would have greatly increased the cost of the console itself, incur more R&D cost and delay the release of the console. Cassette Vision The is a home video game console made by Epoch Co. and released in Japan on July 30, 1981. There is also a redesigned model called the Cassette Vision Jr. The term", "Atari Lynx Atari Lynx The Atari Lynx is an 16-bit handheld game console that was released by Atari Corporation in September 1989 in North America, and in Europe and Japan in 1990. It was the world's first handheld electronic game with a color LCD. It was also notable for its advanced graphics and ambidextrous layout. The Lynx competed with the Game Boy (released two months earlier), as well as the Game Gear and TurboExpress, both released the following year. It was discontinued in 1996. The Lynx system was originally developed by Epyx as the Handy Game. In 1986, two former Amiga designers,", "Halcyon (console) visit counters of all possible nodes in the game (unvisited nodes having a count of zero), the scene toggle information (item used/taken/etc.), applicable timers (real-time events would suspend when games were saved), and their trained speech sampled data. To resume play, all one had to do was speak their name when asked to do so by Halcyon. Halcyon (console) The Halcyon is a home video game console produced by RDI Video Systems. The system was planned to be released in January 1985, with initial retail price for the system being US$2500. Fewer than a dozen units are known to exist", "Allan Alcorn the next generation of home video-game hardware, but Kassar didn't even want to consider an alternative to the VCS. Toward the end of 1978, Alcorn assembled a team of engineers and began designing a game console called Cosmos. Unlike the VCS, Cosmos did not plug into a television set. It had a light-emitting diode display. Both systems played games stored on cartridges, but Cosmos's tiny cartridges had no electronics, simply a four-by-five inch mylar transparency that cost so little to manufacture that the entire cartridges would could retail for $10. Alcorn's team included two new engineers. Harry Jenkins, who had", "Dreamcast but it's unlikely any will go out with half as much class as Sega.\" Dreamcast The is a home video game console released by Sega on November 27, 1998 in Japan, September 9, 1999 in North America, and October 14, 1999 in Europe. It was the first in the sixth generation of video game consoles, preceding Sony's PlayStation 2, Nintendo's GameCube and Microsoft's Xbox. The Dreamcast was Sega's final home console, marking the end of the company's 18 years in the console market. In contrast to the expensive hardware of the unsuccessful Sega Saturn, the Dreamcast was designed to reduce", "Cassette Vision Cassette Vision The is a home video game console made by Epoch Co. and released in Japan on July 30, 1981. There is also a redesigned model called the Cassette Vision Jr. The term \"cassette\" is a contemporary Japanese synonym for ROM cartridge, not to be confused with the magnetic cassette tape format. In terms of power, it is comparable to the Atari 2600. The Cassette Vision has unusual controls: four knobs built into the console itself, two for each player (one for horizontal, one for vertical); plus two buttons per player. The system originally retailed for 13,500 yen, with", "Fairchild F Videocarts Zircon. \"Videocart-26: Alien Invasion\" is a video game released in 1981 by Zircon. Fairchild F Videocarts The Fairchild Channel F is a game console released by Fairchild Semiconductor in November 1976. It has the distinction of being the first programmable ROM cartridge–based video game console, and the first console to use a microprocessor. It was launched as the Video Entertainment System, or VES, but when Atari released their VCS the next year, Fairchild renamed its machine. Twenty-six cartridges, termed 'Videocarts', were officially released to consumers during the ownership of Fairchild and Zircon, the first twenty-one of which were released by", "Nintendo video game consoles Released July 15, 1983, the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) is an 8-bit video game console released by Nintendo in North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Oceania and Africa and was Nintendo's first home video game console released outside Japan. In Japan, it is known as the \"Family Computer\" (or \"Famicom\", as it is commonly abbreviated). Selling 61.91 million units worldwide, the NES helped revitalize the video game industry following the video game crash of 1983 and set the standard for subsequent consoles in everything from game design to business practices. The NES was the first console for which the manufacturer", "Second generation of video game consoles consoles read the cartridge memory and ran whatever program was stored there. Rather than being confined to a small selection of games included in the box, consumers could now amass libraries of game cartridges. The Fairchild VES was the world's first CPU-based video game console, introducing the cartridge-based game code storage format. It was released by Fairchild Semiconductor in November 1976. When Atari released their VCS the next year, Fairchild quickly renamed it to the Fairchild Channel F. The RCA Studio II is a video game console made by RCA that debuted in January 1977. The graphics of Studio II", "Master System console market in Japan, which was in its infancy at the time. Nakayama received permission to proceed with this project, leading to the release of Sega's first home video game system, the SG-1000. The SG-1000 was first released in Japan on July 15, 1983, at a price of JP¥15,000. It was launched on the same day that Nintendo released the Family Computer (Famicom) in Japan. Shortly after the launch of the SG-1000, Gulf and Western began to divest itself of its non-core businesses after the death of company founder, Charles Bluhdorn, so Nakayama and former Sega CEO David Rosen arranged", "Wii U Wii U The Wii U ( ) is a home video game console developed by Nintendo, and the successor to the Wii. The console was released in November 2012 and was the first eighth-generation video game console, as it competed with Microsoft's Xbox One and Sony's PlayStation 4. The Wii U is the first Nintendo console to support HD graphics. The system's primary controller is the Wii U GamePad, which features an embedded touchscreen, and combines directional buttons, analog sticks, and action buttons. The screen can be used either as a supplement to the main display (either providing an alternate,", "Intellivision unique disk-shaped directional pad provided unprecedented control for the time, and the numeric keypad opened up new options previously unavailable in console gaming.\" They praised the breadth of the software library but said there was a lack of genuinely stand-out games. The Intellivision controller features: The directional pad was called a \"control disc\" and marketed as having the \"functionality of both a joystick and a paddle\". The controller was ranked the fourth worst video game controller by IGN editor Craig Harris. Intellivision The Intellivision is a home video game console released by Mattel Electronics in 1979. The name \"Intellivision\" is", "Video game console partnered with Sony to work on a CD add-on for the SNES, but the deal fell apart when they realized how much control Sony wanted. Sony would use their work with Nintendo as the basis for their PlayStation game console. While CDs became an increasingly visible part of the market, CD-reading technology was still expensive in the 1990s, limiting NEC's and Sega's add-ons' sales. The first handheld game console released in the fourth generation was the Game Boy, on April 21, 1989. It went on to dominate handheld sales by an extremely large margin, despite featuring a low-contrast, unlit monochrome", "Fourth generation of video game consoles Fourth generation of video game consoles In the history of computer and video games, the fourth generation (more commonly referred to as the 16-bit era) of games consoles began on October 30, 1987 with the Japanese release of NEC Home Electronics' PC Engine (known as the TurboGrafx-16 in North America). Although NEC released the first fourth generation console, this era's sales were mostly dominated by the rivalry between Nintendo and Sega's consoles in North America: the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (the Super Famicom in Japan) and the Sega Genesis (named the Mega Drive in other regions). Nintendo was able to", "Video game console manufacturers shifted to optical media, specifically CD-ROM, for games. Although they were slower at loading game data than the cartridges available at that time, they were significantly cheaper to manufacture and had a larger capacity than the existing cartridge technology. NEC released the first CD-based gaming system, the TurboGrafx-CD (an add-on for the TurboGrafx-16), in December 4, 1988 in Japan and August 1, 1990 in the United States. Sega followed suit with the Sega CD (an add-on for the Sega Genesis) in Japan on December 12, 1991; Commodore stepped into the ring shortly after with the Amiga-CD32, the first 32-bit", "PlayStation (console) system's biggest successes were developed by either Nintendo itself or by second-parties, such as Rare. The lower production costs also allowed publishers an additional source of profit: budget-priced reissues of titles which had already recouped their development costs. PlayStation (console) The PlayStation (officially abbreviated to PS, and commonly known as the PS1 or its codename, PSX) is a home video game console developed and marketed by Sony Computer Entertainment. The console was released on 3 December in Japan, 9 September 1995 in North America, 29 September 1995 in Europe, and 15 November 1995 in Australia. The console was the first", "Fairchild Channel F Fairchild Channel F The Fairchild Channel F, F for Fun, is a home video game console released by Fairchild Semiconductor in November 1976 across North America at the retail price of $169.95. It was also released in Japan in October the following year. It has the distinction of being the first programmable ROM cartridge–based video game console, and the first console to use a microprocessor. It was originally named Video Entertainment System, or VES, but when Atari released its VCS the next year, Fairchild changed the name for its machine, although they continued to use the old name alongside it.", "Nintendo 64 Nintendo 64 The Nintendo 64, stylized as NINTENDO and abbreviated as N64, is Nintendo's third home video game console for the international market. Named for its 64-bit central processing unit, it was released in June 1996 in Japan, September 1996 in North America and Brazil, March 1997 in Europe and Australia, September 1997 in France. It was the last major home console to use the cartridge as its primary storage format until Nintendo's seventh console, the Nintendo Switch, released in 2017. The console was discontinued in mid-2002 following the launch of its successor, the GameCube, in 2001. Codenamed \"Project Reality\",", "PlayStation 2 By 1997 word had leaked to the press that the console would have backwards compatibility with the original PlayStation, a built-in DVD player, and Internet connectivity. Sony announced the PlayStation 2 (PS2) on March 1, 1999. The video game console was positioned as a competitor to Sega's Dreamcast, the first sixth-generation console to be released, although ultimately the main rivals of the PS2 were Nintendo's GameCube and Microsoft's Xbox. The Dreamcast itself launched very successfully in North America later that year, selling over 500,000 units within two weeks. Soon after the Dreamcast's North American launch, Sony unveiled the PlayStation 2", "Handheld game console Handheld game console A handheld game console is a small, portable self-contained video game console with a built-in screen, game controls, and speakers. Handheld game consoles are smaller than home video game consoles and contain the console, screen, speakers, and controls in one unit, allowing people to carry them and play them at any time or place. In 1976, Mattel introduced the first handheld electronic game with the release of \"Auto Race\". Later, several companies—including Coleco and Milton Bradley—made their own single-game, lightweight table-top or handheld electronic game devices. The oldest true handheld game console with interchangeable cartridges is the", "Game Gear Game Gear The is an 8-bit fourth generation handheld game console released by Sega on October 6, 1990 in Japan, in April throughout North America and Europe, and during 1992 in Australia. The Game Gear primarily competed with Nintendo's Game Boy, the Atari Lynx, and NEC's TurboExpress. The handheld shares much of its hardware with the Master System and is able to play its own titles as well as those of the Master System, the latter being made possible by the use of an adapter. Containing a full-color backlit screen with a landscape format, Sega positioned the Game Gear as", "Xbox (console) Xbox (console) The Xbox is a home video game console and the first installment in the Xbox series of consoles manufactured by Microsoft. It was released on November 15, 2001 in North America, followed by Australia, Europe and Japan in 2002. It was Microsoft's first foray into the gaming console market. It is a sixth generation console, and competed with Sony's PlayStation 2 and Nintendo's GameCube. It was also the first console produced by an American company since the Atari Jaguar ceased production in 1996. Announced in 2000, the Xbox was graphically powerful compared to its rivals, featured an 733", "Xbox (console) Xbox (console) The Xbox is a home video game console and the first installment in the Xbox series of consoles manufactured by Microsoft. It was released on November 15, 2001 in North America, followed by Australia, Europe and Japan in 2002. It was Microsoft's first foray into the gaming console market. It is a sixth generation console, and competed with Sony's PlayStation 2 and Nintendo's GameCube. It was also the first console produced by an American company since the Atari Jaguar ceased production in 1996. Announced in 2000, the Xbox was graphically powerful compared to its rivals, featured an 733", "Atari 2600 it was to actually be based around the 8-bit 6502. It was still unfinished when preliminary game programmers discovered that it was difficult to program. Atari cloned the Atari 3200 into the Sears Super Arcade II, but this was never released. Atari 2600 The Atari 2600 (or Atari Video Computer System or Atari VCS before November 1982) is a home video game console from Atari, Inc. Released on September 11, 1977, it is credited with popularizing the use of microprocessor-based hardware and games contained on ROM cartridges, a format first used with the Fairchild Channel F in 1976. This contrasts", "PlayStation Controller PlayStation Controller The PlayStation Controller is the first gamepad released by Sony Computer Entertainment for its PlayStation video game console. The original version (model SCPH-1010) was released alongside the PlayStation on December 3, 1994. Based on the basic button configuration established with Nintendo's Super NES Controller, the PlayStation Controller added a second pair of shoulder buttons for the middle fingers. Intended to update the gamepad for navigating 3D environments such as the ones PlayStation was designed to generate, the concept behind featuring shoulder buttons for both the index and middle fingers was to implement two-way directional depth controls using the", "Second generation of video game consoles games were black and white and resembled those of earlier Pong consoles and their clones. The Studio II also did not have joysticks or similar game controllers but instead used two ten button keypads that were built into the console itself. The console was capable of making simple beep sounds with slight variations in tone and length. In 1977, Atari released its CPU-based console called the Video Computer System (VCS), later called the Atari 2600. Nine games were designed and released for the holiday season. It would quickly become—by far—the most popular of the early consoles. The Bally Astrocade was", "Entex Adventure Vision Entex Adventure Vision The Adventure Vision is a self-contained (no external monitor is required) cartridge-based video game console released by Entex Industries in either August or October 1982. The Adventure Vision was Entex's second generation system. Their first console was the Entex Select-A-Game, released a year earlier in 1981. Control is through a single multi-position joystick and two sets of four buttons, one on each side of the joystick, for ease of play by both left- and right-handed players. Rather than using an LCD screen or an external television set like other systems of the time, the Adventure Vision uses", "PlayStation 3 PlayStation 3 The PlayStation 3 (PS3) is a home video game console developed by Sony Computer Entertainment. It is the successor to PlayStation 2, and is part of the PlayStation brand of consoles. It was first released on November 11, 2006, in Japan, November 17, 2006, in North America, and March 23, 2007, in Europe and Australia. The PlayStation 3 competed mainly against consoles such as Microsoft's Xbox 360 and Nintendo's Wii as part of the seventh generation of video game consoles. The console was first officially announced at E3 2005, and was released at the end of 2006. It", "Atari Lynx of handheld games with its Lynx game unit. A number of independent developers have released new titles for the Lynx including \"T-Tris\" (the first Lynx game with save-game feature), \"Alpine Games\", and \"Zaku\". Atari Lynx The Atari Lynx is an 16-bit handheld game console that was released by Atari Corporation in September 1989 in North America, and in Europe and Japan in 1990. It was the world's first handheld electronic game with a color LCD. It was also notable for its advanced graphics and ambidextrous layout. The Lynx competed with the Game Boy (released two months earlier), as well as", "RCA Studio II the system in North Carolina. Some analysts blamed the fact the RCA Studio II's games were in black and white, and could not compete with systems offering color. RCA Studio II The RCA Studio II is a home video game console made by RCA that debuted in January 1977. The graphics of Studio II games were black and white and resembled those of earlier Pong consoles and their clones. The Studio II also did not have joysticks or similar game controllers but instead used two ten-button keypads that were built into the console itself. The console was capable of making", "Seventh generation of video game consoles SquareTrade published console failure rate estimates, in which the proportion of its customers reporting a system failure in the first two years is 23.7% for Xbox 360, 10.0% for PlayStation 3, and 2.7% for Wii. For video game handhelds, the seventh generation began with the release of the Nintendo DS on November 21, 2004. This handheld was based on a design fundamentally different from the Game Boy and other handheld video game systems. The Nintendo DS offered new modes of input over previous generations such as a touch screen, the ability to connect wirelessly using IEEE 802.11b, as well as", "Video game development able to play independently developed games, and ran on microprocessors, marking the beginning of second-generation consoles, beginning with the release of the Fairchild Channel F in 1976. The flood of \"Pong\" clones led to the video game crash of 1977, which eventually came to an end with the mainstream success of Taito's 1978 arcade shooter game \"Space Invaders\", marking the beginning of the golden age of arcade video games and inspiring dozens of manufacturers to enter the market. Its creator Nishikado not only designed and programmed the game, but also did the artwork, engineered the arcade hardware, and put together", "Video game crash of 1983 in 1983 to avoid the missteps that caused the 1983 crash and avoid the stigma that video games had at that time. Prior to 1982, the most significant home console was the Atari 2600, along with numerous dedicated single-game consoles such as variants of \"Pong\". The Atari 2600 was launched in 1977, but in its first few years, had modest sales. In 1980, Atari created a licensed version of \"Space Invaders\" from Taito, which became known as the killer application for the console; sales of the Atari 2600 quadrupled, and the game was the first title to sell more than", "Atari Jaguar Atari Jaguar The Atari Jaguar is a home video game console that was developed by Atari Corporation. The console is the sixth programmable console to be developed under the Atari brand, originally released in North America in November 1993. It is also the last Atari console to use physical media. Controversially, Atari marketed the Jaguar as being the first 64-bit video game console, while competing with the existing 16-bit consoles (Sega Genesis and Super Nintendo Entertainment System) and the 32-bit 3DO Interactive Multiplayer platform (which launched the same year). Development on the Atari Jaguar started in the early 1990s by", "VC 4000 VC 4000 The VC 4000 is an early 8-bit cartridge-based home video game console released in Germany in 1978 by Interton. The console is quite obscure outside Germany, but a myriad of software-compatible systems can be found in numerous European countries (see 1292 Advanced Programmable Video System). It's unknown if Interton designed and produced the VC 4000 within their own rights, or if they were sold the rights to design and produce it. This is because many other foreign brands have produced \"Clones\" of this system in the preceding years. The VC-4000's power comes from a Signetics 2650 CPU (which", "Bally Astrocade Bally Astrocade The Astrocade (also known as Bally Arcade or initially as Bally ABA-1000) is a second generation home video game console and simple computer system designed by a team at Midway, at that time the videogame division of Bally. It was originally announced as the \"Bally Home Library Computer\" in October 1977 and initially made available for mail order in December 1977. But due to production delays, the units were first released to stores in April 1978 and its branding changed to \"Bally Professional Arcade\". It was marketed only for a limited time before Bally decided to exit the", "SG-1000 SG-1000 The also known as the Sega Computer Video Game SG-1000, is a home video game console manufactured by Sega and released in Japan, Australia, and other regions. It was Sega's first entry into the home video game hardware business, and provided the basis for the more successful Master System. Introduced in 1983, the SG-1000 was released on the same day that Nintendo released the Family Computer in Japan. The SG-1000 was released in several forms, including the SC-3000 computer and the redesigned SG-1000 II, also known as the Mark II, released in 1984. Developed in response to a downturn", "Seventh generation of video game consoles Seventh generation of video game consoles In the history of video games, the seventh generation of home consoles began in late 2005 with the release of Microsoft's Xbox 360, and continued with the release of Sony Computer Entertainment's PlayStation 3 and Nintendo's Wii the following year. Each new console introduced a new type of breakthrough in technology. The Xbox 360 offered games rendered natively at high-definition video (HD) resolutions, the PlayStation 3 offered HD movie playback via a built-in 3D Blu-ray Disc player, and the Wii focused on integrating controllers with movement sensors as well as joysticks. Some of the", "History of video games 1982. Video arcades with large, graphics-decorated coin-operated machines were common at malls and popular, affordable home consoles such as the Atari 2600 and Intellivision enabled people to play games on their home TVs. During the 1980s, gaming computers, early online gaming and handheld LCD games emerged; this era was affected by the video game crash of 1983. From 1976 to 1992, the second generation of video consoles emerged. The third generation of consoles, which were 8-bit units, emerged from 1983 to 1995. The fourth generation of consoles, which were 16-bit models, emerged from 1987 to 1999. The 1990s saw the", "Atari 5200 Atari 5200 The Atari 5200 SuperSystem, commonly known as the Atari 5200, is a home video game console that was introduced in 1982 by Atari Inc. as a higher-end complementary console for the popular Atari 2600. The 5200 was created to compete with the Intellivision, but wound up more directly competing with the ColecoVision shortly after its release. The 5200's internal hardware is almost identical to that of Atari's 8-bit computers, although software is not directly compatible between the two systems. The 5200's controllers have an analog joystick and a numeric keypad along with start, pause, and reset buttons. The", "Nintendo Entertainment System and found that it was easy to use and caused no discomfort. Ultimately though, they installed a 15-pin expansion port on the front of the console so that an optional arcade-style joystick could be used. Uemura added an eject lever to the cartridge slot which was not really necessary, but he believed that children could be entertained by pressing it. He also added a microphone to the second controller with the idea that it could be used to make players' voices sound through the TV speaker. The console was released on July 15, 1983 as the Family Computer (or Famicom", "Fifth generation of video game consoles Fifth generation of video game consoles The fifth-generation era (also known as the 32-bit era, the 64-bit era and the 3D era) refers to computer and video games, video game consoles and video game handhelds from approximately 1993 to 2002. For home consoles, the best-selling console was the PlayStation by a wide margin, followed by the Nintendo 64 and then the Sega Saturn. For handhelds, this era was characterized by significant fragmentation, because the first handheld of the generation, the Genesis Nomad, had a lifespan of just two years, and the Virtual Boy had a lifespan of less than one.", "Third generation of video game consoles Third generation of video game consoles In the history of computer and video games, the third generation (sometimes referred to as the 8-bit era) began on July 15, 1983, with the Japanese release of both the Family Computer (referred to in Japan in the abbreviated form \"Famicom\", and later known as the Nintendo Entertainment System, or NES, in the rest of the world) and SG-1000. This generation marked the end of the North American video game crash, and a shift in the dominance of home video games from the United States to Japan. Some features that distinguished third generation consoles", "History of video games practically ended retail interest in video gaming products, an 8-bit third generation of video game consoles started in Japan as early as 1983 with the release of both Nintendo's Family Computer (\"Famicom\") and Sega's SG-1000 on July 15. The first clearly trumped the second in terms of commercial success in the country, causing Sega to replace it, two years later, by a severely improved and modernized version called the Sega Mark III. In efforts to make the Famicom marketable in the US, Nintendo created a completely redesigned version of it, called the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), to be sold in", "1980s release its Famicom (released in 1983 in Japan) in the United States under the name Nintendo Entertainment System (NES). It was bundled with \"Super Mario Bros.\" and it suddenly became a success. The NES dominated the American and Japanese market until the rise of the next generation of consoles in the early 1990s, causing some to call this time the \"Nintendo era\". Sega released its 16-bit console, Mega Drive/Genesis, in 1988 in Japan and in North America in 1989. In 1989, Nintendo released the Game Boy, a monochrome handheld console. The beginning of the decade saw the continuation of the", "Video game console and voice-overs that became standard on PlayStation discs. Nintendo released several highly acclaimed titles, such as Super Mario 64 and , and the Nintendo 64 was able to sell tens of millions of units on the strength of first-party titles alone, but its constant struggles against Sony would make the Nintendo 64 the last home console to use cartridges as a medium for game distribution until the Nintendo Switch in 2017. For handheld game consoles, the fifth generation began with the release of the Virtual Boy on July 21, 1995. Nintendo extensively advertised the Virtual Boy, and claimed to have", "RCA Studio II RCA Studio II The RCA Studio II is a home video game console made by RCA that debuted in January 1977. The graphics of Studio II games were black and white and resembled those of earlier Pong consoles and their clones. The Studio II also did not have joysticks or similar game controllers but instead used two ten-button keypads that were built into the console itself. The console was capable of making simple beep sounds with slight variations in tone and length. The Studio II included five built-in games. The Studio II was not a successful product; the previously released", "Super Cassette Vision of the Nintendo Famicom, leading Epoch to drop out of the console market by 1987. Super Cassette Vision The is a home video game console made by Epoch Co. and released in Japan on July 17, 1984, and in Europe, specifically France, later in 1984. A successor to the Cassette Vision, it is a third-generation console that competed with the Nintendo Famicom and Sega SG-1000 in Japan. Epoch's original Cassette Vision was introduced in Japan by Epoch in 1981, which had steady sales and took over 70% of the Japanese home console market at the time, with around 400,000 units", "Atari, Inc. game crash of 1983, which caused losses that totaled more than $500 million. Warner's stock price slid from $60 to $20, and the company began searching for a buyer for Atari. When Texas Instruments exited the home-computer market in November 1983 because of the price war with Commodore, many believed that Atari would be next. Atari was still the number one console maker in every market except Japan. Nintendo, a Japanese video game company, planned to release its first programmable video game console, the Famicom (later known to the rest of the world as the NES), in 1983. Looking to", "Super Cassette Vision Super Cassette Vision The is a home video game console made by Epoch Co. and released in Japan on July 17, 1984, and in Europe, specifically France, later in 1984. A successor to the Cassette Vision, it is a third-generation console that competed with the Nintendo Famicom and Sega SG-1000 in Japan. Epoch's original Cassette Vision was introduced in Japan by Epoch in 1981, which had steady sales and took over 70% of the Japanese home console market at the time, with around 400,000 units sold. However, the introduction of next-generation systems from Nintendo, Casio and Sega quickly pushed back", "Electronic Entertainment Expo 1995 Electronic Entertainment Expo 1995 The Electronic Entertainment Expo 1995, commonly known as E3 1995, was the first Electronic Entertainment Expo held. The event took place at the Los Angeles Convention Center from May 11-13, 1995, with 50,000 total attendees. Highlights of the 1995 show include Sony's announcement of the PlayStation's release date and pricing, Sega's surprise launch of the Sega Saturn, and Nintendo's showcase of the Virtual Boy console. The Virtual Boy, Nintendo's intermediary console released between the Super Nintendo Entertainment System and the Nintendo 64, was showcased prominently. The Nintendo 64, then known as the \"Ultra 64\", was presented", "TurboGrafx-16 TurboGrafx-16 The TurboGrafx-16 Entertainment SuperSystem, known in Japan and France as the , is a cartridge based home video game console manufactured and marketed by NEC Home Electronics, and designed by Hudson Soft. It was released in Japan on October 30, 1987 and in the United States on August 29, 1989. It also had a limited release in the United Kingdom and Spain in 1990, known as simply TurboGrafx and based on the American model, while the Japanese model was imported and distributed in France in 1989. It was the first console released in the 16-bit era, although it used", "Home video game console on the platform. The Nintendo GameCube was discontinued in 2007 with the release of Wii. Microsoft released its first games console, the Xbox in North America on November 15, 2001, in Japan on February 22, 2002, and in Europe and Australia on March 14, 2002. It was the first console to employ a hard drive right out of the box to save games, the first to include an Ethernet port for broadband internet, and the beginning of Microsoft's online Xbox LIVE service. Microsoft was able to attract many PC developers by using the NT kernel and DirectX from their Windows", "Nintendo console, which released in North America in 1985, and in Europe throughout 1986 and 1987. The console was initially released in Japan as the Family Computer (abbreviated as Famicom) in 1983. The best-selling gaming console of its time, the NES helped revitalise the US video game industry following the video game crash of 1983. With the NES, Nintendo introduced a now-standard business model of licensing third-party developers, authorising them to produce and distribute games for Nintendo's platform. The NES was bundled with \"Super Mario Bros.\", one of the best-selling video games of all time, and received ports of Nintendo's most", "Sixth generation of video game consoles Sixth generation of video game consoles In the history of video games, the sixth-generation era (sometimes referred to as the 128-bit era; see \"Bits and system power\" below) refers to the computer and video games, video game consoles, and video game handhelds available at the turn of the 21st century which was from 1998 to 2005. Platforms of the sixth generation include the Sega Dreamcast, Sony PlayStation 2, Nintendo GameCube, and Microsoft Xbox. This era began on November 27, 1998 with the Japanese release of the Dreamcast, and it was joined by the PlayStation 2 in March 2000, the GameCube", "Sixth generation of video game consoles Sixth generation of video game consoles In the history of video games, the sixth-generation era (sometimes referred to as the 128-bit era; see \"Bits and system power\" below) refers to the computer and video games, video game consoles, and video game handhelds available at the turn of the 21st century which was from 1998 to 2005. Platforms of the sixth generation include the Sega Dreamcast, Sony PlayStation 2, Nintendo GameCube, and Microsoft Xbox. This era began on November 27, 1998 with the Japanese release of the Dreamcast, and it was joined by the PlayStation 2 in March 2000, the GameCube", "Sega Saturn could have saved them.\" According to Stuart, Sega \"didn't see ... the roots of a prevailing trend, away from arcade conversions and traditional role-playing adventures and toward a much wider console development community with fresh ideas about gameplay and structure.\" Pulp365 reviews editor Matt Paprocki concluded \"the Saturn is a relic, but an important one, which represents the harshness of progress and what it can leave in its wake\". Sega Saturn The is a 32-bit fifth-generation home video game console developed by Sega and released on November 22, 1994 in Japan, May 11, 1995 in North America, and July 8,", "Eighth generation of video game consoles Eighth generation of video game consoles In the history of video games, the eighth generation includes consoles released since by Nintendo, Microsoft, and Sony. For home consoles, the eighth generation began on November 18, 2012 with the release of the Wii U, and continued with the release of the PlayStation 4 on November 15, 2013, and Xbox One on November 22, 2013. The Wii U was eventually discontinued on January 31, 2017 to make way for the Nintendo Switch on March 3, 2017. These video game consoles follow their seventh generation predecessors: Nintendo's Wii, Sony's PlayStation 3 and Microsoft's Xbox", "Eighth generation of video game consoles Eighth generation of video game consoles In the history of video games, the eighth generation includes consoles released since by Nintendo, Microsoft, and Sony. For home consoles, the eighth generation began on November 18, 2012 with the release of the Wii U, and continued with the release of the PlayStation 4 on November 15, 2013, and Xbox One on November 22, 2013. The Wii U was eventually discontinued on January 31, 2017 to make way for the Nintendo Switch on March 3, 2017. These video game consoles follow their seventh generation predecessors: Nintendo's Wii, Sony's PlayStation 3 and Microsoft's Xbox", "Second generation of video game consoles Second generation of video game consoles The second generation of computer and video games began in 1976 with the release of the Fairchild Channel F. It coincided with and was partly fuelled by the golden age of arcade video games, a peak era of popularity and innovation for the medium. The early period saw the launch of several consoles as various companies decided to enter the market; later releases were in direct response to the earlier consoles. The Atari 2600 was the dominant console for much of the second generation, with other consoles such as Intellivision, the Odyssey², and ColecoVision", "Video gaming in the United States future founders of Atari create an arcade game of it titled \"Computer Space\" that became the first video arcade game ever released. The 1970s included the birth of the video game console. The first console released was titled \"Magnavox Odyssey\" and the foundation of Atari occurred around the same time, marking the start of \"Pong's\" development. Upon \"Pong's\" completion it become the hottest selling Christmas product of 1975. The evolution of the console was incredibly rapid. A few years after their invention, consoles received microprocessors and programmable ROM cartridge based games, allowing users the ability to change games by simply", "VC 4000 grouped by compatibility family (due to the slots). The games for the VC 4000 were released on ROM cartridges known as cassettes. VC 4000 The VC 4000 is an early 8-bit cartridge-based home video game console released in Germany in 1978 by Interton. The console is quite obscure outside Germany, but a myriad of software-compatible systems can be found in numerous European countries (see 1292 Advanced Programmable Video System). It's unknown if Interton designed and produced the VC 4000 within their own rights, or if they were sold the rights to design and produce it. This is because many other", "Virtual Boy Virtual Boy The Virtual Boy is a 32-bit table-top video game console developed and manufactured by Nintendo. Released in 1995, it was marketed as the first console capable of displaying stereoscopic 3D graphics. The player uses the console in a manner similar to a head-mounted display, placing their head against the eyepiece to see a red monochrome display. The games use a parallax effect to create the illusion of depth. Sales failed to meet targets, and by early 1996, Nintendo ceased distribution and game development, only ever releasing 22 games for the system. Development of the Virtual Boy lasted four", "Handheld game console Milton Bradley Microvision in 1979. Nintendo is credited with popularizing the handheld console concept with the release of the Game Boy in 1989 and continues to dominate the handheld console market. The origins of handheld game consoles are found in handheld and tabletop electronic game devices of the 1970s and early 1980s. These electronic devices are capable of playing only a single game, they fit in the palm of the hand or on a tabletop, and they may make use of a variety of video displays such as LED, VFD, or LCD. In 1978, handheld electronic games were described by", "RCA Studio II Fairchild Channel F made it obsolete at launch and the Atari 2600, superior to both, was released ten months. After poor Christmas sales in 1977, RCA discontinued the Studio II. RCA engineer Joseph Weisbecker began building his own personal computer at home in the late 1960s, and encouraged the company to sell small computers. RCA introduced the Studio II video game console—using Weisbecker's COSMAC 1802 CPU—in January 1977. Joyce Weisbecker, the daughter of the console's designer, learned how to program her father's homemade home computer as a child. After graduating from high school in 1976, she used her familiarity with", "Magnavox Odyssey² Magnavox Odyssey² The Magnavox Odyssey², also known as Philips Odyssey² is a second generation home video game console released in 1978. It was sold in Europe as the Philips Videopac G7000, in Brazil as the Philips Odyssey and in Japan as Odyssey2 (オデッセイ2 \"odessei2\"). Odyssey² was one of the major three home consoles prior to the 1983 video game market crash, along with Atari 2600 and IntelliVision. In the early 1970s, Magnavox pioneered the home video game industry by successfully bringing the first home console to market, the Odyssey, which was quickly followed by a number of later models, each", "PlayStation 2 PlayStation 2 The PlayStation 2 (PS2) is a home video game console that was developed by Sony Computer Entertainment. It is the successor to the PlayStation and is the second installment in the PlayStation lineup of consoles. It was released in 2000 and competed with Sega's Dreamcast, Nintendo's GameCube and Microsoft's Xbox in the sixth generation of video game consoles. Announced in 1999, the PlayStation 2 offered backwards compatibility for its predecessor's DualShock controller, as well as for its games. The PlayStation 2 is the best-selling video game console of all time, selling over 155 million units, with 150 million", "Fourth generation of video game consoles of color handheld gaming technology and had the added benefit of using the same game cartridges or 'HuCards' as the TurboGrafx16, it had even worse battery life than the Lynx and Game Gear - about three hours on six contemporary AA batteries - selling only 1.5 million units. Fourth generation of video game consoles In the history of computer and video games, the fourth generation (more commonly referred to as the 16-bit era) of games consoles began on October 30, 1987 with the Japanese release of NEC Home Electronics' PC Engine (known as the TurboGrafx-16 in North America). Although NEC", "Video gaming in Japan to create a cartridge-based console called the Famicom, which is short for Family Computer. Masayuki Uemura designed the system. The console was released on July 15, 1983 as the Family Computer (or Famicom for short) alongside three ports of Nintendo's successful arcade games \"Donkey Kong\", \"Donkey Kong Jr.\" and \"Popeye\". The Famicom was slow to gather momentum; a bad chip set caused the initial release of the system to crash. Following a product recall and a reissue with a new motherboard, the Famicom’s popularity soared, becoming the best-selling game console in Japan by the end of 1984. By 1988, industry", "Second generation of video game consoles BASIC cartridge included for free; this system was known as the Bally Computer System, but was changed to Astrocade in 1982. It sold under this name until the video game crash of 1983, and then disappeared around 1984. In 1978, Magnavox released its microprocessor-based console, the Odyssey², in the United States and Canada. Philips Electronics released this same game console as the Philips G7000 for the European market. Although the Odyssey 2 never became as popular as the Atari consoles, it managed to sell several million units through 1983. Philips had also designed the more powerful Interton VC 4000 console", "Family BASIC \"Family BASIC\" development componentry, or appear in premade \"Family BASIC\" games. \"Family BASIC\" cannot normally be used on NES consoles because that console lacks the Famicom's 15-pin expansion port. This can be circumvented by the use of a custom I/O adapter that hooks into the otherwise unused NES Expansion Port on the bottom of the console. Family BASIC Family BASIC or Famicom BASIC is the consumer product for programming Nintendo's Family Computer video game console of Japan. \"Family BASIC\" was launched on June 21, 1984 to consumers in Japan by Nintendo, in cooperation with Hudson Soft and Sharp Corporation. A", "Ralph H. Baer at a \"Brown Box\" that became the blueprint for the first home video game console, the Magnavox Odyssey. Baer continued to design several other consoles and computer game units, including contributing to design of the \"Simon\" electronic game. Baer continued to work in electronics until his death in 2014, with over 150 patents to his name. Baer is considered \"the Father of Video Games\" due to his many contributions to games and the video game industry in the latter half of the 20th century. In February, 2006, he was awarded the National Medal of Technology for \"his groundbreaking and pioneering", "History of video games them are easily acquired however, as there is a robust grey market importing and distributing them across the country. Another side effect of this law has been increased copyright infringement of video games. In the sixth generation of video game consoles, Sega exited the hardware market, Nintendo fell behind, Sony solidified its lead in the industry, and Microsoft developed their first gaming console. The generation opened with the launch of the Sega Dreamcast in 1998. As the first console with a built-in modem for Internet support and online play, it was initially successful, but sales and popularity would start to", "Sega Genesis Hayao Nakayama, for advice on how to proceed. Nakayama advocated that the company leverage its hardware expertise gained through years working in the arcade industry to move into the home console market in Japan, which was in its infancy at the time. Nakayama received permission to proceed with this project, leading to the release of Sega's first home video game system, the SG-1000, in July 1983. The SG-1000 was not successful; while it had sold 160,000 units in Japan, far greater than any of Sega's arcade platforms, sales at stores were dominated by Nintendo's Famicom which had been released the", "Xbox (console) was preferred by far over the other suggested names and \"Xbox\" became the official name of the product. It was Microsoft's first video game console after collaborating with Sega to port Windows CE to the Dreamcast console. Microsoft repeatedly delayed the console, which was first mentioned publicly in late 1999 during interviews with Microsoft's then-CEO Bill Gates. Gates stated: \"we want Xbox to be the platform of choice for the best and most creative game developers in the world\". The Xbox was officially announced at the Game Developers Conference on March 10, 2000. Audiences were impressed by the console's technology.", "PlayStation 3 sites by Sony Directories PlayStation 3 The PlayStation 3 (PS3) is a home video game console developed by Sony Computer Entertainment. It is the successor to PlayStation 2, and is part of the PlayStation brand of consoles. It was first released on November 11, 2006, in Japan, November 17, 2006, in North America, and March 23, 2007, in Europe and Australia. The PlayStation 3 competed mainly against consoles such as Microsoft's Xbox 360 and Nintendo's Wii as part of the seventh generation of video game consoles. The console was first officially announced at E3 2005, and was released at the", "Nintendo Entertainment System Nintendo Entertainment System The Nintendo Entertainment System (commonly abbreviated as NES) is an 8-bit home video game console developed and manufactured by Nintendo. It was conceived in Japan as the , commonly known by the portmanteau abbreviation or FC, launched there on July 15, 1983, and rebranded as the NES for release outside of Japan. The NES was launched in the New York City and Los Angeles test markets in 1985, and fully throughout the US in 1986. The NES was launched in Europe during 1986 and 1987, and Australia in 1987. Brazil saw only unlicensed clones until the official", "Video game console functions such as CD players, DVD players, Blu-ray disc players, web browsers, set-top boxes and more. The first video games appeared in the 1960s. They were played on massive computers connected to vector displays, not analog televisions. Ralph H. Baer conceived the idea of a home video game in 1951. In the late 1960s, while working for Sanders Associates, Baer created a series of video game console designs. One of these designs, which gained the nickname of the 1966 \"Brown Box\", featured changeable game modes and was demonstrated to several TV manufacturers, ultimately leading to an agreement between Sanders Associates", "Wii Remote however; the first video game controller to make use of motion sensitivity was Le Stick for the Atari 2600 and Commodore 64, manufactured by Datasoft Inc, and released in 1981. Other publications have noted specific complaints regarding control. GameSpot expressed that some motions in \"\" failed to transmit or meet expectation during gameplay. Similar observations were made on other titles made available during the Wii launch period. ComputerAndVideoGames.com reported that \"Most prominent is the first batch of games, many of which do a better job at exposing the obstacles of full motion control, rather than the benefits... \"\"...is near unplayable,", "RCA Studio II the architecture to create \"School House I\" and \"Speedway/Tag\" for the Studio II, becoming the first woman to develop a commercial video game. The Studio II sold poorly. An internal sales document put RCA's own sales estimate for the console between 53,000-64,000 units sold between February 15, 1977 and January 31, 1978. It was released after the superior Fairchild Channel F, and the very successful Atari 2600 also appeared in 1977. RCA announced the console's discontinuation in February 1978 because of low Christmas sales. While losses were not disclosed, the company laid off 120 workers at its plant that produced", "Wii Wii The Wii ( ; known unofficially as the Nintendo Wii) is a home video game console released by Nintendo on November 19, 2006. As a seventh-generation console, the Wii competed with Microsoft's Xbox 360 and Sony's PlayStation 3. Nintendo states that its console targets a broader demographic than that of the two others. , the Wii led its generation over the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in worldwide sales, with more than 101 million units sold; in December 2009, the console broke the sales record for a single month in the United States. The Wii introduced the Wii Remote", "Atari 2600 homebrew original titles. Several games have received attention outside the homebrew community; some have been included in an Atari 2600 game anthology from by Activision. With severe resource limitations including only 128 bytes of RAM and no video frame buffer, the 2600 is a difficult machine to program. However, tools such as emulators, the batari Basic language, and a wealth of documentation, exist to assist the homebrewer. The Atari 2600 game console was introduced to the market by Atari, Inc. in 1977 as the Atari Video Computer System or Atari VCS for short. Since the console's release, hundreds of different game", "Fifth generation of video game consoles graphics to 3D computer graphics, as well as the shift from home consoles using ROM cartridges to optical discs. The development of the Internet also made it possible to store and download tape and ROM images of older games, eventually leading 7th generation consoles (such as the Xbox 360, Wii, PlayStation 3, PlayStation Portable, and Nintendo DS) to make many older games available for purchase or download. There was considerable overlap between this and the sixth generation of consoles, which began with the launch of the Dreamcast in Japan on November 27, 1998. The fifth generation officially ended with the", "Handheld game console emulator that plays a handful of multi-carts (like the GB Station Light II). Outside of Asia (especially China) however the Gameking remains relatively unheard of due to the enduring popularity of Japanese handhelds such as those manufactured by Nintendo and Sony. The PlayStation Portable (officially abbreviated PSP) is a handheld game console manufactured and marketed by Sony Computer Entertainment. Development of the console was first announced during E3 2003, and it was unveiled on May 11, 2004, at a Sony press conference before E3 2004. The system was released in Japan on December 12, 2004, in North America on March", "GameCube GameCube The GameCube is a home video game console released by Nintendo in Japan and North America in 2001 and Europe and Australia in 2002. The sixth generation console is the successor to the Nintendo 64 and competed with Sony's PlayStation 2 and Microsoft's Xbox. The GameCube is the first Nintendo console to use optical discs as its primary storage medium. The discs are in the miniDVD format and the system was not designed to play full sized DVDs or audio CDs. The console supports online gaming for a small number of games via the broadband or modem adapter and", "Bally Astrocade released video games for the system. Other Cartridges Prototypes Homebrew Bally Astrocade The Astrocade (also known as Bally Arcade or initially as Bally ABA-1000) is a second generation home video game console and simple computer system designed by a team at Midway, at that time the videogame division of Bally. It was originally announced as the \"Bally Home Library Computer\" in October 1977 and initially made available for mail order in December 1977. But due to production delays, the units were first released to stores in April 1978 and its branding changed to \"Bally Professional Arcade\". It was marketed only", "History of video games the country as a product unrelated to video gaming. For this same reason, the company also developed a toy robot accessory called the R.O.B. to be sold together with some versions. The NES was released on 18 October 1985 in the US, reviving the video game market in the country and proving successful to the American audience, peaking in popularity between 1987 and the early 1990s. The console was later released in other Western countries, but because of heavy competition from home computers such as the ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC and Commodore 64, and a lack of marketing, the NES", "Fourth generation of video game consoles the name PC Engine. It launched in North America on August 29, 1989. Initially, the PC Engine was quite successful in Japan, partly due to titles available on the then-new CD-ROM format. NEC released a CD add-on in 1990 and by 1992 had released a combination TurboGrafx and CD-ROM system known as the TurboDuo. In the United States, NEC used Bonk, a head-banging caveman, as their mascot and featured him in most of the TurboGrafx advertising from 1990 to 1994. The platform was well received initially, especially in larger markets, but failed to make inroads into the smaller metropolitan areas", "Xbox 360 left a message for the hackers on PartnerNet which read \"Winners Don't Break Into PartnerNet.\". Other games that were leaked in the PartnerNet fiasco include Shenmue and Shenmue 2. Xbox 360 The Xbox 360 is a home video game console developed by Microsoft. As the successor to the original Xbox, it is the second console in the Xbox series. It competed with Sony's PlayStation 3 and Nintendo's Wii as part of the seventh generation of video game consoles. It was officially unveiled on MTV on May 12, 2005, with detailed launch and game information announced later that month at the", "Fifth generation of video game consoles in 2006, the same year that the PlayStation 3 was released in Japan and North America. Fifth generation of video game consoles The fifth-generation era (also known as the 32-bit era, the 64-bit era and the 3D era) refers to computer and video games, video game consoles and video game handhelds from approximately 1993 to 2002. For home consoles, the best-selling console was the PlayStation by a wide margin, followed by the Nintendo 64 and then the Sega Saturn. For handhelds, this era was characterized by significant fragmentation, because the first handheld of the generation, the Genesis Nomad, had a", "1990s in video gaming was discontinued prematurely as sales slowed following the release of the PlayStation 2 on March 4, 2000. Said to be one of the most revolutionary video games, \"Super Mario 64\" (1996) was praised for how it took to 3D environments of wide open spaces and graphics at the time. Many games that moved onto 3D also tried to mimic Mario's success. Instead of pixels, polygons became a standard sight to be in video games from then on as they looked more lifelike when programmed into the right shapes. Lara Croft of the \"Tomb Raider\" series became the first video game", "Atari 7800 is a slightly customized 6502 processor, the Atari SALLY (sometimes described as a \"6502C\"), running at 1.79 MHz. By some measures the 7800 is more powerful, and by others less, than Nintendo's 1983 Famicom. The 7800 was initially released in southern California in June 1984, following an announcement on May 21, 1984 at the Summer Consumer Electronics Show. Thirteen games were announced for the system's launch: \"Ms. Pac-Man\", \"Pole Position II\", \"Centipede\", \"Joust\", \"Dig Dug\", \"Desert Falcon\", \"\", \"Galaga\", \"Food Fight\", \"Ballblazer\", \"Rescue on Fractalus!\", \"Track & Field\", and \"Xevious\". Atari was a sponsor of the 1984 Summer Olympics and" ]

[ 10.0078125 ]

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[ "All of Britain's campaigns against New France succeeded in 1759, part of what became known as an Annus Mirabilis. Fort Niagara and Fort Carillon on 8 July 1758 fell to sizable British forces, cutting off French frontier forts further west. On 13 September 1759, following a three-month siege of Quebec, General James Wolfe defeated the French on the Plains of Abraham outside the city. The French staged a counteroffensive in the spring of 1760, with initial success at the Battle of Sainte-Foy, but they were unable to retake Quebec, due to British naval superiority following the battle of Neuville. The French forces retreated to Montreal, where on 8 September they surrendered to overwhelming British numerical superiority." ]

[ "Rome's diplomatic agreement with her neighbours of Latium confirmed the Latin league and brought the cult of Diana from Aricia to the Aventine. and established on the Aventine in the \"commune Latinorum Dianae templum\": At about the same time, the temple of Jupiter Latiaris was built on the Alban mount, its stylistic resemblance to the new Capitoline temple pointing to Rome's inclusive hegemony. Rome's affinity to the Latins allowed two Latin cults within the pomoerium: and the cult to Hercules at the ara maxima in the Forum Boarium was established through commercial connections with Tibur. and the Tusculan cult of Castor as the patron of cavalry found a home close to the Forum Romanum: Juno Sospita and Juno Regina were brought from Italy, and Fortuna Primigenia from Praeneste. In 217, Venus was brought from Sicily and installed in a temple on the Capitoline hill.", "The situation became so tense that war with the United States seemed imminent. On April 22, 1914, on the initiative of Felix A. Sommerfeld and Sherburne Hopkins, Pancho Villa traveled to Juárez to calm fears along the border and asked President Wilson's emissary George Carothers to tell \"Señor Wilson\" that he had no problems with the American occupation of Veracruz. Carothers wrote to Secretary William Jennings Bryan: \"As far as he was concerned we could keep Vera Cruz [sic] and hold it so tight that not even water could get in to Huerta and . . . he could not feel any resentment\". Whether trying to please the U.S. government or through the diplomatic efforts of Sommerfeld and Carothers, or maybe as a result of both, Villa stepped out from under Carranza’s stated foreign policy.", "The U.S. War Department created the first antecedent of the U.S. Air Force in 1907, which through a succession of changes of organization, titles, and missions advanced toward eventual separation 40 years later. In World War II, almost 68,000 U.S airmen died helping to win the war; only the infantry suffered more enlisted casualties. In practice, the U.S. Army Air Forces (USAAF) was virtually independent of the Army during World War II, but officials wanted formal independence. The National Security Act of 1947 was signed on on 26 July 1947 by President Harry S Truman, which established the Department of the Air Force, but it was not not until 18 September 1947, when the first secretary of the Air Force, W. Stuart Symington was sworn into office that the Air Force was officially formed.", "The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the exact dates and routes traveled, provide the subject of ongoing research and discussion. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the land bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to north west North America (Alaska). Alaska was a glacial refugia because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist. The Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska (East Beringia) for thousands of years.", "In the mid-16th century, \"botanical gardens\" were founded in a number of Italian universities – the Padua botanical garden in 1545 is usually considered to be the first which is still in its original location. These gardens continued the practical value of earlier \"physic gardens\", often associated with monasteries, in which plants were cultivated for medical use. They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject. Lectures were given about the plants grown in the gardens and their medical uses demonstrated. Botanical gardens came much later to northern Europe; the first in England was the University of Oxford Botanic Garden in 1621. Throughout this period, botany remained firmly subordinate to medicine.", "The FAA gradually assumed additional functions. The hijacking epidemic of the 1960s had already brought the agency into the field of civil aviation security. In response to the hijackings on September 11, 2001, this responsibility is now primarily taken by the Department of Homeland Security. The FAA became more involved with the environmental aspects of aviation in 1968 when it received the power to set aircraft noise standards. Legislation in 1970 gave the agency management of a new airport aid program and certain added responsibilities for airport safety. During the 1960s and 1970s, the FAA also started to regulate high altitude (over 500 feet) kite and balloon flying.", "Around the beginning of the 20th century, William James (1842–1910) coined the term \"radical empiricism\" to describe an offshoot of his form of pragmatism, which he argued could be dealt with separately from his pragmatism – though in fact the two concepts are intertwined in James's published lectures. James maintained that the empirically observed \"directly apprehended universe needs ... no extraneous trans-empirical connective support\", by which he meant to rule out the perception that there can be any value added by seeking supernatural explanations for natural phenomena. James's \"radical empiricism\" is thus not radical in the context of the term \"empiricism\", but is instead fairly consistent with the modern use of the term \"empirical\". (His method of argument in arriving at this view, however, still readily encounters debate within philosophy even today.)" ]

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[ "Some cyclists are outside." ]

[ "Everyone is driving a car.", "The young girl needs corrective lenses.", "It is not selfishness, but everyone carrying their own burden.", "The animal is running.", "A woman is talking to a man.", "He yelled at the other judges for not agreeing with him.", "A baby likes to put things in its mouth." ]

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[ "I think I will go and dispute with them in order to receive something." ]

[ "I have no wish to dispute this issue with them.", "She knew when the thing was goind to be.", "A dog moves toward a young boy.", "Adrin stood up.", "One dog chews on a bone.", "I didn't knew that before this moment.", "There are no freshwater springs located anywhere on the island." ]

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[ "Marshall Field & Company originated in 1852. It was the premier department store on the main shopping street in the Midwest, State Street in Chicago. Upscale shoppers came by train from throughout the region, patronizing nearby hotels. It grew to become a major chain before converting to the Macy's nameplate on 9 September 2006. Marshall Field's Served as a model for other departments stores in that it had exceptional customer service. Field's also brought with it the now famous Frango mints brand that became so closely identified with Marshall Field's and Chicago from the now defunct Frederick & Nelson Department store. Marshall Field's also had the firsts, among many innovations by Marshall Field's. Field's had the first European buying office, which was located in Manchester, England, and the first bridal registry. The company was the first to introduce the concept of the personal shopper, and that service was provided without charge in every Field's store, until the chain's last days under the Marshall Field's name. It was the first store to offer revolving credit and the first department store to use escalators. Marshall Field's book department in the State Street store was legendary; it pioneered the concept of the \"book signing.\" Moreover, every year at Christmas, Marshall Field's downtown store windows were filled with animated displays as part of the downtown shopping district display; the \"theme\" window displays became famous for their ingenuity and beauty, and visiting the Marshall Field's windows at Christmas became a tradition for Chicagoans and visitors alike, as popular a local practice as visiting the Walnut Room with its equally famous Christmas tree or meeting \"under the clock\" on State Street." ]

[ "The town's first significant defences were likely erected due to commercial interests, following the temporary seizure of St. John's by the Dutch admiral Michiel de Ruyter in June 1665. The inhabitants were able to fend off a second Dutch attack in 1673, when this time it was defended by Christopher Martin, an English merchant captain. Martin landed six cannons from his vessel, the Elias Andrews, and constructed an earthen breastwork and battery near chain Rock commanding the Narrows leading into the harbour. With only twenty-three men, the valiant Martin beat off an attack by three Dutch warships. The English government planned to expand these fortifications (Fort William) in around 1689, but actual construction didn't begin until after the French admiral Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville captured and destroyed the town in the Avalon Peninsula Campaign (1696). When 1500 English reinforcements arrived in late 1697 they found nothing but rubble where the town and fortifications had stood.", "The terms international policing, transnational policing, and/or global policing began to be used from the early 1990s onwards to describe forms of policing that transcended the boundaries of the sovereign nation-state (Nadelmann, 1993), (Sheptycki, 1995). These terms refer in variable ways to practices and forms for policing that, in some sense, transcend national borders. This includes a variety of practices, but international police cooperation, criminal intelligence exchange between police agencies working in different nation-states, and police development-aid to weak, failed or failing states are the three types that have received the most scholarly attention.", "The Times and The Sunday Times have had an online presence since March 1999, originally at the-times.co.uk and sunday-times.co.uk, and later at timesonline.co.uk. There are now two websites: thetimes.co.uk is aimed at daily readers, and the thesundaytimes.co.uk site at providing weekly magazine-like content. There are also iPad and Android editions of both newspapers. Since July 2010, News UK has required readers who do not subscribe to the print edition to pay £2 per week to read The Times and The Sunday Times online.", "Some forms of corruption – now called \"institutional corruption\" – are distinguished from bribery and other kinds of obvious personal gain. A similar problem of corruption arises in any institution that depends on financial support from people who have interests that may conflict with the primary purpose of the institution.", "Regression testing focuses on finding defects after a major code change has occurred. Specifically, it seeks to uncover software regressions, as degraded or lost features, including old bugs that have come back. Such regressions occur whenever software functionality that was previously working correctly, stops working as intended. Typically, regressions occur as an unintended consequence of program changes, when the newly developed part of the software collides with the previously existing code. Common methods of regression testing include re-running previous sets of test-cases and checking whether previously fixed faults have re-emerged. The depth of testing depends on the phase in the release process and the risk of the added features. They can either be complete, for changes added late in the release or deemed to be risky, or be very shallow, consisting of positive tests on each feature, if the changes are early in the release or deemed to be of low risk. Regression testing is typically the largest test effort in commercial software development, due to checking numerous details in prior software features, and even new software can be developed while using some old test-cases to test parts of the new design to ensure prior functionality is still supported.", "During the Cambrian period, Gondwana had a mild climate. West Antarctica was partially in the Northern Hemisphere, and during this period large amounts of sandstones, limestones and shales were deposited. East Antarctica was at the equator, where sea floor invertebrates and trilobites flourished in the tropical seas. By the start of the Devonian period (416 Ma), Gondwana was in more southern latitudes and the climate was cooler, though fossils of land plants are known from this time. Sand and silts were laid down in what is now the Ellsworth, Horlick and Pensacola Mountains. Glaciation began at the end of the Devonian period (360 Ma), as Gondwana became centered on the South Pole and the climate cooled, though flora remained. During the Permian period, the land became dominated by seed plants such as Glossopteris, a pteridosperm which grew in swamps. Over time these swamps became deposits of coal in the Transantarctic Mountains. Towards the end of the Permian period, continued warming led to a dry, hot climate over much of Gondwana.", "As of the first decade of the 21st century, contemporary neoclassical architecture is usually classed under the umbrella term of New Classical Architecture. Sometimes it is also referred to as Neo-Historicism/Revivalism, Traditionalism or simply neoclassical architecture like the historical style. For sincere traditional-style architecture that sticks to regional architecture, materials and craftsmanship, the term Traditional Architecture (or vernacular) is mostly used. The Driehaus Architecture Prize is awarded to major contributors in the field of 21st century traditional or classical architecture, and comes with a prize money twice as high as that of the modernist Pritzker Prize." ]

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[ "Pachystegia Pachystegia is a genus of shrubs in the daisy family described as a genus in 1925.", "Passiflora Passiflora, known also as the passion flowers or passion vines, is a genus of about 500 species of flowering plants, the type genus of the family Passifloraceae." ]

[ "Psilotopsida Psilotopsida is a class of ferns or fern-like plants, considered to be one of the three classes of eusporangiate ferns. It should not be confused with the obsolete class Psilophytopsida. As circumscribed by Smith \"et al.\", 2006, Psilotopsida contains two families, Psilotaceae and Ophioglossaceae, placed in orders Psilotales and Ophioglossales, respectively. The affinities of these two groups have long been unclear and a close relationship between them has only recently been confirmed through molecular systematic studies. Some studies show that Psilotopsida is the sister-group to all other ferns (including Marattiaceae and Equisetaceae), but others indicate that Equisetaceae is more basal.", "Pterostylis hispidula Pterostylis hispidula, commonly known as the small nodding greenhood or box greenhood, is a plant in the orchid family Orchidaceae and is endemic to eastern Australia. Nodding greenhoods have flowers which \"nod\" or lean forwards, have a deeply notched sinus and a curved, hairy labellum. This species is similar to \"Pterostylis nutans\" but is smaller and the flowers do not lean as far forward as in that species.", "Glumiflorae Glumiflorae (gluma = husk + florae = flowers) is a descriptive botanical name. It was used in the Wettstein system for an order of flowering plants. The order consisted of one family only:", "Pachyrhopala Pachyrhopala is a genus of skippers in the family Hesperiidae.", "Clusiaceae The Clusiaceae or Guttiferae (\"nom. alt. et cons.\" = alternative and valid name) are a family of plants including 13 genera and ca 750 species. Several former members of Clusiacae are now placed in Calophyllaceae and Hypericaceae. They are mostly trees and shrubs, with milky sap and fruits or capsules for seeds. The family is primarily tropical. More so than many plant families, it shows large variation in plant morphology (for example, three to 10, fused or unfused petals, and many other traits). According to the APG III, this family belongs to the order Malpighiales.", "Pachylia Pachylia is a genus of moths in the family Sphingidae.", "Nymphaea Nymphaea is a genus of hardy and tender aquatic plants in the family Nymphaeaceae. The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution. Many species are cultivated as ornamental plants, and many cultivars have been bred. Some taxa occur as introduced species where they are not native, and some are weeds. Plants of the genus are known commonly as water lilies. The genus name is from the Greek νυμφαια, \"nymphaia\" and the Latin \"nymphaea\", which mean \"water lily\" and were inspired by the nymphs of Greek and Latin mythology.", "Passiflora caerulea Passiflora caerulea, the blue passionflower, bluecrown passionflower or common passion flower, is a species of flowering plant native to South America (Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay and Brazil). It is a vigorous, deciduous or semi-evergreen tendril vine growing to 10 m or more, with palmate leaves and fragrant, blue-white flowers with a prominent fringe of coronal filaments in bands of blue, white, and brown. The ovoid orange fruit, growing to 6 cm , is edible but bland.", "Aptenia Aptenia is a small genus of flowering plants in the family Aizoaceae. They are native to southern Africa. The genus name is from the Greek \"a-\" (not) and \"ptenos\" (winged), and refers to the wingless fruit capsules.", "Passiflora sodiroi Passiflora sodiroi is a species of plant in the Passifloraceae family. It is endemic to Ecuador.", "Schoepfiaceae Schoepfiaceae is a family of flowering plants recognized in the APG III system of 2009. The family has previously only been recognized by few taxonomists; the plants in question usually being assigned to family Olacaceae and Santalaceae.", "Lapideacassaceae Lapideacassaceae is a family of haptophytes belonging to the class Prymnesiophyceae. The family Lapideacassaceae accommodate ‘bell-shaped’ to cylindrical nannoliths with body consisting of a single or several vertically elongated calcite elements and often bearing apical spine(s).", "Choristocarpaceae Choristocarpaceae is the only family in the order Discosporangiales of the brown algae (class Phaeophyceae). The family contains two genera, each with a single species.", "Passiflora xishuangbannaensis Passiflora xishuangbannaensis is a passion flower vine in the genus \"Passiflora\" that is endemic to Yunnan, China. It is a glabrous, 1 – long vine with strongly two-lobed leaves. Green and yellow flowers are 3.2 – in diameter when fully open, one or two flowers per node. It grows in wet and open sunny or shaded areas at 1200 m . It was described in 2005 by Shawn E. Krosnick.", "Eustegia Eustegia is a genus of vines in the Apocynaceae, first described as a genus with this name in 180. It is native to southern Africa.", "Passiflora subpurpurea Passiflora subpurpurea is a species of plant in the Passifloraceae family. It is endemic to Ecuador.", "Elatinaceae Elatinaceae is a family of flowering plants with ca 35 (to perhaps 50) species in two genera: \"Elatine\" and \"Bergia\". The \"Elatine\" are mostly aquatic herbs, and the \"Bergia\" are subshrubs to shrubs. \"Elatine\" species are widely distributed throughout the world from temperate to tropical zones, with its greatest diversity found in temperate zones. \"Bergia\" is found in temperate to tropical Eurasia and Africa, with two tropical and one tropical to temperate species in the Americas. The center for biodiversity of \"Bergia\" is the Old World tropics, and this is also the center for biodiversity for the family. Neither genus is found in arctic ecosystems.", "Passiflora guatemalensis Passiflora guatemalensis, the Guatemala passion vine, is a species in the Passifloraceae family. It is native to Guatemala, and found from southern Mexico through Central America to Venezuela.", "Smeathmannia Smeathmannia is a genus of Passifloraceae named after Henry Smeathman by Sir Joseph Banks.", "Hamamelidaceae Hamamelidaceae, commonly referred to as the witch-hazel family, is a family of flowering plants in the order Saxifragales. The clade consists of shrubs and small trees positioned within the woody clade of the core Saxifragales. The earlier Cronquist system recognized Hamamelidaceae in the Hamamelidales order." ]

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[ "\nArticle 265 A superficiary has the right to use another person's land in order to own structures, or trees or bamboo, on that land.\n" ]

[ "\nArticle 588\nIf any person has an obligation to pay money or deliver other thing under any arrangement, and the parties agree to regard such thing as the subject matter of a loan for consumption, it is deemed that this establishes a loan for consumption..\n", "\nArticle 555\nA sale becomes effective when one of the parties promises to transfer certain property rights to the other party and the other party promises to pay the price for this.\nArticle 176\nThe creation and transfer of a real right becomes effective solely by the manifestations of intention of the parties..\n", "\nArticle 5\n(1) A minor must obtain the consent of the minor's legal representative to perform a juridical act;provided, however, that this does not apply to a juridical act for merely acquiring a right or being released from an obligation.\n(2) A juridical act in contravention of the provisions of the preceding paragraph is voidable.\n(3) Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph (1), a minor may freely dispose of property that the legal representative has permitted the minor to dispose of for a specified purpose, to an extent that falls within the scope of that purpose. The same applies if the minor disposes of property that the legal representative has permitted the minor to dispose of without specifying a purpose..\n", "\nArticle 499\nA person that has performed the obligation for the benefit of the obligor is subrogated to the claim of the obligee..\n", "\nArticle 225\n(1) If two buildings are owned by different owners and there is an open lot between them, each owner may install a fence on the boundary, sharing the expenses with the other owner.\n(2) If no agreement is reached between the parties, the fence referred to in the preceding paragraph must be a wooden fence, a bamboo fence or a fence made of similar material and must be two meters high..\n", "\nArticle 601\nA lease becomes effective if one of the parties promises to make a certain thing available for the other party to use and make profit, and the other party promises to pay rent for the leased thing and return the delivered thing when the contract is terminated..\n", "\nArticle 268\n(1) If the duration of superficies is not fixed by the act that established the same and there are no relevant customs, the superficiary may waive that right at any time;provided, however, that if rent must be paid, the superficiary must give notice one year or more in advance or pay rent for one year that has not yet become due and payable.\n(2) If the superficiary does not waive that right pursuant to the provisions of the preceding paragraph, the court may, at the request of the parties concerned, fix a duration of 20 years or more but not more than 50 years, taking into consideration the kind and status of the structures, or trees or bamboo and other circumstances at the time of the creation of the superficies..\n", "\nArticle 356\nThe pledgee of immovables may use and profit from the immovables that are the subject matter of a pledge in line with the way the relevant immovables are used..\n", "\nArticle 369\n(1) A mortgagee has the right to have the mortgagee's claim satisfied prior to other obligees out of the immovables that the obligor or a third party provided to secure the obligation without transferring possession.\n(2) Superficies and farming rights may be the subject matter of a mortgage.In this case, the provisions of this Chapter apply mutatis mutandis..\n", "\nArticle 370\nA mortgage extends to the things that form an integral part of the immovables that are the subject matter of the mortgage (hereinafter referred to as \"mortgaged immovables\") except for buildings on the mortgaged land; provided, however, that this does not apply if the act establishing the mortgage provides otherwise or the rescission of fraudulent act may be demanded as prescribed in Article 424, paragraph (3) with regard to the act of the obligor..\n", "\nArticle 243\nIf two or more movable properties with different owners can no longer be separated without damage due to accession, the ownership of the composite thing belongs to the owner of the principal movable property. The same applies if excessive expense is required to separate the movables.\nArticle 248\nA person that suffers loss because of the application of the provisions of Article 242\nthrough the preceding Article may demand compensation in accordance with the provisions of Article 703\nand Article 704..\n", "\nArticle 192\nA person that commences the possession of movables peacefully and openly by a transactional act acquires the rights that are exercised with respect to the movables immediately if the person possesses it in good faith and without negligence..\n", "\nArticle 348\nThe pledgee may subpledge the thing pledged within the duration of the pledgee's right, upon the pledgee's own responsibility.In this case, the pledgee is responsible for any loss arising from the subpledge even if the same is caused by force majeure..\n", "\nArticle 613\n(1) If a lessee lawfully subleases a leased thing, the sublessee is liable to perform an obligation based on the sublease directly to the lessor, to the extent of the scope of the lessee's obligation based on the lease between the lessor and the lessee. In such a case, advance payment of rent may not be duly asserted against the lessor.\n(2) The provisions of the preceding paragraph do not preclude the lessor from exercising rights against the lessee.\n(3) If the lessee lawfully subleases a leased thing, the lessor may not duly assert against the sublessee the cancellation by agreement of the lease with the lessee;provided, however, that this does not apply if, at the time of the cancellation, the lessor has a right to cancel due to non-performance on the part of the lessee..\n", "\nArticle 266\n(1) The provisions of Articles 274 through 276 apply mutatis mutandis if the superficiary must pay periodical rent to the owners of the land.\n(2) Beyond what is provided for in the preceding paragraph, provisions on leasehold apply mutatis mutandis to rent to the extent that application is not inconsistent with the nature of the same..\n", "\nArticle 249\nEach co-owner may use the entire property in co-ownership in proportion to each co-owner's interest..\n", "\nArticle 206\nAn owner has the rights to freely use, profit from and dispose of the thing owned, within the limits of laws and regulations..\n", "\nArticle 216\nIf a land suffers or is likely to suffer damage due to destruction or blockage of a structure installed on other land to store, discharge or draw water, the owner of that land may have the owner of that other land repair the structure or remove the impediments, or, if necessary, have the same carry out preventive construction work..\n", "\nArticle 89\n(1) The ownership of natural fruits is acquired by the person entitled to obtain them when they are separated from the original thing.\n(2) A person acquires civil fruits in proportion to the duration of the right to obtain them, as calculated on a prorated, daily basis..\n", "\nArticle 389\n(1) If a building is constructed on a mortgaged land after the creation of a mortgage, the mortgagee may auction the building together with the land;provided, however, that the right of priority of that mortgagee may be exercised solely against the proceeds of the land.\n(2) The provisions of the preceding paragraph do not apply if the owner of that building has rights with respect to the possession of the mortgaged land that may be duly asserted against the mortgagee..\n" ]

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[ "Pizza Hut Pizza Hut is an American restaurant chain and international franchise founded in 1958 by Dan and Frank Carney. The company is known for its Italian-American cuisine menu including pizza and pasta, as well as side dishes and desserts. Pizza Hut has over 15,000 locations worldwide as of 2015, and is a subsidiary of Yum! Brands, Inc., one of the world's largest restaurant companies.", "Little Caesars Little Caesar Enterprises Inc. (doing business as Little Caesars) is the third-largest pizza chain in the United States, behind Pizza Hut and Domino's Pizza. It operates and franchises pizza restaurants in the United States and internationally in Asia, the Middle East, Australia, Canada, Latin America and the Caribbean. The company was founded in 1959 and is based in Detroit, Michigan, headquartered in the Fox Theatre building in Downtown. Little Caesar Enterprises, Inc. operates as a subsidiary of Ilitch Holdings, Inc." ]

[ "List of pizza varieties by country During the latter half of the 20th century, pizza became a globally accessible dish, mainly due to Italian immigrants that had brought their dishes to new people with resounding success, often in racially and culturally resistive environments.", "Grippo's Grippo's is a snack food company, headquartered in Cincinnati, Ohio. Beginning operation in 1919, the company grew regionally, adding varieties of snack foods to its production. The company was founded by Angelo Grippo and originated from a one-room office on Court Street in downtown Cincinnati. Today, the business is headquartered at Colerain Avenue in Cincinnati.", "John's Incredible Pizza Company John’s Incredible Pizza Company is an American all-you-can-eat buffet restaurant and entertainment business founded by John Parlet in 1997. The company has 11 locations on the United States West Coast. Its corporate office is located in Rancho Santa Margarita, California.", "Sammy's Pizza Sammy's Pizza & Restaurant is a landmark regional restaurant brand. It was founded in 1954 in Hibbing, MN.", "Hot Dog on a Stick Hot Dog on a Stick, is a fast food company that was founded by Dave Barham in Santa Monica, California. It is known for its signature made-to-order stick items, fresh hand-stomped lemonade and the colorful uniforms that the employees wear. It was founded in Santa Monica, California in 1946, and later branched out into malls and shopping centers. In 2014, the company was purchased by Global Franchise Group (the strategic brand management company behind Great American Cookies, Marble Slab Creamery, and Pretzelmaker.) based in Atlanta, GA. Under GFG, the brand has opened new locations across the country and moved into the franchising space.", "List of pizza chains of the United States This is a list of pizza chains of the United States. This list is limited to pizza chain restaurants that are based, headquartered or originated in the United States.", "Dixie Chili and Deli Dixie Chili and Deli, originally Dixie Chili, is a chain of three Cincinnati chili restaurants located in the state of Kentucky. Dixie Chili is famous for their chili, coneys, and sandwiches. Greek immigrant Nicholas Sarakatsannis founded the first location in 1929 in Newport, Kentucky, just across the Ohio River from the city of Cincinnati. Today the company also has locations in Erlanger and Covington, additionally distributing a canned version of their chili product in supermarkets in the Cincinnati and Kentucky area.", "Hideaway Pizza Hideaway Pizza is a restaurant originally opened in 1957 in Stillwater, Oklahoma. Its original location is in Stillwater at the corner of 3rd St and Knoblock, which is close to the Oklahoma State University campus.", "Pizza (TV series) Pizza was an Australian television series on the Australian television network SBS. The series has a spin-off feature length movie, \"Fat Pizza\", released in 2003, and a best-of highlights video/DVD that featured previously unreleased footage and a schoolies exposé, released in 2004. In addition to this, a theatre show entitled \"Fat Pizza\", starring several characters from the show, toured the Australian east coast. In 2014, the storyline of the series was combined with that of \"Housos\" to create the motion picture \"Fat Pizza vs. Housos\". The film was shown in Australian cinemas from 27 November 2014.", "What-A-Burger What-A-Burger is the trading name used by a small group of restaurants which were established by entrepreneur brothers Jack Branch and Paul E. Branch Jr. and members of the Branch family beginning in 1950. With the first location at a busy traffic circle near Newport News, Virginia in the former Warwick County, they soon established additional locations in the cities of Richmond, Colonial Heights, and Petersburg, Virginia, each along busy through-traffic highway corridors. Another location was opened by a member of the Branch family in the 1950s in Greenville, South Carolina.", "Jimboy's Tacos In 1949, Jim and Margaret Knudson visited a friend's home for dinner. They were served tacos for the first time, and having experience in the food business, Jim thought the taco would have universal appeal, and so he developed his own taco recipe, calling it the \"TAYCO\". Jim added his recipe to the menu of his restaurant \"Jimmy's 49er Cafe\" located in Grass Valley, California. Jim said that his customers were not enthusiastic about trying the menu item.", "Big Mac The Big Mac is a hamburger sold by international fast food restaurant chain McDonald's. It was introduced in the Greater Pittsburgh area, United States, in 1967 and nationwide in 1968. It is one of the company's signature products.", "Toppers Pizza (American restaurant) Toppers Pizza is a chain of pizzerias in the United States. The chain was founded by Scott Gittrich in 1991 in Champaign, Illinois, but the original location closed in the mid-1990s. The first Toppers Pizza location in Wisconsin opened in Whitewater in 1993. The company is headquartered in Whitewater, Wisconsin. The first official franchise store opened in Eau Claire, WI in 1997.", "Papa Murphy's Papa Murphy's, a business based in Vancouver, Washington, United States, is a take-and-bake pizza company. It began in 1995 as the merger of two take-and-bake pizza companies: Papa Aldo's Pizza (founded in 1981) and Murphy's Pizza (founded in 1981). The company and its franchisees operate more than 1,300 outlets in the United States and Canada. Papa Murphy's is the fifth-largest pizza chain in the United States.", "Fellini's Pizza Fellini's Pizza is an Italian restaurant founded in Atlanta on May 5, 1982 by Clay Harper of the Coolies. It has 7 locations and is known for its Atlanta style pizza. Its first location was opened near Little Five Points. It was voted the best pizza restaurant in Atlanta in 2013 by the Emory Wheel.", "Peppes Pizza Peppes Pizza is a Norwegian pizza chain that serves American style and Italian style pizza. Peppes is the largest pizza chain in Scandinavia. The restaurant was founded by two Americans, Louis Jordan and his wife Anne from Hartford, Connecticut. The restaurant chain is part of Umoe Catering As which consists of restaurants such as Burger King, TGI Fridays, La Baguette and Cafe Opus. Peppes Pizza is one of the first restaurants that brought foreign food to Norway. 9 million pizzas are served by Peppes each year with deliveries in 11 cities in Norway. Their menu was first put online in March 1995. The servings have been described as enough for two people and that the pizza chain is \"a cut above the rest\".", "Stewart's Restaurants Stewart's Restaurants are classic 1950s style fast-food restaurants located throughout the United States. Restaurants are branded as Stewart's Root Beer or Stewart's Drive-In or similar variations. Started in 1924 in Mansfield, Ohio by Frank Stewart, the chain became a franchise in 1931. Stewart's is famous for its Stewart's Fountain Classics root beer and hot dogs. It has over 60 locations in the United States, 38 of them in New Jersey with the rest in Maryland, Missouri, Kentucky, Oklahoma, Ohio, West Virginia and Pennsylvania.", "The Original Italian Pie The Original Italian Pie is a chain of informal Italian-American restaurants. It was founded in 1992 by Musa Ulusan and his wife Fatima. Their first restaurant was located on Bienville Street in New Orleans, Louisiana. The menu consists of pizzas, salads, sandwiches and calzones.", "Mark's Pizzeria Mark's Pizzeria is a franchise with 50 pizza restaurants throughout Upstate New York. It was founded in 1982 by Mark Crane.", "Cold Pizza Cold Pizza was a television sports morning talk show that aired weekdays on ESPN2. The show's style was more akin to \"Good Morning America\" than \"SportsCenter\"' s straight news and highlights format. It included daily sports news, interviews with sports journalists, athletes, and personalities, and an assortment of other sports and non-sports topics. This show began airing on October 20, 2003. The ESPN executive in charge of the program was James Cohen, who helped develop ESPN's popular talk show, \"Pardon the Interruption\". The show was part of ESPN Original Entertainment overseen by ESPN programming chief Mark Shapiro The executive producer/creator was Brian Donlon and he was assisted by Consulting Producer Steve Friedman, who oversaw NBC's Today Show during some of its most innovative and highly rated periods. The program was produced at Atlantic Video which was overseen by Todd Mason." ]

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[ "James Whale James Whale (22 July 1889 – 29 May 1957) was an English film director, theater director and actor. He is best remembered for his four classic horror films: \"Frankenstein\" (1931), \"The Old Dark House\" (1932), \"The Invisible Man\" (1933) and \"Bride of Frankenstein\" (1935). Whale also directed films in other genres, including what is considered the definitive film version of the musical \"Show Boat\" (1936). He became increasingly disenchanted with his association with horror, but many of his non-horror films have fallen into obscurity.", "Jon Paul Puno Jon Paul Puno (born 1985) is an American filmmaker and classical crossover singer. As a filmmaker, he has directed films such as Valle de Lágrimas (2006) and Peace Grows (2004). And also played a small role in the 2006 movie I Will Always Love You (film)." ]

[ "Gerard Luz James Gerard Luz James II (born March 18, 1953) is a United States Virgin Islander politician, funeral director, and businessman. James served as the Lieutenant Governor of the United States Virgin Islands from 1999 until 2003 and was the president of Fifth Constitutional Convention of the U.S. Virgin Islands.", "Jon Andrus Jon Andrus, an American physician, epidemiologist and immunization specialist, is Deputy Director of the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO).", "Paul Petrie Paul James Petrie (July 1, 1928 - November 9, 2012) was an American poet and professor emeritus of English and creative writing at the University of Rhode Island in Kingston where he taught for over 30 years. His work has appeared in over 100 literary journals and magazines—including \"Poetry\", \"The New Yorker\", \"Atlantic Monthly\", \"New York Times\", \"The Nation\", \"The New Republic\", \"Sewanee Review\", \"Paris Review\", \"Massachusetts Review\", \"The Michigan Quarterly Review\" - and has been reprinted in eight anthologies including \"The Treasury of American Poetry\".", "James Olson (author) James Olson (born Chet Myles Olson; June 27, 1943) is an American philosopher and author. A generalist, his primary focus is on the effects of functional lateralization on consciousness and human behavior. Olson is the author of \"The Whole-Brain Path to Peace\" (Origin Press, 2011), a book that seeks to explain human behavior by focusing on mental perspective, the initial stage of perception, rather than on the whole of perception—the latter being the more common approach to understanding the roots of behavior.", "Whale Wars Whale Wars is a weekly American documentary-style reality television series that premiered on November 7, 2008 on the Animal Planet cable channel. The program followed Paul Watson, founder of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, as he and the crew aboard their various vessels stopped illegal killing of whales by Japanese science vessels (whalers) off the coast of Antarctica.", "Joseph Jomo Pierre Joseph Jomo Pierre, also credited as Joseph Pierre, is a Trinidadian-Canadian actor and playwright. He is best known for his 2013 play \"Shakespeare's Nigga\", a play which explored racism by recontextualizing two Moorish characters from the plays of William Shakespeare, Aaron from \"Titus Andronicus\" and Othello from \"Othello\", as slaves actually owned by Shakespeare in real life. The play was a shortlisted nominee for the Governor General's Award for English-language drama at the 2013 Governor General's Awards. His prior plays include \"Born Ready\", \"BeatDown\" and \"Pusha-Man\", all of which were published by Playwrights Canada Press in the anthology \"BeatDown: Three Plays\" in 2006.", "Paul McGinnis Paul McGinnis (born 1973) is an American puppeteer for Sesame Street and The Muppets. He has also performed in various non-Muppet television productions such as Julie's Greenroom, The Wiz Live!, Crash & Bernstein, Crank Yankers, Warren the Ape, Greg the Bunny, It's a Big Big World, The Book of Pooh, Between the Lions and Dog with a Blog.", "James Woods James Howard Woods (born April 18, 1947) is an American actor and producer. He is known primarily for playing villainous roles, and has appeared in a variety of films, including \"The Way We Were\" (1973), \"The Onion Field\" (1979), \"Videodrome\" (1983), \"Once Upon a Time in America\" (1984), \"Best Seller\" (1987), \"Chaplin\" (1992), \"Casino\" (1995), \"Nixon\" (1995), \"Vampires\" (1998), \"Straw Dogs\" (2011) and \"White House Down\" (2013). On television, he is known for portraying the titular protagonist of \"Shark\" (2006–2008), and for playing himself on eight episodes of the animated series \"Family Guy\", as well as on one episode of \"The Simpsons\".", "Don Oriolo Don Oriolo is an artist, musician, and writer best known for his work in the music publishing industry and for overseeing the Felix the Cat cartoon franchise after his father, Felix co-creator Joe Oriolo, died in 1985. Don Oriolo also owns and operates the Oriolo Guitar Company, a guitar, bass, and ukulele manufacture company whose products often feature Felix and other Oriolo-designed artwork. Oriolo has also authored a number of books featuring his paintings of Felix the Cat, whom he describes as his creative muse. Some of his music publishing credentials include writing Jon Bon Jovi's first charted track, as well as signing Meatloaf and Lisa Lisa and the Cult Jam.", "Harry Whale Henry Arthur \"Harry\" Whale (14 February 1921 – 11 September 2009) was a professor of physics at the University of Auckland.", "David Javerbaum David Adam Javerbaum is an American comedy writer. Javerbaum has won 13 Emmy Awards in his career, 11 of which he received for his work on \"The Daily Show with Jon Stewart\". He ran the popular Twitter account @TheTweetOfGod, which served as the basis for his play \"An Act of God\", which opened on Broadway in the spring of 2015 starring Jim Parsons, and again in the spring of 2016 starring Sean Hayes.", "David Nessle David Nessle (born 1960) is a Swedish comic creator, known for his semi-philosophical comics such as \"Döden Steker En Flamingo\", as well as adolescent humor funnies like \"John Holmes & Sherlock Watson\" (the latter in collaboration with Joakim Lindengren). He has been published in magazines such as \"Galago\", \"Mega-Pyton\" and \"Kapten Stofil\", and in several comic albums. David was for many years active in the Swedish Science fiction fandom and the creator of several fanzines. He was also the founder and front figure of the Sala-based band \"Geggamoja Übermench och det heterosexuella närstridskommandot\".", "Jon Seda Jonathan \"Jon\" Seda (born October 14, 1970) is an American actor, known for his role as Det. Paul Falsone on NBC's \"\".", "JonOne JonOne (born John Andrew Perello, 1963), also known as Jon156, is an American graffiti artist. Originally from New York, he lives and works in Paris.", "Sonaro Christopher Darnell Cook (born October 5, 1988), professionally known as Sonaro, is an American music producer from Far Rockaway, New York. He is perhaps best known for producing songs for Brooklyn-bred rapper Fabolous. He has also produced for several other rappers, such as French Montana, Rich Homie Quan, Jadakiss, Styles P, Joe Budden, Lloyd Banks, Paul Cain, Prodigy, Jim Jones, and Meek Mill.", "P. J. O'Rourke Patrick Jake O'Rourke ( ; born November 14, 1947), known as P.J. O'Rourke, is an American political satirist and journalist. O'Rourke is the H. L. Mencken Research Fellow at the libertarian Cato Institute and is a regular correspondent for \"The Atlantic Monthly\", \"The American Spectator\", and \"The Weekly Standard\", and frequent panelist on National Public Radio's game show \"Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me!\". Since 2011 he has been a columnist at \"The Daily Beast\".", "Jim Johannson James Johannson (born March 10, 1964) is an American former professional ice hockey player. He is currently an executive with USA Hockey. Johannson was selected by the Hartford Whalers in the 7th round (130th overall) of the 1982 NHL Entry Draft.", "Peto's paradox Peto's Paradox is the observation, named after Richard Peto, that at the species level, the incidence of cancer does not appear to correlate with the number of cells in an organism. For example, the incidence of cancer in humans is much higher than the incidence of cancer in whales. This is despite the fact that a whale has many more cells than a human. If the probability of carcinogenesis were constant across cells, one would expect whales to have a higher incidence of cancer than humans.", "James Balog James Balog (pronounced \"BAY-log\"; born July 15, 1952) is an American photographer whose work explores the relationship between humans and nature. Since the early 1980s Balog has photographed such subjects as endangered animals, North America’s old-growth forests, and polar ice. His work aims to combine insights from art and science to produce innovative, dynamic and sometimes shocking interpretations of our changing world.", "David Testo David Testo (born August 7, 1981, in Winston-Salem, North Carolina) is an American retired soccer player who, after his playing career ended in 2011, became the first male American professional player of that sport to come out as gay. Testo played professionally from 2003 to 2011, including two years in Major League Soccer with the Columbus Crew from 2004 to 2005. He began his career with the second division side Richmond Kickers, and also played for the Vancouver Whitecaps and Montreal Impact (also second division teams at the time), before he was released by the Impact in 2011. He played collegiately for South Carolina and North Carolina." ]

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[ "Submission was initially a large factor in professional wrestling, but following the decline of the submission-oriented catch-as-catch-can style from mainstream professional wrestling, the submission largely faded until the rise of the legitimate sport of mixed martial arts. Despite this, some wrestlers, such as Chris Jericho, The Undertaker, Ric Flair, Bret Hart, Kurt Angle, Ken Shamrock, Dean Malenko, Chris Benoit, and Tazz, became famous for winning matches via submission. A wrestler with a signature submission technique is portrayed as better at applying the hold, making it more painful or more difficult to get out of than others who use it, or can be falsely credited as inventing the hold (such as when Tazz popularized the kata ha jime judo choke in pro wrestling as the \"Tazzmission\")." ]

[ "The second major event of the early reign of Abd al-Malik was the construction of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. Although the chronology remains somewhat uncertain, the building seems to have been completed in 692, which means that it was under construction during the conflict with Ibn al-Zubayr. This had led some historians, both medieval and modern, to suggest that the Dome of the Rock was built as a destination for pilgrimage to rival the Kaaba, which was under the control of Ibn al-Zubayr.", "Across London, Black and Asian children outnumber White British children by about six to four in state schools. Altogether at the 2011 census, of London's 1,624,768 population aged 0 to 15, 46.4 per cent were White, 19.8 per cent were Asian, 19 per cent were Black, 10.8 per cent were Mixed and 4 per cent represented another ethnic group. In January 2005, a survey of London's ethnic and religious diversity claimed that there were more than 300 languages spoken in London and more than 50 non-indigenous communities with a population of more than 10,000. Figures from the Office for National Statistics show that, in 2010[update], London's foreign-born population was 2,650,000 (33 per cent), up from 1,630,000 in 1997.", "Small Armenian trading and religious communities have existed outside of Armenia for centuries. For example, a community has existed for over a millennium in the Holy Land, and one of the four quarters of the walled Old City of Jerusalem has been called the Armenian Quarter. An Armenian Catholic monastic community of 35 founded in 1717 exists on an island near Venice, Italy. There are also remnants of formerly populous communities in India, Myanmar, Thailand, Belgium, Portugal, Italy, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Ethiopia, Sudan and Egypt.[citation needed]", "Of the Christian minority in Egypt over 90% belong to the native Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, an Oriental Orthodox Christian Church. Other native Egyptian Christians are adherents of the Coptic Catholic Church, the Evangelical Church of Egypt and various other Protestant denominations. Non-native Christian communities are largely found in the urban regions of Cairo and Alexandria, such as the Syro-Lebanese, who belong to Greek Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and Maronite Catholic denominations.", "The Quran and Muhammad talked about racial equality and justice as in The Farewell Sermon. Tribal and nationalistic differences were discouraged. But after Muhammad's passing, the old tribal differences between the Arabs started to resurface. Following the Roman–Persian Wars and the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars, deep rooted differences between Iraq, formally under the Persian Sassanid Empire, and Syria, formally under the Byzantine Empire, also existed. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in their area. Previously, the second caliph Umar was very firm on the governors and his spies kept an eye on them. If he felt that a governor or a commander was becoming attracted to wealth, he had him removed from his position.", "The defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922) began with the Second Constitutional Era, a moment of hope and promise established with the Young Turk Revolution. It restored the Ottoman constitution of 1876 and brought in multi-party politics with a two-stage electoral system (electoral law) under the Ottoman parliament. The constitution offered hope by freeing the empire’s citizens to modernize the state’s institutions, rejuvenate its strength, and enable it to hold its own against outside powers. Its guarantee of liberties promised to dissolve inter-communal tensions and transform the empire into a more harmonious place. Instead, this period became the story of the twilight struggle of the Empire. Young Turks movement members once underground (named committee, group, etc.) established (declared) their parties. Among them “Committee of Union and Progress,” and “Freedom and Accord Party” were major parties. On the other end of the spectrum were ethnic parties which included; Poale Zion, Al-Fatat, and Armenian national movement organized under Armenian Revolutionary Federation. Profiting from the civil strife, Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. The last of Ottoman censuses was performed with the 1914 census. Ottoman military reforms resulted with the Ottoman Modern Army which engaged with Italo-Turkish War (1911), Balkan Wars (1912–1913), and continuous unrest (Counter coup followed by restoration and Saviors followed by Raid on Porte) in the Empire up to World War I.", "There is a very active tradition of hunting of small to medium-sized wild game in Trinidad and Tobago. Hunting is carried out with firearms, and aided by the use of hounds, with the illegal use of trap guns, trap cages and snare nets. With approximately 12,000 sport hunters applying for hunting licences in recent years (in a very small country of about the size of the state of Delaware at about 5128 square kilometers and 1.3 million inhabitants), there is some concern that the practice might not be sustainable. In addition there are at present no bag limits and the open season is comparatively very long (5 months - October to February inclusive). As such hunting pressure from legal hunters is very high. Added to that, there is a thriving and very lucrative black market for poached wild game (sold and enthusiastically purchased as expensive luxury delicacies) and the numbers of commercial poachers in operation is unknown but presumed to be fairly high. As a result, the populations of the five major mammalian game species (red-rumped agouti, lowland paca, nine-banded armadillo, collared peccary, and red brocket deer) are thought to be quite low (although scientifically conducted population studies are only just recently being conducted as of 2013). It appears that the red brocket deer population has been extirpated on Tobago as a result of over-hunting. Various herons, ducks, doves, the green iguana, the gold tegu, the spectacled caiman and the common opossum are also commonly hunted and poached. There is also some poaching of 'fully protected species', including red howler monkeys and capuchin monkeys, southern tamanduas, Brazilian porcupines, yellow-footed tortoises, Trinidad piping guans and even one of the national birds, the scarlet ibis. Legal hunters pay very small fees to obtain hunting licences and undergo no official basic conservation biology or hunting-ethics training. There is presumed to be relatively very little subsistence hunting in the country (with most hunting for either sport or commercial profit). The local wildlife management authority is under-staffed and under-funded, and as such very little in the way of enforcement is done to uphold existing wildlife management laws, with hunting occurring both in and out of season, and even in wildlife sanctuaries. There is some indication that the government is beginning to take the issue of wildlife management more seriously, with well drafted legislation being brought before Parliament in 2015. It remains to be seen if the drafted legislation will be fully adopted and financially supported by the current and future governments, and if the general populace will move towards a greater awareness of the importance of wildlife conservation and change the culture of wanton consumption to one of sustainable management." ]

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[ "The couple are near the edge." ]

[ "The couple are blind.", "The engineers were always in expensive tailored suits.", "Two dogs dressed as people frolicking on the beach.", "They are in black", "A heavy man is riding a bike", "I leave it in your feet.", "Drake thought the city was easy booty." ]

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[ "The Well-Tempered Clavier with Fugue, K. 394 is one of Mozart's own compositions showing the influence the \"Well-Tempered Clavier\" had on him. Beethoven played the entire \"Well-Tempered Clavier\" by the time he was eleven, and produced an arrangement of BWV 867, for string quintet. Hans von Bülow called \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\" the \"Old Testament\" of music (the Beethoven Sonatas were the \"New Testament\"). Bach's example inspired numerous composers of the 19th century, for instance in 1835 Chopin started composing his 24 Preludes, Op. 28, inspired by the \"Well-Tempered Clavier\". In the 20th century Dmitri Shostakovich wrote his 24 Preludes and Fugues, an even", "The Well-Tempered Clavier desirous of learning, and especially for the pastime of those already skilled in this study\". Some 20 years later Bach compiled a second book of the same kind, which became known as \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\", Part Two (in German: \"Zweyter Theil\", modern spelling: \"Zweiter Teil\"). Modern editions usually refer to both parts as \"The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I\" (WTC I) and \"The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book II\" (WTC II), respectively. The collection is generally regarded as being among the most important works in the history of classical music. Each set contains twenty-four pairs of prelude and fugue. The first pair is", "The Well-Tempered Clavier Clavier\" were widely circulated in manuscript, but printed copies were not made until 1801, by three publishers almost simultaneously in Bonn, Leipzig and Zurich. Bach's style went out of favour in the time around his death, and most music in the early Classical period had neither contrapuntal complexity nor a great variety of keys. But, with the maturing of the Classical style in the 1770s, the \"Well-Tempered Clavier\" began to influence the course of musical history, with Haydn and Mozart studying the work closely. Mozart transcribed some of the fugues of the \"Well-Tempered Clavier\" for string ensemble: Fantasy No. 1", "The Well-Tempered Clavier for whom several performances from Book I are in the public domain. In March 2015, the pianist Kimiko Douglass-Ishizaka released a new and complete recording of Book 1 into the public domain. Her performances are available below, beginning with the Prelude No. 1 in C Major (BWV 846): Interactive media Sheet music Recordings On tuning systems Descriptions and analyses The Well-Tempered Clavier The Well-Tempered Clavier, BWV 846–893, is a collection of two sets of preludes and fugues in all 24 major and minor keys, composed for solo keyboard by Johann Sebastian Bach. In Bach's time \"Clavier\" (keyboard) was a generic", "The Well-Tempered Clavier The Well-Tempered Clavier The Well-Tempered Clavier, BWV 846–893, is a collection of two sets of preludes and fugues in all 24 major and minor keys, composed for solo keyboard by Johann Sebastian Bach. In Bach's time \"Clavier\" (keyboard) was a generic name indicating a variety of keyboard instruments, most typically a harpsichord or clavichord – but not excluding an organ either. The modern German spelling for the collection is (WTK; ). Bach gave the title to a book of preludes and fugues in all 24 major and minor keys, dated 1722, composed \"for the profit and use of musical youth", "The Well-Tempered Clavier major prelude and fugue in book one was originally in C major – Bach added a key signature of seven sharps and adjusted some accidentals to convert it to the required key. In Bach's own time just one similar collection was published, by Johann Christian Schickhardt (1681–1762), whose Op. 30 \"L'alphabet de la musique\", contained 24 sonatas in all keys for alto recorder or flute or violin and basso continuo. \"See also:\" Music written in all major and/or minor keys#Bach and his precursors Although the \"Well-Tempered Clavier\" was the first collection of fully worked keyboard pieces in all 24 keys,", "The Well-Tempered Clavier included 48 figured bass exercises in all keys, \"Partien auf das Clavier\" (1718) by Christoph Graupner (1683–1760) with eight suites in successive keys, and Friedrich Suppig's \"Fantasia\" from \"Labyrinthus Musicus\" (1722), a long and formulaic sectional composition ranging through all 24 keys which was intended for an enharmonic keyboard with 31 notes per octave and pure major thirds. Finally, a lost collection by Johann Pachelbel (1653–1706), \"Fugen und Praeambuln über die gewöhnlichsten Tonos figuratos\" (announced 1704), may have included prelude-fugue pairs in all keys or modes. It was long believed that Bach had taken the title \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\" from", "The Well-Tempered Clavier realize a collection of organ pieces in successive keys was (1656–1740), who compiled one such cycle of preludes in 1682. His contemporary Johann Heinrich Kittel (1652–1682) also composed a cycle of 12 organ preludes in successive keys. J.C.F. Fischer's \"Ariadne musica neo-organoedum\" (published in 1702 and reissued 1715) is a set of 20 prelude-fugue pairs in ten major and nine minor keys and the Phrygian mode, plus five chorale-based ricercars. Bach knew the collection and borrowed some of the themes from Fischer for the \"Well-Tempered Clavier\". Other contemporary works include the treatise \"Exemplarische Organisten-Probe\" (1719) by Johann Mattheson (1681–1764), which", "The Well-Tempered Clavier in C major, the second in C minor, the third in C major, the fourth in C minor, and so on. The rising chromatic pattern continues until every key has been represented, finishing with a B minor fugue. The first set was compiled in 1722 during Bach's appointment in Köthen; the second followed 20 years later in 1742 while he was in Leipzig. Bach recycled some of the preludes and fugues from earlier sources: the 1720 \"Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach\", for instance, contains versions of eleven of the preludes of the first book of the \"Well-Tempered Clavier\". The C", "The Well-Tempered Clavier Fugue is in C major, followed by a Prelude and Fugue in its parallel minor key (C minor). Then all keys, each major key followed by its parallel minor key, are followed through, each time moving up a half tone: C → C → D → E → E → F → F → ... ending with ... → B → B. The first book of the \"Well-Tempered Clavier\" was composed in the early 1720s, with Bach's autograph dated 1722. Apart from the early versions of several preludes included in W. F. Bach's \"Klavierbüchlein\" (1720) there is an almost complete", "The Short-Tempered Clavier and other dysfunctional works for keyboard The Short-Tempered Clavier and other dysfunctional works for keyboard The Short-Tempered Clavier and other dysfunctional works for keyboard was released in 1995 by Telarc Records. The album contains works by Peter Schickele, sometimes under his pseudonym of P. D. Q. Bach, including \"works for various types of keyboards, including theatre organ, calliope, the ever popular piano, and the organ of the King Congregational Church of Fayray, North Dakota.\" The title is a parody of Johann Sebastian Bach's \"Well-Tempered Clavier\". As indicated on the album covers: 1. Opening & Introduction (4:50)<br> \"The Short-Tempered Clavier\", Preludes and Fugues in all the Major", "The Well-Tempered Clavier collection of \"Prelude and Fughetta\" versions predating the 1722 autograph, known from a later copy by an unidentified scribe. The title page of the first book of the \"Well-Tempered Clavier\" reads: In English: Early version BWV 846a of the Prelude in \"Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach\" (No. 14: \"Praeludium 1\"). The prelude is a seemingly simple progression of arpeggiated chords, one of the connotations of 'préluder' as the French lutenists used it: to test the tuning. Bach used both G and A into the harmonic meandering. Prelude and Fugue in C minor, BWV 847. Prelude also in WFB \"Klavierbüchlein\", No.", "The Well-Tempered Clavier a 1744 copy primarily written by Johann Christoph Altnickol (Bach's son-in-law), with some corrections by Bach, and later also by Altnickol and others. Prelude and Fugue in C major, BWV 870. Prelude and Fugue in C-sharp minor, BWV 873. Prelude and Fugue in D minor, BWV 875. Prelude and Fugue in F minor, BWV 881. Prelude as a theme with variations. Fugue in three voices. Prelude and Fugue in G-sharp minor, BWV 887. Prelude and Fugue in B-flat minor, BWV 891. Prelude and Fugue in B minor, BWV 893. Musically, the structural regularities of the \"Well-Tempered Clavier\" encompass an extraordinarily", "Well-Tempered Clavicle monster who imperils it.\" Well-Tempered Clavicle Well-Tempered Clavicle is the 35th book of the Xanth series by Piers Anthony. The title is a pun on the Bach musical work \"The Well-Tempered Clavier.\" The back cover of the book states the following: \"When a walking skeleton named Picka Bones happens upon a trio of melodic pets and a lovely, lovelorn princess, his dull and passionless existence is suddenly filled with danger, excitement, and the temptations of the flesh. For a plague of appalling puns has been unleashed on Xanth, and only Picka's musical gifts have the power to save the enchanted", "The Well-Tempered Synthesizer The Well-Tempered Synthesizer The Well-Tempered Synthesizer is the second studio album from the American musician and composer Wendy Carlos, originally released under her birth name, Walter Carlos, in November 1969 on Columbia Masterworks Records. Following the success of her previous album, \"Switched-On Bach\" (1968), Carlos proceeded to record a second album of classical music performed on a modular Moog synthesizer from multiple composers, including Johann Sebastian Bach, Claudio Monteverdi, Domenico Scarlatti, and George Frideric Handel. Its title is a play on words from Bach's set of preludes and fugues named \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\". Upon its release, the album peaked at", "Well-Tempered Clavicle Well-Tempered Clavicle Well-Tempered Clavicle is the 35th book of the Xanth series by Piers Anthony. The title is a pun on the Bach musical work \"The Well-Tempered Clavier.\" The back cover of the book states the following: \"When a walking skeleton named Picka Bones happens upon a trio of melodic pets and a lovely, lovelorn princess, his dull and passionless existence is suddenly filled with danger, excitement, and the temptations of the flesh. For a plague of appalling puns has been unleashed on Xanth, and only Picka's musical gifts have the power to save the enchanted realm from the dire", "The Well-Tempered Clavier closer reference to Bach's model. Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco wrote \"Les Guitares bien tempérées\" (\"The Well-Tempered Guitars\"), a set of 24 preludes and fugues for two guitars, in all 24 major and minor keys, inspired in both title and structure by Bach's work. The best-known piece from either book is the first prelude of Book I. Anna Magdalena Bach copied a short version of this prelude in her 1725 \"Notebook\" (No. 29). The accessibility of this C major prelude has made it one of the most commonly studied piano pieces for students completing their introductory training. This prelude also served as the", "The Well-Tempered Clavier temperament in which keys with many accidentals sound out of tune. (See also musical tuning.) Bach would have been familiar with different tuning systems, and in particular as an organist would have played instruments tuned to a meantone system. It is sometimes assumed that by \"well-tempered\" Bach intended equal temperament, the standard modern keyboard tuning which became popular after Bach's death, but modern scholars suggest instead a form of well temperament. There is debate whether Bach meant a range of similar temperaments, perhaps even altered slightly in practice from piece to piece, or a single specific \"well-tempered\" solution for all", "The Short-Tempered Clavier and other dysfunctional works for keyboard and Minor Keys Except for the Really Hard Ones, S. easy as 3.14159265 (P.D.Q. Bach) 14. Introduction (3:16)<br> \"Little Pickle Book\" for theater organ and dill piccolos, S. 6 (P.D.Q. Bach) 19. Introduction (1:16)<br> \"Sonata Da Circo (Circus Sonata)\" for steam calliope, S. 3 ring (P.D.Q. Bach) 25. Introduction (1:07)<br> \"Three Chorale-Based Piecelets\" for Organ, S. III (P.D.Q. Bach) 29. Epilogue (1:24) The Short-Tempered Clavier and other dysfunctional works for keyboard The Short-Tempered Clavier and other dysfunctional works for keyboard was released in 1995 by Telarc Records. The album contains works by Peter Schickele, sometimes under his pseudonym of P.", "The Well-Tempered Clavier a similarly-named set of 24 Preludes and Fugues in all the keys, for which a manuscript dated 1689 was found in the library of the Brussels Conservatoire. It was later shown that this was the work of a composer who was not even born in 1689: Bernhard Christian Weber (1 December 17125 February 1758). It was in fact written in 1745–50, and in imitation of Bach's example. Bach's title suggests that he had written for a (12-note) well-tempered tuning system in which all keys sounded in tune (also known as \"circular temperament\"). The opposing system in Bach's day was meantone", "The Well-Tempered Clavier (BWV 849 and 867), and one two-voiced fugue (BWV 855). The fugues employ a full range of contrapuntal devices (fugal exposition, thematic inversion, stretto, etc.), but are generally more compact than Bach's fugues for organ. Several attempts have been made to analyse the motivic connections between each prelude and fugue, – most notably Wilhelm Werker and Johann Nepomuk David The most direct motivic reference appears in the B major set from Book 1, in which the fugue subject uses the first four notes of the prelude, in the same metric position but at half speed. Both books of the \"Well-Tempered", "Clavier-Übung III organ. However, as several commentators have noted, at a time when Bach was busy composing counterpoint for the second book of \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\" and the \"Goldberg Variations\" (\"Clavier-Übung IV\") using a very wide harpsichord range, Bach wrote the duets to lie comfortably in the range C to c″″′ in Helmholtz pitch notation (C2 to C6 in scientific pitch notation), so within the relatively narrow compass of almost every organ of the time. The pieces can nevertheless be played on any single keyboard, such as a harpsichord or fortepiano. The use of the term \"duetto\" itself is closest to that", "Well temperament Well temperament Well temperament (also good temperament, circular or circulating temperament) is a type of tempered tuning described in 20th-century music theory. The term is modeled on the German word \"wohltemperiert\". This word also appears in the title of J.S. Bach's famous composition \"Das wohltemperierte Klavier\", \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\". As the term was used in the 17th century, \"Well tempered\" meant that the twelve notes per octave of the standard keyboard were tuned in such a way that it was possible to play music in all major or minor keys that were commonly in use, and it would not sound", "The Well-Tempered Synthesizer heard.\" \"The Well-Tempered Synthesizer\" was released in November 1969. It peaked at No. 199 on the \"Billboard\" 200 chart and was nominated for two Grammy Awards. In February 1974, \"Billboard\" reported that the album had sold around 200,000 copies in the US. The Well-Tempered Synthesizer The Well-Tempered Synthesizer is the second studio album from the American musician and composer Wendy Carlos, originally released under her birth name, Walter Carlos, in November 1969 on Columbia Masterworks Records. Following the success of her previous album, \"Switched-On Bach\" (1968), Carlos proceeded to record a second album of classical music performed on a modular", "The Well-Tempered Clavier Bach's son Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach himself published a rather vague tuning method which was close to but still not equal temperament: having only \"most of\" the fifths tempered, without saying which ones nor by how much. Since 1950 there have been many other proposals and many performances of the work in different and unequal tunings, some derived from historical sources, some by modern authors. Whatever their provenances, these schemes all promote the existence of subtly different musical characters in different keys, due to the sizes of their intervals. However, they disagree as to which key receives which character: More", "The Well-Tempered Clavier all keys and to modulate into distant keys almost without the listeners noticing it. Marpurg and Kirnberger, in the course of a heated debate, appear to agree that Bach required all the major thirds to be sharper than pure—which is in any case virtually a prerequisite for any temperament to be good in all keys. Johann Georg Neidhardt, writing in 1724 and 1732, described a range of unequal and near-equal temperaments (as well as equal temperament itself), which can be successfully used to perform some of Bach's music, and were later praised by some of Bach's pupils and associates. J.S.", "Music written in all major and/or minor keys as in his second \"Ballade\"). One might suppose that Chopin considered writing the études in all the tonalities but eventually came to the conclusion that it wasn't practical and turned back to it later, for the 24 Preludes, Op. 28. The fact that the first étude of Op. 10 is made of arpeggios in C major draws a connection to Bach's first book of \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\" and makes it clear that Chopin had the tradition on his mind. \"See also:\" The Well-Tempered Clavier#Precursors Johann Sebastian Bach's \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\", two complete sets of 24 Preludes and Fugues written for", "Clavier-Übung III work into German, Burney made one of his first references to Bach: It was, however, only in the following year, during his tour of Germany and the Low Countries, that Burney received a copy of the first book of \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\" from C. P. E. Bach in Hamburg; according to his own reports, he was only to become familiar with its contents over thirty years later. He reported on his German tour in \"The Present State of Music in Germany, the Netherlands and United Provinces\" in 1773. The book contains the first English account of Bach's work and reflects", "Helmut Walcha abroad. A section of the documentary film \"Desert Fugue\" is about Walcha, and explains how he memorised music part by part, and passed on this method of learning counterpoint to his pupils. Helmut Walcha has also recorded most of Bach's harpsichord works (the English and French Suites, the Goldberg Variations, Partitas, the Italian Concerto, 15 Inventions and 15 Sinfonias, the Well-Tempered Clavier) for EMI. These recordings are still available from EMI-Toshiba (Japan). The Well-Tempered Clavier and the Goldberg Variations are also available in Europe in a 5-CD set. He also recorded The Well-Tempered Clavier for Deutsche Grammophon, using a Ruckers", "Inversion (music) third canon at the twelfth, and the fourth canon in augmentation and contrary motion. Other exemplars can be found in the fugues in G minor and B major [external Shockwave movies] from J.S. Bach’s \"The Well-Tempered Clavier,\" Book 2, both of which contain invertible counterpoint at the octave, tenth, and twelfth. For example, in the keyboard prelude in A major from J.S. Bach’s \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\", Book 1, the following passage, from bars 9–18, involves two lines, one in each hand: When this passage returns in bars 26–35 these lines are exchanged: J.S. Bach’s Three-Part Invention in F minor, BWV", "Clavier-Übung III Leipzig printers Krügner and Breitkopf, also printers for Mattheson, like others Bach would have had advance knowledge of the content of Mattheson's treatise. Concerning counterpoint, Mattheson wrote: Whatever Bach's personal reaction, the contrapuntal writing of \"Clavier-Übung III\" provided a musical response to Scheibe's criticisms and Mattheson's call to organists. Mizler's statement, cited above, that the qualities of \"Clavier-Übung III\" provided a \"powerful refutation of those who have ventured to criticize the music of the Court Composer\" was a verbal response to their criticisms. Nevertheless, most commentators agree that the main inspiration for Bach's monumental opus was musical, namely musical works", "The Well-Tempered Clavier on piano. As of 2013, over 150 recordings have been documented, including the above keyboard instruments as well as transcriptions for ensembles and also synthesizers. Wendy Carlos recorded the Prelude and Fugue in E major and the Prelude and Fugue in C Minor (both from Book I) in versions for Moog synthesizer on her album \"Switched-On Bach\" (1968). Harpsichord performances of various parts of Book I by Martha Goldstein are in the public domain. Such harpsichord performances may, for instance, be tuned in equal temperament, or in Werckmeister temperament. In addition to Martha Goldstein, Raymond Smullyan is another well-known artist", "Clavier-Übung III Bach's music and the Gothic cathedral would often be repeated by composers and music critics. His student, the writer, composer and music critic E.T.A. Hoffmann, saw in Bach's music \"the bold and wonderful, romantic cathedral with all its fantastic embellishments, which, artistically swept up into a whole, proudly and magnificently rise in the air.\" Hoffmann wrote of the sublime in Bach's music—the \"infinite spiritual realm\" in Bach's \"mystical rules of counterpoint\".<ref>\"See:\" <!-- * Clavier-Übung III The Clavier-Übung III, sometimes referred to as the German Organ Mass, is a collection of compositions for organ by Johann Sebastian Bach, started in 1735–36", "The Well-Tempered Clavier similar ideas had occurred earlier. Before the advent of modern tonality in the late 17th century, numerous composers produced collections of pieces in all seven modes: Johann Pachelbel's magnificat fugues (composed 1695–1706), Georg Muffat's \"Apparatus Musico-organisticus\" of 1690 and Johann Speth's \"Ars magna\" of 1693 for example. Furthermore, some two hundred years before Bach's time, equal temperament was realized on plucked string instruments, such as the lute and the theorbo, resulting in several collections of pieces in all keys (although the music was not yet tonal in the modern sense of the word): One of the earliest keyboard composers to", "Prelude (music) is a rare case of an attached prelude written in the 20th century without any neo-baroque intent). As well as a series of unattached piano preludes (Op. 2), Dmitri Shostakovich composed a set of 24 Preludes and Fugues in the tradition of Bach's \"The Well Tempered Clavier\". Some avant-garde composers have also produced unattached preludes. John Cage's brief Prelude for Meditation is written for prepared piano, while François-Bernard Mâche's \"Prélude\" (1959) and Branimir Sakač's \"Aleatory Prelude\" (1961) call on electronic resources and aleatoric techniques. Prelude (music) A prelude ( or \"\"; ; ; ) is a short piece of music,", "Maurice Cole (pianist) an avoidance of all posturing and pretentiousness (would that the same could be said for all other Bach players!)\" Review of Cole's recording of Bach's \"Well-Tempered Clavier book I in Gramophone Magazine, November 1962. Maurice Cole (pianist) Maurice Cole (1902–1990), was an English pianist, teacher and adjudicator who studied privately and at the Guildhall School of Music with Arthur De Greef. Maurice Cole was born in London, England. He was the first pianist to broadcast a recital on the BBC and went on to perform, amongst many other compositions, both books of Bach's \"Well-Tempered Clavier\" on the BBC Third Programme.", "Clavier-Übung III , Bach had a clear liturgical purpose in his organ compendium, with its cyclic order and plan, clear to the eye if not the ear. Even though the \"manualiter\" fugues were written at the time as Book 2 of \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\", only the last fugue BWV 689 has anything in common. Bach's musical plan has a multitude of structures: the organum plenum pieces; the three styles of polyphony, \"manulaiter\" and trio sonata in the Mass; the pairs in the Catechism, two with \"cantus firmus\" in canon, two with pedal \"cantus firmus\", two for full organ); and the free invention", "Clavier-Übung III introduction to the second volume of his tract: Through Bach's pupils and family, copies of his keyboard works were disseminated and studied throughout Germany; the diplomat Baron van Swieten, Austrian envoy to the Prussian court from 1770 to 1777 and afterwards patron of Mozart, Haydn and Beethoven, was responsible for relaying copies from Berlin to Vienna. The reception of the works was mixed, partly because of their technical difficulty: composers like Mozart, Beethoven and Rust embraced these compositions, particularly \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\"; but, as Johann Adam Hiller reported in 1768, many amateur musicians found them too hard (\"\"). Twenty-one prints", "Clavier-Übung III of all three fugue subjects, as well as of certain passages in the Prelude, may be found in the first four phrases of the chorale \"O Herzensangst, O Bangigkeit\". The first two sections of BWV 552/2 share many affinities with the fugue in E major BWV 876/2 in \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\", Book 2, written during the same period. Unlike true triple fugues, like the F minor BWV 883 from the same book or some of the \"contrapuncti\" in \"The Art of the Fugue\", Bach's intent with BWV 552/2 may not have been to combine all three subjects, although this would", "The Time Curve Preludes this set of pieces are of much more recognizable structure, including the division of 24 separate preludes. The number of preludes itself is a reference to Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier, though it doesn't utilize every key as does the Well-Tempered Clavier. The music also utilizes the Fibonacci series in developing proportional and rhythmic patterns, which were set out with the use of a numerical grid. The use of the Fibonacci sequence is not unique and appears in Bartok's music as well, and Duckworth's use of bitonality in Prelude No. 7 seems to be referential of Darius Milhaud's music. Most central to", "Prelude (music) others being two- and three-part contrapuntal works not unlike his inventions and sinfonias. Bach also composed preludes to introduce each of his English Suites. \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\" influenced many composers in the coming centuries, some of whom wrote preludes in sets of 12 or 24, sometimes with the intention of utilizing all 24 major and minor keys as Bach had done. Frédéric Chopin (1810–1849) wrote a set of 24 preludes, Op. 28, often composed in a simple ternary form, which liberated the prelude from its original introductory purpose and allowed it to serve as an independent concert piece. While other", "Fugue famous fugues are those for the harpsichord in \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\", which many composers and theorists look at as the greatest model of fugue. \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\" comprises two volumes written in different times of Bach's life, each comprising 24 prelude and fugue pairs, one for each major and minor key. Bach is also known for his organ fugues, which are usually preceded by a prelude or toccata. \"The Art of Fugue\", BWV 1080, is a collection of fugues (and four canons) on a single theme that is gradually transformed as the cycle progresses. Bach also wrote smaller single fugues", "Clavier-Übung III subsequent tradition among music lovers in Dresden of attending Sunday afternoon organ recitals in the Frauenkirche given by Bach's student Gottfried August Homilius, whose programme was usually made up of chorale preludes and a fugue. Bach was later to complain that the temperament on Silbermann organs was not well suited to \"today's practice\". \"Clavier-Übung III\" is the third of four books of Bach's Clavier-Übung. It was his published music for organ, the other three parts being for harpsichord. The title, meaning \"keyboard practice\", was a conscious reference to a long tradition of similarly titled treatises: Johann Kuhnau (Leipzig, 1689, 1692),", "Performance practice of Bach's music being replaced by written-out scores for all instruments. Bach's larger organ compositions were for the most part untraceable, and likewise his orchestral music and larger vocal compositions remained unperformed. Performances of Bach's music were mostly limited to private salons such as those of Sarah Itzig Levy and Gottfried van Swieten, where for instance Beethoven played excerpts of the \"Well-Tempered Clavier\". Mozart had arranged some of Bach's music for string trio and quartet. The Sing-Akademie zu Berlin, founded in 1791, included some of Bach's music in their public concerts. The transformations of the way Bach's music was performed that had taken", "The Well-Tempered Clavier have required both of these enharmonic keys to sound identically tuned, thus implying equal temperament in the one pair, as the entire work implies as a whole. However, research has continued into various unequal systems contemporary with Bach's career. Accounts of Bach's own tuning practice are few and inexact. The three most cited sources are Forkel, Bach's first biographer; Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg, who received information from Bach's sons and pupils; and Johann Kirnberger, one of those pupils. Forkel reports that Bach tuned his own harpsichords and clavichords and found other people's tunings unsatisfactory; his own allowed him to play in", "Prelude (music) other techniques involved in this baroque form. Johann Caspar Ferdinand Fischer was one of the first German composers to bring the late 17th-century French style to German harpsichord music, replacing the standard French ouverture with an unmeasured prelude. Fischer's \"Ariadne musica\" is a cycle of keyboard music which consists of pairs of preludes and fugues; the preludes are quite varied and do not conform to any particular model. \"Ariadne musica\" served as a precursor to Johann Sebastian Bach's \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\", two books of 24 \"prelude and fugue\" pairs each. Bach's preludes were also varied, some akin to Baroque dances,", "Friedrich Gulda as the \"Viennese troika\". Although most renowned for his Mozart and Beethoven interpretations, Gulda also performed the music of J. S. Bach (often on clavichord), Schubert, Chopin, Schumann, Debussy and Ravel. His recordings of Bach's Well Tempered Clavier are well regarded. Apart from the Well Tempered Clavier, Gulda performed very few other pieces by Bach and recorded even fewer. Gulda's later reliance on co-operating with companies whose recording techniques were primitive in comparison to those espoused by more sophisticated rivals stood him in very poor stead with regard to posterity. The rescued Mozart sonata tapes issued on DG are bad", "Music written in all major and/or minor keys this. Music written in all major and/or minor keys There is a long tradition in classical music of writing music in sets of pieces that cover all the major and minor keys of the chromatic scale. These sets typically consist of 24 numbers, one for each of the major and minor keys (sets that comprise all the enharmonic variants include 30 numbers). Well-known examples include Johann Sebastian Bach's \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\" and Frédéric Chopin's 24 Preludes, Op. 28. Such sets are often organized as preludes and fugues or designated as preludes or études. Some composers have restricted their sets to", "Music written in all major and/or minor keys Music written in all major and/or minor keys There is a long tradition in classical music of writing music in sets of pieces that cover all the major and minor keys of the chromatic scale. These sets typically consist of 24 numbers, one for each of the major and minor keys (sets that comprise all the enharmonic variants include 30 numbers). Well-known examples include Johann Sebastian Bach's \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\" and Frédéric Chopin's 24 Preludes, Op. 28. Such sets are often organized as preludes and fugues or designated as preludes or études. Some composers have restricted their sets to cover", "Max Kenworthy Max Kenworthy Max Kenworthy (born in West Yorkshire, England) has performed recitals throughout the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand and has undertaken recordings, broadcasts and tours in pipe organ, piano and conducting. Max began playing jazz piano at school and has played with numerous ensembles in a variety of styles. After a prolonged absence from the jazz scene, Max decided to rekindle his interest in playing jazz music by forming his own trio - The Jazz-Tempered Trio - which is currently working on The Jazz-Tempered Clavier Project, a jazz interpretation of J.S. Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier. Now based in New", "Johann Sebastian Bach \"Well-Tempered Clavier\", in 1835, and Schumann published his \"Sechs Fugen über den Namen B-A-C-H\" in 1845. Bach's music was transcribed and arranged to suit contemporary tastes and performance practice by composers such as Carl Friedrich Zelter, Robert Franz, and Franz Liszt, or combined with new music such as the melody line of Charles Gounod's Ave Maria. Brahms, Bruckner, and Wagner were among the composers who promoted Bach's music or wrote glowingly about it. In 1850, the (Bach Society) was founded to promote Bach's music. In the second half of the 19th century, the Society published a comprehensive edition of the", "Music written in all major and/or minor keys keyboard in 1722 and 1742, and often known as \"the 48\", is generally considered the greatest example of music traversing all 24 keys. Many later composers clearly modelled their sets on Bach's, including the order of the keys. It was long believed that Bach had taken the title \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\" from a similarly-named set of 24 Preludes and Fugues in all the keys, for which a manuscript dated 1689 was found in the library of the Brussels Conservatoire. It was later shown that this was the work of a composer who was not even born by 1689: Bernhard Christian", "Johann Sebastian Bach B minor, and was influenced by Bach's music. Mozart owned a copy of one of Bach's motets, transcribed some of his instrumental works (K. 404a, 405), and wrote contrapuntal music influenced by his style. Beethoven played the entire \"Well-Tempered Clavier\" by the time he was eleven, and described Bach as (progenitor of harmony). In 1802, Johann Nikolaus Forkel published \"Ueber Johann Sebastian Bachs Leben, Kunst und Kunstwerke\", the first biography of the composer, which contributed to the composer becoming known to a wider public. In 1805, Abraham Mendelssohn, who had married one of Itzig's granddaughters, bought a substantial collection of", "The Well-Tempered Clavier the Prelude in \"Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach\" (No. 18: \"Praeludium 5\"). . Prelude also in WFB \"Klavierbüchlein\", No. 20: Praeludium 7. . Prelude also in WFB \"Klavierbüchlein\", No. 24: Praeludium [11]. Prelude and Fugue in G minor, BWV 861. The two major primary sources for this collection of Preludes and Fugues are the \"London Original\" (LO) manuscript, dated between 1739 and 1742, with scribes including Bach, his wife Anna Magdalena and his oldest son Wilhelm Friedeman, which is the basis for Version A of \"WTC II\", and for Version B, that is the version published by the 19th-century Bach-Gesellschaft,", "The Well-Tempered Clavier purposes. During much of the 20th century it was assumed that Bach wanted equal temperament, which had been described by theorists and musicians for at least a century before Bach's birth. Internal evidence for this may be seen in the fact that in Book 1 Bach paired the E minor prelude (6 flats) with its enharmonic key of D minor (6 sharps) for the fugue. This represents an equation of the most tonally remote enharmonic keys where the flat and sharp arms of the circle of fifths cross each other opposite to C major. Any performance of this pair would", "Sketch (music) Marston, writing in the New Grove, lists three reasons why the study of sketches can be of interest. A fourth possibility is also mentioned by Marston, namely that one might appeal to the sketches to support a particular formal analysis (i.e. in music theory) of a finished work. This practice is controversial. Surviving sketches by Johann Sebastian Bach include: The \"Klavierbüchlein für Wilhelm Friedemann Bach\" contains, among several comparable early versions of compositions that became better known in their later versions, a sketch of what evolved into the first prelude of \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\". The body of sketches by Wolfgang", "Music written in all major and/or minor keys Weber (1712–1758). In fact, the work was written in 1745–50 in imitation of Bach's example. While Bach can safely claim the title \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\", he was not the earliest composer to write sets of pieces in all the keys: As early as 1567, (c.1520–c.1577) wrote a cycle of 24 passamezzo–saltarello pairs. In 1584, Vincenzo Galilei, father of Galileo Galilei, wrote a Codex of pieces illustrating the use of all 24 major and minor keys. In 1640, Angelo Michele Bartolotti wrote \"Libro primo di chitarra spagnola\", a cycle of passacaglias that moves through all 24 major and minor keys according", "Transcription (music) including one from his own opera \"The Marriage of Figaro\". A more contemporary example is Stravinsky´s transcription for four hands piano of \"The Rite of Spring\", to be used on the ballet's rehearsals. Today musicians who play in cafes or restaurants will sometimes play transcriptions or arrangements of pieces written for a larger group of instruments. Other examples of this type of transcription include Bach's arrangement of Vivaldi's four-violin concerti for four keyboard instruments and orchestra; Mozart's arrangement of some Bach fugues from \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\" for string trio; Beethoven's arrangement of his \"Große Fuge\", originally written for string quartet,", "The Well-Tuned Piano octaves, with nine notes extending the bass of the piano. Young describes the pitches of his tuning as being, \"derived from various partials of the overtone series of an inferred low fundamental E-flat reference ten octaves below the lowest E-flat on the Bösendorfer Imperial\". Although it might seem that Young is giving a nod to Bach's \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\" with his title \"The Well-Tuned Piano\", musical tuning and musical temperament are two very different things. Temperament actually involves the deliberate mistuning of pitches to make the overall octave more or less usable in various different tones. In \"The Well-Tuned Piano\",", "The Well-Tempered Clavier recently there has been a series of proposals of temperaments derived from the handwritten pattern of loops on Bach's 1722 title page. These loops (though truncated by a later clipping of the page) can be seen at the top of the title page image at the beginning of the article. Nevertheless, some musicologists say it is insufficiently proven that Bach's looped drawing signifies anything reliable about a tuning method. Bach may have tuned differently per occasion, or per composition, throughout his career. Each Prelude is followed by a Fugue in the same key. In each book the first Prelude and", "Equal temperament degraded the aesthetic appeal of music, although Andreas Werckmeister emphatically advocated equal temperament in his 1707 treatise published posthumously. J. S. Bach wrote \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\" to demonstrate the musical possibilities of well temperament, where in some keys the consonances are even more degraded than in equal temperament. It is possible that when composers and theoreticians of earlier times wrote of the moods and \"colors\" of the keys, they each described the subtly different dissonances made available within a particular tuning method. However, it is difficult to determine with any exactness the actual tunings used in different places at different", "Piano sonatas (Beethoven) age 19, released by Claves Records. The Op. 106 sonata was orchestrated by Felix Weingartner for a Romantic era orchestra. Piano sonatas (Beethoven) Ludwig van Beethoven wrote his 32 piano sonatas between 1795 and 1822. Although originally not intended to be a meaningful whole, as a set they compose one of the most important collections of works in the history of music. Hans von Bülow called them \"The New Testament\" of music (Johann Sebastian Bach's \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\" being \"The Old Testament\"). Beethoven's piano sonatas came to be seen as the first cycle of major piano pieces suited to concert", "Piano sonatas (Beethoven) Piano sonatas (Beethoven) Ludwig van Beethoven wrote his 32 piano sonatas between 1795 and 1822. Although originally not intended to be a meaningful whole, as a set they compose one of the most important collections of works in the history of music. Hans von Bülow called them \"The New Testament\" of music (Johann Sebastian Bach's \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\" being \"The Old Testament\"). Beethoven's piano sonatas came to be seen as the first cycle of major piano pieces suited to concert hall performance. Being suitable for both private and public performance, Beethoven's sonatas form \"a bridge between the worlds of the", "Johann Friedrich Agricola fortepiano designs of Gottfried Silbermann, on the lute-harpsichord, and on organ building. Agricola is also noted in Bach studies as one of the copyists for both books of the Well-Tempered Clavier and the St. Matthew Passion. Attribution Johann Friedrich Agricola Johann Friedrich Agricola (4 January 1720 – 2 December 1774) was a German composer, organist, singer, pedagogue, and writer on music. He sometimes wrote under the pseudonym Flavio Anicio Olibrio. Agricola was born in Dobitschen, Thuringia. While a student of law at Leipzig (1738–41) he studied music under Johann Sebastian Bach. In 1741 Agricola went to Berlin, where he studied", "Prelude and fugue Prelude and fugue In classical music, the combination of prelude and fugue is one with a long history. Many composers have written works of this kind. The use of this format is generally inspired by Johann Sebastian Bach's two books of preludes and fugues — \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\" — completed in 1722 and 1742 respectively. Bach, however, was not the first to compose such a set: Johann Caspar Ferdinand Fischer wrote a 20-key cycle in his 1702 work \"Ariadne musica\". A number of composers wrote sets of pieces covering all 24 major and/or minor keys. Many of these have been", "Betty Oberacker Betty Oberacker Betty Oberacker is an American pianist and piano pedagogue. Internationally renowned for her interpretations of traditional and contemporary repertoire as both a soloist and a chamber musician, she has performed in several European countries as well as abroad (Israel, Asia, Australia, Mexico and the United States). She has worked as a professor of piano and chamber music at the Ohio State University and the University of California, Santa Barbara. Oberacker has recorded for several record labels such as Century (Schönberg's Pierrot Lunaire), MIT Great Performances Archives ( A Bach Commemorative Recital), Clavier Records (Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier), MMC (Diemer's", "Garth Hudson 1940. Classically trained in piano, music theory, harmony and counterpoint, Hudson wrote his first song at the age of eleven and first played professionally with dance bands in 1949 at the age of twelve. He attended Broughdale Public School and Medway High School before studying music (primarily Bach's chorales and \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\") at the University of Western Ontario. During this period, he grew increasingly frustrated with the rigidity of the classical repertoire, leading him to drop out after a year. In 1958, he joined the Capers, a rock and roll band. He was reported to have said that he", "Clavier-Übung III VII in the original manuscript version of \"Die Kunst der Fuge\" as contained in P200. Although possibly intended for use in services, the technical difficulty of \"Clavier-Übung III\", like that of Bach's later compositions—the Canonic Variations BWV 769, \"The Musical Offering\" BWV 1079 and \"The Art of Fugue\" BWV 1080—would have made the work too demanding for most Lutheran church organists. Indeed, many of Bach's contemporaries deliberately wrote music to be accessible to a wide range of organists: Sorge composed simple 3-part chorales in his \"Vorspiele\" (1750), because chorale preludes such as Bach's were \"so difficult and almost unusable by", "Anton Reicha music variations, toccata-like hand-crossing variations, etc., foreshadowing in many aspects not only Beethoven's \"Diabelli Variations\", but also works by Schubert, Wagner and Debussy. Many of Reicha's string quartets are similarly advanced, and also anticipate numerous later developments. The eight Vienna string quartets (1801–5) are among his most important works. Though largely ignored since Reicha's death, they were highly influential during his lifetime and left their mark on the quartets of Beethoven and Schubert, much as Bach's \"Well-Tempered Clavier\" was ignored by the public but well known to Beethoven and Chopin. Reicha also wrote prolifically for various kinds of ensembles other", "Harpsichord into four books of \"ordres\" by François Couperin (1668–1733). Domenico Scarlatti (1685–1757) began his career in Italy but wrote most of his solo harpsichord works in Spain; his most famous work is his series of 555 harpsichord sonatas. Perhaps the most celebrated composers who wrote for the harpsichord were Georg Friedrich Händel (1685–1759), who composed numerous suites for harpsichord, and especially J. S. Bach (1685–1750), whose solo works (for instance, the Well-Tempered Clavier and the Goldberg Variations), continue to be performed very widely, often on the piano. Bach was also a pioneer of the harpsichord concerto, both in works designated", "Clavier-Übung III players\"; Vogel, Bach's former student from Weimar, wrote his \"Choräle\" \"principally for those who have to play in country\" churches; and another Weimar student, Johann Ludwig Krebs, wrote his \"Klavierübung II\" (1737) so that it could be played \"by a lady, without much trouble.\" \"Clavier-Übung III\" combines German, Italian and French styles, reflecting a trend in late 17th- and early 18th-century Germany for composers and musicians to write and perform in a style that became known as the \"mixed taste\", a phrased coined by Quantz. In 1730, Bach had written a now-famous letter to the Leipzig town council—his \"Short but", "Well temperament are played so that music moves into and out of focus between keys as vibrations lock together or not. Werckmeister features 8 perfect fifths, Kellner 7 and Vallotti 6. The contemporary composer Douglas Leedy has written several works for harpsichord or organ in which the use of a well temperament is required. Well temperament Well temperament (also good temperament, circular or circulating temperament) is a type of tempered tuning described in 20th-century music theory. The term is modeled on the German word \"wohltemperiert\". This word also appears in the title of J.S. Bach's famous composition \"Das wohltemperierte Klavier\", \"The Well-Tempered", "P. D. Q. Bach \"Einstein on the Beach\", provides an example. The underlying music is J.S. Bach's first prelude from \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\", but at double the normal speed, with each phrase repeated interminably in a minimalist manner that parodies Glass's. On top of this mind-numbing structure is added everything from jazz phrases to snoring to heavily harmonized versions of \"Three Blind Mice\" to the chanting of a meaningless phrase (\"Koy Hotsy-Totsy,\" alluding to the art film \"Koyaanisqatsi\" for which Glass wrote the score). Through all these mutilations, the piece never deviates from Bach's original harmonic structure. The humor in P. D. Q. Bach", "Clavier-Übung III Clavier-Übung III The Clavier-Übung III, sometimes referred to as the German Organ Mass, is a collection of compositions for organ by Johann Sebastian Bach, started in 1735–36 and published in 1739. It is considered Bach's most significant and extensive work for organ, containing some of his most musically complex and technically demanding compositions for that instrument. In its use of modal forms, motet-style and canons, it looks back to the religious music of masters of the stile antico, such as Frescobaldi, Palestrina, Lotti and Caldara. At the same time, Bach was forward-looking, incorporating and distilling modern baroque musical forms, such", "Leopold, Prince of Anhalt-Köthen Duke William Ernest of Saxe-Weimar, who imprisoned him from 6 November-2 December 1717 for not following correct procedures in requesting release from his post as \"Konzertmeister\" at the court of Weimar. Only after 2 December 1717 Bach could finally take his new post in Köthen. The simple style of church music mandated at Leopold's Reformed (Calvinistic) court led to Bach's concentration on instrumental music and secular vocal music during his employment at Köthen. Much of Bach's secular music, including several of the \"Brandenburg Concerti\" and Part I of the \"Well-Tempered Clavier\", stem from his years at Köthen. Bach composed a" ]

[ "The Well-Tempered Clavier (Westworld) flames behind them. \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\" was viewed by 2.09 million American households on its initial viewing. The episode also acquired a 1.0 rating in the 18–49 demographic. \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\" received positive reviews from critics. The episode has a 89% score on Rotten Tomatoes and has an average rating of 8.2 out of 10, based on 19 reviews. The site's consensus reads: \"'The Well-Tempered Clavier' confirms a multitude of popular theories in an episode marked by bleak revelations and tragic results.\" Terri Schwartz of IGN reviewed the episode positively, saying, \"'The Well-Tempered Clavier' did a lot of heavy lifting", "The Well-Tempered Clavier (Westworld) The Well-Tempered Clavier (Westworld) \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\" is the ninth episode of the HBO science fiction thriller television series \"Westworld\". The episode aired on November 27, 2016. The episode was lauded by critics in particular to Arnold's revelation and Jeffrey Wright and Anthony Hopkins's performances during the final scenes. After being pulled in for analysis, Maeve pretends to be functioning in stand-by mode while Bernard interrogates her. Having acquired administrative privileges to control other hosts, she freezes Bernard briefly and reveals to him his identity as a host. Bernard, who at this point in time was already wiped of his", "The Well-Tempered Clavier (Westworld) shows had most of the mysteries swirling around the characters, Westworld keeps developing mysteries within its characters.\" The Well-Tempered Clavier (Westworld) \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\" is the ninth episode of the HBO science fiction thriller television series \"Westworld\". The episode aired on November 27, 2016. The episode was lauded by critics in particular to Arnold's revelation and Jeffrey Wright and Anthony Hopkins's performances during the final scenes. After being pulled in for analysis, Maeve pretends to be functioning in stand-by mode while Bernard interrogates her. Having acquired administrative privileges to control other hosts, she freezes Bernard briefly and reveals to him", "The Well-Tempered Clavier (Westworld) for \"Westworld\", confirming a huge theory and getting very close to confirming a couple other biggies.\" She gave it a score of 9.1 out of 10. Scott Tobias of \"The New York Times\" wrote in his review of the episode; \"The experience of watching \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\" did underline the unique ambition of Westworld, which is appreciable even when the ins and outs of the show are confusing.\" Zack Handlen of \"The A.V. Club\" wrote in his review, \"As the show finally starts showing its cards, it means getting to see the relationships that have been hiding right out in", "The Well-Tempered Clavier (Westworld) the open, and those relationships are, in their way, just as thrilling as the fireworks they set off.\" He gave the episode an A-. Liz Shannon Miller of IndieWire wrote in her review, \"Thanks to \"Game of Thrones\", we're somewhat conditioned to expect epic mayhem from the penultimate episodes of an HBO series, but \"Westworld\", as usual, proves committed to developing its own models. 'The Well-Tempered Clavier' didn't stall by any stretch of the imagination, but it's clear that the big action is coming in next week's finale.\" She gave the episode a B+. James Hibberd of \"Entertainment Weekly\" wrote", "The Well-Tempered Clavier basis for the \"Ave Maria\" of Charles Gounod. Alexander Siloti proposed a piano arrangement of the early version of Prelude and Fugue in E minor (BWV 855a), transposed into a Prelude in B minor. The first complete recording of the \"Well-Tempered Clavier\" was made on the piano by Edwin Fischer for EMI between 1933 and 1936. The second was made by Wanda Landowska on harpsichord for RCA Victor in 1949 (Book 1) and 1952 (Book 2). The first complete recording of the work on a clavichord was made by Ralph Kirkpatrick in 1959 (Book 1) and 1967 (Book 2) for", "The Well-Tempered Clavier (Westworld) Clavier\" was written by Dan Dietz and Katherine Lingenfelter, and was directed by Michelle MacLaren. It is the only episode of the season to not be written by either Jonathan Nolan or Lisa Joy, but rather by individuals who had worked with the two of them in their previous endeavors (Dietz with Nolan on \"Person of Interest\" and Lingenfelter with Joy on \"Pushing Daisies\"). According to MacLaren, several of the most memorable scenes in the episode were created with clever practical effects in lieu of digital effects, including some of the transitions between Dolores' past and present, the Man in", "The Well-Tempered Clavier (Westworld) of the sentient hosts. Ford explains to Bernard that the self-aware hosts would not survive if set free, as \"Humans are alone in this world for a reason. We murdered and butchered anything that challenged our primacy.\" Bernard attempts to kill Ford, but Ford uses a back door in Bernard's code to disable him. Ford laments that he built Bernard in Arnold's image and allowed him to become self aware in the hopes that he would willingly join him, which Arnold refused to do. Seeing that his experiment has failed, Ford forces the still-aware Bernard to commit suicide. \"The Well-Tempered", "Clavier-Übung III book of \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\", composed at roughly the same time. The inversion of the countersubject in bar 5, omitting the first note, plays a significant role later in the fugue (bar 30): The stretti occur at intervals of varying length; in addition to the fugue subject, there are also imitations and stretti both for the semiquaver figure in the subject (and its inversions) and the figure above derived from the countersubject. has given the following summary of the stretti for the fugue subject: The last entry of the fugue subject in the tenor voice gives the impression of the", "Clavier-Übung III in dotted minims (G–A–B) and the quaver countersubject are derived from the first line of the \"cantus firmus\", which also provides material for several cadences and a later descending quaver figure (bar 8 below). Some of the sequential writing resembles that of the B major fugue BWV 890/2 in the second book of \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\". Smoothness and mellifluousness result from what has called the \"liquefying effect\" of the simple time signature of ; from the use of parallel thirds in the doubling of subject and countersubject; from the clear tonalities of the four-part writing, progressing from G major to", "Clavier-Übung III sixth bar a demisemiquaver motif is introduced that is developed later in the duet in a highly original way; it also serves as a means of modulation after which the parts interchange their roles. The contrasting second subject in quavers with octave leaps is a descent by a chromatic fourth. The harmonies between the two chromatic parts are similar to those in the A minor prelude BWV 889/1 from the second book of \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\", presumed to have been composed at roughly the same time. BWV 802 has been analysed as follows: The second duet in F major BWV", "The Well-Tempered Clavier (Westworld) in his review, \"There were three big clues that I counted and I probably missed one or two as well.\" David Crow of Den of Geek said in his review, \"The penultimate episode of \"Westworld\" season 1 offers confirmation to some game-changing theories.\" He gave the episode a 4.5 out of 5. Todd Kenreck of \"Forbes\" also reviewed the episode, saying, \"Jeffrey Wright is just so remarkable in this episode, as is Anthony Hopkins.\" Todd VanDerWerff of \"Vox\" also reviewed the episode positively, saying, \"\"Westworld\" is a mystery show, like \"Twin Peaks\" or \"Lost\", but where both of those earlier", "The Well-Tempered Clavier Deutsche Grammophon. Helmut Walcha, better known as an organist, recorded both books between 1959 and 1961 on a harpsichord. Another noteworthy version of both books was recorded by Australian pianist Roger Woodward in 2007 in Bavaria. Daniel Chorzempa made the first recording using multiple instruments (harpsichord, clavichord, organ, and fortepiano) for Philips in 1982. Artists to have recorded the collection twice include Ralph Kirkpatrick (once on clavichord and once on harpsichord) and Angela Hewitt, João Carlos Martins, András Schiff, Rosalyn Tureck, and Tatiana Nikolayeva (all on piano). Anthony Newman has recorded it three times – twice on harpsichord and once", "The Well-Tempered Clavier wide range of styles, more so than most pieces in the literature. The preludes are formally free, although many of them exhibit typical Baroque melodic forms, often coupled to an extended free coda (e.g. Book I preludes in C minor, D major, and B major). The preludes are also notable for their odd or irregular numbers of measures, in terms of both the phrases and the total number of measures in a given prelude. Each fugue is marked with the number of voices, from two to five. Most are three- and four-voiced fugues, and there are only two five-voiced fugues", "Twelve Microtonal Etudes for Electronic Music Media intrigued by, \"finding conventional harmonic progressions,\" in unconventional tunings. \"What I was particularly interested in was chord progressions that would give a sensation either of modal coherence or else of tonality. That is to say you can actually identify subdominants, dominants, tonics, and keys.\" Blackwood likened the task to writing a \"sequel\" to \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\". The \"Twelve Microtonal Etudes\" were re-released on CD in 1994, accompanied by two additional compositions of Blackwood's in tunings he explored in the \"Etudes\": \"Fanfare in 19-note Equal Tuning\", Op. 28a, and \"Suite for Guitar in 15-note Equal Tuning\", Op. 33. The fanfare, like", "The Well-Tempered Clavier (Westworld) on the benches and appear to have conversations with someone that only they can hear. Dolores goes into the confessional box, which takes her to an underground lab, where she remembers that she killed Arnold. When she returns to the surface, she encounters the Man in Black much to her horror. Ashley investigates a signal from Elsie's handheld device in a remote section of the park and is ambushed by Ghost Nation warriors who ignore his voice commands to stand down. Bernard, now once again aware that he is a host, confronts Ford and forces him to restore all of", "The Well-Tempered Clavier (Westworld) Charlotte, who whilst trying to gain his vote to remove Ford, reveals him to be a long-time member of the board of directors. He indifferently agrees and continues his journey to the maze. Logan takes the captured William and Dolores to a Confederado camp. William tries to convince Logan to use his contacts in the park to smuggle Dolores to safety, but Logan insists William has gone crazy, showing him a picture of his fiancé, the exact same picture Peter Abernathy found in the first episode. To prove his point, Logan cuts open Dolores' belly to show William she is", "The Well-Tempered Clavier 15: Praeludium 2. Prelude and Fugue in C-sharp major, BWV 848. Prelude also in WFB \"Klavierbüchlein\", No. 21: Praeludium [8]. Prelude and Fugue in C-sharp minor, BWV 849. Prelude also in WFB \"Klavierbüchlein\", No. 22: Praeludium [9]. . Prelude also in WFB \"Klavierbüchlein\", No. 17: Praeludium 4. . Prelude also in WFB \"Klavierbüchlein\", No. 16: Praeludium 3. . Prelude also in WFB \"Klavierbüchlein\", No. 23: Praeludium [10]. The fugue was transposed from D minor to D minor. . Prelude also in WFB \"Klavierbüchlein\", No. 19: Praeludium 6. Prelude and Fugue in E minor, BWV 855. Early version BWV 855a of", "The Well-Tempered Clavier (Westworld) memory of killing Theresa and of realizing he is a host, re-confronts his identity crisis. Maeve convinces Bernard to let her back into the park while she encourages him to search for the deeper truth concerning himself. Maeve meets Hector back in the park and convinces him to help her escape when she correctly predicts his crew's actions and shows him the safe he stole is empty. She even helps unlock some of Hector's previous memories. The two have sex after Hector agrees to help her, and Maeve tips over a kerosene lamp to start a fire, intending to kill", "Tempered glass changes throughout the year. Moreover, they must withstand small impacts from road debris such as stones as well as automobile accidents. Because large, sharp glass shards would present additional and unacceptable danger to passengers, tempered glass is used so that if broken, the pieces are blunt and mostly harmless. The windscreen or windshield is instead made of laminated glass, which will not shatter into pieces when broken while side windows and the rear windshield are typically tempered glass. Other typical applications of tempered glass include: Tempered glass is also used in buildings for unframed assemblies (such as frameless glass doors),", "Tony Clavier He became a priest under James Hardin George of the American Episcopal Church. On 11 February 1970, George consecrated Clavier as a bishop and appointed him as a suffragan. Later that year, George resigned and Clavier served as primate for the next six years. Harold L. Trott became primate in 1976, only to leave office in 1981 with Clavier once again taking the position as primate. In 1995, after allegations that he had attempted to have sexual relations with some female parishioners, Clavier resigned his position at the Deerfield Beach Anglican congregation and, in July 1995, the house of bishops", "Wrote a Song for Everyone Wrote a Song for Everyone Wrote a Song for Everyone is the ninth solo studio album by John Fogerty, released on May 28, 2013 (Fogerty's 68th birthday) in the United States. The album is a collection of Creedence Clearwater Revival classics and deep tracks from his canon of hits as well as some brand new songs, performed alongside an array of notable musicians, including Foo Fighters (\"Fortunate Son\"), Bob Seger (\"Who'll Stop the Rain\"), Dawes (\"Someday Never Comes\"), Brad Paisley (\"Hot Rod Heart\"), Miranda Lambert (\"Wrote a Song for Everyone\"), Kid Rock (\"Born on the Bayou\"), Keith Urban (\"Almost Saturday", "The Well-Tempered Clavier (Westworld) Black's escape from the noose, and Maeve and Hector's sex scene in a burning tent. The tent scene was filmed on a Santa Clarita studio backlot by placing Thandie Newton and Rodrigo Santoro at a safe distance from the open end of half a tent which had been treated with a special glue in advance to ensure controlled fire spread. The camera was set up with a fire bar in front of it, then long lenses were used to reduce the apparent distance between the flames from the fire bar in front, the actors, and the half-tent going up in", "Tempered representation definition above is also used for more general groups, such as \"p\"-adic Lie groups and finite central extensions of semisimple real algebraic groups. The definition of \"tempered representation\" makes sense for arbitrary unimodular locally compact groups, but on groups with infinite centers such as infinite central extensions of semisimple Lie groups it does not behave well and is usually replaced by a slightly different definition. More precisely, an irreducible representation is called tempered if it is unitary when restricted to the center \"Z\", and the absolute values of the matrix coefficients are in \"L\"(\"G\"/\"Z\"). Tempered representations on semisimple Lie groups", "The Well-Tempered Clavier (Westworld) them both. Teddy, still convinced that Wyatt forced him to kill his own men, has a flashback of himself killing the townspeople of Escalante, including Angela. Angela remarks that Teddy is not ready to join them yet, but perhaps in the next life, and stabs and kills him in the present. After being knocked out by Angela, the Man in Black wakes up the next morning to find a noose around his neck, leashed to the saddle of his horse. He grabs the knife with which Angela stabbed Teddy and frees himself just as the horse gallops away. He encounters" ]

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[ "Oliver Goodall Oliver Goodall (May 28, 1922 – October 30, 2010) was one of the Tuskegee Airmen. He was involved in the Freeman Field Mutiny, and he was active member in the Tuskegee Airmen, Inc.", "Tuskegee Airmen is the popular name of a group of African-American military pilots (fighter and bomber) who fought in World War II. Officially, they formed the 332nd Fighter Group and the 477th Bombardment Group of the United States Army Air Forces. The name also applies to the navigators, bombardiers, mechanics, instructors, crew chiefs, nurses, cooks and other support personnel for the pilots." ]

[ "No. 100 Group RAF No. 100 (Bomber Support) Group was a special duties group within RAF Bomber Command. The group was formed on 11 November 1943 to consolidate the increasingly complex business of electronic warfare and countermeasures in one organisation. The group was responsible for the development, operational trial and use of electronic warfare and countermeasures equipment. It was based at RAF stations in East Anglia, chiefly Norfolk.", "No. 1 Training Group RAAF No. 1 (Training) Group RAAF was a Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) group. It was formed in Melbourne in August 1941 as part of a reorganisation of the air force, and was disbanded after the war in January 1946.", "No. 60 Squadron RAAF No. 60 Squadron was a Royal Australian Air Force fighter squadron of World War II. It was formed in January 1942 and disbanded three months later, without seeing combat.", "Special Air Service The Special Air Service (SAS) is a special forces unit of the British Army. The SAS was founded in 1941 as a regiment, and later reconstituted as a corps in 1950. The unit undertakes a number of roles including covert reconnaissance, counter-terrorism, direct action and hostage rescue.", "357th Fighter Group The 357th Fighter Group was an air combat unit of the United States Army Air Forces during the Second World War. The 357th operated P-51 Mustang aircraft as part of the U.S. Eighth Air Force and its members were known unofficially as \"The Yoxford Boys\" after a village near their base in the UK. (Group tradition holds that the name was the invention of Lord Haw Haw in a broadcast greeting the night of its arrival at RAF Leiston.)", "No. 74 Squadron RAF No. 74 Squadron RAF, also known as \"Tiger Squadron\" from its tiger head motif, was a squadron of the Royal Air Force. It operated fighter aircraft from 1917 to the 1990s.", "No. 13 Squadron RAF No. 13 or XIII Squadron is a squadron of the Royal Air Force formed on 10 January 1915 and most recently disbanded on 13 May 2011. It reformed on 26 October 2012 flying the MQ-9 Reaper unmanned aerial vehicle from RAF Waddington.", "Jagdgeschwader 300 \"Jagdgeschwader\" 300 (JG 300) was a Luftwaffe fighter-wing of World War II. JG 300 was formed on June 26, 1943 in Deelen as Stab/Versuchskommando Herrmann, from July 18, 1943 as Stab/JG Herrmann and finally renamed on August 20, 1943 to Stab/JG 300. Its first \"Geschwaderkommodore\" was Oberstleutnant Hajo Herrmann.", "No. 1457 Flight RAF No. 1457 (Fighter) Flight was formed at RAF Colerne on 15 September 1941, and was equipped with Turbinlite Douglas Boston and Douglas Havoc aircraft. On operations they cooperated with the Hawker Hurricanes of 247 Squadron. By 15 November 1941 the flight moved to RAF Predannack, Cornwall. During its operational life the flight had three sightings of possible enemy aircraft. The first occasion was on 24 June 1942, when the flight lit up a suspected Ju 88 and the satellite fighters of 247 sqn fired - on a RAF Short Stirling. Others sightings occurred on 27 June and in August, but no enemy aircraft was shot down. The flight was replaced with 536 Squadron on 8 September 1942 (not on 2 September due to administrative reasons) but officially disbanded as late as 31 December 1942.", "No. 17 Group RAF No. 17 Group RAF was a group of the Royal Air Force which was operational during both the First and Second World Wars.", "V bomber The term V bomber was used for the Royal Air Force (RAF) aircraft during the 1950s and 1960s that composed the United Kingdom's strategic nuclear strike force known officially as the V-force or Bomber Command Main Force. The strategic bombers, whose names all started with the letter \"V\" and which were known collectively as the \"V-class\", included the Vickers Valiant (first flew 1951, entered service 1955), Avro Vulcan (first flew 1952, in service 1956) and Handley Page Victor (first flew 1952, in service 1958). The V-Bomber force reached its peak in June 1964, with 50 Valiants, 70 Vulcans and 39 Victors in service.", "No. 466 Squadron RAAF No. 466 Squadron RAAF was a Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) bomber squadron during World War II. Formed in the United Kingdom in late 1942, the squadron undertook combat operations in Europe until the end of the war, flying heavy bomber aircraft. Following the conclusion of hostilities with Germany, the squadron began retraining to undertake operations in the Pacific against the Japanese, but the war came to an end before it left the UK. In late 1945, the squadron was disbanded.", "Lehrgeschwader 2 \"Lehrgeschwader\" 2 (LG 2) (Demonstration Wing 2) was a Luftwaffe unit during World War II, operating three fighter, night fighter, reconnaissance and ground support \"Gruppen\" (groups).", "Jagdgeschwader 25 Jagdgeschwader\" 25 (JG 25), sometimes erroneously referred to as Jagdgruppe\" 25, was a special high-altitude fighter unit that specialized in intercepting the Royal Air Force's (RAF) de Havilland Mosquito light bombers during World War II.", "8th Carrier Air Group The 8th Carrier Air Group of the Fleet Air Arm was formed on 30 June 1945. It was based on the aircraft carrier HMS \"Implacable\" for service in the British Pacific Fleet and contained 828 Naval Air Squadron flying the Grumman TBF Avenger, 801 Naval Air Squadron and 880 Naval Air Squadron flying the Supermarine Seafire and 1771 Naval Air Squadron flying the Fairey Firefly. It was disbanded in April 1946, but some of its squadrons disbanded earlier.", "Hawker Sea Hawk The Hawker Sea Hawk is a British single-seat jet fighter of the Fleet Air Arm (FAA), the air branch of the Royal Navy (RN), built by Hawker Aircraft and its sister company, Armstrong Whitworth Aircraft. Although its origins stemmed from earlier Hawker piston-engined fighters, the Sea Hawk became the company's first jet aircraft.", "No. 11 Squadron RAF No. 11 Squadron of the Royal Flying Corps was formed at Netheravon in Wiltshire on 14 February 1915 for \"fighting duties\", receiving two seat pusher Vickers Gunbus fighters in June, and deploying to France on 25 July 1915. Since all previous squadrons (Royal Flying Corps or other nations) were reconnaissance or army co-operation units, 11 can make a claim to be the oldest dedicated fighter squadron in the world. The squadron has had the honour of having two Victoria Cross winners serve in the unit.", "Article XV squadrons Article XV squadrons were Australian, Canadian, and New Zealand air force squadrons formed from graduates of the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (1939) during World War II.", "No. 1452 Flight RAF No. 1452 (Fighter) Flight was formed at RAF West Malling on 22 May 1941, equipped with Turbinlite Douglas Boston and Douglas Havoc aircraft. On operations they co-operated at first with the Boulton Paul Defiants of 264 Squadron and later with the Hawker Hurricanes of 32 Squadron. The flight was replaced with 531 Squadron on 8 September 1942 (not on 2 September due to administrative reasons) but officially disbanded as late as 22 January 1943.", "Fleet Air Arm The Fleet Air Arm (FAA) is the branch of the British Royal Navy responsible for the operation of naval aircraft. The Fleet Air Arm currently operates the AgustaWestland Merlin, Westland Sea King, and AgustaWestland Wildcat helicopters and the BAE Hawk. Helicopters such as the Lynx and Westland Wasp have been deployed on smaller vessels since 1964, taking over the roles once performed by biplanes such as the Fairey Swordfish." ]

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[ "The Taragaon Museum presents the modern history of the Kathmandu Valley. It seeks to document 50 years of research and cultural heritage conservation of the Kathmandu Valley, documenting what artists photographers architects anthropologists from abroad had contributed in the second half of the 20th century. The actual structure of the Museum showcases restoration and rehabilitation efforts to preserve the built heritage of Kathmandu. It was designed by Carl Pruscha (master-planner of the Kathmandy Valley ) in 1970 and constructed in 1971. Restoration works began in 2010 to rehabilitate the Taragaon hostel into the Taragaon Museum. The design uses local brick along with modern architectural design elements, as well as the use of circle, triangles and squares. The Museum is within a short walk from the Boudhnath stupa, which itself can be seen from the Museum tower." ]

[ "Hydroelectricity is the term referring to electricity generated by hydropower; the production of electrical power through the use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water. It is the most widely used form of renewable energy, accounting for 16 percent of global electricity generation – 3,427 terawatt-hours of electricity production in 2010, and is expected to increase about 3.1% each year for the next 25 years. Hydroelectric plants have the advantage of being long-lived and many existing plants have operated for more than 100 years.", "The Immaculate Collection, Madonna's first greatest-hits compilation album, was released in November 1990. It included two new songs, \"Justify My Love\" and \"Rescue Me\". The album was certified diamond by RIAA and sold over 30 million copies worldwide, becoming the best-selling compilation album by a solo artist in history. \"Justify My Love\" reached number one in the U.S. and top ten worldwide. Its music video featured scenes of sadomasochism, bondage, same-sex kissing, and brief nudity. The video was deemed too sexually explicit for MTV and was banned from the network. Madonna responded to the banning: \"Why is it that people are willing to go and watch a movie about someone getting blown to bits for no reason at all, and nobody wants to see two girls kissing and two men snuggling?\"", "The situation became so tense that war with the United States seemed imminent. On April 22, 1914, on the initiative of Felix A. Sommerfeld and Sherburne Hopkins, Pancho Villa traveled to Juárez to calm fears along the border and asked President Wilson's emissary George Carothers to tell \"Señor Wilson\" that he had no problems with the American occupation of Veracruz. Carothers wrote to Secretary William Jennings Bryan: \"As far as he was concerned we could keep Vera Cruz [sic] and hold it so tight that not even water could get in to Huerta and . . . he could not feel any resentment\". Whether trying to please the U.S. government or through the diplomatic efforts of Sommerfeld and Carothers, or maybe as a result of both, Villa stepped out from under Carranza’s stated foreign policy.", "During mutualistic symbioses, the host cell lacks some of the nutrients, which are provided by the endosymbiont. As a result, the host favors endosymbiont's growth processes within itself by producing some specialized cells. These cells affect the genetic composition of the host in order to regulate the increasing population of the endosymbionts and ensuring that these genetic changes are passed onto the offspring via vertical transmission (heredity).", "The school broke off from the University of Deseret and became Brigham Young Academy, with classes commencing on January 3, 1876. Warren Dusenberry served as interim principal of the school for several months until April 1876 when Brigham Young's choice for principal arrived—a German immigrant named Karl Maeser. Under Maeser's direction the school educated many luminaries including future U.S. Supreme Court Justice George Sutherland and future U.S. Senator Reed Smoot among others. The school, however, did not become a university until the end of Benjamin Cluff, Jr's term at the helm of the institution. At that time, the school was also still privately supported by members of the community and was not absorbed and sponsored officially by the LDS Church until July 18, 1896. A series of odd managerial decisions by Cluff led to his demotion; however, in his last official act, he proposed to the Board that the Academy be named \"Brigham Young University\". The suggestion received a large amount of opposition, with many members of the Board saying that the school wasn't large enough to be a university, but the decision ultimately passed. One opponent to the decision, Anthon H. Lund, later said, \"I hope their head will grow big enough for their hat.\"", "Hunting is the practice of killing or trapping any animal, or pursuing or tracking it with the intent of doing so. Hunting wildlife or feral animals is most commonly done by humans for food, recreation, to remove predators which are dangerous to humans or domestic animals, or for trade. In the 2010s, lawful hunting is distinguished from poaching, which is the illegal killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species. The species that are hunted are referred to as game or prey and are usually mammals and birds.", "China's first imperial dynasty was the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC). The Qin unified the Chinese Warring States by conquest, but their empire became unstable after the death of the first emperor Qin Shi Huangdi. Within four years, the dynasty's authority had collapsed in the face of rebellion. Two former rebel leaders, Xiang Yu (d. 202 BC) of Chu and Liu Bang (d. 195 BC) of Han, engaged in a war to decide who would become hegemon of China, which had fissured into 18 kingdoms, each claiming allegiance to either Xiang Yu or Liu Bang. Although Xiang Yu proved to be a capable commander, Liu Bang defeated him at Battle of Gaixia (202 BC), in modern-day Anhui. Liu Bang assumed the title \"emperor\" (huangdi) at the urging of his followers and is known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu (r. 202–195 BC). Chang'an was chosen as the new capital of the reunified empire under Han." ]

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[ "Vasectomy Vasectomy Vasectomy is a surgical procedure for male sterilization or permanent contraception. During the procedure, the male vas deferens are cut and tied or sealed so as to prevent sperm from entering into the urethra and thereby prevent fertilization of a female through sexual intercourse. Vasectomies are usually performed in a physician's office, medical clinic, or, when performed on an animal, in a veterinary clinic—hospitalization is not normally required as the procedure is not complicated, the incisions are small, and the necessary equipment routine. There are several methods by which a surgeon might complete a vasectomy procedure, all of which" ]

[ "Sex reassignment surgery (female-to-male) tubes. Hysterectomy without BSO in women is sometimes erroneously referred to as a 'partial hysterectomy' and is done to treat uterine disease while maintaining the female hormonal milieu until natural menopause occurs. A 'partial hysterectomy' is actually when the uterus is removed, but the cervix is left intact. If the cervix is removed, it is called a 'total hysterectomy.' Some trans men desire to have a hysterectomy/BSO because of a discomfort with having internal female reproductive organs despite the fact that menses usually cease with hormonal therapy. Some undergo this as their only gender-identity confirming 'bottom surgery'. For many trans", "Intersex medical interventions More complicated reconstruction may result in scarring and contracture, which can distort the shape or curvature of the penis, or interfere with erections or make them painful. Hysterectomy is removal of a uterus. It is rare that a uterus or Müllerian duct derivatives would need to be removed from a child being raised as a boy: see persistent Müllerian duct syndrome. The most common scenario is accidental discovery of persistent Müllerian derivatives or a small uterus during abdominal surgery of a normal boy for cryptorchidism, appendectomy, or bowel disease. Removal would not involve genital surgery. A rarer indication would be", "Sex reassignment surgery (female-to-male) men however, hysterectomy/BSO is done to decrease the risk of developing cervical, endometrial, and ovarian cancer. Of note, even with these prophylactic surgical procedures, the risk of cancer in these organs does not become zero, but is drastically decreased. It is unknown whether the risk of ovarian cancer is increased, decreased, or unchanged in transgender men. Within the population of transgender men on hormone therapy, many patients are at significantly decreased risk due to prior oophorectomy (removal of the ovaries). Decreasing cancer risk is however, particularly important as trans men often feel uncomfortable seeking gynecologic care, and many do not", "Sex reassignment surgery (female-to-male) Sex reassignment surgery (female-to-male) Sex reassignment surgery for female-to-male transgender people includes a variety of surgical procedures that alter female anatomical traits to provide physical traits more appropriate to the trans man's male identity and functioning. Many trans men considering the option do not opt for genital reassignment surgery; more frequent surgical options include bilateral mastectomy (removal of the breasts) and chest contouring (providing a more typically male chest shape), and hysterectomy (the removal of internal sex organs). Sex reassignment surgery is usually preceded by beginning hormone treatment with testosterone. Many trans men seek bilateral mastectomy, also called \"top surgery\",", "Hysterectomy in the United States are done via laparotomy (abdominal incision, not to be confused with laparoscopy). A transverse (Pfannenstiel) incision is made through the abdominal wall, usually above the pubic bone, as close to the upper hair line of the individual's lower pelvis as possible, similar to the incision made for a caesarean section. This technique allows physicians the greatest access to the reproductive structures and is normally done for removal of the entire reproductive complex. The recovery time for an open hysterectomy is 4–6 weeks and sometimes longer due to the need to cut through the abdominal wall. Historically,", "Hysterectomy is a variant of laparoscopic surgery using special remotely controlled instruments that allow the surgeon finer control as well as three-dimensional magnified vision. Patient characteristics such as the reason for needing a hysterectomy, uterine size, descent of the uterus, presence of diseased tissues surrounding the uterus, previous surgery in the pelvic region, obesity, history of pregnancy, the possibility of endometriosis, or the need for an oophorectomy, will influence a surgeon’s surgical approach when performing a hysterectomy. Vaginal hysterectomy is recommended over other variants where possible for women with benign diseases. Vaginal hysterectomy was shown to be superior to LAVH and", "Hysterectomy Hysterectomy Hysterectomy is the surgical removal of the uterus. It may also involve removal of the cervix, ovaries, fallopian tubes and other surrounding structures. Usually performed by a gynecologist, hysterectomy may be total (removing the body, fundus, and cervix of the uterus; often called \"complete\") or partial (removal of the uterine body while leaving the cervix intact; also called \"supracervical\"). It is the most commonly performed gynecological surgical procedure. In 2003, over 600,000 hysterectomies were performed in the United States alone, of which over 90% were performed for benign conditions. Such rates being highest in the industrialized world has led", "Oophorectomy a surgery is \"ovariohysterectomy\". \"Hysterectomy\" is removal of the uterus (from the Greek ὑστέρα hystera \"womb\" and εκτομία ektomia \"a cutting out of\") without removal of the ovaries or Fallopian tubes. Oophorectomy for benign causes is most often performed by abdominal laparoscopy. Abdominal laparotomy or robotic surgery is used in complicated cases or when a malignancy is suspected. According to the Centers for Disease Control, 454,000 women in the United States underwent oophorectomy in 2004. The first successful operation of this type, account of which was published in the \"Eclectic Repertory and Analytic Review\" (Philadelphia) in 1817, was performed by", "Hysterectomy improvement of heavy bleeding tendency. The 2012 Cochrane review comparing hysterectomy and UAE did not find any major advantage for either procedure. While UAE is associated with shorter hospital stay and a more rapid return to normal daily activities, it was also associated with a higher risk for minor complications later on. There were no differences between UAE and hysterectomy with regards to major complications. Uterine fibroids can be removed with a non-invasive procedure called Magnetic Resonance guided Focused Ultrasound (MRgFUS). Prolapse may also be corrected surgically without removal of the uterus. Hysterectomy, in the literal sense of the word,", "Phalloplasty to be lengthened considerably. The lengthening of the urethra is where most complications occur. With all types of phalloplasty in trans men, scrotoplasty can be performed using the labia majora (vulva) to form a scrotum where prosthetic testicles can be inserted. If vaginectomy, hysterectomy and/or oophorectomy have not been performed, they can be done at the same time. Unlike metoidioplasty, phalloplasty requires an implanted erectile prosthesis to achieve an erection. This is usually done in a separate surgery to allow time for healing. There are several types of erectile prostheses, including malleable rod-like medical devices that allow the neo-penis to", "Hysterectomy In Denmark, the number of hysterectomies from the 1980s to the 1990s decreased by 38 percent. In 1988, there were 173 such surgeries per 100,000 women, and by 1998 this number had been reduced to 107. The proportion of abdominal supracervical hysterectomies in the same time period grew from 7.5 to 41 percent. A total of 67,096 women underwent hysterectomy during these years. Hysterectomy Hysterectomy is the surgical removal of the uterus. It may also involve removal of the cervix, ovaries, fallopian tubes and other surrounding structures. Usually performed by a gynecologist, hysterectomy may be total (removing the body, fundus,", "Persistent Müllerian duct syndrome the testes cannot be retrieved, testosterone replacement will be usually necessary at puberty should the affected individual choose to pursue medical attention. Lately, laparoscopic hysterectomy is offered to patients as a solution to both improve the chances of fertility and to prevent the occurrences of neoplastic tissue formation. The surgery is recommended to be performed when the individual is between one to two years old, but usually done when less than one years old. Having a target age for surgery reduces the risks of damaging the vas deferens. The vas deferens is in close proximity to the Mullerian structures, sometimes", "Salpingectomy commonly called a TAH-BSO: Total Abdominal Hysterectomy with a Bilateral Salpingo-Oophorectomy. Sexual intercourse remains possible after salpingectomy, surgical and radiological cancer treatments, and chemotherapy. Reconstructive surgery remains an option for women who have experienced benign and malignant conditions. Salpingectomies were performed in the United States in the early 20th century in accordance with eugenics legislation. From \"Buck v. Bell\" (1927): The Virginia statute providing for the sexual sterilization of inmates of institutions supported by the State who shall be found to be afflicted with an hereditary form of insanity or imbecility, is within the power of the State under the", "Hysterectomy patients receiving total hysterectomy for endometrial cancer. Researchers concluded the procedure \"offers markedly improved perioperative outcomes with a lower reoperation rate and fewer postoperative complications when the standard of care shifts from open surgery to laparoscopy in a university hospital\". Vaginal hysterectomy is the only available option that is feasible without total anaesthesia or in outpatient settings (although doing it without anesthesia is recommended only in exceptional cases). The abdominal technique is very often applied in difficult circumstances or when complications are expected. Given these circumstances the complication rate and time required for surgery compares very favorably with other techniques,", "Thomas Beatie 2008-2010. In February 2012, Beatie elected to have \"lower surgery\" to further modify his body. His surgical journey, performed by transgender surgeon, Marci Bowers, was documented on his second appearance of \"Doctors\", in 2012. The procedure, called a Ring Metoidioplasty, included transfer of tissue, elongation of the hormonally enlarged phallus, as well as urethral construction and lengthening to create a functioning penis. Beatie is also considering a hysterectomy. Beatie's life became widely publicized after he wrote a first-person article in the national LGBT magazine, \"The Advocate\", which described his unique situation and the medical discrimination he and his wife were", "Paul Segond a member of the French Académie Nationale de Médecine. In the early part of his career, Segond's contributions concerned the urinary system with publications including his work on prostatic abscess. Subsequently he turned his attention to gynaecological surgery, and in particular influenced by the work of Jules-Émile Péan he perfected the technique of hysterectomy by the vaginal approach; he also used this approach to remove cancers and perform myomectomies. Treatment of uterine or periuterine infection by vaginal hysterectomy became known as the Péan–Segond operation ( ). Segond also published in other areas of surgery, and described his eponymous knee fracture", "Genital modification and mutilation nationwide network of hijras, transgenders. If the genitals become diseased, as in the case of cancer, sometimes the diseased areas are surgically removed. Females may undergo vaginectomy or vulvectomy (to the vagina and vulva, respectively), while males may undergo penectomy or orchiectomy (removal of the penis and testicles, respectively). Reconstructive surgery may be performed to restore what was lost, often with techniques similar to those used in sex reassignment surgery. During childbirth, an episiotomy (cutting part of the tissue between the vagina and the anus) is sometimes performed to increase the amount of space through which the baby may emerge.", "Hysterectomy in different ways. The oldest known technique is vaginal hysterectomy. The first planned hysterectomy was performed by Konrad Langenbeck - Surgeon General of the Hannovarian army, although there are records of vaginal hysterectomy for prolapse going back as far as 50BC. The first abdominal hysterectomy recorded was by Ephraim McDowell. He performed the procedure in 1809 for a mother of five for a large ovarian mass on her kitchen table. In modern medicine today, laparoscopic vaginal (With additional instruments passing through ports in small abdominal incisions, close or in the navel) and total laparoscopic techniques have been developed. Most hysterectomies", "Inguinal orchiectomy Inguinal orchiectomy Inguinal orchiectomy (also named orchidectomy) is a specific method of orchiectomy whereby one or both testicles and the full spermatic cord are surgically removed through an incision in the lower lateral abdomen (the \"inguinal region\"). The procedure is generally performed by a urologist, typically if testicular cancer is suspected. Often it is performed as same-day surgery, with the patient returning home within hours of the procedure. Some patients elect to have a prosthetic testicle inserted into their scrotum. Depending on whether or not a prosthetic testicle is put in place of the original one, operating times run on", "Uterine fibroid usually >30mm in size). Women should be informed that UAE and myomectomy (the surgical removal of fibroids) may potentially allow them to retain their fertility. Myomectomy is a surgery to remove one or more fibroids. It is usually recommended when more conservative treatment options fail for women who want fertility preserving surgery or who want to retain the uterus. There are three types of myomectomy: Laparoscopic myomectomy has less pain and shorter time in hospital than open surgery. Hysterectomy was the classical method of treating fibroids. Although it is now recommended only as last option, fibroids are still the leading", "Inguinal orchiectomy spread within the testicle and cord. The pathology report, along with pre-surgical imaging studies and tumor markers, will determine the course of treatment. Inguinal orchiectomy Inguinal orchiectomy (also named orchidectomy) is a specific method of orchiectomy whereby one or both testicles and the full spermatic cord are surgically removed through an incision in the lower lateral abdomen (the \"inguinal region\"). The procedure is generally performed by a urologist, typically if testicular cancer is suspected. Often it is performed as same-day surgery, with the patient returning home within hours of the procedure. Some patients elect to have a prosthetic testicle inserted", "Hysterectomy a hysterectomy by age 60. There are currently an estimated 22 million women in the United States who have undergone this procedure. According to the same source, hysterectomy is the second most common major surgery among women in the United States (the first is cesaerean section). In the 1980s and 1990s, this statistic was the source of concern among some consumer rights groups and puzzlement among the medical community, and brought about informed choice advocacy groups like Hysterectomy Educational Resources and Services (HERS) Foundation, founded by Nora W. Coffey in 1982. In the UK, 1 in 5 women is likely", "Phalloplasty procedure was performed in 1946 by Sir Harold Gillies on fellow physician Michael Dillon, and his technique remained the standard one for decades. Later improvements in microsurgery made more techniques available. A complete construction or reconstruction of a penis can be performed on patients who: There are four different techniques for phalloplasty. All of the techniques involve taking a flap of tissue from a donor site and extending the urethra. Surgery for genetic males is simpler than for female-to-male transgender patients, because the urethra requires less lengthening. The urethra of a trans man ends near the vaginal opening and has", "Hysterectomy those left intact. Reduced levels of testosterone in women are predictive of height loss, which may occur as a result of reduced bone density, while increased testosterone levels in women are associated with a greater sense of sexual desire. Oophorectomy before the age of 45 is associated with a fivefold mortality from neurologic and mental disorders. Urinary incontinence and vaginal prolapse are well known adverse effects that develop with high frequency a very long time after the surgery. Typically, those complications develop 10–20 years after the surgery. For this reason exact numbers are not known, and risk factors are poorly", "Prolapse procidentia, requires pessary use or reconstructive surgical treatment. Reconstructive pelvic prolapse surgery may be done without resorting to complete hysterectomy by hysteropexy, the resuspension of the prolapsed uterus. Traditional gynecologic practice favors removal of the uterus or ovaries (or both) at the time of prolapse surgery, and one estimate states that of the 600,000 hysterectomies performed in the United States every year, 13 percent are for prolapse. However, there is concern that many of these hysterectomies may be unnecessary and that hysteropexy would suffice as a treatment instead. The rectum or urinary bladder may prolapse as a result of changes", "Oophorectomy pelvic pain from chronic hormonal-related pelvic problems. Oophorectomy is an intra-abdominal surgery and serious complications stemming directly from the surgery are rare. When performed together with hysterectomy, it has influence on choice of surgical technique as the combined surgery is much less likely to be performed by vaginal hysterectomy. Laparotomic adnexal surgeries are associated with a high rate of adhesive small bowel obstructions (24%). An infrequent complication is injuring of the ureter at the level of the suspensory ligament of the ovary. Oophorectomy has serious long-term consequences stemming mostly from the hormonal effects of the surgery and extending well beyond", "Persistent Müllerian duct syndrome differentiate into epididymides, vasa deferentia and seminal vesicles under the influence of testosterone, produced by the fetal Leydig cells The main form of treatment is laparotomy, a modern and minimally invasive type of surgery. Laparotomy properly positions the testes within the scrotum (orchidopexy) and remove Mullerian structures being the uterus and fallopian tubes. Occasionally they are unsalvageable if located high in the retroperitoneum. During this surgery, the uterus is usually removed and attempts made to dissect away Müllerian tissue from the vas deferens and epididymis to improve the chance of fertility. If the person has male gender identity himself and", "Sterilization of Native American women A hysterectomy is a common procedure used to sterilize women where the uterus is removed through the women's abdomen or vagina. This operation was used to sterilized Native American women during the 1960s and 70s within the United States.Another common form of sterilization was tubal ligation, a sterilization procedure in which a woman's fallopian tubes are tied, blocked, or cut.For many women these procedures were done without consent resulting in many approaching doctors for procedures like uterus implants. The other forms of sterilization used include Quinacrine, Depo-Provera and Norplant. Quinacrine, is commonly used to treat malaria, but can also be", "Cervical agenesis secondary to cervical agenesis. The first line of therapy after diagnosis typically involves the administration of the combined oral contraceptive pill, medroxyprogesterone acetate or a gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist to suppress menstruation and thereby relieve pain. Surgically, cervical agenesis has historically been treated through hysterectomy (removal of the uterus) to relieve symptoms caused by hematocolpos (the accumulation of menstrual fluid in the vagina). Other surgical methods of management involve the creation of an anastomotic connection between the uterus and vagina by neovaginoplasty or recanalization of the cervix. Outcomes in these cases are generally poor, since the natural functions of the cervix—such", "Adenomyosis cervix. Also, the varying types of hysterectomy can be performed by many different surgical techniques. A hysterectomy can be performed: Variants also exist which combine several of these techniques and surgeries can even change during the operation from one technique to another in response to unforeseen obstacles or individual anatomy considerations. For example, adenomyosis can increase the size of the uterus to such an extent that it physically cannot be removed through the vagina without first being cut into smaller pieces. Adenomyosis is a benign but often progressing condition. It is advocated that adenomyosis poses no increased risk for cancer", "Hysterectomy younger age (vascular pelvis with higher bleeding risk and larger uterus), dysfunctional uterine bleeding and parity. The mortality rate is several times higher when performed in patients who are pregnant, have cancer or other complications. Long-term effect on all case mortality is relatively small. Women under the age of 45 years have a significantly increased long-term mortality that is believed to be caused by the hormonal side effects of hysterectomy and prophylactic oophorectomy. Approximately 35% of women after hysterectomy undergo another related surgery within 2 years. Ureteral injury is not uncommon and occurs in 0.2 per 1,000 cases of vaginal", "Transgender ovaries, and fallopian tubes. The acronyms \"GRS\" and \"SRS\" refer to genital surgery. The term \"sex reassignment therapy\" (SRT) is used as an umbrella term for physical procedures required for transition. Use of the term \"sex change\" has been criticized for its emphasis on surgery, and the term \"transition\" is preferred. Availability of these procedures depends on degree of gender dysphoria, presence or absence of gender identity disorder, and standards of care in the relevant jurisdiction. Trans men who have not had a hysterectomy and who take testosterone are at increased risk for endometrial cancer because androstenedione, which is made", "Sex reassignment surgery inversion or the sigmoid colon neovagina technique; or, more recently, non-penile inversion techniques that make use of scrotal tissue to construct the vaginal canal. For trans men, genital reconstruction may involve construction of a penis through either phalloplasty or metoidioplasty. For both trans women and trans men, genital surgery may also involve other medically necessary ancillary procedures, such as orchiectomy, penectomy, mastectomy or vaginectomy. Penile inversion vaginoplasty is one of the most common procedures performed in the United States. It is a relatively safe procedure. Complications of penile inversion vaginoplasty are mostly minor; however, rectoneovaginal fistulas (abnormal connections between the", "Hysterectomy is via the vaginal canal. Thus, LAVH is also a total hysterectomy; the cervix is removed with the uterus. If the cervix is removed along with the uterus, the upper portion of the vagina is sutured together and called the vaginal cuff. The \"laparoscopic-assisted supracervical hysterectomy\" (LASH) was later developed to remove the uterus without removing the cervix using a morcellator which cuts the uterus into small pieces that can be removed from the abdominal cavity via the laparoscopic ports. Total laparoscopic hysterectomy (TLH) was developed in the early 90s by Prabhat K. Ahluwalia in Upstate New York. TLH is", "Sex reassignment surgery result in anatomy that is typically gendered female. These surgeries include vaginoplasty, feminizing augmentation mammoplasty, orchiectomy, facial feminization surgery, reduction thyrochondroplasty (tracheal shave), and voice feminization surgery among others. Masculinization surgeries are surgeries that result in anatomy that is typically gendered male. These surgeries include chest masculinization surgery (top surgery), metoidioplasty, phalloplasty, scrotoplasty, and hysterectomy. In addition to SRS, patients may need to follow a lifelong course of masculinizing or feminizing hormone replacement therapy. There are numerous other expressions that are used or have been used to refer to sexual reassignment surgery, including sex change operation, gender reassignment surgery, gender", "Hysterectomy have shown that prophylactic oophorectomy without an urgent medical indication decreases a woman’s long-term survival rates substantially and has other serious adverse effects. This effect is not limited to pre-menopausal women; even women who have already entered menopause were shown to have experienced a decrease in long-term survivability post-oophorectomy. Hysterectomy is a major surgical procedure that has risks and benefits, and affects a woman's hormonal balance and overall health for the rest of her life. Because of this, hysterectomy is normally recommended as a last resort to remedy certain intractable uterine/reproductive system conditions. Such conditions include, but are not limited", "Hysterectomy to the major controversy that hysterectomies are being largely performed for unwarranted and unnecessary reasons. Removal of the uterus renders the patient unable to bear children (as does removal of ovaries and fallopian tubes) and has surgical risks as well as long-term effects, so the surgery is normally recommended when other treatment options are not available or have failed. It is expected that the frequency of hysterectomies for non-malignant indications will fall as there are good alternatives in many cases. Oophorectomy (removal of ovaries) is frequently done together with hysterectomy to decrease the risk of ovarian cancer. However, recent studies", "Sonalleve MR-HIFU study are already underway. The device is also approved for the treatment of bone metastasis and is undergoing development for the treatment of prostate cancer and breast cancer. The method is quicker and comfortable compared to the conventional procedures currently done for the treatment of uterine fibroids such as hysterectomy, myomectomy or uterine artery embolization. The procedure is usually done on an outpatient basis with the patient leaving the hospital on the same day. The patient may be kept for observation for another 24 hours. The procedure is performed in three stages: The patients are evaluated using three dimensional MR", "Male pregnancy carried the fetus for four months; however, Jacobson did not publish his claims in a scientific journal, and was subsequently convicted on several unrelated counts of fraud for ethical misconduct. Unlike an ectopic pregnancy which places both the fetus and host in danger, uterus transplantation into a male, if successful, would provide protection to both the fetus and host and remove much of the danger to both. According to Karine Chung, director of the fertility preservation program at the University of Southern California's Keck School of Medicine, transplanting a uterus into a human male would not be much different from", "Orchiectomy surgeon washes the area with saline solution and closes the various layers of tissues and skin with various types of sutures. The wound is then covered with sterile gauze and bandaged. Orchiectomy has adverse effects such as sterility, hypoandrogenism and hypoestrogenism, associated symptoms such as hot flashes, osteoporosis, demasculinization, sexual dysfunction, and depression, as well as gynecomastia (1 to 14%). Orchiectomy Orchiectomy (also named orchidectomy, and sometimes shortened as orchi) is a surgical procedure in which one or both testicles are removed. The removal of both testicles (bilateral orchiectomy) is the surgical form of castration. There are three main types", "Orchiectomy or as palliative treatment for advanced cases of prostate cancer. Orchiectomy may be required in the event of a testicular torsion as well. The patient lies flat on an operating table with the penis taped against the abdomen. The nurse will shave a small area for the incision. After anesthetic has been administered, the surgeon makes an incision in the midpoint of the scrotum and cuts through the underlying tissue. The surgeon removes the testicles and parts of the spermatic cord through the incision. The incision is closed with two layers of sutures and covered with a surgical dressing. If", "Uterus its expansion during pregnancy. Even during pregnancy the mass of a human uterus amounts to only about a kilogram (2.2 pounds). The uterus also plays a role in sexual response, by directing blood flow to the pelvis and ovaries, and to the external genitals, including the vagina, labia, and clitoris. A hysterectomy is the surgical removal of the uterus which may be carried out for a number of reasons including the ridding of tumours both benign and malignant. A complete hysterectomy involves the removal of the body, fundus, and cervix of the uterus. A partial hysterectomy may just involve the", "Sex reassignment surgery (male-to-female) women may achieve a waist to hip ratio of 0.7 or lower. The pubescent pelvis will broaden under estrogen therapy even if the skeleton is anatomically masculine. Sex reassignment surgery (male-to-female) Sex reassignment surgery for male-to-female involves reshaping the male genitals into a form with the appearance of, and, as far as possible, the function of female genitalia. Before any surgery, patients usually undergo hormone replacement therapy (HRT), and, depending on the age at which HRT begins, facial hair removal. There are associated surgeries patients may elect to, including facial feminization surgery, breast augmentation, and various other procedures. Lili Elbe", "Adenomyosis to term. In contrast, some uterine-sparing procedures worsen fertility or even result in complete sterility. The impact of each procedure on a woman's fertility is of particular concern and typically guides the selection. Non-uterine-sparing procedures, by definition, include surgical removal of the uterus and consequently they will all result in complete sterility. Hysterectomy, or surgical removal of the uterus, has historically been the primary method of diagnosing and treating adenomyosis. It was especially popular in women who had completed their childbearing or in cases where fertility was not desired. Today, there are many more medical and surgical interventions available. These", "Hysterectomy performed solely through the laparoscopes in the abdomen, starting at the top of the uterus, typically with a uterine manipulator. The entire uterus is disconnected from its attachments using long thin instruments through the \"ports\". Then all tissue to be removed is passed through the small abdominal incisions. Supracervical (subtotal) laparoscopic hysterectomy (LSH) is performed similar to the total laparoscopic surgery but the uterus is amputated between the cervix and fundus. Dual-port laparoscopy is a form of laparoscopic surgery using two 5 mm midline incisions: the uterus is detached through the two ports and removed through the vagina. \"Robotic hysterectomy\"", "Orchiectomy Orchiectomy Orchiectomy (also named orchidectomy, and sometimes shortened as orchi) is a surgical procedure in which one or both testicles are removed. The removal of both testicles (bilateral orchiectomy) is the surgical form of castration. There are three main types of orchiectomy: simple, subcapsular, and inguinal. The first two types are usually done under local or epidural anesthesia, and take about 30 minutes to perform. An inguinal orchiectomy is sometimes done under general anesthesia, and takes from 30 minutes to an hour to complete. A simple orchiectomy is commonly performed as part of sex reassignment surgery (SRS) for transgender women,", "Genital modification and mutilation and mastectomy (breast removal), metoidioplasty (elongation of the clitoris), and phalloplasty (creation of a penis) for trans men. Trans women may also benefit from hair removal and facial feminization surgery, while some trans men may have liposuction to remove fat deposits around their hips and thighs. Hijra, a third gender found in the Indian subcontinent, may opt to undergo castration. Intersex children and children with ambiguous genitalia may be subjected to surgeries to \"normalize\" the appearance of their genitalia. These surgeries are usually performed for cosmetic benefit rather than for therapeutic reasons. Most surgeries involving children with ambiguous genitalia are", "Transgender rights in the United States the children to see \"their father as a woman\". Transgender people who haven't undergone sex reassignment surgery are still able to procreate. However, many states mandate sex reassignment surgery in order for a trans person's gender identity to be legally recognized. This has been criticized as forcible sterilization. Some transgender people wish to retain their ability to procreate. Others do not require hysterectomy, phalloplasty, metoidioplasty, penectomy, orchiectomy, or vaginoplasty to treat their gender dysphoria. In these cases, the sexual reassignment surgery is considered medically unnecessary. Furthermore, sexual reassignment surgery is generally the final medical procedure in a complete sex change,", "Intersex medical interventions in the midline of the perineum. Potential surgical problems: The most complicated aspect of closure involves moving the urethra to the phallus if it is not already there (i.e., repairing a perineal hypospadias). Fistulas and scarring are the main risks. Loss of sensation. Gonadectomy (also referred to as \"orchiectomy\") removal of the gonads. This is done in three circumstances. (1) If the gonads are dysgenetic testes or streak gonads and at least some of the boy's cells have a Y chromosome, the gonads or streaks must be removed because they are nonfunctional but have a relatively high risk of developing", "Neutering and rescue groups urge pet owners to have their pets neutered to prevent the births of unwanted litters, which contribute to the overpopulation of unwanted animals in the rescue system. Many countries require that all adopted cats and dogs be sterilized before going to their new homes. In female animals, spaying (more technically termed ovo-hysterectomy or ovariohysterectomy) involves abdominal surgery to remove the ovaries and uterus (in humans, this is called a hystero-oophorectomy). Another option is to remove only the ovaries (oophorectomy), which is mainly done in cats and young dogs. Another, less commonly performed method is an \"ovary-sparing spay\"", "Hysterectomy of women report improvement in sexual life and pelvic pain. A smaller share of women report worsening of sexual life and other problems. The picture is significantly different for hysterectomy performed for malignant reasons; the procedure is often more radical with substantial side effects. A proportion of patients who undergo a hysterectomy for chronic pelvic pain continue to suffer from pelvic pain after a hysterectomy and develop dyspareunia (painful sexual intercourse). Estrogen levels fall sharply when the ovaries are removed, removing the protective effects of estrogen on the cardiovascular and skeletal systems. This condition is often referred to as \"surgical", "Alan L. Hart organ based solely on an individual's gender identification. Early FTM surgeries involved the implanting of testicular tissue in place of the removed ovaries. Crystalline male hormones had been extracted in usable quantities from male urine by 1903, but it represented an infection risk. Synthetic hormones were not manufactured until 1920 (by Bayer), and there is no evidence that Hart took hormones as part of his treatment. Hart's surgery was completed at the University of Oregon Medical School over the 1917–1918 winter vacation. He then legally changed his name. He interned at San Francisco Hospital. A former classmate recognized him there,", "Sex reassignment surgery neovagina and the rectum) can occur in about 1-3% of patients. These require additional surgery to fix and are often fixed by colorectal surgeons. As underscored by WPATH, a medically assisted transition from one sex to another may entail any of a variety of non-genital surgical procedures, any of which are considered \"sex reassignment surgery\" when performed as part of treatment for gender dysphoria. For trans men, these may include mastectomy (removal of the breasts) and chest reconstruction (the shaping of a male-contoured chest), or hysterectomy and bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy (removal of ovaries and Fallopian tubes). For some trans women, facial", "BRCA mutation reduced risk of breast cancer. The surgery is often done in conjunction with a hysterectomy (surgical removal of the uterus) and sometimes a cervicectomy (surgical removal of the cervix), especially in women who want to take tamoxifen, which is known to cause uterine cancer, or who have uterine fibroids. Multiple styles of surgery are available, including laparoscopic (keyhole) surgery. Because about 5% of women with a \"BRCA\" mutation have undetected ovarian cancer at the time of their planned surgery, the surgery should be treated as if it were a removal of a known cancer. Salpingo-oophorectomy makes the woman sterile (unable", "Hysterectomy means merely removal of the uterus. However other organs such as ovaries, fallopian tubes and the cervix are very frequently removed as part of the surgery. Subtotal (supracervical) hysterectomy was originally proposed with the expectation that it may improve sexual functioning after hysterectomy, it has been postulated that removing the cervix causes excessive neurologic and anatomic disruption, thus leading to vaginal shortening, vaginal vault prolapse, and vaginal cuff granulations. These theoretical advantages were not confirmed in practice, but other advantages over total hysterectomy emerged. The principal disadvantage is that risk of cervical cancer is not eliminated and women may continue", "Oophorectomy Ephraim McDowell (1771-1830), a surgeon from Danville, Kentucky. McDowell was dubbed as the \"father of ovariotomy\". It later became known as Battey's Operation, after Robert Battey, a surgeon from Augusta, Georgia, who championed the procedure for a variety of conditions, most successfully for ovarian epilepsy. Most bilateral oophorectomies (63%) are performed without any medical indication, most (87%) were performed together with a hysterectomy. Conversely, unilateral oophorectomy is commonly performed for a medical indication (73%; cyst, endometriosis, benign tumor, inflammation, etc.) and less commonly in conjunction with hysterectomy (61%). Special indications include several groups of women with substantially increased risk of", "Hysterectomy granulation tissue is evident at the base of the wound, the edges of the incision may be reapproximated, such as by using butterfly stitches, staples or sutures. Sexual intercourse remains possible after hysterectomy. Reconstructive surgery remains an option for women who have experienced benign and malignant conditions. Hysterectomy may cause an increased risk of the relatively rare renal cell carcinoma. The increased risk is particularly pronounced for young women; the risk was lower after vaginally performed hysterectomies. Hormonal effects or injury of the ureter were considered as possible explanations. In some cases the renal cell carcinoma may be a manifestation", "Cervicectomy Cervicectomy In gynecologic oncology, trachelectomy, also cervicectomy, is a surgical removal of the uterine cervix. As the uterine body is preserved, this type of surgery is a fertility preserving surgical alternative to a radical hysterectomy and applicable in selected younger women with early cervical cancer. Trachelectomies, broadly, can be divided into the \"simple\" and \"radical\" variants. The formal name of this operation is radical vaginal trachelectomy (RVT) and also known as the Dargent operation and radical trachelectomy. The word \"radical\" is used as, in addition to the cervix (like in radical hysterectomies), the parametria (tissue adjacent to the cervix) and", "Sex reassignment surgery (female-to-male) have access to adequate and culturally sensitive treatment. Though ideally, even after hysterectomy/BSO, trans men should see a gynecologist for a check-up at least every three years. This is particularly the case for trans men who: One important consideration is that any trans man who develops vaginal bleeding after successfully ceasing menses on testosterone, must be evaluated by a gynecologist. This is equivalent to postmenopausal bleeding in a woman and may herald the development of a gynecologic cancer. Genital reconstructive procedures (GRT) use either the clitoris, which is enlarged by androgenic hormones (metoidioplasty), or rely on free tissue grafts from", "Alan L. Hart people do. Joy Parks describes the battle, especially within Portland, Oregon GLBT communities over Hart's identity as \"extremely ugly\" and one in which \"neither side appeared particularly victorious.\" Alan L. Hart Alan L. Hart (October 4, 1890 – July 1, 1962) was an American physician, radiologist, tuberculosis researcher, writer and novelist. He was in 1917–18 one of the first trans men to undergo hysterectomy and gonadectomy in the United States, and lived the rest of his life as a man. He pioneered the use of x-ray photography in tuberculosis detection, and helped implement TB screening programs that saved thousands of", "Robot-assisted surgery the United States, robotic-assisted hysterectomy for benign conditions has been shown to be more expensive than conventional laparoscopic hysterectomy, with no difference in overall rates of complications. This includes the use of the da Vinci surgical system in benign gynecology and gynecologic oncology. Robotic surgery can be used to treat fibroids, abnormal periods, endometriosis, ovarian tumors, uterine prolapse, and female cancers. Using the robotic system, gynecologists can perform hysterectomies, myomectomies, and lymph node biopsies. Robots are used in orthopedic surgery. Surgical robotics has been used in many types of pediatric surgical procedures including: tracheoesophageal fistula repair, cholecystectomy, nissen fundoplication, morgagni's", "Hysterectomy most common method, is used in cases such as after caesarean delivery, when the indication is cancer, when complications are expected, or surgical exploration is required. With the development of laparoscopic techniques in the 1970s and 1980s, the \"laparoscopic-assisted vaginal hysterectomy\" (LAVH) has gained great popularity among gynecologists because compared with the abdominal procedure it is less invasive and the post-operative recovery is much faster. It also allows better exploration and slightly more complicated surgeries than the vaginal procedure. LAVH begins with laparoscopy and is completed such that the final removal of the uterus (with or without removing the ovaries)", "Stress incontinence postvoid residual volume are normal. Some sources distinguish between urethral hypermobility and intrinsic sphincter deficiency. The latter is more rare, and requires different surgical approaches. Stress incontinence is rare in men. The most common cause is as a post-surgical complication following a prostatectomy. In women, physical changes resulting from pregnancy, childbirth, and menopause often contribute to stress incontinence. Stress incontinence can worsen during the week before the menstrual period. At that time, lowered estrogen levels may lead to lower muscular pressure around the urethra, increasing chances of leakage. The incidence of stress incontinence increases following menopause, similarly because of lowered", "Robert Eads time as a lesbian, though he would later point out that he always viewed his attraction to women as the product of being a heterosexual man rather than a homosexual woman. Eads began transitioning in the late 1980s following a move to Florida. He began testosterone therapy and underwent a modified double mastectomy to create a male physique. However, given his age (early- to mid-40s) as well as the fact that he had already begun to show symptoms of menopause, Eads was counseled that he would not need to undergo a hysterectomy and oophorectomy as part of his sexual reassignment.", "Hysterectomy however time required for healing is much longer. Hysterectomy by abdominal laparotomy is correlated with much higher incidence of intestinal adhesions than other techniques. Time required for completion of surgery in the eVAL trial is reported as follows: Morcellation has been widely used especially in laparoscopic techniques and sometimes for the vaginal technique, but now appears to be associated with a considerable risk of spreading benign or malignant tumors. In April 2014, the FDA issued a memo alerting medical practitioners to the risks of power morcellation. Robotic assisted surgery is presently used in several countries for hysterectomies. Additional research is", "Testicular cancer form in that testicle. Since only one testis is typically required to maintain fertility, hormone production, and other male functions, the afflicted testis is almost always removed completely in a procedure called inguinal orchiectomy. (The testicle is almost never removed through the scrotum; an incision is made beneath the belt line in the inguinal area.) In the UK, the procedure is known as a radical orchidectomy. In the case of nonseminomas that appear to be stage I, surgery may be done on the retroperitoneal/paraaortic lymph nodes (in a separate operation) to accurately determine whether the cancer is in stage I", "Uterine myomectomy fibroids, including: observation, medical therapy (such a GnRH agonists), hysterectomy, uterine artery embolization, and high-intensity focused ultrasound ablation. Despite these many options, the surgical approach of selected fibroid removal remains an important choice for those women who want or need to preserve the uterus. A myomectomy can be performed in a number of ways, depending on the location and number of lesions and the experience and preference of the surgeon. Either a general or a spinal anesthesia is administered. Traditionally a myomectomy is performed via a laparotomy with a full abdominal incision, either vertically or horizontally. Once the peritoneal cavity", "Intersex medical interventions that of a completely virilized XX child with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (Prader stage 5) being raised as a male; ovaries and uterus must be removed to prevent breast development and menstruation by early adolescence. Potential surgical problems: Risks are simply those of abdominal surgery. Testicular prostheses are saline-filled plastic ovoids implanted in the scrotum. They have no function except to provide the appearance and feel of testes. Several sizes are available, but most are implanted in adolescence to avoid repeated procedures to implant larger sizes at puberty. Prostheses made of silastic are no longer available due to safety and perception-of-safety", "Prostatectomy seminal vesicles and the vas deferens, is performed for malignant cancer. There are multiple ways the operation can be done: with open surgery (via a large incision through the lower abdomen), laparoscopically with the help of a robot (a type of minimally invasive surgery), through the urethra or through the perineum. Other terms that can be used to describe a prostatectomy include: Indications for removal of the prostate in a benign setting include acute urinary retention, recurrent urinary tract infections, uncontrollable hematuria, bladder stones secondary to bladder outlet obstruction, significant symptoms from bladder outlet obstruction that are refractory to medical", "Hysterectomy to have a hysterectomy by the age of 60, and ovaries are removed in about 20% of hysterectomies. The number of hysterectomies in Germany has been constant for many years. In 2006, 149,456 hysterectomies were performed. Additionally, Of these, 126,743 (84.8%) successfully benefitted the patient without incident. Women between the ages of 40 and 49 accounted for 50 percent of hysterectomies, and those between the ages of 50 and 59 accounted for 20 percent. In 2007, the number of hysterectomies decreased to 138,164. In recent years, the technique of laparoscopic or laparoscopically assisted hysterectomies has been raised into the foreground.", "Oophorectomy their ovaries. Retaining the ovaries when a hysterectomy is performed is associated with better long-term survival. Hormone therapy for women with oophorectomies performed before age 45 improves the long-term outcome and all-cause mortality rates. Women who have had bilateral oophorectomy surgeries lose most of their ability to produce the hormones estrogen and progesterone, and lose about half of their ability to produce testosterone, and subsequently enter what is known as \"surgical menopause\" (as opposed to normal menopause, which occurs naturally in women as part of the aging process). In natural menopause the ovaries generally continue to produce low levels of", "Hysterectomy hysterectomy and 1.3 per 1,000 cases of abdominal hysterectomy. The injury usually occurs in the distal ureter close to the infundibulopelvic ligament or as a ureter crosses below the uterine artery, often from blind clamping and ligature placement to control hemorrhage. Hospital stay is 3 to 5 days or more for the abdominal procedure and between 1 and 2 days (but possibly longer) for vaginal or laparoscopically assisted vaginal procedures. Removal of one or both ovaries is performed in a substantial number of hysterectomies that were intended to be ovary sparing. The average onset age of menopause after hysterectomy with", "Hysterectomy cyclical bleeding (although substantially less than before the surgery). These issues were addressed in a systematic review of total versus supracervical hysterectomy for benign gynecological conditions, which reported the following findings: In the short-term, randomized trials have shown that cervical preservation or removal does not affect the rate of subsequent pelvic organ prolapse. Supracervical hysterectomy does not eliminate the possibility of having cervical cancer since the cervix itself is left intact and may be contraindicated in women with increased risk of this cancer; regular pap smears to check for cervical dysplasia or cancer are still needed. Hysterectomy can be performed", "Endometriosis to conceive. However, this should only be done when combined with removal of the endometriosis by excision, as if endometriosis is not also removed at the time of hysterectomy, pain may persist. For women with extreme pain, a presacral neurectomy may be very rarely performed where the nerves to the uterus are cut. However, this technique is almost never used due to the high incidence of associated complications including presacral hematoma and irreversible problems with urination and constipation. The overall effectiveness of manual physical therapy to treat endometriosis has not yet been identified. There is no evidence to support nutritional", "Mark Soloway compromising cancer control for patients undergoing radical prostatectomy. Dr. Soloway and Dr M. Manoharan have worked together to minimize the side effects of a radical prostatectomy. They have popularized the lower abdominal transverse incision to minimize pain and enhance recovery as well as providing a smaller, less obvious scar. They have shown that most patients do not require a drain and an inguinal hernia can be easily be repaired at the same operation of a radical prostatectomy using this transverse incision. With the advent of PSA and early detection of prostate cancer, Dr. Soloway, concerned about the risk of overtreatment,", "Hysterectomy hysterectomies between 2008 and 2009 was almost 47,000. The national rate for the same timeline was 338 per 100,000 population, down from 484 per 100,000 in 1997. The reasons for hysterectomies differed depending on whether the woman was living in an urban or rural location. Urban women opted for hysterectomies due to uterine fibroids and rural women had hysterectomies mostly for menstrual disorders. According to the National Center for Health Statistics, of the 617,000 hysterectomies performed in 2004, 73% also involved the surgical removal of the ovaries. In the United States, 1 in 3 women can be expected to have", "Transgender hormone therapy (male-to-female) still about 200 pg/mL. Dosages of estrogens can be reduced after an orchiectomy (surgical removal of the gonads) or sex reassignment surgery, when testosterone suppression is no longer needed. Androgens, such as testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT), are the major sex hormones in people with testes, and are responsible for the development and maintenance of masculine secondary sexual characteristics, such as a deep voice, broad shoulders, and a masculine pattern of hair, muscle, and fat distribution. In addition, they stimulate sex drive and the frequency of spontaneous erections and are responsible for acne, body odor, and scalp hair loss. Androgens act", "Ovarian cancer recovering at home. Surgery outcomes are best at hospitals that do a large number of ovarian cancer surgeries. It is unclear if laparoscopy or laparotomy is better or worse for FIGO stage I ovarian cancer. There is also no apparent difference between total abdominal hysterectomy and supracervical hysterectomy for advanced cancers. Approximately 2.8% of people having a first surgery for advanced ovarian cancer die within two weeks of the surgery (2.8% perioperative mortality rate). More aggressive surgeries are associated with better outcomes in advanced (stage III or IV) ovarian cancer. Chemotherapy has been a general standard of care for ovarian", "Christiane Völling organs. Medical papers showed purpose of the surgery as a \"testovarectomy\", the removal of both testicular and ovarian tissue, however, no testicular tissue was present. The senior physician’s entry stated “a normal female anatomy with pre-pubertal uterus, normal sized ovaries, blindly ending vagina...” were found. Völling continued to live as a man for a time, but later transitioned to live as a woman. In 2006, Völling obtained her medical records and discovered the concealment of her chromosomal diagnosis, and the nature of the surgery in 1977. In a case decided on 6 February 2008, in the Regional Court of Cologne,", "Burdizzo method because of the reduced risk of bleeding and infection. Burdizzos have also been used by some human males as a means of self-castration, often by those seeking a remedy for a high libido, or those who, for religious, friends influence, fun or personal reasons, seek to become eunuchs. The burdizzo has also been used by some transsexual women and other male-to-female transgender persons, as an alternative to the surgical procedure known as an orchiectomy. Because an incision is not required, castration by burdizzo is usually bloodless and, according to some research, has a lower risk of infection, compared with", "Robert S. Neuwirth continued to devise further medical procedures and many of his independently-created products were later sold to Johnson & Johnson, as well. His net worth at death is estimated to exceed $600 million. His children, forming a family company, continue to control the patents and dozens of royalties. Dr. Neuwirth contributed to at least 55 medical journals and publications in his lifetime. One of Dr. Neuwirth's greatest priorities was lessening the need for hysterectomy, a common gynecological surgical procedure that removes the uterus while often posing significant risks of infection and other severe complications. The surgical discipline of gynecological endoscopy, which", "History of transgender people in the United States 2010 five sections of her third volume of memoirs (dated 1921 but never published), previously lost, were discovered and published on OutHistory.org. In 1917, Dr. Alan L. Hart, working with psychiatrist Dr. Joshua Gilbert, was the first documented trans man in the United States to undergo hysterectomy and gonadectomy, in order to live his life as a man. Following his transition, Hart told The Albany Daily Democrat that he was \"happier since I made this change than I ever have been in my life, and I will continue this way as long as I live [...] I have never concealed", "Hysterectomy uterus reconstructed in a procedure called \"myomectomy.\" A myomectomy may be performed through an open incision, laparoscopically or through the vagina (hysterescopy). \"Uterine artery embolization\" (UAE) is a minimally invasive procedure for treatment of uterine fibroids. Under local anesthesia a catheter is introduced into the femoral artery at the groin and advanced under radiographic control into the uterine arterty. A mass of microspheres or polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) material (an embolus) is injected into the uterine arteries in order to block the flow of blood through those vessels. The restriction in blood supply usually results in significant reduction of fibroids and", "Hysterectomy some types of laparoscopic surgery causing fewer short- and long-term complications, more favorable effect on sexual experience with shorter recovery times and fewer costs. Laparoscopic surgery offers certain advantages when vaginal surgery is not possible but also has the disadvantage of significantly longer time required for the surgery. In one 2004 study conducted in the UK comparing abdominal (laparotomic) and laparoscopic techniques, laparoscopic surgery was found to cause longer operation time and a higher rate of major complications while offering much quicker healing. In another study conducted in 2014, laparoscopy was found to be \"a safe alternative to laparotomy\" in", "Sex reassignment surgery number of surgical procedures performed as part of a medical treatment for \"gender dysphoria\" or \"transsexualism\". According to WPATH, medically necessary sex reassignment surgeries include \"complete hysterectomy, bilateral mastectomy, chest reconstruction or augmentation ... including breast prostheses if necessary, genital reconstruction (by various techniques which must be appropriate to each patient ...)... and certain facial plastic reconstruction.\" In addition, other non-surgical procedures are also considered medically necessary treatments by WPATH, including facial electrolysis. Patients of sex reassignment surgery may experience changes in their physical health and quality of life, the side effects of sex steroid treatment. Hence, transgender people should", "Sex reassignment surgery (female-to-male) the arm, the thigh or stomach and an erectile prosthetic (phalloplasty). In either case, the urethra can be rerouted through the phallus to allow urination through the newly constructed penis. The labia majora are united to form a scrotum, where prosthetic testicles can be inserted. Sex reassignment surgery (female-to-male) Sex reassignment surgery for female-to-male transgender people includes a variety of surgical procedures that alter female anatomical traits to provide physical traits more appropriate to the trans man's male identity and functioning. Many trans men considering the option do not opt for genital reassignment surgery; more frequent surgical options include bilateral", "Cancer syndrome surgery: A hysterectomy is the removal of all or some of the uterus, whereas a mastectomy is removing a breast (double mastectomy meaning that both breasts are removed), this can often add years onto their life expectancy. Another preventative measure is regular cancer screening and check-ups. If a person has Lynch’s syndrome then they should have a regular colonoscopy to examine if there is any change in the cells lining the intestinal wall, regular check-ups have been proven to add an average of 7 years onto the life expectancy of a person suffering from Lynch’s syndrome as early detection means", "Intersex medical interventions these are rare in North America and Europe. Masculinizing surgery for completely virilized individuals with XX sex chromosomes and CAH is even rarer. Orchiopexy for repair of undescended testes (cryptorchidism) is the second most common surgery performed on infant male genitalia (after circumcision). The surgeon moves one or both testes, with blood vessels, from an abdominal or inguinal position to the scrotum. If the inguinal canal is open it must be closed to prevent hernia. Potential surgical problems include maintaining the blood supply. If vessels cannot be stretched into the scrotum, or are separated and cannot be reconnected, a testis", "Heavy menstrual bleeding switch from the front abdominal to vaginal approach greatly minimizing the discomfort and recuperation time for the patient; however extensive fibroids may make the womb too large for removal by the vaginal approach. Small fibroids may be dealt with by local removal (myomectomy). A further surgical technique is endometrial ablation (destruction) by the use of applied heat (thermoablation). In the UK the use of hysterectomy for heavy menstrual bleeding has been almost halved between 1989 and 2003. This has a number of causes: better medical management, endometrial ablation and particularly the introduction of IUS which may be inserted in the", "Penis removal resort in the treatment of androgen-sensitive prostate cancer. Some men have penile amputations, known as penectomies, for medical reasons. Cancer, for example, sometimes necessitates removal of all or part of the penis. In some instances, botched childhood circumcisions have also resulted in full or partial penectomies. A man who has his penis removed may have one or more problems with their personality, urination, sex life, and vulnerable testicles; they may also experience a phantom penis (see phantom limb). Genital surgical procedures for trans women (transgender or transsexual women) undergoing sex reassignment surgery, do not usually involve the complete removal of", "Cervical cancer clear margins of cervical tissue once the woman is under general anesthesia in the operating room, a hysterectomy may still be needed. This can only be done during the same operation if the woman has given prior consent. Due to the possible risk of cancer spread to the lymph nodes in stage 1b cancers and some stage 1a cancers, the surgeon may also need to remove some lymph nodes from around the uterus for pathologic evaluation. A radical trachelectomy can be performed abdominally or vaginally and opinions are conflicting as to which is better. A radical abdominal trachelectomy with lymphadenectomy", "Oophorectomy Oophorectomy Oophorectomy (from Greek , , 'egg-bearing' + , , 'a cutting out of') is the surgical removal of an ovary or ovaries. The surgery is also called ovariectomy, but this term is mostly used in reference to animals, e.g. the surgical removal of ovaries from laboratory animals. Removal of the ovaries of females is the biological equivalent of castration of males; the term \"castration\" is only occasionally used in the medical literature to refer to oophorectomy of women. In veterinary medicine, the removal of ovaries and uterus is called ovariohysterectomy (spaying) and is a form of sterilization. Partial oophorectomy", "Orchiectomy the patient desires, a prosthetic testicle can be inserted before the incision is closed to present an outward appearance of a pre-surgical scrotum. A subcapsular orchiectomy is also commonly performed for treatment of prostate cancer. The operation is similar to that of a simple orchiectomy, with the exception that the glandular tissue that surrounds each testicle is removed rather than the entire gland itself. This type of orchiectomy is done primarily to keep the appearance of an ordinary scrotum. Inguinal orchiectomy (named from the Latin \"inguen\" for \"groin,\" and also called radical orchiectomy), is performed when an onset of testicular", "Genital modification and mutilation the genitals—of the labia, or of the shaft or foreskin of the penis. As well as being an aesthetic practice, this is usually intended to enhance the sexual pleasure of partners during vaginal or anal intercourse. Penectomy involves the partial or total amputation of penis. Sometimes, the removal of the entire penis was done in conjunction with castration, or incorrectly referred to as castration. Removing the penis was often performed on eunuchs and high ranking men who would frequently be in contact with women, such as those belonging to a harem. The Hijra of India may remove their penis as", "Prostate cancer 19th century. The first treatments of prostate cancer were surgeries to relieve urinary obstruction. Removal of the entire gland (radical perineal prostatectomy) was first performed in 1904 by Hugh H. Young at Johns Hopkins Hospital. Surgical removal of the testes (orchiectomy) to treat prostate cancer was first performed in the 1890s, but with limited success. Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP) replaced radical prostatectomy for symptomatic relief of obstruction in the middle of the 20th century because it could better preserve penile erectile function. Radical retropubic prostatectomy was developed in 1983 by Patrick Walsh. This surgical approach allowed for removal", "Male chest reconstruction Male chest reconstruction Male chest reconstruction is any of various surgical procedures to masculinise the chest by removing breast tissue or altering the nipples and areolae. Male chest reconstruction may be performed in cases of gynecomastia and gender dysphoria. Transmasculine people may pursue chest reconstruction as part of transitioning. The removal of breast tissue in male chest reconstruction is a type of mastectomy called a \"subcutaneous mastectomy\". \"Subcutaneous\" means \"under the skin\". This type of mastectomy removes tissue from inside the breast (subcutaneous tissue), as well as excess skin. The surgeon then contours the chest into a masculine shape, altering", "Endometrial cancer A Stage 0 is sometimes included, in this case it is referred to as \"carcinoma in situ\". In 26% of presumably early-stage cancers, intraoperative staging revealed pelvic and distant metastases, making comprehensive surgical staging necessary. The initial treatment for endometrial cancer is surgery; 90% of women with endometrial cancer are treated with some form of surgery. Surgical treatment typically consists of hysterectomy including a bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy, which is the removal of the uterus, and both ovaries and Fallopian tubes. Lymphadenectomy, or removal of pelvic and para-aortic lymph nodes, is performed for tumors of histologic grade II or above. Lymphadenectomy is", "Karl M. Baer had initially been sent to Galicia for two years; he returned to Germany after only one, having attracted censure for his male body language, argumentative style, and forceful advocacy of the cause. According to case notes by Magnus Hirschfeld, Baer then transitioned to his male identity and began living as a man. He was diagnosed as a man living in a woman's body after accidental hospitalization, when his female anatomy was discovered; at the same hospital he underwent multi-stage rudimentary sex-change surgery in October 1906. After convalescence he was released from hospital in December 1906, with a medical certificate of", "Endometrial cancer during a procedure known as dilation and curettage. A pap smear is not typically sufficient to show endometrial cancer. Regular screening in those at normal risk is not called for. The leading treatment option for endometrial cancer is abdominal hysterectomy (the total removal by surgery of the uterus), together with removal of the fallopian tubes and ovaries on both sides, called a bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy. In more advanced cases, radiation therapy, chemotherapy or hormone therapy may also be recommended. If the disease is diagnosed at an early stage, the outcome is favorable, and the overall five-year survival rate in the United", "Salpingectomy done via a laparotomy; more recently however, laparoscopic salpingectomies have become more common as part of minimally invasive surgery. The tube is severed at the point where it enters the uterus and along its mesenteric edge with hemostatic control. Salpingectomy is commonly done as part of a procedure called a salpingo-oophorectomy, where one or both ovaries, as well as one or both Fallopian tubes, are removed in one operation (a \"Bilateral\" Salpingo-Oophorectomy (BSO) if both ovaries and Fallopian tubes are removed). If a BSO is combined with an abdominal hysterectomy (there are different methods of hysterectomy available), the procedure is" ]

[ 0.4560546875 ]

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[ "鸡病毒性关节炎的实验室诊断技术 鸡病毒性关节炎的实验室诊断技术 摘要:鸡病毒性关节炎(avian viral arthritis)也称\"传染性腱鞘炎\",是近年来发现的一种由禽呼肠孤病毒引起的鸡慢性传染病,以侵害跗关节、趾关节及其肌腱和心肌为特征。该病分布广泛,在世界各地均有发生,对鸡的生产带来的经济损失很大。从流行病学、症状、病理变化以及实验室检查、血清学诊断和鉴别诊断等方面,对鸡病毒性关节炎疾病的综合诊断技术进行了概述。 一、病原分离 1.1 活体取样和处理将发病初期的罹患关节部位消毒,用注射器采取滑液。也可用消毒的棉拭子探入气管或泄殖腔内,旋转几次。取出后放入组织培养液(加双抗,必要时加抗霉菌药)内。置普通冰箱内2 h 以上。取上清液做病毒分离。 1.2 解剖取样和处理将发病初期的患肢消毒后,切开取肿胀的腱、腱鞘和关节囊刮取物,无菌采集样本后,单独或混合处理；以抗菌素处理2 h 以上,用pbs 或生理盐水制成乳剂,取上清液做接种,必要时可用离心方法提取上清液。 1.3 鸡胚接种对病毒的初次分离,以卵黄囊(ys)接种较好。鸡胚绒毛尿囊膜(cam)接种的鸡胚(0.2 ml只)病毒也是在鸡胚中繁殖, 初次分离不是所有鸡胚都死亡和出现病变, 接种传代后2 d 大部分鸡胚开始死亡, 死亡胚发育不良,胚体周身出血,肝周出血,肝和脾常肿大并有坏死灶。在cam 上可见有小的、分散的、稍微隆起的白色病变。ys 接种的鸡胚于第3~4 d 后死亡,感染了的胚显著发紫,内脏出血。经尿囊腔(ac)接种的鸡胚通常见不到cam 上有白色坏死斑点。取尿囊液和cam(ys 接种的抽取卵黄液)做病毒鉴定。初次接种的被检物可能不出现病毒的某些特性,需继续传2~3 代。仍无病毒性时,则判为病毒分离阴性。 1.4 雏鸡接种试验:将含毒的乳剂上清液或尿囊液足掌内接种2~3 周龄肉用鸡(0.2~0.5 ml只),感染后2~4 d 足垫部肿胀。少数鸡趾关节出现红肿,病鸡表现跛行。足掌内接种的发病率为100 %。其他途径接种感染的很少出现明显的病变,但经琼脂扩散试验检查均是阳性反应。 二、血清学诊断: 1、elisa elisa 是20 世纪70 年代初发展起来的一种免疫学方法,因其具有快速敏感等特点而广泛用于疾病的诊断。slaght ss 等制备了抗arv s1133 、umi2203 、reo2205 抗体,建立了elisa 方法,此方法敏感性较高,滴度可达1 ∶14 000 。giambrone j j等用此方法分析了6 株arv 分离株( co8 ,s1133 , 8125 , 2408 , 1733 和umi 203) 的血清学关系,发现只有co8 株与其他株存在不同,与中和试验的结果一致。lee lh 等建立了aivdin bioton标记的elisa (lab2el isa) ,用于检测鸡血清中的抗体,并分别与传统的el isa 和血清中和试验相比较,其结果符合率都达90 %以上。唐雨德等建立了抗arv 抗体的间接elisa 方法,对试验感染arv 的鸡血清、自然感染鸡血清及传染性法氏囊病( ibd) 、新城疫(nd) 和马立克病(md) 病鸡血清进行了检测。试验感染后6 d 可检出血清特异性抗体,且不同时期检出率均高于琼扩试验,并可在2 h内得到结果,此间接el isa 方法具有高度的特异性,适用于arv 抗体的常规检测。shien jh 等用表达的sigmab 蛋白作为包被抗原建立了sigmab2 elisa ,对不同日龄的实验感染鸡和田间感染鸡进行血清检测, 同时与传统的elisa 作比较, 发现sigmab2elisa 的非特异性低于传统的elisa ,与血清中和试验的结果一致,而与传统的elisa 的符合率只有84%。实验感染2周龄鸡后,用sigmab2 elisa 检测血清抗体,免疫4周后达高峰,27周龄还可检测到。li hj 等根据arv 的s1133 株外膜蛋白sigmac 和a 制备了两个单克隆抗体e9和h3 探针,用于免疫2dot 试验从鸡胚成纤维细胞培养物和鸡腱组织中检测arv 抗原,最低可检测到8ng的病毒抗原,应用这两个探针对10 株arv分离株进行检测,都能检测到病毒抗原,而与其他6种禽病毒抗原无交叉反应。li hj 等利用sig2mac 具有型特异性抗原表位,sigmab具有群特异性抗原表位的特点,表达了arv株sigmac和s1133 株sigmab蛋白并作为包被抗原建立了elisa ,对arv疫苗株和田间株进行血清型分型,其结果与血清中和试验一致,比传统的elisa更特异更敏感,更适合于感染鸡群的检测或抗体水平的检测。sigmans 蛋白是arv的一种重要的非结构免疫蛋白,可以用来反映机体的抗体水平,chen pn等针对arv sigmans 建立了elisa , 用于arv2sigmans 抗体检测,结果表明该方法非特异性比传统elisa低,适合于sigmans 抗体检测,能区分是由疫苗注射还是由野毒感染产生的抗体。 2、琼脂扩散试验:据wood 等报道,禽的呼肠孤病毒至少有11个血清型,所有的血清型都可以用琼脂扩散(agp)试验检测出来,因此agp试验是目前诊断病毒性关节炎的简便而又行之有效的方法。 2.1 材料准备 2.1.1 鸡胚尿囊液浓缩抗原制备:将病毒接种于9~10日龄鸡胚cam上,接种后48~72h,收集鸡胚尿囊液,经3 000 rmin 离心30 min,取上清液定量分装于容器中冻干。 2.1.2 cam 抗原制备: 将种毒接种于9~10 日龄鸡胚cam上,38.5 ℃孵化48~72 h,收集cam,用生理盐水充分洗涤后用玻璃匀浆器磨碎制成乳剂, 冻融5 次后上清液即可作为抗原。 2.1.3 阳性血清的制备: 将含毒鸡胚尿囊液感染3 个月以上的成鸡,感染途径为点眼、滴鼻、足垫部及腿部肌肉同时接种,其剂量为1 ml只,间隔5 d 再接种1 次,剂量为2 ml只,第2 次接种2 周后放血,分离血清,测抗体效价,在6log2以上者为合格,冻存。 2.1.4 琼脂板的制备:称量琼脂糖0.8 g,加入100 ml ph 值为6.4 浓度为0.01 moll 的pbs 液(甲液:3.58 g na2hpo4·12h2o 加蒸馏水至1 000 ml； 乙液:1.36 g kh2po4加蒸馏水至1 000 ml；待甲乙液充分溶解后,分别保存,用时取甲液24 ml,乙液76 ml 混合即可。)中在水浴中煮沸充分融化,加入8 g nacl,充分溶解后加入1 %硫柳汞溶液1 ml。冷至45~50 ℃时,将洁净的干热灭菌的直径为90 mm 的平皿置于平台上,每个平皿加入18~20 ml,加盖待凝固后,把平皿倒置以防水分蒸发, 放普通冰箱中保存备用(时间不超过2周)。 2.1.5 诊断液:病毒性关节炎标准抗原、标准阴性和阳性血清,按说明书操作。 2.2 agp 操作方法:在制备的琼脂板上按7 孔1 组的梅花形打孔(中间1 孔,周围6 孔),孔径4 mm,孔距3 mm,将孔中的琼脂用8 号针头斜面向上从右侧边缘插入, 轻轻向左侧方向将琼脂挑出,勿伤边缘或使琼脂层脱离皿底。用酒精灯轻烤平皿底部至琼脂刚刚要溶化为止,封闭孔的底部,以防侧漏。用微量移液器或带有6~7 号针头的0.25 ml注射器,吸取抗原悬液滴入中间孔,标准阳性血清分别加入外周的1,4 孔中,受检血清按顺时针顺序分别加入4 个外周孔。每孔均以加满不溢出为度, 每加1 个样品应换1个滴头。加样完毕后,静止5~10 min,将平皿轻轻倒置,放入湿盒内置37 ℃温箱中作用, 分别在24,48 和72 h 观察并记录结果。 2.3 结果判定将琼脂板置日光灯或侧强光下观察, 标准阳性血清与抗原孔之间出现1 条清晰的白色沉淀线, 则试验可成立。 3、分子生物学方法 3.1 rt-pcr lee lh 等根据arv s1133 株s3 基因设计一对预扩增672 bp 片段的引物,建立了rt2pcr 方法,该方法能检测出3个商业疫苗株、6个地方分离株及3个腱组织样品,说明引物设计区域是保守的,至少对这9 个株是保守的。扩增产物经电泳后用溴化乙锭染色,最低能检测到0.2pg arv rna 模板,通过印迹转移后杂交还可将灵敏度提高到0. 04pg。对这9株arv 和另两个组织样品的扩增片段进行限制性酶切片段长度多态分析,可将这11个株分为4个群。li h j 等建立并比较了原位杂交和原位pcr 两种方法,用于检测甲醛固定、石蜡包埋的鸡组织切片arv sigmac 编码基因,发现原位pcr 检测arv 更快速、准确、敏感,甚至能检测到每个细胞中的单个病毒,也可用于潜伏期感染的检测,而传统的原位杂交定位于感染细胞病毒核苷酸序列,不能检测低拷贝(1 拷贝~20 拷贝) 的核苷酸序列,因此在检测潜伏期感染或mrna 低水平时不敏感。谢芝勋等根据s1133 株s1 基因序列设计了两对引物,用这两对引物分别对6 个标准arv rna进行rt2pcr 扩增,电泳染色后,均能检出一条明显的532 bp 和435 bp 的pcr 扩增带,与预期扩增 片断大小一致,而用这两对引物对其他6 种禽病病原核酸进行rt2pcr 扩增,均未出现任何扩增带,说明此两对引物的设计都是成功的,对arv 也是特异的,该方法可检测到1 pg rna ,不仅具有很好的特异性和极高的敏感性及重复性,且简便、快速和易于自动化。谢芝勋等改进了rt2pcr ,在第一次pcr 扩增产物序列的内侧设计1 个新的引物,并能与第一次pcr 扩增中的一个引物组成1 对内侧引物,建立了半套式聚合酶链反应。用该对引物分别对6 株arv 标准毒株的核酸进行检测,结果都扩增出了预期大小的片段,而对其他6 种禽病原核酸 的扩增结果均为阴性,此方法比常规rt2pcr 更加敏感,其敏感性可高出1 000 倍,最低能检测到1 f garv rna 模板。因此,该方法在临床样品检测和arv 感染的早期诊断中有重要的实用价值。廖敏等建立了一步法rt2pcr ,省去了常规rt2pcr反转录合成cdna 后需中途停下来加pcr 反应介质的繁琐过程。应用该方法对4 株鸡胚增殖的arv 标准株和5 个地方分离株进行检测,均能扩增出预期大小的片段,而4 个对照病原及正常鸡胚尿囊液、正常鸡跗关节组织扩增都为阴性, 将arvs1133 株感染spf 鸡后跗关节组织进行检测,也能检测到该病毒。一步法rt2pcr 最低可检测到0. 16 ng arv rna ,为更快速简便地检测arv提供了又一种诊断方法。caterina k m 等根据arv , ibdv ,cav 和aav2 ⅰ基因设计了4 对特异性引物,建立了多重pcr ,扩增出预期大小的片段,而对照组md ,nav ,ai 和alv2j 均未扩增出片段,这是一种快速有效的诊断方法,尤其适用于混合感染。br hn s 等建立了rt2pcr , 容易检测出arv4 个疫苗株1133 , 1733 , 2408 和ol sonwvu2937 ,两个atcc株vr826和r856以及野毒株,因此该方法尤其可用于对疫苗质量的监测。 3. 2 核酸电泳 arv 为10 节段的双股rna ,sds2pa ge 方法显示,各个毒株具有相似的核酸分布谱带,依迁移率不同分为l 、m、s 3 组,呈特有的 或 形式。单松华等[12 ] 根据arv 特有的核酸图谱建立了聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳法,对2 株arv 和1 株ibdv检测,结果2 株arv 的电泳图谱是一致的,均呈 分布,而ibdv 核酸未能显示出来。唐雨德等[13 ] 同时应用sds2pa ge 和免疫印迹技术分别检测arv 核酸和蛋白多肽,从分子水平上对arv 进行鉴定。对6 株arv 进行电泳图谱分析,其电泳图谱为 分布或呈 分布, 同时将arvs1133 株与环状病毒属的蓝舌病毒进行比较,两者虽然都由10 个核酸片段组成, 但电泳图型不同,arv 各核酸片段呈 分布,而蓝舌病毒呈 分布。用这种方法对arv 进行鉴定,不需要对病毒进行提纯,使诊断时间大大缩短。" ]

[ "流行性乙脑病毒 流行性乙脑病毒首先(1953年)在日本从患者脑组织中分离获得,因此称日本脑炎病毒(japanese encephalitis vir s ,jev),所致疾病在日本称日本乙型脑炎(jbe)。1950年以来,我国对该病进行了大量病原学和流行病学研究,为了与甲型脑炎相区别,定名为流行性乙型脑炎,简称乙脑,是我国夏秋季流行的主要传染病之一,除新疆、西藏、青海外,全国各地均有病例发生,年发病人数2.5万,病死率10%,大约15%的患者留有不同程度的后遗症。 概述:本病毒首先(1953年)在日本从患者脑组织中分离获得,因此称日本脑炎病毒(japanese encephalitis vir s ,jev),所致疾病在日本称日本乙型脑炎(jbe)。1950年以来,我国对该病进行了大量病原学和流行病学研究,为了与甲型脑炎相区别,定名为流行性乙型脑炎,简称乙脑,是我国夏秋季流行的主要传染病之一,除新疆、西藏、青海外,全国各地均有病例发生,年发病人数2.5万,病死率10%,大约15%的患者留有不同程度的后遗症。[1] 一、生物学性状:(一)形态与结构 乙脑病毒为球形,直径40nm,内有衣壳蛋白(c)与核酸构成的核心,外披以含脂质的囊膜,表面有囊膜糖蛋白(e)刺突,即病毒血凝素,囊膜内尚有内膜蛋白(m),参与病毒的装配。病毒基因组为单股正链rna,全长11kb,自5′至3′端依次编码结构蛋白c、m、e以及非结构蛋白ns1-ns5,病毒rna在细胞浆内直接起mrna作用,翻译出结构蛋白和非结构蛋白,在胞浆粗面内质网装配成熟,出芽释放。 (二)敏感动物与细胞 乳鼠是常用的敏感动物,脑内接种乙脑病毒后3~4天发病,一周左右死亡,脑组织内含大量感染性病毒,是分离病毒、大量制备抗原的可靠方法。 bhk细胞系、c636细胞系及鸡胚成纤维细胞是常用的敏感细胞,病毒在细胞内增殖引起细胞圆缩、颗粒增多、细胞脱落等cpe。在培养上清中含有传染性病毒,胞浆内胞膜上可检出特异性抗原。细胞培养增殖病毒简便易行,已取代动物培养用物制备疫苗、诊断抗原,以及研究病毒复制机理、筛选抗病毒药物等。 (二)抗原特性 乙脑病毒抗原性稳定,在同一地区不同年代分离的毒株之间未发现明显的抗原变异。e糖蛋白上有中和抗原表位和血凝抗原表位,可诱发机体产生中和抗体和血凝抑制抗体,在感染与免疫中重要作用。用单克隆抗体做交叉血凝抑制试验证实e糖蛋白上有与黄病毒属成员广泛并叉的属特异性抗原,也有仅与圣路易、墨里谷、西尼罗脑炎病毒交叉的亚组物异性抗原,以及仅乙脑病毒具有的种特异性抗原。不同特异性单克隆抗体已用于研究乙脑病毒抗原结构与功能以及鉴定新分离的毒株,解决了常规免疫血清特异性低的问题。 乙脑病毒囊膜糖白具有血凝特性,能凝集鹅、鸽、雏鸡红细胞,在ph6.2~6.4条件下凝集滴度高。病毒血凝素与红细胞结合是不可逆的,但这种病毒与红细胞形成的复合物仍有感染性,加入特异性抗体可抑制这种血凝现象。 (三)对理化因素的抵抗力 乙脑病毒对热抵抗力弱,56℃30分钟灭活,故应在-70℃条件下保存毒株。若将感染病毒的脑组织加入50%甘油缓冲盐水中贮存在4℃,其病毒活力可维持数月。乙醚、1:1000去氧胆酸钠以及常用消毒剂均可灭活病毒。在酸性条件下不稳定,适宜ph8.5~9.0。 二、致病性与免疫性:(一)致病性 我国乙脑病毒的传播媒介主要为三带喙库蚊。蚊感染病毒后,中肠细胞为最初复制部位,经病毒血症侵犯唾液腺和神经组织,并再次复制,终身带毒并可经卵传代,成为传播媒介和贮存宿主。在热带和亚热带,蚊终年存在,蚊和动物宿主之间构成病毒持久循环。在温带,鸟类是自然界中的重要贮存宿主。病毒每年或通过候鸟的迁栖而传入,或病毒在流行区存活过冬。有关病毒越冬的方式可为:①越冬蚊再感染鸟类,建立新的鸟-蚊-鸟循环；②病毒可在鸟、哺乳动物、节肢动物体潜伏越冬。实验表明,自然界中蚊与蝙蝠息息相关,蚊将乙脑病毒传给蝙蝠,受染蝙蝠在10℃,不产生病毒血症,可持续存在达3个月之外,当蝙蝠返回室温环境3天后,出现病毒血症,构成蚊-蝙蝠-蚊的循环；③冷血脊椎动物为冬季贮存宿主(如蛇、蛙、晰蜴等),可分离出病毒。 家畜和家禽在流行季节感染乙脑病毒,一般为隐性感染,但病毒在其体内可增殖,侵入血流,引起短暂的病毒血症,成为乙脑病毒的暂时贮存宿主,经蚊叮咬反复传播,成为人类的传染源。特别是当年生仔猪最为重要,对乙脑病毒易感,构成猪-蚊-猪的传播环节,故在人群流行前检查猪的病毒血症和蚊带毒率,可预测当年人群的流行程度,并通过猪的免疫预防,可控制本病在猪及人群中的流行。 当带毒雌蚊叮咬人时,病毒随蚊虫唾液传入人体皮下。先在毛细血管内皮细胞及局部淋巴结等处的细胞中增殖,随后有少量病毒进入血流成为短暂的第一次病毒血症,此时病毒随血循环散布到肝、脾等处的细胞中继续增殖,一般不出现明显症状或只发生轻微的前驱症状。约经4~7日潜伏期后,在体内增殖的大量病毒,再侵入血流成为第二次病毒血症,引起发热、寒战及全身不适等症状,若不再继续发展者,即成为顿挫感染,数日后可自愈；但少数患者(0.1%)体内的病毒可通过血脑屏障进入脑内增殖,引起脑膜及脑组织发炎,造成神经元细胞变性坏死、毛细血管栓塞、淋巴细胞浸润,甚至出现局灶性坏死和脑组织软化。临床上表现为高烧、意识障碍、抽搐、颅内压升高以及脑膜刺激症。重症患者可能死于呼吸循环衰竭,部分患者病后遗留失语、强直性痉挛、精神失常等后遗症。 (二)免疫性 人受乙脑病毒感染后,大多数为隐性感染及部分顿挫感染,仅少数发生脑炎(0.01%),这与病毒的毒力,侵入机体内数量及感染者的免疫力有关。流行区成人大多数都有一定免疫力,多为隐性感染,10岁以下儿童及非流行区成人缺乏免疫力,感染后容易发病。 本病病后4~5天可出现血凝抑制抗体,2~4周达高峰,可维持一年左右。补体给合抗体在发病2~3周后方可检出,约存在半年。中和抗体约在病后1周出现,于5年内维持高水平,甚至维持终生。流行区人群每年不断受到带病毒的蚊叮咬,逐渐增强免疫力,抗体阳性率常随年龄而增高,例如北京市20岁以上成年人90%血清中含有中和抗体。因此本病多见于10岁以下的儿童,但近些年来乙脑发病年龄有增高趋势,值得重视。 三、微生物学诊断:乙脑早期快速诊断通常采集性期患者血清或脑脊液特异性lgm ,也可做rt-pcr检测标本中的病毒核酸片段,一般6个小时内可初步报告结果。常规血清学试验,(h1、cf、nt)需取双份血清,同时做对比试验,当恢复期血清抗体滴度比急性期≥ 4倍时,有辅助诊断意义,可用于临床回顾性诊断。由于乙脑患者病毒血症期短,直接检出病毒抗原或分离病毒阳性率低,较少用于诊断试验。[2] (一)特异性lgm检测 乙脑病毒感染发病早期即产生特异性lgm ,病后2~3周达到高峰,故单份血清可做出早期诊断。可使用:① lgm 捕捉elisa法(见23章)； ②2me-ni法,血凝抑制抗体存在于lgm及lgg中,将早期单份血清分成二份,一份用2巯基乙醇(2me)处理,以破坏lgm ,另一份不处理,然后同时做hi试验,若处理血清抗体滴度比未处理的下降≥4倍,则为lgm 阳性； ③微量间接免疫荧光法,用荧光素标记的抗 链血清,检测已与细胞抗原片结合的lgm,根据特异性荧光颗粒,判断血清标本中的lgm存在。 (二)常规血清学试验 1.血凝抑制试验 对乙脑诊断而言,本法特异性较低,但敏感性高,简便易行。常用于病毒的初步鉴定,确定有无乙脑病毒存在。检测血清标本中的hi抗体,多采用2me-hi法。 2.补体结合试验 补体结合抗体仅存在于lgg 中,病后出现迟,消失快,适用于诊断近期感染。 3.中和试验 抗体存在于lgg、 lgm中,出现早,维持久。中和试验特异性和敏感性都高,但操作繁杂,需用大量动物或组织培养管,需时较久,不适于临床诊断常规使用,而在血清学流行病学调查和病毒鉴定上有价值。 (三)病毒分离与鉴定 取病尸脑组织研磨成10%悬液,接种1-3日龄乳鼠脑内,待发病频死时,取脑悬液,用单克隆抗体做中和试验鉴定病毒。也可接种敏感细胞(如c636细胞系)分离病毒。 四、特异防治:(一)特异预防 现用的乙脑灭活疫苗是用地鼠肾细胞培养增殖,甲醛灭活制成,初次免疫时,皮下注射2~3次,间隔7-10天,以后每年加强注射一次,免疫力维持半年左右,保护率达66-90%。我国已筛选出乙脑病毒减毒株,用地鼠肾细胞培养制成减毒活疫苗,只需皮下注射一次,安全有效,目前正作现场观察。疫苗接种对象是10岁以下儿童和来自非疫区的军民。流行区当年饲养的仔猪接种乙脑疫苗,以杜绝传染来源,也可使猪健康成长。 防蚊灭蚊是预防本病的有效措施。 (二)特异治疗 目前乙脑治疗仍采用对症处理及支持疗法,有报道用病毒唑、干扰素、恢复期血清等治疗,可能减轻病势,但已出现脑炎症状者,则无治疗效果。我国采用淋巴细胞杂交瘤技术,制备出高中和活性乙脑单克隆抗体,经系统动物实验治疗证明安全有效,95年经卫生部批准进入 ⅰ、ⅱ 期临床试验,是一种特异免疫治疗制剂。", "颈淋巴结转移癌的治疗 晚期头颈癌同期放化疗后的计划性颈清扫术[英]frank dk, h ks, c lliney be, et al laryngoscope.2005, 115(6):1015-1020 对采用同期放化疗非手术器官保全方案的头颈部鳞癌患者是否需对颈淋巴结进行手术存在争议。回顾分析同期放化疗后4-6周行计划性颈清扫术的晚期头颈部鳞癌患者39例(51侧),探讨计划性颈淋巴结清扫的肿瘤学效果。32例(82%)颈部为n2级或以上病变,29例(74%)原发病为t3、t4级。术前原发部位和颈部放疗平均剂量为67gy和60gy,同期化疗。27例单侧、12例双侧颈清扫术中择区性24侧、改良性为17侧、经典性10侧。术后平均随访24个月(8-57个月),结果仅1侧n2a病变复发。41侧改良性和择区性颈清扫术中,13侧(32%)在术前有残存癌的表现,术后无复发。在所有18侧术前有残存癌患者中仅有1侧复发。在随访中11例(28%)发生远处转移,同期放化疗后颈部有残存癌者远处转移风险增大。同期放化疗与计划性颈清扫术可有效控制晚期头颈部鳞癌颈部转移；无论在放化疗后颈部是否仍有残存病变,改良性和择区性颈淋巴结清扫术适于多数患者。对治疗前颈部为n2级及以上病变和部分n1级患者,推荐计划性颈清扫术。 放疗后颈部n0择区性颈清扫术的肿瘤学效果[英] solares ca, fritz ma, esclamado rm head neck. 2005, 27(5):415-420 头颈部鳞癌放疗后颈部n0、原发部位治疗失败的患者行择区性颈清扫术(snd)的安全性和效果尚存争议。本研究对69例口腔、口咽、下咽和喉癌患者放疗或放化疗后在原发部位临床及影像学证实肿瘤再发或残存、颈部n0的患者进行研究。69例患者进行治疗失败的原发部位解救性手术和单侧或双侧snd,无其他计划治疗,放疗完成与解救手术平均间隔11.6月(3-82月),平均随访时间23.3月(1-96月),53例随访至少12月。69例共行snd96侧,69例中17例(25%)有病理阳性淋巴结,96侧snd中22侧(23%)有病理阳性淋巴结,10例(14.5%)有2个或少于2个阳性淋巴结,7例(10.1%)有2个以上阳性淋巴结,3例囊外扩散。转移淋巴结均位于ii-iv区。41例(59.4%)解救手术后无复发,其中38例随访12个月以上；12例(17.4%)解救手术后原发部位复发,其中6例随访12个月以上；16例(23.2%)远处转移,其中9例随访12个月以上；12例原发部位复发患者中区域失败1例。2年和5年的生存率分别为65.7%和59.7%；估计2年生存率无淋巴结转移者为74.7%、2个或少于2个的转移淋巴结者为57.1%、多于2个转移淋巴结者为21.4%。结果提示颈部淋巴结转移的方式不因放疗而改变,snd对以往放疗的颈部cno病变在肿瘤学上安全有效,2个以上淋巴结病理学阳性是生存率的负性预后指标。 颈清扫术加放疗或放化疗治疗伴颈淋巴结转移的t1、t2级原发口咽癌 [英]reddy an, eisele dw, forastiere aa, et allaryngoscope.2005,115 (7):1196-1200 为探讨颈清扫术加放疗或放化疗对较小的原发口咽鳞癌(t1、t2级)伴有巨大淋巴结转移(n2级或以上)的治疗效果,回顾分析放疗或放化疗前行颈清扫术,原发灶为t1、t2级,颈部为n2级或以上的16例患者的无瘤生存率、总体生存率、淋巴结及原发灶控制情况。原发灶中7例t1病变,9例t2病变,区域淋巴结n1、n2和n3分别为1、14和1例(1例n1病理证实为n2b)。ⅲ、ⅳa、ⅳb期分别为1、14和1例。颈部处理方式:1侧经典性颈清扫术,14侧改良性颈清扫术,3侧择区性颈清扫术。放疗原发灶总剂量66-70gy,颈部剂量40gy(颈淋巴结阳性侧前部增至60gy,后部增至50gy)。除放疗外,6例术后放疗和化疗同时进行,2例诱导化疗。颈清扫术后3-5月完成放疗或放化疗。随访6-75月,平均及中位随访时间分别为38和33月。随访期间,1例患者在完成治疗后21月发现ⅵ区及上纵隔淋巴结转移,15例(94%)无复发。对t1、t2级原发口咽鳞癌伴巨大颈淋巴结转移者,颈清扫术加放疗或放化疗可取得较好效果。 晚期颈部转移性鳞状细胞癌的治疗效果[英]clark j,li w, smith g, et alhead neck. 2005, 27(2): 87-94 通过评价n2或n3级颈部转移性鳞癌患者手术及术放疗效果,以识别联合治疗不充分和需要其他治疗方案的亚组,对181例随访至少3年的n2或n3级病变行颈清扫术患者进行分析。181例行颈清扫术233侧,其中广泛性颈清扫术163例(经典性64例,改良性64例,扩大性35例)和选区性颈清扫术70例。148例行术后颈部放疗,其中8例同时化疗,63例另加原发灶放疗。病理分析显示57例(31%)大体观淋巴结囊外扩散(ecs),69例(38%)镜下ecs；其余55例(30%)无ecs。126例ecs患者中仅有16例(13%)未行术后放疗。随访期间,共有101例(56%)复发。原发灶5年控制率75%,颈部控制率86%,整体5年生存率30%,疾病特异性生存率39%。大体观ecs患者颈部控制率下降,在未行放疗者更明显。n分级和ecs影响生存率。行放疗的镜下和大体观ecs患者比未行放疗者生存率高。有利于预后的因素为n2a级病变和未发生ecs。大体观ecs患者较镜下ecs患者及无ecs患者的5年生存率降低。结果提示ecs和n2c是生存率低的2个亚组。尽管手术和放疗联合应用改善了局域控制率,但生存率仍低,提示需考虑辅助治疗方案。 扁桃体鳞状细胞癌对侧颈n0的处理[英] lim yc, lee sy, lim jy, et allaryngoscope.2005,115(9):1672-1675 在治疗ⅱ-ⅳ期扁桃体癌是否行对侧选择性颈清扫术存在争议。回顾分析43例n0-3, 对侧颈cn0的扁桃体鳞癌患者,所有病例均行对侧选择性颈清扫术,其中33例术后放疗,随访2-120月(平均38月)。结果显示43例中对侧cn0、pn+者为7例；33例同侧颈n+的患者中7例有对侧颈淋巴结转移；同侧颈n0的患者则无对侧颈淋巴结转移。t2 、t3、t4 级病变分别有5%、36%、25%的患者发生颈淋巴结转移,3例t1级病变未发现对侧pn+。对t1+t2 和 t3+t4 级病变对侧颈淋巴结转移的发生率差异有显著性。对侧颈淋巴结无转移的患者5年生存率为92%,而颈pn+患者的5年生存率为28%。t3、t4级病变且伴有单侧颈淋巴结转移的扁桃体鳞癌发生对侧潜在转移的风险较高,发生对侧颈转移者预后差。对于同侧颈淋巴结转移的扁桃体鳞癌患者应行对侧选择性颈清扫术。 颈淋巴结转移对口腔、口咽、喉和下咽鳞状细胞癌治疗的影响[英]layland mk, sessions dg, lenox j.laryngoscope.2005,115(4):629-639 为探讨颈部n0和n+对不同方法治疗口腔、口咽、喉和下咽部鳞癌的影响,并对颈n0的不同处理方法的结果进行比较,回顾分析3887例随访至少5年的患者。采用的5种治疗方法:原发灶局部切除、原发灶切除及颈清扫术、单纯放疗、原发灶局部切除术后放疗、原发灶切除联合颈清扫术后放疗；颈n0的处理的4种方法:密切随访、颈清扫术、颈部放疗、颈清扫术后放疗。结果显示,口腔、口咽、喉和下咽鳞癌患者5年生存率为59% ,n0患者生存率高于n+,颈n0的口腔、口咽、喉和下咽scca发生潜在颈淋巴结转移的机会约为4%pn1和4%pn2,其中口腔癌为4%pn1、4%pn2,喉癌为4%pn1、3%pn2,口咽癌和下咽癌为11%pn1、6%pn2。对于n0患者发生颈淋巴结转移后采取治疗同样可提高生存率,尤其是t1n0的喉癌患者。各种颈部处理方法均不能提高t2n0、t3n0、t4n0的的口腔、口咽、喉和下咽鳞癌患者的生存率。研究表明,颈淋巴结转移对口腔、口咽、喉和下咽鳞癌患者的生存率呈显著的负性影响。颈部n0患者逐渐发展为pn+的几率较低；一旦存在pn+ ,其生存率即与颈n+的患者相似。65岁以上、tn分级相对较晚及复发的患者生存率降低。n0的4种不同颈部处理方法在提高生存率方面并无特别优越者。对于颈n0密切随访,出现颈淋巴结转移后再治疗与其他3种处理方法比较生存率无显著性差异,因而亦为一有效方式,且可避免不必要的颈部治疗带来的风险和并发症。 鳞状细胞癌颈清扫术中意外所见的发生机率及其影响 [英] sheahan p, hafidh m, toner m, et alhead neck.2005,27(1):28-35. 为探讨头颈部鳞癌颈清扫术标本中意外所见的发生率及其处理措施,对202例由同一外科医生诊治、同一位病理学家检测的307侧颈清扫术标本回顾性分析。其中经典性或改良性颈清扫术173侧,择区性颈清扫术134侧。10例患者颈清扫术标本有意外所见,包括迷行甲状腺组织4例,提示转移性乳头状甲状腺癌；慢性淋巴细胞性白血病2例、非霍奇金淋巴瘤1例、warthin瘤1例及淋巴结结核2例。10例患者鳞癌的原发灶分别位于磨牙后三角3例,声门上、环后、口咽及上颌骨各1例,皮肤3例。4例提示甲状腺乳头状癌淋巴结转移者中,2例行甲状腺全切除术(1例证实为乳头状癌,1例为炎症而未发现肿瘤),另外2例观察6年未发现甲状腺肿瘤。伴发淋巴瘤及白血病者有2例生存14月,1例颈清扫术后4月死于原发肿瘤。伴发warthin瘤者无瘤生存2年。伴发淋巴结结核者颈清扫术前均无存在肺结核的证据,术后均早期出现原发肿瘤复发。10例患者中有4例死于原发鳞癌,均未死于颈清扫术意外所见提示的疾病。尽管意外所见并非决定预后的主要因素,但使治疗的措施复杂化。 颈后三角脊副神经的外科解剖[英] aramrattana a, sittitrai p, harnsiriwattanagit kasian j s rg. 2005,28(3):171-173 为探讨颈后三角外科解剖标志以减少脊副神经的医源性损伤,对56具38-93岁泰国人尸体(男35,女21)的112侧颈后三角区脊副神经的走行进行观察。解剖标志为:①脊副神经与颈丛感觉神经束的毗邻关系；②脊副神经进入斜方肌的水平。观察到脊副神经穿出胸锁乳突肌后缘的部位接近颈丛感觉神经束从胸锁乳突肌后缘穿出处(erb点),101侧(90.2%)位于erb 点的上方,有1侧(0.9%)位于该点的下方,穿出点位于erb上方的距离为0.3~3.6cm(平均1.43cm)；脊副神经斜方肌穿入点与锁骨的距离为2.6~ 6.9cm。在颈后三角定位脊副神经的2个重要解剖标志为erb点和脊副神经斜方肌穿入点与锁骨的距离。以往报道脊副神经在erb点上方2cm内穿出,锁骨与脊副神经斜方肌穿入点的距离通常为2-4cm。本研究定位脊副神经的2个解剖标志与以往从高加索人获得的数据差异较大,可能测量方法和人种的差异有关。 淋巴闪烁图和术中gamma探测器前哨淋巴结检测在头颈部黑色素瘤治疗中的临床作用[英]macca ro m,vhlano c, allberti g,et al q j n cl med mol imaging. 2005,49(3):245-251 为探讨前哨淋巴结(sn)的定位方法和sn活检在头颈黑色素瘤治疗中的预后价值,采用术前淋巴闪烁图和术中gamma探测器定位sn。对经病理确诊的头颈部黑色素瘤患者61例进行研究,其中15例未切除原发肿瘤。术前1天在肿瘤周围或肿瘤切除后的瘢痕周围真皮内注射99mtc-nanocoll,15min后以gamma照相机拍照,每5min一帧,直到1小时或者辨认出sn。手术开始前在原发肿瘤部位注射8ml亚甲蓝。在淋巴闪烁图和皮肤标记的基础上,术中以gamma探测器定位sn。切除的sn进行he染色和免疫组化标记。淋巴结病理检查阳性的患者行颈清扫术,阴性者不手术。61例中检出率为98%。45例淋巴向2个或2个以上区域引流,15例向1个区域引流,1例未发现引流区域。61例检出144枚sn,其中活检sn127枚。病理发现41例sn阴性,20例阳性。在1-5年(平均3年)的随访中发现,41例sn阴性患者中40例无瘤生存,1例出现淋巴结转移；20例sn阳性患者中,10例无瘤生存,10例复发。10例复发者中,5例出现远处转移,其中3例死亡,1例失访。结果提示淋巴闪烁图和术中gamma探测器检测sn是可行的,头颈部黑色素瘤的淋巴引流区域变化很大,sn阴性者临床转归较好, sn阳性者复发率较高。 n0口腔和口咽部鳞状细胞癌前哨淋巴结活检[英]hart rd, nasser jg, trites jr,et al arch otolaryngol head neck s rg.2005,131(1):34-38 临床在术前对前哨淋巴结(sln)转移的检测主要通过超声、ct、mri等,主要依赖于淋巴结的大小,存在局限性。本研究以术前淋巴闪烁图检查定位sln,术中以gamma探测器来定位sln,对定位的sln进行活检,以寻求可行的sln检测的方式。对20例经病理确诊的、无临床淋巴结转移证据、未经治疗的口腔和口咽部鳞状细胞癌患者进行前瞻性研究。手术前1天,于肿瘤周围粘膜下注射锝99m硫胶体,然后行淋巴闪烁图检查,通过gamma照相机获得sln定位并予标记。术中用便携gamma探测器结合术前的淋巴闪烁图检查定位sln,将找到的sln切除后行连续切片he染色和角蛋白检测。20例中淋巴闪烁图均检测出一个或多个sln。术前淋巴闪烁图定位的sln在术中通过gamma探测器测到并成功分离。颈清扫术后淋巴结病理学检查发现4例有淋巴结转移,其中有3例的转移灶仅位于sln内,1例除sln外尚有7枚阳性淋巴结。本研究中sln的阴性预测值为100%,该方法行sln活检可准确预测淋巴结的隐匿性转移,为临床提供指导,以避免不必要的经典性颈清扫术带来的并发症。", "汉坦病毒 汉坦病毒归属布尼亚病毒科，是一种有包膜分节段的负链RNA病毒，基因组包括L、M、S 3个片段，分别编码L聚合酶蛋白、G1和G2糖蛋白、核蛋白。汉坦病毒肾综合征出血热（HFRS）由汉坦病毒引起的一种自然疫源性疾病，是严重危害我国人民健康的病毒性疾病之一，为《中华人民共和国传染病防治法》规定的乙类传染病。汉坦病毒主要分类 汉坦病毒 汉坦病毒可两种：引起汉坦病毒肺综合征（HPS），另一种引起汉坦病毒肾综合征出血热（HFRS）。前者主要流行于美国，在阿根廷、巴西、巴拉圭、玻利维亚以及德国也发现了病例。 汉坦病毒包括引起肾综合征出血热（HFRS）的汉滩病毒（Hantaan virus,HTNV）、汉城病毒（Seoul virus,SEOV）、普马拉病毒（Puumala virus,PUUV）、多不拉伐病毒（Dobrava virus,DOBV），引起汉坦病毒肺综合征（HPS）的无名病毒（Sin Nombre virus,SNV）、纽约病毒（New York virus,NYV）、污黑小河沟病毒（Black Creek Canal virus,BCCNV）、牛轭湖病毒（Bayou virus,BAYV）、安第斯病毒（Andes virus,ANV）以及与人类疾病关系尚不清楚的一组病毒，如希望山病毒（Prospect Hill virus,PHV）、泰国病毒（Thailand virus,THAIV）、图拉病毒（Tula virus,TULV）、索托帕拉雅病毒（Thottapalayam virus,TPMV）、哈巴罗夫斯基病毒（Khabarovsk virus,KBRV）、El Moro Canyon病毒（ELMCV）、Rio Segundo病毒（RIOSV）、岛景病毒（Isla vista virus,ISLAV）、Muleshoe病毒（MULEV）、Bloodland lake病毒（BLLLV）、Rio Mamore病毒（RMV）、Topografov病毒（TOPV）等。 汉坦病毒临床表现 主要临床表现为，在4日左右的发热、头痛等前驱期症状后，出现以非心源性肺水肿和高病死率（52.4%～78.0%）为特征的急性呼吸衰竭，重症3～7日死亡，生存者则很快恢复，无后遗症。其发病机制主要是病毒的直接致病作用，肾脏是早期原发性损伤器官，病毒是肾损伤的直接因素。 汉坦病毒实验诊断方面的研究，主要集中于重组抗原的应用和实验诊断方法的快速、敏感和特异。 多项报告对HFRS和HPS的后遗症进行了调查，研究表明两种疾病的恢复病人与健康人比较，分别存在肾脏或肺功能的异常。M.Howard等对患有HPS的孕妇进行了调查，结果表明患有HPS的孕妇预后与其他HPS患者相同，患有HPS孕妇的胎儿与其他患有成人呼吸窘迫综合征的孕妇的胎儿差异不大，研究中没有发现SN病毒在人类垂直传播的现象。 [2] 汉坦病毒治疗原则 自20世纪80年代初成功分离病毒以来，HFRS和汉坦病毒的研究取得了大量成果，尤其近年来灭活疫苗的研制成功，为有效预防本病创造了条件。但我们在病原学、实验诊断、免疫病理和分子生物学等方面与国外研究尚有差距，仍存在许多有待解决的问题。随着今后研究的深入，对本病认识的逐步加深，才能最终有效控制本病在我国的流行。 [1] 早期抗病毒治疗 HFRS的发病主要是病毒直接作用所致，病毒血症及外周血单核细胞内病毒存在的时间一般 为7～10日或长，早期抗病毒治疗可阻断病理损伤、减轻病情、降低病死率。应用干扰素、利巴韦林，有肯定疗效。7病日以内均可应用，疗程5～7日。 合理的综合液体疗法是最重要的治疗措施 应强调预防性治疗，不同病期有不同的液体疗法原则。以平衡盐液为主，根据化验检查结果，适当调整其成分及用量。应积极纠正低蛋白血症。 早期预防肾脏损伤 发热期肾脏损伤程度较轻，由于多种因素，如血浆渗出、血液浓缩、血容量不足、合并DIC等而使肾损伤加重。故应针对上述因素，采取相应措施，是改善本病转归的重要策略。 少尿期尿毒症以及各种并发症 如高血容量、高血压、心衰、肺水肿、腔道大出血、神经系统合并症及肾破裂是致死的五大因素，均发生于急性肾功能衰竭尿毒症期，血液透析是降低病死率的最重要的挽救生命的手段，应广泛应用。 汉坦病毒研究进展 汉坦病毒 随着新技术的应用和新型病毒的发现，汉坦病毒及其相关疾病的研究得以飞速发展。 各国学者采用病毒与宿主的基因分析方法，研究汉坦病毒分离株之间或宿主动物之间亲缘关系的远近，以及病毒与宿主动物的共演化。 1998年3月5～7日，第四届国际HFRS和汉坦病毒会议在美国亚特兰大市召开，与会的世界各国学者和专家交流了这一领域的最新研究方法和研究成果。 汉坦病毒研究方法及成果 F.Elgh等采用PUU病毒重组核蛋白作为抗原，与乳胶连接进行乳胶微粒凝集试验，用于汉坦病毒病的快速血清学诊断，与采用PUU病毒重组核蛋白作为抗原的ELISA相比，特异性为90%，敏感性为94%。 Jiro Arikawa等将杆状病毒表达的HTN、SEO、PUU病毒核蛋白用于ELISA，至少应用2种重组抗原（HTN和PUU或SEO和PUU），可以用于汉坦病毒感染的血清学监测。杆状病毒表达N端缺失的HTN或SEO病毒核蛋白作为免疫荧光试验（IFA）的抗原，可以区分HTN与SEO病毒感染。重组核蛋白和N端缺失的核蛋白用于ELISA和IFA，提供了针对汉坦病毒感染的快速、敏感、安全的诊断方法。 H.Kallio-Kokko等将杆状病毒表达的PUU病毒核蛋白用于IgG和IgM检测，将大肠杆菌表达的PUU病毒核蛋白用于IgM检测，敏感性达100%，部分表达的核蛋白用于IgG检测，敏感性较低（70%）。他们还报道了在PUU病毒感染的急性病例中，23的病例可以采用RT-PCR试验，从病人的血或尿中检出病毒RNA。 T.Tomiyama等将高密度正性颗粒包被纯化的汉坦病毒抗原，采用高密度颗粒凝集试验（HDPA）对病毒感染进行快速血清学诊断，对HTN病毒感染的检测有较高的敏感性和特异性，对PUU、SN病毒的感染也有低水平的交叉反应。HDPA与IFA比较，敏感性相近，但比IFA 更为简便快速。 W.Irwin等报告了现场调查中免疫印迹试验在鼠类病毒抗体检测中的应用。邱建明等采用5’端生物素标记汉滩病毒特异性寡核苷酸探针，结合磁性分离技术及改进的异硫氰酸胍-酚一步法两种方法提取病毒RNA，进行反转录套式PCR，用于检测临床HFRS病人血清。在7d以内病人血清的阳性检出率为100%，8～14d病人血清的阳性检出率为57.14%，15d后病人血清仍能检测到22.73%阳性。扩增产物经打点杂交检测证实为特异性扩增，这为早期确诊HFRS病人提供了特异、敏感、快速、直接的诊断方法。 汉坦病毒病毒基因分析 汉坦病毒 J.W.Song等从韩国绒鼠（Eothenomys regulus）分离了两株PUU相关病毒，命名为Muju（MUJ）病毒。两株病毒G2基因241bp片段序列存在1.2%差异，G2基因241bp片段和S基因208bp片段与PUU病毒相应片段序列的同源性分别为79.5%～83.4%和80.3%～81.2%。 L.Yashina等从俄罗斯远东鼠（Clethrionomys）、姬鼠（Apodemus）和HFRS病人分离的HTN病毒，M片段序列同源性86%～89%，从轻型HFRS病人分离的SEO病毒，M片段序列同源性97%。 M.Drebot首次报告了加拿大草原田鼠携带PH样病毒。加拿大不同省份SN病毒M、S片段序列存在25%的差异，并且加拿大西部SN病毒株与加拿大东部SN病毒株相比，毒株间基因序列更为接近。 Yong-Kyu Chu等报告来源于印尼板齿鼠的病毒株可被SEO型特异引物扩增，M片段290bp序列分析表明与SEO病毒有7%的差异；来源于泰国板齿鼠的病毒株中，2株为SEO病毒，另1株可被HTN型特异引物扩增，M片段290bp序列分析表明与THAI 749毒株有1%的差异。 J.W.Song等将来自波兰的TUL病毒与俄罗斯中部和捷克斯洛伐克共和国的TUL病毒比较，核蛋白与G2糖蛋白氨基酸序列同源性大于96%，系统发生分析表明波兰的TUL病毒与俄罗斯中部TUL病毒最为接近，但也存在差异。 C.Sibold等的另一项研究——对核蛋白编码基因进行系统发生分析表明，西斯洛伐克TUL病毒与捷克TUL病毒相近，东斯洛伐克TUL病毒与俄罗斯中部TUL病毒相近；而3’-NCR的系统发生分析表明，东斯洛伐克TUL病毒与西斯洛伐克和捷克的TUL病毒相近。作者认为，存在东斯洛伐克TUL病毒从中欧和俄罗斯TUL病毒重组的可能性。 汉坦病毒宿主基因分析 多采用细胞色素B基因分析方法。W.C.Black IV等采用微卫星DNA分析确定鹿鼠之间的基因关系，并研究了鼠类窝内汉坦病毒传播的方式。俄罗斯远东地区南部的7种宿主动物中存在4种汉坦病毒（HTN、PUU、SEO、KBR）。 L.Minskaya等的研究表明，从非主要宿主动物分离的病毒与标准株抗原性接近，但在基因分子特征上与从主要宿主动物分离的病毒不同。 A.Vaheri等的研究表明，西伯利亚旅鼠分离的TOP病毒与东方田鼠分离的KBR病毒S片段同源性核苷酸水平为82%，氨基酸水平为96%；与欧洲棕背分离的PUU病毒S片段同源性核苷酸水平为77%，氨基酸水平为87%。系统发生分析显示3种病毒具有共同的起源，与相应宿主动物细胞色素B基因系统发生分析结果相一致，表明3种病毒进化过程中有在宿主动物之间进行的水平传播。其中TOP病毒M、S片段3’-NCR最长，可能在3种汉坦病毒中起源最早。 J.W.Song等报告韩国姬鼠来源的不同HTN病毒株，M基因324bp片段同源性95%～99%，姬鼠细胞色素B基因424bp和线粒体DNA D-环区序列差异性0%～3.1%，表明韩国不同地区姬鼠有相同的基因背景，HTN病毒具有相同的来源，在韩国没有发现HTN病毒株与其宿主动物共同发生较大变异的现象。 Heiske A.等进行的系统发生分析表明，欧洲西部PUU病毒与瑞典、芬兰、俄罗斯的PUU病毒不同，同一分枝PUU病毒S片段开放读码框架基因差异性小于8%，不同分枝PUU病毒S片段开放读码框架基因差异大于14%。同一分枝PUU病毒核蛋白氨基酸序列差异0%～2%，不同分枝PUU病毒核蛋白氨基酸序列差异3%～5%。有资料表明，不同地区的欧洲棕背可以分为几个亚类，这一研究支持了PUU病毒与其宿主动物共演化的观点。 L.Ivanov等对来源于俄罗斯远东地区东方田鼠的KBR病毒进行研究，结果表明不同KRB病毒株间存在0.5%～4.0%的基因差异，基因差异与捕鼠地区的关系大于与捕鼠年份的关系，表明KBR病毒与东方田鼠之间存在长期的共演化过程。 汉坦病毒疫苗与抗病毒研究 汉坦病毒 近年来HFRS疫苗的研制取得了较大的进展，有些类型的疫苗已经国家批准生产使用，有的已进入临床观察中，有的正在试验室研制和检测中。 中国已经研制成功并试生产的3种单价灭活疫苗经大面积人群接种观察，安全性较好，并具有较好的血清学和流行病学效果。近期（基础免疫后1年）和中期（基础免疫后2年）平均保护率，Ⅱ型地鼠苗分别为97.81%、88.73%；Ⅰ型上海沙鼠苗分别为94.08%、91.72%；Ⅰ型天元沙鼠苗均为100.00%；Ⅰ型鼠脑苗分别为88.45%、100.00%。灭活双价沙鼠肾疫苗进行的Ⅱ期临床试验，总反应率为2.5%，3针后免疫荧光抗体阳转率100.00%，中和抗体阳转率87.6%（针对Ⅰ型病毒）和96.3%（针对Ⅱ型病毒），单一血清型阳转率100.00%，两种血清型同时阳转率75.00%。 韩国生产的汉坦病毒灭活鼠脑疫苗（Hantavax）的研究表明，基础免疫1年后免疫荧光试验和高密度颗粒凝集试验检测血清抗体阳性率分别为42.5%和45%，中和抗体阳性率13%。基础免疫1年时加强免疫后，血清抗体阳性率92%，中和抗体阳性率升高至80%。 此外，D.Koletzki等构建了携带汉坦病毒核蛋白基因的乙肝病毒嵌合体，在使用和不使用佐剂的条件下免疫动物，都产生针对乙肝病毒和汉坦病毒的特异抗体。K.Kamrud等对裸病毒DNA和甲病毒表达的汉坦病毒进行了评价。采用噬菌体呈现技术，C.de Carvalho Nicacio等、Tuomas Heiskanen等和梁米芳等分别研制了抗汉坦病毒的重组抗体，为未来HFRS的免疫治疗开辟了前景。W.E.Severson等报告了病毒唑对汉坦病毒复制的影响。 汉坦病毒分子生物学和细胞生物学 实验室诊断 各国学者在多方面进行了汉坦病毒的分子生物学和细胞生物学研究。 T.M.Welzel等和白雪帆等采用基因片段噬菌体表面呈现技术，研究了汉坦病毒单克隆抗体识别位点。 E.Mackow等制备了针对杆状病毒表达的SN病毒核蛋白的单克隆抗体，用于HPS相关病毒的血清学分型研究，并通过NY-1病毒核蛋白突变研究了单克隆抗体的识别位点。 J.W.Hooper等用含有汉坦病毒反基因组的质粒DNA转染Vero-E6细胞后，可以用免疫沉淀的方法检出所表达的NP和G1、G2糖蛋白，但不能用生化和功能分析检出聚合酶蛋白，也未检出感染性病毒。 B.Anheier等的研究表明，汉坦病毒G1、G2聚合物在高尔基体的定位由G1蛋白引导，G2蛋白稳定分子定位，G1蛋白氨基酸的变化可能改变G1结构，进而影响聚合物的形成。 E.V.Ravkov等的研究表明，BCC病毒核蛋白与肌动朊纤维相互作用，可能在汉坦病毒的装配和或释放过程中起重要作用。B.J.Meyer等采用Northern杂交、RNase保护试验、RT-PCR、克隆测序等方法，对汉坦病毒在Vero-E6细胞内的持续感染进行了研究。 汉坦病毒病理与免疫反应 HL Van Epps等研究了针对HTN病毒感染的人T淋巴细胞的反应，包括针对核蛋白或G1蛋白的和T细胞系，部分针对核蛋白的 T细胞系与无名病毒核蛋白有交叉反应，而针对核蛋白或G1蛋白的 T细胞系与无名病毒蛋白没有交叉反应。这种引起不同汉坦病毒病（HFRS和HPS）的毒株，人T细胞系的交叉反应在病理研究和疫苗研制中具有重要意义。 F.A.Ennis等进行的另一项研究，从HPS病人血中分离和 T细胞系，有些细胞系识别的区域在不同汉坦病毒株间相对保守，但有些T细胞系不能识别汉坦病毒单一的氨基酸改变，另一些T细胞系能识别关系较远的分离株，如安第斯和普马拉病毒的相应区域。 C.Mansilla等对安第斯病毒致死病人尸检结果表明，Andes-HPS和SNV-HPS引起的病理改变和病毒抗原分布相似，但Andes-HPS病例发现有充血性心肌炎和Ⅱ型肺单核细胞活性，并有较多的肝染色。 M.Bharadwaj等从Andes-HPS病人气管中检出病毒RNA，认为安第斯病毒可能在人-人间传播。还有报告研究了血组胺和缓激肽、类脂过氧化物、血管加压素、溶酶体、红细胞膜腺苷三磷酸酶等在HFRS病理改变中的作用。 S.C.St Jeor等研究了SN病毒在鹿鼠体内的持续感染，感染后几周至几个月内，随着抗体水平的增高，血清中病毒消失，其他组织中病毒减少。 Karen L.Hutchinson等研究了BCC病毒在刺毛棉鼠体内的感染，感染后前几周，定量PCR在除血液外的各组织中检出病毒cRNA，以后病毒cRNA减少，感染5个月后只在脑内检出；感染后1周血液中存在感染性病毒，2周时达高峰，3周时显著减少；感染后5个月在肾上腺、肝、肾、睾丸仍可低水平检出感染性病毒；感染后70d内尿中可分离到病毒；感染14d后可检出BCC抗体。杨守敬等的研究表明，HFRS的休克和出血引起的局部缺血可以导致热休克反应，在病人组织中表达72KD和73KD的热休克蛋白，保护组织细胞免于损伤。他们的另一项研究，通过增生细胞核抗原以及细胞分裂中波形蛋白抗体的检测表明，在HFRS组织损伤过程中，存在细胞的再生和DNA的修复，修复程度与损伤的严重程度有关。 汉坦病毒生态学 气候、鼠类栖息地条件、鼠类繁殖强度、种群构成等因素的变化影响鼠密度，而宿主动物病毒感染率随着时间和地点的不同不断发生变化。不同的鼠密度、宿主动物病毒感染率和与人群接触的机会，影响疾病的暴发或散发。 T.S.Chiueh等对台湾进行的血清流行病学研究表明，当地虽然没有确诊的HFRS病人，在宿主动物中却存在汉坦病毒的感染，在与鼠类接触的职业人群和慢性肾衰及发热病人中，血清抗体阳性率较高。C.Ahlm等报告瑞典北部野生驼鹿具有较低的汉坦病毒感染率。Yun-Tai Lee等发现，韩国蝙蝠、棕头鸦雀携带PUU病毒。 O.A.Alexeyev等的研究表明，在PUU抗体阳性欧洲棕背中，大部分（74%）不能检出病毒RNA或抗原，也不具有感染性。 此外，为表示汉坦病毒株对Vero-E6细胞适应能力与宿主动物种类的关系，L.Ivanov等用鼠肺标本汉坦病毒抗原滴度、病毒分离成功率、病毒分离天数等计算适应指数，黑线姬鼠为0.32，大林姬鼠为0.17，东方田鼠为0.10，棕背为0.06。 汉坦病毒流行病学 血液透析 智利1995年发现首例HPS病人，1995年10月至1997年7月发病仅8例，1997年10～12月发病20例，涉及全国11个地区，平均发病年龄29.7岁，病死率61%。病毒基因分析表明，发病主要由Andes病毒引起。作者认为，HPS病例的增加与当地汉坦病毒宿主动物数量的增加有关。 俄罗斯1978～1996年共发生HFRS91 639例，分布于89个行政区中的61个，其中96.4%来自俄罗斯欧洲部分，3.6%来自亚洲部分，年平均死亡率分别为4.010万和0.610万。血清学和基因分型表明，俄罗斯至少存在6种血清型的汉坦病毒：HTN、PUU、SEO、TUL、KRB、TOP。 比利时1995年10月至1996年12月发生HFRS 199例，季节分布表现为冬春季的小高峰和夏秋季的大高峰，病人主要为PUU血清型感染。加拿大截止1997年11月共发生HPS 21例，分布于3个西部省份，病死率33%，流行病学调查表明全国都有携带病毒的宿主动物分布，而HPS发病与接触鼠类的机会有关。 日本从17个海港中的16个和3个飞机场中的2个检出宿主动物携带汉坦病毒，作者提出应建立监测体系并采取相应预防措施，检查人群病毒感染率。 美国加利福尼亚州度假胜地优胜美地国家公园宿营区出现致命汉坦病毒感染病症，截至9月7日致死人数已经上升至3人。据悉，第3名死者来自美国西弗吉尼亚州，目前确认感染汉坦病毒的总人数已经达到8人，并且有可能继续上升。此前的2名死者分别来自美国加利福尼亚州和宾西法尼亚州。其他感染者均来自加利福尼亚州，公园工作人员称他们的病情已经有所缓解。据悉，美国卫生官员已向39个国家发出警告，称今年夏天曾在优胜美地国家公园宿营的该国公民可能感染致命的汉坦病毒。专家称，大约有1万人因6月到8月期间去过优胜美地国家公园而存在感染汉坦病毒肺综合征的风险，其中约2500人来自美国以外的国家。目前尚无治愈该疾病的方法，但通过血液检查及早发现可以极大地提高生存机率。 [3] 词条图册 更多图册 参考资料 1. 《全国肾综合征出血热监测方案（试行）》印发 ．中华人民共和国国家卫生健康委员会 [引用日期2020-03-25] 2. 【卫生健康事业发展巡礼】永不停歇的疫战：中国传染病防治70年 ．中华人民共和国国家卫生健康委员会 [引用日期2020-03-25] 3. 美国家公园致命病毒致3人死亡 1万人有感染风险 ．东方网[引用日期2020-03-28]", "简悦威 简悦威，1936年6月11日出生于中国香港，医学家，美国国家科学院院士、第三世界科学院院士、台湾“中央研究院”院士、中国科学院外籍院士、香港科学院创院院士，美国加州大学医学系罗氏·达蒙血液学讲座教授 。1958年简悦威从香港大学医学院毕业后在玛丽女王医院内科完成了住院医生实习；1960年前往美国波士顿后从事看病和从事医学研究工作，先后在波士顿、匹兹堡、费城医疗机构担任医生；1972年在加州大学旧金山分校医学院的邀请下来到旧金山任教；1976年成为美国霍华德·休斯医学研究所研究员；1980年获得香港大学医学博士学位；1981年获选为英国皇家科学院院士，是该院历史上第一位入选的华裔科学家；1983年成为加州大学旧金山分校医学系血液学讲座教授；1986年当选为美国国家科学院院士；1988年当选为台湾“中央研究院”院士；1990年兼任香港大学分子生物学研究所所长；1991年获得拉斯克医学奖，是当年全球唯一的得奖人；1996年当选为中国科学院外籍院士 ；2004年获得第一届邵逸夫生命科学与医学奖；2015年当选为香港科学院创院院士 。简悦威是国际医学界知名的遗传学和脱氧核糖核酸（DNA）专家 。简悦威人物经历 1936年6月11日，简悦威出生于中国香港，祖籍广东顺德勒流连杜，父亲简东浦是香港东亚银行的创始人，因此家庭条件较为优越。由于第二次世界大战期间日本占领香港，因此简悦威的中学被迫中断，停学在家，聘请私人老师上门教授，直到战争结束后才进入香港华仁书院。 1952年，完成学业，简悦威的哥哥和姐姐们当时已进入商业、银行业、保险业和法律业等领域，此时他父亲建议选择医学作为职业，因此进入香港大学医学院就读。 1958年，香港大学内外全科医学士毕业，随后两年在玛丽女王医院内科完成了住院医生实习，在米克法兹恩和达安辉两位教授的影响下，决定放弃传统的医学道路（临床医生），而是进入美国开始一些科学研究，他选择的方向是血液学，在布莱姆医院加德纳研究室。 1960年，首先来到波士顿布瑞格汉姆（Peter Bent Brigham）医院，跟随加德纳（Frank Gardner）进行工作，在这里真正激发了简悦威的科研兴趣。随后来到匹兹堡大学跟随麦耶斯（Jack Myers）进行了一段时期的临床方面研究，又来到麻省理工跟随著名蛋白质研究专家英格拉姆（Vernon Ingram）学习血红蛋白的结构和性质，简悦威同时看病和从事医学研究工作，他曾先后在波士顿、匹兹堡、费城医疗机构担任医生 [4] 。 1964年，转到加拿大蒙特利尔，在麦吉尔大学附属医院深造两年，在这里他遇见第一个地中海贫血症病人 [5] 。 1970年，在哈佛大学医学院和波士顿儿童医院任教，担任助理教授。 1972年，在加州大学旧金山分校医学院的邀请下来到旧金山担任副教授，后晋升为教授（1977年），并兼任旧金山总医院血液科主任。 1976年，成为美国霍华德·休斯医学研究所（HHMI）研究员。 1980年，获得香港大学理科博士学位。 1981年，当选为英国皇家科学院院士，是英国史上第一位入选为英国院士的华裔科学家。 1983年，成为加州大学旧金山分校医学系罗氏达蒙讲座教授。同年被选为英国皇家医师院会员。 1984年，还成为实验医学系分子医学和诊断学部的主任。 1986年，当选为美国国家科学院院士。 1988年，当选为第17届台湾“中央研究院”院士，隶属于生命科学组 [6] 。 1990年，兼任香港大学分子生物学研究所所长。 1991年，获得医学界崇高的拉斯克奖项，他是当年全球唯一的得奖人。 1996年，当选为中国科学院第一届外籍院士。 2004年，获得第一届邵逸夫奖生命科学与医学奖，奖金为50万美元，9月初到香港领奖。 2015年，当选为香港科学院创院院士。 简悦威主要成就 简悦威科研成就 科研综述 简悦威首先测定α地中海贫血患者的珠蛋白链杂交程度以确定α－地贫患者的α－基因缺失情况，发现镰状细胞贫血限制性内切酶长度多态性，并将此应用于基因诊断与产前诊断。他是细胞特异性基因转移的创始人，首先实现了红系细胞特异性基因转移，采用红细胞生成素多肽与反转录病毒载体外壳蛋白组成嵌合蛋白，从而实现特异性基因转移，受到国际基因治疗领域的广泛关注 [3] 。 1974年，简悦威首先测定了α地中海贫血患者的珠蛋白链杂交程度以确定α－地贫患者的α－基因缺失情况，发现镰状细胞贫血限制性内切酶片段长度多态性（RFLP），并将此DNA检测技术应用于基因诊断与产前诊断（Nature 251: 392-393, 1974；Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 75: 5631-5635, 1978）。在这之后，简悦威的开拓性基因诊断技术对疾病诊断学起到了一定的影响。遗传标记从第1代的RFLP，发展到第2代的STR（短串重复序列），到第3代的SNP（单核苷酸多态性），到直接检测基因；分析的层次从DNA到RNA再到蛋白质；分析的方法多达数类，如①DNA液相杂交和固相杂交，②基因限制酶酶谱分析，③限制性片段长度多态性连锁分析，④RNA杂交，⑤PCR体外扩增，⑥RT-PCR，⑦荧光原位杂交（FISH），⑧DNA测序，⑨生物芯片技术，⑩蛋白质印迹等，使传统的基因诊断（DNA诊断）概念发展到更全面的分子诊断（DNA诊断、RNA诊断和蛋白质诊断）的新概念。为此，简悦威获得拉斯克医学奖。 简悦威也是细胞特异性基因转移的创始人，他的实验室采用红细胞生成素多肽与反转录病毒载体外壳蛋白组成嵌合蛋白，从而首先实现了红系细胞特异性基因转移，受到国际基因治疗领域的广泛关注 [7] 。 简悦威人才培养 截至2015年，简悦威在加州大学旧金山分校医学院任教以来，培养了多名博士，并指导博士后的研究工作。简悦威从没有间断过推动海峡两岸三地的科学和医学发展，他常到中国大陆、台湾和香港讲学，他担任过“美洲华人生物科学学会”会长，香港“裘槎基金会”主席，与数学家陈省身一起担任“求事基金会”科学顾问，这些组织都是旨在帮助中国大陆和香港在医学科技上发展 [8] 。 简悦威荣誉表彰 时间荣誉表彰1979年美国血液学协会Dameshek奖1981年英国皇家学会会员（这是第一位获得此荣誉华人）1981年意大利卡利亚里大学荣誉医学博士1981年香港中文大学荣誉理学博士1984年美国人类遗传学协会艾伦奖1984年加拿大盖德纳尔国际奖1986年美国科学院院士1987年美国Waterford生物医学奖1987年香港大学荣誉理学博士1988年台湾中央研究院院士1988年美国内科学院奖1989年美国Warren Alpert基金会奖1991年拉斯克临床医学研究奖1995年瑞士Helmut Horten研究奖1996年中国科学院外籍院士2004年中国香港邵逸夫生命科学和医学奖2006年中国生物学家在美协会授予的终身成就奖2006年广州医学院名誉教授 [9] 2018年美洲华人遣传学会（ACGA）“2018终身成就奖” [10] 香港大学、浙江大学，原第一军医大学、第四军医大学和西安交通大学等荣誉教授 简悦威社会任职 简悦威担任过美国血液学协会主席；美国国家科学奖章总统委员会成员；邵逸夫奖评审会主席 [11] 。 简悦威个人生活 简悦威的的父亲简东浦是香港东亚银行的创办人之一，简东浦共有14个小孩，简悦威是排第14的老么，他排行第4的哥哥简悦强爵士是前香港行政局首席非官守议员。1964年，简悦威与丽莫洛（Alvera Limauro）在波士顿结婚后在旧金山居住 [8] 。 简悦威人物评价 简悦威对遗传性疾病认识有杰出贡献，特别是他将重组DNA技术应用于产前和预测性诊断方面 [12] 。（1991年拉斯克临床医学研究奖） 简悦威将脱氧核糖核酸分析及对人类脱氧核糖核酸多态性的发现广泛应用在遗传学和诊断人类疾病方面的贡献重大 [13] 。（邵逸夫奖基金会评） 词条图册 更多图册 参考资料 1. 我们的院士 简悦威教授 ．香港科学院[引用日期2018-08-01] 2. 中国两院院士资料库 简悦威 ．人民网[引用日期2018-08-01] 3. 简悦威（Yuet Wai Kan） ．中国科学院[引用日期2018-03-28] 4. 香港呼唤“科学的春天” ．人民日报海外版[引用日期2018-05-20] 5. 简悦威毕生精研血液破解基因奥秘 ．文汇报．2005-12-16[引用日期2018-08-01] 6. 生命科学组 简悦威 Yuet-Wai Kan ．台湾中央研究院[引用日期2018-08-01] 7. 杰出的简悦威 ．复旦大学．2009-08-13[引用日期2018-07-27] 8. 简悦威：首届邵逸夫生命科学奖得主 ．中国侨网．2004年6月7日[引用日期2018-07-27] 9. 基因诊断之父：加盟广医欲攻克地中海贫血顽疾 ．中新网．2006年12月12日[引用日期2018-08-01] 10. 简悦威教授荣获美洲华人遣传学会(ACGA) 颁发 “2018终身成就奖” ．香港科学院[引用日期2019-08-28] 11. 理事会 ．邵逸夫奖[引用日期2018-04-03] 12. 1991 Albert Lasker Clinical Medical Research Award ．Albert And Mary Lasker Foundation[引用日期2018-07-27] 13. 组织架构理事会简悦威 ．邵逸夫奖基金会[引用日期2018-07-27] 展开全部 收起", "微生物席 智利研究人员在南美洲西南岸发现一个巨大的“微生物席”，覆盖面积相当于希腊。“微生物席”是在最小含氧层所在深度发现的。微生物在海洋生物量中的比重最高估计可达到90%。国际海洋生物普查计划为期10年，将于2010年10月公布其普查结果。研究人员表示这只管海葵幼虫已开始像成年个体那样利用触须捕食猎物。位于图片中部的是它的腹部，颜色较暗说明它最近吃过东西。根据科学家上世纪50年代作出的估计，每升海水中的微生物细胞数量在10万个左右。借助于更为先进的现代技术，研究人员现今得出的微生物数量接近10亿。根据他们的计算，海洋微生物的总重量估计相当于2400亿头非洲象。此次海洋生物普查中，智利研究人员在南美洲西南岸发现一个巨大的“微生物席”，覆盖面积相当于希腊。“微生物席”是在最小含氧层所在深度发现的。所谓的最小含氧层是指含氧量极低的区域或者无氧区域。根据研究人员的发现，这些微生物以硫化氢为食。硫化氢对绝大多数生物具有毒性，是无氧环境下的有机物质分解产物。国际海洋微生物普查计划(以下简称ICoMM)负责人麦切·索基恩表示：“其他任何海洋生物的数量都无法与此次普查发现的微生物数量相提并论。科学家正在发现一系列新的海洋微生物并对其进行描述，这些微生物无论是从多样性还是丰富性方面都达到令人吃惊的程度。”图片中的这个幼仔身长只有0.25毫米左右。CoML共有4个项目，ICoMM只是其中之一，普查对象为“难以用肉眼观察”的海洋微生物。由荷兰和美国研究人员构成的普查组在超过1200个区域收集样本，最终编辑整理的数据集涵盖的DNA序列数量超过1800万个。CoML项目研究员表示基于分子特征的海洋微生物种类达到10亿种左右。他们指出微生物对海洋生物的可持续性至关重要，它们在海洋生物呼吸作用中的贡献率达到95%左右。CoML综合组负责人保罗·斯奈格拉维表示：“它们在维持海洋正常运转方面发挥了重要作用。毫无疑问，如果没有微生物的参与，海洋中的生物乃至地球上的生物将很快走向灭亡。”科学家表示acantharians可能是4种生活在海洋开放水域的大型变形虫之一。它们的骨骼由单晶硫酸锶构成，这种物质会在细胞死后迅速溶解于海水中。这个研究小组由CoML科学筹划指导委员会副主席领导，他表示“微生物席”与一个存在于25亿年至6.5亿年前的生态系统类似。除了聚焦微生物外，参与普查项目的科学家同样对浮游动物种群的多样性进行了评估。期间，他们在深海平原、热液喷口以及渗漏区采集样本。斯奈格拉维表示，借助于最近取得的技术进步，科学家才得以对“难以用肉眼观察”的微生物进行研究。他在接受BBC News采访时说：“在研究微生物过程中，我们很难进行分辨，因为它们的个头太小并且看上去一模一样。我们现在知道海洋中看似相同的微生物实际上存在巨大差异。过去10年时间里，我们在相关技术帮助下开始解答‘它们是什么’以及‘做什么’的问题。”此次海洋生物普查过程中，科学家发现的其中一个新物种就是图片中的这个“鱿鱼虫”，生活在西里伯斯海海下2800米的区域。斯奈格拉维称不同项目组获取的信息将被输入一个名为“海洋生物地理信息系统”(以下简称Obis)的开放式数据库。他说：“参与普查计划的每一个人都赞同将他们获取的数据输入这个数据库的做法。”全世界的网民都可以通过互联网访问Obis。这个数据库当前的记录超过2700万个，涵盖超过11万种海洋生物。网民可通过数据库获取大量信息，其中包括海洋生物的细节，发现区域以及所在区域深度。斯奈格拉维说：“这种方式有助于丰富这个全球海洋生物多样性数据集。在数据库的帮助下，人们可以验证有关海洋生物的各种猜测，例如生活在什么地方，哪些区域是生物多样性的热区和冷区。我认为未来的这个数据库将拥有极为丰富的内容，帮助人们获取自己希望的信息。”一份最终的综合报告将于10月初公布。随着报告的公布，这项为期10年由超过来自80多个国家的2000多名科学家参与的普查项目也宣告结束。微生物席一般生长在不同种物质交界面，尤其是浸没的或者潮湿的物体表面，极少数也存在于干旱的沙漠之中。微生物席通常虽然最多只有数厘米厚，但在这么小的尺度范围内却创造了较为宽泛的化学环境梯度，从最上层的富氧层到最底层的严格厌氧层，提供了多种多样的生态位可供生态类型各异的种群定居。这也是微生物席不仅结构繁杂，而且种群组成复杂多样的主要原因。在潮湿的条件下，微生物席各组成部分被席内某些微生物分泌的粘液状物质粘附在一起；也有在很多情况下，微生物席内所有微生物形成错综复杂的网状结构；最常见的微生物席的物理形态为扁平状、短柱型—叠层石，也有圆形的微生物席的分布。根据地球上己有的化石记录，微生物席是地球上最早的生命形态，距今大概35亿年前。微生物席自从出现以后，就成为地球生态系统中最为重要的成员和生态系统的重要维持者。生命起源“海底起源说”认为，生命起源于海底热烟囱或者说海底热液口附近，这些最古老的生命形态生活在高温(热泉口附近温度高达300℃以上)、高压、缺氧、偏酸和无光的环境中，他们或者属于化能自养细菌或古细菌—利用氧化热泉喷出的还原性硫化物(如H2S，Na2S等)得到的能量来还原CO2成为简单的有机物，或者属子光能自养型细菌或古细菌—能够吸收利用热烟囱释放的热红外光获取能量，从而进行一些简单的代谢活动。经过漫长地质历史岁月的演化，当这些原始生命祖先的色素在不断得到改进和提升之后，能够捕获并利用自然界存在范围更为普遍的光能(如可见光，波长范围大概位于350-700nm)的时候，微生物席就不再局限于海底热烟囱或者海底热液口周围，而是逐渐向范围宽广的光照区扩展。美国亚利桑那州立大学教授Blankenship分析研究了细菌叶绿素DNA的分子进化关系以及细菌叶绿素的合成机制，认为非产氧型的光合作用最早应产生于紫色细菌，而产氧型光合作用则起源于蓝细菌。紫色细菌不能产生和利用氧气，而蓝细菌则能够产生和利用氧，这使得微生物席的典型结构从上到下一般可分为三层:最上层是包含大量蓝细菌的富氧层；中间是含有大量能够耐受氧毒的紫细菌层；最下层是严格厌氧层，主要由产甲烷菌和硫酸盐还原菌组成。当然，这三层只是认为对微生物席进行的划分，三层之间并没有径渭分明的界限，每两层之间均含有一个过渡层。产氧型光合作用的出现，极大地增加了大气中自由氧的浓度。因此，微生物席在能够耐受氧毒害作用和利用氧进行能量代谢的微生物进化过程中扮演着主要角色。对于那些不适应氧的微生物而言，氧具有很强的毒害性，而氧耐受性微生物则完全不然，氧不但对这些微生物毫无害处，氧的出现反而大大提高了这些生物的代谢效率。伴随着代谢效率的大幅度提高，耐氧生物和需氧生物在生物圈中的竞争优势逐渐变得明显起来。随着寒武纪生物大爆发，大量微生物席结构遭到破坏，地球生物圈被更高级、代谢更复杂、代谢效率也更高的动植物所统治，微生物席在地球上似乎完全消失了。然而，寒武纪的生物大爆发对微生物席而言绝非灭顶之灾:一方面，在很多极端环境条件下，如强酸、强碱、高盐、高温、高压、高低pH等，微生物席都被很好地保存再来；另一方面，微生物占地球上所有活生物量的99%以上，而且其中大部分是以生物膜和微生物席中的成员存在的。由此，我们可以说，微生物席并没有从地球上消失了，而是“躲藏”到了那些普通生物难以企及的极端恶劣的生态环境之中了。在这些极端的生境中，生态环境条件比较单一，生态压力较小，再加上某些极端微生物代谢速率非常缓慢(如寡营养微生物)，虽经过漫长的地质历史时期，微生物席中的生物极有可能未发生特别大的变化。从这个意义上说，我们研究极端环境下的微生物席，对于揭示生物圈起源的奥秘，阐明生物多样性形成的机制，认识生命的极限条件及其与环境的相互作用的规律等等，都具有极为重要的科学意义。另外，极端微生物中发现的适应极端恶劣环境条件机制，还将成为人类在浩瀚的宇宙太空中寻找地外生命的理论依据。叠层石叠层石主要是由原核生物（包括蓝藻、光合细菌及其他微生物）周期性的生命活动所引起的矿物沉积和胶结作用形成的叠层状生物沉积构造，形成叠层石的微生物群落称为微生物席。叠层石代表了地球上最古老和最原始的微生物生态系统，最老的叠层石可以追溯到35亿年前的早太古代，最古老的原核生物化市就发现于澳大利亚西部距今35亿年的瓦拉伍纳群（warrawoona group）硅质叠层石中。迄今为止，已经在澳大利亚、北美和南非十几个地点、年龄超过25亿年的太古宙沉积岩石中发现了叠层石；而元古宙的叠层石分布更加广泛，在全球范围内，几乎所有的元古宙碳酸盐沉积中都产出丰富多样的叠层石；在末元古代大冰期以后，由于地球环境的巨变和后生动物的兴起，引发了整个海洋生态系统的重建，地球上自生命起源以来建立的、长达30亿年的、以原核微生物为主体的叠层石生物生态系统迅速被以真核多细胞生物为主体的高级生态系统所取代；自显生宙之后，直达现代，只有在一些特殊的环境中，才可寻觅到叠层石的踪迹。在地球早期的海洋中，组成叠层石的微生物群落参与了地球早期元素的氧化和还原反应，转移和积聚化学能和太阳能，在代谢过程中固定二氧化碳并释放氧，把早期地球的还原性大气圈逐渐变成氧化性大气圈，并为以后真核生物的出现和生物的多细胞化奠定了基础。", "反应性关节炎和赖特综合征 反应性关节炎(reactivearthritis，ReA)是指继发于身体其他部位感染的急性非化脓性关节炎。肠道或泌尿生殖道感染后的ReA最为常见。赖特综合征(Reiter’sSyndtrome，RS)是指具有关节炎、尿道炎和结膜炎三联征。目前赖特综合征一词已被ReA所替代。反应性关节炎和赖特综合征病因和发病机制 引起ReA的常见微生物包括泌尿生殖道、肠道及呼吸道感染菌群，甚至病毒、衣原体及原虫等。这些微生物大多数为革兰染色阴性．具有粘附黏膜表面侵人宿主细胞的特性。乙型溶血性链球菌感染与ReA的发病亦密切相关，除肠道及泌尿生殖道感染而致的ReA外，乙型溶血性链球菌感染是ReA的另一个常见原因。已经证明，肠道及泌尿生殖道感染引起的ReA多与易感基因HLA-B27有关，而链球菌、病毒、螺旋体导致的ReA一般无HLA-B27因素参与。ReA患者的HLA-B27阳性率达65%～96%。HLA-B27携带者发生ReA的机会增加50倍，临床症状明显重于该基因阴性者，而且容易发展成慢性ReA。但是，HLA-B27基因不是ReA的必须条件，该基因阴性者同样可患ReA。对HLA-B27在ReA发病中作用的研究发现，该基因阳性患者的中性粒细胞活性增强，并可能因此导致对致病细菌的免疫反应增强。同时，HLA-B27可延长细胞内病原菌的存活时间，从而增加T细胞对该病原菌及其抗原肽的反应性。 反应性关节炎和赖特综合征临床表现 1．全身症状多数患者在发病前1个月内有前驱感染，如性病性尿道炎或细菌性肠炎病史。起病一般比较急，常出现发热(一般为中至高热)、体重下降、倦怠无力和大汗等。发热通常持续10～40d自发缓解。2肌肉骨骼表现1)外周关节炎全部患者有关节症状，首发症状以急性关节炎多见。典型的关节炎出现在尿道或肠道感染后1～4周，多为单一或少关节炎，非对称性分布，膝、踝和跖趾关节最常受累，小关节、上肢关节和髋关节也可累及。受累关节表现为剧痛、肿胀、热和触痛。膝关节常有明显肿胀及大量积液，甚至伴有胭窝囊肿(Baker囊肿)。关节炎一般持续1～3个月，个别病例可长达半年以上。某些患者可在反复发作过程中发生关节畸形、强直。2)肌腱端病局部肌腱端病是RS独特的关节病变，42%的患者有单独或与关节炎合并出现的局限于肌腱附着点的疼痛。炎症通常发生在肌腱附着于骨的部位而不是滑膜(但可伴有滑膜炎)。肌腱端病的典型表现是跟腱附着点炎，其次是足底筋膜附着于跟骨部位，也可波及踝和距下关节周围的韧带，被称为痛性足跟综合征。在手指和足趾则表现为整个指趾肿胀(腊肠指趾，Sausagedigit)，具有诊断价值。3)骨盆和中轴病变关节僵硬、肌痛和下腰痛是疾病早期突出的症状。背部不适常反射到臀部和大腿，在卧床休息和不活动时加重。炎性背痛或下腰痛或臀部痛是有高度鉴别性的症状，多为骶髂关节炎所致，常为单侧或非对称性。重症、慢性或反复发作的患者脊柱可有明显受累。3.关节外表现1)泌尿生殖道：典型患者是在性接触或痢疾后7～14d发生尿道炎。男性患者有尿频和尿道烧灼感，尿道口红肿，可见清亮的粘液样分泌物，也可以出现自发缓解的出血性膀胱炎或前列腺炎。阴茎龟头和尿道口的浅小无痛性溃疡称为漩涡状龟头炎。龟头炎一般在几天或最多几周内痊愈，极少数可持续几个月。女性患者可表现为无症状或症状轻微的膀胱炎和宫颈炎，有少量阴道分泌物或排尿困难。输卵管炎和外阴阴道炎也有报道。泌尿生殖系统炎症并不一定意味着该部位感染。痢疾后赖特综合征患者亦可在首次腹泻后的1～2周内出现无菌性尿道炎。2)皮肤黏膜；溢脓性皮肤角化症为病变皮肤的过度角化。见于10%～30%的患者，病变开始表现为红斑基底上清亮的小水疱，然后发展成斑疹，并形成角化小结节，病变常发生在足的一端，也可累及掌、跖和指甲周围、阴囊、阴茎、躯干和头皮。疾病早期可出现一过性口腔浅表溃疡，开始表现为水疱，逐渐发展成浅小、有时为融合的溃疡，多为无痛性，此表现也可见于阴茎龟头。3)眼部表现：大部分患者出现眼征，表现为非感染性结膜炎、虹膜炎和角膜溃疡。结膜炎多为轻度的无痛性发红，分泌物增加，单侧或双侧受累，2～7d消退，少数炎症较重可持续几周。5%的患者出现眼色素膜炎(虹膜炎)，单侧多见，也可双侧交替发作，持续1～2个月。其他眼征有浅层点状角膜炎、角膜溃疡，表面巩膜炎，视神经和球后神经炎，以及因全眼炎所致的眼球完全破坏。4)其他：除上述症状外，还可以出现心脏受累(包括瓣膜病变和传导异常)，少数患者由于主动脉中层病变和主动脉根部扩张最终发生主动脉瓣关闭不全。肾继发性淀粉样变、颅神经和周围神经病，血栓性静脉炎等少见。4．病程反应性关节炎的病程各种各样，可能与感染的特殊微生物和宿主因素包括HLA-B27阳性有关。太部分患者关节炎持续数周至半年，少数患者仅有1次自限性关节炎发作，但15%～50%的患者反复发作。 反应性关节炎和赖特综合征诊断和鉴别诊断 1.诊断(1)赖特综合征的诊断标准：RS是一种特殊类型的ReA，具备典型的急性关节炎、非淋球菌性尿道炎和结膜炎三联征者确诊并不困难，但由于各种表现在不同时期出现，所以诊断有时需要数月时间。发展为慢性赖特综合征患者，其关节炎和或皮损的表现类似银屑病性关节炎、强直性脊柱炎和白塞病。(2)反应性关节炎的诊断标准：第三届国际反应性关节炎专题学术会议提出的ReA的诊断标准：以下肢为主的非对称性小关节炎为突出表现的外周关节炎，并附加以下条件：1)前驱感染的证据：如果关节炎之前4周内有临床典型的腹泻或尿道炎，实验室证据可有可无。如果缺乏感染的临床证据，必须有感染的实验室证据。2)排除引起单或寡关节炎的其他原因，如其他脊柱关节病、感染性关节炎、菜姆病及链球菌感染后ReA。3)HLA-B27阳性、赖特综合征的关节外表现(如结膜炎、虹膜炎、皮肤、心脏、与神经系统病变等)，或典型脊柱关节病的临床表现(如下腰痛、交替性臀区疼痛、肌腱端炎或虹膜炎)不是ReA确诊必须具备的条件。2．鉴别诊断ReA需与多种风湿性疾病，如急性风湿热、痛风性关节炎和脊柱关节病的其他类型(银屑病关节炎、强直性脊柱炎、炎症性肠病关节炎等)相鉴别。但重要的是排除细菌性关节炎。(1)细菌性关节炎：多为单关节炎，急性发病，常伴有高热、乏力等感染中毒症状。关节局部多有比较明显的红肿热痛的炎症表现。滑液为重度炎性改变，白细胞计数常大于50000ml，中性粒细胞多在75%以上。滑液培养可以发现致病菌。(2)急性风湿热：本病属于广义ReA的范畴，患者多为医疗条件较差地区的青少年，发病比较急，起病前2～3周多有链球菌感染史，临床上常有咽痛、发热和四肢大关节为主的游走性关节炎，关节肿痛消退后不遗留骨侵蚀和关节畸形，患者还常同时伴发心脏炎，检查外周血白细胞增高，抗链球菌溶血素“O”升高。(3)痛风性关节炎：多发于中老年男性，最初表现为反复发作的急性关节炎，最常累及足第一跖趾关节、跗骨关节和踝关节，表现为关节红、肿和剧烈疼痛，血清中血尿酸升高，滑液中有尿酸盐结晶。(4)银屑病关节炎：好发于中年人，起病缓慢，赖特综合征主要与其五种临床类型中的单关节炎或寡关节炎型相鉴别。此型常累及近端指(趾)间关节、掌指关节、跖趾关节及膝和腕关节等四肢大小关节，少数可以遗留关节残毁。银屑病关节炎患者常有银屑病皮肤和指(趾)甲病变。(5)强直性脊柱炎：好发于青年男性，主要侵犯脊柱，但也可以累及外周关节，在病程的某一阶段甚至可以出现类似赖特综合征的急性非对称性小关节炎，但患者常同时有典型的炎性下腰痛和X线相证实的骶髂关节炎。(6)炎症性肠病关节炎：本病除可有类似赖特综合征的急性非对称性小关节炎外，还伴有明显的胃肠道症状如反复腹痛、脓血便、里急后重等，纤维结肠镜检查可以明确克罗恩病或溃疡性结肠炎的诊断。(7)贝赫切特病：本病基本病变为血管炎，全身大小动静脉均可受累。有反复口腔粘膜、生殖器溃疡并伴眼炎。虽可有关节病、关节炎，但通常较轻。本病有较为特异的皮肤损害，如针刺反应、结节红斑等。可有动脉血栓和静脉血栓形成。 反应性关节炎和赖特综合征检验诊断 反应性关节炎的诊断主要依赖于临床症状和影像学表现，实验室检查可以提供辅助诊断。在反应性关节炎患者的急性期，白细胞数常升高，血沉加快，CRP升高。患者的免疫球蛋白尤其是IgA会升高，补体C3、C4会升高。反应性关节炎患者的有些病例，ASO可呈阳性。【相关检验项目】1.HLA-B27约70%反应性关节炎患者的HLA-B27呈阳性。此类患者易发生强直性脊柱炎。若强直性脊柱炎由反应性关节炎所致，患者的类风湿因子阴性。其次为1339，以及与B27有交叉反应的B61、B7、B22、B40、B60等也会呈阳性。2．抗核抗体反应性关节炎患者的抗核抗体可呈阳性。3．尿常规反应性关节炎患者的尿常规检测中多数会出现蛋白尿，一般尿蛋白含量在1gd以下。4.类风湿因子反应性关节炎患者的RF一般为阴性，此点可与类风湿关节炎相鉴别。5.其他反应性关节炎患者还可以做咽拭子培养和关节液培养。有些反应性关节炎病例的咽拭子培养常可见链球菌生长。此类患者的ASO阳性。在关节液培养中，反应性关节炎患者一般为阴性，但在其沉淀物或滑膜中可检出活动度极低的衣原体或其菌体成分DNA或其抗原；急性期患者的粪便或其他排泄物的衣原体培养阳性。此类患者的抗衣原体抗体往往阳性。", "梁昌镛 梁昌镛，1970年出生，博士，副研究员。扬州大学副教授。1994年获南昌大学微生物专业学士学位， 2005获中国科学院武汉病毒研究所微生物专业博士学位。2006-2007年在荷兰Wageningen大学病毒学实验室从事合作研究。目前从事病毒分子生物学和基因工程的研究。人物生平 1970年出生，博士，副研究员。1994年获南昌大学微生物专业学士学位， 2005获中国科学院武汉病毒研究所微生物专业博士学位。2006-2007年在荷兰Wageningen大学病毒学实验室从事合作研究。如今从事病毒分子生物学和基因工程的研究。研究重点为病毒基因与基因组的结构与功能、病毒与宿主的相互作用（如细胞凋亡及病毒侵染的分子机理）、病毒表达载体以及用于基因治疗的病毒载体的构建等。现主持国家自然科学基金课题两项、作为学术骨干参加一项973课题，另外，主持中国科学院院长奖资助基金，病毒灭活实验横向课题等在研课题。曾获中国科学院院长优秀奖。发表论文30余篇，其中15篇被SCI收录。 1．工作经历 2006.1–2007.5 荷兰 Wageningen 大学，病毒学实验室 合作研究人员 2006.1- 病毒学国家重点实验室，中科院武汉病毒研究所 副研究员 2003.6-2005.12 病毒学国家重点实验室，中科院武汉病毒研究所 助理研究员 1996.10-2000.9 中国天诚集团深圳公司 工程师 1994.7-1996.10 江西金牛集团洪都啤酒厂 助理工程师 2、研究方向 病毒与宿主相互作用 病毒基因的结构与功能 病毒基因工程 主要成就 承担的科研项目 乙型肝炎重症化临床监测及防治的基础研究 国家重点基础研究发展规划项目（“973”项目）(2007CB512901) （2007-2011）50.0万 学术骨干 AcMNPV 凋亡抑制基因iap的结构与功能研究 国家自然科学基金（30670077）2007-2009， 30.0万 项目负责人 杆状病毒HaSNPV作为靶向性基因治疗载体的研究？ 国家自然科学基金（30470075）。2005-2007， 20.0万 项目负责人 杆状病毒HearNPV IAP基因功能研究 中国科学院院长奖资助基金 2006-2007 10.0 项目负责人 病毒灭活试验 横向课题 2005-2007 20.0万 项目负责人 科研成果 Wang Y., Wang Q., Liang C.Y., Song J.H., Li N, Shi H., Chen X.W. Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus nucleocapsid protein BVODV-C42 mediates the nuclear entry of P7883. Journal of Virology. (2008) doi:10.1128JVI.02510-07. Wang Q., Wang Y., Liang C.Y., Song J.H., Chen X.W. Identification of a hydrophibic domain of HA2 essential to morphogenesis of Helicoverpa armigera nucleopolyhedrovirus. Journal of Virology. (2008) doi:10.1128JVI.02319-07. Liang, C., Chen X. Baculoviruses as vectors in mammalian cells. Virologica Sinica. (2007) 22: 148-157 Liang, C., Song, J, Chen, X. Group I but not Group II NPV Induces Antiviral Effects in Mammalian Cells. Science in China (Series C). (2006) 49: 467-72. (SCI) Liang, C, Song, J., Chen, X.？ The GP64 protein of Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus rescues Helicoverpa armigera nucleopolyhedrovirus transduction in mammalian cells.？ J. Gen. Virol. (2005) 86: 1629-35. (SCI) Liang, C., Wang, H, Li, T., Hu, Z., Chen, X.？ High efficiency gene transfer into mammalian kidney cells using baculovirus vectors. Archives of Virology. (2004) 149: 51-60. (SCI) 梁昌镛，He Bin, 胡志红，王汉中，陈新文. 丙型肝炎病毒NS5A基因的克隆以及在原核和昆虫细胞中表达的研究.华中师范大学学报.（2003）37：236-241 Wang Q, Liang C, Song J, Chen X. HA2 from the Helicoverpa armigera nucleopolyhedrovirus: a WASP-related protein that activiates Arp23-induced actin filament formation. Virus Research. (2007) 127:81-87. (SCI) Song J, Liang C, Chen X. Transduction of avian cells with recombinant baculovirus. J Virol Methods. (2006) 135(2):157-62. (SCI) Liu XY, Yang SH, Liang CY, Song JH, Li KH, Chen XW. Construction of recombinant baculovirus Ac-CMV-hSox9 for gene therapy of intervertebral disc degeneration. Chin J Traumatol. (2007) 10: 94-100 Li X, Song J, Jiang T, Liang C, Chen X. The N-terminal hydrophobic sequence of Autographa californica nucleopolyhedrovirus PIF-3 is essential for oral infection. Arch Virol. (2007) 152:1851-1858. (SCI) Mao H., Song J., Liang C., Yu Z., Chen X. Construction of eukaryotic surface display based on the baculoviral F protein. BioTechniques (2006). 41: 266-72. (SCI) Nie Y, Wang Q, Liang C, Fang M, Yu Z, Chen X. Characterization of ORF2 and its encoded protein of the Helicoverpa armigera nucleopolyhedrovirus. Virus Research. (2006) 116:129-35. (SCI) Liu X, Li K, Song J, Liang C, Wang X, Chen X. Efficient and stable gene expression in rabbit intervertebral disc cells transduced with a recombinant baculovirus vector. Spine. (2006) 31:732-5. (SCI) S.L.Zhao, Liang C.Y., J.J.Hong, H.Y.Peng. Genomic sequence analyses of segments 1 to 6 of Dendrolimus punctatus cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus. Archives of Virology. (2003) 148:1357-1368.？ (SCI) S.L.Zhao, Liang C.Y., J.J.Hong, H.G.Xiu, H.Y.Peng. Molecular characterization of segments 7 to 10 of Dendrolimus punctatus cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus provides the complete genome. Virus Research. (2003) 94:17-23.？ (SCI) 王瑞青, 梁昌镛, 焦成松, 宋建华, 陈新文. HCV结构蛋白在昆虫细胞中的表达及病毒样颗粒的组装. 中国病毒学. (2005) 20:5-10. 南方, 宋建华, 王瑞青, 梁昌镛, 陈新文. AcMNPV P35 抑制HaSNPV诱导的Tn-Hi5细胞调亡 中国病毒学.(2005) 20:92-94. 刘小云，宋建华， 李康华， 王锡阳，梁昌镛，陈新文. 杆状病毒介导的GFP转染与退变的兔椎间盘髓核细胞. 武汉大学学报（医学版）（2005）26(4):425-427. 马佳，王瑞青，宋建华，梁昌镛，陈新文. 丙型肝炎病毒E1蛋白在昆虫细胞中的表达与定位。中国病毒学. (2005) 20: 5-10. 程睿，梁昌镛，南方，胡志红，J.M.Vlak，陈新文. SeMNPV抑制HaSNPV 诱导的Se-UCR细胞凋亡. 中国病毒学.(2003) 18:587-592. 教学工作及主要成绩 2006年， 武汉市自然科学优秀学术论文二等奖； 2005年， 湖北省自然科学优秀学术论文二等奖； 2005年，中国科学院武汉教育基地优秀博士毕业生； 2004年， 中国科学院院长优秀奖； 2002年， 中国科学院地奥奖", "zh-cn:线粒体;zh-tw:粒线体;zh-hk:线粒体(mitochondrion)是一种存在于大多数真核细胞中的由两层膜包被的细胞器,直径在0.5到10微米左右。除了溶组织内阿米巴、蓝氏贾第鞭毛虫以及几种微孢子虫外,大多数真核细胞或多或少都拥有线粒体,但它们各自拥有的线粒体在大小、数量及外观等方面上都有所不同。这种细胞器拥有自身的遗传物质和遗传体系,但因其基因组大小有限,所以线粒体是一种半自主细胞器。线粒体是细胞内氧化磷酸化和合成三磷酸腺苷(ATP)的主要场所,为细胞的活动提供了化学能量,所以有“细胞的发电站”(the powerhouse of the cell)之称。除了为细胞供能外,线粒体还参与诸如细胞分化、细胞信息传递和细胞凋亡等过程,并拥有调控细胞生长和细胞周期的能力。英文中的“线粒体”(mitochondrion,复数形式为“mitochondria”)一词是由希腊语中的“线”(“'”或“'”)和“颗粒”(“'”或“'”)组合而成的。在“线粒体”这一名称出现前后,“粒体”“球状体”等众多名字曾先后或同时被使用。\n;大小 粒线体直径一般为0.5-1.0μm,长1.5-3.0μm,在光学显微镜下可见。在动物细胞中,线粒体大小受细胞代谢水平限制。不同组织在不同条件下可能产生体积异常膨大的线粒体,称为“”(megamitochondria):胰脏外分泌细胞中可长达10-20μm;神经元胞体中的线粒体尺寸差异很大,有的也可能长达10μm;人类成纤维细胞的线粒体则更长,可达40μm。有研究表明在低氧气分压的环境中,某些如烟草的植物的线粒体能可逆地变为巨线粒体,长度可达80μm,并形成网络。;形状 线粒体一般呈短棒状或圆球状,但因生物种类和生理状态而异,还可呈环状、线状、哑铃状、分杈状、扁盘状或其它形状。成型蛋白(shape-forming protein)介导线粒体以不同方式与周围的细胞骨架接触或在线粒体的两层膜间形成不同的连接可能是线粒体在不同细胞中呈现出不同形态的原因。;数量 不同生物的不同组织中线粒体数量的差异是巨大的。有许多细胞拥有多达数千个的线粒体(如肝脏细胞中有1000-2000个线粒体),而一些细胞则只有一个线粒体(如酵母菌细胞的大型分支线粒体)。大多数哺乳动物的成熟红细胞不具有线粒体。一般来说,细胞中线粒体数量取决于该细胞的代谢水平,代谢活动越旺盛的细胞线粒体越多。;分布 线粒体分布方向与微管一致,通常分布在细胞功能旺盛的区域:如在肾脏细胞中靠近微血管,呈平行或栅状排列;在肠表皮细胞中呈两极分布,集中在顶端和基部;在精子中分布在鞭毛中区。在卵母细胞体外培养中,随着细胞逐渐成熟,线粒体会由在细胞周边分布发展成均匀分布。线粒体在细胞质中能以微管为导轨、由马达蛋白提供动力向功能旺盛的区域迁移。;组成 线粒体的化学组分主要包括水、蛋白质和脂质,此外还含有少量的辅酶等小分子及核酸。蛋白质占线粒体干重的65-70%。线粒体中的蛋白质既有可溶的也有不溶的。可溶的蛋白质主要是位于线粒体基质的酶和膜的外周蛋白;不溶的蛋白质构成膜的本体,其中一部分是镶嵌蛋白,也有一些是酶。线粒体中脂类主要分布在两层膜中,占干重的20-30%。在线粒体中的磷脂占总脂质的3/4以上。同种生物不同组织线粒体膜中磷脂的量相对稳定。含丰富的心磷脂和较少的胆固醇是线粒体在组成上与细胞其他膜结构的明显差别。;结构 线粒体由外至内可划分为线粒体外膜(OMM)、线粒体膜间隙、线粒体内膜(IMM)和线粒体基质四个功能区。处于线粒体外侧的膜彼此平行,都是典型的单位膜。其中,线粒体外膜较光滑,起细胞器界膜的作用;线粒体内膜则向内皱褶形成线粒体嵴,负担更多的生化反应。这两层膜将线粒体分出两个区室,位于两层线粒体膜之间的是线粒体膜间隙,被线粒体内膜包裹的是线粒体基质。\n阿尔伯特·冯·科立克,瑞士科学家,线粒体的发现者。线粒体的研究是从19世纪50年代末开始的。1857年,瑞士解剖学家及生理学家阿尔伯特·冯·科立克在肌肉细胞中发现了颗粒状结构。另外的一些科学家在其他细胞中也发现了同样的结构,证实了科立克的发现。普鲁士王国病理学家及组织学家将这些颗粒命名为“原生粒”并于1886年发明了一种鉴别这些颗粒的染色法。阿尔特曼猜测这些颗粒可能是共生于细胞内的独立生活的细菌。1898年,德国科学家因这些结构时而呈线状时而呈颗粒状,所以用希腊语中“线”和“颗粒”对应的两个词——“'”和“'”——组成“'”来为这种结构命名,这个名称被沿用至今。一年后,美国化学家开发出用具有还原性的健那绿染液为线粒体染色的方法,并推断线粒体参与某些氧化反应。这一方法于1900年公布,并由美国细胞学家埃德蒙·文森特·考德里推广。1913年,德国生物化学家奥托·海因里希·沃伯格成功完成线粒体的粗提取且分离得到一些催化与氧有关的反应的呼吸酶,并提出这些酶能被氰化物(如氢氰酸)抑制的猜想。英国生物学家在1923年至1933年这十年间对线粒体内的氧化还原链的物质基础进行探索,辨别出反应中的电子载体——细胞色素。沃伯格于1931年因“发现呼吸酶的性质及作用方式”被授予诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。\nzh-cn:线粒体剖面图;zh-tw:粒线体剖面图;zh-hk:线粒体剖面图 线粒体外膜是位于线粒体最外围的一层单位膜,厚度约为6-7nm。其中磷脂与蛋白质的质量为0.9:1,与真核细胞细胞膜的同一比例相近。线粒体外膜中酶的含量相对较少,其标志酶为单胺氧化酶。线粒体外膜包含称为“孔蛋白”的整合蛋白,其内部通道宽约2-3nm,这使线粒体外膜对分子量小于5000Da的分子完全通透。分子量大于上述限制的分子则需拥有一段特定的信号序列以供识别并通过外膜转运酶(translocase of the outer membrane,TOM)的主动运输来进出线粒体。线粒体外膜主要参与诸如脂肪酸链延伸、肾上腺素氧化以及色氨酸生物降解等生化反应,它也能同时对那些将在线粒体基质中进行彻底氧化的物质先行初步分解。细胞凋亡过程中,线粒体外膜对多种存在于线粒体膜间隙中的蛋白的通透性增加,使致死性蛋白进入细胞质基质,促进了细胞凋亡。高分辨三维X射线摄影可见内质网及线粒体之间的有20%膜是紧密接触的,在这些接触位点上线粒体外膜与内质网膜通过某些蛋白质相连,形成称为“线粒体结合内质网膜”(mitochondria-associated ER-membrane,MAM)的结构。该结构在脂质的相互交换和线粒体与内质网间的钙离子信号传导等过程中都有重要作用。线粒体膜间隙是线粒体外膜与线粒体内膜之间的空隙,宽约6-8nm,其中充满无定形液体。由于线粒体外膜含有孔蛋白,通透性较高,而线粒体内膜通透性较低,所以线粒体膜间隙内容物的组成与细胞质基质十分接近,含有众多生化反应底物、可溶性的酶和辅助因子等。线粒体膜间隙中还含有比细胞质基质中浓度更高的腺苷酸激酶、单磷酸激酶和二磷酸激酶等激酶,其中腺苷酸激酶是线粒体膜间隙的标志酶。线粒体膜间隙中存在的蛋白质可统称为“线粒体膜间隙蛋白质”,这些蛋白质全部在细胞质基质中合成。线粒体内膜是位于线粒体外膜内侧、包裹着线粒体基质的单位膜。线粒体内膜中蛋白质与磷脂的质量比约为0.7:0.3,并含有大量的心磷脂(心磷脂常为细菌细胞膜的成分)。线粒体内膜的某些部分会向线粒体基质折叠形成线粒体嵴。线粒体内膜的标志酶是细胞色素氧化酶。线粒体内膜含有电子传递链(ETC)以及比外膜更多的蛋白质(超过151种,约占线粒体所含所有蛋白质的五分之一),所以承担着更复杂的生化反应。存在于线粒体内膜中的几类蛋白质主要负责以下生理过程:特异性载体运输磷酸、谷氨酸、鸟氨酸、各种离子及核苷酸等代谢产物和中间产物;内膜转运酶(translocase of the inner membrane,TIM)运输蛋白质;参与氧化磷酸化中的氧化还原反应;参与ATP的合成;控制线粒体的分裂与融合。线粒体嵴简称“嵴”,是线粒体内膜向线粒体基质折褶形成的一种结构。线粒体嵴的形成增大线粒体内膜的表面积。在不同种类的细胞中,线粒体嵴的数目、形态和排列方式可能有较大差别。线粒体嵴主要有几种排列方式,分别称为“片状嵴”(lamellar cristae)、“管状嵴”(tubular cristae)和“泡状嵴”(vesicular cristae)。片状排列的线粒体嵴主要出现在高等动物细胞的线粒体中,这些片状嵴多数垂直于线粒体长轴;管状排列的线粒体嵴则主要出现在原生动物和植物细胞的线粒体中。有研究发现,睾丸间质细胞中既存在层状嵴也存在管状嵴。线粒体嵴上有许多有柄小球体,即线粒体基粒,基粒中含有ATP合酶,能利用呼吸链产生的能量合成三磷酸腺苷。所以需要较多能量的细胞,线粒体嵴的数目一般也较多。但某些形态特殊的线粒体嵴由于没有ATP合酶,所以不能合成ATP。线粒体基质是线粒体中由线粒体内膜包裹的内部空间,其中含有参与三羧酸循环、脂肪酸氧化、氨基酸降解等生化反应的酶等众多蛋白质,所以较细胞质基质黏稠。苹果酸脱氢酶是线粒体基质的标志酶。线粒体基质中一般还含有线粒体自身的DNA(即线粒体DNA)、RNA和核糖体(即线粒体核糖体)。线粒体DNA是线粒体中的遗传物质,呈双链环状,并可与多种蛋白质结合成高度紧密的线粒体拟核。一个线粒体中可有一个或数个线粒体DNA分子。线粒体RNA是线粒体DNA的表达产物,RNA编辑也普遍存在于线粒体RNA中,是线粒体产生功能蛋白所必不可少的过程。线粒体核糖体是存在于线粒体基质内的一种核糖体,负责完成线粒体内进行的翻译工作。线粒体核糖体的沉降系数介干55S-56S之间。一般的线粒体核糖体由28S核糖体亚基(小亚基)和39S核糖体亚基(大亚基)组成。在这类核糖体中,rRNA约占25%,核糖体蛋白质约占75%。线粒体核糖体是已发现的蛋白质含量最高的一类核糖体。线粒体基质中存在的蛋白质统称为“线粒体基质蛋白质”,包括DNA聚合酶、RNA聚合酶、柠檬酸合成酶以及三羧酸循环酶系中的酶类。大部分线粒体基质蛋白是由核基因编码的。线粒体基质蛋白不一定只在线粒体基质中表达,它们也可以在线粒体外表达。\n对于线粒体的起源有两种假说,分别为内共生假说与非内共生假说:该假说认为线粒体起源于被另一个细胞吞噬的线粒体祖先——原线粒体——一种能进行三羧酸循环和电子传递的革兰氏阴性菌。这种好氧细菌是变形菌门下的一个分支,与立克次氏体有密切关系。原线粒体被吞噬后,并没有被消化,而是与宿主细胞形成了共生关系——寄主可以从宿主处获得更多营养,而宿主则可使用寄主产生的能量——这种关系增加了细胞的竞争力,使其可以适应更多的生存环境。在长期对寄主和宿主都有利的互利共生中,原线粒体逐渐演变形成了线粒体,使宿主细胞中进行的糖酵解和原线粒体中进行的三羧酸循环和氧化磷酸化成功耦合。有研究认为,这种共生关系大约发生在17亿年以前,与进化趋异产生真核生物和古细菌的时期几乎相同。但线粒体与真核生物细胞核出现的先后关系仍存在争议。现已发现支持内共生学说的证据包括:# 线粒体有内膜,拥有自己的DNA,其形状与细菌的环状DNA类似;# 线粒体的DNA上编码了在线粒体中表达的特定蛋白质;# 线粒体的遗传密码与变形菌门细菌的遗传密码更为相似;# 线粒体核糖体不论在大小还是在结构上都与细菌70S核糖体较为相似,而与真核细胞的80S核糖体差异较大。非内共生假说又称为“细胞分化学说”,认为线粒体的发生是由细胞膜或内质网膜等生物膜系统中的膜结构演变而来的。非内共生学说有几种模型,主流的模型认为在细胞进化的最初阶段,原核细胞基因组复制后并不伴有典型的无丝分裂,而是拟核附近的细胞膜内陷形成双层膜,将其中一个基因组包围、隔离,进而发生细胞分裂。未分裂出来的子细胞则缓慢演化为细胞核、线粒体和叶绿体等高度特化的细胞结构。\n线粒体的基因组中基因的数量很少,规模远小于细菌基因组。但内共生学说认为线粒体源于被吞噬的细菌,那么两者基因组规模应该较为相似。为了解释这一现象,有猜想认为原线粒体的基因除了丢失了一些外,大部分转移到了宿主细胞的细胞核中,所以核基因编码了超过98%的线粒体蛋白质。某些线粒体中不含DNA的生物(如隐孢子虫等)的mtDNA可能已完全丢失或整合入核DNA中。线粒体DNA(mtDNA)在线粒体中有2-10个备份,呈双链环状(但也有呈线状的特例存在)。mtDNA长度一般为几万至数十万碱基对,人类mtDNA的长度为16,569bp,拥有37个基因,编码了两种rRNA(12S rRNA和16S rRNA)、22种tRNA(同样转运20种标准氨基酸,只是亮氨酸和丝氨酸都有两种对应的tRNA)以及13种多肽(呼吸链复合物Ⅰ、Ⅲ、Ⅳ、Ⅴ的亚基)。mtDNA的长度和线粒体基因组的大小因物种而异,表一列出了几种模式生物mtDNA的长度:线粒体基因组通常都是存在于同一个mtDNA分子中,但少数生物的线粒体基因组却分别储存在多个不同的mtDNA中。例如,人虱的线粒体基因组就分开储藏于18个长约3-4kb的微型环状DNA中,每个DNA分子只分配到了1-3个基因。这些微型环状DNA之间也存在着同源或非同源的基因重组现象,但成因未知。线粒体中拥有一套独特的遗传系统。在进行人类线粒体遗传学研究时,人们确认线粒体的遗传密码与通用遗传密码也有些许差异。自从上述发现证明并不只存在单独的一种遗传密码之后,许多有轻微不同的遗传密码都陆续被发现。在线粒体的遗传密码中最常见的差异是:AUA由异白胺酸变为甲硫氨酸的密码子、UGA由终止密码子变为色氨酸的密码子、AGA和AGG由精氨酸的密码子变为终止密码子(植物等生物的线粒体遗传密码另有差异,参见表二)。此外,也有某些特例是只涉及终止密码子的,在山羊支原体线粒体遗传密码的UGA由终止密码子变为色氨酸的密码子,而且使用频率比UGG更高;四膜虫线粒体遗传密码里只有UGA一种终止密码子,其UAA和UAG由终止密码子变为谷氨酰胺的密码子;而游仆虫线粒体遗传密码里则只有UAA和UAG两种终止密码子,其UGA由终止密码子变为半胱氨酸的密码子。通过线粒体遗传密码和通用遗传密码的对比,可以推导出遗传密码演化过程的可能模式。线粒体的分裂在真核细胞内经常发生。为了保证在细胞发生分裂后每个子细胞都能继承母细胞的线粒体,母细胞中的线粒体在一个细胞周期需要至少复制一次。即使是在不再分裂的细胞内,线粒体为了填补已老化的线粒体造成的空缺也需要进行分裂。的线粒体以与细菌的无丝分裂类似的方式进行增殖,可细分为三种模式:# 间壁分离(见于部分动物和植物线粒体):线粒体内部首先由内膜形成隔,随后外膜的一部分内陷,插入到隔的双层膜之间,将线粒体一分为二。# 收缩分离(见于蕨类植物和酵母菌线粒体):线粒体中部先缢缩同时向两端不断拉长然后一分为二。# 出芽分离(见于藓类植物和酵母菌线粒体):线粒体上先出现小芽,小芽脱落后成长、发育为成熟线粒体。线粒体的融合也是细胞中的基本事件,对线粒体正常功能的发挥具有非常重要的作用。人类细胞需要通过线粒体融合的互补作用来抵抗衰老;酵母细胞线粒体融合发生障碍会引起呼吸链缺陷。线粒体间的融合需在一种分子量约为800kDa的蛋白质复合物——“融合装置”(fusion machinery)的介导下进行,该过程可大致分为四个步骤:锚定、外膜融合、内膜融合以及基质内含物融合。因为mtDNA几乎不发生基因重组,所以遗传学家长期将其作为研究群体遗传学与进化生物学的信息来源。所有mtDNA是以单一单元(单体型)进行遗传的(而不像细胞核中的DNA储存在多个染色体中),它们在亲本与子代之间的传递关系并不复杂,因此不同个体间mtDNA的联系便可以利用系统发生树来表现。而从这些系统发生树的形态中人们可以得知种群的进化史。人类进化遗传学中运用分子钟技术推算出了线粒体夏娃最晚出现的时间(这个成果被认为是人类由非洲单地起源的有力依据)是利用mtDNA研究群体遗传学的典型例子。另外一个例子是对尼安德特人骨骼化石中mtDNA测序。该测序的结果显示,尼安德特人与解剖学意义上的现代人在mtDNA序列上有较大差异,说明两者间缺乏基因交流。虽然mtDNA在遗传学研究中占据了重要地位,但是mtDNA序列中的信息只能反映所考察的群体中的雌性成员的演化进程,而不能代表整个种群。这一缺陷需要由对父系遗传序列(如Y染色体上的非重组区)的测序弥补。广义上来说,只有既考虑了mtDNA又考虑了核DNA的遗传学研究才能为种群的进化史提供全面的线索。\n正常细胞含数个至千余个相同的粒线体,如细菌大小。研究证实,在老人身上,其身体细胞内粒线体的含量有明显减少。粒线体负责制造腺苷三磷酸ATP,如同发电机一般,是身体能量的来源,其在转换为ATP能量的过程需动用电子传递。如果没有正确捕捉到电子,逸出的电子会与氧分子结合成超氧自由基,很容易破坏碱基而造成粒线体DNA突变,进而累积一些细胞的衰老或疾病因子,像是一些老年疾病:糖尿病、心脏病、关节炎等,都与粒线体DNA变异有关。另外,这些超氧自由基也会活化发炎反应,造成身体内其他的组织受损。除了超氧自由基之外,钙离子失衡、粒线体本身的生长受阻、破坏粒线体分裂与融合的动态平衡、MPTP的诱导、不适当的活化细胞凋亡机制以及NAD+的消耗殆尽,都是造成粒线体功能障碍的原因,或是在粒线体失去功能后所看到的变化。由于代谢症候群或是神经退化障碍等病理变化都可以看到这些粒线体功能失调的踪迹,现今科学界已聚焦在粒线体功能身上,为这些病理变化找出新的治疗策略。\n线粒体病(mitochondrial disorders)是遗传缺损引起线粒体代谢酶缺陷,致使ATP合成障碍、能量来源不足导致的一组异质性病变。线粒体是密切与能量代谢相关的细胞器,无论是细胞的存活(氧化磷酸化)和细胞死亡(凋亡)均与线粒体功能有关,特别是呼吸链的氧化磷酸化异常与许多人类疾病有关。Luft等(1962)首次报道一例线粒体肌病,生化研究证实为氧化磷酸化脱耦联引起。Anderson(1981)测定人类线粒体DNA(mtDNA)全长序列,Holt(1988)首次发现线粒体病患者mtDNA缺失,证实mtDNA突变是人类疾病的重要病因,建立了有别于传统孟德尔遗传的线粒体遗传新概念。根据线粒体病变部位不同可分为:# 线粒体肌病(mitochondrial myopathy)线粒体病变侵犯骨骼肌为主。# 线粒体脑肌病(mitochondrial encephalomyopathy)病变同时侵犯骨骼肌和中枢神经系统。\n", "hbv基因组常见突变及临床意义 摘要hbv基因组特殊的结构及生活周期特点决定了其易于突变。突变改变了病毒的生物学行为和对抗病毒药物的敏感性,影响治疗效果和疾病的进展。前ss开放读码框(orf)以点突变为主,可引起免疫逃避,与隐匿性hbv感染有关；前cc-orf以g1896a突变常见,与hbeag阴性慢性乙型肝炎(chb)、肝细胞癌(hcc)、慢性重型肝炎(肝衰竭)的发生相关；p-orf的突变主要发生在逆转录酶区(rt区),与核苷和核苷酸类药物的耐药关系密切；x-orf突变主要是重叠于该区的核心启动子的a1762t和g1764a的双突变,与hbeag阴性chb、hcc、慢性重型肝炎(肝衰竭)相关。明确这些突变与疾病的关系,可为hbv感染者制订个体化的诊疗方案。1前ss-orf突变s-orf全长1167 nt,由pre-s1、pre-s2和s基因组成,分别编码前s1蛋白、前s2蛋白和hbsag,前两者与hbv感染肝细胞有关,hbsag是引起机体产生保护性免疫的主要成分。hbsag暴露在表面由99-169位氨基酸(aa)组成的区域,称为主要亲水区(mhr),具有免疫原性。hbsag的免疫优势区域\"a\"决定簇就位于mhr中,在所有基因型中均存在,针对\"a\"决定簇的抗体可对hbv所有基因亚型提供保护性免疫。前ss-orf的突变主要发生在s基因区,以点突变为主。\"a\"决定簇的g145r突变率最高,其他突变it126anis、q129hr、m133l、k141e、p142s、d144ae、g145ra也可发现。上述突变可引起hbsag免疫原性改变,导致抗-hbs识别hbv的能力减弱,造成免疫逃避,在临床上可表现为母婴阻断失败、肝移植后hbv再感染、抗-hbs阳性的hbv感染等。此外,\"a\"决定簇邻近的区域,也可引起抗-hbs识别hbv的能力减弱,同样引起免疫逃避,如t116n、t118kar、p120sq、kr122i、t123n。除点突变外,s基因缺失性突变也可引起免疫逃避。临床上发现在部分hbsag阴性患者中,依然可以检测出血清和肝组织中共价闭合环状dna(ccc dna),称之为隐匿性hbv感染(occ lt hbv infection,obi)。obi的机制尚不完全清楚,目前认为hbv低水平复制、抗原表达量低、hbv整合、hbv前ss-orf突变、宿主应答异常、共同感染等均是可能的机制。其中hbv前ss-orf基因突变与obi关系密切。c124yr、k141e、d144a可以降低hbsag的抗原性,导致表达的hbsag无法被现有的试剂盒识别；i126s、q129r、g145r等突变会影响hbsag的分泌,使其无法从内质网上释放到血清中； 前s区的缺失突变可以影响hbsag的表达导致obi 的发生。 前ss-orf突变可能与hcc、肝硬化的发生有关。lee等发现位于前s1区的突变位点w4pr在hcc和肝硬化中的发生率为12.4%,明显高于慢性肝炎和携带者的发生率(1.1%)。此外前s 基因突变,特别是pres2区缺失突变是hcc发生的危险因素,但具体的致癌机制尚需进一步的研究。2前cc-orf突变前cc-orf全长636 nt,由前c基因和c基因组成,编码 hbeag和 hbcag,二者有各自的起始密码子,但共用一个终止子,在细胞免疫和体液免疫中发挥重要作用。前cc-orf的突变包括:nt1837、nt1846、nt1858、nt1896、nt1898、nt1899、nt1901、nt1913等,其中nt1896位点的突变最为常见。g1896a突变常见于非a基因型,常和c1858t突变一起出现。g1896a突变是指hbv复制过程中第28个密码子编码色氨酸的tgg变为终止密码子tag,导致hbeag合成终止。目前认为g1896a与hbeag阴性慢性乙型肝炎的发生相关,但与肝硬化、hcc等疾病进展的相关性存在争议。zhand等发现44例存在g1896a的患者中有41例表现为hbeag阴性,检出率高达93.18%。张宣义等观察88例hcc患者和108例非hcc患者,发现hcc患者g1896a的突变频率高于非hcc患者；但也有研究发现g1896a与hcc的发生无显著相关。付丽娟等发现肝硬化患者g1896a突变率高于慢性乙型肝炎患者,表明该突变与乙型肝炎疾病进展相关。另有研究对99例hbeag阴性、hbv dna阳性的患者进行7年的随访,发现有39 6%的g1896a突变者在7年后仍可检测到hbv dna,远高于野生型,但这些突变患者的alt水平和肝脏硬度与野生型患者相比差异并没有统计学意义。c基因区相当保守,但其突变也不少见,绝大部分集中在aa48-60、aa84-101和aa147-155的3小段序列中。c区突变可能与hbv感染的持续、慢性化和病情发展有关。3p-orf突变p-orf是hbv基因组最大的编码区,约占全基因组的75%,与其他orf相互重叠,编码产物是含843 aa的p蛋白。p 蛋白是一个含有多个功能区的碱性蛋白,从氨基末端向羧基末端依次为:末端蛋白、间隔区、dna多聚酶(逆转录酶)、rnase h。目前广泛应用的抗病毒药物nas作用靶点就位于p-orf的逆转录酶区(reverse transcriptase domain, rt区),相关的耐药突变位点也发生于该区。目前已统一nas耐药突变位点的定位命名,即从rt区上游第一个aa为起点,以rt1-rt344来定位和命名。现已明确的耐药模式6种:(1)l型核苷耐药模式(rtm204位点突变)；rtm204vi可引起l型核苷类药物耐药,主要是拉米夫定(lam)和替比夫定(ldt),进一步促进恩替卡韦(etv)耐药。(2)无环磷酸盐耐药模式(rt236位点突变)；rtn236t可导致无环磷酸盐化合物阿德福韦酯(adv)耐药,并降低替诺福韦(tdf)的敏感性。(3)共享(公共)耐药模式(rta181位点突变)；可导致l型核苷类药物和adv耐药,并降低tdf的敏感性；该通路突变可导致40%的adv治疗失败和5%的lam治疗失败。(4)双重耐药模式(rtal81tv+rtn236t位点突变)；可导致l型核苷类药物和adv耐药,并可显著降低tdf的抗病毒活性,导致持续的病毒血症。(5)etv初治耐药模式,即rtl180m+rtm204v再加上rti169、rtt184、rts202或rtm250任意一个或多个位点突变,当3个突变同时发生可导致etv耐药。(6)多药耐药模式,如rta181t+rti233v+rtn236t+rtm250l。lam原发耐药位点主要在rtm204vi,其补偿耐药位点有rtll80m、rtv173l、rti169t、 rtv207i、rtt184s、rtq215s、rtl80vi。ldt耐药位点为rtm204i,目前尚未发现rtm204v突变。此外,这两种药物还可发生rta181位点突变,即共享耐药模式。adv主要的耐药位点是rtal81tv和rtn236t。近年来也有报道其他的位点,包括rtv84m、rts85a、rtv214a、rtq215s、rtp237h、rtn238td,但这些位点与adv耐药的相关性还存在争议；rtl233v的突变与adv耐药相关,但其是否为补偿耐药位点亦存在争议。tdf其主要耐药位点是rta194t,有报道rtpl77g、rtf249a位点突变会降低tdf的抗病毒敏感性,但临床目前尚无tdf的耐药报道。不同于lam、adv和ldt,只要有一个原发耐药位点突变即可表现为耐药,etv则需要多个位点的同时突变才出现耐药。这就是其高基因屏障、临床耐药率低的原因。笔者研究发现,在etv耐药模式中,共有5 种突变类型,主要突变模式为rtl180m+rtm204v+rts202ig,未见rti169、rtm250突变。nas的主要耐药突变位点见表1。需要重视的是:(1)不同nas可以有不同的耐药模式,也可能有相同的耐药模式,相互之间可能存在交叉耐药。(2)不仅在nas治疗后产生病毒突变,在nas治疗前就可能有预存耐药突变。许多研究均证实了预存耐药的存在。(3)由于p-orf与其他orf基因重叠,前ss-orf完全被p-orf覆盖,rt区对应的重叠区域为s-orf。因此,当rt区基因发生耐药突变时,可能会导致p-orf其他区域和其他orf的基因突变,称为\"镜像改变(mirror change)\"。从而引起相应的一系列肝脏疾病进展(如免疫逃逸、原有的病情加重或肝癌事件的高发生率等)。rt区的耐药突变复杂多样。那么,除了已明确的6条耐药通路外,是否存在其他耐药通路？其临床意义如何？多药耐药突变和交叉耐药突变的情况如何？rt区耐药突变位点的异质性以及临床意义如何？预存耐药和诱导耐药的突变位点是否一致？rt区耐药突变与其他orf的相互关系如何？均需进一步探索。4x-orf突变x-orf全长462 nt,是hbv基因组的最小编码区,编码的x蛋白是一种多功能非结构蛋白,参与rna的转录,与hcc的发生密切相关,并且对其他病毒(如人类免疫缺陷病毒)的启动子具有反式激活作用；还与乙型肝炎相关性疾病(如乙型肝炎相关性肾小球肾炎)密切相关。此外, x-orf还包括顺式作用原件:核心上游调节序列、负性调节元件、增强子ⅱ,基本核心启动子(bcp),直接重复序列1、2(dr1、dr2)也重叠在x-orf。发生在3′端的缺失突变是x-orf的主要突变,常见的有nt1763-1770、nt1770-1777、nt1753-1772、nt1750-1770等8、20、21个核苷酸的缺失。这种缺失突变,可直接或间接抑制病毒复制,并与hbsag阳性、hbeag阴性慢性hbv携带者的临床现象密切相关。x-orf的缺失突变可能与hcc的发生有关。雷蔓等发现在26例hcc患者中,有3例发生了x基因nt1713-nt1833区域的截短突变,长度在10 bp左右,而在慢性乙型肝炎、肝硬化患者中未见类似突变,该突变形式可能导致基因的框移突变及截短的x蛋白产生,与hbv相关性肿瘤的发生有关。bcp位于nt1744-1902,部分与x-orf重叠,作为核心蛋白的启动子,调节前基因组mrna和前c-mrna的转录。该区最常见的突变是a1762t和g1764a的双突变,对应的氨基酸改变为xk130m、xv131t；双突变可降低前c区的转录,使hbeag的合成减少。关于a1762t和g1764a双突变与hbeag阴性慢性乙型肝炎、hcc、慢性重型肝炎(肝衰竭)相关性的研究报道较多。", "淡水豚,又称河豚、淡水海豚、淡水鲸,并非单一物种,而是对一些适应江河湖泊等淡水生境的鲸豚类的统称,故又称淡水豚类、淡水鲸类。各种淡水豚之间的亲缘关系很远,来自不同的演化支,因此淡水豚类是一个笼统的概念,不具分类学意义。广义上的淡水豚(英语:Freshwater dolphins)泛指一切常驻于淡水的鲸豚类,如2006年多国学者在中国长江发起的“2006长江淡水豚类考察”,便是对白豚和江豚这两支不甚相关的种系而言的;狭义上的淡水豚(英语:River dolphins)专指形态学总结归纳的几种具长喙、圆额、小眼等特征的鲸豚类,白豚即属此类而江豚不归于此,另外主要生活在海里的拉河豚因其典型的淡水豚外貌也被归于此类。曾有学者将狭义的淡水豚全部并入恒河豚科(Platanistidae)或恒河豚总科(Platanistoidea),称之为淡水豚科、淡水豚总科(仅中文科名随着包含对象的转变而发生习惯性的更改,学名未变;淡水豚科也称淡水鲸科、河豚科、喙豚科)。实际这些淡水豚的外形、习性等方面接近是生境相仿导致趋同演化的结果,不代表亲缘关系接近,现行分类已将它们划为不同的类群,传统意义上的淡水豚科与淡水豚总科不再是有效的分类阶元。\n典型的淡水豚,主要特征为:# 拥有明显的额隆,是传播并接收回声定位信号的器官。河湖相比海洋更加污浊,能见度低,淡水豚类活动时极度依赖回声定位功能,进化出了比一般海豚更加发达的回声定位系统。# 眼睛严重退化。因常年生活在黑暗而浑浊的环境,高度发达的回声定位功能配合敏锐的听觉早已取代了眼睛的作用,淡水豚类的双眼变得极小且视力低下。# 吻部极其狭长,与头部乃至整个身体的比例是鲸豚类中最长的。淡水豚类视觉衰弱,接近猎物的难度随之增大,为便于捕猎而进化出加长的吻部,扩大了取食范围,当配合远程回声定位发动突袭时,会起到更好的猎食效果。口中两排密集而锐利的圆锥形牙齿,可对猎物造成瞬间性的杀伤,并能将猎物牢牢固定在口中。具备这些特征的淡水豚,包括恒河豚、白豚、亚河豚及拉河豚,曾被全部归入恒河豚总科(Platanistoidea)/ 恒河豚科(Platanistidae),中文改称为淡水豚总科 / 淡水豚科。1981年中国动物学家周开亚等人在《白豚的肠》研究报告中,指出几种淡水豚的肠道存在显著差异:# 白豚的肠为体长之 12.5-14.9 倍,恒河豚为 3.6-4.9 倍,亚河豚为19-20 倍,拉河豚为 24.0-37.3 倍;# 恒河豚和拉河豚的肝胰管开口于十二指肠本部的始端,白豚开口于十二指肠球部;# 白豚的肛扁桃体发达程度介于亚河豚与恒河豚之间,拉河豚则未发现有肛扁桃体。1982年周开亚向国际学界发表中国的研究成果时指出,淡水豚的分类持久未定论,原因在于研究大多局限于颅骨,而中国学者对淡水豚类的胸椎、肢骨等做了全面比较,发现它们之间的差异远超出一般哺乳动物科与科间的区别,足以证明它们源自不同的演化支。1984 年周开亚、李悦民与伯尔尼大学解剖医学研究所 合作,对两头亚河豚标本的消化管进行解剖研究,并与其他淡水豚比较,发现消化管是淡水豚类分化最显著的器官,四类淡水豚的构造互不相同,进一步证明它们各自代表一个支系。+淡水豚类部分骨骼与内脏的比较 1999年南京师范大学教授杨光和周开亚在《兽类学报》期刊发表报告《淡水豚类分子系统发生的研究》,文章阐明:通过比较淡水豚类的DNA序列,证实它们的差异已达科级。在演化树上,淡水豚类是海豚形类(Delphinida,旧称 海豚下目)向海豚总科(Delphinoidea)进化途中分出的几个早期旁支,它们之间的亲缘关系很远:恒河豚最接近演化树的基部,属 恒河豚总科,亚河豚和拉河豚属亚河豚总科(Inioidea),白豚则是单独的白豚总科(Lipotoidea)。2002年周开亚发表《白豚系统发生位置的研究》一文总结道:“在经历了将近一个世纪的研究之后,淡水豚类是并系的,淡水豚类的4个现生属分别属于4个独立的科,白豚类至少是一个科级的阶元,这3点已经成为鲸类学家的共同认识。” 非典型淡水豚,包括江豚、伊河豚和土库河豚,其中江豚的分类地位尚有争议,2018年4月杨光等人联合发表的研究论文认定为独立物种,但世界自然保护联盟(IUCN)与海洋哺乳动物学会(Society for Marine Mammalogy)目前仍将其列为窄膂露脊鼠海豚的长江亚种。\n国际淡水豚日为每年的10月24日,是一个国际性纪念节日,由印尼东加里曼丹省政府官员Awang Faroek Ishak于2010年10月召开的亚洲淡水鲸类保护论坛上提议设立,目的是在每年的特定日子围绕淡水豚的保护开展纪念和宣传活动,以此加强人们对淡水豚类的了解,提高人们对淡水豚类的保护意识。2010年10月19日至24日,亚洲淡水鲸类保护论坛在东加里曼丹省召开,来自印尼、中国、柬埔寨、孟加拉、缅甸、印度、巴基斯坦七国的鲸类保护专家共聚一堂,商讨亚洲淡水豚类的保护方略,席间Awang Faroek Ishak提议亚洲国家将10月24日设立为国际淡水豚纪念日。亚洲七国的鲸类保护专家共同参与了2010年10月24日当天举行的“第一届国际淡水豚日”纪念活动。相比栖息于海洋的大部分鲸豚类,淡水豚的生境更接近人类居住区,受人类活动的负面影响更大,特别是人类社会进入工业化时代以来,世界上为数不多的几种淡水豚都面临巨大的生存危机;中国长江中下游水系的白豚据信已经灭绝,而长江江豚的种群数量也在不断下降,连年发现许多非正常死亡个体,保护行动刻不容缓。国际淡水豚日的设立,是为了扩大全球淡水豚保育工作的影响力,带动人们保护河流生态系统的积极性,对全球淡水豚类保育工作起到了宣传和推进的积极作用。\n", "蓝藻 蓝藻（拉丁学名：Cyanobacteria，英文名：Blue-green algae，别名：蓝绿藻）是蓝藻界蓝藻门原核生物，分布十分广泛，遍及世界各地，繁殖方式营养繁殖或产生孢子以无性繁殖。蓝藻不具叶绿体、线粒体、高尔基体、中心体、内质网和液泡等细胞器，细胞器是核糖体。其含叶绿素a，无叶绿素b，含数种叶黄素和胡萝卜素，还含有藻胆素。其细胞壁主要成分为肽聚糖，细胞质部分有很多同心环样的膜片层结果。其中央在光镜下较周围原生质层明亮，为遗传物质DNA所在部位。受其它藻种的生长制约，蓝藻并不可能在常温条件下大规模暴发，水温25—35℃时，蓝藻的生长速度才会比其他藻类快，故温度是蓝藻暴发的主要因素之一。养殖水体中富营养化，蓝藻比较容易生长，所以不经常换水的池塘往往更容易暴发蓝藻。有机磷是蓝藻生长的必须因素，治理蓝藻最直接最根本的办法就是除去有机磷。蓝藻暴发的成因为富营养化。过量的养分主要来自于以下这些源头：1． 化肥流失，化肥是很多富营养化区域的主要养分来源，例如在密西西比河流域，67%的氮流入水体，随之流入墨西哥湾，波罗的海和太湖中超过50%的氮也来自化肥的流失。2． 生活污水，包括人类的生活废水和含磷清洁剂。3． 畜禽养殖，畜禽的粪便含有大量营养废物如氮和磷，这些元素都能导致富营养化。4．工业污染，包括化肥厂和废水排放。5． 燃烧矿物燃料，在波罗的海中约30%的氮，在密西西比河中约13%的氮来源于此。6.蓝藻使水体缺氧，使动物死亡，分解者分解是又消耗氧气，造成恶性循环蓝藻不具叶绿体、线粒体、高尔基体、中心体、内质网和液泡等细胞器，细胞器是核糖体。含叶绿素a，无叶绿素b，含数种叶黄素和胡萝卜素，还含有藻胆素（是藻红素、藻蓝素和别藻蓝素的总称）。其光合作用系统中具有叶绿素a和光系统Ⅱ，以水为电子供体，放出O2，而其他光合细菌的电子供体一般为H2、H2S和S，不产生氧气。一般说，凡含叶绿素a和藻蓝素量较大的，细胞大多呈蓝绿色。同样，也有少数种类含有较多的藻红素，藻体多呈红色，如生于红海中的一种蓝藻，名叫红海束毛藻，由于它含的藻红素量多，藻体呈红色，而且繁殖的也快，故使海水也呈红色，红海便由此而得名。蓝藻虽无叶绿体，但在电镜下可见细胞质中有很多光合片层，叫类囊体，各种光合色素均附于其上，是含有色素的膜性结构，大大增加了细胞内的膜面积，该结构的主要功能是：进行光合作用。蓝藻的细胞壁和细菌的细胞壁的化学组成类似，主要成分为肽聚糖（糖和多肽形成的一类化合物）；贮藏的光合产物主要为蓝藻淀粉和蓝藻颗粒体等。细胞壁分内外两层，内层是纤维素的，少数人认为是果胶质和半纤维素的。外层是胶质衣鞘以果胶质为主，或有少量纤维素。细胞质部分有很多同心环样的膜片层结果，称为类囊体，光合色素与电子传递链均位于此。蓝藻中央在光镜下较周围原生质层明亮，为遗传物质DNA所在部位，相当于细菌的核区，称为中心质或中央体。“中心质”常不位于中央，与周围胞质无明确界限。蓝藻DNA几乎裸露，复制可连续进行。DNA平均含量比高等动物细胞还多。蓝藻细胞分裂时，细胞中部向内生长出新横隔壁，将中心质与原生质分为两半。一般情况下，两个子细胞在一个公共的胶质鞘包围下保持在一起，并不断分裂而形成丝状、片状等多细胞群体。除此之外，蓝藻还可以通过出芽、断裂和复分裂等方式增殖。内壁可继续向外分泌胶质增加到胶鞘中。有些种类的胶鞘很坚密拌可有层理，有些种类胶鞘很易水化，相邻细胞的胶鞘可互相溶和。胶鞘中可有棕、红、灰等非光合作用色素。蓝藻的藻体有单细胞体的、群体的和丝状体的。最简单的是单细胞体。有些单细胞体由于细胞分裂后子细胞包埋在胶化的母细胞壁内而成为群体，如若反复分裂，群体中的细胞可以很多，较大的群体可以破裂成数个较小的群体。有些单细胞体由于附着生活，有了基部和顶部的极性分化，丝状体是由于细胞分裂按同一个分裂面反复分裂、子细胞相接而形成的。有些丝状体上的细胞都一样，有些丝状体上有异形胞的分化；有的丝状体有伪枝或真分枝，有的丝状体的顶部细胞逐渐尖窄成为毛体，这也叫有极性的分化。丝状体也可以连成群体，包在公共的胶质衣鞘中，这是多细胞个体组成的群体。蓝藻（Cyanobacteria）包括蓝球藻（Chroococcus）、颤藻（Oscillatoria）、念珠藻（Nostoc）（如发菜N. flagelliforme）等。蓝藻门分为两纲：色球藻纲和藻殖段纲。色球藻纲藻体为单细胞体或群体；藻殖段纲藻体为丝状体，有藻殖段。蓝藻在地球上大约出现距今35～33亿年前，已知蓝藻约2000种，中国已有记录的约900种。分布十分广泛，遍及世界各地，但大多数（约75%）淡水产，少数海产；有些蓝藻可生活在60～85℃的温泉中；有些种类和菌、苔藓、蕨类和裸子植物共生；有些还可穿入钙质岩石或介壳中(如穿钙藻类)或土壤深层中（如土壤蓝藻）。蓝藻的繁殖方式有两类，一为营养繁殖，包括细胞直接分裂（即裂殖）、群体破裂和丝状体产生藻殖段等几种方法，另一种为某些蓝藻可产生内生孢子或外生孢子等，以进行无性生殖。孢子无鞭毛。至2018年尚未发现蓝藻有真正的有性生殖。蓝藻是最早的光合放氧生物，对地球表面从无氧的大气环境变为有氧环境起了巨大的作用。有不少蓝藻（如鱼腥藻）可以直接固定大气中的氮（原因：含有固氮酶，可直接进行生物固氮），以提高土壤肥力，使作物增产。还有的蓝藻为人们的食品，如著名的发菜和普通念珠藻（地木耳）、螺旋藻等。据物理学家组织网报道，美国加州大学戴维斯分校的化学家通过基因工程对蓝藻进行了改造，使其能生产出丁二醇，这是一种用于制造燃料和塑料的前化学品，也是生产生物化工原料以替代化石燃料的第一步。相关论文发表在2013年1月7日的美国《国家科学院学报》上。论文领导作者、加州大学戴维斯分校化学副教授渥美翔太（音译）说：“大部分化学原材料都是来自石油和天然气，我们需要其他资源。”美国能源部已经定下目标，到2025年要有14的工业化学品由生物过程产生。生物反应都会形成碳—碳键，以二氧化碳为原料，利用阳光供给能量来反应，这就是光合作用。蓝藻以这种方式在地球上已经生存了30多亿年。用蓝藻来生产化学品有很多好处，比如不与人类争夺粮食，克服了用玉米生产乙醇的缺点。但要用蓝藻作为化学原料也面临一个难题，就是产量太低不易转化。研究小组利用网上数据库发现了几种酶，恰好能执行他们正在寻找的化学反应。他们将能合成这些酶的DNA（脱氧核糖核酸）引入了蓝藻细胞，随后逐步地构建出了一条“三步骤”的反应路径，能使蓝藻将二氧化碳转化为2,3丁二醇，这是一种用于制造涂料、溶剂、塑料和燃料的化学品。渥美翔太说，由于这些酶在不同生物体内可能有不同的工作方式。在实验测试之前，无法预测化学路径的运行情况。经过3个星期的生长后，每升这种蓝藻的培养介质能产出2.4克2,3丁二醇——这是迄今将蓝藻用于化学生产所达到的最高产量，对商业开发而言也很有潜力。渥美翔太的实验室正在与日本化学制造商旭化成公司合作，希望能继续优化系统，进一步提高产量，并对其他产品进行实验，同时探索该技术的放大途径。绿潮在一些营养丰富的水体中，有些蓝藻常于夏季大量繁殖，并在水面形成一层蓝绿色而有腥臭味的浮沫，称为“水华”，大规模的蓝藻爆发，被称为“绿潮”（和海洋发生的赤潮对应）。绿潮引起水质恶化，严重时耗尽水中氧气而造成鱼类的死亡。更为严重的是，蓝藻中有些种类（如微囊藻）还会产生微囊藻毒素（microcystins，简称MCs），大约50%的绿潮中含有大量MCs。MCs除了直接对鱼类、人畜产生毒害之外，也是肝癌的重要诱因。MCs耐热，不易被沸水分解，但可被活性碳吸收，所以可以用活性碳净水器对被污染水源进行净化。蓝藻等藻类是鲢、鳙的食物，可以通过投放它们来治理藻类，防止蓝藻爆发（非经典的生物操纵）。蓝藻大量出现时，附近水体一般呈蓝色或绿色，水面被厚厚的蓝绿色湖靛所覆盖，被风吹到岸边堆积，不但会发出恶臭味，且含毒素的蓝藻细胞在水体中漂游，当与某些悬浮物络合沉淀，或被养殖对象捕食后随其排泄物沉淀，在鱼池池底富集，对无公害水产品生产会带来巨大的负面影响。蓝藻中的项圈藻可快速产生致死因子，破坏养殖对象的鳃组织，干扰其新陈代谢的正常进行，麻痹神经，使其死亡。蓝藻中个别种不但活体带毒，而且死亡个体分解会产生生物毒素——蓝藻毒素（如微囊藻毒素）。蓝藻毒素量多时可直接造成养殖对象中毒死亡；或者即使数量少，也可通过食物链积累效应危害养殖对象，直至危害人体。毒素蓝细菌是蓝藻的学名，在部分蓝藻内部的特定区域存有藻毒素，蓝藻毒素内分为很多种，通过其危害方式可分为肝毒素和神经毒素，它们是已知的会侵袭肝脏和神经的毒素，另一类毒素对皮肤有刺激作用。当蓝藻细胞破裂或死亡时，毒素就会被释放到水中，当暴露在含有蓝藻毒素的湖水中，虽然一部分人会生病，但是饮用含有受污染藻类的水却未必会导致死亡。长期地暴露在含有蓝藻肝毒素的水中，即使含量较低，也有可能对人体产生长期的或慢性的不利影响，如果你不断的摄入含有蓝藻的水，鱼或者其他水产品，就可能会产生头痛，发烧，腹泻，腹痛，反胃或者呕吐。如果你在受污染的水中游泳，也有可能会产生皮肤发痒或者眼睛、皮肤受到刺激，如果你怀疑直接接触到了污染水源并且身体发生了不良反应，用干净水冲洗身体并立即联系医生，煮沸的水不会去除蓝藻中的毒素，因为你不可能凭借水的外表，气味或者味道去检测毒素的存在，只有化学测试才可以，如果条件允许，不要使用受污染水洗衣服和餐具，如果实在没有其他水源，做家务要用水时必须戴上橡胶手套，使用受污染水洗澡应该避免，因为皮肤直接接触水会造成皮肤刺激和皮疹）藻毒素具有水溶性和耐热性。易溶于水，甲醇或丙酮，不挥发，抗PH变化。MC-LR的分子式为C49H74N10O12，分子量为995.2（计算时往往按1000计)。其在水中的溶解性大于1gL，化学性质相当稳定。在水中藻毒素自然降解过程是十分缓慢的，当水中的含量为5ugL时，三天后，仅10%被水体中微粒吸收，7%随沙沉淀。藻毒素有很高的耐热性，加热煮沸都不能将毒素破坏，也不能将其去除；自来水处理工艺的混凝沉淀、过滤、加氯也不能将其去除。有调查试验研究表明在某湖周围3个自来水厂的出厂水中检出低浓度的藻毒素(128～1400ngL)，结果提示采用常规的饮水消毒处理不能完全消除水体中的藻毒素。它是一种肝毒素，这种毒素是肝癌的强烈促癌剂。家畜及野生动物饮用了含藻毒素的水后，会出现腹泻、乏力、厌食、呕吐、嗜睡、口眼分泌物增多等症状，甚至死亡。病理病变有肝脏肿大、充血或坏死，肠炎出血、肺水肿等。对于人类健康，微囊藻毒素也具有很大危害性。其中MC-LR的半致死剂量（LD50）约为50~100 ugkg。人们在洗澡、游泳及其他水上休闲和运动时，皮肤接触含藻毒素水体可引起敏感部位(如眼睛)和皮肤过敏；少量喝入可引起急性肠胃炎；长期饮用则可能引发肝癌。流行病学研究显示，慢性MC染毒引起了巢湖渔民实质性的肝损伤。医学部门已发现饮水中微量微囊藻毒素与人群中原发性肝癌的发病率有很大相关性。1996年在巴西造成100多名急性肝功能故障，7个月内至少50人死于藻毒素产生的急性效应，引起举世瞩目的关注。淡水水体中的蓝藻毒素已成为全球性的环境问题，世界各地经常发生蓝藻毒素中毒事件。UV－B（紫外线B波段，波长275～320nm，又称为中波红斑效应紫外线 。中等穿透力，日光中含有的中波紫外线大部分被臭氧层所吸收，只有不足2%能到达地球表面，在夏天和午后会特别强烈。）可以破坏蓝细菌的运动性和趋光性，可以影响许多其他的生理和生化过程，这将导致生产力的降低，发芽和分化的破坏。光合色素会被UV－B漂白，光捕获复合体的结构受到影响，这些都会损坏光合作用。DNA和蛋白质的主要作用位点、氮代谢中的酶对于UV－B表现出不同的敏感性。UV对固氮酶和谷氨酰氨合成酶的活性产生抑制，但会提高硝酸还原酶的活性（当暴露在认为的UV－B下）。UV－B也会影响基本的光合作用的反应和二氧化碳的吸收。Synechococlus通过快速改变光合系统中酶的形式来抵抗UV。这种分子的可塑性在种群水平上来的抵抗UV－B是非常重要的，这使得光合系统对UV－B的敏感性每天都在改变。然而，光合作用可以被UV－A合蓝光所激活。蓝细菌已经发展了对于UV－B的影响的对策。这包括：a、产生象MAAs类的光保护物质 b、通过迁移到避光的地带来逃避UV c、产生猝灭物质如类胡萝卜素和超氧化物 d、修复机制象光活化和光独立的DNA修复e、激活抗氧化酶。UV－B在许多蓝细菌中诱导了MAAs的产生。在Anabaenasp中显示只有在290nm的光可以诱导MAAs。除了光保护作用外，MAAs还具有调节渗透压和抗冻作用。其他的UV－A激活物质也被发现。在蓝细菌和藻类中的光保护物质已经建立了数据库。南极的蓝细菌形成大的蒲状菌落。UV－B对于Leptolyngbya的菌落具有很强的光化学抑制作用，但是不如对Phormidium的抑制作用大。后者包括了比前者多25倍的MAAs和2倍的类胡萝卜素。Rai 和同事研究了UV－B和重金属污染之间的关系对于氮固定的作用，并发现二者具有协同性。一般方法首先，全池泼洒沸石粉10公斤亩，使之絮凝蓝藻；第二，间隔3—4小时后全池泼洒溶藻芽孢杆菌(侧孢芽杆菌)，用量为500克亩。注意使用微生物制剂过程中必须防止蟹池缺氧，天气闷热时不应使用，而使用时则应开动增氧机；第三，平衡氮磷比例，通过泼洒无机磷改变氮磷的比例，加快培育绿藻和硅藻等有益藻类快速生长成为优势藻种来抑制蓝藻生长，从而改善蓝藻过度繁殖的状况。无害处理2020年1月13日，从中国科学院南京地理与湖泊研究所获悉，该所陈开宁研究员领导的河湖生态治理与修复团队新近研发出一种蓝藻无害化处理的新技术。该技术能有效对湖湾和湖滨湿地内堆积的蓝藻进行富集、消解和转化，以促进湖泊生态系统实现良性物质循环。此次，科研团队充分利用生态系统的自我调节功能，达到蓝藻无害化处置的目标。本研究的核心突破在于自主研发出一种新型复合改良剂。这种改良剂能快速将水面漂浮的蓝藻形成团聚体并沉降到水底，并有效抑制其释放次生有害物质。在蓝藻更容易聚集的湖滨湿地区，新型改良剂还能促进蓝藻富含的营养物质被湿地植物高效利用，最终实现湖滨带营养物质的良性循环。2007年5月28日起，无锡太湖区域蓝藻大面积爆发,引发无锡市自来水严重污染，市区纯净水被哄抢,政府虽及时采取措施，但已经对人民的生活产生很大的影响。2010年11月29日，云南昆明滇池蓝藻大量繁殖，在昆明滇池海埂一线的岸边，湖水如绿油漆一般。　绿浪翻滚的湖水涌向岸边，带来一阵阵腥臭气味。滇池是云南九大高原湖泊中污染最严重的一个，每当气温上升，加之富营养化严重，均要引起蓝藻爆发，造成严重污染。2011年8月21日，受持续高温影响，安徽巢湖局部湖面蓝藻又开始“抬头”，出现较大面积蓝藻集聚。巢湖市高度关注城市集中式饮用水水源地水质状况，开展蓝藻拦截、打捞和自来水深度处理措施。从2008年开始，南昌市城区范围内水域面积较大的景观湖泊青山湖连续6年遭遇蓝藻侵袭，尤其是2014年，蓝藻已经爆发数十次。2014年10月27日，尽管已经进入深秋，气温较低，但青山湖湖面依旧爆发蓝藻，数百亩湖面如同被泼洒绿漆，腥臭味随风袭来，不少人掩鼻而过。据悉，这6年来，南昌市都会投放生石灰、生物再生杀菌剂等以净化湖水、消杀蓝藻，但收效甚微。2016年7月17日，美国犹他州中毒控制中心接收了100多名中毒者，他们伴有呕吐、腹泻、高烧以及皮肤或眼部刺激、过敏等症状。经研究发现，该现象或与犹他湖中蓝藻细胞的爆发式增长有关。犹他湖中蓝藻面积达湖面总面积的90%，尽管面积正在缩小，事实上却更危险。各级政府对此采取了相应措施。政府人员称，至2017年还无法证实蓝藻爆发与这些症状之间的直接关系，但该症状与蓝藻细胞中毒的症状相符。世界卫生组织和犹他州卫生署条例规定，蓝藻细胞数量的中度危险标准为10万。而7月14日湖水抽样发现，大部分样本都超出了这一标准的3倍，其中一份样本甚至包含了超过70万的蓝藻细胞。蓝藻细胞在死亡时会向水中释放更多的有毒物质，使得水中的毒细胞尽管数量减少，但却更为致命。", "又一高分力作!abhd5在调控结直肠癌化疗反应中的潜在作用! 题目: abhd5 bl nts the sensitivity of colorectal cancer to fl oro racil via promoting a tophagic racil yield 期刊: nat re comm nications 影响因子: 12.353 主要技术: 病毒包装、蛋白表达 研究背景 结直肠癌(crc)已成为世界上最常见的癌症之一,自20世纪90年代初以来,氟尿嘧啶(fu)通过抑制胸苷酸合成酶来影响嘧啶合成并耗尽细胞内dttp池,也通过影响rna和dna结合来干扰核苷酸代谢并最终导致细胞死亡。虽然作为单独或联合crc化疗方案中基础效用药物,但也面临着严峻的耐药性问题。 自噬是一种胞内组分的酶解代谢和循环更新过程,大量实验结果表明,抗化疗的肿瘤细胞在化疗、放疗和靶向药物的挑战下表现出自噬通量的上调,大多停止合成核糖体且消解多余的核糖体,因此操纵自噬过程可能是癌细胞对化疗敏感的一种潜在机制。作者在前期研究基础上,发现一种在crc中具有肿瘤抑制作用的脂溶因子abhd5,在人类crc细胞中表达量显著降低且与恶性特征负相关。重要的是,最新发现abhd5通过调节自噬在维持染色体稳定性和保护基因组完整性方面发挥着关键作用,促使继续深入探究abhd5在调控结直肠癌化疗反应中的潜在作用,并提供了abhd5对基于fu辅助治疗pmmr方案的建设性意见。 研究内容及结果 1. abhd5降低了crc细胞对fu的敏感性 作者采用癌症药物敏感性基因组学(gdsc)数据集,将abhd5表达水平与化疗相关的敏感性数据串联起来。通过皮尔逊相关性分析,abhd5表达在pmmr 和dmmr crc细胞系中均与ic50呈现正相关的趋势(图1a)。在细胞功能学检测中,相比较于pmmr-crc细胞系的sw480细胞(对照组),mtt测定显示abhd5敲除细胞(abhd5 kd)在fu处理下ic50值和细胞活力显著降低(图1b-1c),膜联蛋白v7aad染色的流式细胞术测定显示abhd5 kd组在fu处理后细胞凋亡增加(图1d)。在nod-scid 鼠的腹腔注射异种移植物(sw480 abhd5 kd和pbs fu)后,abhd5 kd+fu组肿瘤负荷显著减小,说明abhd5 kd组对fu的敏感性显著增加(图1e)且肿瘤细胞凋亡率增加(图1f)。与此同时,作者将干预试验调整为肿瘤特异性患者源性异种移植(pdx)模型,选定pmmr源性患者并随机分成四个独立的治疗组:①pmmrabhd5 low+pbs、②pmmrabhd5 high+pbs、③pmmrabhd5 low+fu和 ④pmmrabhd5 high+fu,在肿瘤实体图和肿瘤演变图中发现pmmrabhd5 low+fu组明显受益(图1g-1h),再通过caspase-3对凋亡细胞或ki67对增殖细胞进行免疫染色和分析得到pmmrabhd5 low组在fu处理时显著抑制细胞增殖并表现较强的敏感性(图1i-1j)。 图1 abhd5阻碍pmmr crcs对fu的敏感性 2. abhd5高表达的crcs并不受益于基于fu的化疗 采用stepminer算法将ncbi-geo数据集中361名pmmr-crcs患者分为abhd5 high组(262例)和abhd5 low组(99例),并开展实验来评估abhd5与预后的关系以及基于fu辅助治疗的益处(图2a-2b),统计数据显示abhd5 high组更可能是braf突变阳性突变型(braf mt)、p53野生型(p53 wt)和染色体不稳定阴性型(cin−),且在单独接受fu手术治疗后pmmrabhd5 high组的预后优于pmmrabhd5 low组(图2c-2d)。进一步分析人类结肠癌组织微阵列数据,并将432例患者队列分为两组:pmmrabhd5 high(256例)和pmmrabhd5 low(176例),发现在单独接受fu手术治疗后,pmmrabhd5 high组明显倾向于dfs延长的趋势；pmmrabhd5 low组明显受益于基于fu的辅助化疗。 图2 abhd5的表达以及fu的辅助化疗疗效 3. abhd5通过提高自噬性尿嘧啶的产量来降低fu的摄取 接下来,作者深入探索abhd5调节pmmr-crc细胞对fu的反应机制。通过高效液相色谱测定发现相对于对照组,abhd5 kd组的胞内fu浓度显著增加(图3a),且在蛋白质印迹分析中发现pbs或fu处理的细胞中均没有发现胸苷酸合成酶(ts)、胸苷磷酸化酶(tp)和二氢嘧啶脱氢酶(dpd)的变化,推测胞内fu浓度与药物吸收能力相关(图3b)。有趣的是,在fu处理后的代谢曲线中,发现abhd5 kd组的胞内尿嘧啶显著减少(图3c),而不影响嘧啶生物合成的限速酶cps ii和umps的变化(图3d),推测abhd5可能通过一种新的方式影响尿嘧啶的产量。 继续研究gse数据集中122例crcs,abhd5 low组溶酶体途径相关成分的平均水平下降(图3e)。基于abhd5表达的分层聚类分析,推测出溶酶体rna的降解介导自噬性尿嘧啶的产生(图3f),荧光标记和高含量筛选(hcs)分析显示自噬体通量与胞内fu水平呈负相关(图3g-3h)。值得注意的是,abhd5 oe组在fu和cq(氯喹,靶向药物)共同作用下有力地挽救了胞内尿嘧啶和fu的浓度(图3i-3j),相关pdx模型中发现ba(becn1激活剂)只是适度地逆转abhd5 kd组中胞内尿嘧啶和fu的浓度(图3k-3l),说明abhd5通过becn1以外的机制调节自噬尿嘧啶的产生。 图3 abhd5影响crc细胞对fu的摄取 4. abhd5维持rnaset2活性来促进自噬尿嘧啶的产生 如图4a中尿嘧啶相关核苷酸降解途径所示,采用超高效液相色谱-多反应监测质谱分析在fu作用下尿嘧啶和相关核苷含量的时间依赖性变化,相比于对照组,abhd5 kd组中胞苷、尿苷和尿嘧啶的含量几乎没有增加(图4b),可简单地阐明rnaset2催化rna分解过程并参与abhd5诱导自噬性尿嘧啶的产生(图4c)。值得注意的是,abhd5 kd组和rnaset2 kd组中胞内的3 cmp、3 ump、核苷含量均在产生后被消除(图4d),但abhd5 oe+rnaset2 kd组中显著地逆转了胞内尿嘧啶的产量(图4e)并对fu重新敏感(图4f-4g)。这些证据表明rnaset2在介导abhd5诱导的自噬性尿嘧啶产生中起着关键作用。 图4 rnaset2介导abhd5诱导的自噬尿嘧啶产量 5. abhd5保护rnaset2不被pdia5灭活 通过免疫荧光染色来发现abhd5的定位,以及蛋白质印迹法来检测溶酶体溶解物中abhd5的表达情况,说明abhd5可能在溶酶体中定位并调节rnaset2 的活性(图5a-5b)。尽管在co-ip分析结果中abhd5与rnaset2存在互作关系,但是酵母双杂交试验结果否定了两者的直接互作(图5c-5d),且wb显示在对照组和abhd5 kd组的溶酶体中rnaset2蛋白表达水平没有变化(图5e),表明abhd5可能不直接调节rnaset2的活性。 接下来以h prottm蛋白芯片为基础,采用人源abhd5重组蛋白筛选出abhd5与pdia5直接互作并通过co-ip分析证实(图5f-5g)。通过蛋白质-蛋白质对接法预测出pdia5的β片段是abhd5和rnaset2互作的共同区域(5h),竞争性结合分析结合体外免疫印迹分析得到abhd5与rnaset2竞争,直接结合pdia5并影响其对rnaset2的失活调控(图5i-5j)。基因敲除细胞和pdx的体外验证实验(5k-5m)表明,abhd5定位于溶酶体,通过与rnaset2竞争来促进自噬性尿嘧啶的产生,从而减弱crc细胞对fu的固有抵抗力。 图5 abhd5维持rnaset2的活性 文章小结 目前临床上fu对crc的疗效已受到极大的耐药性限制,尽管已知自噬与化疗耐药有关,但尚不清楚选择性自噬降解在调节化疗耐药中的作用机制。在本研究中,作者首次揭示了abhd5在调节溶酶体功能中的新作用,主要通过调节自噬尿嘧啶的产量使crc对fu的敏感性起着关键作用,其定位于溶酶体并与pdia5相互作用,以防止pdia5与rnaset2相互作用并使rnaset2失活,并通过abhd5缺陷型实验佐证了相关结论,强调了abhd5作为基于fu的crc化疗敏感性预测标志物的深远意义。 解析文献 o j, peng y, yang w, et al. abhd5 bl nts the sensitivity of colorectal cancer to fl oro racil via promoting a tophagic racil yield[j]. nat re comm nications, 2019, 10(1): 1078-1092.", "抗癌基因 抗癌基因是近年来才发现的一类基因。原癌基因参与正常的细胞分裂和分化的调控,体细胞的激活可致使癌基因的显性变化,如突变的ras基因在其野生型等位基因存在时具有显性表型,转位的c-myc基因对其未重排的等位基因是显性的。然而,一般来讲,调控生长和分化的基因能够显示相反的类型:只有在野生型中才能观察到维护正常生长类型的调节功能。任何突变或重排都将趋于使这样的基因失活,导致生长控制的丧失。由于野生型等位基因能够阻止这些突变,它们在细胞水平是隐性的,具这种特性的所谓的隐性癌基因又称为肿瘤阻遏基因或抗癌基因。 组成结构 抗癌基因亦称肿瘤抑制基因(t mor s ppressor gene)或隐性致癌基因(recessive onco-gene)。该类基因之存在可抑制细胞恶变,其丢失或失活(二倍体细胞中二个等位基因都失活)情况下促进细胞癌变。首次被鉴定出的是抗癌基因 rb(retinoblas-toma),它是从人的视网膜细胞瘤中鉴定出的人类肿瘤抑制基因,位于人染色体13q14上,其产物为plo5rb,定位在细胞核内。rb二个等位基因的丢失或失活与人视网膜细胞瘤发生有关。rb表达不仅在视网膜细胞瘤中,也存在于其它组织中。已知的尚有野生型p53基因(定位在人染色体带17p13)、 wilms 肾癌中的wt1等。通常认为抗癌基因参与细胞增殖的负调节,也将这类基因称为生长抑制基因。 主要测试 肉瘤癌细胞试验 科学家用一批老鼠做试验,把肉瘤癌细胞注入老鼠体内,结果发现有一只老鼠活了下来,那只老鼠经过四代。发现有2000只老鼠具备抗癌能力,提取其中老鼠的白细胞注入普通老鼠体内,发现普通老鼠也具备了此功能。人群中也有百分之六到百分之十五的人具有这种抗癌功能,这就很好解释为什么有些癌症患者可以康复的原因。科学家正准备做人体的试验,但部分分析说人的结构比老鼠复杂,有可能产生排斥反应,但科学家认为,器官移植已经很少出现排斥现象了,这说明人类抗癌治癌有望。 成视网膜细胞瘤模型 儿童肿瘤-成视网膜细胞瘤是抗癌基因活动的最富有特征性的模式。在这种以遗传或散发式发生的肿瘤中,成视网膜细胞瘤基因即是隐性癌基因,正常情况下它可阻遏成视网膜细胞的恶性转化。根据kn dson所提出的\"两次碰撞\"假说,具家族性病发危险的成员继承了一个已损伤的非功能性基因。在这样的成员中,第二次\"碰撞\"是体细胞突变,使剩余的正常等位基因失活。而具散发性成视网膜细胞瘤的个体,则遭受了破坏两个等位基因的两次体细胞突变。最近,研究者们已将这个假说推进了一大步,成功地对成视网膜细胞瘤基因rb-1进行了分子克隆和性质分析。现已确定成视网膜细胞瘤基因位于第13对染色体的长臂。许多研究人员运用限制性片段长度多态性技术,通过已在第13对染色体(13q)上鉴定了一些多态区的dna探针,对肿瘤dna和其正常dna进行比较,证实在肿瘤细胞中,纯化的rb-1基因区遗传基因常常丢失。通过dna印迹杂交技术,用多态性探针鉴别了母系和父系染色体,其遗传物质的丢失却明显是杂合性的丢失。结果显示了在13q发生一特异的杂合性丢失,并且在具家族性成视网膜细胞瘤病人的肿瘤细胞中仍存在的rb-1等位基因均来自患病的父亲。这个发现支持这样的推测,即在继承了一套坏的成视网膜细胞瘤基因拷贝的个体中,需要体细胞突变(在这个例子中为基因丢失)以推进其癌变进程。以后,通过用对13q特异的dna探针所做的工作表明不仅是有丝分裂重组,而且染色体丢失和复制,都是通过体细胞机制而发生遗传物质的丢失。 产生种类 其它家族性肿瘤中的抗癌基因 在家族性成视网膜细胞瘤和几乎所有显性遗传的肿瘤综合症中都出现了相似的类型。在过去的几年中,已定位了这些家族性肿瘤的许多病发位点,包括wilm′s瘤、几种形式的多内分泌肿瘤、结肠息肉瘤、ⅰ型和ⅱ型神经纤维瘤及家族性肾癌。在已检查的每个例子中,这些病人的肿瘤dna显示了具近相应家族性癌基因的标志的杂合性丢失。每一癌基因位点都已被定位于特定的染色体区域,显示了多种具rb-1特性的癌基因的存在。 散发性肿瘤中的抗癌基因 尽管具显性遗传肿瘤的病人在所有肿瘤病人中并未占大部分,但这些病人的分子遗传学对散发性肿瘤仍是非常适用的。首先,在乳腺癌、肺癌、胃癌和膀胱癌中都观察到了特异类型的杂合性丢失。如上所述,这种分子损伤是隐性癌基因的特点。由于这些肿瘤的每一种,都具有不同的杂合性丢失的染色体位点,预示很可能存在大量抗癌基因。像在结肠癌的肿瘤中,散发性的病例有时显示与同种癌症家族性形式相同的染色体位点的杂合性丢失(在这个例子中为5g)。这意味着散发性肿瘤可能是由引起这种肿瘤家族性形式的同一基因的分子损伤所诱发的。 研发进展 当我们提到不留情面可置人于死地的癌症,往往首先认为流氓无赖的恶棍癌细胞入侵原本健康的人体器官,只要我们找到可准确清除或杀死恶棍癌细胞的\"警察武器\",就可以一劳永逸的预防和治愈癌症。尽管近年来,癌症治疗在全球医学界和科技界的积极努力下,取得重要进展,但迄今为止,药物靶向治疗癌症不仅不能\"赶尽杀绝\"癌细胞,反而使其产生耐药性,而且\"猛药\"往往导致人体严重的负面效应,甚至对人体造成不可挽回的损失。愈来愈多的研究显示,我们的身体和疾病之间存在着\"串通一气\"的紧密联系,为癌细胞的成长繁殖提供了基础环境和藏身之地,犹如土壤和种子之间的关系。欧盟第七研发框架计划(fp7)提供300万欧元资助,总研发投入430万欧元,由欧盟6个成员国奥地利(总协调)、匈牙利、德国、西班牙、捷克和意大利,数10家科研机构、大学、医院和制药企业组成的欧洲optatio研发团队。试图通过干扰癌细胞周围环境\"土壤\"的方式,找到治愈癌症的新疗法,彻底解决人类对癌症的恐惧。 optatio研发团队选择多发性骨髓瘤(m ltiple myeloma)作为治疗的研究对象,多发性骨髓瘤属于影响白血细胞的癌症,欧盟和美国每年新诊断病患超过5万例。研发团队首先从建立癌细胞的\"种子\"与\"土壤\"的\"共同培养\"(co-c lt re)试验分析平台做起,癌细胞周围的微环境包括组织细胞、骨髓细胞、血管细胞和免疫细胞,同癌细胞有着\"千丝万缕\"的传递生物化学信号联系,尽可能进行切合实际病患的复制。可有效测试癌细胞\"种子\"药物和微环境\"土壤\"抑制药物产生的反应,并自动以数据和成像的方式给出分析结果。 研发团队利用一线临床医生提供的数百份病患采样和制药界提供的数千份药品化合物,分别进行综合的分析比对反复试验,发现两种来自海洋天然有机物的激酶抑制剂(kinase inhibitors),具有阻塞多发性骨髓瘤癌细胞的微环境酶化作用,有望在2014年底进行药物的i期临床实验。 [1] 相关报告 已有几个实验室报导了人rb-1基因的分子克隆。该位点相当大,长约200kb,由27个外显子所组成,由该基因所转录的mrna编码一个110kd的磷蛋白。所有已检查过的细胞类型都表达rb-1基因。拥有这种基因使得该领域的研究人员能够分析家族性或散发性成视网膜细胞瘤中病理损伤的分了特征。首先,在几乎所有已检查的肿瘤中,rb-1mrna或者缺少,或者大小不正常。在这些肿瘤中,常可观察到mrna的小的缺失或突变,它们或改变mrna的阅读框架,或导致不正常的拼接。有趣的是,相似的rb-1损伤在骨肉瘤中也可发生。将一野生型基因拷贝转移到成视网膜细胞瘤细胞株的细胞中则直接表明了rb-1基因阻遏肿瘤发生的能力。这些结合正常rb-1基因的肿瘤细胞在体外具有较低的生长速率,当注射到裸鼠时不再发生肿瘤。这就表明了rb-1的抗癌基因表型。 rb-1产物pp110rb是一种有趣的蛋白质,它在细胞周期中显示了非常有趣的行为。在g1期,大部分pp110rb分子是非磷酸化的。在s和g2期,所有的pp110rb分子都变得磷酸化,并且通常是在多个位点上的磷酸化。一些dna肿癌病毒编码的蛋白质产物只结合pp110rb的非磷酸化形式,很可能是通过细胞内rb-1某因产物的这种结合,而介导由这些病毒所进行的转化。这表明rb-1蛋白质的未磷酸化形式是活化的形式,pp110rb很可能作为进入s期的载体的一部分而起作用。", "马铃薯Y病毒属 病毒粒子为弯曲线状，无包膜，长680~900nm，直径11~13nm，螺旋对称结构，螺距约3.4nm。有些病毒的粒子在二价阳离子存在时较长，在EDTA存在时较短。马铃薯Y病毒属代表种 马铃薯Y病毒（Potato virus Y） [1] 马铃薯Y病毒属病毒特性 马铃薯Y病毒属理化特性 标准沉降常数S（20W）=150~160S，在氯化铯中的浮力密度为1.31 gcm^3。 [1] 马铃薯Y病毒属核酸 为单分子线形正义ssRNA，长约9.7kb，相对分子质量3.0×10^6~3.5×10^6，核酸占病毒粒子重量的5%。 [1] 马铃薯Y病毒属蛋白质 外壳蛋白由一种多肽组成，分子质量为30~47 kDa，马铃薯Y病毒的外壳蛋白含267个氨基酸。 [1] 马铃薯Y病毒属基因组 单分体基因组，RNA的5’端为VPg，3’端为Poly（A）。基因组编码一个长的多聚蛋白，随后切割产生8~10个产物，包括外壳蛋白（在多聚蛋白C端）。马铃薯Y病毒的基因组长9700nt，编码的多聚蛋白切割产生10个蛋白，分别为：32.4kDa的P1蛋白（功能未知），51.9kDa的HC-Pro蛋白（即辅助成分，与蚜虫传播有关），41.5kDa的P3蛋白（功能未知），6.0kDa的6K1蛋白（功能未知），71.4kDa的CI蛋白（即柱状内含体蛋白，可能与病毒的胞间运动有关），5.5kDa的6K2蛋白（功能未知），21. 7kDa的NIa-VPg蛋白（即VPg蛋白），27.7kDa的NIa-Pro蛋白（核内含体蛋白酶），59.8kDa的NIb蛋 马铃薯Y病毒的基因组及其产物 白（核内含体复制酶）和29.8kDa的外壳蛋白。该属有近30种病毒的RNA全序列已测定。 [1] 马铃薯Y病毒属抗原特性 病毒具有中等免疫原性，属内许多病毒之间存在着血清学关系，一种单克隆抗体能与绝大多数该属的蚜传病毒反应，在该属的蚜传病毒中，外壳蛋白氨基酸序列的同源性为40%~70%，一些病毒与黑麦草花叶病毒属和大麦黄花叶病毒属有血清学关系。 [1] 马铃薯Y病毒属细胞病理 病毒存在于感病寄主植物的各个部分，线形病毒粒子在细胞质中分散或成束分布。该属所有病毒都在寄主细胞质中产生一种圆柱状或圆锥状内含体，在横切面上呈风轮状、卷筒 状、环状、片层状，纵切面上呈束状或管状等，不同病毒的柱状内含体有较大差异。爱德华森（Edwardson）依据内含体横切面上的形态，将其分为四个类型：I型具有风轮状体和卷筒体；II型具有臂伸展的风轮状体和片层聚集体；III型具有风轮状体、卷筒体和片层聚集体；IV型具有风轮状体、卷筒体和短而弯曲的片层聚集体。此分型方法与依据介体传播方式以及血清学关系的分类并不一致，但对于病理特征的描述是有用的。柱状内含体是由病毒基因组编码的70 kDa蛋白所构成，与病毒外壳蛋白无血清学关系。基本结构是一个中心轴管连接5~15片放射状排列的板状物，多数板状物卷曲，有的与中心轴管分离，有少数病毒粒子纵向附着在蛋白板上。内含体的基部端常连接在内质网或质膜上，有的垂直于细胞壁，与胞间连丝相连，另一端向细胞质伸展，在坏死细胞中往往还存在完整的内含体。由于内含体蛋白具有基因组编码保守性和复杂的三维结构，其功能可能与病毒的胞间转运有关，通过一些病毒的全序列分析还证明内含体蛋白是病毒RNA复制酶亚基之一，因此在病毒的复制装配上可能具有某种作用。 [1] 马铃薯Y病毒属病毒 芜菁花叶病毒 甜菜花叶病毒 一种马铃薯Y病毒属病毒的分离物在大丽菊叶片细胞中引起的风轮状体。 感染芜菁花叶病毒的榨菜叶肉细胞，示细胞质中充满了风轮状体、卷筒体和片层聚集体，病毒粒子分散或成束分布（箭头）。 甜菜花叶病毒感染的甜菜叶片细胞，示细胞质中的风轮状体和片层聚集体。 马铃薯Y病毒属病毒 马铃薯Y病毒属病毒 洋葱黄矮病毒 感染病毒病的柑桔叶片细胞，示细胞质中存在大量风轮状体和线状病毒粒子（箭头）。 感病甘薯叶片细胞中出现的细胞核内含体。 感染洋葱黄矮病毒的大蒜叶片细胞质中分布着风轮状体和卷筒体。 马铃薯Y病毒属病毒 烟草蚀纹病毒 豇豆皱缩花叶病毒 在烟草曲叶病病株的叶肉细胞中出现大量风轮状体和束状体，表明寄主细胞内存在着复合感染的马铃薯Y病毒属病毒。 烟草蚀纹病毒引起的细胞核内含体。 感染豇豆皱缩花叶病毒的豇豆叶片细胞质中分布着许多风轮状体和卷筒体。 马铃薯Y病毒属病毒 高粱花叶病毒 芋花叶病毒 感病大蒜叶片细胞，示细胞质中的囊泡结构和散布的病毒粒子（箭头），束状体与质膜相连，处在胞间连丝附近。 感染高粱花叶病毒的甘蔗叶片细胞质中风轮状体出现在胞间连丝（箭头）附近。 感染芋花叶病毒的魔芋叶片细胞质中分布着大量风轮状体和束状体。 除了柱状内含体外，该属病毒还在寄主细胞质或细胞核 中产生其他一些类型的内含体。如木瓜环斑病毒在细胞质中产生颗粒状无定形体，辣椒斑驳病毒产生卷绕管状物，还有的病毒产生电子致密的针状或杆状物，这些无定形体是由病毒基因组编码的52 kDa蛋白聚集体，为辅助成分蛋白酶（HC-Pro），与蚜虫传毒有关。在烟草蚀纹病毒感染的细胞核内产生大的角锥状结晶体，由两种病毒基因组编码蛋白组成，49 kDa小核内含体（NIa）蛋白由VPg和蛋白酶组成，58 kDa大核内含体（NIb）是依赖于病毒RNA的RNA聚合酶，核内含体与病毒复制有关。其他还有甜菜花叶病毒产生颗粒状核内含体，菜豆黄花叶病毒产生核结晶体及细胞质内含体，李痘病毒、天仙子花叶病毒产生核及胞质结晶体，芹菜黄花叶病毒、菜豆普通花叶病毒、麝香石竹脉斑驳病毒产生特殊的管状物，这些不同类型的内含体和该属特征性的柱状内含体在病毒诊断上具有重要意义 。 [1] 马铃薯Y病毒属生物学 马铃薯Y病毒属寄主范围 一些病毒的寄主范围窄，但大多数具有中等宽的寄主范围，少数病毒可侵染30多科植物。马铃薯Y病毒的寄主范围为茄科及一些苋科、藜科、菊科和豆科植物，机械接种可感染120种植物。 [1] 马铃薯Y病毒属传播 蚜虫以非持久方式传播，可以通过机械接种传播，有些分离物蚜传效率低，而另一些分离物不能始终被蚜传，可能是由于蚜传辅助因子或外壳蛋白顺反子的突变所致。一些病毒还可经种子传播。 [1] 马铃薯Y病毒属地理分布 该属病毒分布范围很广，许多是世界性的。 [1] 马铃薯Y病毒属分类 该属共有91个种和88个暂定种，代表种是马铃薯Y病毒。该属是植物病毒最大的一个属，许多病毒是危害粮食作物、经济作物、牧草、药材、果树的重要病原，在全世界范围内造成严重经济损失。在中国，一些重要的种如马铃薯Y病毒、大豆花叶病毒、高粱花叶病毒、小西葫芦黄花叶病毒、甘蔗花叶病毒、芜菁花叶病毒、玉米矮花叶病毒、芋花叶病毒、烟草蚀纹病毒、菜豆普通花叶病毒、菜豆黄花叶病毒、甜菜花叶病毒、麝香石竹脉斑驳病毒、辣椒脉斑驳病毒、洋葱黄矮病毒、西瓜花叶病毒、郁金香杂色病毒等已有许多研究报道。 [1] 马铃薯Y病毒属确定种 共91个种。 [1] 编号 中文名 学名 国家基因库登录号码 1 山姜花叶病毒 Alpinia mosaic virus（AIpMV） - 2 六出花花叶病毒 Alstroemeria mosaic virus（AlMV） - 3 苋叶斑驳病毒 Amaranthus leaf mottle virus（AmLMV） - 4 萝藦花叶病毒 Araujia mosaic virus（ArjMV） - 5 菊芋潜隐病毒 Artichoke latent virus（ArLV） - 6 天门冬病毒1号 Asparagus virus 1（AV-1） - 7 香蕉苞片花叶病毒 Banana bract mosaic virus（BBrMV） - 8 菜豆普通花叶坏死病毒 Bean common mosaic necrosis virus（BCMNV） [U19287] 9 菜豆普通花叶病毒 Bean common mosaic virus（BCMV） [U05771，U34972] 10 菜豆黄花叶病毒 Bean yellow mosaic virus（BYMV） [D83749，U47033] 11 甜菜花叶病毒 Beet mosaic virus（BtMV） - 12 鬼针草斑驳病毒 Bidens mottle virus（BiMoV） - 13 虾脊兰轻型花叶病毒 Calanthe mild mosaic virus（CalMMV） - 14 豆蔻花叶病毒 Cardamom mosaic virus（CdMV） - 15 麝香石竹脉斑驳病毒 Carnation vein mottle virus（CVMoV） - 16 胡萝卜细叶病毒 Carrot thin leaf virus（CTLV） - 17 芹菜花叶病毒 Celery mosaic virus（CeMV） - 18 Ceratobium花叶病毒 Ceratobium mosaic virus（CerMV） - 19 南美红辣椒脉斑驳病毒 Chilli veinal mottle virus（ChiVMV） - 20 三叶草黄脉病毒 Clover yellow vein virus（ClYVV） [AB011819] 21 鸭茅线条病毒 Cocksfoot streak virus（CSV） - 22 哥伦比亚曼陀罗病毒 Colombian datura virus（CDV） - 23 鸭跖草花叶病毒 Commelina mosaic virus（ComMV） - 24 豇豆蚜传花叶病毒 Cowpea aphid-borne mosaic virus（CABMV） - 25 豇豆绿色脉带病毒 Cowpea green vein banding virus（CGVBV） - 26 芋花叶病毒 Dasheen mosaic virus（DsMV） - 27 曼陀罗带化病毒 Datura shoestring virus（DSSV） - 28 苣荬菜坏死花叶病毒 Endive necrotic mosaic virus（ENMV） - 29 香雪兰花叶病毒 Freesia mosaic virus（FreMV） - 30 嘉兰条斑花叶病毒 Gloriosa stripe mosaic virus（GSMV） - 31 花生眼斑病毒 Groundnut eyespot virus（GEV） - 32 羊草花叶病毒 Guinea grass mosaic virus（GGMV） - 33 堆心菊Y病毒 Helenium virus Y（HVY） - 34 天仙子花叶病毒 Henbane mosaic virus（HMV） - 35 朱顶红花叶病毒 Hippeastrum mosaic virus（HiMV） - 36 风信子花叶病毒 Hyacinth mosaic virus（HyaMV） - 37 暗黄鸢尾花叶病毒 Iris fulva mosaic virus（IFMV） - 38 鸢尾轻型花叶病毒 Iris mild mosaic virus（IMMV） - 39 鸢尾重型花叶病毒 Iris severe mosaic virus（ISMV） - 40 石茅高粱花叶病毒 Johnsongrass mosaic virus（JGMV） [Z26920] 41 伽蓝菜花叶病毒 Kalanchoe mosaic virus（KMV） - 42 魔芋花叶病毒 Konjac mosaic virus（KoMV） - 43 韭葱黄条病毒 Leek yellow stripe virus（LYSV） - 44 莴苣花叶病毒 Lettuce mosaic virus（LMV） [X97704，X97705] 45 百合斑驳病毒 Lily mottle virus（LMoV） - 46 玉米矮花叶病毒 Maize dwarf mosaic virus（MDMV） [AJ001691] 47 摩洛哥西瓜花叶病毒 Moroccan watermelon mosaic virus（MWMV） - 48 水仙退化病毒 Narcissus degeneration virus（NDV） - 49 水仙晚期黄化病毒 Narcissus late season yellows virus（NLSYV） - 50 水仙黄条病毒 Narcissus yellow stripe virus（NYSV） - 51 尼润黄条病毒 Nerine yellow stripe virus（NeYSV） - 52 假葱花叶病毒 Nothoscordum mosaic virus（NoMV） - 53 洋葱黄矮病毒 Onion yellow dwarf virus（OYDV） - 54 虎眼万年青花叶病毒 Ornithogalum mosaic virus（OrMV） - 55 木瓜环斑病毒 Papaya ringspot virus（PRSV） [S46722，X67673， X97251] 56 欧防风花叶病毒 Parsnip mosaic virus（ParMV） - 57 鸡蛋果木质化病毒 Passion fruit woodiness virus（PWV） - 58 豌豆种传花叶病毒 Pea seed-borne mosaic virus（PSbMV） [D10930，D01152， X89997] 59 花生花叶病毒 Peanut mottle virus（PeMoV） [AF023848] 60 辣椒斑驳病毒 Pepper mottle virus（PepMoV） [M96425] 61 辣椒重型花叶病毒 Pepper severe mosaic virus（PepSMV） - 62 辣椒脉斑驳病毒 Pepper veinal mottle virus（PVMV） - 63 秘鲁番茄花叶病毒 Peru tomato mosaic virus（PTV） - 64 碧冬茄花斑驳病毒 Petunia flower mottle virus（PetFMV） - 65 李痘病毒 Plum pox virus（PPV） [D00424，D13751， M92280，X16415， X81083] 66 商陆花叶病毒 Pokeweed mosaic virus（PkMV） - 67 马铃薯A病毒 Potato virus A（PVA） [Z21670] 68 马铃薯V病毒 Potato virus V（PVV） - 69 马铃薯Y病毒 Potato virus Y（PVY） [D00441，M95491， U09509，X12456， X97895] 70 伦布兰特郁金香碎色病毒 Rembrandt tulip breaking virus（ReTBV） - 71 青葱黄条病毒 Shallot yellow stripe virus（SYSV） - 72 高粱花叶病毒 Sorghum mosaic virus（SrMV） - 73 大豆花叶病毒 Soybean mosaic virus（SMV） [S42280] 74 甘蔗花叶病毒 Sugarcane mosaic virus（SCMV） - 75 甘薯羽状斑驳病毒 Sweet potato feathery mottle virus（SPFMV） [D86371] 76 甘薯潜隐病毒 Sweet potato latent virus（SPLV） - 77 树番茄花叶病毒 Tamarillo mosaic virus（TamMV） - 78 发藤葫芦花叶病毒 Telfairia mosaic virus（TeMV） - 79 烟草蚀纹病毒 Tobacco etch virus（TEV） [L38714，M11458， M15239] 80 烟草脉带花叶病毒 Tobacco vein banding mosaic virus（TVBMV） - 81 烟草脉斑驳病毒 Tobacco vein mottling virus（TVMV） [U38621，X04083] 82 旱金莲花叶病毒 Tropaeolum mosaic virus（TrMV） - 83 晚香玉轻型花叶病毒 Tuberose mild mosaic virus（TuMMV） - 84 郁金香杂色病毒 Tulip breaking virus（TBV） - 85 芜菁花叶病毒 Turnip mosaic virus（TuMV） [D10927，D83184] 86 西瓜花叶病毒 Watermelon mosaic virus（WMV） - 87 野马铃薯花叶病毒 Wild potato mosaic virus（WPMV） - 88 紫藤脉花叶病毒 Wisteria vein mosaic virus（WVMV） - 89 薯蓣花叶病毒 Yam mosaic virus（YMV） [U24596] 90 小西葫芦黄点病毒 Zucchini yellow fleck virus（ZYFV） - 91 小西葫芦黄花叶病毒 Zucchini yellow mosaic virus（ZYMV） [L29569，L31350， AF014811] 马铃薯Y病毒属暂定种 共88个种。 [1] 编号 中文名 学名 1 六出花线条病毒 Alstroemeria streak virus（AlStV） 2 亚马孙百合花叶病毒 Amazon lily mosaic virus（ALiMV） 3 安尼米墨草花叶病毒 Aneilema mosaic virus（AneMV） 4 黄花茅花叶病毒 Anthoxanthum mosaic virus（AntMV） 5 耧斗菜坏死环斑病毒 Aquilegia necrotic ringspot virus（AqNRSV） 6 滇芎Y病毒 Arracacha virus Y（AVY） 7 垣河十万错斑驳病毒 Asystasia gangetica mottle virus（AGMoV） 8 鬼针草花叶病毒 Bidens mosaic virus（BiMV） 9 欧洲黑莓黄花叶病毒 Bramble yellow mosaic virus（BrmYMV） 10 泻根斑驳病毒 Bryonia mottle virus（BryMoV） 11 草芦花叶病毒 Canary reed mosaic virus（CRMV） 12 海刀豆花叶病毒 Canavalia maritima mosaic virus（CnMMV） 13 胡萝卜花叶病毒 Carrot mosaic virus（CtMV） 14 决明黄斑病毒 Cassia yellow spot virus（CasYSV） 15 芹菜黄花叶病毒 Celery yellow mosaic virus（CeYMV） 16 鹰嘴豆丛矮病毒 Chickpea bushy dwarf virus（CpBDV） 17 鹰嘴豆线形病毒 Chickpea filiform virus（CpFV） 18 蝶豆黄花叶病毒 Clitoria yellow mosaic virus（CtYMV） 19 豇豆皱缩花叶病毒 Cowpea rugose mosaic virus（CPRMV） 20 文殊兰花叶病毒 Crinum mosaic virus（CriMV） 21 克罗地亚三叶草病毒 Croatian clover virus（CroCV） 22 杓兰褪绿线条病毒 Cypripedium chlorotic streak virus（CypCSV） 23 瑞香Y病毒 Daphne virus Y（DVY） 24 曼陀罗437病毒 Datura virus 437（DV-437） 25 曼陀罗扭曲花叶病毒 Datura distortion mosaic virus（DDMV） 26 曼陀罗花叶病毒 Datura mosaic virus（DTMV） 27 曼陀罗坏死病毒 Datura necrosis virus（DNV） 28 山蚂蛾花叶病毒 Desmodium mosaic virus（DesMV） 29 三浅裂薯蓣病毒 Dioscorea trifida virus（DTV） 30 双腺藤花叶病毒 Dipladenia mosaic virus（DipMV） 31 酸模斑驳花叶病毒 Dock mottling mosaic virus（DMMV） 32 茄绿花叶病毒 Eggplant green mosaic virus（EGMV） 33 茄重型斑驳病毒 Eggplant severe mottle virus（ESMoV） 34 大戟环斑病毒 Euphorbia ringspot virus（EuRSV） 35 榕叶褪绿病毒 Fig leaf chlorosis virus（FigLCV） 36 瓜尔豆无症病毒 Guar symptomless virus（GSLV） 37 玉凤花花叶病毒 Habenaria mosaic virus（HaMV） 38 绒毛草线条病毒 Holcus streak virus（HSV） 39 匈牙利毛曼陀罗病毒 Hungarian datura innoxia virus（HDIV） 40 印度辣椒斑驳病毒 Indian pepper mottle virus（IPMoV） 41 柳叶箬花叶病毒 Isachne mosaic virus（IsaMV） 42 肯尼迪豆Y病毒 Kennedya virus Y（KVY） 43 百合轻型斑驳病毒 Lily mild mottle virus（LiMMoV） 44 锦葵脉明病毒 Malva vein clearing virus（MVCV） 45 万寿菊斑驳病毒 Marigold mottle virus（MaMoV） 46 草木樨花叶病毒 Melilotus mosaic virus（MeMV） 47 甜瓜脉带花叶病毒 Melon vein-banding mosaic virus（MVBMV） 48 绿豆花叶病毒 Mungbean mosaic virus（MbMV） 49 绿豆斑驳病毒 Mungbean mottle virus（MMoV） 50 尼润病毒 Nerine virus（NV） 51 尼润Y病毒 Nerine virus Y（NVY） 52 棕榈花叶病毒 Palm mosaic virus（PalMV） 53 木瓜叶扭曲花叶病毒 Papaya leaf distortion mosaic virus（PLDMV） 54 鸡蛋果斑驳病毒 Passion fruit mottle virus（PFMoV） 55 鸡蛋果环斑病毒 Passion fruit ringspot virus（PFRSV） 56 广藿香斑驳病毒 Patchouli mottle virus（PatMoV） 57 花生绿斑驳病毒 Peanut green mottle virus（PeGMoV） 58 白蝶兰花叶病毒 Pecteilis mosaic virus（PcMV） 59 辣椒轻型花叶病毒 Pepper mild mosaic virus（PMM V） 60 辣椒脉带病毒 Pepper vein banding virus（PVBV） 61 紫苏斑驳病毒 Perilla mottle virus（PerMoV） 62 车前草病毒7号 Plantain virus 7（PlV-7） 63 苦竹花叶病毒 Pleioblastus mosaic virus（PleMV） 64 杨树衰退病毒 Poplar decline virus（PopDV） 65 报春花花叶病毒 Primula mosaic virus（PrMV） 66 报春花斑驳病毒 Primula mottle virus（PrMoV） 67 萝卜脉明病毒 Radish vein clearing virus（RaVCV） 68 毛茛斑驳病毒 Ranunculus mottle virus（RanMoV） 69 金光菊花叶病毒 Rudbeckia mosaic virus（RuMV） 70 斯里兰卡鸡蛋果斑驳病毒 Sri Lanka passion fruit mottle virus（SLPMoV） 71 向日葵花叶病毒 Sunflower mosaic virus（SuMV） 72 甘薯轻型斑点病毒 Sweet potato mild speckling virus（SPMSV） 73 甘薯脉花叶病毒 Sweet potato vein mosaic virus（SPVMV） 74 剑豆磕藤子畸变花叶病毒 Sword bean distortion mosaic virus（SBDMV） 75 芋羽状斑驳病毒 Taro feathery mottle virus（TFMoV） 76 川续断花叶病毒 Teasel mosaic virus（TeaMV） 77 烟草萎蔫病毒 Tobacco wilt virus（TWV） 78 同甘香果兰病毒 Tongan vanilla virus（TVV） 79 紫露草花叶病毒 Tradescantia mosaic virus（TraMV） 80 栝楼斑驳病毒 Trichosanthes mottle virus（TrMoV） 81 旱金莲病毒1号 Tropaeolum virus 1（TV-1） 82 旱金莲病毒2号 Tropaeolum virus 2（TV-2） 83 郁金香带状碎色病毒 Tulip band breaking virus（TBBV） 84 块根落葵花叶病毒 Ullucus mosaic virus（UMV） 85 石蒜花叶病毒 Vallota mosaic virus（ValMV） 86 香果兰花叶病毒 Vanilla mosaic virus（VanMV） 87 白泻根病毒 White bryony virus（WBV） 88 结缕草花叶病毒 Zoysia mosaic virus（ZoMV） 词条图册 更多图册 参考资料 1. 洪健，李德葆，周雪平主编。2001.12。植物病毒分类图谱(北京:科学出版社)，100-106。", "短裸甲藻毒素 从短裸甲藻分离的神经性贝类毒素，属于聚醚类的脂溶性藻类毒素。具热稳定性。这类毒素在贝类等生物体中的消除半衰期长达数十天甚至数月，且加热、微波等常规加工方式因降低了水产品中的含水量而导致毒素浓度更高，因此这类毒素对消费者带来的潜在危害更加严重。短裸甲藻属于裸甲藻目（Gymnodiniales），裸甲藻科（Gymnodiniaceae），裸甲藻属（Gymnodinium）。短裸甲藻毒素（Brevetoxin，BTX）主要是由双鞭甲藻（Karenia bravisbrevis）产生的一类赤潮藻毒素，其他藻类如剧毒冈比甲藻（Gambierdiscums toxincus）、褐胞藻（Chattonella）、卡盾氏藻（Chattonella antiqua）、海洋褐胞藻（Chattonella marina）、针胞藻（Fibrocapsa japonica）和赤潮异弯藻（Heterosigma akashiwo）等也可产生BTX。 此类毒素可富集到贝类等生物体中，并导致消费者产生诸如恶心、呕吐、腹泻、痉挛、支气管收缩、麻痹、昏迷等神经性中毒症状，因此也曾被广泛称为神经性贝毒（Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning，NSP）。不过，由于其他毒素如麻痹性贝毒（Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning，PSP）也可以导致消费者出现神经性中毒症状，所以原有的分类方法已不能满足管理和科研的需求。因此，2004年由联合国粮农组织、世界卫生组织和政府间海洋委员会共同组建的双壳软体生物毒素工作组，根据毒素的基本结构和化学性质对现有贝类毒素进行了重新分类，从而将原有的神经性贝毒命名为短裸甲藻毒素组毒素（Brevetoxin-group，BTX），简称为BTX毒素。产生该毒素的贝类主要分布在美洲墨西哥湾沿岸及新西兰豪拉基海湾等海域。 从化学性质上来看，BTX属于聚醚类的脂溶性藻类毒素（Lipophilic Phycotoxins，LPs），具热稳定性，易溶解于甲醇、乙醚等非极性有机试剂，该特性导致这类毒素在贝类等生物体中的消除半衰期长达数十天甚至数月，且加热、微波等常规加工方式因降低了水产品中的含水量而导致毒素浓度更高，因此这类毒素对消费者带来的潜在危害更加严重。 BTX是无臭、无味、热稳定的脂溶性聚醚类海洋生物毒素，具有独特的结构和药理功能。BTX难溶于中性及酸性水溶液，可溶于1%NaOH溶液和二硫化碳、氯仿、苯、乙醚、丙酮、甲醇、乙醇等有机溶剂。 墨西哥湾贝类中的BTX代谢产物最初是通过对东方牡蛎（Crassostreavirginica）组织提取物和水华水体进行分离发现的。随后的研究表明纯毒素，游离的PbTx-2主要在东方牡蛎中代谢，而游离的PbTx-3则主要以其原有的形态蓄积于牡蛎中。鉴定的东方牡蛎中PbTx-2的主要代谢产物包括还原产物PbTx-3，半胱氨酸硫氧化物结合物BTX-B2（之前在新西兰贝类中发现的）和S-脱氧-BTX-B2。S-脱氧-BTX-B2可以稳定的氧化成BTX-B2，用作贝类的检测和定量鉴定。 就稳定性与构型关系而言，A型毒素较B型稳定。在干燥状态下或在有机溶剂内，A型毒素的结构仍完整不变。该毒素具耐热性，在300℃时仍保持稳定。pH值变化对稳定性影响大。当pH 2或10时可加速型毒素的分解 在0.1mol=\"在0.1mol\" l=\"L\" naoh水溶液中=\"NaOH水溶液中\" 毒素可用a环内醋的=\"毒素可用A环内醋的\"皂化而灭活。经臭氧分解，或在氯水（aqueous chloride）中亦使毒素活性受影响。 在东方牡蛎中，BTX代谢物的消除率和与其相关的极性和疏水性不是一致的。PbTx-1和PbTx-2的半胱氨酸结合物属于极性最强的BTX代谢物，而同时也是持续最久的。Plakas等假设认为PbTx-1和PbTx-2与半胱氨酸蛋白的二分之一相结合，从而使半胱氨酸-BTX通过蛋白水解作用内收而缓慢释放。游离的半胱氨酸或包含肽段的半胱氨酸（如谷胱甘肽）也可与PbTx-1和PbTx-2结合。贝类组织中半胱氨酸结合物最初快速消除的状态表示此类结合物可能形成于游离的半胱氨酸或谷胱甘肽结合物的分解作用。 BTX毒素基本结构是由10到11个环状结构构成的大环多醚类物质。根据结构的骨架不同可以分为A型（BTX-A，也即PbTx-A）和B型（BTX-B，也即PbTx-B），也可以称之为1型和2型，这两种基本结构分别于1981年和1987年被确定，其它组分则是从这两类基本结构衍生而来。 贝类中的BTX代谢物A型和B型骨架结构的内酯环（A环）是通过水解形成的，这些包括PbTx-1和PbTx-2的半胱氨酸结合物形成的开环A环。A型BTX代谢产物的内酯环比B型更倾向于水解。发生在贝类体内的水解的范围是未知的，PbTx-1和PbTx-2形成的A环开环化合物广泛存在于短裸甲藻培养物和水华中。 将优化得到的7个化合物的空间结构叠加在一起，发现它们末端4个环可以很好地重合，从倒数第五个环开始，分子骨架出现弯曲，A型分子弯曲较小，近似直线型，而B型分子向上弯曲较大，这是由于B型H环构象发生了不同程度的变化。可见分子骨架弯曲程度同各自的生物活性强弱是很好对应的。因为A型比B型活性高，因此A型构象更适宜同受体结合。 A型与B型中段不饱和环与端部烯键的距离有明显不同，在A型的PbTx-1中，E和F不饱和环与A环的空间距离为1. 46nm，与另一端R烯键的距离为1.48nm。在B型的PbTx-2中，H不饱和环与A环距离为1. 99nm，与R烯键相距0.97nm。由于A型活性强于B型，故推测A型中段不饱和环的位置更有利于同受体正电中心结合。A型的E，F环与两端活性部位距离几乎相等，正好位于骨架中心，由此推测与之结合的长约3n}n的受体活性区域，中间是正电中心，与两端负电中心的距离大致相等。由于B型的H环偏离中心位置，在与受体正电中心结合时产生偏差，造成活性下降。 BTX-2（B型）是涡鞭毛藻产生最多的BTX毒素。当然，其他一些藻类，如古卡盾氏藻、海洋卡盾藻、针胞藻、赤潮异弯藻等也曾被报道可产生似BTX的生物毒素。BTX-2在贝类等生物体内的代谢产物主要是BTX-3、BTX-B1、BTX-B2、S-desoxy-BTX-B2、BTX-B3、BTX-B4和BTX-B5。因此消费者食用受污染的贝类和鱼类导致的中毒主要是由BTX毒素的代谢产物引起的，而非BTX毒素直接作用的结果。 BTX主要蓄积在东方牡蛎（Crassostreavirginica）、文蛤（Mercenaria）、峨螺（Busycon contrarium）、海扇（Austrovenus stutchburyi）、绿壳贻贝（Pernacanaliculus）等贝类中。贝类可通过摄食短裸甲藻细胞或从水中直接吸收BTX，并使其快速蓄积。牡蛎中的短裸甲藻水平较好地反映了短裸甲藻水华的进展和强度。已证实BTX可在接触了纯的BTX和短裸甲藻培养物的贝类中快速蓄积。在捕食双壳贝类的食肉峨螺中发现，贝类中的营养转移也是间接的。 BTX可在一些贝类体内进行代谢。BTX代谢的第一例报道是1992～1993年在新西兰爆发的NSP。几年以后，美国发现的大范围的BTX代谢证实是由接触了短裸甲藻水华的贝类产生的，此次水华发生于墨西哥湾。其后发现BTX的代谢在多种贝类中都具有特征性。因为在短裸甲藻中B型BTX分布广泛，所以最初从贝类中分离和鉴定出的BTX代谢物是B型BTX。 BTX-2和BTX-3的小鼠急性毒性试验24 h半致死剂量分别为200mgkg b.w.和170 mgkg b.w.。小鼠腹腔注射BTX-B3 在剂量浓度在300mgkg b. w.时不具有毒性，而BTX-B4和BTX-B5的最小致死剂量分别为100和300-500mgkg b. w.。小鼠分别腹腔注射BTX-B2、BTX-3和S-desoxy-BTX-B2所产生的中毒症状基本相似。致死剂量毒素导致的症状主要包括：15min后不动，死亡前呼吸麻痹，眼球突出，快速弹动后腿；而亚致死剂量毒素则造成腹式呼吸速率先迅速上升后急剧下降，四肢完全瘫痪，但3-5h后运动能力恢复。在接下来的7d观察期结束时未出现进一步病理异常。通过静脉注射给药，小鼠立即中毒死亡。 小鼠口服的半致死剂量只有BTX-2（6600 mgkg b. w.）和BTX-3（520 mgkg b. w.）的。口服给药一般5h后才出现死亡，这与注射给药可致急性死亡不同。口服毒性效力BTX-2比BTX-3要低一个数量级以上。毒性效力差异主要是吸收率的不同引起的，而不是因为BTX-2在经过肝脏时进行了第一次代谢。 人类接触短裸甲藻毒素有三个途径:在赤潮期间，沿海形成之气雾中杂有此种毒素，人类通过呼吸道吸入后导致哮喘样发作，类似毒覃碱受体兴奋之症状；赤潮毒化海洋环境污染了海洋鱼贝类，人类因摄食污染短裸甲藻毒素的海鲜品而导致“神经性贝中毒”。其中毒表现类似CTX中毒，主要有消化系统及神经系统症状；皮肤接触含短裸甲藻毒素的海水，导致皮肤及粘膜出现刺痒及水疤等表现。尽管尚无中毒死亡的报道，但此毒素的严重致病性已被临床及病理学家所证实。由于此种毒素可导致呼吸衰竭或心室纤颤，故对人类的潜在致死性不容忽视。 发生NSP中毒的各地区对致毒贝类和鱼类体内BTX毒素的含量数据中，以1MU相当于4μg，BTX-2计（贝类中污染的BTX毒素含量多以MUs100g为单位），致毒贝类中BTX毒素的浓度从880至49000μgBTX-2kg b.w.不等。Naar 等应用竞争性ELISA 法测定鱼肉中的BTX毒素（以BTX-3为标准），浓度从580至6000μgBTX-3kg b.w.。欧洲国家尚无关于BTX类毒素在贝类和鱼类中的限量标准。美国规定小鼠生物法安全标准为20 MUs100g（0. 8 mgBTX-2kg b. w.）。新西兰和澳大利亚最高限量为20MUs100g，未规定哪一类BTX类。 一般来说，主要采用腹腔注射、静脉注射、口服等方式研究BTX毒素在小鼠体内的毒代动力学。有报道的仅限于BTX-2和BTX-3。结果表明，小鼠腹腔注射BTX-2和BTX-3，1h后血水平达到最高值，BTX-2组比BTX-3组先达到正常血水平的3倍，BTX-2在24h后主要以共轭半胱氨酸结合物的形式从尿液排出； 而采用静脉注射BTX-3，毒素在1 min内在血液循环中消失，24h后通过胆汁排泄进入粪便； 若采用口服的方式，BTX-3快速且广泛分散到各个器官，其中肝脏内含量最高，最后主要伴随尿液和粪便排出到体外，且两种方式含量相差不大。 呼吸是BTX毒素引起神经性中毒的主要方式之一，因此通过向小鼠气管内滴入3H标记的BTX-3，研究该种方式引起的毒代动力学。结果发现，气管内80%毒素被迅速吸收，从肺进入血液并被所有组织器官吸收。大部分的BTX-3从肺、肝脏和肾脏代谢迅速排出体外，另外20%的毒素分散到其他器官保留了7d。小鼠组脂肪、心脏、肠、肾脏、肝脏和肌肉的消除半衰期为28h，而大脑和睾丸大概需要90h。大约90%的毒素在96 h内排出体外，其中11%从尿液、64%从粪便排出。 BTX毒素主要对呼吸和心肌功能有抑制作用，产生自发、反复的剂量依赖性肌肉收缩，造成束颤，抽搐或跳跃，与剂量显著相关的呼吸速率下降，中枢和外周神经的支气管收缩。 若干研究结果表明，BTX毒素可致染色体体外断裂。BTX-2可诱导中国仓鼠卵巢细胞染色体畸变。通过单细胞凝胶电泳发现用BTX-2、BTX-3和BTX-9 孵育人体淋巴细胞后DNA受损伤（链断裂）。在BTX-2、BTX-3和BTX-6孵育人T淋巴细胞白血病细胞Jurkat E6-1后也发现了DNA损伤。Leighfield等报告说，通过吸入暴露，BTX-2诱导了大鼠肝细胞DNA损伤，表明BTX-2也可引发体内染色体断裂。 BTX是较强的钠通道激活毒素，可以与钠通道受体靶部位VI结合，开启兴奋膜上的钠通道，可以使细胞膜对钠离子的通透性增强，活化电压门控钠通道，产生较强的细胞去极化作用，引起神经肌肉兴奋的传导发生改变，对钾通道不起作用。因而，BTX具有胚胎毒性、发育毒性、免疫毒性、遗传毒性和致癌作用等毒性效应。 BTX毒素的毒性大小取决于两个因素：毒素和目标物的亲和力以及靶细胞中诱导反应的效力。BTX毒素最主要的致毒方式是通过与细胞膜上的电压门控钠离子通道位点5结合造成的。这种结合激活了通道5，失控的钠离子内流进入细胞，使神经元细胞和肌肉细胞的细胞膜去极化。在大鼠小脑颗粒神经元细胞原代培养过程中，受体位点5在接触BTX毒素后被激活，细胞内Ca2+浓度增加，致使急性神经损伤和细胞死亡，其中受BTX-1刺激组Ca2+浓度为BTX-2或BTX-3组的两倍。已证实BTX毒素会影响哺乳动物大脑皮质突触和神经肌肉的生成并可能使细胞肥大。所有这些反应都与大量持续性的细胞膜去极化有关。因吸入气雾性BTX毒素引起的呼吸困难，同样是由于神经细胞膜上钠离子传输通道的打开造成的。在大鼠脑细胞膜制备和HEK 细胞表达成骨骼肌或心脏过程中，BTX-B2和脱氧BTX-B2与钠离子通道结合位点亲和力比BTX-3的低8-16倍。而在神经母细胞中，它们的效力比BTX-3的分别低3倍和8倍。BTX毒素也可激活免疫细胞的钠离子通道，诱导发生生化反应例如细胞增殖、基因转录、细胞因子的产生和凋亡。 BTX毒素的分析法主要有小鼠生物法（Mousebioassay，MBA）、细胞毒性实验（Cytotoxicity assays）、受体结合试验（Receptor binding assays）、放射免疫法（Radioimmunoassay，RIA）、酶联免疫法（ELISA）和液相色谱串联质谱法（LC-MSMS）。其中，小鼠生物法是发展最早、应用最广泛的分析方法，而高效液相色谱串联质谱法则是定性、定量和灵敏度最好的方法。 BTX毒素所用的小鼠生物法是由美国公共卫生协会建立（APHA，1970）。标准方法使用乙醚从贝类中提取毒素，以MUs100g贝肉为单位。1MU被定义为对体重为20g的小鼠腹腔注射粗提毒素使50%的小鼠在930min内死亡的用量，相当于4μgBTX-2。然而，一些研究指出乙醚并不能有效地提取BTX毒素（例如半胱氨酸结合物）。而且MBA方法的特异性、重现性和灵敏度都很差，不仅耗时太长，而且容易受到其他内源性化合物的影响，从而造成假阳性结果。 对贝类中的BTX毒素现已应用多个端点和多种检测方式进行毒性实验。细胞毒性试验是基于BTX对钠离子运输通道的作用。多采用神经母细胞瘤，用藜芦碱通过打开钠离子运输通道从而促进钠离子的转运，同时用哇巴因（Na+K+- ATP 酶抑制剂）阻断钠钾离子泵活性。BTX毒素结合藜芦碱打开的钠离子通道增加了离子流量。该细胞的生存力可以通过代谢溴化噻唑蓝四氮唑成紫色结晶物质的量测定，方法对贝类中BTX-1的最低检出限0.25mgkg。但Dickey等人指出细胞毒性试验在实验室之间的重现性差，应用受到限制。 受体结合法是基于BTX毒素与钠盐传输通道受体的结合力差异。通常用于测定鱼类和贝类中毒素含量的受体结合实验，原理是放射性3H-BTX-3与天然BTX毒素与受体结合位点的竞争机制。从兴奋性组织分离膜制备或通过全细胞制备用于试验。半胱氨酸结合物（BTX-B2和S-desoxy-BTX-B2）与钠离子通道受体的结合能力比BTX-3弱3-10倍。受体结合法的定量限是30μgBTX-3kg牡蛎匀浆。 高效液相色谱串联质谱法（LC-MSMS）方法已被广泛地用于贝类、鱼类和藻类BTX毒素的定性和定量分析。Dickey等对实验室间LC-MSMS 法检测数据的差异性进行了研究。实际上，所有LC-MSMS方法可以很容易的检测出BTX-3加标样品，其含量水平比美国现行标准检出限20MUs100g或0.8 mgBTX-2kg贝肉低出一个数量级。", "妊娠期torch晒查常见问题解读 一、torch 筛查的认识误区问题 1:torch 筛查能诊断出生缺陷吗？不能。torch 筛查是对孕妇感染的诊断,由此对胎儿有否感染及发育缺陷提供关注。筛查是在人群(孕妇)中筛选出某种疾病(病毒)的高危个体(感染者),对后者进行诊断(胎儿感染的诊断),对患者(胎儿)或疾病(病毒)携带者(孕妇)进行干预,达到预防和治疗目的。问题 2: torch 感染的共同特征是什么？1. 母婴传播,t1 期胎儿危险,t3 期新生儿危险。2. 孕妇无症状或症状很轻。3. 病毒可通过胎盘引起宫内感染,可引起早产、流产、死胎或畸胎等。4. 病毒通过产道或母乳感染新生儿引起新生儿多系统、器官损害,智力障碍。5. 孕妇感染,胎儿不一定感染,胎儿感染不一定造成出生缺陷。问题 3: torch 感染差异性？机体感染后,弓形虫、风疹病毒、巨细胞病毒和单纯疱疹病毒血清学变化各有不同(图 2),抗体变化也不同,需要定量检测抗体的变化程度才能做出正确的判断。问题 4:torch 感染检测指标的临床意义有什么不同？1. 直接指标(病毒抗原、病毒 dna、病毒 rna 病毒培养)检测的是病毒本身,与病毒的复制规律和潜伏位置等特性有关,适合于诊断。2. 间接指标(igg、igm)检测的是病毒刺激机体后机体产生的免疫反应,与个体的免疫功能有关,适合于筛查和免疫状态评估。问题 5:妊娠期感染分为几种？妊娠期感染分为初次(原发)感染、既往感染、复发感染、再感染,其概念不能混淆。1. 初次感染(primaryinfection)又称原发感染:妊娠妇女血清第 1 次出现病毒特异性抗体 igg 阳性,而先前血清学试验是阴性称为初次感染。只有先前做过筛查,结果是阴性并存档(或保存孕妇血清标本),这样做才能判定初次感染。igg 抗体亲和力测定在 igg 阳性情况下,有助于区分出是急性初次感染,还是既往感染或复发感染,并对初次感染的时间做出估计,即若检测结果为高亲和力情况下,可以断定初次感染时间是在 3 个月前。2. 既往感染(past infection):曾经感染过该病毒,机体产生了抗体或病毒休眠以潜伏状态存在。3. 复发感染(rec rrent infections secondary infection):宿主免疫功能存在下的病毒间歇性排泄,是潜伏状态内源性病毒再激活。4. 再感染(reinfections):已经被免疫的个体接触到一个外源性新病毒,发生再感染。目前不能通过血清学方法区分复发感染和再感染,只能通过病毒分离和分子生物学方法。5. 先天性感染(congenital infections):病毒经胎盘传播的结果。母亲的初次或复发感染都可将病毒传播给胎儿,造成胎儿先天性感染。问题 6:为什么筛查实验 igg、igm 应同时做？筛查实验 igg、igm 应同时做,单做 igm 往往给出错误的结果。igm 阳性不能充分证明近期感染,部分人群感染后 igm 可连续存在数年,单纯 igm 阳性不能诊断。如以风疹非急性感染的 igm 为例,究其原因可分为以下两种情况:1.igm 真阳性:这是由于有部分人发生感染后体内持续多年 igm 表达,往往 igm 水平保持较低的稳定水平,常伴有 igg 阳性且亦保持稳定水平。此时试剂盒检测得到的 igm 结果是正确的,但并不表示个体正发生急性感染,此时若单独只检测 igm 则会造成误判。2.igm 假阳性:这主要是由于类风湿因子(rf)、交叉反应或者多克隆刺激等因素的影响导致试剂盒检测结果的错误,这是由于免疫学检测手段本身固有的限制所导致的,无法完全避免。以上两种情况导致的非急性感染 igm 阳性结果,则会给临床诊断带来困惑,因为这些个体并未正发生急性感染。但这一问题却可通过同时检测 igg 且采用定量检测试剂而得到满意的纠正。在「2」的情况下,若初次检测结果为 igm 阳性 igg 阴性,15 天 -1 个月后的第 2 次检测,则个体会依然保持此种情况或 igm 转阴,即 igg 不会发生血清学转换； 若初次检测结果为 igm 阳性或 igg 阳性,则 15 天 -1 个月后的第 2 次检测此两项指标数值方面往往不会发生较大变化,尤其是 igg 会保持稳定,因为个体并未发生真正的复发感染。问题 7:为什么妊娠期 torch 筛查具有时效性？不同的病毒筛查目标不同,对筛查孕周的要求也不同,没有孕周,筛查结果往往没有意义。有些病毒在孕早期筛查有意义,有些在孕晚期筛查有意义。问题 8:为什么抗体筛查没有绝对的参考值？人体对病毒感染免疫反应不同,抗体水平存在很大个体差异。torch 病毒感染是一个母-胎动态过程,每个时间段没有截然标准, iggigm 浓度切割值是感染指标,但具有局限性,个体浓度梯度变化才更有临床意义,例如当 igg 上升 4 倍时常作为病毒复发或再感染的指标。问题 9:为什么定量分析是 torch 筛查的进步和最佳选择？1. 妊娠期发生初次感染或复发感染,体内产生 igg 或 igm 是一个急剧变化的过程,只有通过定量分析浓度变化才能检测到。2. 定量分析有助于发现假阳性或假阴性结果。3. 对于那些孕前未做过基础免疫状况评估的孕妇,选择两个时间点(t1,t2)检测 igg 或 igm 浓度(c1,c2),计算单位时间内浓度变化梯度,能有效地发现机体受到病毒攻击而发生的特异性免疫反应,但目前还没有参考值,较常用的是 c2 c1 4 倍。所有这些必须以定量检测为前提。二、巨细胞病毒(cmv)筛查问题 10:妊娠期为什么要做 cmv 筛查？cmv 是宫内感染最常见的原因,在活产儿中发病率为 0.2%-2.2%。感染是感音神经性听觉丧失和精神发育迟滞的常见原因之一。对孕妇进行筛查可以帮助医生了解孕妇的免疫状态,对 igg 阴性的孕妇进行预防妊娠期感染的健康教育,并进行动态监测和观察,防止发生初次感染。对 igg 阳性的孕妇在孕早期和孕晚期进行病毒 dna 复制监测,防止复发感染通过胎盘造成先天感染,通过产道或乳汁造成新生儿感染。尽管母亲有免疫力(igg 阳性 ),婴儿也可能患先天性 cmv 感染。母亲初次感染和复发感染都可导致胎儿有症状的 cmv 感染。某些有免疫力的母亲其婴儿先天 cmv 感染导致中枢神经系统损伤。对孕妇进行筛查可以帮助医生对孕妇感染类型做出诊断,以便选择在有效时间对胎儿进行产前诊断。做到早发现、早干预。问题 11:如何诊断妊娠期 cmv 初次和复发感染？人体初次感染 cmv 后,病毒进入休眠期并潜伏在人体内。这种病毒可以在人体内被重新激活,称为复发(继发)感染。此外,具有免疫力的个体暴露于外源性新的病毒株可出现再感染。因此,复发或再感染被定义为宿主免疫状态下病毒的间歇性分泌。这可能是由于内源性病毒的重新活化或宿主暴露于外源性新病毒株。复发感染和再感染不能通过血清学检测加以区分,只能通过病毒分离和分子生物学方法检测进行区分。美国 cmv igg 阳性的健康女性 3 年内有 13 会再次感染 cmv 新病毒株。妊娠期血清学方法诊断 cmv 初次感染:1.igm 阳性 + igg 定量检测上升,15 天后转为阳性,发生血清转化 = 初次感染。2.igm 阳性 + igg 低亲和力(≤ 16 周)= 初次感染。如果孕前的免疫状态未知,初次感染的诊断应基于特异性 igm 抗体的检出。然而,10% 的复发感染病例中也可检出 igm 抗体,并初次感染数月后血清中也可检出 igm 抗体。因此,igm 抗体阳性的人群可能包括孕前初次感染和复发感染两种情况,还有 igm 抗体阳性长期持有造成的假阳性。igg 抗体亲和力分析可帮助了解是否在 3 个月内发生 cmv 感染,即若检测结果为高亲和力,可断定初次感染是在 3 个月前发生,往往提示为既往感染； 若检测结果为低亲和力,则 cmv 初次感染在 3 个月内的可能性很大,往往提示为急性初次感染。病毒 dna 的检测可帮助我们发现病毒复制,但不能区别是复发感染还是初次感染,只有 igg 抗体阳性者,才能出现复发感染。通常亲和力指数30%,则高度提示近期的初次感染(3 个月内)。因此,妊娠期初次感染的血清学诊断主要依据血清转化现象(之前血清反应阴性的孕妇出现特异性 igg 抗体),或检出病毒特异性 igm 抗体并伴随低亲和力 igg 抗体。孕妇如在孕前血清中检出 igg 抗体而没有 igm 抗体,而妊娠期出现 igg 抗体滴度的显著升高及高 igg 亲和力(伴有或不伴有特异性 igm 抗体的出现)可被认为是出现复发感染。妊娠期非初次感染(复发和再次感染)的诊断:1.igm 阳性 + igg 阳性 + 高亲和力(≤ 16 周)= 非初次感染的可能性增加。2.igg 阳性且 igm 阳性 阴性 + 高亲和力(≤ 16 周)+ 尿 分泌物 血液中检出 cmv(分离病毒或 pcr)= 非初次感染。3.cmv 特异性 igg 上升 4 倍 = 非初次感染问题 12:什么是 cmv 先天性感染？先天性 cmv 感染有哪些后果？先天性感染是由于 cmv 经胎盘垂直传播。孕妇初次或者继发感染都可能垂直传播给胎儿。初次感染后,妊娠期宫内垂直传播的概率为 30%-40%,而复发感染后这种概率仅为 1%。但是 2009 年美国 cdc 发表的关于胎儿先天性缺陷的统计分析结果显示,妊娠期复发 cmv 感染率为 75%,cmv 感染导致的先天性缺陷占第 1 位。其中妊娠期复发 cmv 感染占主要因素,对孕前感染率高达 95% 的中国孕妇更是如此。10%-15% 的先天性感染的婴儿会在出生时出现症状,包括宫内生长迟缓、小头畸形、肝脾肿大、淤斑、黄疸、脉络膜视网膜炎、血小板减少症和贫血。这些婴儿中 20%-30% 会死亡,这主要是由于弥漫性血管内凝血、肝功异常或细菌重复感染。大多数先天性 cmv 感染的婴儿(85%-90%)在出生时不会出现症状或体征,但这些婴儿中 5%-15% 会出现后遗症,如感音神经性听觉丧失、精神运动发育迟缓和视觉障碍。问题 13:怎样进行胎儿 cmv 感染的产前诊断？胎儿 cmv 感染的诊断应该基于羊水样本的培养和 pcr 检测。当孕妇被诊断为初次 cmv 感染时,应该在母体感染 7 周后并且在妊娠 20-21 周后进行羊膜腔穿刺术采集羊水进行实时定量 pcr 检测病毒 dna 载量,因为只有胎儿感染 5-7 周后,经过肾脏病毒复制,分泌到羊水中的病毒量才可以达到检测限。根据以往很多文献报道,进行产前诊断操作的时间如果距离母体感染时间过近,其出现假阴性结果的风险不容忽视。对于复发感染的病例(胎儿感染的风险较低)是否采取羊水病毒检测尚未达成一致意见。然而,根据文献报道,一些复发感染的病例也会出现严重的后遗症。因此,即使对于复发感染的病例,我们也可以考虑通过羊膜腔穿刺术对胎儿 cmv 感染进行产前诊断。问题 14:为什么不推荐通过检测胎儿血 igm 抗体或 dna 对于胎儿感染进行诊断？不仅是由于脐带穿刺风险较高,还由于许多 cmv 感染的胎儿只有在妊娠晚期才会出现特异性 igm 抗体,这使得脐带穿刺检测的敏感性很低。妊娠 20-21 周,胎儿血 igm 灵敏度为 50%-80%,胎儿血 dna 灵敏度度 40%-90%,而羊水 dna 特异性和准确性可达到 100%。问题 15:为什么不推荐用孕妇血 cmv-dna 检测初次感染？因为检测初次感染孕妇血液中的 cmv-dna 的阳性率为 33.3%,而 igg 阳性健康妇女的血液中的 cmv-dna 的阳性率也为 33.3%。所以用孕妇血液中 cmv-dna 进行感染的诊断是不可靠的。问题 16:胎儿诊断为 cmv 感染后如何处理？由于 cmv 感染产前诊断局限于羊水检测(如病毒分离和 pcr),不能预测胎儿出生时是否会出现症状。所以一旦胎儿感染得到诊断,孕妇应每隔 2-4 周进行系列超声检查,以便发现 cmv 感染的征象,如宫内生长迟缓、脑室扩张、小头畸形、颅内钙化灶、腹水或胸腔积液、胎儿水肿、羊水过少或过多、肠管回声增强,这些发现可能有助于预测胎儿的预后。这种系统超声检查应在具有资质的产前诊断中心进行。胎儿高分辨率磁共振成像检查可能有助于预后的评估,特别是当超声发现有颅脑异常时。然而,磁共振成像检查是否能为我们提供胎儿 cmv 感染的有效信息,还有待进一步确定。已有一些研究对于羊水中病毒载量作为一个预后指标的临床意义进行了报道,研究表明在有症状的胎儿中,羊水样本中 cmv-dna 载量值要明显高于无症状的胎儿。然而,这两种群体中的载量值有很大部分的重叠。因此,羊水中 cmvdna 的定量测定能否作为 cmv 感染的预后指标还有待于进一步证实。三、风疹病毒(rv)筛查问题 17:为什么希望怀孕的妇女在孕前接受抗体检测？风疹,也称德国麻疹,属儿童期疾病。未妊娠时通常表现为轻微自限性疾病。然而怀孕时病毒对发育胎儿可能有破坏性影响,与不可预知的流产和严重先天畸形有直接关系。孕前接受抗体检测可了解机体对 rv 是否有免疫力,如果没有免疫力(igg 阴性),可接种疫苗并于产生抗体后再怀孕。接种疫苗或自然获得的免疫一般可保护胎儿免受宫内感染。问题 18:什么是先天性风疹综合征(crs)？ 最常见的先天性缺陷和迟发的症状？crs 代表出生前感染 rv 的新生儿症状,胎儿为多器官系统受累。rv 通过胎盘垂直感染对发育胎儿有很大危害,导致自然流产、胎儿感染、死产、胎儿发育迟缓。多数 crs 患儿表现为持续性的神经运动缺陷,以后还可出现肺炎、糖尿病、甲状腺功能障碍、进行性全脑炎。最常见的先天性缺陷和后来出现的症状见表 3。表 3 风疹病毒感染出生时症状和迟发临床表现rv 感染胎盘后,通过正在发育胎儿的血管系统扩散,引起血管细胞病变和发育器官局部缺血。胎儿感染率和出生缺陷率与母体感染时孕周有关,见表 4。当母体感染 暴露发生在孕早期,胎儿感染率约 80%,晚中期降至 25%,后期又增加,从孕 27-30 周感染率为 35%,至孕 36 周后感染率几乎 100%。孕 11 周前感染先天缺陷率为 90%,孕 11-12 周为 33%,孕 13-14 周为 11%,孕 15-16 周为 24%,孕 16 周后为 0。所以,母体感染后发生先天缺陷风险局限在妊娠 16 周前,孕 20 周后感染引起 crs 的风险很小,孕后期感染唯一的后遗症可能是胎儿发育迟缓(fgr)。受精前后母体感染也不增加 crs 风险。所以有关胎儿风险和处理的咨询必须个体化。接种疫苗或自然获得的母体免疫一般可保护胎儿免受宫内感染,然而也有母体再次感染患 crs 的报道。所以,有先天性感染临床症状的胎儿或新生儿应考虑 crs 的可能。孕 12 周后母体再感染时无 crs 病例报道。表 4 孕期风疹病毒感染与胎儿感染和出生缺陷的关系问题 20:如何诊断母体 rv 感染？准确诊断妊娠期原发性 rv 是必须的,需要血清学试验,因为很多病例是亚临床表现。通过血清学方法测定 rv 特异性 igg、igm 是一种简便、敏感、准确的方法,诊断如下:1. 急性和恢复期血清样本 rv igg 抗体滴度增加 4 倍。2.rv 特异性 igm 抗体阳性。孕妇血 igm 阳性同时还要有血清学转换指标,即出现 igg 由阴性转变成阳性。或者孕妇血 igm(+)同时还要出现 igg 抗体连续双份血清出现 4 倍增高(15 天 -1 个月间)。3.rv 培养阳性(患者临床样本的病毒分离培养)。血清学试验最好在皮疹出现的 7~15 天内检测,2-3 周后重复检测一次。问题 21:可以诊断胎儿 rv 感染吗？目前还没有成熟稳定的诊断方法。有少量报道 rv 特异性 pcr 检测 cvs 样本用于宫内 rv 的产前诊断。该报道证实绒毛样本优于羊水样本,因为绒毛可在孕早期 10-12 周取材,而羊水需要在孕 18-20 周取材,脐血需要在孕 28 周取材,此时检测胎儿感染已没有太大意义了。超声诊断 crs 极其困难,生物测量有助于诊断 fgr,但不是诊断 crs 的好工具,因为 rv 引起的畸形性质不同,表现出生长迟缓的胎儿应该考虑是否有先天性病毒感染,包括 rv。问题 22: 孕妇出现风疹样疾病的迹象或症状,最近接触到 rv 怎么办？孕妇 rv 暴露时必须依据暴露时孕周、免疫状态进行个体化处理。确诊孕妇急性 rv 感染经常是很难的,临床诊断不可靠,大量病例是亚临床表现,并且临床特征与其他疾病非常相似。图 3 显示对暴露孕妇或与风疹相似症状的孕妇的处理指南。如果孕妇有与风疹类似症状或近期暴露于 rv,应该确定孕周和免疫状态。对暴露于 rv 5 周后或出现皮疹 4 周后就诊的孕妇,诊断很困难。如 igg 抗体阴性,那么患者对 rv 敏感。因此,没有近期感染的证据。如果 igg 抗体阳性,说明以前有感染,这时抗体水平低,提示是远期感染,但确定感染时间和胎儿感染风险很难,建议测定 igm 或重复测定 igg 抗体,了解是否有显著的升高或下降。问题 20:如何诊断母体 rv 感染？准确诊断妊娠期原发性 rv 是必须的,需要血清学试验,因为很多病例是亚临床表现。通过血清学方法测定 rv 特异性 igg、igm 是一种简便、敏感、准确的方法,诊断如下:1. 急性和恢复期血清样本 rv igg 抗体滴度增加 4 倍。2.rv 特异性 igm 抗体阳性。孕妇血 igm 阳性同时还要有血清学转换指标,即出现 igg 由阴性转变成阳性。或者孕妇血 igm(+)同时还要出现 igg 抗体连续双份血清出现 4 倍增高(15 天 -1 个月间)。3.rv 培养阳性(患者临床样本的病毒分离培养)。血清学试验最好在皮疹出现的 7~15 天内检测,2-3 周后重复检测一次。问题 21:可以诊断胎儿 rv 感染吗？目前还没有成熟稳定的诊断方法。有少量报道 rv 特异性 pcr 检测 cvs 样本用于宫内 rv 的产前诊断。该报道证实绒毛样本优于羊水样本,因为绒毛可在孕早期 10-12 周取材,而羊水需要在孕 18-20 周取材,脐血需要在孕 28 周取材,此时检测胎儿感染已没有太大意义了。超声诊断 crs 极其困难,生物测量有助于诊断 fgr,但不是诊断 crs 的好工具,因为 rv 引起的畸形性质不同,表现出生长迟缓的胎儿应该考虑是否有先天性病毒感染,包括 rv。问题 22: 孕妇出现风疹样疾病的迹象或症状,最近接触到 rv 怎么办？孕妇 rv 暴露时必须依据暴露时孕周、免疫状态进行个体化处理。确诊孕妇急性 rv 感染经常是很难的,临床诊断不可靠,大量病例是亚临床表现,并且临床特征与其他疾病非常相似。图 3 显示对暴露孕妇或与风疹相似症状的孕妇的处理指南。如果孕妇有与风疹类似症状或近期暴露于 rv,应该确定孕周和免疫状态。对暴露于 rv 5 周后或出现皮疹 4 周后就诊的孕妇,诊断很困难。如 igg 抗体阴性,那么患者对 rv 敏感。因此,没有近期感染的证据。如果 igg 抗体阳性,说明以前有感染,这时抗体水平低,提示是远期感染,但确定感染时间和胎儿感染风险很难,建议测定 igm 或重复测定 igg 抗体,了解是否有显著的升高或下降。问题 23:怀孕时能否接种疫苗？孕早期不小心接种疫苗或接种后立即怀孕了需要终止妊娠吗？风疹疫苗接种禁忌证有发热、免疫缺陷、新霉素过敏和怀孕。风疹疫苗病毒可能通过胎盘感染胎儿。但是,对孕早期不小心接种风疹疫苗的孕妇其子代患有 crs 的病例还未见报道。所以对这样孕妇不建议终止妊娠。根据疫苗对胎儿的潜在风险,建议妇女接种后 28 天再怀孕。问题 24:为什么妊娠期只筛查 rv igm 抗体会得出错误的结果？因为会出现非急性感染阳性,其原因主要有两方面:1. 真阳性:患者持续多年 igm 表达,往往 igm 水平保持较低的稳定水平,常伴有 igg 阳性。2. 假阳性:检测方法的特异性受限。rv igm 抗体参考值范围的确定由已知阴、阳性标本确定的。如图 4 所示,红线下方区域是交叉重叠区,是不能用参考方法解释的区域,大约有 3%-5% 的会出现 igm 假阳性问题,如果不用定量的方法我们不能区分真假阳性。造成这种情况的原因主要是 rf 干扰、交叉反应、多克隆刺激等。推荐 3-7.问题 25:妊娠期风疹病毒筛查时出现 igm 抗体阳性应如何处理？妊娠期风疹病毒筛查 igm 抗体阳性可按图 5 流程处理。问题 26:为什么说预防是避免 crs 的最好策略？孕妇 rv 感染对发育胎儿有破坏性影响,预防的关键是所有婴儿普遍接种疫苗,并对孕前筛查妇女中高危人群给予免疫接种。尽可能诊断出感染病例。妊娠早、中期,包括 igg 阳性孕妇尽可能避免接触 rv。对发生在 16 周之前的原发感染,应该向孕妇提供咨询,告知垂直传播的风险和提供终止妊娠的建议。但是,对于感染的胎儿没有宫内治疗方法。因此,预防仍然是避免 crs 的最好策略。四、弓形体筛查问题 27:为什么孕妇要进行弓形体感染筛查？1. 在妊娠期间弓形体的急性感染可严重影响胎儿和新生儿健康。如果摄取了污染的没有煮熟的肉类或食用了污染的食物和水,可导致弓形体急性感染的发生。2. 胎儿感染弓形体几乎都是通过孕妇的原发感染所致,可导致胎儿视觉和听觉丧失,智力和精神运动能力发育阻滞,癫痫发作,血液系统异常,肝脾肿大,甚至死亡。3. 弓形体传染给胎儿常发生于孕妇在妊娠期间无任何病史、未吃过未煮熟的肉食、未接触过猫的情况。因此,确定是否对孕妇进行血清学检测不能仅依靠临床(如出现或未出现症状)或流行病学情况(如是否与弓形体有接触)。对孕妇进行系统的教育和血清学检查,是预防感染及诊断和早期治疗胎儿感染行之有效的方法,原因为弓形体感染通常是隐匿的。实践证实对胎儿和 1 岁以内婴儿的治疗,对于改善临床症状最有效。所有的孕妇应尽早(妊娠前 3 个月最为理想)进行弓形体的 igg 和 igm 抗体血清学检查。问题 28:胎儿感染弓形体是孕妇初次感染还是复发感染造成的？发生胎儿感染主要是因为孕妇在怀妊娠期间初次感染了弓形体。少数情况下是因为孕妇有慢性感染,由于自身免疫缺陷(如艾滋病患者或应用皮质激素治疗的患者)的原因,出现弓形体激活,造成先天性感染。问题 29:胎儿和新生儿感染与母体感染有何关系？随着孕周的增加,垂直传播的可能性也增加,见表 5. 孕早期感染的孕妇,其感染的新生儿的临床症状更加严重,见表 5.问题 30:哪些孕妇是弓形体感染高风险群体？ 怎样确定？孕前和妊娠期检测弓形体 igg 阴性或 igm 阴性,显示该妇女还没有被弓形体感染为发生妊娠期初次感染的高风险群体,在怀妊娠期间有获得初次感染和传染给胎儿的危险。因此,支持对高风险妇女在怀妊娠期间进行 igg 和 igm 抗体血清学检查。对于血清学检查阴性的妇女,最好在孕早期每个月检查一次,以后每 3 个月检查一次。确定高风险的筛查应在妊娠早期,越早越好,对临床提供的帮助就越大。在孕中期得到的检测结果经常不能确定在孕早期是否有感染。问题 31:妊娠期弓形体感染筛查处理流程及临床解释？1. 关于弓形体的处置,在妊娠期间可向专家咨询。2. 考虑将样品送到参比实验室。3. 用乙酰螺旋霉素或乙胺嘧啶、磺胺嘧啶、甲酰四氢叶酸进行治疗。4. 羊水 pcr 检测应在孕 18 周(不能提前)或 18 周之后。当孕周18 周时,应慎重权衡检测风险和对胎儿感染诊断的好处。5. 妊娠期弓形体感染筛查和处理流程见图 6,临床解释见表 6. 在美国可使 igm 阳性孕妇减少 50% 的不必要流产。", "B病毒 Sabin等(1934)首次从被外观正常的恒河猴咬伤手指的B医生的脑和脾脏内分离出一种病毒。Sabin等称之为B病毒，又叫猴疱疹病毒(Herpesvirus simiae，HS)。B病毒同人的单纯性疱疹病毒相近，它可使恒河猴引起呈良性经过的疱疹样口炎，于7～14天内自愈，可使人类产生致死性的脑炎或上行性脑脊髓炎。继Sabin之后，Keeble在1956年从恒河猴唇及舌部疱疹样溃疡中分离出B病毒，并经组织培养、血清中和试验、兔脑内接种试验证实(Keeble，S.A．，1960)。在实验室小动物中，家兔对B病毒最易感，以任何途径接种家兔，都会出现神经系统受害的症状，如感觉过敏、斜颈、呼吸困难、多涎、眼和鼻的分泌物增多，结膜炎和角膜浑浊。典型症状为上行性脑脊髓炎，在7～12天内死亡。小白鼠、大白鼠和豚鼠较不敏感。可产生非致死性的感染，有的产生暂时性麻痹，体内有抗B病毒抗体生成。三周龄以内的小白鼠，特别是乳鼠较易感。B病毒能在鸡胚尿囊绒毛膜，家兔肾细胞，HeLa细胞，人的羊膜细胞和肾细胞，猪的肾细胞以及猴的肾细胞中生长。其中，以家兔肾细胞最为敏感。在鸡胚尿囊绒毛膜上形成同人的单纯疱疹外观相似的疱疹，在感染细胞内形成A型核内包涵体。病理标本以50%的甘油液保存较好，在36℃于1:9，000甲醛内经48小时就灭活。B病毒大小为150～170亳微米，有两层膜，同单纯疱疹和伪狂犬病病毒之间有抗原关系(Πилле ,Э.Ρ.，1965)。猴的B病毒感染恒河猴、红面猴、食蟹猴、台湾猴和日本猴都会自发感染(Andrewes，C.，1964)。Keeble(1960)检查了14,400只恒河猴，有332只恒河猴(占2.3%)的舌或唇B有病毒病灶。他发现，发病率有季节性变化，春季低，10月份左右发病率高；食蟹猴在自然条件下无该病，但如果同有B病毒感染的恒河猴接触，会出现典型的口腔病灶和全身病态，甚至死亡。可是，Hartley(1964)检查了1,000只食蟹猴，感染率为3 %。B病毒难以从猴脑组织和猴肾组织中分离出来，仅在猴子的急性感染期能分离到。Πилле(1965)在6,152只恒河猴的肾细胞培养物中仅发现3次B病毒感染。如果用血清学方法检查，在这些动物中有17．5%含B病毒抗体。有人记载，在新捕来的恒河猴中，有B病毒抗体的占10%，而大群关养的动物中达60～70%(Πилле ,Э.Ρ.，l965；Andrewes，C．，l964)。B病毒对猴子的致病性相当低。如以实验方法感染，仅在猴脑腔内注射时才出现严重的神经系统损伤，而且不是百分之百地发生。如果以皮下注射和肌肉注射的方法感染，仅在注射部位发生病变。B病毒病仅在印度和远东地区产的猴子当中发现过(Perkine，F.T.等，1966；Hartley，E.G．，l966)。猴子有B病毒感染时，起初，在舌表面和口腔粘膜与皮肤交界的唇缘有小疱疹，疱疹会很快破裂，破裂后形成溃疡，表面覆盖着纤维素性坏死性痂皮，常常在7～14天内自愈，无瘢痕遗留。在唇缘的痂皮呈褐色，干燥而致密，在口腔内的则为灰黄色，同周围组织有明显的界限。在早期以棉拭从疱疹或溃疡取材料进行组织培养，可以分离出B病毒。B病毒感染的猴子外观无全身不适，饮食正常，所以很容易被人忽略。患猴鼻内常有少许粘液或脓性分泌物，常并发结膜炎和腹泻。偶然见到口腔内有细菌和真菌的继发感染。组织学检查可见表皮内有白细胞浸润，上皮的生发层呈球状肿胀，继而坏死，形成腔隙。疱疹部位上皮的角化细胞脱落，溃疡底部为纤维素性物质，坏死很少侵犯到表皮乳头层下面。在疱疹和正常组织交界处有气球状上皮细胞，其内可见核内包涵体。包涵体呈微细的颗粒状，嗜酸性着色。含有包涵体的细胞常聚集成多核细胞团块。包涵体最常在病程为3～4天的病灶内出现。在Keeble(1960)所发现的病例中，60%有肝汇管区的血管周围白细胞和单核细胞浸润，但无包涵体；5%有肝细胞灶性坏死并有包涵体，75%有肾皮质内白细胞浸润，肾髓质偶然出现血管坏死：同B病毒病人不同，肾上腺是正常的；75 %的病例在面神经和三叉神经根有血管周围的袖套现象和小胶质细胞的反应，仅有一例在腰段脊髓的神经细胞内发生病理变化。在猴桥脑和延脑内也可见到病变.Keeble(1960)认为，B病毒可以自口腔病灶沿神经根直达神经干，引起中枢性反应，也可以经血液使内脏感染。在猴群当中，B病毒的传染可能是因患病猴的唾液污染饮水和食物引起，猴子间的抓伤和咬伤也是传染的可能原因。在猴自愈后，B病毒仍然潜伏在猴体内。在做组织学检查吋，以猴舌溃疡的检查最有意义(Keeble，S.A．，1960)。人的B病毒感染人类对B病毒的易感性是相当低的。从1932年(第一个病例)到1966年为止，已报道的人类B病毒病仅有15例，其中13例死亡。存活的两例还有严重的中枢神经系统损伤。全部发生在同猴子或猴组织经常接触的人当中(Hartley，E.G．，1966)。人类B病毒病的临床症状同猴子的很不一样。主要表现为上行性脊髓炎或脑脊髓炎。在被猴咬伤后发生感染的病例，被咬的局部区域疼痛、发红、肿胀，出现疱疹，有渗出物，常常并发淋巴管和淋巴结炎。接着就出现上行性脊髓炎或脑脊髓炎的症状。绝大部分在发病后三周内死亡，有一例在第三天就死亡了。幸存者会因后遗症而残废。在B病毒病死亡的人体内，很难找到核内包涵体，仅在几天内死亡的有脑炎出现的病人中找到。包涵体的形态同人的单纯疱疹很相似。同家兔的B病毒病变一样，感染B病毒的人肾上腺发生严重的坏死，这是很有诊断价值的病变(Davidson，W.L.等，1960)。在猴子，可以根据舌的疱疹性溃疡，组织学方法检查包涵体，检查恢复了的病例中B病毒中和抗体以及病毒的分离等作出诊断。在人类，凡是同猴子或猴组织有过接触的人患脊髓炎或脑脊髓炎都应首先怀疑是B病毒感染。只有实验室诊断才能确诊，它包括：1．在疾病过程中，病人血液内B病毒抗体逐渐上升；2．有时能从组织和分泌物中分离出B病毒；3．肾上腺坏死和受侵害的细胞内有B病毒产生的核内包涵体。在血清学检查时选择中和试验。B病毒和疱疹病毒的抗原成分相近。用补体结合试验是不适宜的。此外，用对B病毒易感的实验动物(家兔和乳鼠)来分离B病毒是很有价值的方法。人B病毒的治疗Breen等(1958)曾经用考的松治疗人的B病毒病。剂量为200毫克，一天一次，可使患者的病情有所好转(Hartley，E.G.，l966)。由于B病毒不仅因被猴咬伤而使人感染，而且会因同猴组织接触和吸人含B病毒的气溶胶使动物或人发生感染。这就给预防工作带来很大困难(Chappell，W.A．，l960)。有人用B病毒的猴免疫γ—球蛋白注射给被疑似B病毒伤害的人，但血清中抗体的水平相当低(MacLeod，D.R.E．等，1960)。有人用B病毒的福尔马林灭活疫苗给猴体注射三次，但保护力不强(Hull，R.N.等，1960，1962)，人体注射福尔马林疫苗后，抗体反应同单纯疱疹抗体的水平有关，单纯疱疹抗体水平高的人，B病毒抗体的水平也高。有人以实验证实，用B病毒福尔马林灭活苗能使家兔预防吸入感染(Hull，R.N.等，1965：Bends，R．，l965，1966)。在一般预防措施方面有：1．工作人员万一被疑似B病毒感染的猴子咬伤或抓伤，伤口应立即放血，用肥皂水充分洗涤，然后以碘酒或酒精消毒，病人观察三周(因B病毒病的潜伏期最长为20天)(Davidson，W.L.等，1960；Perkine，F.T.等，1966)；2．同有疑似B病毒病变的猴子或猴组织接触的人应带口罩和护目镜；3．新来猴最好单笼关养，应仔细检查它们的唇缘和舌；4．尽量不要徒手捕捉猴子，必要时可给动物注射麻醉剂和镇静剂，以利于实验操作，有开放性创伤的工作人员需待充分恢复后才能同猴子接触(Hartley，E.G.，l966)。多年来，我们的工作人员屡有被猴咬伤的情况发生。但未发现过B病毒病。也未见到国内其他单位报道过。在2010年尚无充分的证据证明我国恒河猴无B病毒感染的情况下，我们仍然不能麻痹大意。应该注意检查新来猴的口腔，不让B病毒病患猴漏掉，发现有可疑B病毒病灶的猕猴后，除及时报告有关部门和做些必要的检查之外，应及时将该动物焚毁。国外介绍的一些预防措施值得我们参考。", "赫崇波 赫崇波，男，1961年2月27日出生，1985年辽宁师范大学生命科学院毕业，获学士学位，1987山东师范大学生命科学院动物学专业毕业，获硕士学位。人物简介 2004年美国奥本大学（Auburn University）水产系分子遗传学和生物技术专业毕业，获博士学位。现为辽宁省海洋水产科学研究院研究员，辽宁师范大学生命科学学院兼职硕士研究生导师，主要从事动物分子遗传学、分子免疫遗传学、水产动物数量遗传和基因组学；海洋生物学；海洋生物技术；DNA分子标记技术等研究工作，在《中国水产科学》、《Animal genetics》、《Immunogenetics》、《Marine biotechnology》、《Molecular Immunology》、《Aquaculture》和《DNA Sequence》等国内、外学术刊物上发表论文60余篇。 [1] 研究方向 海洋动物分子遗传学 科研项目 1.“圆斑星鲽生长发育功能基因筛选及应用”，国家海洋局科技平台项目（2007-2009）； 2.“刺参病害预警及防治技术研究”, 国家海洋局公益性科技项目（2007-2009）； 3.“虾夷扇贝分子辅助种质改良研究”，国家人事部2005年度留学人员科技活动项目择优资助经费。 4.“斑点叉尾鮰种质退化的分子遗传学研究”，国家自然科学基金（35071410）2006年1月-2008年12月。 5.“圆斑星鲽分子遗传结构及其分子辅助育种研究”，国家海洋局科技平台项目（2005年3月-2006年2月）。 6.先后在国内外学术刊物及学术会议上发表各种论文、摘要和报告等40余篇，其中SCI收录论文10多篇； 7.“鱼类疾病与免疫趋化因子（Chemokines）基因关系的研究”，本院回国科研启动基金（2004-2005），项目实施中。 8.“斑点叉尾鮰比较基因组学及分子遗传和分子免疫研究”，奥本大学，美国农业部水产基因组计划项目（2001-2004），研究成果已在《免疫遗传学Immunogenetics》、《海洋生物技术Marine biotechnology》等国际学术刊物上发表。 9.“中国对虾健康养殖及病害防治技术研究”，农业部对下养殖示范区项目（1998-2000）。 10.“文蛤滩涂养殖技术研究和推广”，辽宁省重大科技攻关项目（1995—1997），本成果获1998年度辽宁省政府科技进步一等奖。 11.“斑点叉尾鮰养殖产业化示范区项目”，辽宁省海洋与水产厅产业化项目（1995-1997）。 12.“美国斑点叉尾鮰引种、繁育及养殖技术”，农业部重点水产推广项目（1992-1993）。 13.“尼罗罗非鱼与奥利雅罗非鱼杂交育种及推广”，辽宁省重点项目（1990-1992。 14.“蛤蜊岗文蛤增养殖技术研究”，农业部科技攻关项目（1988-1990），已结题。 学术论文 1. 大连湾和辽东湾夏季海水细菌16S rDNA的非培养分析[J]，水产科学，2008，（26）7： 2. 赫崇波，陈洪大。1997。滩涂养殖文蛤生长和生态习性的初步研究。水产科学05: 40-44. 3. 文蛤养殖群体和野生群体遗传多样性的AFLP分析. 中国水产科学，2008，15(2): 215-221. 4. 硬骨鱼类线粒体基因系统发育信息效率分析. 中国水产科学，2008，15(1): 12-21. 5. 辽宁沿海海蜇与沙蜇遗传多样性的AFLP分析[J]，2008，水产科学（已收录）. 6. 16S rRNA检测技术及其在水产增养殖中的应用[J]，2008，水产科学（已收录）. 7. 斑点叉尾鮰中国养殖群体遗传多样性的AFLP分析[J]，中国水产科学（已收录）. 8. 用EST-SSR标记对我国养殖斑点叉尾鮰种质资源的研究[J]，2008，农业生物技术学报（已收录）. 9. 皱纹盘鲍野生与养殖群体种质资源状况的AFLP分析[J]，2008，生物技术通报（增刊）（已收录）. 10. 辽东湾斑海豹遗传多样性的AFLP分析[J]，2008，生物技术通报（增刊）（已收录）. 11. 基因文库构建及其在鱼类遗传研究上的应用[J]，2008，水产养殖（审稿中）. 12. 赫崇波，蒋莲萍，闫起兴。1997。滩涂文蛤拉绳围网养殖技术。中国水产03:30-3. 13. 鱼类基因内含子研究进展[J]，2008，生物技术通报（已收录）. 14. 我国辽东湾斑海豹(Phoca largha)的种群遗传多样性分析，2008，兽类学报（审稿中） 15. 徐胜基，党中印，蒋莲萍，赫崇波。1997。池塘当年养成文蛤技术要点。科学养鱼07:18-19. 16. 皱纹盘鲍野生与养殖群体遗传多样性的AFLP分析。海洋水产研究，2008，审稿中. 17. 赫崇波，蒋莲萍，党中印，于向阳。1998。池塘文蛤Meretricx meretricx当年养成技术。饲料工业07:24-25. 18. 徐胜基，张赤，赫崇波，党中印，蒋莲萍。1998。葫芦岛海区文蛤滩涂养殖试验报告。水产科学05: 34-36. 19. 赫崇波，葛陇利，刘卫东1 高祥刚1 鲍湘渤。皱纹盘鲍野生与养殖群体遗传多样性的AFLP分析。海洋水产研究，2008，审稿中. 20. 徐胜基，张赤，党中印，赫崇波。1999。奥尼罗菲鱼海水养成技术。科学养鱼6: 13-14。 21. 赫崇波，丛林林，葛陇利，高祥刚，刘卫东，周遵春. 文蛤养殖群体和野生群体遗传多样性的AFLP分析. 中国水产科学，2008，15(2): 215-221. 22. 陈姝君，赫崇波，木云雷，刘卫东，周遵春，高祥刚,丛林林. 硬骨鱼类线粒体基因系统发育信息效率分析. 中国水产科学，2008，15(1): 12-21. 23. 赫崇波，徐胜基，党中印。1999。文蛤滩涂养殖技术。中国水产05:40-42. 24. 丛林林宋广军木云雷陈姝君葛陇利高祥刚赫崇波。条斑星鲽和圆斑星鲽线粒体12S rRNA与16S rRNA基因序列及其系统分析。水产科学2007年期。 25. 葛陇利, 赫崇波, 高祥刚, 陈姝君, 丛林林, 曹洁利用mtDNA控制区序列分析斑点叉尾(鮰)的遗传多样性。水产科学,2007,26(10):547-550. 26. 赫崇波。2000。辽宁省文蛤Meretricx meretricx滩涂养殖业现状及前景分析。辽宁省科学技术协会年报。 27. 赫崇波, 高祥刚、王效敏, 刘卫东, 周遵春, 木云雷，葛陇利。圆斑星鲽线粒体基因组全序列结构及其进化，中国水产科学，2007，14(4): 584-592。 28. 曹洁，刘卫东，葛陇利，高祥刚，鲍相渤，赫崇波. 圆斑星鲽线粒体控制区结构分析. 水产科学，2007，。CAO Jie, LIU Wei-dong, GE Long-li, GAO Xiang-gang, BO Xiang-bo, HE Chong-bo. Structure of mtDNA Control Region of Verasper variegates, Fisheries Science, 2007, 26(12):678-681. 29. 赫崇波, 张赤, 党中印, 蒋莲萍。2001。南美百对虾池塘健康养殖技术。科学养鱼。06:22-23。 30. 赫崇波，党中印，蒋莲萍。2001。辽宁省文蛤Meretricx meretricx滩涂养殖业现状及前景分析。水产科学04:42-43。 31. 赫崇波, 曹洁, 刘卫东, 周遵春, 葛陇利, 高祥刚，王效敏。圆斑星鲽及相关种类线粒体DNA控制区结构分析，遗传，2007，29(7): 829―836。 32. 周遵春, 包振民, 董颖, 刘相全, 宋伦, 赫崇波, 王丽梅. 中间球海胆、光棘球海胆及杂交F1代(中间球海胆×光棘球海胆)群体遗传多样性AFLP分析. 遗传，2007, 29 (4): 443―448 . 33. 赫崇波, 张赤, 党中印, 蒋莲萍。2001。北美地区对虾TSV、IHIV、WSSV和YHV病毒流行现状、诊断方法及防治对策（二）。中国水产06:60-61. 34. 韩家波，赫崇波，王效敏，王强，马志强，周遵春，王丕烈. 辽东湾斑海豹线粒体苏氨酸和脯氨酸及控制区部分序列分析. 水产科学，2007，26（2）：74-78. 35. 韩家波，赫崇波，王强，马志强，徐晓红.辽东湾斑海豹线粒体ND4、tRNA g、ND4L和ND3基因序列分析.水产科学,2006，25（10）:500-504. 36. He Chongbo,Wang Qiang,Xu Xiaohong. Advance of Study on Fish Chemokine Genes Involved in Innate immunity. Shuichan Keji Luntan, 2006, 中国水产科学院。 37. 赫崇波，王强，刘卫东，周遵春，徐晓虹。鱼类趋化因子基因的研究. 38. 赫崇波，王强，刘卫东，周遵春，徐晓虹。鱼类趋化因子基因的研究。水产科学，2006，25（7）：367-370。 39. 赫崇波，党中印，徐胜基，张赤。2001。辽宁省对虾暴发性病毒病防治现状及建议。水产科学06:36-38. 40. 赫崇波, 张赤, 党中印, 蒋莲萍。2001。北美地区对虾TSV、IHIV、WSSV和YHV病毒流行现状、诊断方法及防治对策（一）。中国水产07:60-63. 41. 赫崇波，党中印，金泰哲。北美大嘴鲈鱼病毒病的研究现状。中国水产, 2004(8）：50-51。 42. 周遵春，包振民，董颖，赫崇波，韩家波，王丽梅. 光棘球海胆主要卵黄蛋白cDNA序列分析.中国水产科学，2006，13（3）：352-359. 43. 赫崇波，木云雷，王志松，等。鱼类CC趋化因子基因及其系统进化分析。中国水产科学，2006,13(1): 119-133. 44. 周遵春，董颖，赫崇波，等。棘皮动物染色体的研究进展。水产科学，2005, 24(12): 37-40. 45. 赫崇波，周遵春，刘卫东。斑点叉尾鮰Ictalurus punctatus基因组的研究。水产科学，2005（1）：38-41.", "疱疹病毒 疱疹病毒（herpes virus）是一群有包膜的DNA病毒，生物学特性相似，归类为疱疹病毒科（Herpesviridae）。目前总共发现了100多种，可以分为α、β、γ三大类（亚科）。其感染宿主广泛，主要侵害皮肤、黏膜以及神经组织，严重影响着人及其他动物的健康。本词条由“科普中国”科学百科词条编写与应用工作项目 审核 。 简介 疱疹病毒（herpes viruses）是一类有包膜、基因组为双链DNA的病毒。 [1] 疱疹病毒分为α疱疹病毒、β疱疹病毒、γ疱疹病毒以及其他疱疹病毒。其中有代表性的α疱疹病毒包括能够感染人类的单纯疱疹病毒 (Herpes simplex virus type 12，HSV-12)、水痘带状疱疹病毒 (Varicella-zoster virus，VZV) 以及感染动物的伪狂犬病病毒 (Pseudorabies virus，PRV)、鸡马立克氏病病毒 (Marek’s disease virus，MDV) 等。β疱疹病毒主要有人类的巨细胞病毒 (Human cytomegalovirus，HCMV)。 [2] γ疱疹病毒（如EB病毒），感染的靶细胞是淋巴样细胞，可引起淋巴增生。疱疹病毒感染的宿主范围广泛，可感染人类和其他脊椎动物。 [3] 目前发现的能感染人的疱疹病毒有8种，包括：单纯疱疹病毒1型（herpes simplex virus-1，HSV-1），单纯疱疹病毒2型（herpes simplex virus-2，HSV-2），水痘-带状疱疹病毒（varicella zoster virus，VZV），EB病毒（Epstein-Barr virus，EBV），人类巨细胞病毒（human cytomegalovirus，HCMV），人类疱疹病毒6型（HHV-6），人类疱疹病毒7型（HHV-7）和卡波济肉瘤相关病毒（Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus，KSHV）。根据基因组序列和结构及理化性质的不同，可将人类疱疹病毒分为3个亚科：α疱疹病毒亚科，β疱疹病毒亚科和γ疱疹病毒亚科。 [1] Herpes这个字源于希腊文，意思是蛇样爬行，疱疹病毒(herpes virus，HSV)是指带状疱疹病毒。爬行类、鱼类、蛙类和人体内的疱疹病毒形态相似，但抗原性、基因组DNA中G+C含量和病毒DNA的序列均不相同。病毒颗粒由162个有孔的子粒排列成多面体的衣壳，外有20多个多肽的脂质包膜。病毒基因组是线状双链DNA分子，长140 000 bp。 8种疱疹病毒 疱疹病毒主要侵犯外胚层来源的组织，包括皮肤、粘膜和神经组织 。感染部位和引起的疾病多种多样，并有潜伏感染的趋向，严重威胁人类健康。 1、单纯疱疹病毒1型（人类疱疹病毒1型）。 2、单纯疱疹病毒2型（人类疱疹病毒2型）。 3、水痘带状疱疹病毒（人类疱疹病毒3型）。 4、EB病毒（人类疱疹病毒4型）。 5、巨细胞病毒（人类疱疹病毒5型）。 6、人类疱疹病毒6型。 7、人类疱疹病毒7型。 8、人类疱疹病毒8型。 感染后的常见表象为：神经节腺体、肾淋巴组织、淋巴组织热性疱疹；唇、眼、脑感染；生殖器疱疹水痘；带状疱疹单核细胞增多症，眼、肾、脑和先天感染传染性单核细胞增多症、Burkitt淋巴瘤、鼻咽癌、婴儿急疹和其他一些如未知腹痛等病症。 免疫性 HSV原发感染后1周左右血中可出现中和抗体，3-4周达高峰，可持续多年。中和抗体在细胞外灭活病毒，对阻止病毒经血流播散和限制病程有一定作用，但不能消灭潜伏感染的病毒和阻止复发。机体抗HSV感染的免疫中，细胞免疫起重要作用，NK细胞可特异性杀死HSV感染细胞；在抗体参予下，介导ADCC效应亦可将HSV感染细胞裂解；细胞毒性T细胞和各种淋巴分子（如干扰素等），在抗HSV感染中也有重要意义。 [4] 生物学性状 形态结构 单纯疱疹病毒（Herpes simplex virus，HSv）呈球形，完整病毒由核心、衣壳、被膜（Tegument）及囊膜组成核心含双股DNA，缠绕成纤丝卷轴。衣壳呈二十面体对称，由162壳微粒组成，直径100nm 。衣壳外一层被膜覆盖，厚薄不匀，最外层为典型的脂质双层囊膜，上有突起。有囊膜的病毒直径为150～200nm。囊膜表面含gb 、gC、gD、gE、gG、gH糖蛋白，与病毒对细胞吸附穿入（gB gC gD ge ）、控制病毒从细胞核膜出芽释放（gH）及诱导细胞融合（gb gC gD gH）有关。并有诱生中和抗体(gd 最强)和细胞毒作用（已知的HSV糖蛋白均可）。 基因结构 HSV基因组为一线性DNA分子，由共价连接的长片段（L）和短片段（S）组成。每片段均含有单一序列和反转重复序列。基因组中有72个基因，共编码70各异的蛋白质，其中除24种蛋白的特性还不清楚外，有18种编码蛋白组成病毒DNA结合蛋白及各种酶类，参予病毒DNA合成，包装及核苷酸的代谢等。30多种不同蛋白组成病毒结构蛋白（如衣壳蛋白、囊膜蛋白），在保护HSV的DNA，以及HSV的致病作用和诱导机体免疫应答中起重要作用。 培养特性 HSV可在多种细胞中生长，常用的细胞系有BHK细胞，Vero细胞、Hep-2细胞等。病毒初次分离时，原代乳兔肾细胞、人胚肺细胞较敏感。HSV感染动物范围广泛，多种动物脑内接种可引起疱疹性脑炎，小白鼠是足垫接种可引起中枢神经系统致死性感染，家兔角膜接种引起疱疹性角膜炎，豚鼠阴道内接种可引起宫颈炎和宫颈癌。接种鸡胚绒毛尿囊 膜上，形成增殖性白色斑块。 分型 HSV有二个血清型，即HSV-1和HSV-2，两型病毒核苷酸序列有5%同源性，型间有共同抗原，也有特异性抗原，可用型特异性单克隆抗体作ELISA，DNA限制性酶切图谱分析及DNA杂交试验等方法区分型别。 微生物学检查法 病毒分离和鉴定 病毒分离培养是当今临床上明确诊断疱疹病毒感染的可靠依据。可采集皮肤、生殖器等病变部位的水疱液、脑脊液、角膜刮取物、唾液等标本，接种人二倍体成纤维细胞株WI38及其它传代细胞株如Vero、BHK等，经24～48小时后，细胞则出现肿胀、变圆、细胞融合等病变。然后用HSV-1和HSV-2的单克隆抗体作免疫荧光染色鉴定或应用DNA限制性内切酶图谱分析来定型。 抗体检测 常用于抗体检测的方法有补体结合试验、中和试验、免疫荧光及酶联免疫吸附试验等，临床多用于急性感染诊断和器官移植患者的检测，以及流行病学调查。如用于急性感染诊断，应采取急性期和恢复期双份血清，同时检测血清中的IgG和IgM。 DNA检测 取病变组织或细胞，提取病毒DNA，与标记的HSV DNA探针进行杂交或应用PCR检测HSV-1或HSV-2的gB糖蛋白基因来判断是否是HSV的感染。这种方法已用于疑为HSV脑炎患者的诊断。 致病性 病人和健康携带者是传染源，主要通过直接密切接触和性接触传播。HSV经口腔、呼吸道、生殖道粘膜和破损皮肤等多种途径侵入机体。人感染非常普遍，感染率达80～90%，常见的临床表现是粘膜或皮肤局部集聚的疱疹，偶尔也可发生严重的全身性疾病，累及内脏。 原发感染 6个月以内婴儿多从母体通过胎盘获得抗体，初次感染约90%无临床症状，多为隐性感染。HSV-1原发感染常发生于1～15岁，常见的有龈口炎，系在口颊粘膜和齿龈处发生成群疱疹，破裂后，多盖一层坏死组织。此外可引起唇疱疹、湿疹样疱疹、疱疹性角膜炎、疱疹性脑炎等。生殖器疱疹多见于14岁以后由HSV-2引起，比较严重，局部剧痛，伴有发热全身不适及淋巴结炎。 潜伏感染和复发 HSV原发感染产生免疫力后，将部分病毒清除，部分病毒可沿神经髓鞘到达三叉神经节（HSV-1）和脊神经节（HSV-2）细胞中或周围星形神经胶质细胞内，以潜伏状态持续存在，与机体处于相对平衡，不引起临床症状。当机体发热、受寒、日晒、月经、情绪紧张，使用垂体或肾上腺皮质激素，遭受某些细菌病毒感染等，潜伏的病毒激活增殖，沿神经纤维索下行至感觉神经末梢，至附近表皮细胞 内继续增殖，引起复发性局部疱疹。其特点是每次复发病变往往发生于同一部位。最常见在唇鼻间皮肤与粘膜交界处出现成群的小疱疹。疱疹性角膜炎、疱疹性宫颈炎等亦可反复发作。 先天性感染 HSV通过胎盘感染，影响 胚胎细胞有丝分裂，易发生流产、造成胎儿畸形、智力低下等先天性疾病。约40～60%的新生儿在通过HSV-2感染的产道时可被感染，出现高热、呼吸困难和中枢神经系统病变，其中60～70%受染新生儿可因此而死亡，幸存者中后遗症可达95%。 致癌关系 一些调查研究表明HSV-1和HSV-2可能分别与唇癌、外阴癌及子宫颈癌有关，特别HSV-1作为宫颈癌的病因，曾受到人们重视，但近年研究表明人乳头瘤病毒与该癌有直接关系，因此宫颈癌成因也许是复杂的。 疱疹病毒治疗 本病有自限性，约1-2周即可自愈。治疗的目的是防止下次复发。本病目前尚无特效药物，治疗原则为缩短病程，防止继发感染，减少复发。 [4] 全身治疗 治疗原则其一使感染的HSV不能活化，甚至消灭病毒；其二调节免疫，防止再发，可用阿昔洛韦静滴或口服，丽珠威口服，干扰素肌注，白细胞介素Ⅱ肌注。 l．阿昔洛韦(ACV)：是目前公认的首选药物。使用方法应针对GH不同的情况。 (1) 首发性GH：口服ACV200mg，每日5次，连服7d；或静脉滴注ACV5m批小每日3次，连续5d-7d。 (2) 复发性GH：口服ACV200mg，每日5次；或800m卧每日2次，连服5d；若在刚开始出现症状时即开始治疗，部分患者可不出现典型症状。复发频繁时，可口服ACV2OOmg，每日3次，连续服用6个月-12个月。 (3) 免疫受抑制患者：对HIV感染者的GH，每次40Omg口服，每日3次-5次。若病情严重，每次400mgkg，静脉滴注，每8hl次，直至痊愈。 (4) 疱疹性痒疽：口服ACV200mg，每日5次，连服7d-lOd。 (5) HSV直肠炎：口服ACV400mg，每日5次，可缩短病程。免疫受损或重症者可静脉滴注ACV5mg(kg·8h)。 (6) 新生儿HSV：常采用静脉滴注ACV30mg(kg·d)，或者阿糖腺苦30mg(kg·d)，共10d-l4d。 2.干扰素(IFN) 原发GH：肌肉注射或皮下注射，成人100万U-300万U，小L5万U(kg·d),l周-2周。 复发GH：肌肉注射或皮下注射，成人300万U-600万U，儿童10万U(kg' 3．病毒唑(三氮唑核苷)：抑制多种病毒DNA及RNA的复制、合成。 (l) 原发GH及AIDS合并HSV感染：肌肉注射l5mg(kg·d)。 (2) 复发GH：口服0.49，每日4次，3d后改为0.4卧每日2次，共Sd。 4.磷甲酸钠：选择性抑制疱疹病毒诱导的DNA依赖的DNA聚合酶。静脉滴注40mg-60mg，每8小时l次，连用4天。只用于个别严重的GH，特别是由耐阿昔洛韦HSV株引起的。副作用有肾毒性及钙磷代谢紊乱。 (5) 消炎痛：口服，25m卧每日3次。 (6) 色聚肌胞：肌肉射注，每周2mg，2次-3次。 (7) gD一2疫苗：为重组的HSV一2糖蛋白在CHO细胞的表达，诱导产生的特异性抗体及中和性抗体，相当或超过GH患者所产生的水平。接种gD一2100卜9,2个月后重复1次。与对照者相比，复发明显减少，gD-2疫苗可减轻症状、预防感染。 (8) 单克隆抗体治疗是有前途的新方法。HSV糖蛋白疫苗及重组亚单位疫苗使机体产生抗体和增强细胞作用，对消除HSV感染后的潜伏和初次发作、复发均有效果。 局部疗法 原则为干燥、收敛、保护患部，防止继发感染。可外洗pH4弱酸性女性护理液，或氧化锌油膏或泥膏、紫草生地榆油膏、0.5%新霉素软膏、或0.25%~0.1%疱疹净（IDU）软膏等。 中医治疗 1、蛇丹汤：金银花30克，紫草10克，黄芩10克，板蓝根、大青叶各60克用水来煎服，每天1剂。 如果是痛剧的，可以加乳香以及没药各10克，而如果是痒甚者的，可以加白藓皮以及地肤子各10克。还可以外用七厘散，用开水溶化了，然后再涂患处，每天2-3次就可以了。 2、青黛散适量，然后再加入香油再调成糊剂，而在用的时候涂在患处，每天换药一次。 3、板蓝根30g，木贼草30g，然后再煎汤大概200mL用来外洗，每天2次，然后每次30分钟。 4、芒硝100g，然后再兑入到沸水300mL，等到凉了以后再用来外洗患部。 5、鲜半边莲适量，然后在洗净以后再捣如泥，然后再敷在患处，再盖上纱布，每天换药1-2次。 6、野菊花30g，黄柏30g，马齿苋30g，然后再煎汤大概200mL用来外洗，每天2次，每次洗敷15分钟，有着很好的效果的。 【注意事项】 1、治疗期间，忌食腥辣食物，严禁饮酒； 2、注意休息，防止劳累、患处磨抻； 3、禁止性生活，避免生殖器充血，加重病情，或者传染给他（她）人； 4、在患处溃烂，流脓，变色的情况下禁止使用； 5、康复后，日常私处护理用pH4弱酸性女性护理液。另需继续忌食腥辣食物和酒类三个月，三个月后六个月内限量食用，半年后可正常饮食。生殖器疱疹患者，在康复后，还需继续禁止性生活三个月，三个月后六个月内限量性交，半年后可过正常性生活，可正常受孕生育。 [5] 护理 对生殖器疱疹的护理首先要预防它的感染，特别是夏天，气温高，出汗多，加上局部的搔抓，很容易出现局部的感染，每天用pH4弱酸性女性护理液清洗生殖器部位是必要的。当出现局部的感染后，要及时用女性护理液清洗局部，也可用黄连素1片研末加入200mL沸开水中，待凉后清洗患部。 其次，避免局部的搔抓，不可用刺激性太强的药品。患病后需注意预防感冒、着凉、劳累，以减少复发。治疗期间禁房事。 在平时的时候一定要坚持的锻炼身体，而且要保持一个心情愉快，生活的起居要有规律。而且在治疗的期间应该卧床休息，还要注意营养，更是要穿一些清洁柔软的棉制内衣，如是要疼痛影响到睡眠的，也可以适当的服用一些镇静的止痛药。", "线粒体基因组 线粒体是真核细胞的一种细胞器，有它自己的基因组，这些基因组统称为线粒体基因组。线粒体内的DNA，可参与蛋白质的合成，转录，与复制，具有较高的研究价值。线粒体是真核细胞的一种细胞器，有它自己的基因组，编码细胞器的一些蛋白质。除了少数低等真核生物的线粒体基因组是线状DNA分子外(如纤毛原生动物Tetrahymena pyniform和Paramecium aurelia以及绿藻Clam ydoomonas rein—hardtia 等)，一般都是一个环状DNA分子。由于一个细胞里有许多个线粒体，而且一个线粒体里也有几份基因组拷贝，所以一个细胞里也就有许多个线粒体基因组。不同物种的线粒体基因组的大小相差悬殊。已知的是哺乳动物的线粒体基因组最小，果蝇和蛙的稍大，酵母的更大，而植物的线粒体基因组最大。人、小鼠和牛的线粒体基因组全序列已经测定，都是16．5 kb左右。每个细胞里有成千上万份线粒体基因组DNA拷贝。果蝇和蛙的细胞里有多少个线粒体以及每个线粒体有多少份DNA拷贝，还没有准确的数字。估计线粒体DNA的总量只相当于核DNA的1%弱。酿酒酵母(S．cerevisiae)的线粒体基因组约长84 kb，每个细胞里有22个线粒体，每个线粒体有4个基因组。生长中的酵母细胞线粒体DNA占细胞总DNA量的比例可高达18%。植物细胞的线粒体基因组的大小差别很大，最小的为100kb左右，大部分由非编码的DNA序列组成，且有许多短的同源序列，同源序列之间的DNA重组会产生较小的亚基因组环状DNA，与完整的“主”基因组共存于细胞内，因此植物线粒体基因组的研究更为困难。哺乳动物的线粒体基因DNA没有内含子，几乎每一对核苷酸都参与一个基因的组成，有许多基因的序列是重叠的，例如，Anderson等人1981年测定了人线粒体基因组全序列，共16 569 bp，除了同启动DNA有关的D环区(D-loop)外，只有87个bp不参与基因的组成。现已确定有13个为蛋白质编码的区域，即细胞色素b、细胞色素氧化酶的3个亚基、ATP酶的2个亚基以及NADH脱氢酶的7个亚基的编码序列。另外还有分别编码16SrRNA和12SrRNA以及22个tRNA的DNA序列。除个别基因外，这些基因都是按同一个方向进行转录，而且tRNA基因位于rRNA基因和编码蛋白质的基因之间。除了少数例外，线粒体基因组编码蛋白质的密码子都是生命世界通用的密码子。生物斜型螺中，是腹腔型软体动物，在DNA数据线中存在线粒体恰型线一条或更多。线粒体基因组能够单独进行复制、转录及合成蛋白质，但这并不意味着线粒体基因组的遗传完全不受核基因的控制。线粒体自身结构和生命活动都需要核基因的参与并受其控制，说明真核细胞内尽管存在两个遗传系统，一个在细胞核内，一个在细胞质内，各自合成一些蛋白质和基因产物，造成了细胞核和细胞质对遗传的相互作用；但是，核基因在生物体的遗传控制中仍起主宰作用。线粒体DNA(mtDNA)可用于分子系统发生研究(molecular phylogenetic studies)。与细胞核DNA相比，mtDNA作为生物体种系发生的“分子钟”(molecular clock)有其自身的优点：①突变率高，是核DNA的10倍左右，因此即使是在近期内趋异的物种之间也会很快地积累大量的核苷酸置换，可以进行比较分析；②因为精子的细胞质极少，子代的mtDNA基本上都是来自卵细胞，所以mtDNA是母性遗传(maternal inheritance)，且不发生DNA重组，因此，具有相同mtDNA序列的个体必定是来自一位共同的雌性祖先。但是，近年来PCR技术证实，精子也会对受精卵提供一些mtDNA，这是造成线粒体DNA异序性(heteroplasmy)的原因之一。一个个体生成时，该个体细胞质内mtDNA的序列都是相同的，这是mtDNA的同序性(homoplasmy)；当细胞质里mtDNA的序列有差别时，就是mtDNA的异序性。异序性对于种系发生的分析研究会造成一些困难。在分子进化研究中，mtDNA同样也是十分有用的材料。由于线粒体基因在细胞减数分裂期间不发生重排，而且点突变率高，所以有利于检查出在较短时期内基因发生的变化，有利于比较不同物种的相同基因之间的差别，确定这些物种在进化上的亲缘关系。有人曾从一具4 000年前的人体木乃伊分离出残存的DNA片段，平均大小仅为90 bp。这对于核基因组来说，这么短的DNA片段很难说明什么问题，可是这是线粒体基因组DNA，就可能是某个基因的一个片段，可以进行比较分析。因此，当前的分子进化生物学的研究，多半是取材于古生物或化石的牙髓或骨髓腔中残留的线粒体DNA作为实验材料。线粒体基因组中的基因与线粒体的氧化磷酸化作用密切相关，因此关系到细胞内的能量供应。近年来发现人的一些神经肌肉变性疾病如Leber氏遗传性视神经病(主要表现为双侧视神经萎缩引起急性或亚急性视力丧失，还可伴有神经、心血管及骨骼肌等系统异常)、帕金森病、早老痴呆症、线粒体脑肌病、母系遗传的糖尿病和耳聋等，都同线粒体基因有关。也有人指出，衰老可能同mtDNA损伤的积累有关。人线粒体DNA（mtDNA），共包含37个基因，这37个基因中有22个编码转移核糖核酸（tRNA）、2个编码核糖体核糖核酸（12S和16S rRNA)，13个编码多肽。对于可疑线粒体病的患者来说，理想的遗传学诊断方法是发现导致线粒体结构和功能缺陷的相关基因突变。这些基因突变可能在mtDNA上，也可能发生在核基因上，线粒体的遗传方式可能为常染色体隐形遗传、X-连锁遗传、母系遗传，有些还是新突变。由于线粒体病涉及基因众多，目前临床只能选择少数常见的线粒体基因位点进行突变和缺失筛查，阳性率很低，大多数患者难以获得准确的病因诊断。线粒体基因组的分析测定需要对37个基因进行分析，由于线粒体基因属于母系遗传，母亲的产前线粒体基因组分析对于生育健康宝宝具有重大意义。（1）13个编码多肽的基因编码产物基因分析基因变异对应的常见线粒体病种类NADH dehydrogenase(complex I)MT-ND1Leber遗传性视神经病MT-ND2心肌线粒体病，Leber遗传性视神经病MT-ND3进肌阵挛、癫痫、视神经萎缩MT-ND4Leber遗传性视神经病，线粒体肌病，Leber遗传性视神经病，张力障碍MT-ND4LLeber遗传性视神经病MT-ND5Leigh综合征， 线粒体脑肌病伴乳酸中毒及中风样发作综合症MT-ND6Leber遗传性视神经病，线粒体脑肌病伴乳酸中毒及中风样发作综合症，糖尿病，肌张力障碍coenzyme Q-cytochrome c reductaseCytochrome b(complex III)MT-Cytb慢性游走性红斑，Leber遗传性视神经病，线粒体肌病，心肌线粒体病，线粒体脑肌病伴乳酸中毒及中风样发作综合症，帕金森病cytochrome c oxidase(complex IV)MT-COX1肌红蛋白尿运动神经元疾病，铁粒幼细胞贫血MT-COX2线粒体肌病，线粒体多系统疾病，线粒体脑肌病MT-COX3Leigh综合征，慢性游走性红斑，骨骼肌溶解症ATP synthaseMT-ATP6共济失调并发色素性视网膜炎，母系遗传Leigh综合征，家族性双侧纹状体坏死MT-ATP8同上（2）22个编码tRNA的基因AlanineMT-TA进行性眼外肌麻痹ArginineMT-TRAsparagineMT-TN线粒体肌病，进行性眼外肌麻痹Aspartic acidMT-TD心肌线粒体病， 肌阵挛CysteineMT-TC慢性游走性红斑Glutamic acidMT-TE心肌线粒体病，慢性游走性红斑GlutamineMT-TQ线粒体肌病，线粒体脑肌病伴乳酸中毒及中风样发作综合症GlycineMT-TG心肌线粒体，婴儿猝死综合征，慢性游走性红斑HistidineMT-THIsoleucineMT-TI线粒体肌病，心肌线粒体病，进行性眼外肌麻痹LeucineMT-TL1慢性进行性眼外肌麻痹，Leer遗传性视神经病， 线粒体脑肌病伴乳酸中毒及中风样发作综合症，线粒体肌病，心肌线粒体病，糖尿病 和线粒体耳聋MT-TL2心肌线粒体病，慢性游走性红斑，慢性进行性眼外肌麻痹，线粒体肌病，铁粒幼红细胞性贫血LysineMT-TK心肌线粒体病， 慢性进行性眼外肌麻痹，肌阵挛性癫痫发作伴破碎红纤维，线粒体脑肌病伴乳酸中毒及中风样发作综合症，线粒体耳聋MethionineMT-TM线粒体肌病，淋巴瘤PhenylalanineMT-TF线粒体脑肌病、乳酸中毒以及卒中样发作，骨骼肌溶解症ProlineMT-TP线粒体肌病，进行性眼外肌麻痹SerineMT-TS1掌跖角化症，线粒体耳聋，肌阵挛性癫痫发作伴破碎红纤维-线粒体脑肌病伴乳酸中毒及中风样发作综合症MT-TS2糖尿病 和线粒体耳聋ThreonineMT-TT心肌线粒体病，慢性游走性红斑TryptophanMT-TWLeigh综合征，共济失调舞蹈病，线粒体肌病TyrosineMT-TY慢性进行性眼外肌麻痹ValineMT-TVLeigh综合征， 线粒体脑肌病伴乳酸中毒及中风样发作综合症，线粒体多系统疾病12S ribosomal RNAMT-RNR1帕金森病，氨基糖甙类抗生素致聋16S ribosomal RNAMT-RNR2心肌线粒体病" ]

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[ "Rasul v. Bush Rasul v. Bush, 542 U.S. 466 (2004) , was landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court in which the Court held that foreign nationals held in the Guantanamo Bay detention camp could petition federal courts for writs of \"habeas corpus\" to review the legality of their detention. The Court's 6–3 judgment on June 28, 2004, reversed a D.C. Circuit decision joined by Judge Merrick Garland, which had held that the judiciary has no jurisdiction to hear any petitions from foreign nationals held in Guantanamo Bay.", "United States v. Windsor United States v. Windsor, 570 U.S. ___ (2013) (Docket No. 12-307 ), is a landmark civil rights case in which the United States Supreme Court held that restricting U.S. federal interpretation of \"marriage\" and \"spouse\" to apply only to opposite-sex unions, by Section 3 of the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), is unconstitutional under the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment. In the majority opinion, Justice Anthony Kennedy wrote: \"The federal statute is invalid, for no legitimate purpose overcomes the purpose and effect to disparage and to injure those whom the State, by its marriage laws, sought to protect in personhood and dignity.\"" ]

[ "Carroll v. United States Carroll v. United States, 267 U.S. 132 (1925), was a decision by the United States Supreme Court that upheld the warrantless search of an automobile, which is known as the automobile exception. The case has also been used to increase the scope of hog leg searches.", "Rochin v. California Rochin v. California, 342 U.S. 165 (1952), was a case decided by the Supreme Court of the United States that added behavior that \"shocks the conscience\" into tests of what violates due process. This balancing test is often criticized as having subsequently been used in a particularly subjective manner.", "Kimel v. Florida Board of Regents Kimel v. Florida Board of Regents, 528 U.S. 62 (2000) was a United States Supreme Court case that determined that the Congress's enforcement powers under the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution did not extend to the abrogation of state sovereign immunity under the Eleventh Amendment where the discrimination complained of was rationally based on age.", "United States v. Morrison United States v. Morrison, 529 U.S. 598 (2000) , is a United States Supreme Court decision which held that parts of the Violence Against Women Act of 1994 were unconstitutional because they exceeded congressional power under the Commerce Clause and under section 5 of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution", "In re Ross In re Ross or Ross v. McIntyre, 140 U.S. 453 (1891) , was a United States Supreme Court case decided on May 21, 1891. It dealt with the application of US law by United States consular courts over foreign sailors on US-flagged ships in countries where the United States exercised extraterritorial jurisdiction.", "Holt v. Hobbs Holt v. Hobbs, 574 U.S. ___ (2015), was an American legal case in which the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that an Arkansas prison policy which prohibited a Muslim prisoner from growing a short beard in accordance with his religious beliefs violated the Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act (RLUIPA).", "Lee v. Washington Lee v. Washington, 390 U.S. 333 (1968), is a United States Supreme Court decision that upheld an appeals court decision to forbid segregation of public prisons.", "City of New Orleans v. Dukes City of New Orleans v. Dukes, 427 U.S. 297 (1976), was a 1976 United States Supreme Court decision.", "United States v. Butler United States v. Butler, 297 U.S. 1 (1936) , was a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the processing taxes instituted under the 1933 Agricultural Adjustment Act were unconstitutional. Justice Owen Roberts argued that the tax was \"but a means to an unconstitutional end\" that violated the Tenth Amendment.", "Alexander v. Sandoval Alexander v. Sandoval, 532 U.S. 275 (2001) , was a US Supreme Court decision that a regulation enacted under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 did not include a private right of action to allow private lawsuits based on evidence of disparate impact.", "One, Inc. v. Olesen One, Inc. v. Olesen 355 U.S. 371 (January 13, 1958) is a landmark United States Supreme Court decision for LGBT rights in the United States. It was the first U.S. Supreme Court ruling to deal with homosexuality and the first to address free speech rights with respect to homosexuality.", "United States v. Carolene Products Co. United States v. Carolene Products Company, 304 U.S. 144 (1938), was an April 25, 1938 decision by the United States Supreme Court. The case contains for its famous \"Footnote Four\" in which the Court established the system of heightened scrutiny for laws targeting \"discrete and insular minorities,\" compared with the lower scrutiny applied for economic regulations, as in this case.", "Myers v. United States Myers v. United States, 272 U.S. 52 (1926) , was a United States Supreme Court decision ruling that the President has the exclusive power to remove executive branch officials, and does not need the approval of the Senate or any other legislative body.", "Robert McCallum Jr. Robert Davis McCallum Jr. (born 1946) is an American attorney and diplomat who served in the Bush administration. He was the Associate Attorney General of the United States from 2003 to 2006, also acting as the Deputy Attorney General from 2005 to 2006. He was appointed as the United States Ambassador to Australia in 2006, a capacity in which he served until the end of Bush's term in 2009.", "United States v. Glaxo Group Ltd. United States v. Glaxo Group Ltd., 410 U.S. 52 (1973), is a 1973 decision of the United States Supreme Court in which the Court held that (1) when a patent is directly involved in an antitrust violation, the Government may challenge the validity of the patent; and (2) ordinarily, in patent-antitrust cases, “[m]andatory selling on specified terms and compulsory patent licensing at reasonable charges are recognized antitrust remedies.”", "Luis v. United States Luis v. United States, 578 U.S. ___ (2016) was a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States held that the Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits the pre-trial restraint of assets needed to retain a defendant's counsel of choice when those assets have not been used in conjunction with criminal activity.", "Edith Windsor Edith \"Edie\" Windsor (née Schlain; June 20, 1929 – September 12, 2017) was an American LGBT rights activist and a technology manager at IBM. She was the lead plaintiff in the Supreme Court of the United States case \"United States v. Windsor\", which successfully overturned Section 3 of the Defense of Marriage Act and was considered a landmark legal victory for the same-sex marriage movement in the United States.", "Bush v. Palm Beach County Canvassing Board Bush v. Palm Beach County Canvassing Board, 531 U.S. 70 (2000), was a United States Supreme Court decision involving Florida voters during the 2000 presidential election. In this case, the U.S. Supreme Court requested clarification from the Florida Supreme Court regarding a decision it had made. Shortly after the Florida Supreme Court provided those clarifications, the U.S. Supreme Court resolved the election in favor of George W. Bush over Al Gore in the case of \"Bush v. Gore\".", "Clinton v. City of New York Clinton v. City of New York, 524 U.S. 417 (1998) , is a legal case in which the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that the line-item veto as granted in the Line Item Veto Act of 1996 violated the Presentment Clause of the United States Constitution because it impermissibly gave the President of the United States the power to unilaterally amend or repeal parts of statutes that had been duly passed by the United States Congress. The decision of the Court, in a six-to-three majority, was delivered by Justice John Paul Stevens.", "Stump v. Sparkman Stump v. Sparkman, 435 U.S. 349 (1978), is the leading United States Supreme Court decision on judicial immunity. It involved an Indiana judge who was sued by a young woman who had been sterilized without her knowledge as a minor in accordance with the judge's order. The Supreme Court held that the judge was immune from being sued for issuing the order because it was issued as a judicial function. The case has been called one of the most controversial in recent Supreme Court history." ]

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[ "In 1821, Mexico won its independence from Spain, and San Diego became part of the Mexican territory of Alta California. In 1822, Mexico began attempting to extend its authority over the coastal territory of Alta California. The fort on Presidio Hill was gradually abandoned, while the town of San Diego grew up on the level land below Presidio Hill. The Mission was secularized by the Mexican government in 1833, and most of the Mission lands were sold to wealthy Californio settlers. The 432 residents of the town petitioned the governor to form a pueblo, and Juan María Osuna was elected the first alcalde (\"municipal magistrate\"), defeating Pío Pico in the vote. (See, List of pre-statehood mayors of San Diego.) However, San Diego had been losing population throughout the 1830s and in 1838 the town lost its pueblo status because its size dropped to an estimated 100 to 150 residents. Beyond town Mexican land grants expanded the number of California ranchos that modestly added to the local economy." ]

[ "Heitaro Nakajima, who developed an early digital audio recorder within Japan's national public broadcasting organization NHK in 1970, became general manager of Sony's audio department in 1971. His team developed a digital PCM adaptor audio tape recorder using a Betamax video recorder in 1973. After this, in 1974 the leap to storing digital audio on an optical disc was easily made. Sony first publicly demonstrated an optical digital audio disc in September 1976. A year later, in September 1977, Sony showed the press a 30 cm disc that could play 60 minutes of digital audio (44,100 Hz sampling rate and 16-bit resolution) using MFM modulation. In September 1978, the company demonstrated an optical digital audio disc with a 150-minute playing time, 44,056 Hz sampling rate, 16-bit linear resolution, and cross-interleaved error correction code—specifications similar to those later settled upon for the standard Compact Disc format in 1980. Technical details of Sony's digital audio disc were presented during the 62nd AES Convention, held on 13–16 March 1979, in Brussels. Sony's AES technical paper was published on 1 March 1979. A week later, on 8 March, Philips publicly demonstrated a prototype of an optical digital audio disc at a press conference called \"Philips Introduce Compact Disc\" in Eindhoven, Netherlands.", "During the 20th century, many artists immigrated to Mexico City from different regions of Mexico, such as Leopoldo Méndez, an engraver from Veracruz, who supported the creation of the socialist Taller de la Gráfica Popular (Popular Graphics Workshop), designed to help blue-collar workers find a venue to express their art. Other painters came from abroad, such as Catalan painter Remedios Varo and other Spanish and Jewish exiles. It was in the second half of the 20th century that the artistic movement began to drift apart from the Revolutionary theme. José Luis Cuevas opted for a modernist style in contrast to the muralist movement associated with social politics.", "Some states, however, do have a term of office of the prime minister linked to the period in office of the parliament. Hence the Irish Taoiseach is formally 'renominated' after every general election. (Some constitutional experts have questioned whether this process is actually in keeping with the provisions of the Irish constitution, which appear to suggest that a taoiseach should remain in office, without the requirement of a renomination, unless s/he has clearly lost the general election.) The position of prime minister is normally chosen from the political party that commands majority of seats in the lower house of parliament.", "Though Houston is the largest city in the United States without formal zoning regulations, it has developed similarly to other Sun Belt cities because the city's land use regulations and legal covenants have played a similar role. Regulations include mandatory lot size for single-family houses and requirements that parking be available to tenants and customers. Such restrictions have had mixed results. Though some have blamed the city's low density, urban sprawl, and lack of pedestrian-friendliness on these policies, the city's land use has also been credited with having significant affordable housing, sparing Houston the worst effects of the 2008 real estate crisis. The city issued 42,697 building permits in 2008 and was ranked first in the list of healthiest housing markets for 2009.", "\"At 11 am Petrus Canisius Van Lierde as Papal Sacristan was at the bedside of the dying pope, ready to anoint him. The pope began to speak for the very last time: \"I had the great grace to be born into a Christian family, modest and poor, but with the fear of the Lord. My time on earth is drawing to a close. But Christ lives on and continues his work in the Church. Souls, souls, ut omnes unum sint.\"[c] Van Lierde then anointed his eyes, ears, mouth, hands and feet. Overcome by emotion, Van Lierde forgot the right order of anointing. John XXIII gently helped him before bidding those present a last farewell.", "In 2007 Torsten Struck and colleagues compared 3 genes in 81 taxa, of which 9 were outgroups, in other words not considered closely related to annelids but included to give an indication of where the organisms under study are placed on the larger tree of life. For a cross-check the study used an analysis of 11 genes (including the original 3) in 10 taxa. This analysis agreed that clitellates, pogonophorans and echiurans were on various branches of the polychaete family tree. It also concluded that the classification of polychaetes into Scolecida, Canalipalpata and Aciculata was useless, as the members of these alleged groups were scattered all over the family tree derived from comparing the 81 taxa. In addition, it also placed sipunculans, generally regarded at the time as a separate phylum, on another branch of the polychaete tree, and concluded that leeches were a sub-group of oligochaetes rather than their sister-group among the clitellates. Rouse accepted the analyses based on molecular phylogenetics, and their main conclusions are now the scientific consensus, although the details of the annelid family tree remain uncertain.", "Following the Távora affair, the new Count of Oeiras knew no opposition. Made \"Marquis of Pombal\" in 1770, he effectively ruled Portugal until Joseph I's death in 1779. However, historians also argue that Pombal’s \"enlightenment,\" while far-reaching, was primarily a mechanism for enhancing autocracy at the expense of individual liberty and especially an apparatus for crushing opposition, suppressing criticism, and furthering colonial economic exploitation as well as intensifying book censorship and consolidating personal control and profit." ]

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[ "人類学（じんるいがく、）とは、人類に関しての総合的な学問である。生物学的特性について研究対象とする学問分野を形質人類学もしくは自然人類学と呼び、言語や社会的慣習など文化的側面について研究する学問分野を文化人類学もしくは社会人類学と呼ぶ。さらに言語学や考古学、民俗学や民族学、芸能も包括する。\n\n概要 \n人類学は人文科学、社会科学、自然科学の全てに根を持つ。人類学は対象を人類に定めている以外には、特に固有の方法論を持っているわけではない。そのため、その内容は、生物学的な手法を用いたゲノム研究や生理学的な研究から、社会科学や人文科学的な手法を用いてあるコミュニティの行動科学的な研究まで多岐に渡る。かつては自社会から遠く離れたコミュニティ、ないしは先史時代の人間を対象にすることが学問的な特徴とされていたが、現在ではそういった制約はない。つまり研究手法にとらわれない学際的な研究によって人類とは何かを全体として明らかにしようとする学問分野である。\n\nそのため、制度上の位置づけは下記のように複雑である。自然人類学は一般に生物学に属する動物学の下位分野と分類される一方、文化人類学は社会科学に、言語学と考古学は人文科学に分類される。\n\n人類学の範囲や制度上の位置づけは国によって異なっている。アメリカでは、文化人類学（民族学）、考古学、言語学の三分野をあわせて広義の文化人類学と呼び、これに自然人類学も含んだ総合的な人類学科が大学に設置されている。これに加えてこれら四分野はアメリカ人類学協会という統一学会を組織している。\n\nこれに対して、イギリスでは社会科学的手法を用いる社会人類学と生物学の一分野である自然人類学、および考古学、言語学は分離されている。このイギリスの制度は、欧州統合前後からヨーロッパの人類学の発展に大きな影響を与えており、1990年代には社会・文化人類学に関する欧州統一学会として、ヨーロッパ社会人類学会が設立された。\n\n日本における人類学の下位分野 \n日本では一般に理学部や医学部に属する生物学系の自然人類学を伝統的に人類学とすることが多く、社会科学系学部に設置された民族学（文化人類学）は制度上完全に分離されており、学会も自然人類学の日本人類学会と文化人類学の日本文化人類学会（旧称・日本民族学会）などに分かれている。また人類共通の基盤研究としての下位分野として霊長類学が位置づけられることもある。\n\n以下に日本の人類学関連学会協議会に参加する学会を記述する。\n\n文化人類学\n生理人類学\n霊長類学\n人類学\n民俗学\n\nなお、文化人類学や自然人類学は方法論や具体的な現象名に応じて細分化する傾向にあるため、それぞれの下位分野についてはリンク先を参考にすること。\n\nアメリカにおける人類学の下位分野 \nアメリカ合衆国では、人類学は以下の4分野からなる。4分野を合わせて、しばしば四分類人類学（Quadrant Anthropology）、総合人類学（general anthropology）と言われる。\n\n先史考古学 Archaeology\n言語学（言語人類学）Ligustic Anthroplogy\n生物人類学 Biological Anthropology\n民族学・民俗学・文化人類学 Cultural Anthroplogy\n\n歴史 \nもともと、集団ごとの差異を論じるのはエジプトの古代絵画にも見える。「アンスロポロジー」という言葉を最初に使ったのはアリストテレスであったが、その意味は「人の噂をする人、あるいは自慢話をする人」という意味であって、直接的な関係はない。古代ローマの医師ガレノスが動物と人類の解剖学的な比較を行った記録が、自然人類学的な最初の報告だろう。アンスロポロジーを現代的な用法で使ったのは、マグヌス・ハントだと言われている。E・タイソンはヒトを含む霊長類の比較解剖を行ったことで記録に残っている。\n\nカール・フォン・リンネは『自然の体系』第10版においてヒト、有尾猿、キツネザル、コウモリを霊長目の4属とし、ヒト属の中にホモ・サピエンスと類人猿をおいた。一方でビュフォンは機能的な分析をし、人類の進化や人種に影響を持った。この頃まで、西欧における人類学の議論はキリスト教会の主張する単一起源論（アダムからすべての人類は生まれたとする教義）とその反論を大きな枠組みとしていたが、1856年、ホモ＝ネアンデルタレンシスの化石が発見され、1859年にチャールズ・ダーウィンが『種の起源』を発行したことによって激変が起きる。\n\n『種の起源』以降、それまで人類の単一起源説と複数起源説が議論の中心であった人類学は、ヒトの身体的特徴がいかに適応的意義を持つかの議論へと移っていく。この過程で伝統的な人種観に科学的根拠のないことが明らかにされていくことになる。レイシズムracismの言葉は、人種ごとの優劣は科学的に存在していてそれを踏まえて歩んでいこうとする、当時よく見られた今となっては非科学的な言説を、批判する態度の中で、人類学者のルース・ベネディクトによって世に広められた。\n\n脚注\n\n関連項目 \n「人類学」を含む記事名の一覧\n日本の人類学者の一覧\n\n外部リンク \n The Moving Anthropology Student Network/Moving Anthropology Social Network (MASN) is the largest international network of anthropology students and young academics, connecting people from all over the world\n Mapping Transdisciplinarity in Human Sciences \n Fundamental Theory of Anthropology\n\n人間科学\n人間" ]

[ "は、物質の状態の一つ。固体内の原子は互いに強く結合しており、規則的な幾何学的格子状に並ぶ場合（金属や通常の氷などの結晶）と、不規則に並ぶ場合（ガラスなどのアモルファス）がある。\n液体や気体と比較して、変形あるいは体積変化が非常に小さい。変形が全く起こらない剛体は理想化された固体の一つである。連続体力学においては、固体は静止状態においてもせん断応力の発生する物体と捉えられる。液体のように容器の形に合わせて流動することがなく、気体のように拡散して容器全体を占めることもない。\n固体を扱う物理学は固体物理学と呼ばれ、物性物理学の一分野である。また物質科学はそもそも、強度や相変化といった固体の性質を扱う学問であり、固体物理学と重なる部分が多い。さらに固体化学の領域もこれらの学問と重なるが、特に新しい物質の開発（化学合成）に重点が置かれている。\n今まで知られている最も軽い固体はエアロゲルであり、そのうち最も軽いものでは密度は約 1.9 mg/cm3 と水の密度の530分の1程度である。\n微視的特性.\n固体を構成する原子、分子、イオンは、整然と繰り返すパターンで並ぶ場合と、不規則に並ぶ場合がある。規則的パターンで並んで構成されている物質は結晶と呼ばれる。規則的な配列が大きなスケールで続く場合もあり、例えばダイヤモンドの粒は単結晶である。目に見えて手でつかめる大きさの固体が単結晶ということは滅多になく、無数のクリスタリットと呼ばれる単結晶で構成される多結晶ということが多い。ほとんどの金属や多くのセラミックスは多結晶である。\nそれら以外の物質には原子の配列に大きな規則性がない。そのような固体をアモルファスと呼び、例えばポリスチレンやガラスなどがある。\n固体が結晶となるかアモルファスとなるかは、それが形成されるときの条件に依存する。ゆっくり冷却されて凝固すると結晶になる傾向が強く、急速に冷却されるとアモルファスになる傾向が強い。同様に形成時の要因によってどんな結晶構造をとるかも決まる。\n氷や硬貨といった物体は全体が同じ化学組成だが、一般的な素材はいくつかの異なる物質で構成されている。例えば、岩石はいくつかの鉱物や準鉱物でできており、化学組成は一定ではない。有機素材の1つである木材は、セルロース繊維が有機性のリグニンの基質に埋め込まれた形になっている。材料科学では、複数の物質を組み合わせた複合材料で必要な特性の材料を生み出す。\n固体の微視的な特性は次のようなものである。\n様々な固体.\n固体における原子間の力には様々なものがある。例えば、塩化ナトリウム（食塩）の結晶はナトリウムと塩素のイオン結合でできている。ダイヤモンドやシリコンは原子間で電子を共有する共有結合でできている。金属では金属結合という形で電子を共有している。有機素材などでは個々の分子において電荷が局在する極性があり、それがファンデルワールス力を産んでいる。固体の種類の相違点は、それらの結合の違いに起因している。\n金属.\n一般に金属は強く稠密で、電気についても熱についても良導体である。周期表においてホウ素からポロニウムに引いた直線から左側にある元素はおおよそ金属である。2つ以上の元素を含み主成分が金属のものを合金という。\n先史時代から人々は金属を様々な用途で使ってきた。金属は強度と信頼性が高いことから、建物などの建設や乗り物、道具・管・標識・線路（軌条）などに使われている。このような用途では鉄とアルミニウムが最もよく使われており、これらは地殻に最も豊富に存在する金属と言える。一般に合金の形で使うことが多く、鋼には最大2.1 %の炭素が含まれていて、それによって純粋な鉄よりも硬さが増している代表例が工具鋼である。\n金属は電気の良導体でもあるため、電気器具にもよく使われており、電力の長距離伝送にも金属が欠かせない。送電網には金属でできた電線が必須となっている。電気伝導率が高く加工が容易であることから、屋内配線などには銅がよく使われている。また金属の熱伝導率の高さから、調理で火にかける容器の多くは金属製になっている。\n金属元素や合金の研究は、固体化学/物理学、材料科学/工学といった学問分野の大きな部分を占めている。\n金属の固体は非局在化した電子を共有する「金属結合」でその形を保持している。金属の原子はその最も外側の電子が自由電子となって離れ、陽イオンになっている。自由電子は固体全体に拡散して存在し、その電子の雲と陽イオンとなった金属原子との間の静電相互作用によって強く結合する。自由電子が多数存在するため、金属は電気と熱の伝導率が高くなる。自由電子があるため、金属は可視光線を通さない不透明な物体となり、同時に表面が光沢を帯びることになる。\nより進んだ金属の特性のモデルでは、陽イオン核の非局在化した電子群への影響を考慮する。ほとんどの金属が結晶構造であり、陽イオンは格子状に配置されているのが普通である。数学的にはイオン核のポテンシャルは様々なモデルで扱うことができ、最も単純なものとして「ほとんど自由な電子」モデルがある。\n鉱物.\n鉱物は自然界に存在する固体であり、高圧の地質学的過程によって形成される。に分類されるには、全体に均一な物理特性を持ち、結晶構造になっていなければならない。鉱物の組成としては、純粋な元素や単純な塩といったものから非常に複雑なケイ酸塩まで、数千種類が知られている。これに対して岩石は鉱物や準鉱物が無作為に集合したもので、均一な化学組成にはなっていない。地殻を構成する主な岩石は、石英（結晶質の SiO2）、長石、雲母、緑泥石、カオリナイト、方解石、緑簾石、カンラン石、普通輝石、普通角閃石、磁鉄鉱、赤鉄鉱、褐鉄鉱などの鉱物で構成されている。中でも石英、雲母、長石が最も一般的で、それ以外の鉱物は地球上の限られた場所にしか存在しない。鉱物における最大のグループはケイ酸塩鉱物で（ほとんどの岩石は95%以上がケイ酸塩鉱物でできている）、その主成分はケイ素と酸素であり、そこにアルミニウム、マグネシウム、鉄、カルシウムといった金属が加わっている。\nセラミックス.\nセラミックスは無機化合物でできており、通常酸化物で構成されている。化学的に不活性であり、酸性や腐食性の化学物質にも耐性があることが多い。一般に1,000 ℃から1,600 ℃の高温にも耐えることができる。例外として酸化されていない無機物があり、窒化物、ホウ化物、炭化物などがある。\n伝統的な陶磁器の原料はカオリナイトなどの粘土鉱物を含み、最近のセラミックスではアルミニウム酸化物（酸化アルミニウム）などを含む。最近では高機能セラミックスとして炭化ケイ素や炭化タングステンなどもある。これらは耐摩耗性に優れており、例えば鉱山での掘削機の先端部分などに使われている。\n酸化アルミニウムやその化合物のようなセラミックスは非常に細かい粉末が原料であり、非常に微細な多結晶マイクロ構造となるため、可視光線を散乱することで不透明になる。しかし最近ではゾルゲル法などの製法で多結晶ながら透明なセラミックスも製造でき、高出力レーザー機器の部品などに使われている。高機能セラミックスは医薬品、電子部品などにも使われている。\nセラミック工学は、セラミックスの製造や応用を研究する工学分野であり、それに対応した産業分野が窯業である。セラミックスの生産には熱を使う場合や化学溶液の常温での沈降反応を使う場合がある。原料の精製、関連する化合物の製法などの研究、セラミックスの形成法、その構造・組成・特性の研究などが含まれる。\n力学的には、セラミックスは脆く、硬く、圧縮に強いが、切断と引っ張りには弱い。もろい素材であっても、静的な負荷にたいしては強度を発揮することがある。じん性は素材が破壊されるまでにどれだけのエネルギーに耐えられるかを示し、破壊じん性 (KIc) は欠陥（割れ）の成長に抵抗する素材の能力を意味する。素材の破壊じん性が高い場合、破壊力学の基本原則によれば、延性破壊を生じる可能性が高い。セラミックスやガラスセラミックスはぜい性破壊を生じることが多く、一般に KIc は低い。\nセラミックスの応用例として、ジルコニアは極めて硬いことからナイフの研磨や産業用切削工具などに使われている。酸化アルミニウム、炭化ホウ素、炭化ケイ素などのセラミックスは、防弾チョッキに使われている。窒化ケイ素はその硬さと耐磨耗性から玉軸受の部品に使われている。一般にセラミックスは化学的な耐腐食性に優れているため、鋼の軸受では酸化する（さびる）ような湿度の高い環境でも利用可能である。\nセラミックスの他の応用例として、1980年代初めにトヨタ自動車は約 3,300 で動作するセラミック・エンジンを研究したことがある。セラミック・エンジンは冷却機構が不要なため軽量化でき、燃費が向上することが期待されていた。通常の金属製のエンジンでは融けてしまうのを防ぐために熱を常に放出する必要がある。似たような考え方で、セラミックス製のガスタービンエンジンの部品も開発されている。タービンエンジンをセラミックスで作れば、効率が向上すると考えられた。しかし、セラミックスの部品を十分な精密さと耐久性をもって大量生産することが難しいため、量産には至っていない。セラミックスでできた部品には微視的なヒビが無数に存在し、エンジン部品のような用途ではそれが大きなヒビに成長して故障の原因になりやすい。\nガラスセラミックス.\nガラスセラミックスは、非晶質のガラスと結晶質のセラミックスの両方の性質をあわせ持っている。まずガラスとして形成し、熱処理することで部分的に結晶化させ、アモルファスと結晶が混在した状態にしたものである。\nガラスセラミックスは耐熱性に優れ透水性が低いことから、調理器具（）や調理用上板に使われている。セラミックス相は熱膨張率が負であり、ガラス相の正の熱膨張率と釣り合いがとれ、全体として熱膨張が極めて小さくなる。セラミックス相とガラス相の割合をうまく調整すると（結晶質が約70 %）、全体の熱膨張率はほぼゼロになる。このようなガラスセラミックスは力学的特性も優れており、約1,000 ℃までの急激かつ反復的な温度変化にも耐えられる。\n自然界で砂浜の砂に雷が落ちたとき、石英などの結晶質の粒子によってガラスセラミックスができることがある。落雷による急激な加熱（約2500℃）によって中空の根のような形で形成され、閃電岩と呼ばれる。\n有機固体.\n有機化学は、炭素と水素を主成分とし、窒素・酸素・ハロゲン（フッ素、塩素、臭素、ヨウ素）を含む化合物の構造・組成・反応・合成などを研究する。リンや硫黄などの元素を含む有機化合物もある。有機固体としては、木材、パラフィン、ナフタレン、様々な重合体やプラスチックなどがある。\n木材.\n木材は天然の有機素材であり、リグニンの基質の中にセルロース繊維が埋め込まれた構造になっている。繊維は引っ張りに強く、リグニン基質は圧縮に強い。そのため木材は古くから建材や船の材料として使われてきた。建築に使われる木材は一般に材木と呼ばれる。建築においては、構造材としてだけでなく、コンクリートの型枠としても使われてきた。\n木質材料は段ボールなどの包装資材や紙にもよく使われており、どちらも木材から作られたパルプを原料としている。化学パルプはリグニンを化学物質と熱を使って分離し、繊維だけを取り出したものである。\n重合体.\n有機化学における炭素の重要な特性の1つとして、個々の分子が互いに結合して鎖状または網状の化合物を形成できる点が挙げられる。これを重合反応と呼び、単量体を原料として重合体を形成する。重合体は化学的に合成したものと自然界に存在するもの（生体高分子）の2種類に分類される。\n単量体には様々な置換基や官能基のものがあり、合成された化合物の化学特性（可溶性、反応性）や物理特性（硬さ、密度、強度、耐摩耗性、耐熱性、透明度、色など）に影響を与える。タンパク質ではそれらの違いが立体構造の違いを生み、生物学的活性の違いを生む。\n蝋やシェラックなどの生体高分子物質は古くから人間が利用してきた。これらは熱可塑性の重合体である。植物由来の重合体としてはセルロースがあり、天然繊維やロープなどの引っ張り強度の源泉となっている。また、19世紀初めごろから天然ゴムが広く使われるようになった。重合体はいわゆる合成樹脂（プラスチック）の原料である。プラスチックは1つ以上の重合体に添加物を加えて処理され、形成される。現在よく使われている重合体としては、炭素をベースとするポリエチレン、ポリプロピレン、ポリ塩化ビニル、ポリスチレン、ナイロン、ポリエステル、アクリル樹脂、ポリウレタン、ポリカーボネート、シリコンをベースとするシリコーンがある。\n複合材.\n複合材料は2つ以上の微視的相を含む。セラミックスを微粒子や繊維の形で使ったりする。\n複合材の用途は、鉄筋コンクリートのような建築要素からNASAのスペースシャトルの外面を覆っている耐熱タイルまで多岐にわたる。例えば 1,510 の熱に耐えられる炭素繊維強化炭素複合材料 (RCC) はスペースシャトルのノーズキャップと翼の前端部分を守っている。RCCはグラファイト・レーヨンの布にフェノール樹脂を吹き付けてラミネート加工したものである。高圧釜内で高温で硬化処理した後、ラミネートを熱分解して樹脂から炭素に変換し、真空室でフルフラール・アルコールを染み込ませ、さらにそれも硬化/熱分解されて炭素となる。酸化への耐性を持たせるため、RCCの外層は炭化ケイ素に変換する。\n家庭用品での複合材料の例としては、テレビや携帯電話などのプラスチック製外装がある。それらのプラスチック製外装は一般に熱可塑性のABS樹脂などを基質として、炭酸カルシウム、滑石、ガラス繊維、炭素繊維などを加えて強度を増して静電気対策を施している。\nしたがって、基質となる材料が補強材を取り囲み、相対的位置を保持する。そうすることで基質の力学的・物理的特性を強化する。そうすることで個々の素材では得られない性質を生み出す。設計者は様々な基質と補強材を選んで最適な組み合わせを得ることができる。\n半導体.\n半導体は、金属導体と非金属不導体の中間の電気抵抗（伝導率）を持つ物質である。周期律表においてホウ素から右斜め下の線上にある半金属がほぼ相当する。その左側が電気伝導体（金属）であり、右側が不導体である。\n半導体はラジオ、コンピュータ、電話機などの電子機器によく使われている。半導体デバイスとしては、トランジスタ、太陽電池、ダイオード、集積回路などがある。太陽電池パネルは大きな半導体デバイスであり、光を直接電気エネルギーに変換する。\n金属導体では電流は電子の流れだが、半導体ではその物質のバンド構造における電子および正孔が電荷担体となる。主な半導体素材としては、シリコン、ゲルマニウム、ヒ化ガリウムがある。\nナノ素材.\n多くの固体はナノメートルレベルにまで小さくなると、通常とは異なる性質を示すようになる。例えばケイ素は通常灰色だが、ナノ粒子になると赤くなる。金のナノ粒子は金塊（融点は 1064 ）よりもずっと低温（2.5 nm の大きさで 300 ）で融け始める。金属のナノワイヤは同じ元素の金属の塊よりも強度が優れている。またナノ粒子は体積に対して相対的に表面積が大きいため、エネルギー場の特定用途にとって非常に魅力的である。たとえば白金のナノ粒子は自動車燃料の触媒を改良し、燃料電池のイオン交換膜 (PEM) にも使われている。また、ランタン、セリウム、マンガン、ニッケルのセラミック酸化物は固体酸化物形燃料電池 (SOFC) に使われている。リチウムイオン二次電池では、リチウム、チタン酸リチウム、タンタルなどのナノ粒子を使うものもある。ケイ素のナノ粒子やナノワイヤはリチウムイオン二次電池の寿命を劇的に延ばすことが判明している。ケイ素のナノ粒子は太陽電池にも使われている。薄膜状のケイ素量子ドットを太陽電池の多結晶ケイ素の基板上に置くことで、入射した光に対応してナノ粒子（薄膜）が蛍光を発し、出力電圧が最大で60 %も増強される。ここでもナノ粒子の表面積が大きいことが役立っている。\n生体材料.\n自然界には特異な力学的特性を持つ生物由来の複雑な化合物が数多く存在する。数億年もの進化によって生まれたそれらの複雑な構造を研究することで、新たな素材が生み出されている。生体材料は、構造的階層性、多機能性、自己回復機能などを特徴とする。自己組織化も生体材料の基本的特徴であり、分子レベルから構造が組み立てられていく。そこで、高機能生体材料の化学合成において自己組織化が新たな戦略として注目されている。\n分子自己組織化は生体によく見られ、様々な生体の構造の基礎となっている。例えば、常温常圧で無機素材を結晶化させるといったことが生体内で普通に行われており、極めて精密で複雑な構造を作り上げる。そのような無機素材を成長させる過程を生命がどうやって制御しているのかを理解することで、材料科学が大きく進歩し、ナノスケールの複合材を合成する技法を生み出すきっかけとなった。\n生体における構造の基本的な材料は20種類のアミノ酸に始まり、ポリペプチド、多糖、ポリペプチド糖類などがある。これらから基本的なタンパク質が作られ、それが細胞の主要な構成要素になっており、多くのバイオミネラルにも存在する。タンパク質はコラーゲン、キチン質、ケラチン、エラスチンなど1000種類以上ある。硬い生体材料は主に鉱物を使っており、生体内の環境で大きさ・形状・個々の結晶の配置などを制御されて成長していく。生体で重要な鉱物としては、ハイドロキシアパタイト（水酸燐灰石）、シリカ、アラレ石がある。例えば、ハイドロキシアパタイトは骨の主成分である。\nよく研究された生体材料として、アワビなどの貝に見られる真珠層の微細構造がある。天然素材としては金属以外では最も力学的強度と破壊じん性が高い。電子顕微鏡による観察で、鉱物でできたタイルが有機素材のシートを挟んで何層も重ねられた微細構造が明らかとなっている。初期の研究で真珠層を構成する有機成分は5%にすぎないことがわかっている。それでも複雑な階層的構造によって、無機の CaCO3 結晶に比較すると3000倍もの力学的強度があることがわかっている。\n物理的性質.\n臭い、色、体積、密度、融点、沸点、比熱容量、常温での物理形状（固体・液体・気体の別、結晶構造など）、硬さ、孔隙率、反射率といった物体の物理特性は、その化学組成や元素を特定する確証を提供する。ここでは固相の物質の物理的性質の一部を解説する。\n力学的性質.\n力学的性質とは、個々の固体素材の強度や変形への耐性といった性質である。例えば、鋼材は強度が高く変形しにくいことから建材としてよく使われている。\n力学的性質としては、弾性、塑性、引張強さ、圧縮強さ、せん断強さ、破壊じん性、展延性、押込硬さなどがある。固体力学は様々な固体素材が外力や温度などの外的条件の下でどう振る舞うかを研究する。\n固体は液体のような流動性を示さない。元の形から変化することを変形 (deformation) と呼び、原形からの変形の割合をひずみ (strain) と呼ぶ。加えられた応力が十分低ければ、ほとんど全ての固体でひずみと応力は比例する（フックの法則）。その比例係数を弾性率またはヤング率と呼ぶ。フックの法則が成り立つ変形の範囲を「弾性域」と呼ぶ。固体が応力に対してどう反応するかについては、3つのモデルがある。\n多くの素材は高温では弱くなる。高温でも高い強度を示す素材を耐火物と呼び、様々な用途に使われている。例えばガラスセラミックスは 1000 程度までの急激な温度変化の繰り返しにも強度を保つ性質がある。航空機や宇宙機の外装には熱衝撃に強い高機能素材が使われている。有機高分子や複合材料でできた合成繊維などがそういった用途向けに設計されている。\n熱的性質.\n固体は熱エネルギーを持っているため、その原子は格子内の平均位置を中心として振動している。結晶質やガラス質のネットワークにおける格子振動のスペクトルは、固体分子運動論の基礎となっている。この運動は原子レベルで起きており、分光法などの非常に専門的な機器でないと観察・検出できない。\n固体の熱的性質としては熱伝導率があり、個々の素材の熱伝導能力を示す。また、比熱容量はその素材が熱（格子振動）の形でエネルギーを蓄える能力を示す。\n電気的性質.\n電気的性質としては、電気伝導率、抵抗値、インピーダンス値、静電容量値などがある。金属や合金などの導体もあれば、ガラスやセラミックスなどの絶縁体もある。半導体はそれらの中間の性質を示す。金属の電気伝導性は電子によるものだが、半導体ではそれに加えて正孔も電流を担っている。また、固体電解質では陽イオンも電流を担う。\n極低温状態で超伝導を示す物質も多く存在する。スズやアルミニウムなどの金属元素、各種合金、大量にドーピングした半導体、ある種のセラミックスなどが超伝導を示す。多くの導体（金属）の抵抗値は温度を低くすると低下していくが、有限の値を示し続ける。しかし超伝導体では、臨界温度以下になると突然抵抗値がゼロになる。超伝導体の環に電流を流すと、電源なしで無限に電流が流れ続ける。\n誘電体や絶縁体は電流に対して大きな抵抗を示す。プラスチックなどの誘電体は電場を印加されるとそれを蓄える性質があり、コンデンサにその性質が使われている。コンデンサは少しだけ隙間を空けた電極間の電場にエネルギーを蓄えるデバイスである。コンデンサに電圧を印加すると、両方の電極に互いに逆の極性の比例した電荷が蓄えられる。コンデンサは電気回路におけるエネルギー蓄積装置として使われるだけでなく、高周波と低周波の信号を区別するフィルタ回路にも使われている。\n電気-力学的性質.\n圧電効果とは、結晶に力学的応力を加えると電位差を発生する現象である。圧電効果を示す結晶に電圧を印加すると、逆に結晶の形が若干変化する。ゴム、羊毛、髪の毛、絹など重合体は電石として振る舞うものが多い。例えばポリフッ化ビニリデン (RDVF) は水晶（SiO2 の結晶）よりも数倍強い圧電性を示す。約0.1%の変形で大きな圧電効果が得られることから、高電圧源、スピーカー、レーザー、各種センサーやトランスデューサーに応用されている。\n光学的性質.\n固体にはガラスのように透明なものと金属のように不透明なものがある。\n特定の波長だけを透過させる素材も多い。例えば、窓ガラスは可視光線を透過させるが、紫外線の周波数帯はそれほど透過しない。このような性質は周波数選択性の光学フィルターなどに使われている。\n用途によっては、光学的性質と力学的性質の両方が重視される場合もある。例えば、赤外線追尾式（熱探知式）のミサイルでは、赤外線センサのカバーは赤外線を透過させる素材でなければならない。このため現状の赤外線追尾式ミサイルではサファイアの単結晶がその用途に使われている。サファイアは中赤外線帯域（3–5 μm）を全部透過するわけではなく、常温では 4.5 μm より長い波長を透過しない。しかし常温で赤外線を透過する物質の中では最も強度が高く、600 以上になるまで強度が保たれる。このように強度と光学特性を両立させることは長年の課題となっており、透明セラミックスや光学ナノ複合材といった新素材がよりよい性能を示す可能性がある。\n導波光伝播では、光ファイバーなどを使って様々な周波数の光で複数の信号を同時に伝播する。光導波路は光集積回路や光通信システムの光伝送媒体として使われている。\n光-電子工学的性質.\n太陽電池は光を電気に変換する。基本的には2つの機能が必要である。1つは光を吸収する素材で光から電荷担体（電子と正孔）を生成できることで、もう1つは電極にそれら電荷担体を極性によって分離して移動させて電流を発生させることである。これを光電効果と呼び、太陽電池に関わる研究分野としては光起電力学 (photovoltaics) がある。\n太陽電池には様々な用途がある。僻地や宇宙空間など電力網がない場所での電力源として使われており、他にも電卓、腕時計、無線電話、ポンプなどに組み込まれている。最近では住宅などに太陽電池を設置して発電し、その電力を電力網に供給するということも行われている。\n光子を吸収することで自由電子を発生させているため、太陽電池には光を吸収する素材が必要とされる。太陽電池の原料には地球の地表に到達する太陽光の波長を吸収する特性のものが優先的に採用されているが、中には大気圏外での発電に最適化された太陽電池もある。\n", "この項目では日本の歴史（にっぽんのれきし/にほんのれきし）について記述する。\n時代区分.\n日本の歴史における時代区分には様々なものがあり、定説と呼べるものはない。（原始・）古代・中世・近世・近代（・現代）とする時代区分法が歴史研究では広く受け入れられている。この場合でも、各時代の画期をいつに置くかは論者によって大きく異なる。\n古代の始期については古代国家の形成時期をめぐって見解が分かれており、3世紀説、5世紀説、7世紀説があり、研究者の間で七五三論争と呼ばれている。中世については、中世を通じての社会経済体制であった荘園公領制が時代の指標とされ、始期は11世紀後半〜12世紀の荘園公領制形成期に、終期は荘園公領制が消滅した16世紀後半の太閤検地にそれぞれ求められる。近世は、太閤検地前後に始まり、明治維新前後に終わるとされる。近代の始期は一般に幕末期〜明治維新期とされるが、18世紀前半の家内制手工業の勃興を近代の始まりとする考えもある。さらに、第二次世界大戦での敗戦をもって近代と現代を区分することもあるが、最近は日本史においても、近代と現代の境目は冷戦構造が崩壊して、バブル崩壊で右肩上がりの経済成長が終わった1990年前後に変更すべきという意見もある。（以上の詳細→古代、中世、近世、近代、現代）\n上記のような時代区分論は、発展段階史観の影響を少なからず受けており、歴史の重層性・連続性にあまり目を向けていないという限界が指摘されている。そのため、時代を区分する対象ではなく移行するものとして捉える「時代移行論」を提唱する研究者も現れ始めている。\n一般によく知られている時代区分は、主として政治センターの所在地に着目した時代区分である。この時代区分は明確な区分基準を持っている訳ではなく、歴史研究上の時代区分としては適当でない。単に便宜的に用いられているに過ぎない時代区分である。文献史料がなく考古資料が残る時代は、考古学上の時代区分に従い、旧石器時代・縄文時代と区分する。文献史料がある程度残る時代以降は政治の中心地の所在地に従って、弥生時代後期〜古墳時代 (大阪市)・飛鳥時代（明日香村）・奈良時代（奈良市）・平安時代（京都市）・鎌倉時代（鎌倉市）・室町時代（京都市）・安土桃山時代（近江八幡市・京都市伏見区）・江戸時代（東京23区・旧東京市）と区分する。ただこれだけでは必ずしも十分でないため弥生時代後期から飛鳥時代前期に大和時代、鎌倉時代の後に建武の新政、室町時代前期に南北朝時代、室町時代後期に戦国時代、江戸時代後期に幕末という区分を設けており、このうち南北朝時代と戦国時代は中国の歴史の時代区分からの借用である。江戸時代の次は、天皇の在位期間（一世一元の制）に従って明治時代（明治天皇）・大正時代（大正天皇）・昭和時代（昭和天皇）・平成時代（明仁）・令和時代（徳仁）と呼ばれている。これらのうち、明治維新から1947年（昭和22年）5月2日までの時代（明治時代・大正時代・戦前昭和時代）を「大日本帝国時代」と、政体（憲法）に因んで呼ぶ例もある。また、北海道・北東北、南西諸島などの周縁部については、→日本史時代区分表）。\nまた、文化面に着目して、縄文文化・弥生文化・古墳文化・飛鳥文化・白鳳文化・天平文化・弘仁・貞観文化・国風文化・院政期文化・鎌倉文化・北山文化・東山文化・桃山文化・元禄文化・化政文化などが用いられる。\n原始.\n旧石器時代.\n日本列島における人類史の始まり、つまり日本列島に初めて人類が到達した年代については、現在も多くの議論が行われている。5万年前、あるいは8-9万年前に遡るとされる岩手県遠野市の金取遺跡出土石器や、2009年（平成21年）に同志社大学らにより発掘調査された島根県出雲市の砂原遺跡出土石器の分析結果から、12万年前に遡るとする松藤和人（同志社大学教授）らの見解もあれば、現世人類（ホモ・サピエンス）以前の人類による列島への渡航能力と時期の問題や、石器の出土した土層の年代測定上の問題などから、4万年前以前に遡る可能性に否定的な堤隆（明治大学研究員）らの見解などがあり、2020年代となった今日でも意見が分かれている。少なくとも現状では、日本列島の旧石器時代遺跡で、4万年前以前に遡る可能性が指摘されているものに、全ての旧石器時代研究者が肯定するものは存在していないとされる。\n現生人類の最初の到来は4～3.5万年前と考えられている。この時代の人々は、集落を造って一定の場所に長期間留まることをせず、テントのような簡易な住まいで寝泊まり（キャンプ）しながら集団で狩猟採集をして移動を繰り返す「遊動生活」をしていたと考えられている。後期旧石器時代の初期（4～3万年前）には、大規模な集団キャンプ跡と見られる環状ブロック群と呼ばれる遺構が出現し、千葉県印旛郡酒々井町の墨古沢遺跡や、長野県上水内郡信濃町の日向林B遺跡（野尻湖遺跡群の1つ）などの事例が知られる。\n約4～3万年前の人々は、台形様石器を用いたほか、日向林B遺跡などで世界最古とされる磨製石器（局部磨製石斧）が多数発見されており、すでに列島では独自の磨製石器を使用していたと見られる。大分県豊後大野市の岩戸遺跡からは、約2万4千年前のものとみられるこけし型の岩偶が出土しており、旧石器時代にも何らかの信仰があったことがうかがえる。\n古く北海道と九州方面は大陸と地続きでありナイフ形石器と呼ばれる石器が列島全域で広く使用された。このナイフ型石器は北海道では出土していない。\nこの時代に属する遺跡は列島全体で1万箇所以上発見されているが、建物（竪穴建物や平地建物）の遺構が検出される事例は極めて稀で、確実に建物（住居）跡とみて良いものは、約2万2千年前の大阪府藤井寺市のはさみ山遺跡の例や、約2万年前の神奈川県相模原市の田名向原遺跡の例など、10例程度しか発見されていない。\n約2万年前にはシベリアから新たに細石刃と呼ばれる石器が北海道に伝わり、主に北日本で広がり、また約1万4千年前頃には別の型の細石器が大陸から九州に伝わり、西南日本で広がったものと思われる。\n約1万2千年前頃、最終氷期が終わり急激な地球温暖化による海面上昇が始まると、日本列島はアジア大陸から分離した。これにより、人々の文化や生活に大きな変化が生じ、南西諸島を除いて、次の縄文時代へ移行していった。\n旧石器時代人の遺伝子としてハプログループD1a2a (Y染色体)、ハプログループC1a1（Y染色体）が想定されている。\n縄文時代.\n縄文時代（じょうもんじだい）は、年代でいうと今から約1万6,500年前（紀元前145世紀）から約3,000年前（紀元前10世紀）、地質年代では更新世の末期から完新世にかけて日本列島で発展した時代であり、世界史では中石器時代ないし新石器時代に相当する時代である。旧石器時代と縄文時代の違いは、土器の出現や、定住化に伴う集落（環状集落など）の形成、長期使用可能な建物（竪穴建物・平地建物・掘立柱建物）の普及、貝塚の形成などがあげられる。\n草創期・早期・前期・中期・後期・晩期の6期に区分される。この頃の日本列島人は縄文土器を作り、早期以降定住化が進んで主に竪穴建物に住んだ。縄文土器については、青森県大平山元I遺跡にて約1万6,500年前の世界最古と言われる土器が発見されている。弓矢を用いた狩猟、貝塚に見られる漁撈、植物の採集などで生活を営み、打製石器、磨製石器、骨角器などを用いた。\n雑穀や堅果などの栽培も行われたとする仮説も提示されており、野生のイヌビワから穀物のヒエへの栽培化のプロセスが追跡できるとする研究や、クリの選択が行われて栽培化の動向がうかがわれるとされる研究も公表されている。稲作については、約6,000年前の岡山県朝寝鼻（あさねばな）貝塚から稲作を行っていた証拠が見つかり、縄文時代前期から稲作が行われていたことが判明した。\n縄文人の主要な遺伝子として、ハプログループD1a2a (Y染色体)、ハプログループC1a1 (Y染色体)が想定されている。\n弥生時代.\n紀元前10世紀頃から紀元後3世紀頃までは弥生時代と呼ばれる。時代区分名称は、この時期に特徴的に見られた弥生土器に由来する。弥生時代の開始期に大陸からハプログループO1b2 (Y染色体)に属す弥生人が到達した。水稲耕作が普及し、青銅器や鉄器などももたらされた。日本語も弥生人によって朝鮮半島からもたらされたという説が有力とされる。\n稲作を中心とする農耕社会が成立し、北部九州から本州最北端以北を除く日本列島各地へ急速に広まった。農耕社会の成立によって地域集団が形成された。農耕社会の発展とともに地域集団は大型化していき、その中心部には環濠集落が営まれた。当時多く築造された墳丘墓は大型地域集団の首長墓と見られ、身分差が生じ始めていたことの現れだと考えられている。\n当時の日本列島は中国から倭・倭国と呼ばれた。大型地域集団の中には中国王朝と通交するものもあり中国から「国」と称された。紀元前後には100前後の「国」が中国と通交していたとされる。倭の奴国王は後漢へ通使し金印を授与された。大型地域集団は次第に政治的な結合を強めていき、倭国連合と呼びうる政治連合体を2世紀初頭頃に形成した。その盟主は倭国王と称し、最初期の倭国王に帥升がいる。しばらく倭国は政治的に安定していたが、2世紀後半に倭国大乱と呼ばれる内乱が生じ、その後邪馬台国の卑弥呼が倭国王となった。卑弥呼は魏との通交により倭国連合の安定を図った。この時期の倭（日本）の状況は中国の史料で確認できる(倭・倭人関連の中国文献)。\n一方、『日本書紀』の歴代天皇在位年数を元に逆算すると西暦紀元前660年に相当するため、初代神武天皇の即位（日本国の建国）とされる年はこの時代の前半にあたる。\n北海道・北東北地方においては水田耕作が受容されず続縄文時代に移行した。\n弥生時代以降、ハプログループO2 (Y染色体)の渡来人が到達したとされる。\n古代.\n古墳時代.\n3世紀中後半から7世紀頃までは古墳時代と呼ばれる。3世紀中頃に近畿地方に出現した前方後円墳とそれに伴う墓制が急速に列島各地に広まっており、このことは畿内（ヤマト）・北部九州（筑紫）・北関東（毛野）・山陽（吉備）・山陰（出雲）に並立していた地域政治集団が糾合してヤマト王権を形成したことを表していると考えられている（前方後円墳体制）。ただし、これは初期国家と呼べる段階にはなく、王権の連合（連合王権）と見るのが適切とされている。この王権が後に国家としての体制を整え、さらに大和朝廷と称される政権に発展するが、どの時期以降をもって朝廷と呼ぶべきかに関しては、なお議論がある。\n4世紀後半からヤマト王権は、列島主要部の支配を固めるとともに武器・農具の原料である鉄資源を求めて朝鮮半島への進出を開始し、半島諸国の国際関係にも介入するようになったが、これを契機として朝鮮や中国の技術と文物が倭国へ流入した。新羅や高句麗とも戦争を繰り返した。（倭・高句麗戦争、倭・倭人関連の朝鮮文献）\n5世紀に入るとヤマト王権は朝鮮半島諸国との関係を優位にすべく朝貢することで、その目的にふさわしい官爵を求めて中国の南朝との通交を活発に行った。中国史書に名の残るこの時期のヤマト王権の首長を倭の五王という。\n倭の五王最後の倭王武に現時点で比定されているのは、大泊瀬幼武尊（おおはつせわかたけるのみこと）であり、後世雄略天皇（470年頃治世）と諡（おくりな）されている人物である。このころより、大王や治天下大王と称するようになる。また朝鮮半島での勢力拡大を思うように行えなかったことから、それを目的にしていた中国の王朝への朝貢も行われなくなった。この時期の前方後円墳は、特に規模が巨大化しており強力な王権の存在を示している。\n倭の五王の後、5世紀後半から6世紀前半にかけて、ヤマト王権では混乱が見られた。しかし北陸・近江根拠地の傍系王族から即位した継体天皇の登場と統治により、ヤマト王権の列島支配が強まり、これ以後は現天皇に繋がる体制が確立した。なお、継体天皇期には、北九州で磐井の乱などが起こっているが、ヤマト王権と北九州豪族磐井の関係については不明の点が多い。\nまたこの時代には、朝鮮半島諸国の国際関係への介入は大きく後退した。こうした内向な時期を経て、ヤマト王権による日本列島支配体制はさらに強化されていった。同時期にオホーツク海沿岸地域では、オホーツク文化が成立し、およそ13世紀まで続いた。\nこの時代（場合により次の飛鳥時代を含めて）を、大和時代と呼ぶことがあったが、現在は古墳時代とするのが一般的である。\n飛鳥時代.\n6世紀末から8世紀初頭までは、大和朝廷の本拠が主に飛鳥に置かれたことから飛鳥時代と呼ばれる。6世紀後半には朝廷の国内支配が安定し、むしろ朝廷内部の大王位継承抗争が目立った。この時期には百済から仏教が伝来し、後の飛鳥文化・白鳳文化などの仏教文化へと発展していった。仏教・儒教・道教等の書物が入ってきたことで、この頃から文字の使用が普及する。\n6世紀末、400年ぶりに中国を統一した隋の登場は、東アジア諸国の政治権力の集中化をもたらした。倭国でも7世紀前半にかけて推古天皇とその甥厩戸王（聖徳太子）が、王殺しである蘇我馬子を牽制しながら大王（天皇）主権を確立しようとした。第1次遣隋使派遣の反省から、冠位十二階制定・十七条憲法導入などの国政改革が行われた。しかし豪族層の抵抗も根強く、権力集中化はその後も企図されたが、その動きは伸び悩んだ。第2次遣隋使では小野妹子が派遣され、中国の皇帝煬帝へ親書を渡した。その親書には「日出ずる国の天子より日の没する国の天子へ」とあり、あくまで朝貢外交の枠内ではあったものの、中国と冊封を受けずに自立した君主であることを認めさせることで、自主性を示す意図があった。\n7世紀中頃の大化の改新も権力集中化の動きの一つであり、一定の進展を見せている。しかし、権力集中化への最大の契機は、7世紀後半の百済復興戦争における敗北（→白村江の戦い）であり、倭国内の諸勢力は国制整備を進めることで一致し、権力集中化が急速に進み始めた。さらに壬申の乱に勝利した天武天皇は権力集中を徹底し、天皇の神格化を図った。天皇号の制定時期は天武期と考えられている。併せて、天皇支配を具現化するために律令制の導入を進め、8世紀初頭の大宝律令制定に結実した。日本という国号もまた、大宝律令制定の前後に定められ、藤原に都城（藤原京）が置かれ、大宝以後は元号も定着した。天武天皇の詔勅に基づき日本最古の文献史料となる『日本書紀』の編纂が開始される。\nなお、この時期北海道中西南部・青森県北部においては擦文時代を迎える。\n奈良時代.\n8世紀初頭から末にかけては奈良時代と呼ばれ、奈良に都城（平城京）が置かれた。そして遣唐使を盛んに派遣し、律令国家体制の形成と深化が図られた。王土王民思想に基づく律令制は、天皇とその官僚による一元的な支配を志向しており、民衆に対しては編戸制・班田制・租庸調制・軍団兵士制などの支配が行われた。8世紀前半は、律令制強化への動きが積極的に展開しており、三世一身法・墾田永年私財法などの農地拡大政策もこうした律令制強化の一環だったと考えられている。しかし、この時期聖武天皇のときに中宮職が設置されるなど政治の中枢が変化し始めていた。また8世紀後半に入ると百姓階層の分化が始まり、逃散増加で税収が減るなどして律令支配の転換を迫る状況が生じていった。\nまた、新羅を蕃国とし、東北地方の蝦夷・南九州の隼人を化外民とする中華意識が高まり、日本は、新羅へ朝貢を要求するとともに、蝦夷・隼人らを「教化」して律令支配へと組み込もうとしていった。この頃の北方の領土は日本海側沿いの拠点にとどまり、領土拡大につとめる日本は蝦夷に対して、帰順する蝦夷を優遇する一方、反抗する蝦夷は軍事力で制圧するという二面性の政策を取った。\nこの時代には干ばつ・飢饉・山火事などの災害や疫病の流行が多発した。特に、735–737年にかけて発生した天然痘のエピデミック（天平の疫病大流行）は貴族・庶民を問わず夥しい数の死者を出し、政権を担っていた藤原四兄弟も相次いで病死した。これらの災厄が自らの不信心に起因していると考えた聖武天皇は仏教への帰依を深め、東大寺創建を命じるなど国家的な仏教振興を推進した。\n文化面では、『日本書紀』・『万葉集』・『風土記』などが編まれた他、遣唐使がもたらした大陸文化に影響を受けた天平文化が栄えた。仏教は政府により統制されたものの鎮護国家思想が強まり、聖武天皇の発願で東大寺・国分寺が国家護持の名目で建立された。工芸品では正倉院宝物が有名である。称徳天皇が作らせた百万塔におさめられた百万塔陀羅尼は、現存する世界最古の印刷物と言われている。\n平安時代.\n8世紀末頃から12世紀末頃までは平安時代と呼ばれ、桓武天皇の築いた平安京が都とされた。平安前期には古墳時代の地方首長層に出自する古来の国造一族から任命された郡司階層の没落と百姓階層の分化が一層進み、前代から引き続いた律令国家体制に限界が生じていた。そこで朝廷は11世紀初頭頃から地方分権的な国家体制改革を精力的に推進し、王朝国家体制と呼ばれる体制が成立した。\n王朝国家では、朝廷から大幅に統治権限を委譲された受領とその国衙機構による地方支配が展開した。この受領・国衙支配のもと、収取体系は従来の律令体制における、戸籍による個別人民把握と郡司層の百姓層に対する首長権に裏付けられた、人頭税方式の課税から、土地単位の課税と有力百姓階層や土着した元国司子弟などの富豪層への農地経営請負委託を組み合わせた、負名体制へと変貌した。地方統治を裏付ける軍事面においては、国衙軍制を通じて武芸の家として武装と武力の行使を公認された官人層である武士階層が、契丹の台頭に呼応した承平天慶の乱や刀伊の入寇などといった内外の軍事的危機の解決に与ったことを機会に台頭した。また、中央政治においては11世紀に藤原北家が天皇家の外戚として政権中枢を担う摂関政治が成立した。\n12世紀に入ると王朝国家のあり方に変化が生じ、12世紀末から13世紀にかけて荘園の量的増加と、経営単位として自律した一円領地化という質的変化が著しくなり、権門を荘園領主とする荘園と、国衙が支配する公領が対等な存在として拮抗して並び立ち、このそれぞれにおいて荘園・公領間の武力紛争に耐えられる武士が現地の管理者として在地領主化する、荘園公領制と呼ばれる中世的な支配体制が確立した。同時期には上皇が治天の君として政務に当たる院政が開始しており、この時期が古代から中世への画期であるとされている。平安末期には保元・平治両乱を経て武士の軍事力が中央政界の政争の帰趨を左右するようになり、その結果、中央政界で政治の主導権を握った伊勢平氏によって原初的な武家政権と評価される平氏政権が登場した。\n奈良時代から漸次的に進んでいた文化の日本化が国風文化として結実し、漢字を元に生み出された平仮名・片仮名が使われていくようになり、『源氏物語』・『枕草子』に代表される物語文学などが花開いた。密教や末法思想が広く信じられ、神仏習合が進み、寺院が多く建てられた。\n東北地方では、11世紀頃から安倍氏・清原氏・奥州藤原氏などの半独立政権が興亡し、中央から派遣された鎮守府将軍をも交えてしばしば抗争した（前九年の役・後三年の役）。南西諸島においては、12世紀頃からグスク時代に入る。以降の詳細は、北から奄美群島の歴史、沖縄県の歴史、先島諸島の歴史などを参照のこと。\n中世.\n鎌倉時代.\n12世紀末頃から14世紀頃までは鎌倉時代と呼ばれ、中央の公家政権と関東の武家政権が並立した。源頼朝を首長とする鎌倉幕府は、治承・寿永の乱で勝利して平氏政権を打倒し、その過程で守護・地頭補任権を獲得し、朝廷（公家政権）と並びうる政権へと成長した。13世紀前半の承久の乱の結果、公家政権は武家政権に従属した。その後、御家人筆頭である北条氏が幕府政治を実質的にリードする執権政治が確立した。 \n13世紀中期頃から、貨幣経済の浸透と商品流通の活発化、村落の形成、地頭ら武士による荘園公領への侵出といった、大きな社会変動が生じ始めた。これらの動きは13世紀後半の元寇によって加速した。恩賞の払えない幕府は徳政令を発布したり得宗専制をとったりして急場をしのいだが、一度傾いた封建制を立て直すことはできなかった。在地社会では混乱に乗じて悪党・惣村などが出現し、荘園公領制の変質化が急速に進行した。\n文化面では運慶と快慶の東大寺南大門金剛力士像など、写実的な美術が展開した。また宗教面ではそれまでの鎮護国家を目的とする顕密体制の仏教から発した鎌倉新仏教の成立により、民衆へ仏教が普及していった。北海道においては、13世紀頃から従来の擦文文化が、狩猟採集で得られた商品価値に富んだ産品の交易により深く依存を強め、またオホーツク文化と融合する中、アイヌ文化へと変遷を遂げた。\n南北朝時代.\n14世紀頃は南北朝時代と呼ばれ、大覚寺統後醍醐天皇流の南朝と足利氏が支援する持明院統の北朝に朝廷が分かれた。\n鎌倉時代中期以降、皇室は大覚寺統と持明院統に分かれて皇位継承を巡り争い、鎌倉幕府の介入により両統迭立状態となっていた。大覚寺統から即位した後醍醐天皇は幕府を滅ぼそうとするも失敗し、廃位されたのち隠岐に流され、皇太子であった光厳天皇（持明院統）が即位した。しかし、隠岐を脱出した後醍醐天皇は再び討幕を呼びかけ、足利尊氏や新田義貞らにより鎌倉幕府を滅亡させる。\n後醍醐天皇は、光厳天皇を退位させ、建武の新政と呼ばれる天皇専制の政治を行うが、公家や武士など様々な層の不満が増すと、尊氏はそれを背景に新政から離反し、光厳上皇の協力も得て建武政権を崩壊させた。京都で持明院統の光明天皇（光厳上皇の実弟、猶子）が即位したのち、後醍醐天皇は吉野に逃れ、南朝を成立させた。対する京都の朝廷を北朝と呼ぶ。荘園公領制の変質が、社会各層における対立を顕在化させ、南北朝の争いを大義名分とする全国的な抗争が展開した。情勢的には、一部期間（正平一統など）を除き、京都を掌握し武家政権を擁する北朝が優勢を誇り、大多数の公家や皇族、武士から支持を得た。\n文化面では、ばさらに代表されるように、身分秩序を軽視し華美な振る舞いに走る傾向が見られた。また、連歌が流行し、『二条河原落書』など文化の庶民化への動きが見られた。\n室町時代.\n14世紀頃から16世紀頃までは室町時代と呼ばれ、京都の室町に幕府が置かれた。京都に本拠を置いた幕府は、足利尊氏・足利直義兄弟による二頭政治を行った。観応の擾乱以前は、朝廷（公家政権、北朝）と幕府は協調・連動して徳政政策を行っていた。しかし、観応の擾乱を経て幕府は幕府権力を一つに統一し、対して朝廷は権威を失墜させると、幕府は朝廷の権能を次第に侵食したため、朝廷は政治実権や政治機構を失っていった。各国に置かれた守護も半済等の経済的特権の公認や守護請の拡大などを通じて、国内支配力を強め、国衙機能を取り込んでいき、守護大名へと成長して、守護領国制と呼ばれる支配体制を築いた。\n足利義満は南北朝合一を遂げ、朝廷を北朝に統一した。また日明貿易を行い明皇帝から日本国王に冊封された。義満は守護大名の勢力抑制に努めたが、守護大名の拡大指向は根強く、幕府対守護の戦乱が多数発生した。幕府-守護体制は15世紀中葉まで存続したが、応仁の乱によって大きく動揺すると明応の政変を契機としてついに崩壊し、戦国時代へと移行した。\n1419年、李氏朝鮮が対馬に侵攻した。（応永の外寇）\n1429年に尚巴志王が琉球王国を作り上げ、日本や明などと国交を結び盛んに貿易を行った。本州から現在の北海道南部に進出した人々は道南十二館などの居住地を作り、和人と呼ばれた。アイヌと和人は交易をしたが、和人がアイヌを圧迫したため、1457年に大首長コシャマインを中心に蜂起するも（コシャマインの戦い）、蠣崎氏により鎮められた。\nこの時代の社会原則は自力救済であり、各階層内において連帯の動き＝一揆が浸透した。村落社会の自立化が進み惣村・郷村が各地に成立した。西日本では交易が活発化すると、その活動は朝鮮・中国に及んだ（倭寇）。文化面では、連歌・猿楽・喫茶など身分を超えた交流に特徴付けられる室町文化（北山文化・東山文化）が栄えた。この文化は禅宗の影響を受け、簡素さと深みという特徴も持っていた。\n戦国時代.\n15世紀後期から16世紀後期にかけての時期を戦国時代と呼ぶ。この時代は、守護大名や守護代、国人などを出自とする戦国大名が登場し、それら戦国大名勢力は中世的な支配体系を徐々に崩し、分国法を定めるなど各地で自立化を強めた。一円支配された領国は地域国家へと発展し、日本各地に地域国家が多数並立した。この地域国家内における一元的な支配体制を大名領国制という。地域国家間の政治的・経済的矛盾は、武力によって解決が図られた。16世紀半ばに登場した織田信長は、楽市楽座令を出したり、自治都市の堺を直轄領にしたりして流通政策と海外交易を担い、強大な軍事力を手にした。\nこの時代は、農業生産力が向上するとともに、地域国家内の流通が発達すると、各地に都市が急速に形成されていった。また、ヨーロッパとの交易（南蛮貿易）が始まり、火縄銃やキリスト教などが伝来すると、それまでの戦術や日本の宗教観念が変化した。南蛮貿易は江戸幕末まで日本の政治・経済に影響を与え続けた。\n近世.\n安土桃山時代.\n織田信長は室町将軍足利義昭を追放すると、室町幕府に代わる畿内政権を樹立した。信長が本能寺の変により自害すると、天下統一の事業は豊臣秀吉が継承することとなった。 \n秀吉は、信長の畿内政権を母体として東北から九州に至る地域を平定し、統一事業を完了した。秀吉も中世的支配体系・支配勢力の排除・抑制に努め、中世をおわらせた。刀狩や太閤検地の実施を通し、兵農分離を進めて荘園公領制・職の体系を消滅させたのである。秀吉による天下統一により、政治や経済の安定がもたらされると大名・武士を中心として豪壮な桃山文化が栄えた。\nこの時代の世界情勢と秀吉の外交に臨む態度はサン＝フェリペ号事件に見ることができる。船員に提示された秀吉の書状によると、秀吉は英葡永久同盟下にあるポルトガルから聞いて、フィリピンが武力制圧されていたことを知っていた（フィリピン#スペイン植民地時代）。処刑された日本二十六聖人はフランシスコ会であったが、宗教改革の時節柄カトリック教会であった。近世日本国民史によると、スペイン国王は宣教師を世界中に派遣し、布教とともに征服を事業としているということであった。しかし、この文献は当世のものでない。このときのスペイン国王はフェリペ2世であった。次の事実は世界的観点から特に重要である。ハプスブルク家出身であるフェリペ2世は、英葡同盟下にあるポルトガル国王を兼ね、さらに帝国郵便の維持費を負担していた。\n秀吉は朝鮮への出兵を実行したが、その最中に死去。後継者問題も抱えていた豊臣政権は弱体化していった。\n江戸時代.\n慶長8年（1603年）から慶応3年（1867年）までは江戸時代と呼ばれ、江戸に江戸幕府が置かれた。\n秀吉の死後、徳川家康は関ヶ原の戦い（1600年）に勝利して権力を掌握すると征夷大将軍に任命され（1603年）江戸に幕府を開き、大坂の陣（1614年 - 1615年）で豊臣氏を滅ぼした。この後、幕府は、17世紀中葉までに武家諸法度の発布、参勤交代の義務化、有力大名の改易などを通して、諸大名との主従制を確固たるものとし、また朝廷統制を強め、幕府官僚機構を整備した。並行して、キリスト教の制限と貿易の管理強化を進め、社会の安定化に努めた。そうした中で勃発した島原の乱（1637年 - 1638年）は、キリスト教禁止の徹底と出島での管理貿易による鎖国の完成へとつながる。日本の境界領域である琉球王国と蝦夷地（和人地である渡島半島を除く北海道、樺太及び千島列島）の支配は大名を通じて行なわれた。\n一方で、社会の安定化に伴って耕地開発の大事業が各地で実施され、倍増した耕地面積は食糧増産と人口増加をもたらすと、村請を通じて幕府財政や藩財政を支えるとともに、全国的な流通経済を大きく発展させた。以上のように、江戸時代前期に確立した支配体制を幕藩体制という。社会の安定と経済の成長は、都市の発展を支え、17世紀後半の元禄文化に結実した。\n18世紀に入り金銀が流出して海舶互市新例（1715年）を出すようになり、徳川吉宗は幕府権力の再強化と財政再建（享保の改革）を推し進めた。その後も体制維持および財政再建の努力（寛政の改革、天保の改革等）は行なわれるが成功はしなかった。この頃に都市町人を中心とする化政文化が花開いた。ところが、商品経済の発達による社会各層での貧富の拡大とそれに伴う身分制の流動化、そして幕末の通貨問題を背景に、幕藩体制は次第に動揺していった。 \n19世紀中頃までに、国内の社会矛盾と国外からの圧力（ロシア、イギリス、アメリカ船の接近）に抗するため、幕府はフランスのソシエテ・ジェネラルから貸付を受けて軍備を増強した。しかし同世紀後半の黒船来航（1853年）と日米和親条約締結（1854年）による開国を契機として幕府の管理貿易（鎖国）は解かれた。そして不平等な安政五カ国条約（1858年）を勅許なしに締結してしまい、幕府の威信は低下した。朝廷の権威が増大することになり、幕府は大政奉還により権力の温存を図ったが、倒幕派の薩摩藩、長州藩、土佐藩らが樹立した明治新政府との内戦（戊辰戦争）に敗北後、瓦解した。 \n江戸時代は文化の担い手が庶民にまで拡がり、歌舞伎、俳諧、浮世絵、お陰参りなどが盛んになったほか、寺子屋や藩校で広く教育が行われた。当世の教育機関は明治になって財政支援に乏しい学制の普及に活用された。\n18世紀初頭の京都と大坂（大阪）はともに40万近い人口を抱えていた。同期の江戸は、人口100万人前後に達しており、日本最大の消費都市であるばかりでなく、当時から大都市であったロンドンやパリ以上で世界一の人口を誇る都市であった。当時の江戸と大坂を結ぶ東海道が、18世紀には世界で一番人通りの激しい道だったといわれている。その他、江戸時代の日本は230年以上に渡り大規模な暴動や争いが無い平和な時代であった。\n近現代.\n明治時代.\n明治年間（1868年 - 1912年）は明治時代と呼ばれる。倒幕派の諸藩を中心とする維新政府は戊辰戦争を経て旧幕府勢力を退けてから、王政復古により明治新政府を樹立した。新政府は岩倉使節団の世界視察に基づいて欧米の諸制度を積極的に導入した。明治維新と呼ばれる一連の改革は、廃藩置県、四民平等化、六法・郵便・鉄道・水道等の整備にまで及んだ。その過程で日本の境界領域であった琉球王国や、樺太を除く蝦夷地（北海道の大部分と千島列島）、小笠原諸島を完全に日本の領域内に置き、国境を画定した。\nまた、初代内閣総理大臣（首相）に伊藤博文が任命された。安政五カ国条約を改正するため、帝国議会の設置や大日本帝国憲法の制定など国制整備に努める一方で、産業育成（殖産興業）と軍事力強化（富国強兵）を国策として推進した。\nまた、1875年3月2日には日本の横浜に駐留していた在日英軍、在日フランス軍率いる英仏横浜駐屯軍が撤退した。\n日清戦争では三国干渉により、割譲された遼東半島を清に返還。戦後直後には下関条約によって日本軍は台湾に上陸したが、台湾内では混乱と反発が発生し乙未戦争が勃発、日本は再び勝利し台湾民主国は滅亡、日本が台湾を統治することになった。\n文化面では、福沢諭吉などが「脱亜論」を執筆したとされる。欧米から新たな学問・芸術・文物が伝来すると、その有様は文明開化と呼ばれ、江戸時代以前とは大きく異なった文化が展開した。言文一致や変体仮名の整理、標準語の普及が進められ、近代的な日本語が成立した。宗教面では従来の神仏混交が改められ（神仏分離）、寺請制度が廃止された。神社は行政組織に組み込まれ､皇室を中心とする国家神道に再編されていった。これにより仏教は弾圧された（廃仏毀釈）。キリスト教は欧米側の事情として制度・資本両面の輸出に成功し布教の理由が薄れてなお、同志社大学などの教育機関に社会的地位を占めるようになった。\n世界的観点においては、明治維新の途中から日清戦争までが大不況 (1873年-1896年) 期にあたる。このときはオリエンタル・バンクが日本の外債を引き受けた。日露戦争ではシ団がロスチャイルドなどの個人銀行に変わり、その意味で幕末の方針に回帰した。　\n1889年から1900年にかけて清で義和団の乱が発生、西太后は日本や西洋列強国に宣戦布告、その影響で日本は八カ国連合軍に加わり、勝利した。清に再び勝利した日本の権益は増加することになる。\n1891年には日本を訪日していたロシア帝国の皇帝ニコライ二世が警備にあたっていた警察官・津田三蔵に暗殺未遂で終わる大津事件が発生した。\n1904年に開戦した日露戦争ではロシア帝国側の艦隊がほぼ全滅するといった反面、日本側の損害は駆逐艦1大破、水雷艇数隻沈没で、主力艦は中破すらなく、ほとんど無傷であったという異例の結果を残した。\n日本の勝利後、ロシア帝国から賠償金を得られず大きな負債が残ったが、ロシア帝国が清国から受領していた大連と旅順の租借権獲得、東清鉄道の一部である南満洲鉄道を獲得するなど、満洲における権益を得ることとなった。当時としては非白人国として唯一列強諸国の仲間入りをし、アジア諸国の中で唯一ほぼ全ての不平等条約改正を達成、欧米諸国と対等の国家となり、のちには「五大国」の一角をも占めることとなり、日清戦争と日露戦争に連続的に勝利したことで下関条約やポーツマス条約といった日本側が有益になる条約を締結した。\n戦後、さらには大韓帝国においてロシアの脅威がなくなり日本の保護国となる。1905年（明治38年）には第二次日韓協約締結後大韓帝国の外交権は日本に接収された。同年には韓国統監府を設立、1910年（明治43年）の日韓併合条約の締結により、大韓帝国は日本に正式に併合された。\n明治末期の1912年にはスウェーデンで行われたストックホルムオリンピックに初めて出場した。これはアジア諸国で初である。\n大正時代.\n大正年間（1912年 - 1926年）は大正時代と呼ばれる。護憲運動を経て大衆の政治参加が進み、政党政治が確立した時期である（大正デモクラシー）。1925年（大正14年）には男子普通選挙が実現した。大正の約14年間は、明治時代のような近代化の改革のような事が発生することも無く、日本軍の増強などにより外部からの直接的な攻撃もなかった。災害や社会問題は発生していたが、大きな暴動などもなく日本本土も明治と比較してかなり平和な時代であった。\n一方で政党政治家には大衆の人気取りのため乱暴な対外政策に走る傾向があり、大隈重信政権は1914年（大正3年）の第一次世界大戦には直接国益に関与しないにもかかわらず日英同盟を根拠に参戦。日本は連合国側に加わることになり、中央同盟国のドイツ帝国とオーストリア゠ハンガリー帝国に事実上の宣戦布告、青島戦争をはじめとする日独戦争が開戦、日本は中国の青島市を海上封鎖を実行した。\n同じ連合国である中華民国の袁世凱政権に対華21カ条要求を突きつけ、帝国主義的野望を露骨に示した。日本はドイツ帝国軍に次々勝利し続けていたためドイツの植民地であった中国の青島と膠州湾と太平洋地域のドイツ領を占領した。1918年、第一次世界大戦は日本を含む連合国の勝利となった。\n敗戦国のドイツとオーストリア＝ハンガリーの将兵(日独戦ドイツ兵捕虜)と民間人約5,000人は全員を日本の徳島県の板東俘虜収容所、千葉県の習志野俘虜収容所、広島県の似島検疫所俘虜収容所など全国12か所に送られ、 戦後の1920年まで日本政府は収容させた。\n第一次世界大戦下の日本はヨーロッパ諸国のように戦火に置かれることがなかったため、民間人の死者も発生しなかった他、日本軍の戦死者や被害なども主要連合国の中で最も少なかった。その影響のため、第一次世界大戦中の日本本土では国民はいつも通りの平穏な日々が送られており、日本経済においては大戦特需と海底ケーブル需要により工業生産が激増し、日本は未曾有の好景気が続いていた（大戦景気または大正バブル景気とも言われる事がある）。資本の集積・集中を進め巨大コンツェルンを築いたり、国際カルテルに参加、さらには日本が大戦中にアジア・アフリカの輸出市場を独占、輸出関連でもオーストラリアや南米など従来未開拓であった市場でも活発化したことで日本経済は空前の好況、株式市場も活況を呈し、国民の間でも成金が続出した。\n1918年にはロシア帝国内でロシア革命が発生、内政干渉として共産主義の封じ込めのために、アメリカやイギリスと同調しシベリア出兵を行った。日本軍が最初にロシア帝国のウラジオストクに上陸し、続いて他国軍も到着していったが日本以外の連合国側は撤兵させた。数年後の1922年に日本も撤兵を発表。後の首相である加藤高明も「（シベリア出兵は）日本の国益に全くもたらせなかった。」と発言した。そのことからロシア帝国が完全に崩壊、世界初の共産主義国家のソビエト連邦を誕生させることになる。\n1920年には国際平和の確保を目指す国際連盟が発足した。当時の日本は第一次世界大戦の戦勝国であると同時に経済や軍事、政治に世界的影響力のある大国であったため、国連連盟の数少ない常任理事国となった。その影響から太平洋のドイツの植民地であった南洋群島は、国際連盟からの委任を受けて日本側が統治することとなった。\n1923年には関東大震災が発生した。日本国内は経済的にも社会的にも混乱が発生し、政府は緊急勅令を発令した。1930年には第一次世界大戦の戦勝国（五大国）の一員として日本をはじめとする当時の大国（連合国）は海軍力（特に戦艦）の増強を進めたが、ロンドン海軍軍縮会議によって補助艦保有量の制限を設けた。また、四カ国条約によって日英同盟も破棄される事になった。\n昭和時代.\n昭和年間（1926年 - 1989年）は昭和時代と呼ばれる。\n1927年（昭和2年）に昭和金融恐慌が発生。1930年（昭和5年）には、アメリカから発生した世界恐慌が日本経済を直撃した（昭和恐慌）。国政では二大政党の対立から統帥権干犯問題が表面化し、金解禁も失敗に終わるなど政党政治への不信感が増し、外地では関東軍によって満洲事変が発生するなど社会不安が増加した。1932年（昭和7年）に国家改造運動が過熱する中、五・一五事件で犬養毅首相が暗殺されると、立憲政友会が国政第一党でありながら前朝鮮総督の斎藤実が立憲民政党の協力を得て総理に就任する。斎藤内閣は塘沽協定で満洲事変を終結させた後、事変によって誕生した満洲国を承認し、それに反発する国際連盟に脱退を表明した。\n1936年（昭和11年）には陸軍の青年将校による二・二六事件クーデターが発生するも鎮圧された。当時、国連から脱退していた日本は、同じく脱退していたドイツ国（ナチス・ドイツ）と日独防共協定を締結した。1937年（昭和12年）、中国の上海にて第二次上海事変が勃発し、日本は中華民国との戦争（日中戦争・支那事変）に突入する。南京戦などの地上戦に勝利、1938年（昭和13年）には重慶に対する爆撃などを実行し日本側が優勢になっていた。\n1940年（昭和15年）、ナチス・ドイツ、イタリア王国と日独伊三国同盟を締結した。それと同時に日本は東京オリンピックを開催予定であったが、日本国政府は第二次世界大戦の影響で国際オリンピック委員会に返上、日本は枢軸国として参戦することになる。 \n1941年（昭和16年）には仏印進駐の勝利でアメリカとの関係が決定的に悪化すると、日本はアメリカとの戦争を決断し、マレー作戦とそれに続く真珠湾攻撃でアメリカ軍を奇襲し、太平洋戦争（第二次世界大戦・大東亜戦争）に突入した。日本はアジアの植民地諸国に駐留しているイギリス軍やフランス軍に次々と勝利していき香港、ビルマ、カンボジア、インドネシア、フィリピン、イギリス領ボルネオなどを日本が占領、日本政府は皇民化教育を強制。同時期には日本軍がオーストラリアにダーウィン空襲を実行した（日本のオーストラリア空襲を参照）。 \n開戦当初こそ優勢を保っていた日本軍であったが、ミッドウェー海戦以降アメリカ軍の生産力と通商破壊に次第に圧倒され、各地で敗北を重ねた。戦争末期には主要都市を軒並み戦略爆撃で焼け野原にされ、広島と長崎には世界で初めて原子爆弾が投下された。外国勢力（日本本土を攻撃したのは主にアメリカ合衆国）によって日本本土を広範囲に攻撃されるのは日本の歴史上初の事例であった。\n1945年（昭和20年）、昭和天皇の聖断により、日本はポツダム宣言を受託して敗戦を迎えた。戦後、1945年から1952年まで連合国軍最高司令官総司令部 (GHQ) に占領された。この7年間は日本の歴史上、初めて外国勢力によって軍事占領された期間である。\n同じ枢軸国のドイツの占領政策と日本の占領政策とは差があり、ドイツ政府が解体され、連合国4ヶ国（イギリス、フランス、アメリカ合衆国、ソ連）による直接統治となりその影響で西ドイツ（資本主義）と東ドイツ（共産主義）という分断国家にされた。\n一方、日本の占領は分断国家にはされず、日本国政府と皇室を存続したままアメリカ合衆国が間接的に占領するという間接統治を実行した（占領期間も内閣総理大臣なども存在していた）。\nGHQは直ちに日本軍を解体し、占領政策に基づいた象徴天皇制、国民主権、平和主義を定めた日本国憲法を新たに制定され、大日本帝国憲法は第73条により全部改正という名目で廃止された。日本が保有していた海外の軍事基地をはじめとする植民地、占領地は全て失う事になった。例えば、台湾は国共内戦によって、中国共産党に敗北した中国国民党が統治する。朝鮮半島に関しては、南部分はアメリカ合衆国と北部分はソビエト連邦の2カ国による直接統治となった。その影響でドイツと同じく大韓民国（資本主義）と朝鮮民主主義人民共和国（共産主義）の分断国家が誕生し、後の朝鮮戦争に繋がる。また、第一次世界大戦の勝利でドイツ帝国から得た南洋諸島もアメリカ合衆国側が統治する方針になった。\n「侵略戦争の経済的基盤」を無力化するために農地改革と財閥解体が断行された。解体された財閥はコンツェルンとしての形から企業グループと再び復活した。企業グループとは、アメリカ対日協議会の圧力により過度経済力集中排除法が適用されないことになった「トップのいない企業結合体」である。無力化の対象となった寄生地主制と財閥は、戦中より産業合理化の障害としても論じられていた。そこで傾斜生産方式という合理化が推進された。1952年、日本は世界銀行と国際通貨基金に加盟した。この頃は新円切替や正力マイクロ波事件などが国民生活を脅かした。\n1950年代にさしかかる頃から逆コースが進展した。朝鮮戦争では占領軍の指令に基づき掃海部隊や港湾労働者を朝鮮半島に送り込むなど韓国支援活動を行った。1952年（昭和27年）にサンフランシスコ平和条約により主権を回復した後、外債の導入により急速に戦後復興を進め、財閥は企業グループとして形を変えて再び復活した。\n戦後のドイツはナチスの国旗の廃止や国歌の制限、国章の変更を行ったが、日本に関しては戦前、戦後と日の丸や国歌、国章の変更や制限は一切されず存続することになった。\n1952年（昭和27年）4月28日、GHQは解体し、占領軍は権限低下と名目を変え、在日米軍（USFJ）として第二次世界大戦後の日本に駐留する唯一の外国軍になっている。1954年（昭和29年）には防衛に特化した自衛隊が設立された。\n冷戦下の西側陣営として日米安全保障条約を締結した。主権回復後の日本は西側諸国の中でも特に米国寄りの立場をとったが、日本国憲法第9条を根拠に軍事力の海外派遣を行わなかった。サンフランシスコ平和条約発効直前に発生した韓国による竹島軍事占領を除き、戦後の日本は諸外国からの軍事的実力行使にさらされることが一切なかった。自民党と社会党の保革55年体制ができた翌年、日本は日ソ共同宣言と国際連合加盟を果した。1972年（昭和47年）には日中国交正常化と沖縄返還が行われた。それぞれに関しては中華民国の国家性と西山事件が未解決である。1960年代、日本の国民総生産は高度経済成長をとげた。この頃中国では国共内戦と大躍進政策の失敗で経済がもたついており、日本は安価な工業製品を大量生産できるライバル不在の新興国と化し、成長への条件が整っていた。\n1964年（昭和39年）にはアジア初であり、有色人種の国家としては初となる東京オリンピック・パラリンピックが昭和天皇の開会宣言によって開催された。高速道路や国際空港などインフラの整備やオリンピック景気、1965年以降はいざなぎ景気と呼ばれる好景気が発生するなど繁栄する年が長年続くこととなった。また、国内総生産（GDP）に関しては1966年（昭和41年）にフランスを、1967年（昭和42年）に英国を、1968年（昭和43年）には西ドイツをそれぞれ追い抜いた。これをもって日本は米国に次ぐ世界第2位の経済大国にのぼりつめ、日本は再び先進国となった。\n1970年代はニクソン・ショックとオイルショックの二重苦にもかかわらず軟着陸できたので安定成長期と呼ばれた。重化学工業から自動車・電機へと産業の主役が移る産業構造の転換が進んだ。壊滅的な敗戦から奇跡的な復興を遂げた日本は途上国のモデル国家とされた。同年、大阪にて大阪万博が開催された。博覧会の名誉総裁は当時の皇太子明仁親王、名誉会長は当時の首相の佐藤栄作となった。当時では普及していなかった電気自動車や動く歩道、電動自転車などを展開するなど未来世界を作り上げたことが世界から注目され、6,422万人以上が来場し日本は大成功を収めた。\n1972年（昭和47年）に田中角栄内閣総理大臣は日本列島改造論を提唱した。大都市と地方の格差を埋める目的と、高速道路網を全国に張り巡らせ、地方に病院や港湾、学校などの公共施設を次々と建てて、大都市と地方のインフラ格差を埋めた。そのため、東京だけではなく地方の雇用・経済をさらに潤わせることに成功した。\n1973年（昭和48年）には日本をはじめアメリカ、イギリス、西ドイツ、フランスの5カ国がG5（現在このG7）を創設した。\n経済学者のラビ・バトラは高い成長率と一億総中流を実現した60年代から70年代の日本経済を指して「資本主義の究極の理想に近い」と評価した。ロナルド・レーガンはGDPと軍事力で日本がアメリカを追い抜くことを覚悟した。一方、傾斜生産方式から安定成長に至るまで公害病問題が深刻化していた。また、日本企業の輸出攻勢は貿易摩擦をもたらした。そして数年にわたり報道されたロッキード事件は日本のグローバル化を象徴した。\n昭和末期、中曽根内閣の民営化政策が推進され始めて程なくプラザ合意がなされた。これにより円高不況が起こり、そこで行き過ぎた金融緩和がなされてリクルート事件の頃にバブル景気が到来した。1人あたりの国民所得はアメリカに次ぐ世界第2位となった。引き続き年5%-7%の高い経済成長が見込まれ、21世紀は日本の時代になるといわれた（ジャパン・アズ・ナンバーワン）。日本は大規模な好景気を経験する一方、アメリカなどは経済低迷を経験していたため日米間で貿易摩擦が起きた。\n平成時代.\n平成年間（1989年 - 2019年）は平成時代と呼ばれる。1989年1月7日の父・昭和天皇の崩御に皇室典範に基づいて皇位を継承。翌8日に元号法と政令に基づき「平成」へ改元が行われた。平成の30年間において、国民の約80%はとても平和な時代であったという回答がある。\n平成元年の1989年にはバブル景気の影響で日経平均株価が最高値になった。1991年12月には共産主義の超大国のソビエト連邦が崩壊し、冷戦は日米欧などをはじめとする西側諸国（資本主義）の事実上の勝利となった。同時に日本ではバブル崩壊に続き、自社両党による55年体制が崩壊し、短命の非自民連立内閣が成立した。そして2009年と2012年にも政権交代が起こった。阪神淡路大震災・地下鉄サリン事件・東日本大震災とそれに伴う福島第一原子力発電所事故などの大規模な災害が発生し、危機管理に対する意識が高まるきっかけとなった。\n昭和末期から過熱状態にあった景気は、日銀三重野康総裁の急激な金融引き締めによりハードランディングがおき崩壊。その後も円高不況、アジア通貨危機、ITバブル崩壊と連続した要因により、2000年代まで失われた10年と呼ばれる長い経済停滞を経験した。\n世界的観点において平成初期は、余剰家計をミューチュアル・ファンドが吸い上げてグローバルな投資活動を展開し注目を浴びた。21世紀に入り、BRICSなどの新興国が台頭。日本を含む先進国の産業空洞化、国家財政や年金会計における債務超過、通貨危機などの傾向が顕著になり、従来世界経済において圧倒的に大きな影響力を持っていた日本や欧米の経済的・政治的先進性は疑義をもたれるようになった。また、改革開放以降、高度経済成長を続ける中華人民共和国がイギリスやフランス、ドイツのGDPを抜き、2010年には遂に日本のGDPを超えた。それにより日本は42年振りに世界2位の経済大国という地位を中国に譲る事になった。軍事的にも経済的にも成長した中国の政治体制は一党独裁の共産主義及び社会主義であるため、アメリカ合衆国との対立が深刻化している（新冷戦を参照）。\n1993年には日本が自ら提案し、アフリカ連合諸国、世界銀行と共にアフリカ開発会議を日本国政府の主導型として定期的に主催させるようになった。1998年、 20世紀最後の冬季オリンピックとして長野オリンピックが天皇の開会宣言によって開催された。\n1994年から、アメリカ政府は日本政府に対して年次改革要望書を出した。年次改革要望書は2008年に鳩山由紀夫内閣中に日本側の申し出で破棄した。2001年には九州南西海域工作船事件が発生。日本の海上保安庁と北朝鮮の工作船が奄美大島付近で激しい銃撃戦を繰り広げた。\n2003年10月1日には日本の航空宇宙3機関、文部科学省宇宙科学研究所（ISAS）・独立行政法人航空宇宙技術研究所（NAL）・特殊法人宇宙開発事業団（NASDA）が統合されて宇宙航空研究開発機構が設立され、日本は宇宙開発を本格化し始めた。安倍晋三首相は日本政府の外交方針として2007年には「日米豪印戦略対話」を、2012年には「セキュリティダイヤモンド構想」を、2016年には「自由で開かれたインド太平洋戦略」を世界各国に提唱した。\n平成時代に日本は独自で軍事的に再び海外に進出するようになった。2003年にはイラク戦争が勃発した。アメリカ軍がイラク共和国に勝利すると、多国籍軍は占領を開始。日本も有志連合の一員として小泉純一郎首相の強い指導力によって、イラクにおける人道復興支援活動及び安全確保支援活動の実施に関する特別措置法が公布されイラクに自衛隊が派遣された。日本国政府の目的によるとイラクの国家再建を支援するためであるとされる（事実上のイラク占領）。日本クウェート地位協定に基づきクウェートのアリ・アル・サレーム空軍基地内に自衛隊は長期駐留した。\n2009年にはアフリカのソマリアに出現する海賊を対処（ソマリア沖海賊の対策部隊派遣）を行うために日本は北大西洋条約機構率いるオーシャン・シールド作戦（多国籍軍）に参加した。結果、勝利し海賊を減少させることに成功した。\n2011年にはアフリカのジブチ共和国内に日本政府とジブチ共和国政府が共に日本ジブチ地位協定を締結し自衛隊専用の海外基地を設立するなど世界各国への影響力を高めた。しかし、ジブチとの地位協定は自衛隊の犯罪等が当事国の法律に適応されないというもので、日本国政府は他国に不平等条約を締結させているという意見もある。\n文化面ではサブカルチャーであるアニメ、漫画、テレビゲームが裾野を広げ海外で興味を引くようになった。\nインターネット、携帯電話は世の中を変えつつある。また日本は景気の改善と少子化により人手不足に陥っており、人工知能・自動運転・ロボット・電気自動車などの新技術が人間の負担を軽減する見通しが出されている。\n2019年4月1日に新たな元号｢令和｣を発表した。4月30日には天皇の退位等に関する皇室典範特例法の施行に伴い、この日を以って第125代天皇明仁が退位（譲位）。午後5時から退位礼正殿の儀（退位の礼の中心儀式で国事行為たる儀式）が行われた。5月1日午前0時に令和元年となった。\n天皇の生前退位は光格天皇以来202年ぶりで一世一元の制となった明治以降かつ憲政史上初めてのことであった。\n令和時代.\n令和年間は（2019年 - 現在）は令和時代と呼ばれている。元号法並びに「元号を改める政令 (平成三十一年政令第百四十三号)」に基づいて、即位の日に「令和」と改元された。 同年10月22日には即位礼正殿の儀、11月10日には祝賀御列の儀を行った。 御料車（オープンカー）でパレードを行った。政府や皇室などは当初予想されていた以上に全国から国民が集まり、そして多大なる支持を示したことにより皇后雅子がパレード中に感極まって涙を流した。\n2019年12月に中国・武漢で発生した新型コロナウイルス感染症が2020年に日本にも到来。安倍晋三首相は諸外国のようなロックダウン（都市封鎖）は実行しないものの緊急事態宣言を発令した。経済、政治、そして何より国民生活に大きな動揺を与えている。9月には安倍晋三首相が辞任、通算在職日数が歴代最長となった。\n2020年5月には日本国政府が宇宙作戦隊（事実上の宇宙軍）を設立した。\n2021年、新型コロナウイルス感染症の世界的流行により1年延期されていた東京オリンピック・パラリンピックが今上天皇の開会宣言によって開催された。オリンピックのメダル受賞数で日本は世界3位という日本のオリンピック史上最も多くのメダルを獲得するという結果を残した。\n2022年、1月にトンガ王国にてフンガ・トンガ噴火が発生、日本本土に影響は無かったものの、日本国政府及び防衛省は自衛隊をトンガに派遣することを決定した。\n2月24日、ロシアがウクライナに全面侵攻し、岸田文雄首相はウクライナのウォロディミル・ゼレンスキー大統領に人道と装備の支援を発表とロシア及びウラジーミル・プーチン及び関連のある家族や側近、ロシア財閥のオリガルヒと侵攻に関与した疑いがあるベラルーシ共和国全土に前例のないほどの経済制裁、資産凍結と国際銀行間通信協会への排除の制裁行っている。また、防衛省は軍事的支援を行う事を発表した。4月、日本国政府は在日ロシア連邦大使館の外交官ら複数人を国外追放した。\n歴史認識・歴史叙述.\n日本においては、漢字が導入された古代から歴史認識および歴史叙述の展開が見られた。中世には歴史物語の盛行により庶民層にも国家単位の歴史認識が流布する。近世には合理的・実証的な歴史研究が民間に広がり、近代には西欧から近代的歴史観が本格的に導入された。また戦前では日本神話が全て正史であると教育されていたため弥生以前の研究をするのはタブーであるという風潮があった。\n", "津田 左右吉（つだ そうきち、1873年〈明治6年〉10月3日 - 1961年〈昭和36年〉12月4日）は、日本の歴史学者・思想史家。早稲田大学文学部教授を歴任。記紀を史料批判の観点から研究したことで知られ、日本における実証史学の発展に大きく貢献した。1947年帝国学士院会員選出。1949年文化勲章受章。従三位勲一等。\n概要.\n津田左右吉の成果は、記紀神話とそれに続く神武天皇以下の記述には、どの程度の資料的価値があるかを学術的に解明した点である。\n1919年の「古事記及び日本書紀の新研究」、1924年の「神代史の研究」が代表成果作である。\n津田は記紀神話から神武天皇、欠史八代から第14代仲哀天皇とその后の神功皇后まで、つまり第15代応神天皇よりも前の天皇は系譜も含めて、としての資料的価値は全くないとした。\nこれらの部分は朝廷の官人の政治的目的による造作の所産であり、記紀神話は皇室が国民を支配するという思想を前提に、それを物語として展開していったもので、神武東征もその一部であるとした。また、第23代天皇顕宗天皇、第24代仁賢天皇らの発見物語も典型的な貴種流離譚であって実在しないとしている。発見譚に関わった第22代清寧天皇も、第24代仁賢天皇の皇子の第25代武烈天皇も実在しないとしている。\n津田の説は、戦後の古代史研究における大きな成果であり、津田史観と呼べる見解は今日の歴史学・考古学の主流となっている。\n生涯.\n生い立ち.\n1873年（明治6年）10月3日、岐阜県加茂郡栃井村（現・美濃加茂市下米田町東栃井）に津田藤馬の長男として生まれる。津田家は尾張藩の附家老である竹腰家の家臣で、明治維新の後に竹腰家より命じられて同地へ移住した。\n1886年（明治19年）に文明小学校（美濃加茂市立下米田小学校）卒業。文明小学校では、士族の子として、校長の森達（もり とおる）から漢籍などの指導を受ける。小学校卒業後は名古屋の私塾を転々とした後、1821年に大谷派普通学校（現在の名古屋大谷高等学校）に入学したが、翌年に中退して故郷の東栃井に戻り、東京専門学校（後の早稲田大学）の校外生として講義録で学ぶ。\n1890年（明治23年）に上京して、邦語政治科に編入。翌1891年（明治24年）、東京専門学校邦語政治科 （現在の早稲田大学政治経済学部）卒業。\n歴史学者として.\n東京専門学校卒業後、白鳥庫吉の指導を受けた。1901年、28歳で『新撰東洋史』を刊行。1908年まで旧制千葉中学校等で中学校教員を務めた。\n1908年、満鉄東京支社嘱託・満鮮地理歴史調査室研究員となる。研究長は白鳥庫吉であった。満鉄調査部の満州朝鮮歴史地理調査部門には、他に松井等、稲葉岩吉、池内宏らがいた。津田はこの調査部で「渤海考」「勿吉考」の東洋史研究調査を行った。同機関は、1914年に東京帝国大学文科大学に移管されるが、それまで勤務した。1913年（大正2年）には、岩波書店から『神代史の新しい研究』を刊行。\n1917年には『文学に現われたる我が国民思想の研究』の第一巻を刊行し、1921年まで続刊した。\n1918年（大正7年）、早稲田大学講師。東洋史、東洋哲学を教えた。翌1919年、『古事記及び日本書紀の新研究』を発表。\n1920年（大正9年）、早稲田大学法学部文学部教授。\n1924年（大正13年）、51歳で『神代史の研究』を発表。前著とともに、神武天皇以前の神代史を研究の対象にし、史料批判を行ったものである。\n1927年、『道家の思想と其の開展』を発表。1930年には『日本上代史研究』、1933年には『上代日本の社会及び思想』、1935年には『左伝の思想史的研究』、1937年には、小著『支那思想と日本』、1938年には『儒教の実践道徳』『蕃山・益軒』を刊行、旺盛に執筆活動を続けた。\n1939年、東京帝国大学法学部講師（東洋政治思想史）を兼任。\n津田事件.\n1939年（昭和14年）、津田が記紀の文献学的考証を行い、記紀神話や『日本書紀』における聖徳太子関連記述についてその実在性を含めて批判的に考察した。特に問題になったのは『古事記及び日本書紀の研究』『神代史の研究』であった。この2冊は神典とされてきた記紀の文献的批判を行ったもので、津田が指摘したのは、おおよそ次の諸点である。\nこのことについて、蓑田胸喜や三井甲之らが津田を「日本精神東洋文化抹殺論に帰着する悪魔的虚無主義の無比凶悪思想家」として不敬罪にあたるとして攻撃した。これを受けて政府は、1940年（昭和15年）2月10日に『古事記及び日本書紀の研究』『神代史の研究』『日本上代史研究』『上代日本の社会及思想』の4冊を発禁処分とした。同じ頃に津田は文部省の要求で早稲田大学教授も辞職させられ、3月に出版元の岩波茂雄と共に東京地方検事局の取り調べを受けた。検察側の起訴理由は以下の通りで、津田の主張を明確に表している。\n『古事記及び日本書紀の研究』『神代史の研究』『日本上代史研究』『上代日本の社会及思想』の中に次のような内容が含まれている。\nこれはいずれも皇室の尊厳を冒するものであり、出版法第26条に違反する。\nやがて津田は3月8日に起訴、不拘束のまま予審に回附された。1942年（昭和17年）5月に禁錮3ヶ月、岩波は2ヶ月、ともに執行猶予2年の判決を受けた。津田は控訴したが、1944年（昭和19年）に時効により免訴となった。\nこの一連の出来事を津田事件また津田左右吉事件ともいう。\n戦後.\n戦後、津田自身の戦前における弾圧の経験と相まって学界に迎えられ、皇国史観を否定する「津田史観」は学問的、実証的に裏付けされたものであり、第二次世界大戦後の日本史学界の主流的な史観として受け入れられている。\n一方で、一貫して共産主義には否定的であり、戦後の共産主義の流行には批判的であった。\n1946年（昭和21年）、雑誌『世界』第4号に発表した論文「建国の事情と万世一系の思想」では、「天皇制は時勢の変化に応じて変化しており、民主主義と天皇制は矛盾しない」と天皇制維持を論じる。天皇制廃止論者達からは「津田は戦前の思想から変節した」と批判されたが、津田の「天皇制を立憲君主制に発展させるべき」との考え方は戦前から一貫したもので、戦後になって変化したわけではない。\n1947年（昭和22年）、帝国学士院会員に選出。1949年（昭和24年）に文化勲章受章。1960年（昭和35年）に美濃加茂市名誉市民第1号に選ばれた。\n1961年（昭和36年）12月4日、老衰のため東京都武蔵野市境の自宅で死去。\n没後.\n2001年（平成13年）3月に、津田の遺徳と業績の顕彰を目的として、遺品、研究資料、著書等を管理、公開する施設「津田左右吉博士記念館」が開館した。\n研究業績.\n古代史研究.\n『古事記』や『日本書紀』、特に神話関係の部分は後世のが著しいとして史料批判を行った。\nその方法は津田の創始ではなく、明治以降の近代実証主義を日本古代史に当てはめ、記紀の成立過程についてひとつの相当程度合理的な説明を行った側面が大きい。\nただし、同様の原則を古代史に適用することは、直接皇室の歴史を疑うことにつながるゆえに、禁忌とされてきた。それを初めて破って、著書の中で近代的な史料批判を全面的に記紀に適用したのが津田だった。\nそれゆえ津田が従前の歴史学から離れた立場にあったわけではないが、津田の業績を基本的に承認・利用しつつ、その核心部分を肯定する文章を自ら書き下ろすことは避けようとする態度が他の学者にはあった。\n津田の個々具体的な主張には、かなり印象論的なものも多く、批判もあった。日本史の坂本太郎や井上光貞は、津田らの研究が「主観的合理主義」に過ぎないという主旨の批判を行っている。歴史学界の外部からは、津田が歴史史料以外を信用せず、考古学や民俗学の知見を無視したことに批判がある。\nただし、坂本や井上をはじめ戦後の文献史学者の多くは、津田の文献批判の基本的な構図を受け入れており、一般に継体天皇以前の記紀の記述については「単独では証拠力に乏しい」と見ている。\n津田が主張した記紀への指摘.\nこのほかに広く受け入れられている津田の説として、『日本書紀』の25代武烈天皇の暴虐記事がある。不可解な武烈の暴虐記事が捏造だと初めて指摘したのが津田であった。皇統の断絶を起こし、継体天皇を招く事になった理由として、「記紀の編纂者が『尚書』『韓非子』『呂氏春秋』『史記』などに登場し王朝最後の暴君とされる桀や紂を参考にして、暴虐記事を書いた」としたのである。この説も、歴史学者からは広く支持されている。\nこのように、記紀神話の研究を飛躍的に進めた点は高く評価されており、津田史観は現在の歴史学では定説になっている。\n東洋思想研究.\n日中印に共同の生活がなく、共同の歴史が無いとして「東洋」という区分に否定的だった。津田は日本の思想形成における中国思想の影響については、否定的もしくは消極的な立場をとり、日本文化の独自性を主張した。中国思想等についての実証研究でも影響を与えたが、儒教は人間性を無視しているとして、中国思想は「特殊な否定的なもの」であるとして、批判的であった。また、近代西洋文化に対しては肯定的な近代主義者でもあった。「明治人に特有な脱亜論的ナショナリズム」を体現していたとも評価される。\n日本思想史に関しても、『文学に現はれたる我が国民思想の研究』（全4巻）の大著があり、現在は岩波文庫全8巻に納められている。古代から江戸時代末期までが扱われており、未完に終わったが、『維新の思想史』などでその後の展開を知ることができる。\n韓国での評価.\n上代ですら日韓に親近感がなかったのは明白として、日韓併合にも否定的だった。\n津田の指導を受けた（り へいとう、イ・ビョンド、1896年 - 1989年）は、朝鮮総督府朝鮮史編纂委員会委員を経て1934年で震檀学会理事長に就任し、1945年には京城帝国大学文理科教授となるが、戦後も引き続き、韓国文教部長官、韓国学術院院長を歴任し、韓国の歴史学を主導した。李丙燾は津田の方法論を受け継ぎ、実証的な研究を牽引した。このような李丙燾に対して韓国民族史観からは、として批判をうけ、李丙燾及び津田左右吉の史観（例えば任那日本府に関する見解、『三国史記』初期記録不信論、漢四郡は朝鮮半島に存在したという見解）も批判されている。\n", "地球科学に関する記事の一覧（ちきゅうかがくにかんするきじのいちらん）。\n以下の項目は、地質学・鉱物学の諸分野（岩石学・古生物学など）、地球物理学の諸分野（地震学・気象学・測地学など）、地理学の自然地理的分野（自然地理学、地域地理学など）、海洋学、惑星科学を含む。\nア行.\nアイソスタシー - 赤潮 - 亜寒帯 - 秋雨 - 秋雨前線 - アスペリティ - アセノスフェア - 亜大陸 - 亜熱帯高圧帯 - アノマロカリス - アフリカ大地溝帯 - 雨 - アメイジア大陸 - アメダス - アメリカ海洋大気庁 (NOAA) - 霰 - アレキサンドライト - 安山岩 - アンサンブル予報 - アンモナイト - アルベド - 安定同位体 - 安定陸塊\n異常気象 - 緯線 - 緯度 - 異方性 - 色指数 - 隕石\nウォーカー循環 - 渦度 - うねり - 海 - 海風 - 運搬 - 雲母 - 雲量\nエアロゾル - 永久凍土 - 液状化 - エディアカラ生物群 - エルニーニョ - エルニーニョ・南方振動 (ENSO) - 縁海 - 塩害 - 塩基性岩 - 遠心力 - 遠洋性堆積物 - 塩類\n応用地質学 - 応力 - 大潮 - オゾン - オゾン層 - オゾンホール - オホーツク海高気圧 - 親潮 - オルドビス紀 - オーロラ - 温帯 - 温帯高気圧 - 温帯低気圧 - 温室効果 - 温室効果ガス - 温暖前線 - 温度 - 温度計\nカ行.\n外核 - 海岸段丘 - 海溝 - 海谷 - 海山 - 海水 - 海水準変動 - 快晴 - 海洋大陸 - 海底拡大説 - 海底火山 - 海氷 - 海面変動 - 海洋 - 海洋学 - 海洋観測 - 海洋観測船 - 海洋気象台 - 海洋深層水 - 海洋地殻 - 海洋底拡大説 - 海洋物理学 - 海洋プレート - 海陸風 - 海流 - 海嶺 - カオリナイト - 化学岩 - 化学的風化 - 河岸段丘 - 鍵層 - 核 - 角閃石 - 火口 - 花崗岩 - 花崗岩質マグマ - 火口湖 - 下降気流 - 花崗閃緑岩 - 過去の気温変化 - 火砕サージ - 火砕流 - 火山 - 火山学 - 火山角礫岩 - 火山ガス - 火山ガラス - 火山岩 - 火山岩塊 - 火山弧 - 火山砕屑岩 - 火山砕屑物 - 火山前線 - 火山帯 - 火山弾 - 火山の噴火 - 火山噴出物 - 火山灰 - 火山礫 - 火山礫凝灰岩 - 火山列島 - 荷重痕 - カスケード沈み込み帯 - 風 - 火成岩 - 化石 - 化石海水 - 化石燃料 - 河川 - 活火山 - 活断層 - 下部地殻 - 雷 - からっ風 - 軽石 - カルスト地形 - カルデラ - カルデラ湖 - 岩塩 - 岩床 - 完新世 - 岩石 - 岩石学 - 含水鉱物 - 岩屑 - 岩相 - 乾燥帯 - 乾燥断熱減率 - 岩体 - 寒帯 - 環太平洋造山帯 - 関東大震災 - 関東ローム層 - 間氷期 - カンブリア紀 - カンブリア爆発 - 岩脈 - かんらん岩 - カンラン石 - 寒流 - 環流 - 寒冷前線 - 寒冷高気圧\n紀 - 気圧 - 気圧計 - 気圧傾度力 - 気圧の谷 - 気圧の峰 - 気圧配置 - 気温 - 機械的風化 - 気候 - 気候変化 - 気候変動 - 気象 - 気象衛星 - 気象観測 - 気象業務法 - 気象警報 - 気象台 - 気象注意報 - 気象庁 - 気象庁震度階 - 気象庁風力階級 - 気象通報 - 気象レーダー - 気象予報士 - 季節 - 季節風 - 季節予報 - 北太平洋高気圧 - 気団 - 起潮力 - 軌道傾斜角 - 軌道要素 - 起伏 - 逆断層 - 休火山 - 級化層理 - 凝灰角礫岩 - 凝灰岩 - 仰角 - 凝結核 - 協定世界時 (UTC) - 恐竜 - 極循環 - 極風 - 霧 - 銀河系\n空気 - グーテンベルク不連続面 - 雲 - 雲粒 - 曇り - クラトン - グリニッジ標準時 (GMT) - クリノメーター - クレーター - グレート・リフト・バレー - 黒雲母 - 黒潮 - グローバル・ポジショニング・システム (GPS)\n系 - ケイ酸塩 - ケイ酸塩鉱物 - 傾斜 (地質学) - 啓蟄 - 経度 - 夏至 - 頁岩 - 結晶 - 結晶質石灰岩 - 結晶分化作用 - 結晶片岩 - ケッペンの気候区分 - 月光 - 月長石 - 圏谷 - 原生代 - 元素 - 検層 - 玄武岩 - 玄武岩質マグマ\nコア - 広域変成岩 - 宏観異常現象 - 高気圧 - 光合成 - 光合成生物 - 黄砂 - 高山帯 - 向斜 - 鉱床 - 鉱床学 - 更新世 - 降水 - 降水確率 - 降水量 - 高層天気図 - 硬度 (水) - 鉱物 - 鉱物学 - 木枯らし - 国土地理院 - 黒曜岩・黒曜石 - 小潮 - 古地震 - 弧状列島 - 古生代 - 古生物 - 古生物学 - 古第三紀 - 古地磁気 - コノドント - コバルトクラスト - 固溶体 - コリオリの力 - コールドプルーム - コロラド高原 - 混濁流 - ゴンドワナ大陸\nサ行.\nサイクロン - 最高気温 - 歳差 - 最終氷期 - 砕屑岩 - 最低気温 - 砂岩 - 砂岩岩脈 - 砂丘 - 桜前線 - 柘榴石 - 砂泥互層 - 砂漠 - 砂漠化 - サバナ - サバナ気候 - サンアンドレアス断層 - 三角州 - 三角測量 - 三角点 - 産業技術総合研究所 - サンゴ礁 - 三畳紀 - 酸性雨 - 酸性岩 - 酸素同位体比 - 山体崩壊 - 山地 - 山脈 - 三葉虫\nシアノバクテリア - シアル - ジェット気流 - ジオイド - 死火山 - 磁気嵐 - 磁気圏 - 子午線 - 子午線弧 - 示準化石 - 地震 - 地震空白域 - 地震計 - 地震警報システム - 地震帯 - 地震断層 - 地震動 - 地震波 - 地震波トモグラフィー - 地震予知 - 地すべり - 自然災害 - 自然地理学 - 示相化石 - シダ植物 - 七十二候 - 湿潤断熱減率 - 湿度 - 自転 - 地熱 - 地盤沈下 - シベリア高気圧 - 磁北 - シマ - 島 - 縞状鉄鉱床 - 縞状鉄鉱層 - 蛇紋岩 - シューマン共振 - 褶曲 - 集中豪雨 - 秋分 - 重力 - 重力異常 - 重力加速度 - 縮尺 - 主要動 - ジュラ紀 - 春分 - 礁 - 上昇気流 - 条線 - 鍾乳洞 - 蒸発岩 - 小氷期 - 上部地殻 - 縄文海進 - 初期微動 - 初期微動継続時間 - 植物 - 食物連鎖 - シルト - シルル紀 - 震央 - 震央距離 - 深海 - 震源 - 震源域 - 震源距離 - 震源断層 - 震災 - 侵食 - 深成岩 - 新生代 - 深層 - 深層循環 - 新第三紀 - 震度 - 震度分布図 - 深発地震帯 - 深発地震面\n水温躍層 - 水滴 - 水準測量 - 水準点 - 水文学 - 数値予報 - スコリア - スコール - ストロマトライト - 砂 - スノーボールアース - スーパープリューム - スンダランド\n世 - 斉一説 - 西岸海洋性気候 - 整合 - 生痕 - 成層火山 - 成層圏 - 生態系 - 正断層 - 世界気象機関 (WMO) - 世界時 - 世界測地系 - 石英 - 石材 - 石炭 - 石炭紀 - 石炭層 - 石油 - 積乱雲 - 石灰岩 - 石基 - 石膏 - 接触変成岩 - 絶対湿度 - 絶対年代 - 節理 - ゼノリス - 先カンブリア時代 - 線構造 - 扇状地 - 前線 - 潜熱 - 閃緑岩\n造岩鉱物 - 走向 - 造山帯 - 走時曲線 - 層序 - 層序学 - 相対湿度 - 相対年代 - 層理 - 測地 - 測地系 - 測量 - 空\nタ行.\n大気 - 大気圧 - 大気擾乱 - 大気圏 - 大気大循環 - 太古代 - 第三紀 - 大西洋中央海嶺 - 堆積 - 堆積学 - 堆積岩 - 堆積構造 - 堆積相 - 堆積相対比の法則 - 堆積物 - 台地 - ダイナモ理論 - 台風 - ダイヤモンド - ダイヤモンドダスト - 大洋 - 太陽 - 太陽光 - 太陽黒点 - 大洋底 - 太陽風 - 太陽放射 - 第四紀 - 大陸 - 大陸移動説 - 大陸斜面 - 大陸棚 - 大陸と海洋の起源 - 大陸地殻 - 大陸プレート - 大理石 - 対流 - 対流圏 - ダウンバースト - 多角測量 - 竜巻 - 盾状火山 - 盾状地 - 縦波 - タービダイト - 段丘 - 炭酸カルシウム - 弾性係数 - 弾性波 - 弾性反発説 - 断層 - 断層破砕帯 - 断熱圧縮 - 断熱膨張 - 暖流\n澄江動物群 - 地温勾配 - 地殻 - 地殻変動 - 地下水 - 地球 - 地球温暖化 - 地球科学 - 地球化学 - 地球科学者 - 地球史年表 - 地球シミュレータ - 地球楕円体 - 地球物理学 - 地球放射 - 地形 - 地形学 - 地形図 - 地溝帯 - 地衡風 - 地史学 - 地磁気 - 地上天気図 - 地軸 - 地質学 - 地質構造 - 地質時代 - 地質時代区分 - 地質図 - 地質断面図 - 地質調査 - 地質調査所 - 地質年代 - 地層 - 地層累重の法則 - 地中海 - 地中海性気候 - 地熱 - 地方気象台 - 地方風 - チャート - 注意報 - 中央海嶺 - 中央構造線 - 中間圏 - 柱状図 - 中生代 - 中世の温暖期 - 沖積平野 - 長期予報 - 長石 - 潮汐 - 潮汐説 - 超大陸 - 潮流 - 直下型地震 - チリ地震 - 地理情報システム (GIS) - 沈降\n津波 - 津波観測所 - 津波予報 - 津波警報 - 津波注意報 - 梅雨 - 梅雨明け - 梅雨入り - ツンドラ気候\n泥岩 - 低気圧 - デイサイト - 低速度層 - 停滞前線 - 底盤 - テクトニクス - 鉄鉱石 - テフラ - デボン紀 - 天気 - 天気予報 - 転向力 - 電磁波 - 天井川 - 伝導 - 天然ガス - 電離層\n等圧線 - 等圧面 - 東海地震 - 撓曲 - 洞窟 - 洞窟潜水 - 島弧 - 等高線 - 冬至 - 動物 - 等粒状組織 - 土石流 - 鳥取地震 - トラフ (地形) - トランスフォーム断層 - トレンチ - 泥\nナ行.\n内核 - ナウマンゾウ - 凪 - 雪崩 - 南方振動 - 南極 - 南極海 - 南極大陸 - 南極半島 - 軟泥\n二十四節気 - 日照時間 - 二百十日 - 二百二十日 - ニフェ - 日本海 - 日本海溝 - 日本測地系 - 日本列島\nヌーナ大陸\n熱塩循環 - 熱圏 - 熱水 - 熱水鉱床 - 熱帯 - 熱帯収束帯 - 熱帯夜 - 熱帯低気圧 - 熱帯雨林 - 年縞 - 粘土 - 粘土鉱物 - 粘板岩 - 年輪年代学\nハ行.\n梅雨 - 梅雨前線 - 背斜 - 白亜紀 - 破砕帯 - バージェス頁岩 - バージェス動物群 - ハドレー循環 - パノティア大陸 - パーライト - ハリケーン - 春一番 - 晴れ - 阪神・淡路大震災 - パンゲア大陸 - 半減期 - 斑晶 - 斑状組織 - 半島 - ハンマー (地質調査) - 斑れい岩\n東太平洋海嶺 - 微化石 - 比高 - ヒートアイランド - ヒプシサーマル - ひまわり - 百葉箱 - ビューフォート風力階級 - 雹 - 氷河 - 氷河制約説 - 氷河時代 - 氷期 - 標高 - 氷山 - 氷晶 - 氷床 - 氷床コア - 表層 - 表土\n風化 - 風向 - 風速 - 風力 - 風浪 - フェレル循環 - フェーン - フェーン現象 - フォッサマグナ - 付加体 - 複屈折 - ブーゲー異常 - フズリナ - 不整合 - 伏角 - 物理探査 - 物理的風化 - 部分溶融 - プルームテクトニクス - プレート - プレート運動 - プレート境界型地震 - プレートテクトニクス - プレート内地震 - 噴火\n平均海面 - 平衡 - 閉鎖系 - 閉塞前線 - 平野 - ペグマタイト - ベッセル楕円体 - ベーリング陸橋 - ペルム紀 - 偏角 - 片岩 - 変成岩 - 変成作用 - 偏光顕微鏡 - 偏西風 - 変動地形 - 変動地形学 - 片麻岩 - 片理\nポアソン比 - 貿易風 - 方解石 - 放散虫 - 放射性同位体 - 放射年代測定 - 卯酉線 - 飽和水蒸気量 - 捕獲岩 - ボーキサイト - ボストーク湖 - ホットスポット - ホットプルーム - ボーリング - ホルンフェルス\nマ行.\nマグニチュード - マグマ - マグマオーシャン - 枕状溶岩 - マスムーブメント - 真夏日 - 真冬日 - マンガン団塊 - マントル - マントル対流説\n三日月湖 - 湖 - 密度成層 - 脈\n無色鉱物\n冥王代 - メタセコイア - メタンハイドレート - メノウ - 面構造\n猛暑 - モース硬度 - モホロビチッチ不連続面 - モンスーン\nヤ行.\n山 - 山津波 - ヤンガードリアス\n有孔虫 - 有色鉱物 - 雪 - ユレダス\n溶岩 - 溶岩台地 - 溶岩流 - 溶結凝灰岩 - 葉理 - 横波 - 余震 - 横ずれ断層\nラ行.\n雷雨 - ラジオゾンデ - 裸子植物 - ラテライト - ラニーニャ - ラピリストーン - ラブ波 - ランドサット\nリアス式海岸 - 理科年表 - 陸 - 陸上生物 - 陸水 - 陸風 - 離心率 - リソスフェア - 立夏 - 立秋 - 立春 - 立冬 - 隆起 - 隆起山地 - 粒径 - 流氷 - 流紋岩 - 流理構造 - 領家帯\nルートマップ\n冷帯 - レイリー波 - レーウィンゾンデ - 礫 - 礫岩 - レーマン不連続面\nロディニア大陸 - 露点温度 - 露頭 - ローラシア大陸 - ローレンシア大陸\nワ行.\n惑星 - 惑星の居住可能性 - 和達-ベニオフ帯 - 割れ目噴火 - 湾\nA - Z.\nENSO（エルニーニョ・南方振動） - GIS（地理情報システム） - GMT（グリニッジ標準時） - GPS（グローバル・ポジショニング・システム） - GRS80 - K-T境界 - MTSAT（運輸多目的衛星） - N値 - NOAA（アメリカ海洋大気庁） - P波 - P-T境界 - Q値 - S波 - TRMM（熱帯降雨観測衛星） - U字谷 - UTC（協定世界時） - V字谷 - - WMO（世界気象機関）\n", "『太陽の法』（たいようのほう、\"The Laws of the Sun\"）は、\n概要.\n『太陽の法』とは、幸福の科学グループ創始者兼総裁・大川隆法の著作で、幸福の科学の代表的経典。1986年8月末に開始した草稿から、9月8日までの12日間で書いたとされる。幸福の科学によれば「救世の法三部作」として、『太陽の法』『黄金の法』『永遠の法』の3冊は法シリーズの中でも中心的位置をしめ、基本三法と呼ばれており、『太陽の法』はさらにその中でも最重要の経典としている。\n教団「幸福の科学」の基本教義が記述された書で、「1千億年前からの宇宙創造（創世記1）」「多次元宇宙の構造論（世界観）」「人類誕生の秘密（創世記2）」「人類4億年の歴史と、過去100万年の文明の流転」「人間の生命体の真実、永遠の生命」そして、「愛の大河の中で」「心の諸相と悟りへの道」などが語られている。\n教団設立以前の時代に書き下ろされていた。トーハン調べの年間ベストセラーでは1994年、1995年、2000年にランキング上位に登場している。\n1990年の英語版を皮切りに多数の言語の翻訳版が出版されており（下記#外国語翻訳版を参照）、世界180か国で流通している。\nこの書をもとに、漫画版の『マンガ・太陽の法』が作成され（1995年）、月刊誌『ザ・リバティ』に創刊号から1999年7月号まで連載された。\n2000年10月には、幸福の科学出版の3作目の劇場用作品として映画化された。アニメ映画化としては、「ヘルメス － 愛は風の如く」に続く2作目であり、「太陽の法シナリオプロジェクト」により新たなストーリーで製作された。\n漫画 絵本.\n書籍『太陽の法』をもとに、1995年から漫画版の『マンガ・太陽の法』が作成された。この製作は、「マンガ『太陽の法』シナリオプロジェクト」チームで行われ、その中心人物、松本弘司の脚本と橋本和典の作画で作成された。幸福の科学の最初の対外的書店向け月刊誌『ザ・リバティ』の創刊号1995年5月号から連載され、1999年7月号まで連載された。\nストーリー.\n書籍『太陽の法』の章立て、節分けに忠実に、6章のストーリーと各章の節に対応するストーリーとなっている。\n映画.\n映画『太陽の法 エル・カンターレへの道』は、幸福の科学出版による日本映画・アニメ映画で、「太陽の法シナリオプロジェクト」により新たなストーリーで製作された。2000年10月28日に東映系で公開された。上映時間は104分。副題は「エル・カンターレへの道」。\n週間映画興行ランキング2週連続1位（興行通信社調べ）同年10月28日-29日、11月4日-5日。2000年日本週末興行成績1位の映画の一覧を参照。\n興行収入15億円以上。\n2001年朝日ベストテン映画祭 読者賞 第1位\n第25回報知映画賞 読者投票ベスト10 作品賞部門（邦画）第1位\n中央青少年団体連絡協議会 推薦\nストーリー.\n21世紀初頭の地球周辺には、無数のUFOが来訪していた。神秘の書『太陽の法』を携えた宇宙人を通して、一千億年の歴史における天地創造、エル・カンターレによる人類の創造、文明の建設が語られる。\n一千億年前に、根本仏が三次元宇宙の創造を意図し、約四百億年前にビッグバンが起きた。後に、太陽系の金星では、太陽系最初の大霊エル・ミオーレにより種々の金星人が創造され、最終的には星間移動が可能な程度の科学文明を築いて終わった。地球では、エル・カンターレ（エル・ミオーレが移住後に改名）が動植物や仏性（内部神性）を持った人間を創造した。その後、異星からの移住者を受け入れ、約一億五千万年前にはエル・カンターレの本体が地上に降臨して巨大な光文明を築き、地球的仏法真理が確立した。\nしかし、約一億二千万年前には、マゼラン星雲（銀河）から来ていた指導者のひとりが天上界に対して反乱を起こし、地獄の帝王ルシファーとなった。以来、地獄へのエネルギー源を断つためにエル・カンターレは分身を降臨させ、地上を光で満たすことを目指す。\n約37万年前から出現していたムー大陸では、紀元前25000年頃にはインドネシア付近を中心にオーストラリアの2倍程度の面積となり、紀元前18000年頃からはピラミッド型の建築で太陽の光エネルギーを利用した科学文明が興った。\nしかし、後に心の大切さが失われ、人々はさまざまな悩みを持っていた。紀元前15000年前ごろに降臨したラ・ムー大王は、素朴な太陽信仰に代わって心を豊かにしながら社会を発展させるための教えが必要だと考え、新しく本格的な宗教を創始した。\nやがて、紀元前13000年ごろにムー文明は海中に沈下し、船で逃れた人々は、ベトナムや日本、中国人の源流となり、一部の人々は、南米アンデスおよび大西洋のアトランティス大陸に逃れ、ムーの科学文明をアトランティス文明に伝えた。\n紀元前10000年頃には大導師トスが降臨し、その智慧の光は、エジプト、ギリシア、ローマを経て西洋文明の源となる。紀元前8400年頃にアトランティス帝国は海に沈み、人々は飛行船で世界各地に逃れ、紀元前4500年ごろにはディロス島にオフェアリス、紀元前2300年ごろにはクレタ島にヘルメスが降臨して、古代ギリシアの礎を築いた。\n一方、紀元前5000年ごろの古代インカ帝国では、空を飛ぶ宇宙人を神と信じる宇宙人信仰が教えられ、爬虫類型宇宙人レプタリアンによる侵略の危機が迫っていた。降臨したリエント・アール・クラウド王は、異星人には友好的な者もいるが、逆に侵略的な者もいることを教え、心の中の宇宙を探究し、愛の心を持つことで侵略者がつけ込む隙が無くなり、自ら退散することを示す。\n紀元前500年ごろには、インド北部に釈迦族の王子としてゴータマ・シッダールタが降誕する。シッダールタは出家後に菩提樹の下で静かに心の内を見つめ、悟りの力によって魔軍を退散させた後、大宇宙と一体になる神秘体験得て、仏陀の悟りを開いた。\n仏陀は約45年間にわたってインド中部を中心に法を説いたが、晩年の霊鷲山での説法では、菩提樹下で悟ったときの「真なる悟り」が開示される。山頂には巨大なスクリーンが出現し、天国や地獄の様子が映し出された。さらに、地震が起きて多宝塔が出現し、仏陀はもう一人の仏陀（リエント・アール・クラウド）の隣に並んで座った（二仏並坐）。\n仏陀の説法は続き、スクリーンには未来社会の世相が映し出され、約2500年後に仏陀は再誕して東の都で「太陽の法」を説くことを、文殊らに約束する。仏陀は、地球へやってきた他の世界からの菩薩たち（宇宙人）の懇願を受け入れず、地下から出現した金色の菩薩たち（地涌の菩薩）が仏の法を護り弘める予定であることを告げる。\n映画関連品.\n、収録時間：〔Disc1〕52分43秒、〔Disc2〕41分11秒、合計 93分54秒\n", "指定国立大学法人に指定されている。\n概説.\n大学全体.\n一橋大学は森有礼が福澤諭吉と渋沢栄一の援助を得て、1875年（明治8年）に開いた商法講習所を源流とする日本で最も古い社会科学系の大学である。第二次世界大戦前には商学専門の官立大学（旧制東京商科大学）として開設されていた。森有礼は、幕末期にロンドン大学に学び、のち初代米国代理公使としてワシントンに滞在した。英米両国では実業家が官僚や政治家に劣らず活動していること、国家独立の基礎は経済の富強にあって、そのためには経済人の育成が急務だと痛感したこと、それらが一橋大学の学校設立の端緒となっている。\n建学の精神（校訓、理念、学是）.\n沿革から、産業界の指導者を育成するという建学理念を持つ。19世紀イギリスの論客トーマス・カーライルの著作『過去と現在』(\"Past and present\") から採られた言葉「キャプテンズ・オブ・インダストリー (Captains of Industry)」 という言葉は一橋大学における事実上の校是となっている。\n教育および研究.\n組織.\n研究科.\n以下、特記していない専攻は博士課程（修士課程、博士後期課程）である。\n附属機関.\n附属図書館.\n一橋大学附属図書館は文部科学省から人文・社会科学系外国雑誌センター館の指定を受けている。またEUからEU資料センターに指定されている。\n一橋大学附属図書館の蔵書数は約175万冊。なお一橋大学では附属図書館以外にも国際企業戦略研究科図書室、経済研究所資料室、経済研究所属日本経済統計情報センター、社会科学古典資料センター、イノベーション研究センター資料室等にも図書等が所蔵されており、全学の蔵書数は約245万冊である。\n一橋大学が社会科学の総合大学であるという特色から、全蔵書の5割は社会科学系である。また原則として同じ本を複数所蔵していない。したがって蔵書数という量的な面にとどまらず、質的な内容の充実度においても優位性が認められる。\n一橋大学ではもともと単科大学であったことから、伝統的に中央図書館制が取られており、大学で購入された図書は基本的に中央図書館である一橋大学附属図書館に集中配置される。そのため一つの図書館である一橋大学附属図書館に蔵書約175万冊が集中的に所蔵されている。またその175万冊の図書のうち、100万冊が開架となっており、開架図書数は、他の国立大学図書館に比べ極めて多い。このように図書へのアクセス性が高いため、貸出数が多くなっている。\n中国人民大学、東京医科歯科大学、東京外国語大学、東京工業大学、東京学芸大学、東京農工大学、電気通信大学、慶應義塾大学、早稲田大学、国際基督教大学、津田塾大学との間で、図書館の相互利用協定が締結されている。また上智大学との間で、相互貸出協定が締結されている。\n一橋大学附属図書館に隣接する社会科学古典資料センターには、カール・メンガーの蔵書を集めたメンガー文庫やオットー・フォン・ギールケの蔵書を集めたギールケ文庫など各種文庫がある他、トマス・ホッブズの『リヴァイアサン』の初版（1651年）や、『百科全書』の初版（1751年）、トマス・ロバート・マルサスのサイン入り『人口論』初版（1798年）や、ジャン＝バティスト・セイの書き込みがある、マルサスの『経済学の諸定義』（1827年）といった貴重書も所蔵している。図書以外にも、ヴィクトル・ユーゴーやオノレ・ド・バルザックらの書簡、一橋大学ゆかりの経済学者である福田徳三やヨーゼフ・シュンペーターの手稿、古文書、紙幣、コイン等が所蔵されている。これらのコレクションの保存は、社会科学古典資料センターの修復工房の専門家が行っている。\n一橋大学附属図書館は1998年、2002年、2003年には朝日新聞社による\"大学図書館ランキング”で総合順位1位となっている。2019年度国立大学図書館協会賞受賞。\n研究.\n21世紀COEプログラム.\n21世紀COEプログラムとして、4件のプロジェクトが採択されている。\nグローバルCOEプログラム.\nグローバルCOEプログラムとして、2件のプロジェクトが採択されている。\nその他.\n文部科学省の大学国際戦略本部強化事業に採択されている。\nEUインスティテュート・イン・ジャパンにて、日本の研究教育拠点校として指定されている。\nこの他、以下のような競争的資金の獲得がなされている。\n教育.\n国際色ある教育・留学制度.\n文部科学省よる大学国際戦略本部強化事業への採択やEUインスティテュート・イン・ジャパンによる日本の研究教育拠点校の指定などがなされている。\n留学制度としては、世界各国の40以上の大学や期間との間で協定の締結がなされ、グローバルリーダー育成海外留学制度や一橋大学海外派遣留学制度などの留学支援制度が設けられている。\nグローバルリーダー育成海外留学制度では、選考を経て、ケンブリッジ大学、ハーヴァード大学、オックスフォード大学、ロンドン大学ロンドン・スクール・オブ・エコノミクスへ、資金援助を受け留学する&lt;ref name=\"2012/7/2付日本経済新聞　朝刊\"&gt;2012/7/2付日本経済新聞　朝刊&lt;/ref&gt;。\n一橋大学海外留学奨学金制度では、社団法人如水会や卒業生が起業した企業等からの支援を受け授業料・旅費・生活費が全額給付され毎年40名超が留学をしている。\nこの他英語やドイツ語の授業の一環としてスタンフォード大学の短期語学研修プログラムまたはカリフォルニア大学デービス校付属外国語学校や、ドイツ・バウハウス大学で、夏休みの期間に研修を受ける講義も開講されており、一橋基金からこの研修の経費の一部につき援助がある。短期海外研修として、北京大学、オーストラリア・モナシュ大学、スペイン・ベルへ社、韓国・西江大学校で春休みに4週間研修を受ける授業も開講されている。\n奨学金・授業料減免制度、学生寮.\n給付奨学金制度である一橋大学学業優秀学生奨学金制度は、学部在学生および卒業生を対象とし、経済状況に関わらず、成績が優秀な者に、年間96万円支給される。\nこのほか経済的事情で授業料を払えない場合には、授業料が免除または減額されることがある授業料免除制度等もあり、全学生の9パーセント弱が授業料を免除されている。\n学生の経済的負担を軽減するための学生寮としては、国立キャンパス付近および小平国際キャンパス内に、周辺家賃相場に比し安価な学生用宿舎である国際学生宿舎（一橋寮・国際交流会館・中和寮・景明館）が大学施設として設置運営されている。また、国立キャンパスに隣接して一橋大学基督教青年会によるYMCA一橋寮がある。\n理科系科目等の履修.\n四大学連合の協定により、東京医科歯科大学や東京工業大学、東京外国語大学で医学、理工学、外国語学等の授業を履修、単位取得することができる他、編入学、複数学士号の取得も可能である。また多摩地区大学協定により東京農工大学、東京学芸大学等で農学、教育学等の授業を履修、単位取得することもできる。その他お茶の水女子大学などとの単位互換制度も存在する。\n5年一貫教育制度.\n商学部・商学研究科、経済学部・経済学研究科、法学部・法学研究科、社会学部・社会学研究科には、学士・修士一貫教育により、学部入学から5年間で大学院まで修了できる5年一貫教育プログラムがある。\n学生生活.\n学園祭.\nKODAIRA祭.\nKODAIRA祭（コダイラサイ）は国立キャンパス東地区で毎年6月に開かれる、新入生のための大学祭。一橋大学の学部1年生と2年生で組織される、KODAIRA祭実行委員会により運営・実行されている。もともとは小平キャンパスにて「小平祭」として開催されていたが、一橋大学小平分校（教養課程）の廃止に伴い、国立キャンパスでの開催となり、名称も「KODAIRA祭」へと変わった。略称はKODA祭（コダサイ）。\n2008年の第12回は、4月に国際学生宿舎一橋寮で新歓イベントに参加していた新入生男子（未成年）が飲酒により死亡した事故を受けて延期され、7月に開催された。\n2020年は新型コロナウイルス感染症の感染拡大のため第24回KODAIRA祭が開催中止となり、戦時下以来の中止となった。翌2021年に第24回をオンライン開催、2022年に第25回をハイブリッド開催している。2023年の第26回以降は通常どおり実地開催。\n最近のテーマ.\nKODAIRA祭では学園祭のテーマと装飾テーマが分かれている年もある。\n一橋祭（いっきょうさい）.\n一橋祭は毎年11月に開催されている一橋大学の全学祭。学内向けイベントや一橋大学OB向けの企画の他に一般市民向けのイベントも開催される。\nスポーツ.\n商東戦（東商戦）.\n東京大学との対抗戦は、一橋大学の前身である東京商科大学時代から続いており、端艇部（ボート部）、陸上競技部、ゴルフ部、ホッケー部など様々な運動部で開催されている。両大学では東京大学の「東」と一橋大学の旧称である東京商科大学の「商」を取って、商東戦（東商戦）と呼ぶ。また、単に相手校の名を冠して東大戦（東大側では商大戦・一橋戦）と呼ぶこともある。特に端艇部（ボート部）の「東京大学一橋大学対校競漕大会」（東商レガッタ）は、2018年に第70回目を迎えた歴史ある対校戦であり、近年では2009年から2021年まで（2020年の中止を挟んで）一橋大学が12連勝ののち、2022年は東大の勝利となった。\n大学関係者と組織.\n大学関係者組織.\n一橋大学の同窓組織は一般社団法人如水会といい、文部科学省所管の公益法人となっていた。もともとは東京高等商業学校同窓会であったが、1909年に発生した申酉事件を契機に同窓組織の強化が唱えられ、1914年に母校防衛を基本理念とする如水会として改組された。国立大としてはめずらしく同窓組織が強い影響力をもつ大学である。如水会館は如水会のクラブ会館として建設された建物で、運営は東京會舘が行っているものの土地建物は如水会の所有となっている。\n施設.\nキャンパス.\n国立キャンパス.\n国立キャンパスは大学通りを境に西地区と東地区に分かれている。\n文化財.\n国立キャンパスには古い建物が多く、以下の建物が国登録有形文化財となっている。\n講堂.\n兼松講堂は1927年に兼松により寄贈された。国登録有形文化財である。\n1982年に日本建築学会により、建築学的に貴重な建物2000棟を集めた『日本近代建築総覧』に掲載された。1990年には東京都により都市景観上重要な歴史的建造物150棟の一つに選定され、建造物の保存への配慮要請を受けた。2005年に改修されロングライフビル推進協会BELCA賞ベストリフォーム部門表彰を受けた。\n音響に優れており、クラシック音楽のコンサートに利用されることも多い。これまで、チェコ・フィルハーモニー管弦楽団（ウラディーミル・アシュケナージ指揮）のコンサートや、ウィーン・フィルハーモニー管弦楽団・ベルリン・フィルハーモニー管弦楽団の首席奏者を招いてのコンサート、ラドゥ・ルプーのコンサートなどが開催されたことがある。\n2007年には東京フィルハーモニー交響楽団の首席奏者18人らが中心となり兼松講堂を拠点とするオーケストラ「国立シンフォニカー」が結成された。同オーケストラは2011年に東北大学百周年記念会館で、東日本大震災復興支援チャリティーコンサートイン仙台を、一橋大学、東北大学、河北新報社との共催で開催した。\nその他.\n国立キャンパスは、アカマツを中心とした武蔵野の森を残している。2006年には、「国立キャンパス100年の森プロジェクト」が文部科学省全国国立大学施設管理運営に関する先進事例11例に選ばれた 他、国立キャンパス西地区中央の庭園計画が評価され、緑のデザイン賞・国土交通大臣賞を受賞、資金助成を受けた。\n映画『男はつらいよ 寅次郎夢枕』、『容疑者Xの献身』、『LIAR GAME』、ドラマ『CONTROL〜犯罪心理捜査〜』、『ヴォイス〜命なき者の声〜』、『ガリレオ』、『下流の宴』、『エジソンの母』、『南極大陸』、『花子とアン』、『梅ちゃん先生』、『学校のカイダン』などの撮影ロケ地や、アニメ『おおかみこどもの雨と雪』や『NEW GAME!』の大学のモデル、『Charlotte』の高校のモデルなどとして使用されたことがある。\n千代田キャンパス.\n学術総合センタービルを指す。2012年5月に一橋記念講堂（現：一橋講堂、1932年竣工）の運営が独立行政法人国立大学財務・経営センターから移管されたのに合わせて、神田キャンパスから名称変更した。国立情報学研究所が入居していることから学術総合センタービル自体は同研究所の所有と見られることが多いが、実際には一橋大学の所有である。一橋講堂の跡地にあるため、講堂は現在センタービル内（1・2階）に同居している。\n小平国際キャンパス.\nかつての東京商科大学予科およびその後の一橋大学小平分校（教養課程）が設置されていたキャンパス。1996年春に小平分校が廃止され、その後1年間一部の授業が行われた後、一旦閉鎖されたものの申酉事件を想起する如水会員からの懸念表明もあり、国際交流を主体とした施設を置くキャンパスとして再度開設された。\n社会との関わり.\n申酉事件.\n申酉事件（しんゆう じけん）とは、文部省が東京高等商業学校の専攻科を廃止して東京帝国大学へ統合する省令を発令したことに対する東京高等商業学校側の反対運動を総じて指し示す際に使われる言葉である。申年の1908年から酉年の1909年にかけての事件なので、これを「申酉事件」という。\n1900年頃、東京高等商業学校は、渋沢栄一を中心に帝国大学とは別に商科大学という制度を設け、東京高等商業学校の専攻科を商科大学へ昇格させるように陳情活動を実施していた。これに対して、当時の文部省は「大学は帝国大学のみでよい」という考えをもっており、1907年に商科大学という制度を設けることにしたものの帝国大学の分科大学として設置する考えを改めなかった。1909年5月6日には東京高等商業学校専攻科を東京帝国大学法科大学の商科として東京帝国大学へ移管、同専攻科を廃止する省令を発令した。\nこの文部省令に対して、東京高等商業学校に在学していた約1500人の全生徒および同窓会が猛反発、臨時学生大会において総退学を決議し、抗議の姿勢を表した。\n東京高等商業学校側の姿勢に対しては当時の財界人の支持があり、新聞各紙の論調も東京高等商業学校に同情的であった。この結果、文部省側が折れ、先の省令を撤回することとなり、1912年には東京高等商業学校専攻科を存続させる文部省令が発令され、東京高等商業学校はそのまま残存することとなった。\nこの事件は東京高等商業学校のみならず、官立高等実業学校や高等師範学校、そして私立学校の多くが大学への昇格を求めるきっかけとなった。その後1919年に大学令が制定され、官立の高等師範学校や有力高等実業学校の専攻科（研究科）、私立の旧制専門学校が旧制大学へ昇格する端緒となった。\n司法試験合格率.\n一橋大学法科大学院は、司法試験合格率81.50%、全法科大学院中、第1位（平成17年-平成29年）。\n令和2年度司法試験では、合格率70.59%、令和3年度司法試験では、合格率58.18%、それぞれ、全法科大学院中で第2位となった。直近の令和4年度司法試験では、合格率60.0%、全法科大学院中で第3位となった。\n", "中西 輝政（なかにし てるまさ、1947年〈昭和22年〉6月18日 - ）は、日本の政治学者、歴史学者。京都大学名誉教授。学位は法学修士（京都大学・1974年）。専門は国際政治学、国際関係史、文明史。\n京都大学法学部助手、三重大学人文学部助教授、静岡県立大学国際関係学部教授、京都大学大学院人間・環境学研究科教授などを歴任。\n人物.\n大阪府出身の国際政治学者、歴史学者。国際政治学、国際関係史、文明史を専攻する。保守系の論客でも知られる。京都大学、ケンブリッジ大学で学び、京都大学、三重大学、静岡県立大学で教鞭を執った。また、ケンブリッジ大学やスタンフォード大学で客員研究員を兼任していた。\n来歴.\n京都大学での指導教員は高坂正堯（学部は民法の林良平）。ケンブリッジ大学ではサー・フランク・H・ヒンズリー。この二人に対する思いは『高坂正尭著作集』第6巻（古典外交の成熟と崩壊）解題「ヨーロッパへの愛あるいは歴史への愛」に記されている。この2人と並び、特に江藤淳から大きな影響を受けたと回想している。\n主張.\n保守論壇の論客.\n『正論』、『諸君!』、『VOICE』、『WiLL』などの保守系オピニオン誌の常連寄稿者である。執筆内容は時事評論が多いが、ルーズベルト・アメリカ合衆国大統領フルーズベルト夫妻（フランクリン・ルーズベルト、エレノア・ルーズベルト）の反日、容共的姿勢や、敗戦後の日本占領統治を主導したGHQ内のニューディーラーの体質、戦後民主主義を批判する歴史に関する論稿も多い。また同じくアメリカに関する話題では、1991年の湾岸戦争においてはアメリカの軍事介入を批判していたが、2003年のイラク戦争には賛成し、戦争を支持した当時の首相小泉純一郎を評価している。\n2007年（平成19年）7月13日には、慰安婦問題に対する旧日本軍による組織的・計画的な強制連行がなかったとする理解に基づき、米国大使館に手渡されたアメリカ合衆国下院121号決議全面撤回を求める抗議書に賛同者として名を連ねた。また、田母神俊雄が航空幕僚長在任中に発表した論文について、その主張を支持した。\n情報・諜報研究についても積極的な発言を行い、2002年（平成14年）には門下生を中心とした「情報史研究会」という研究会を設立した。また、冷戦期にソ連の暗号解読を行っていた「ヴェノナ計画」関連資料がクリントン政権期に米国で公開されたことを受けて、マッカーシズムへの再評価を主張している。\n日本国史学会発起人の一人。\n政治との関わり.\n小泉純一郎については、政権成立当初は評価していたものの、その政治手法が大衆迎合的であり、実施した政策（構造改革、北朝鮮政策など）もまた支持できないものであるとして、批判を強めていった。その後小泉に代わり、より保守的な政治を推進する「保守革命」「保守新党」の必要を主張し、その中で石原慎太郎、安倍晋三らを高く評価することとなる（「政治との関わり」の項も参照）。\n2003年（平成15年）の第43回衆議院議員総選挙では安倍晋三の選挙運動はがきに推薦人として記載され、公職選挙法違反の疑いをかけられたが、安倍事務所と中西の妻の手違いと説明された。安倍の首相就任前後には、政策に影響力を持つブレーン「五人組」（他に伊藤哲夫、西岡力、島田洋一、八木秀次）の一人として報道されたこともある。2006年春以降は五人組の一人伊藤哲夫と安倍政権に向けた政権構想の推敲を重ね、また安倍が自民党総裁選直前の7月にアメリカの『フォーリン・アフェアーズ』誌に寄稿を予定していた論文は、中西と安倍の対話をまとめたものを「五人組」で読み合わせしたものだが、諸事情により掲載は見送られた。\n安倍晋三の政治姿勢を高く評価しており、第1次安倍内閣発足後は「美しい国づくり」企画会議のメンバーに選ばれていた。2012年9月に行われた自由民主党総裁選挙に際しては、「安倍晋三総理大臣を求める民間人有志の会」発起人に名を連ねた。しかし、後に「戦後70年談話や日韓合意を契機に、安倍政権への評価が根本的に変わった。当初の支持を撤回する」と述べた。さらに、『歴史通』2016年5月号で中西は「さらば安倍晋三、もはやこれまで」と安倍晋三への決別を宣言した。\n", "望遠鏡（ぼうえんきょう、）とは、光学機器の一種で、遠くにある対象物をより近くにあるかのように見せるために設計されたもの。複数のレンズの配置、または曲面鏡とレンズの配置を機器の内部に含んでおり、これによって、光線がまとめられ、焦点に集められることで、拡大された像（）が得られる。古くは「遠眼鏡（とおめがね）」とも呼ばれた。\n転じて、電波望遠鏡（）の略語としても用いられる。\n概説.\n遠くにある対象物の像を拡大して観察しやすくするための装置である。もともと17世紀初頭に発明された段階では、複数のレンズを組み合わせて筒に収めた素朴な装置で、その後も数百年間望遠鏡といえばそうしたタイプが主流だったが、並行的に曲面鏡も用いるものも登場し、複数のレンズと曲面鏡を複雑に組み合わせたものも作られるようになった。\n望遠鏡には、覗き込んだ時に正立像（、正しい向きの像）が見えるタイプのものと、倒立像（、上下も左右も反対になった像）が見えるタイプのものがある。地上の対象物を見るための望遠鏡はもっぱら正立像が得られるように設計されたものが用いられる。天体を観察するための望遠鏡、天体望遠鏡は、（正立像を得られるものもあるが）光学的性能を極限まで高めるためにあえて倒立像が得られるようになっているタイプもある。\n20世紀には可視光線以外の電磁波に関する理解も進み、さらに電磁波だけでなく地球外から飛来する様々な波や粒子をとらえる装置も作られるようになり、そうした装置を光学望遠鏡になぞらえた使い方もされるようになった。→#現代の宇宙観測用の特殊な望遠鏡\n1608年、オランダのハンス・リッペルハイという眼鏡製作者が望遠鏡に関する特許を取得しようとした。だが同年、アドリアンスゾーン・メチウスも特許申請をし、結局二人のどちらにも特許が出なかった。→#歴史\nさまざまな分類法がある。主に見る対象が天体なのか地上物かで分類する方法や、使用するレンズのタイプで分類する方法、筒の数（人が覗き込む穴の数）で分類する方法　等々がある。→#分類・種類\n本記事では、できるだけ「望遠鏡」という用語の意味の中心である光学機器について詳しく説明する。比喩的に「望遠鏡」と呼ばれることもある現代の宇宙観測装置に関しては、詳細な説明は別記事に譲る。\n分類・種類.\nさまざまな分類法がある。\nひとつの分類法は、用途や主な対象物で「地上の対象物を見る / 天体を見る」と分類して、「地上望遠鏡 / 天体望遠鏡」と分類する方法である。\nまた、望遠鏡の筒の数（眼で覗き込む穴の数）が「ひとつ / ふたつ」で分類して、「単眼鏡 / 双眼鏡」に分類する方法もある。\nまた「レンズを用いる / 反射鏡を用いる」で分類して、ざっくりと「屈折望遠鏡 / 反射望遠鏡」に分類する方法もある。それらの両方を用いた複合型もある。\nまた、（レンズばかりを用いる望遠鏡に関して）どのタイプのレンズを用いるか、という観点で分類する方法もあり、「凸レンズと凹レンズを組み合わせる　/ 凸レンズと凸レンズを組み合わせる」の違いで分類し「ガリレオ望遠鏡 / ケプラー望遠鏡」に分類する方法もある。\nガリレオ（式）望遠鏡とは、対物レンズに凸レンズ、接眼レンズに凹レンズを使った望遠鏡。像は正立だが、視界が狭い。倍率は凸レンズの焦点距離と凹レンズの焦点距離の比に等しい。（天体観測用屈折望遠鏡としては後述のケプラー望遠鏡が用いられるようになり、ほぼ用いられなくなったが）たとえば倍率が3～4倍程度でもことたりるような観劇用（オペラグラス）などに用いられる。（もともとオペラなど、観客席と舞台がさほど離れていないで状況（観察対象との距離がさほどでない状況）で俳優などの姿を少しだけ拡大して鑑賞するためなどに現在でも（双眼鏡形式で）使われている。）\nケプラー（式）望遠鏡とは、対物レンズに焦点距離（f1）の長い凸レンズを、接眼レンズに焦点距離（f2）の短い凸レンズを使う望遠鏡。像は倒立、倍率はf1/f2に等しい。ケプラーが1611年にはこのタイプに関する記述を残し、現在に至るまで天体観測屈折望遠鏡は基本的にすべてこの方式。\n手軽に組み立てられる望遠鏡のこと。レンズ・反射鏡・接眼レンズ・鏡筒をセットにした天文教材。しばしば天体観望用の解説書や星座早見環なども付属。天体観測や天体観望の初心者も使える商品。\n歴史.\nナポリのジャンバッティスタ・デッラ・ポルタの『博学史』（1589年、20巻）の17巻の10章に望遠鏡についての記述がある。ネーデルラント連邦共和国のベックマン（ヤンセンの息子サカリアセンからレンズ研磨を習った）の日誌によると、1604年にミデルブルフの眼鏡職人サハリアス・ヤンセンがイタリア人の所有の1590年と書かれた望遠鏡を真似て作ったという。シルトリによると自分の客から作り方をならったオランダ、ミッテルブルフの眼鏡職人ハンス・リッペルハイが「kijker」と命名した2枚のレンズ組み合わせた望遠鏡について1608年10月2日、特許申請をオランダ総督にした。10月14日にはAlkmaarのJ.アドリアンスゾーン・メチウス（\"Adriaanszoon Metius\" 、1571年 - 1635年　1598年からフラネカー大学教授）が特許申請を行なった（2年間改良していたという）。この同時申請のため特許はどちらにもおりなかった。リッペルハイは双眼望遠鏡も作り、またマウリッツ総督の命により900フローリンで軍用望遠鏡を作った。\n日本においては近藤正斉の『外藩通書』によれば1613年（慶長18年8月4日）に「慶長十八年八月四日、インカラティラ国王ノ使者於駿城御礼申上ル…長一間程之遠眼鏡六里見之ト見ユ」とあり、イギリスのジェームズ1世の使いジョン・セーリスが徳川家康に献上のもの（現徳川美術館所蔵）が最古とされる。\n光学的なしくみ、構造.\n望遠鏡とは、カメラのレンズと同じようなものであると思えば分かりやすい。ただし口径の大きな対物レンズ（反射式においては反射鏡）と口径が小さい接眼レンズに分かれる。対物レンズは凸レンズであり、接眼レンズが凹レンズであれば正立像が得られる（ガリレオ式望遠鏡）。接眼レンズを凸レンズにすれば倒立像となる（ケプラー式望遠鏡）が、さらに大きな倍率が容易に得られる。これをそのまま天体に向ければ天体望遠鏡となる。\n望遠鏡を望遠鏡たらしめているのはその光学系である。姿勢変化、温度変化、風向・風速の変化などが起こってもレンズや反射鏡など光学系の個々のパーツに振動、変形などの影響を与えないことが求められる。望遠鏡光学系をその支持機構ごと支え、天球上の任意の位置に向ける装置を「架台」と呼ぶ。架台はスムーズに駆動し、長時間にわたって高精度で天体を追尾できなければならない。天体が発する光は、一般に非常に弱く、詳しい分析に耐えるほどの光量を集めようとすれば、大望遠鏡をもってしても何時間の露出が必要となることが珍しくないからである。近年、より深く宇宙を探査するために、ますます大型の望遠鏡や観測装置が必要とされるようになってきている。\n大望遠鏡においては、巨大な光学素子をいかにコンパクトで軽量かつ堅牢な架台で支えるかが重要となってくる。架台がコンパクトで軽量になるほど、その駆動機構への負担が軽減され、望遠鏡全体を覆うドームや建物などの建設コストも下げられる。また、架台の堅牢性の向上にも繋がり、指向・追尾性能を向上させることにもなる。架台のコンパクト化を図るためには、反射望遠鏡においては、その主鏡の焦点口径比（F値）を小さくし、明るい光学系とすることが肝要である。近年の大望遠鏡は、F比の小さい主鏡を製作する技術が進歩したことによって、建設が可能となったとも言える。\n地上の観察・観測.\n望遠鏡は古くから地上・海上の観察・観測に用いられている。\n望遠鏡が発明されてしばらくするうちに軍事利用も開始されている。敵軍の状況を遠くから偵察できるというメリットがある。18世紀後半に気球の有人飛行が成功すると、気球のバスケット（ゴンドラ）から敵を偵察するためにも用いられるようになった。\n船乗り（船長、船員、水夫、漁師など）は海上で船を安全に運航するため、の安全を確保するため、たとえば周辺の船の有無や動き、船が掲げる国際信号旗や船名表記の確認、他の船の船員の動き、岩礁の有無、波の様子、海面ごとの風の強さや風向、港内での船舶群の動き、等々を観察し判断材料を得るために望遠鏡を使っている。\n天体の観測.\nガリレオ・ガリレイはハンス・リッペルハイの発明を知った後、1609年5月に1日で作った望遠鏡を初めて天体に向けた。そのころの接眼レンズは凹レンズで正立像だが、倍率は低いものであった。\n現代の宇宙観測用の特殊な望遠鏡.\n19世紀末や20世紀初頭までは、人間の網膜に像を結び人間が知覚できる可視光線に関して、拡大した像をもたらすことを目的とした望遠鏡ばかりだったが、20世紀になって、宇宙観測に使うための、可視光線以外を扱う様々な特殊な観測装置や検出装置が開発されるようになった。それらの観測装置のことも光学望遠鏡とのアナロジーや比喩で、「望遠鏡」とも呼ばれることがある。それらは初期段階では素朴な装置で「像」といったものを提供するレベルではなく、どちらかと言えば（素朴な）「検出器」と呼ぶのがふさわしいものも多く、後になってようやく「像」らしい「像」を提供できるようになったものも多いが、一応この節でそれらの観測装置の登場の歴史についても軽く触れるが、あくまで軽く触れるにとどめる。詳細は個別の記事を参照のこと。\n人類の電磁波に関する理解や、それに関連する電子技術が向上したのは、さほど遠い昔のことではなく19世紀末や20世紀前半のことであるが、それによってようやく、従来の望遠鏡に加えて、電磁波をとらえて観測するための電波望遠鏡を設計・製作することが可能になったわけである。1932年に、宇宙空間から飛来する電波を捉える目的で作られた最初の電波アンテナ（最初の素朴な電波望遠鏡）が（ベル研究所のエンジニア）によって使用された。これ以降 電波天文学が発展してゆくことになった。\n1963年にはBall Brothers Corporation社による初のX線望遠鏡が稼動し、その後X線天文学が発展してゆくことになった。 \n1965年ころには、独立した2つのグループがほとんど同時期に、地球に飛来するニュートリノの検出に成功。ひとつはの率いて南アフリカの金高山で実験を行ったグループ。もうひとつは、ボンベイ・大阪・ダーラムのチームが共同で行った研究で、インドのKolar Gold Field鉱山で行ったものであった。これ以降、ゆっくりとだがニュートリノ天文学が発展することになった。\n1978年から1996年にかけては、紫外線の観測ができる紫外線望遠鏡（）のIUEが設計・製造・運用され、紫外線天文学が発展した。\n重力波を検出する装置（「検出器」や「天文台」と呼ばれることのほうが一般的で、それらの呼称のほうが妥当だが、まれに「重力波望遠鏡」とも呼ばれるもの）\nに関して説明すると、2002年に米国のLIGO（ライゴ）が稼動し始めたが全く何も検出できず、2004年に拡張・改良を行ったがまともに作動しない時代が続いた。2015年9月に、5年の年月と2億ドルもの巨額の費用をかけたオーバーホールが完了し、（ようやく）科学的な観測が開始された。\nヨーロッパのVirgo（バーゴ） は2003年に建造され、2017年にはLIGOとVirgoが連携する形でひとつの巨大な重力検出装置のように作動さる体勢が構築され、2017年8月17日、アメリカの2台の重力波検出器「Advanced LIGO」と欧州重力波観測所の重力波検出器「Advanced Virgo」が、連星中性子星が合体した際に生じた重力波が地球に届いたことを検知、その情報を即座に世界の天文台に伝え、全世界の天文台が、重力波にやや後れるようにして届く可視光線や他の放射線などを待ち受けるように観測して、合体が起きた場所・方角を正確に特定したり、さまざまなデータを得ることに貢献した。日本の重力波望遠鏡KAGRAもまもなく本格運用に入る予定で、これによって世界に3つ目の本格的な重力波望遠鏡が登場することで、重力波の源の方向の特定がより一層すみやかに、また正確になることが期待されている。\n歴史上の特殊な用途.\n文字コードを表示する信号機を遠方から望遠鏡で読み取る腕木通信に代表される欧米式通信方法、日本で江戸時代に始まり大正初期まで用いられた旗振り通信は、望遠鏡の発明と普及を前提とした通信における過去技術であった。\n", "洞窟（どうくつ、）とは、地中にある一定の大きさの空間。洞穴（どうけつ、ほらあな）とも言う。一般には地下空間のうち人間が入ることが可能なものをいい、洞口の長径が奥行きよりも小さければ洞長2m程度でも洞窟と呼ばれる。\n水平方向に伸びている横穴や井戸状に開口している縦穴（竪穴）などがある。通常、洞内空間は大気で満たされている。内部の気温は、一般に洞窟がある外部の平均気温になり、内部は外部と較べると夏は涼しく・冬は暖かい。また地中であることも含め、一般に湿度が高い。洞口部では日光が差し込むこともあるが、氷河洞・雪渓洞などを除いて奥部は完全な暗黒となる。洞内空間が地下水・海水・堆積物で満たされている洞窟もある。完全に水没しているものは水中洞窟、特に海面下に沈んだものは沈水洞窟と呼ばれる。\n広義には自然洞窟だけでなく人工洞窟や混成洞窟を含む。\n洞窟の種類.\n広義の洞窟は自然洞窟、人工洞窟、混成洞窟に分けられる。\n自然洞窟.\n自然洞窟は火山洞窟、侵食洞窟、溶食洞窟、構造洞窟に分類される。\n人工洞窟.\n人工洞窟にはシェルター、トンネル、坑道などがある。\n混成洞窟.\n自然洞窟と人工洞窟の両方の部分からなるもので、鉱山坑道と自然洞窟の連結洞窟などがある。\n洞窟の生成.\n洞窟の生成.\n主作用によって次のように分けられるが、実際には複数の作用が組み合わさっていることが多い。\n洞窟の生物.\n洞窟には外界では目にしない、特殊な生物が見られることがある。まとめて洞穴生物と言うこともある。\nその性質から、大きく以下の2つに分かれる。\n利用と文化.\n利用.\n洞窟は、信仰・祭祀・修業の場、住居、墓地、栽培養殖場、氷室 ・貯蔵庫・醸成庫、洞窟治療所などとして利用されている。\n洞窟は古くから人間に利用されてきた。文明が発達する以前から、天然の洞窟は往々にしてヒトの住居となっていた。主として洞口に休息の場を求めたと考えられる。隠れ場所としては優れているが、ヒトは夜目が利かないから、奥部までを利用したものではなかったであろう。例外的に、アメリカやヨーロッパの洞窟でミネラルの採取や、原始宗教目的での壁画等の作成のために奥深くまで入った例が知られている。\n洞窟を古来住居や軍事、祭祀等に利用した例は多い。文明が発達した後も、中国の窰洞などのように、人工的に洞窟を掘り、利用していることがある。それ以外にも、様々なものを格納し、保存する場所、またゴミ捨て場としても使われた。洞窟内の温度、湿度は一定しているため、農産物などの保存、ワインの醸成場、キノコの栽培場、氷室等に利用されている例がある。また、ハンガリーやイタリアなどの温水が湧くカルスト地域では浴場として利用されている洞窟がある。また呼吸器系疾患の治療に利用されている洞窟もある。\n洞窟内の湧水や鍾乳石、洞窟堆積物も資源として利用されている。\nそのほか、洞窟は観光資源としても利用されていたり、学術研究やスポーツでの洞窟探検の場にもなっている。\n文化.\n日本では洞窟内に神仏を祭った例が各地にみられ（宮崎県鵜戸神宮、埼玉県橋立鍾乳洞など）、洞窟そのものをご神体とする例も多い。\n文化的には洞窟は死後の世界や異世界への入り口と見なされた例が多い。イザナギノミコトがイザナミノミコトを求めて黄泉の国へと行ったのも地下へ続く洞窟を通ってである。琉球地方では、かつて洗骨後の追葬（風葬）のために石灰岩の小さなほら穴が利用されていた。\n同時に、洞窟は危険なものでもある。奥は闇で何も見えず、行方不明になりやすく、縦穴に落ちる可能性もある。また、危険な獣が棲み着いている場合もある。中国ではトラは洞穴に棲むものとされ、ついでに妖怪や魔物も洞窟をねぐらとする。日本にも怪奇伝説のある洞窟は多い。また、英雄の冒険は往々にして洞窟を探検し、猛獣や魔物を退治する。いわゆるロールプレイングゲームにおけるダンジョンはこれを模したものである。\n世界の洞窟.\n長大洞窟.\n（以上総延長順）\n※「洞窟探検入門（エリック・ジッリ著、本多力訳）白水社」ほかより。\n※ 総延長ランキング Worlds Longest Caves compiled by: Bob Gulden - March 15, 2010\n日本の大洞窟.\n高低差ランキング.\n※日本洞窟学会公式データではない。\n縦穴高度差ランキング.\n※中川寛一ほか：素晴らしき地底の世界, 1982. 日本テレビ放送網株式会社、山口ケイビングクラブ：秋吉台の洞窟目録と測図, 1996. より.。\n空間・ホールのランキング.\n※日本洞窟学会公式データではない。\n地底湖ランキング.\n※日本洞窟学会公式データではない。\n洞内滝ランキング.\n※日本洞窟学会公式データではない。\n", "住宅（じゅうたく、）は、人の居住を用途とする建築物。「住居」とも言う。\n概説.\n機能.\n住宅にはさまざまな機能が存在するが、最も重要なものは外部の危険から居住者を守る機能である。この危険は雨や風、寒さや暑さなどといった日常的なものから、台風などの突発的な自然災害に至るまで多岐にわたる。これと同様に、居住者が快適に生活を営むことのできる機能も重要である。居住者は住宅内部において睡眠を取り、食事をし、家庭を持っている場合は育児や団欒、介護などの家庭生活を行い、また趣味や休息などを含む日常生活の大きな部分を住宅内において過ごす。家族が暮らしている場合、住居には食事や団欒、来客対応といった家族・他者との生活部分と、勉強や休養、就寝といった純粋に私的な部分の2つの役割が存在し、前者は居間などで、後者はおのおのの個室で主に行われる。\n居住者への影響.\n住宅は人の生活の拠点であり、居住者は住宅内部で長い時間を過ごすため、住宅の質は人の健康に大きな影響を与える。住宅建設の際、日照や採光、通風などを考慮し、湿度や空気のよどみなどを避けることが健康的な生活につながる。建材などに含まれる化学物質など、住居における何らかの要因で体調不良を起こすシックハウス症候群と呼ばれる病気も存在する。階段や段差といった障害で転倒するなど、住宅内での事故も多く、この対策として住居内の段差を減らしたり、動線を改良し通路を広げ手すりをつけるなどして移動しやすい住居にし、浴槽を低いものにして浴室の床を滑りにくくするなど、障害を減らし高齢者でも安全に暮らせるバリアフリー住宅の建設も増加傾向にある。\n住居を規定するもの.\n住宅の形状はその土地の気候条件、およびそれに応じてその土地で取れる材料によって規定されるものである。だが、現地の文化によっても大きく左右される。男性と女性の居住空間を分離する文化のある民族は珍しくなく、基本的に一室しかない遊牧民の移動式住居においても、男女の生活スペースが定められていたり、男女間に幕などによって物理的に仕切りを作る場合がある。また、住居の構造はしばしば宇宙観や宗教論と結びつけられることがあり、風水のように周辺の環境とも関連付けて考えられることがある。\n歴史.\n採集生活の住居.\n遙かな古代には人類は採集のために移動生活を行っていて、ごく初期には洞窟など居住に適した地形を見つけ暮らしており、やがてキャンプ地で手に入るものを寄せ集めて風雨をしのぐための仮の建築物をつくるようになった。これが住宅の起こりである。この時期は移動して生きていたので住居はテントや掘立小屋程度のものだった。\nやがて定住を行うようになるとともに、固定的な、容易に移動できない住居をつくるようになった。\n住居の材料.\n人類は定住するに当たり、まずはその近辺に豊富にある材料を寄せ集めて住宅を作った。このため世界各地でその風土ごとの様々な材料の住宅が存在するようになった。なお、こうして近隣で豊富に取れる材料を使って住宅を建設することは近代にいたるまで一般的であった。土や粘土は主要な建築材料のひとつであり、中東などの乾燥地においては、泥を型に入れ乾かすことで簡単につくれ断熱性に優れる日干し煉瓦（）が古代より主要な建築材料となっていた。一方高温多湿な熱帯やモンスーン地帯においては、軽量で風通しがよく雨に強い木材を使用することが一般的だった。高温湿潤地域においては、竹も主要な建築材料だった。湿地帯においては外装材に葦が多用された。石材も、どの文明でも使用された。特殊な建材としては、北極圏のイヌイットは冬季の住居に氷のブロックを用い、イグルーを建造していた。コンクリートも、古代エジプト、古代ローマの時代から、建築材料のひとつとして使われていた。特に古代ローマ帝国の技術者たちが使うローマン・コンクリートは優れており石材と組み合わせて使用された。\n一方、移動の多い遊牧民などは住居として動物の毛皮や皮革などを使ったテントを設営した。\nまた地上に家屋を構えるのではなく、乾燥地においては地面を掘り下げたり地下に穴を掘って住居を建設することも近代にいたるまで行われていた。黄土高原における窰洞やカッパドキア・カイマクルの地下都市、チュニジアの旧マトマタなどがよく知られた例である。\n変化・深化.\n住宅建設の技術が進むにつれて、その形状もその場所の環境に合うように変化を遂げていった。寒冷な地域においては炉（）や囲炉裏などといった暖を取るための設備が重視され、多湿地域においては湿気を避けるためにしばしば建物は高床建物となった。また乾燥地域では降雨に対応する必要がないため屋根は平らなものとなる一方、多雨地域では雨を流すよう屋根に角度がつけられていることがほとんどである。他者の襲撃が絶えなかった地域においては住居は防御力を重視して建造され、西アフリカの環状住居や中国南部の土楼のようにいくつもの住居をつないだ小要塞を建造したり、またニューギニア島の一部民族のように樹上住居を建設した民族も存在する。こうしたさまざまな素材・様式の住居は居住者の行動を規定し、生活様式に大きな影響を与えた。\n産業革命以降.\n産業革命以降、都市への急速な人口集中によってさまざまな「住宅問題」が発生するようになった。都市中心部には低賃金労働者が集中してスラムなど不良住宅地区が生まれ、それを嫌ったブルジョワジーたちは郊外に自宅を構え、都心部のオフィスへと通勤するようになった。こうして19世紀には職住分離が一般化し、通勤需要をまかなうための公共交通機関の発達もはじまって、都心と郊外による都市圏が成立した。一方、労働者層の住宅問題は深刻化し、いくつかの対策が検討されるようになった。こうした対策の一つとして、1898年にはエベネザー・ハワードが明日－真の改革にいたる平和な道によって自然と共存し自立した都市近郊の小都市論、いわゆる田園都市構想を提唱した。また衛生面における住宅改善の必要性は、ル・コルビュジエらに影響を与えた。\n都市への人口集中は地価の高騰をもたらし、大都市圏では一戸建ての率が目立って減少し、住宅は集合化・高層化の道をたどった。また住宅が都市のはるか遠方にまで連なるようになり、通勤時間の増大を招くこととなった。貧困のため満足な設備のない住居に居住する人口は現代においても非常に多く、特に途上国では大規模な不法居住地区にスラムが広がっている都市も多い。\n19世紀後半に鋼鉄材で強化されたコンクリートすなわち鉄筋コンクリートの技術が開発され、同世紀末にその特許を取得する人なども現れ、これも利用されるようになっていった。\n住宅の分類.\nその他、さまざまな分類がある。\n住宅の間取り.\n間取りとは住宅の部屋の配置のこと。英語ではプラン（plan）と言う。\nたとえば台所、居間、寝室、トイレ、浴室などが相対的にどういう位置関係に配置されているか、また東西南北の位置の違いによる日照条件の差なども考慮して相対的にどの方角に配置されているかということ。\nまた「間取り」でその配置を決定することも言い、その場合は「平面計画」や \"平面図の作成 \" とほぼ同義になる。\n住宅用庭園.\n家庭用の家庭菜園も含め、住宅の庭は、最も一般的な庭の形態であり、「前庭」や「後庭」など住居の側にあり、前庭はフォーマルかつ半公共の場である可能性もあるため、条約や現地の法律の制約を受ける。通常屋外空間のヤードは住宅の庭を上に設けることができる屋根庭園、吹き抜けや中庭、バルコニー、windowboxesまたは上のパティオなどがある。住宅用庭園は、ほとんどの場合個人用に設計されているため、一般的に人間規模で設計されているが、素晴らしい家や広い敷地の庭は、公共の公園よりも大規模な場合もある。\n住宅用庭園は、ある特定種類の植物を展示するための特殊な庭園であっても、またはロッカリーであってもまたは水の特徴などの特殊な特徴を備えていても、かまわないがそれらはまたハーブや野菜栽培にも使用されているため、持続可能性においては重要な要素である。\n裏庭.\n裏庭は本邸が周囲の庭園を2つに分けると発生している。これは特にイギリスの都市や町の高密度住宅で起こり、20世紀のイギリス郊外の典型的な半戸建て住宅には道路に面してアクセスできる正面庭園があり、そのような場合の裏庭はより隔離され、アクセスは一般的に住居を経由するか、側方を通る道で行われる。各国のフロントガーデンは半公共のスペースであるため、条約や法律の制約を受けているが、裏庭はよりプライベートでカジュアルなものであり、そのためより多くの目的に使用される。\n機能的には、以下の用途に使用できる。\n構成要素.\nまた、給排水（上水道・下水道）、電気関連（電力量計、配電盤、ブレーカー、屋内配線、コンセント類）、ガス関連（ガスメーター、屋内ガス管 等々）の設備もある。\n建設と管理.\n住宅の建設は、まず建設用の宅地の入手からはじまる。用地を確保したら、建築主は業者に住宅の建設を依頼する。\n業者が建築主となって建築する場合と、個人が建築主となって建築する場合がある。特に集合住宅や建売住宅（たてうりじゅうたく）の場合は、業者が建築する。\n個人が住宅を建てる場合、ハウスメーカーや工務店といった建築業者に直接依頼するほか、建築設計事務所に依頼して自らの希望を強く反映させることもできる。工事に取りかかる前には状況に応じて地質調査を行い、必要のある場合は適宜改良工事を実施して建設できる状態にする。\n完成した住宅は、時間の経過や使用状況によって劣化が進んでいくため、適切なメンテナンスは不可欠である。また、家族のライフサイクルによって居住者の要求は変化するため、それに応じた増改築やリフォームが行われる場合もある。\n住宅の寿命は国によって異なり、2000年代においては、ヨーロッパやアメリカにおいては80年以上の国が多い。対して日本では立て直しのサイクルが早いため、平均寿命は30年となっている。\n住宅の流通.\n一方、転職や転勤、進学などによる転居はめずらしくない。不要となった住宅は解体されるか、需要のある場合は中古住宅市場において売却される。中古住宅はアメリカなどいくつかの国では盛んに売買されるものの、日本では新築住宅に比べ非常に流通が少なく、売買は低調なものとなっている。\n日本では既存住宅の流通市場がうまく形成されておらず、空家（あきや）問題発生の原因となっている。空家問題は国家レベルの大問題となっており、日本政府は既存住宅の流通促進に取り組んでいる。2010年ころから2020年ころにかけて、日本でも中古住宅市場が成長した。\n住宅自体を移築することはほとんどないが、わずかな距離の移動の場合、住宅自体を曳いて移動させる曳家が行われることがある。また古民家など古く価値のある建築の場合は、解体した上で移築がなされる場合もある。\n住宅建設に関する法規.\n住宅はまったく無制限に建設できるわけではなく、多くの国家において建築基準や建設できる地域が指定されており、日本においても建築基準法において基本的な建築基準が決められている。また都市計画法によって都市計画区域内の市街化区域において13の用途地域が定められていて、このうち第一種低層住居専用地域、第二種低層住居専用地域、第一種中高層住居専用地域、第二種中高層住居専用地域、第一種住居地域、第二種住居地域、準住居地域、田園住居地域の8つが主に住居用途として指定された地域であるが、それ以外の地域でも工業専用地域を除くすべての用途地域で住宅を建設することはできる。ただし良好な住宅環境を守るため、住居用途地域においては住居以外の建物に一定の用途制限が課されている。日本の用途制限は、諸外国に比べ厳しくないとされている。\n住宅問題と住宅政策.\n生活の基本要素を指す「衣食住」という言葉が存在するように、住宅は人間の生活にとって不可欠なものである。しかし住宅はこの三要素の中でも飛び抜けて高額なものであり、十分な質の住宅を確保できない人々は世界中に数多く存在する。定まった住居を持つことができず路上生活や野宿を余儀なくされる人々はホームレスと呼ばれ、社会の最貧困層となっている。また、野宿とまでは行かなくとも、やはり住居を持てず簡易宿泊所などに泊まらざるを得ない人々も存在する。すべての人間が適切な住居に居住することができるという権利は居住の権利と呼ばれ、社会権に属する。1948年に国際連合総会で採択された世界人権宣言では、25条1項においてこの権利が規定されている。地主に対して家賃の値下げ、住環境の整備を訴えたり、行政機関に対して公営住宅の拡充を求める社会運動を借家人運動と呼ぶ。\n適切な住宅の供給は社会福祉において重要な論点の一つであり、各国政府は公営住宅の建設をはじめとするさまざまな住宅政策を実施している。日本では第二次世界大戦後、地方公共団体が低所得者層に供給する公営住宅、日本住宅公団が中所得者に集合住宅や分譲住宅を開発して提供する公団住宅、そして中所得者層に低利の融資を行い住宅建設を促進する住宅金融公庫が設立され、20世紀末に縮小・廃止されるまで住宅の安定供給に大きな役割を果たしてきた。また福利厚生の一環として、社員に社宅や寮を提供している会社も多い。ただし、多くの国において主に住宅を建設しているのは民間である。住宅地を開発し、住宅を建設して販売する産業は住宅産業と総称される。住宅関連の産業としては、大規模な宅地造成やマンション建設を行うデベロッパーをはじめ、主に戸建て住宅の建設を行うハウスメーカーや工務店といった住宅建設企業、完成した住居の売買や賃貸を行う不動産業、さらには住宅設計や住宅設備など、その分野は多岐にわたる。\n住宅の所有形態は自己が所有し居住する持ち家と、他人が所有する住宅を借りて居住する賃貸住宅の2つが存在する。日本の持ち家率は2018年時点で61.2％にのぼる。諸外国の持ち家率は国によって異なるものの、先進国ではおおむね2000年代前半で5割から7割程度のところが多い。また、多くの国で賃貸住宅に比べ持ち家のほうが平均面積は広い。\n住宅は必需品である上に高額な商品であるため、住宅産業が経済に占める割合は大きく、その経済波及効果も大きなものである。しかし、特に都市部においては旺盛な需要に対し供給が十分でないことが多く、さらに投機的資金が流入しやすいこともあって、住宅用の土地および住宅価格の高騰がしばしば問題となる。たとえば日本では、1970年代から1980年代末のバブル経済期にかけて地価が暴騰し、住宅の建設にも悪影響を及ぼした。こうした住宅バブルは世界的にしばしば発生しており、なかでも2007年にアメリカでサブプライム・ローンが不良債権化して起きたサブプライム住宅ローン危機は翌年のリーマン・ショックへとつながり、世界金融危機 (2007年-2010年)を引き起こして世界経済に大打撃を与えた。一方で、日本では過疎化や高齢化、土地登記の煩雑さなどから2010年代に入り空き家の数が急増し、社会問題となっている。\n住宅対策事業.\n日本の国土交通省（旧建設省所管）の市街地のまちづくり活性事業において、住宅対策事業はつぎの施策を行っている。市街地住宅の供給施策（住宅局住宅建設課市街地住宅整備室所管）は、以下のものがある。\nほか、住宅市街地開発事業では、新住宅市街地開発事業、住宅街区整備事業がある。\n他.\n住宅と世帯の関係.\n日本の厚生労働省の定義では、同一住居・同一生計の集まりのことを世帯と呼ぶ。世帯と家族とは異なる概念であり、同じ家族に属していても単身赴任や進学などで別居している場合は別世帯扱いとなる。\n住宅と住宅でないものの線引き.\n日本の国勢調査では、完全に区画された建物の一部で、一つの世帯が独立して家庭生活を営む事が出来るように建築又は改造されたものを住宅としている。「住宅ではないもの」としては、会社や学校の寮・寄宿舎、病院・療養所、ホテル、下宿屋、旅館・宿泊所、臨時応急的に建てられた建物などが挙げられる。国勢調査では、学校の寮・寄宿舎、病院・療養所、社会施設、自衛隊営舎、矯正施設などは「施設」として扱われる。\n", "シミュレーション（）は、何らかのシステムの挙動を、それとほぼ同じ法則に支配される他のシステムや計算によって模擬すること。simulationには「模擬実験」や「模擬訓練」という意味もある。\nなお、「シュミレーション」は「シミュレーション」の語頭の2音を音位転換させたことによって生じた語形であり、誤りである。また、同化によって「シミレーション」と発音されることがある。「シミュレイション」と表記することもまれにある。\n概要.\nラテン語の 「similis シミリス（似ている）」「simulare シミュラーレ（模倣する）」「simulat（真似た、コピーした）」といった用語から生まれた概念である。\nシミュレーションは、対象となるシステムで働いている法則を推定・抽出し、それを真似るようにして組み込んだモデル、模型、コンピュータプログラムなどを用いて行われる。\n現実のシステムを動かしてその挙動や結果を確かめることが困難、不可能、または危険である場合にシミュレーションが用いられる。\n例えば、社会現象などにおける問題の解決方法を探る時など、（悪影響があるので実社会ではとりあえず試せないので）実際の社会と似た状況を数式などで作りだし、コンピュータ等を用いて模擬的に動かし、その特性などを把握するのに用いる。例えば風洞実験、水槽実験で働いている法則を数学的なモデルに置き換えて行う。また例えば経営に関する様々な事象を数学的なモデルに置き換えてみて、様々な数値を入力したり変化させることで、結果を推定する。\nシミュレーションのための装置やプログラムをシミュレータ () と言う。ただし、きわめて単純なシステムを模倣するためのシミュレーション、特に単純化されたモデルを用いる場合などは（とりあえず）紙と鉛筆（やホワイトボードとペン）だけを用いて手作業で行われるものもある。\n対象となるシステムにおいて働いている法則をどれほど忠実に模倣するかによって、シミュレーションの精度は異なる。シミュレーションの質は、シミューレーションを設計する者の技量や、どの程度まで法則を見抜き、どこまでそれらの法則を模倣させたか、ということによって異なるのである。現実の法則を十分に模倣していないシミュレーションは、現実とは異なった挙動を示す。\nまた、コンピュータを用いて連続現象を離散化した積算によるシミュレーションは必ず誤差が生じ、その誤差は蓄積する。従ってコンピュータによるシミュレーションによって良好な結果を得る為には、モデル化による誤差見積もりが重要となる。モデル化によるシミュレーションは、現象についてどの程度正確に真似るかによって計算量を調整することが可能であり、現象についての完全な知識は必要とされないなどのメリットがある。\nシステムのモデル化を行わず、完全な模倣を目的とする場合は、シミュレーションと言わずエミュレーションということもある。エミュレーションは、模倣したいシステムにおいて、予測できる現象より予測できない現象が支配的である場合などに使われる。\n模型などによるシミュレーション.\nミニチュアによる実験など、何らかの物理的な物体で実物を置き換えることもシミュレーションの一種である。これを「物理的シミュレーション」と言うこともある。置換する物体としては、実物よりも小さいものや安価なものが選ばれる。\n模型を使った戦争シミュレーションの例として、『戦国策』『墨子』には、墨子が公輸盤と戦争を論じ合い、楚王の前で模型を使って勝負をし、公輸盤が新兵器である雲梯を使って9回攻めたが、墨子の守りは固く攻め落とすことができず、これを見た王は宋を侵略しないことを約束したという逸話が記されている。これは模型を使ったシミュレーションによって戦争を防いだ（守城戦を見せつけた）逸話である。また日本でも戦国時代の大名・上杉謙信は2メートル四方もある城の模型を用いて合戦のシミュレーションを行っていたと言い伝えられている。\nコンピュータ・シミュレーション.\nコンピュータシミュレーションとはコンピュータを用いたシミュレーションのことである。\nコンピュータ・シミュレーションには、一旦シミュレーションが始まるとあとはコンピュータだけで完結してシミュレーションを行う「非対話型シミュレーション」と、シミュレーション中に人間がなんらかの形で（コンピュータ内に模擬的に作られた世界に）介入し影響を与えることのできる「対話型シミュレーション」がある（その応用形のひとつの形が、フライトシミュレータやドライビングシミュレータなどである）。\nコンピュータ・シミュレーションは、実世界や何らかの仮説的状況をコンピュータ上でモデル化するもので、それによってそのシステムがどのように作用するのかを研究することができる。変数を変化させることで、システムの振る舞いについて予測を立てることができる。\nコンピュータ・シミュレーションは、自然科学的システムのモデル化を行い（たとえば物理学/化学/生物学における様々なモデル化、経済学/社会科学における人間に関わるシステムのモデル化、さらには工学におけるシステムのモデル化など）、それをコンピュータで計算することで、システムの作用について洞察を得る助けとなる。シミュレーションにコンピュータを使うことの利便性を表す例は多数ある。人々によく知られ、日々実感されている例としては数値予報（）、メッシュ予報のために各国の気象機関でスーパーコンピューターを使って行われているシミュレーションが挙げられる。ほかにも「ネットワーク交通量シミュレーション」を挙げる人もいる。異なった数値モデルを使うと振る舞い、結果が異なり、また環境の初期設定を変更してもモデルの振る舞いが変化する。\nなお気候変動の予測には、適切な気候モデルを用いたコンピュータシミュレーションが不可欠である。2021年には、はじめて大気海洋結合モデルを開発し地球温暖化について具体的な温度変化の数字もコンピュータではじき出して科学的研究を可能にした眞鍋淑郎にノーベル物理学賞が授与された。\nコンピュータ・シミュレーションには様々なタイプがあるが、それらに共通するのは、システムが取りうる全ての状態を列挙するのが不可能あるいは現実的でない場合に、そのモデルの代表的シナリオの標本を生成しようとするという点である。\nモンテカルロ法や確率論的モデリングによるコンピュータ・シミュレーションは、モデル化が非常に簡単という特徴がある。\nコンピュータに関係するシミュレーションであるが、前の節で説明しているものとはおもむきが大きくことなるものなので、節を分けて説明する。計算理論では、たとえば万能チューリングマシン（のような、模倣する能力を持つ機械）が、模倣対象（たとえば、なんらかのチューリングマシン）の状態遷移と入力と出力を記述した状態遷移表を実行すること（現代風に言うと、コンピュータがそのようなプログラムを走らすこと）を、シミュレーションと言う。これは、状態遷移系間の関係といった、意味論の研究などで使われている。\nコンピュータ・シミュレーションの応用.\nコンピュータの登場によって、人間の手による計算ではほとんど不可能な膨大な量の総当りでしか行えない計算が比較的短時間で行えるようになったため、コンピュータによるシミュレーションは自然現象や経済活動や人口の推移といったものに使用されるようになった。コンピューターの演算能力の発展は、以前は縮小模型や実物大模型などによって行われていた実験を計算による仮想空間のみで実験・予測することが可能になってきている。\n例えば、木の葉が舞い落ちる動きを通常の手計算で導き出す事は不可能であった。これは重力や空気抵抗だけでなく、木の葉自体の動きによる空気の状態変化などが複雑に絡み合っているからである。この、カオティックな振る舞いに対して、単純計算を膨大に繰り返す事の出来るコンピュータによって、ある程度の周期性や規則性を見出されうる。\n最近の気象予報には、コンピュータ・シミュレーションは欠かせない。地球という球体上を格子（メッシュ）に区切ったモデルを用いて、スーパーコンピュータを用いてシミュレーションを行っている。コンピュータの性能が向上するにつれて次第に格子の大きさを小さくすることができるようになるとともに、予測精度が向上した。\n数値シミュレーションは天文学においては第三の手法と見なされている。天文現象というのは時の長さや空間的なスケールの大きさのせいで実験室で実験することが不可能なため、コンピュータシミュレーションが必要になる。天体物理学者はコンピュータのなかに宇宙を創り出しその中で天文現象を再現しその挙動を確かめる。\nコンピュータを使ったコンピュータのシミュレートというものもある。エミュレータと呼ばれるシミュレータも使われる（たとえば実機で走らせるのが困難な場合や面倒な場合や、制御されたテスト環境下でプログラムを実行して実害が出ない安全な状態で結果を事前に確認するためなどに使われる。）\n仮想化というのもシミュレーションの一種である。たとえば、マイクロプログラムやアプリケーションプログラムを、実機に送り込む前にデバッグするのに使う。コンピュータの動作がシミュレートなので、コンピュータの動作の全ての情報をプログラマが直接的に利用でき、速度を変えたりステップ実行したりなど好きなようにできる。一方でいわゆる「ゲートレベル」の完全なエミュレーションは現実的でないことが多く、また普通はそこまで厳密にエミュレーションする必要はないことも多いが、例えばエミュレートしきれない部分の実機にバグがある場合のデバッグまではできない。プログラムによるシミュレーションでは速度的に不十分な必要な場合は、FPGAなどのプログラマブルなハードウェアによって、エミュレーションないしシミュレーションを行うこともある。VMware、VirtualBox、Hyper-Vなどを用いて、バーチャルにOSを構築し、さまざまな環境を設定してOSの挙動を安全な環境下で確かめる手法も一般化している。\nTCP/IP等の通信プロトコルの分野では日々新しい方式が提案されている。IEEEやITU、あるいは日本の電波産業会（ARIB）などで次世代の通信プロトコルの標準規格が議論されるが、このとき各提案者の案として提示されている規格が、さまざまな条件下でどのような特性を持っているのかを比較検討する必要がある。このような局面で通信プロトコルのシミュレーション が必須となっている。2層（データリンク層）以上の通信プロトコルの規格は状態遷移図で記載されることが多いが、記述された状態遷移等の処理、条件をコンピュータ上で疑似し、スループットやエラー処理などの評価を行う。\n学術機関で用いられるシミュレータはns 等のオープンソースソフトウェアが多いが、民間企業や民間研究所のような、資金に余裕があり応用に近い研究を行う組織では、大規模トポロジ構築などを容易に行えるツール群が整備され、より迅速に現実に即した解析が可能なQualnet、OPNET Modeler 等の商用のシミュレータを使用するケースが多い。\nこの分野のシミュレーションでは信号処理の部分をMATLAB/Simulink、電波伝搬の部分をWirelessInSight, Winprop, Atoll等の他のシミュレータや計算ソフトと連携させたりする場合もある。また特に無線、移動体の分野では各通信機の動きも重要な要素となるためその部分に関して他のツールや実際の計測値などと連携させる試みもなされている。\nQualnet、OPNET Modeler等の商用ツールでは実際のネットワーク上を流れる通信パケットをシミュレータと接続できるものもあり、仮想のネットワークを利用した時の動画品質も確認などにも使われている。\nコンピューター上で電子回路の設計や実験をするのに、SPICEやSPICEを起源とする電子回路シミュレーション・ソフトウェア等が使われている。電子回路を所定の書式でシミュレーターに入力（GUIによる入力が可能なものも多い）すると、各電子部品の電気的特性を元に回路の動作が計算され、回路の動作を調べることができる。\nマイクロプロセッサなど高度に複雑なディジタルLSIの論理設計も、実際に製造に入る前にシミュレータでテストされる。\n無線工学においては、アンテナの設計をするのにアンテナ・シミュレーション・ソフトウェアが用いられる。アマチュア用途ではMMANAやMMANA-GAL等のフリーソフトがある。アンテナの物理的な形状を入力すると、自由空間や特定の地上高におけるアンテナ上の電圧分布、電流分布、共振周波数、給電点におけるインピーダンス特性、SWR特性などを計算により求めることができる。短縮型アンテナやマルチバンド・アンテナの設計のために、延長コイル、短縮コンデンサ、LCトラップ等を挿入した場合のリアクタンス値を求めることもできる。\n無線工学において、電波伝播（電波の伝わり方）をシミュレーションするのに電波伝播シミュレーション・ソフトウェアが用いられる。VHFやUHFのテレビ放送局や中継局のサービスエリアを調べるために、アメリカの研究者 A. G. Longley と P. L. Rice とが1968年にLongley-Rice Modelアルゴリズムを開発・発表した。このアルゴリズムは 20 MHz - 20 GHz の周波数に適用でき、これを基にした電波伝播シミュレーション・ソフトウェアが、日本のいくつかの電気通信コンサルタント会社により開発されている。\nシミュレーションするには、ソフトウェアに、大地の導電率と比誘電率、大気の屈折率、送信場所や受信場所の標高、周波数、電波の偏波面、アンテナの利得や地上高、送信機の出力、受信機の感度などの値を与える。また、シミュレーション対象地域のデジタル地形データ（たとえばNASAのFTPサイト からダウンロードできる）を与える。すると、電波の大気による屈折、地形による反射や回折、電波が伝わるうえで受ける減衰等を計算し、電波の届く範囲をシミュレーションする。結果は、数値や、地図上に電波の強さごとにグラフィカルに色分けして示される。\nフリーソフトとしてはカナダのアマチュア無線家 Roger Coude（VE2DBE）が1988年に開発した Radio Mobile がある。\n軍事分野においては戦闘状況をシミュレートしたモデル研究が行われており、地形、時間、損害率、兵員数、戦闘価値、移動速度、発見率、命中率などの要素から戦闘の推移、両軍の損害などを導き出すことができる。また指揮官制、補給計画立案、戦術研究、海空軍の訓練などでシミュレーションは用いられている。\nまた、最近の戦争においては情報を伝達するための通信の確保は戦況を左右する重要な要素であるため、部隊展開時に山間部や市街地などにおいても兵員同士が途切れることなく通信できることをシミュレーションするシステム（JCSS：旧称 NetWars）をアメリカ国防情報システム局(DISA)が開発している。\n歴史的には軍事学的な研究に由来の一部を持つオペレーションズ・リサーチでは、数理的なモデル化とコンピュータシミュレーションは両輪をなしており、経済など社会活動の分析に現代では広く活用されていて、今ではむしろ軍事は単にその応用分野のたった一つに過ぎない。\nシミュレータを使ってフォルトツリー解析を行うこともある。\n最適化問題の分野では、物理プロセスのシミュレーションが進化的計算と共に使われ、制御戦略の最適化を行う。\n訓練としてのシミュレーション.\nシミュレーションは一般市民や兵士の訓練に使われることが多い。これは、実際の装置や兵器を訓練に使用するのがコスト的に高価すぎたり、単に非常に危険であるという理由からである。この場合、安全な仮想環境で意味の有る訓練が行われる。特に、実際なら生命に関わるような失敗をしても許される点は重要である。\n訓練におけるシミュレーションは3つに分類される。\nフライトシミュレータ.\nフライトシミュレータは、地上で操縦士が航空機の操縦訓練に用いる。再現の度合いにより異なるが一定の訓練時間が飛行時間として認められる。実際の航空機よりも低価格ながらエンジンが停止した状態での着陸、離陸直後のトラブルなど、実地では困難な訓練が可能である。\nドライブシミュレータ.\nドライブシミュレータは実際の自動車の特性を仮想環境内で再現する。外的要因や条件を再現し、さまざまな車両運転状況が体感可能である。\n船舶シミュレータ.\n船舶シミュレータは、船員の訓練に用いる。特に大型の船舶をシミュレートするものが多く、操船訓練を行なう操船シミュレーター、エンジンプラントの運転訓練を行なうエンジントラブルシミュレーター、荷役訓練を行なう荷役シミュレーターなどがある。\nプラントシミュレータ.\n化学プラントのプラントシミュレータは、物理モデルに基づいて化学プラントの動的な挙動を模擬するものである．さまざまな条件下で挙動を再現し、主にプラントを運転するオペレータの運転操作訓練に用いる．\n教育におけるシミュレーション.\n教育におけるシミュレーションも訓練の一種と考えられ、特定の主題に沿って行われる。ビデオを鑑賞し、問題の解決策を話し合い、ロールプレイを行うなどの手法がある。ロールプレイング方式で行うものは、ゲームの一種としてゲーミング・シミュレーション（あるいは単にゲーミング）と呼ばれることが多い。企業によるビジネス教育の一環としてもシミュレーションが採用されつつある。リスクのない仮想環境でビジネス戦略の実験をしたり、ケーススタディーの学習における拡張手段として用いられる。\n軍事教練におけるシミュレーション.\n兵士が行軍や歩兵戦闘などをシミュレーションするもの。やから発展したVBS1・VBS2が米豪等の軍で採用されている。\n班単位での射撃訓練が可能な大型シミュレータも登場しており、陸上自衛隊では10名が同時に利用できる「普通科部隊戦闘射撃訓練シミュレーター（GICCS）」を導入している。\n危機管理シミュレーション.\n　危機管理（crisis management)に際して、予測困難な事象に対して複数主体間でそれぞれの目標を達成しようとするシミュレーションが危機管理シミュレーションである。キューバ危機（1962年）で危機を回避した歴史をもとに、キューバ危機をめぐるゲーミング・シミュレーションがアメリカをはじめ過去に遡及し歴史をなぞる形で実施されてきた。他にも、台湾海峡危機、冷戦期の核戦争回避、北朝鮮の核開発をめぐる6カ国協議、2010年の漁船衝突事件、などが主題となる。\n　現実世界は時間が連続し「一難去ってまた一難」ということがありうるが、ゲーミング・シミュレーションには1)必ず「終わり」があり、2)予定調和が埋め込まれ「箱庭」的である。そのためゲーミングの終了を見越して駆け込みで行動する（これ自体は合理的な行為である）プレイヤーが生まれ、勝ち逃げ（例えば「駆け込み核戦争」）が発生する一因となる。むろん現実の世界でも政治的な時間軸には「節目」があり（例えば大統領の任期）、駆け込み的行動がみられる。そのため、シミュレーション上で駆け込みの制御をいかに条件づけるが課題となる。\n　ゲーミング上での想定外の行動（事象）をどのように評価するかがゲーミング・シミュレーションでは問われる。現実に多くの専門家が予想を外した朝鮮戦争（1950年）、ソ連崩壊（1991年）、911テロ事件（2001年）、対テロ戦争後のカブール陥落（2021年）、ロシアのウクライナ侵攻（2022年）といった「想定外」の事実に対抗して、仮想世界で同様な大規模な変化をアクターがおこすことがある。想定外ゆえに捨象したり除外するのでは危機管理の意味がない。しかし想定外が多発するのも現実的ではない。箱庭としてのゲーミングではとらえきれないルール・ジェネレート的発想が必要とされる所以である。\n　また危機に際しては誤認・誤解、疑心暗鬼、相互不信が高まる中、短い時間での政策決定が後に甚大な惨禍をもたらすことがある。グレアム・アリソンの第2モデル（組織過程モデル）、第3モデル（政治過程モデル）に加えて、認知的アプローチが必要となる。集団思考(groupthink）の可能性も想定せねばならない。完備情報下の合理的行動とは異なる、こうした危機における行動の特性を理解するためにゲーミング・シミュレーションは有用である。\n宇宙開発とシミュレーション.\n宇宙開発の船外活動のシミュレーションとしては、ひとつはプールを使う方法がある。NASAなどで採用されている。水の浮力によって、宇宙空間の無重力状態に、若干似た状態を作りだすことができ、船外作業の体験・訓練を行うことができる。ロボットアームの動き、作業手順などのシミュレーションは、コンピュータを用いたものも用いられ、実際の操作レバーと、コンピュータ画面内に作りだされた映像で模倣・確認しつつ訓練を行うものである。\n医療・救急用シミュレータ.\n医療シミュレータは、医療に従事する者への治療法/診断法/概念/意思決定についての教育の目的で、近年開発が盛んになってきている。医療シミュレータによる訓練は、単純な血液採取から腹腔鏡手術まで各種存在する。また、新型医療機器の開発においてもシミュレーションは重要である。医療シミュレータでもコンピュータが重要な役割を担っている。実物大の人形を用いたシミュレータでは、人形への薬物投与などによって適切な反応を示すようにプログラムされている。視覚をコンピュータグラフィックスで擬似する場合、触覚は訓練者の動作に反応するようプログラムされたフィードバック機器で再現する。この場合、現実性を増すために実際の患者のCTやMRIのデータを用いることが多い。より簡便なシミュレーションとして、ウェブブラウザで操作できるものもあるが、触覚は再現されず、キーボードとマウスで操作することになる 。\n経済・金融.\n最近の経済学的研究によって、実際には（古典経済学とは異なって）人々の個々の行動の動機は実に様々であることが明らかになってきているが、仮に、古典経済学的なモデル、つまり「人は全て自分の利益追求だけを求める」とするような極端な（本当の科学としては、事実とは異なり、かなり問題含みの）モデルを採用した場合でも、社会全体としての動きを知る事は出来ない。単純が複数集まるとそこには、様々な性質が生まれるという複雑系であるためで、これもまた、コンピュータの膨大な計算のシミュレーションによって予想されうるものであるが、実際のところ株価や物価の変動など、経済の動きを予測することは容易ではない。\n金融においては、コンピュータシミュレーションを用いてシナリオ立案が行われる。例えば、リスクを考慮した正味現在価値 (NPV) は計算方法は確立しているが、入力値は不明な場合がある。評価対象のプロジェクトの性能を擬似することで、シミュレーションによって様々な場合の NPV が求められる。\nデザイン・都市景観.\nコンピュータグラフィックス（CG）によって作成されたバーチャルリアリティ映像を、工業デザインや建築デザインの成果物を事前評価するのに用いる。例えば建築物や構造物による景観への影響を予測する景観シミュレーションの場合、実写風景の上で建物のCGと組み合わせたり、建物や背景の全てをCGで構築し、実際に建築した様子に近い景観を観察することが出来る。コンピュータの計算能力が実用に達するまでは、手作業により遠近法にそって書かれたパース画を作成し評価していた。\n都市計画のツールとして都市シミュレータを使って、様々なポリシーの決定によって都市がどのように変わるかを把握することができる。大規模な都市シミュレータの例としては、UrbanSim（ワシントン大学で開発）、ILUTE（トロント大学で開発）、Distrimobs（ボローニャ大学で開発）などがある。都市シミュレータはエージェントに基づくシミュレーションが一般的で、土地の利用計画や交通機関などが入力として設定される。\n景観シミュレータと都市シミュレータの開発を行う研究分野は、一般的に計画支援システムと呼ばれている。\n工学（技術）シミュレーションとプロセスシミュレーション.\nシミュレーションは、工学システムや多くのプロセスから構成されるシステムの重要な機能である。例えば電子工学では、遅延線を使って実際の伝送線路における遅延や位相のずれをシミュレートする。また、擬似負荷（ダミーロード）を用いてインピーダンスのシミュレートが行われる。シミュレータは一般にシミュレート対象の一部の操作や機能だけを擬似する。一方、エミュレータは対象の全機能を擬似するのが一般的である。\n多くの工学シミュレーションは、数学的モデルを用いて、コンピュータを利用して行われる。しかし、その数学的モデルが信頼できない場合も多い。流体力学のシミュレーションは数学的なシミュレーションと物理的なシミュレーションの両方を必要とすることが多い（数値流体力学も参照）。この場合、物理的モデルは動的相似性（Dynamic Similitude）を要求される。物理的シミュレーションや化学的シミュレーションは、研究目的だけでなく、具体的な実用目的を持つ。例えば、化学工学におけるプロセスシミュレーションによって得られたプロセスのパラメータは、石油精製などの化学工場の運用に即座に活用できる。\n離散事象シミュレーション.\n生産技術・オペレーション・オペレーションズリサーチの分野でよく使われる離散事象シミュレーションは、様々なシステムのモデル化に使われる。例えば、ビジネスにおいて各個人が30のタスクを実行可能で、数千の製品やサービスがあり、各製品/サービスには数十のタスクを逐次的に行う必要があり、顧客がどの製品/サービスを求めるかは季節によって変動したり、将来的に変化していく。このような状況をシミュレーションすることで経営上の様々な意思決定の助けとなる。\n", "は、0歳から10代、概ね12歳頃までのプレティーンの読み手や聞き手を対象にした文学作品およびジャンルであるが、ティーンエイジャーまでを範疇に含む場合もある。イラストレーションが添えられている場合が多い。\nこの語は娯楽性に重きを置いているエンターテイメント作品群であるヤングアダルト小説（ライトノベルや少女小説）や漫画などの他のジャンルと区別する形で使われる場合もある。明確に子ども向けに作られた書物は17世紀までには既に存在していた。児童文学の研究のための職業団体、専門の出版物、大学の専攻課程なども存在する。国や世代を超えて読み継がれる名作や、幅広い世代に受け入れられるベストセラーやロングセラー作品が数多くある。\n日本においては、子どもを対象としたフィクションの文学ジャンルについては、童話という用語が使われていることが多い。しかし、空想的なお話というジャンルとしての用語として使われることもあり、昭和時代以降は、広義には児童文学が使われるようになっており、童話に関しては、年少者向けという狭義の意味合いで一般には流布している。出版社や出版業界では、こうしたものや絵本を児童書あるいは児童図書と呼んで扱っている。\n児童文学の定義.\n児童文学という言葉が何を指すかについては議論がある。\n子どものために書かれた本.\nおそらく、もっとも一般的な児童文学の定義は、意図的に児童（子供）たちに向けて書かれた本というものであろう。南フロリダ大学教育学部准教授のナンシー・アンダーソンは、児童文学を「漫画本、ジョーク集、辞書や百科事典のような通読を意図していないノンフィクション、参考書など」を除く子どものために書かれた全ての本であると定義している。こうした作品の中には大人にも非常に人気のあるものも含まれる。J・K・ローリングの『ハリー・ポッター』シリーズは当初は子どものために書かれマーケティングされていたが、子どものみならず大人にも非常に人気となり『ニューヨーク・タイムズ』が専用のベストセラー表を作成するまでになった。ある本が一般の文学と児童文学のどちらに含まれるかは決定し難いことも多く、多くの本で大人と子どもの両方をターゲットにしたマーケティングが行われている。\n子どもを主人公、または子ども社会とその文化をテーマとしつつ、子どもを必ずしも読者対象としていない作品もあるが、そうしたものはこの観点からは児童文学ではなく一般の文学と見なされる。\n子どもによって書かれた本.\n一般には子ども自身によって書かれた作品すなわち児童文学とはならないが、隣接分野のものとして無視できないものである。欧米ではデイジー・アシュフォードが9歳の時に書いた『小さなお客さんたち』や、ジェーン・オースティンが兄弟姉妹を楽しませるために書いた子ども時代の作品（）などがある。日本では、豊田正子の『綴方教室』（1937年）や安本末子『にあんちゃん』（1958年）などはベストセラーになり、映画化もされて大きな話題を巻き起こした。これらは作文や日記であったが、創作では第8回 福島正実記念SF童話賞を受賞した竹下龍之介『天才えりちゃん 金魚を食べた』（1991年）が6歳の子が書いた作品として話題になり、シリーズ化作品も出版された。\n子ども向けに選ばれた本.\n最も制限的な児童文学の定義は、各種の権威が子どもに「相応しい」と認定した本というものである。ここでの権威には教師、書評家、学者、親、出版社、司書、小売商、出版賞の選考委員などがある。一例として日本では全国学校図書館協議会が推薦図書を選定している。\n子どもを人生のあまり幸福でない側面から守りたいと願う両親はしばしば伝統的な童話、童謡やその他の冒険譚などを問題視する。こうした物語で得てして最初に起こるのは大人の影響の除去であり、主人公は自分自身で物事に対処せざるを得なくなる。有名な例としては『白雪姫』『ヘンゼルとグレーテル』『バンビ』『世にも不幸なできごと』などがある。しかしながらこうした要素は物語に必要なものと考えられている。結局のところ、ほとんどの場合で物語の本質は人物たちが「大人になってゆく」ことなのである。 \n子どもによって選ばれる本.\n児童文学の最も広い定義は、子どもたちが実際に選んで読む本というものである。子どもたちは、たとえば漫画のような、伝統的な意味では文学とは全く考えようとしない人達もいる本も選んで読む。また子どもたちは古典文学や、現代作家による世に認められた偉大な作品も読むことがあるし、重層的な語りを持つ複雑な物語も楽しむ。小説家オースン・スコット・カードの意見によれば、「子どもたちはしばしば真に偉大な世界の文学の守り手となると考えることができる。子どもたちは物語を愛す一方で文体の流行や文学的な仕掛けには無関心であり、的確に真実と力の方へと引き寄せられるのであるから。」子ども時代に『不思議の国のアリス』を楽しんだ人が、大人となって再読した時に、子どもの時には気付かなかったその暗いテーマに気付くといったこともあるであろう。\n加えて、当初は大人に向けて書かれた古典的な作品が今日では子ども向けと考えられるようになっている例も多い。マーク・トウェインの『ハックルベリー・フィンの冒険』も本来は大人向けに書かれたものであったが、今日ではアメリカ合衆国の小学校のカリキュラムの一環として広く読まれている。\n児童文学の種類.\n児童文学はさまざまな観点から分類されうる。\nジャンルによる分類.\n文学ジャンルとは、文芸作品のカテゴリである。\nジャンルは技法、口調、内容、長さなどによって決定される。\nナンシー・アンダーソンは児童文学を6つの大きなカテゴリと、いくつかの重要なサブジャンルに分類している――\nこれらは最も広い意味での「児童文学」もしくは「児童書」であり、児童文学という分野を限定的に考える場合には、実用的な教本や文章によらない絵本、さらには固有の創作者を持たない昔話や神話、娯楽を主体としたフィクションなどは除外されることもある。\n年齢層と発達段階.\n児童文学そのものも大人の文学と対になる年齢によるカテゴリであるが、0歳から18歳まででは子どもの理解力や興味もさまざまであるため発達段階に応じて形態や内容も違ってくる。\nこうした分類の基準は、児童文学そのものを定義する基準と同様に、曖昧で問題を含むものである。明確な違いの1つに幼い子ども向けの本はイラストレーションが添えられることが多いということが挙げられるが、絵を作品の不可分な一部として持つ絵本であってもこうしたジャンルや年齢層に収まらないものがある。ピーター・シスの『チベット――赤い箱を通して』は大人の読者に向けた絵本の1例である。\n内容.\n子どもや若年者の成長への感化を念頭に置いた、教育的な意図、配慮がその根底にあるものが多く、子どもの興味や発育に応じた平易な言葉で書かれる。しかし難しい内容を扱わないという訳ではなく、難しい内容でも子どもに必要と考え、わかりやすい例や言葉で表現する作家もいる。平易な表現で根源的なことを語っている場合があり、子どもに受け入れられる児童文学作品には大人の鑑賞にも堪えられる秀逸なものも多い。たとえば灰谷健次郎著の『兎の眼』やあさのあつこ著の『バッテリー』など一般の文庫本となって大人読者に広く流布する作品がある。児童文学は大人向けに書かれた「文学」の価値観が持ち込まれているという指摘がある。\nおおむね10代中・後半から20代初め頃の時期をヤングアダルトと呼ぶが、児童の年代を超えた年齢層にも児童文学的な内容が求められる事がある。J・D・サリンジャーの『ライ麦畑でつかまえて』（1951年）に見られるように、この世代特有の問題、例えば、恋愛、いじめ、薬物依存、自殺などを扱ったジャンルも登場し、「ヤングアダルト」という名称で呼ばれる事もある。日本では重松清（作品はナイフ・エイジなど）らがヤングアダルト世代向けの作品を手がけている。\n創作童話と呼ばれる作品は文学性を有する場合が多い。創作童話は狭義の童話概念であるためヤングアダルト層は対象としないが、小学校高学年程度向けの作品も含まれる事がある。\nシリーズ.\nある児童書が成功を収めると、作者はその話に続編を書いたりシリーズを立ち上げたりしようとすることが多く、ライマン・フランク・ボームの『オズの魔法使い』や那須正幹の『ズッコケ三人組』などがその例である。『ハリー・ポッター』シリーズや原ゆたかの『かいけつゾロリ』のように、最初からシリーズとして企画された作品もある。イーニッド・ブライトンやR・L・スタインは終わりのないシリーズを専門にしている。シリーズはその作者よりも長続きすることもある。ライマン・フランク・ボームが亡くなると、出版社はを雇って続編を書き継がせた。『少女探偵ナンシー』などのように、1つのペンネームを共有して複数の作者により書かれたシリーズもある。\nイラストレーション.\n児童書にはしばしばイラストレーションがふんだんに添えられている。一般的に、幼い読者に向けた本であるほど絵が果たす役割は大きくなり、特にまだ文字を読めない幼児向けの本がそうである。子ども向けの絵本は幼い子どもにとって、高水準な芸術に認識可能な形で触れることのできる機会となりうる。\n多くの児童文学作家は気に入ったイラストレーター（挿絵画家、イラストレーター、漫画家）に自分の言葉を絵にしてもらうが、最初からイラストレーターと共に本作りをする場合もあれば、イラストレーターが自分自身で本を書く場合もある。イラストなしでも話を楽しめるだけの読書力に達した後も、子どもたちは本に時々出て来る絵を楽しんで眺めるものである。\n歴史.\n児童文学の定義自体が明確なものではないので、その歴史がいつ始まったのかを特定するのも難しい。ここでは子どもに向けた、もしくは子どもに広く受容された書物あるいは文学の発達を概観する。\n前史.\n子どもに人気のある物語の中には非常に古い時代に書かれたものもある。『イソップ寓話』は紀元前3世紀に成立し今も世界中の子どもたちに愛されているし、トマス・マロリーの『アーサー王の死』（1486年）や『ロビン・フッド』（1450年頃）は子どものことを念頭に置いて書かれたものではないが、何世紀にも亘って子どもたちを魅了してきた。\n17世紀.\n1658年、チェコのコメニウスがイラスト入りの知識の書『世界図絵』を著した。これが明確に子どもに向けて書かれた最初の絵入り本であると考えられている。また、この時代にはフランスのシャルル・ペロー(1628-1703)が童話の基礎を築いた。ペローの物語には『赤ずきん』『眠れる森の美女』『長靴をはいた猫』『シンデレラ』などが含まれている。\n18世紀.\n1744年、イギリスでが『小さなかわいいポケットブック』を出版した。ニューベリーはこの本を男の子にはボール、女の子には針刺し付きで販売した。明確に子どもに向けて販売された娯楽書の始まりとして時代を画するものであったと考えられている。ニューベリー以前は、子どもと大人のための物語の豊かな口承は存在したが、子どもに向けて販売される文学は子どもを教育することを意図したものであった。\n19世紀.\n19世紀初頭に、ヤコブとウィルヘルムのグリム兄弟が『白雪姫』『ラプンツェル』『ヘンゼルとグレーテル』などのドイツの口承を記録し保存に努めた。E. T. A.ホフマンの物語『くるみ割り人形とねずみの王様』1816年にドイツの子供向け物語集に掲載されました。これは、児童文学に奇妙でグロテスクな要素を導入した最初の現代短編小説でした。\n1835-1848年にかけて、デンマークのハンス・クリスチャン・アンデルセンが『人魚姫』（1836年）、『裸の王様』（1837年）、『みにくいアヒルの子』（1844年）、『雪の女王』（1845年）などの、伝承に基づかない創作性の高い童話を刊行した。アンデルセンはヨーロッパ中の子どもたちに喜びを与えたとして、存命中から王族によって祝宴が行われ称揚された。アンデルセンの童話は150以上もの言語に翻訳され、今日でも世界中で百万部単位で刊行され、他の数多くの作品にも影響を与え続けている。「裸の王様」や「みにくいアヒル」は現代英語や日本語などでも良く知られた慣用句として通っている。\n1865年、イギリスでルイス・キャロル（1832年 - 1898年）が『不思議の国のアリス』を刊行した。この物語は論理学とも戯れており、子どもだけでなく大人にも長く人気となっている。『アリス』は文学的ナンセンスの最も特徴的な例の1つと考えられており、その物語の進行と構造は主にファンタジーの分野で極めて大きな影響力を持った。\n1880年に、スイスでヨハンナ・シュピリ（1827年 - 1901年）が『ハイジ』（1880年）を出版した。副題には、この本が「子どもと、子どもを愛する人のため」の本であると謳われている。ジョーエル・チャンドラー・ハリス（1845年 - 1908年）はアフリカ系アメリカ人の方言を話す動物キャラクターが登場する民話を書いた。\n20世紀.\n1900年、アメリカ合衆国でライマン・フランク・ボームが『オズの魔法使い』を発表した。以後、さまざまな版が絶えず刊行されている。1902年には舞台化され、1939年には映画化された。アメリカ文化の中でも最も知られた物語の1つであり、40ヵ国語に翻訳された。『オズ』の大成功を受けてボームは13篇の続編を書き、ボームの死後も複数の作者が数十年間に亘り続編を書き続けた。\n1902年、ビアトリクス・ポターは『ピーターラビットのおはなし』を発表した。いたずら好きで反抗的な若い兎のピーターラビットが、マクレガーさんの農場に忍び込む話である。発表以降100年以上に亘り、この本を基にした玩具、皿、食品、衣類、ビデオなどの夥しいグッズが生み出された。1903年にピーターラビット人形の特許権を取得したポターは、こうしたグッズ化の先駆けの一人となった。\n1911年、ジェームス・マシュー・バリーは『』を著した。ピーター・パンは児童文学で最も有名なキャラクターの1人であり、魔法によって歳を取らなくなってネバーランドと呼ばれる小さな島で終わることのない子ども時代を過ごしている。\n第二次世界大戦中の1943年に、飛行士アントワーヌ・ド・サン＝テグジュペリ（1900年 - 1944年）は『星の王子さま』を出版した。砂漠に不時着した主人公が、星からやって来た子どもの心を持った王子と語らうこの物語は人間性の洞察に富み、現在までに180ヶ国語に翻訳され8000万部を売り上げている。\nグローバリゼーションに伴い翻訳による創作児童文学作品の世界的・爆発的な普及が見られるようになり、イギリスのC・S・ルイス（1898年 - 1963年）の『ナルニア国ものがたり』（1950年 - 1956年）シリーズは41言語で通算1億2千万部以上、同じくイギリスのJ・K・ローリング（1965年 - ）の『ハリー・ポッター』（1997年 - 2007年）シリーズは63ヵ国語以上に翻訳され4億部以上を売り上げた。\n日本.\n日本の児童文学は、近代文学成立とほぼ同時期に確立されたと考えられる。巖谷小波による『こがね丸』や小川未明の第一童話集『赤い船』（1910年12月）が始まりとされる。1918年には鈴木三重吉主宰の雑誌『赤い鳥』が刊行された。芥川龍之介・有島武郎・北原白秋などが参加したこの雑誌は、後に新美南吉らを輩出するなど児童文学の普及・発展に貢献した。宮沢賢治は同時代の作家だが、擬声語やリズム感が当時の童話としては異質だったため、生前は評価されることがなかった。その後日本では、大人から児童に向けた教育を主眼とした内容のものが主流となっていたが、1960年代頃から遊びの要素を持ちエンターテイメントとしても優れたものや、大人の文学表現にも匹敵する作品が登場するようになった。詩においてはまど・みちおが著名である。当時の絵本は文字を主、絵を従としたものだったが、いわさきちひろは絵で展開する絵本を制作し、国際的にも高い評価を得た。やなせたかしの『アンパンマン』は当初大人向けに書かれたが後に幼児向けの絵本として再発表され、テレビアニメで絶大な人気を博した。\n研究・団体.\n近年では児童文学研究の地位が高まりつつある。の分野での文芸評論分析が増加しているほか、（ChLA）、（SCBWI）、国際児童図書評議会（IBBY）、などの児童文学の学術協会も数多く存在している。\n国際児童図書評議会（IBBY)が機関誌として1963年から発行する世界の児童文学誌『Bookbird』は、初の多言語版として2010年から邦訳『ブックバード日本版』がマイティブックから発売されている。\n児童文学における文化はさまざまな学問領域で研究されている。アメリカ合衆国では、幼児教育および初等教育の教員の養成過程で児童文学の講義が必修となっていることが多い。\n日本での研究・団体.\n日本における児童文学の学問的研究は体系的に整備されているとは言い難いが、白百合女子大学・玉川大学・梅花女子大学・東京純心大学などは専門の学科・研究科を設置している。また他の大学・短大も、何らかの形で児童文学関連の講座を設置しているところが多い。なお、教育系の学部・学科においては、幼児教育や児童学と関連づけられる場合がほとんどである。\n児童文学など児童書関連が公開されている資料センターとして国際子ども図書館（東京・上野公園内）と大阪府立国際児童文学館（大阪府立中央図書館内）がある。国際子ども図書館は国立国会図書館の児童書関連を移管して2000年に開館した（全面開館は2002年）。大阪国際児童文学館は1984年に鳥越信の蔵書12万点のコレクションをもとにマンガ、紙芝居などを含めた児童文化の資料館・研究施設として開館した。両者の資料点数は拮抗しているが、研究・レファレンス及び収集方針の専門員による差異により、貴重本の収集や資料保存方法などでは大阪の方が充実している。例えば、国際子ども図書館では、旧来の図書館としての保存方法で、カバー・帯の廃棄や保存カバー・バーコードの装備で資料が変形されたり、雑誌が合本化されて閲覧しにくく資料性が欠損したりしている場合がある。一方、大阪国際児童文学館では、1点ずつの個別保存で雑誌の合本化もなく付録も貴重な児童文化財として保存している。\n児童文学者の団体としては、1946年に児童文学者協会（後の日本児童文学者協会）が設立され、1955年に日本児童文芸家協会が成立した。それぞれ機関誌として「日本児童文学」、「児童文芸」を刊行している。他に児童書のイラストレーターの団体として日本児童出版美術家連盟（童美連）があり、この三者に日本書籍出版協会の児童書部門を含めた通称“四者懇”があり、児童書をめぐる著作権等の諸問題について協調して行動している。\nまた、研究者の団体としては、日本児童文学学会や英米児童文学学会があり、読書運動では、親子読書地域文庫全国連絡会（機関誌『子どもと読書』）などがある。\n賞.\n児童文学の賞のうち高名なものとして以下のものがある。\n出版社.\n日本において、児童文学作品を主に扱っている出版社には次のようなものがある。\nレーベル.\n日本において、児童文学作品を扱っているレーベルには次のようなものがある。\n", "ゾウ（象）は、哺乳綱ゾウ目（長鼻目）ゾウ科 () の総称である。\nアジアゾウとアフリカゾウ、それとおそらくはマルミミゾウの、2属3種が現生し、これらは現生最大の陸生哺乳類である。他に絶滅したマンモスやナウマンゾウなどを含む。\n名称.\n「ゾウ」は漢字「象」の音読み(呉音)。「象」の字は、古代中国にも生息していたゾウの姿にかたどった象形文字であるとされる。\nこれとは別に、日本にはゾウがいないにもかかわらず、日本語には「きさ」という古称があり、『日本書紀』では象牙を「きさのき」と呼んでいる。\n『和名抄』には\nなどの記述がある。ほか、『うつほ物語』、『宇治拾遺物語』、『徒然草』、江戸時代の『椿説弓張月』などにも「象」の記述がある。\n英語や仏語の elephant、独語の Elefant はいずれもギリシア語 elephas「ゾウ」に由来し、ギリシア語は雄牛を意味するフェニキア語のエルフ・エルプス、もしくはヘブライ語のエレフ・アレフ・オリフントなどに由来する。\n形態.\n長い鼻、大きな耳が特徴。首が短く、立ったままでは口を地面に付けることができない。膝をついてしゃがむか、筋肉質の長い鼻を使って食べ物や水などを口に運ぶ。鼻を使って水を体にかけ、水浴をすることもある。この鼻は上唇と鼻に相当する部分が発達したものであり、先端にある指のような突起で仁丹のような小さな物から、豆腐といった掴みにくい物までを器用に掴み取ることができる。\nまた嗅覚も優れており、鼻を高く掲げることで遠方より風に乗って運ばれてくる匂いを嗅ぎ取ることができる。聴覚も優れている（#生態を参照）。\n視力について、多くの哺乳類と同様に緑色の知覚に劣る二色型色覚であるが、夜の薄明かりでも視力が維持される。\n歯式は。第2切歯が巨大化した「牙」を持ち、オスのアフリカゾウでは牙の長さが3.5mにまで達することもある。牙は象牙として珍重され、密猟の対象となる。巨大な板状の臼歯は同時期に上下に1本ずつの計4本しかないが、新しい臼歯が後ろから出て古い臼歯と交換する。これを「水平交換」といい、幼時に3回、成獣で3回交換する。自分の体重や歩くことによって足にかかる負担を少なくするため足の骨と足の裏の間には脂肪に包まれた細胞がつまっており、足の裏の皮膚は固く角質化している。蹄を持つため有蹄類として分類されることもある。\nアフリカゾウとアジアゾウの違い.\nただし気性には個体差もあり、アフリカゾウが全体的に気性が荒いという性質はあるもののアジアゾウ同様に飼い慣らせば人間に従順になるとみられている。なお、かつて調教され労役に使われたアフリカゾウの種はマルミミゾウであり、これはアフリカゾウの中でも比較的温厚とされている。\n生態.\n雌と子供で群れを形成し、雄は単独か雄同士で別に群れを形成して生活する。巨大な体躯のため、成体のゾウが襲われることは少ないが、ヒトをはじめとして、敵は皆無という訳ではなく、アフリカではライオン、インドではトラが、主に若いゾウや幼獣を襲うことが確認されている。そのため、群れの成獣たちは常に幼獣の周囲を取り囲んで、これらの敵から身を守っている。その巨体に見合わず40km/h程度で走ることが可能であり、四足動物の中で唯一、速度調節の際に前後全ての足を駆使して加速・減速を行っている。\n寿命は60歳から70歳で、20歳ほどで成獣になる。哺乳動物の中で最も妊娠期間が長く、約22カ月に及ぶ。普通、2年から4年ごとに子どもを一頭産む。子ゾウの出生時の体重は約100キロ、身長は約90センチである。\n人間には聞こえない低周波音（人間の可聴周波数帯域下限である約20Hzのそれ以下）で会話していると言われ、その鳴き声は最大約112dBもの音圧（自動車のクラクション程度）があり、最長で約10km先まで届いた例もある。加えて、象は足を通して低周波を捕えられることも確認された。ゾウの足の裏は非常に繊細であり、そこからの刺激が耳まで伝達される。(従って耳で直接音を聞くわけではない)彼らはこれで30-40km離れたところの音も捕えることができる。このため、雷の音や、遠く離れた地域での降雨を認知できるのではないかと考えられている。また、足の裏のひび割れには滑り止めの役割があり、人間の指紋のように個体によってひび割れの模様は異なっている。ゾウのしわは表面積を大きくし熱を発散させるという。\n体温調整として、耳をばたつかせ、泥浴びなどによって体温を下げる。汗は、足の爪周りにある汗腺のみである。\n人間を見分けることもできるほどに高い認知能力を持っているといわれており、例えば飼育下では優しく接してくれた人間に対しては甘えたり挨拶したりするが、逆に自らや仲間に危害を加えた人物に対しては非常に攻撃的になる。また、人の言語の違いを聞き分けられるとも言われ、象を狩っていたマサイ族の言語を非常に警戒したとの報告もある。ただし、同じマサイ族でも狩りに参加しない女性ではなく、男性だけを避けようとする等々、様々な逸話が伝えられる。また、群れの仲間が死んだ場合に葬式ともとれる行動をとることがある。死んだ個体の亡骸（なきがら）に対し、周りに集まり鼻を上げて匂いを嗅ぐような動作や、労わるように鼻でなでる等の行動をとった記録がある。これらの行為が持つ意味については疑問点や未解明の部分も多いが、いずれにせよかなり優れた記憶力や知能を持つと推察されている。\n近年、ゾウには鏡映認知（鏡に映った自身を自身と理解する能力）があることが判明した。\nタイのチェンマイでは象が絵を描く芸が披露されている。日本でも市原ぞうの国の「ゆめ花」が絵や文字を書くことで知られている。\n草・葉・果実・野菜などを食べる。ミネラルをとるために泥や岩塩などを食べることもある。草食動物で1日に150kgの植物や100Lの水を必要とし、野生個体の場合はほぼ一日中食事をとる。また糞の量も多い。成獣では1日平均100キロもの糞をだす。\n体が大きく必要となる食物も並大抵の量ではないため、森林伐採などの環境破壊の影響を受けやすい。また食欲と個体数増加に周囲の植生回復が追いつかず、ゾウ自身が環境破壊の元凶になってしまうこともある。\n成熟した成獣のオスには（発情期、ムスト期）と呼ばれる一定の間凶暴になる時期がある。一般的には発情期と解釈されており、八割の子象がマスト中のオスを父親に持つという調査結果もある。その一方で、期間中は性器が勃起しづらくなるうえ、メスや我が子を見境なく殺害することがあり、何のために起こるのか完全には解明されていない。ゾウはこめかみ辺りの側頭腺からタール状の液体を出すが、マストとなった個体はその分泌量が多くなるため、その判断材料とされる。動物園等では、この時期の個体は保安のため、檻の中で鎖に繋いでおくことが多い。持続時間は数週間から数ヶ月に及び、日照時間やストレスによって大きく左右されることがわかっている。\nゾウの墓場.\nゾウの死体や骨格は自然状態では全くと言っていいほど発見されなかったため、欧米ではゾウには人に知られない定まった死に場所があり、死期の迫った個体はそこで最期を迎えるという「ゾウの墓場」という考察が生まれた。だが、実際には他の野生動物でも死体の発見はまれで、ゾウに限ったことではない。自然界では動物の死体は肉食獣や鳥、更には微生物によって短期間で骨格となり、骨格は風化作用で急速に破壊され、結果的に遺骸が人目につくことはなかった。そうした事情が基になり、この伝説ができたものと考えられている。象牙の密猟者が犯行を隠すためにでっち上げたという説もある。なお、人の往来が頻繁になった近年はアフリカのサバンナでもゾウの遺骸が見られる事がある。\n進化と分類.\n進化史.\n長鼻類で最も進化したグループであるゾウは新生代の第四紀にはオーストラリアと南極大陸以外の全ての大陸に分布していたが、自然環境の変化や人類の狩猟などによりやがて衰退し、現在はサハラ砂漠以南のアフリカに生息するアフリカゾウとインドおよび東南アジアに生息するアジアゾウのわずかに2種が残るのみであり、滅亡へ向かいつつあるグループといえる。動物園の定番ではあるが、共にIUCNレッドリストで絶滅危惧IB類に指定されている。またアフリカゾウの亜種と考えられてきたマルミミゾウは、最近は別種とされることが多くなっている。\n化石種のゾウではマンモスが特に有名。かつて日本にもナウマンゾウ () などのゾウが生息していた時代がある。\n系統.\nShoshani et al.(2007)による舌骨形質による分岐図。\nゾウすなわちゾウ科は、ステゴドンなどステゴドン科に最も近縁で、次いでいくつかの科未定の属が続く。\nゾウ科のからいくつかの祖先的な属を除いたゾウ亜科の中で、アフリカゾウ属・アジアゾウ属・マンモス属の3属間の類縁関係は長らく不明瞭だった。歯の特徴や初期の分子系統により、アフリカゾウ属とマンモス属が近縁とされたこともあったが、全ミトコンドリアDNAの解析により、アジアゾウ属とマンモス属が近縁とほぼ確定した。\nまた、分子系統解析結果によると、解析対象としたパレオロクソドン（）属の種はマルミミゾウと姉妹群であるという結果となっている。\n現生種.\n現生種はアフリカゾウとアジアゾウの2種存在している。アフリカゾウには2亜種、アジアゾウには4亜種がいる。アフリカゾウの亜種とされていたマルミミゾウは、最近はアフリカゾウとは別種とする研究事例が多く、その場合には現生種のゾウは世界に3種いることとなる。\n人との関わり.\n狩猟と保護.\nゾウ類は人間の重要な狩り対象であった。食用としても重視され、先史時代からナウマンゾウやマンモスといったゾウ類が人類にとって重要な獲物であったことは多くの証拠から認められている。崖から数百頭の群れを一度に追い落とす猟が度々行われてきた痕跡から、彼らの絶滅に人間の関与を指摘する向きもある。\n現在では数が少なくなったために保護が行われているが、この個体数減少の原因の1つも人による捕獲圧であると考えられる。特に大型になる動物であるクジラ類などにも共通するが、元々の繁殖力が低いため、狩りの圧力を受けやすい。\n現在においては食用目的の捕殺はまれであり、捕獲の最大の理由は象牙となっている。象牙（特に長い象牙を持つ象）を目的とした捕獲が後を絶たないため、自然界では成熟しても象牙の短い象の個体数が増えているとの報告もある。また、自然保護と個体数減少によって禁止されるまでは、ゾウは猛獣狩りの最も主要なターゲットであり、欧米の富裕層の観光客によってハンティングが行われていた。\nゾウの個体数が減少してきたことを受け、生息する各国においては国立公園や自然保護区が設定され、ゾウは保護されている。この保護のための資金作りや象牙に代わる地元住民の雇用などを目指し、各国の自然公園ではサファリなどの観光を行うことが多い。このサファリにおいてゾウは目玉の一つであり、ゾウの自然な姿を見るためにヨーロッパやアメリカからやってくる観光客も多く、各国の重要な産業の一つとなっている。\n現在ゾウの生息数が最も多いといわれるボツワナでは15万頭以上が生息しているといわれ、1980年代の3万から4万頭に比べ大幅に個体数が増加した。一方、かつては自然保護区に指定されても、象牙などを求める密猟が後を絶えなかった。世界最大のゾウの保護区だったタンザニアのセルー国立公園では、1970年代から1980年代にかけて、かつて10万頭いたゾウが2万頭にまで激減。その後、保護が強化されたことでセルーでの頭数は回復傾向にある。モザンビークにおいては、2015年には5年前と比較し、密猟のためにゾウの生息数が半数にまで減少してしまった。その他、コンゴ民主共和国など、貧しく政治の混乱が続いている国においては密猟取り締まりに予算を割く余裕がなく、密猟の横行を招いている。\nただし、ゾウが増加すると、今度は害獣として近隣に多大な被害を与えることがある。ゾウは農作物を荒らすことも多く、またその巨体を支えるために食べる食物の量は膨大で、樹木の樹皮をはがしてしまうことも多く、そのために枯死してしまう樹木も多いためである。こうしたことから、特にゾウの個体数が回復した地域においては逆にゾウの駆除が求められる場合がある。\n日本の動物園においては定番として飼育されるが、自然繁殖例は極めて少ない。欧米の動物園では人工授精での繁殖に成功している例が幾つかある。\n象牙.\nゾウの持つ長い牙は象牙と呼ばれ、その美しい色合いやなめらかさ、やわらかく加工のしやすいことから古来より宝石や工芸材料として珍重されてきた。象牙はアジアゾウ・アフリカゾウともに持つが、アフリカゾウの方が大きくて品質が良く評価が高い。\n近代以前のアフリカにおいては金と並ぶ重要な交易品であり、サハラ交易の南端に位置するトンブクトゥなどのサヘル交易都市や、インド洋交易の東端に位置するアフリカ東海岸の諸都市は金と象牙を主な交易品とし繁栄。\n大航海時代においてもヨーロッパ人がアフリカに求めたものは金と象牙であることには変わりなかった。19世紀に入ると、それまで象牙を沿岸の港湾都市で買い付けるだけだったアラブ人の隊商が内陸部へと入り、直接象牙や奴隷を買い付けるようになった。このため内陸部の交易ルートが拡大、スワヒリ語がこの地域の共通語として広まる契機となった。20世紀に入るまで象牙はアフリカの重要な特産物の一つとなっていた。一方で象牙の高価さはゾウを狩猟の目的とするのに十分なものであり、とくに19世紀以降上記のとおり象牙を目的とした乱獲が行われ、ゾウの個体数が急減する原因となった。\n1989年にはワシントン条約によって象牙の国際取引がほぼ禁止され、旧来象牙を使用の分野では、代替品の開発が急速に進展。一方で、取引が禁じられたため、象牙の価値はむしろ高騰し、この高い利益をもとめて密猟を行うものが後を絶たず、問題となっている。\n役畜としてのゾウ.\nアジアのゾウ使いはと呼ばれる。\nゾウは使役動物としてかつて現地の人たちには移動手段として使われ、重いものを運ぶのにも利用された。戦象として軍事用に使われたこともある。こうした役畜としての使用はおもにアジアゾウに限られ、アフリカゾウも使われた（#古代ローマとゾウを参照）記録はあるものの、あまり役畜としての利用はせず、飼育もあまりされてこなかった。アフリカゾウは、気性が荒く使役できるまで慣れない。マルミミゾウは、それを上回る気性の激しさを持つ。\nまた、ゾウに芸をさせることもあり、サーカスではゾウに逆立ちさせたり台に上らせたりといった芸をさせる。タイではゾウにサッカーをさせる行事がある。また、かつてインドでは象に罪人の頭を踏みつぶさせる処刑があった。\nなお、オスがマストになると、数週間から数ヶ月に渡って命令を聞かなくなる（時として飼い主を殺そうとする）ため、マスト期の短縮は死活問題である。アジアのゾウ使いたちは、ゾウが衰弱するとマストが終わることを知っており、該当の個体を動けないよう拘束してエサを減らすことで、マスト期間をわずか数日に短縮する。こういった措置は極めて効果的であるものの、虐待とも考えられており、先進国の動物園などでは採用されない。\n動物愛護.\nタイの伝統的な文化として、ゾウに乗って観光地を散策する体験「ゾウ乗り」があるが、2020年に、調教における虐待行為が問題となり、動物愛護の観点から、近年、廃止する施設が増えている。\nゾウの攻撃・襲撃.\nマスト期（発情期）の雄は非常に攻撃的な性格をしており、周囲にいるゾウなどに攻撃を仕掛ける。また、ゾウは群れで村などを襲撃し、トウモロコシ、サトウキビ、バナナなどの作物を食べたり破壊する human-elephant conflict（人間とゾウの衝突） を引き起こす。\nこれらに対して、電気柵、火、閃光弾、ボウガン、銃などで武装しているが双方に被害を出している。発信機を付けて追跡し、危険があれば麻酔銃で眠らせて、人家の少ない場所で放獣なども行われている。また、ゾウを訓練して襲撃をしようとしているゾウに対抗させたりもされる。\nその他の利用.\nゾウの糞は、近年さまざまな利用方法が開発されつつある。タイの北部では、コピルアクにヒントを得てゾウの糞からコーヒー豆を集め、高級コーヒー豆としてブランド化させている\nインド神話、ヒンドゥー教、仏教とゾウ.\nインドの神話でゾウは世界を支える存在として描かれる。\nヒンドゥー教には、ゾウの頭を持つガネーシャと呼ばれる神様がいる。仏教では歓喜天に当たり、シヴァ神の長男で富と繁栄の神様とされる。また、天帝インドラはアイラーヴァタと呼ばれる白象に乗っている。\n仏教の影響下、東南アジアでも白いゾウ（白象）は神聖視された。釈迦は白象の姿で母胎に入ったという。ゾウは普賢菩薩の乗る霊獣として描かれることが多い。\nチェスや将棋などの起源と考えられる古代インドのボードゲーム、チャトランガにはゾウを意味する駒があった。シャンチー（後手のみ）やチャンギにも「象」が登場する。日本でも中将棋を含む古将棋の多くに「酔象」があるが、現在の将棋に「酔象」はない。\n古代ローマとゾウ.\n古代地中海世界では戦象としてゾウを軍用に使役していた。古代ローマ人が初めてゾウと遭遇したのはピュロスのイタリア半島侵入の際で、ヘレニズム世界で使用されていた戦術をピュロスがそのまま持ち込んだものであった。このときローマ軍が戦象と戦った場所ルカニアからローマではゾウはルカニアの牛と呼ばれた。こうしたピュロスのエピソード以上に第二次ポエニ戦争の際、カルタゴの将軍ハンニバルがその傭兵部隊に加えて39頭の象を引き連れ、イタリア半島に侵攻したことはよく知られている。アルプス山中で受けた妨害と寒さや餓えのため、イタリアの平野部に到達した象は元の半数以下だったが、それもトレビア川の戦いでインドゾウの一頭を残してことごとく倒れた（最後のゾウ以外はアフリカゾウ（マルミミゾウ）であった）。\nゾウはローマにおいては一般的なものではなく、そのためローマ帝国期においてはときおりゾウがローマ市まで連れてこられ、パンとサーカスの一環として見世物に供された。80年にローマ市中心部において完成したコロッセウムにおいても、ゾウが皇帝に挨拶をしたりダンスを踊った記録が残されている。また、ゾウとほかの猛獣とを戦わせる見世物も行われた。\nシンボルとしてのゾウ.\nゾウはその生息地だけでなく、ゾウの生息しない地域においても大きさや温和さ、強さ、賢さなどのイメージから、さまざまなシンボルに使われてきた。アメリカの二大政党の一つである共和党はゾウを党のシンボルマークに使用している。また、ガーナの二大政党の一つである新愛国党も、偉大さや賢さ、愛情深さなどプラスのイメージを持つゾウを党のシンボルマークとして使用している。\n日本人とゾウ.\nまだユーラシア大陸と陸続きだった頃の日本列島にはナウマンゾウが生息しており、旧石器時代には狩猟対象とされていた。日本においてナウマンゾウは約2万年前に絶滅したとされるが、その骨は後の時代にも珍重され、正倉院にもナウマンゾウの臼歯が竜骨として保管されていた。\n唐時代の官の家畜に関する規定である厩牧令ではラクダとゾウの記述があったが、日本の厩牧令では国内事情に合わせるため記述が削除された。存在自体は仏教の影響で知られており、『今昔物語集』には、イノシシがゾウに乗った普賢菩薩に化けて僧を誑かす逸話がある。12世紀から13世紀に成立したと言われる『鳥獣人物戯画』の乙巻には、長い鼻や太い足、牙など象の特徴をよく捉えた絵が描かれている。\n生きているゾウが日本へ渡来したことが確認できる最も古い文献記録は、応永15年6月22日（1408年7月15日）に若狭国小浜へ入港した南蛮（東南アジア）の船にゾウが積まれていたというものである。この船は亜烈進卿という人物（パレンバンの華僑の頭目施進卿とされる）が派遣したもので、足利義持への献上品として孔雀やオウムなどとともにゾウが積まれていた。このゾウは上京を果たしたようだが、当時の人々の反応を伝える史料は残っていない。その後応永18年（1411年）に、このゾウは足利義持から朝鮮の太宗に贈られた。\n天正3年（1575年）には明の船が象と虎を連れて豊後国臼杵に到来し、大友宗麟に献上されたほか、慶長2年（1597年）にはルソン総督が豊臣秀吉への献上品として、また慶長7年（1602年）には朱印船貿易の相手だったベトナムの阮潢により交趾から徳川家康への献上品として虎・孔雀とともに象1頭が贈られた。神戸市立博物館所蔵の桃山時代の南蛮屏風には日本に連れて来られた象が描かれている。\n享保13年（1728年）6月には、オスメス2頭の象が江戸幕府8代将軍・徳川吉宗の注文により広南（ベトナム）から連れてこられた。メスは上陸地の長崎にて3か月後に死亡したが、暴れることを想定しそれに耐えうる頑丈な国産船が当時無かったことから、オスは長崎から陸路歩行で江戸に向かい、途中、京都では中御門天皇の上覧があり、庶民からもかなりの人気があった。上覧には位階が必要なため、オスのゾウには「従四位広南白象」と位と号が与えられている。江戸では徳川吉宗は江戸城大広間から象を見たという。その後、ゾウは浜御殿にて飼育されていたが、飼料代がかかり過ぎるため寛保元年（1741年）4月、中野村（現東京都中野区）の源助という農民に払い下げられ、翌年12月に病死した。現在も馴象之枯骨（じゅんぞうのここつ）として、中野の宝仙寺に牙の一部が遺されている。\nその後、文化10年6月28日（1813年7月25日）にイギリス船シャルロッテ号とマリア号が長崎に来航した際、将軍への特別の贈り物としてメスの象1頭が連れてこられている。長崎奉行遠山景晋がその象の検分に当たり、しばらく長崎に滞留していたが、同年9月1日に幕府から受け取り拒否の回答が伝えられたため、その象は再び船に乗って日本を出国していった。なお、このイギリス船の来航の本当の目的は、トーマス・ラッフルズの命により、出島のオランダ商館をイギリスに引き渡すようにオランダ商館長ヘンドリック・ドゥーフに要求するためで、象はその挨拶がわりだったのではないかとされている。\n歌舞伎十八番のひとつにゾウを題材とした「象引」がある。\nことわざ.\nゾウの名を持つ生き物.\n大きいこと、鼻が長いことがはっきりした特徴となっているから、そのような特徴を捉えて他の生物の名としている例もある。\n", "線型代数学（せんけいだいすうがく、）とは、線形空間と線形変換を中心とした理論を研究する代数学の一分野である。現代数学において基礎的な役割を果たし、幅広い分野に応用されている。また、これは特に行列・行列式・連立一次方程式に関する理論を含む。線形などの用字・表記の揺れについては線型性を参照。\n日本の大学においては、多くの理系学部学科（特に理学部・工学部）で解析学（微分積分学）とともに初学年から履修する。高校教育においては平成27年度からの新課程では数学Cの廃止に伴い行列の分野が除外されている。但し、2022年（令和4年度）からは数学Cが復活しベクトルと共に行列の分野が高校教育に再導入される。\n概要.\n行列は多変数の一次の関係式で表される関係を簡潔に記述するために用いられ、連立一次方程式の解法の研究の過程で見出された。行列の記法は、ケイリー、シルヴェスター、フロベニウス、アイゼンシュタイン、エルミートがそれぞれ同時期に提唱した。最も早くこの理論を提唱したのはアイゼンシュタインであるが、学会からはなかなか注目されず、ケイリーが取り組んでいたものが30年後にシルヴェスターによって再発見されたことで評価され始めるようになった（シルヴェスターが個別に発見したのか、ケイリーの理論を知っていたのかは詳しくは分かっていない）。\n連立方程式を一次変換と捉える立場からは、線型代数学は、高次元の真っ直ぐな空間（現代的にいえばベクトル空間）の幾何について研究する学問であると言うことができる。このようにベクトル空間とその変換の理論として見るとき、線型代数学は高々有限次元のベクトル空間の理論である。これを無限次元のベクトル空間で対象とするためには、多分に空間の位相とそれに基づく解析学が必要となる。無限次元の線型代数学は関数解析学と呼ばれる。これは、無限次元のベクトル空間がある空間上の関数全体の集合として典型的に現れるからである。応用は多岐に渡るが、経済学に登場する産業連関表や、量子力学において物理量を行列として表現する手法など、20世紀以降の社会科学、自然科学において、行列が果たす役割は大きい。\n和算家の関孝和も現代でいう行列式に当たるものを独自に開発・研究していた。\n線型代数学においては、連立1次方程式の各式は空間内に張られた平面を表しており、その平面同士の交わる領域が連立方程式の解であると説明される。各平面の交わる領域が1点となる場合のみ解が一意に定まり、交わる領域が線の場合に解は無数に存在し、交わる領域が無い場合(例:全ての平面が平行である場合)には解は存在しない。どのように解が存在するかは線型独立な生成元の数を示す拡大係数行列の階数で判定可能である。\n歴史.\n線型代数の歴史は線型方程式系を行列式を用いて解くという研究からはじまった。歴史的には行列式は行列より以前に現れている。西洋の数学史において、行列式はライプニッツが1693年により用いられたのが最初であり、その後、ガブリエル・クラメルがいわゆる「クラメルの公式」で線型方程式系を解く方法を1750年に編み出した。更に後年になってガウスが測地学の研究から「ガウスの消去法」を用いて線型方程式系を解く方法を開発した。おそらく1860年代には行列式の公理的な定義がワイエルシュトラスとクロネッカーによって与えられていた。\n最初に行列代数(matrix algebra)の研究が現れたのは1800年代半ばのイングランドであるとされる。1844年、グラスマンは著書「Theory of Extension(拡大の理論)」を出版し、この本には今日の線型代数学の基本概念に相当する(当時としては)新しい内容が含まれていた。1848年、シルベスターがラテン語で子宮を意味するmatrix(行列)という用語を導入した。線型変換の構成に関する研究全体で、ケイリーは行列の積と逆行列の概念定義した。重要なのは、ケイリーが一つの文字で行列を表記する方法を使ったため、行列が文字を縦横に並べた集合体として扱われたことである。ケイリーはまた行列と行列式との関係を認識しており、「行列の理論はいろいろあるが、私に言わせれば、行列式の理論よりも重要である」と述べている。\n1882年、トルコのは \"Linear Algebra\"(線型代数)と名付けられた本を出版した。公理的な（実数体上の）線型空間の定義や線型変換の定義はペアノによって1888年に与えられ、1900年までには有限次元ベクトル空間の理論が現れた。線型代数が最初に現代化されるのは20世紀の初めの四半世紀であり、ここで多くのアイデアと前世紀に誕生した抽象代数学の概念が導入されていくこととなる。量子力学における行列の使用、特殊相対論、統計学における利用の広がりなど、純粋数学を超えて応用されていった。コンピュータの登場でガウスの消去法の効率的アルゴリズムの研究や、モデルの定式化やシミュレーションなどにも線型代数は必須の道具となっている。\nこれらの概念の起源に関する議論については (「行列式」英語版)、及び(「ガウスの消去法」英語版)を参照のこと。\nなお、日本の和算においては、上述のライプニッツより10年早い時期に同様の研究がによって行われている。\n", "速読術（そくどくじゅつ、英：speed reading、rapid reading、fast reading）とは、文章を速く読むための技術あるいは方法を指す。読書速度を向上させ、効率的に大量の書物を読破する技術である。\n概説.\n学問的には、すべての文字を順に追って理解して読むことが読書の前提であり、この前提を満たした上で速度が速い読書法が速読法とされる。しかし、一般的には、拾い読み、飛ばし読み、斜め読みと呼ばれる読み方や写真記憶などが速読術テクニックとされている。したがって、読む本人が速く読み、読む目的を達成できる読み方なら、どのような速度や理解の程度でも速読術と言える。\n従来、速読術の習得には、視野の拡大、理解度の向上、さらに情報を引き出す速度を改善が必要とされ、そのために速読の目を作る訓練と、速読の脳を作るための訓練が必要とされてきた。しかし、長年にわたる各種心理学の研究によって、2016年までにそのどちらも効果がないことが明らかにされている。\n速読力は、天賦の才能とみなされ、生後に変えられるものではないと思われていた。近年、実験心理学で、読書行動が科学的に分析されるにつれて、速読力を向上させようとする試みがなされてきた。しかし、読解力の元となっている語彙力、知識力、集中力などは個々人による違いがあるため、同じトレーニングをしたとしても結果の個人差は大きい。「理解する」という心や脳の機能が解明されていないため、速読術は厳密には解明されておらず、その技能を向上させることができると認められた方法はない。様々な個人が、独自の方法を唱えているのが現状である。\n日本では1984年に日本初の本格的速読普及活動を開始した日本速読協会、速読能力開発に関して特許を取得した川村明宏、栗田式SRS速読法の栗田昌裕、速読脳開発プログラムの佐々木豊文、日本で初めて大学教育に採用されたフォーカス・リーディングの寺田正嗣などが有名である。これらのうちいくつかは科学的な実験で効果が試されており、川村の手法は富山大学・石井成郎らの研究により時間経過とともにスピードが落ちていく事が明らかにされ、実験では2倍に満たないスピードとなり、そのスピードであれば理解度は維持されているとされている。佐々木豊文の手法は脳科学者らの実験で、8年以上トレーニングを続けて来た一人の被験者については1分間に5,000文字程度のスピードで読み、理解度テストも一般の被験者（非速読者）と比較して若干劣る程度という結果が示されている。その一方、同じ実験に参加した、2人の被験者（6年以上トレーニング継続者と7年以上〃）はスピードの向上もあまり大幅ではなく、しかも理解度の低下が著しいという結果であり、研究者らは「速読は割に合わない」と結論づけている。\n一方、世に知られる僧侶、超能力者たちのなかに、実際に１分間に数万字〜１０万字以上もの速度で本を読めた人がいたことが文献に残っている。その人たちは修行の結果、速読能力を得たものだが、その修行方法は詳らかにされていない。\n速読術の大別.\n速読術は、その由来、目指す読み方、トレーニングの方法、トレーニング原理の有無、達成速度などによって、下記のような観点から整理して考える必要がある。\nどのような手法がどのような効果をもたらすか、訓練によってどのくらいのスピードが実現できるか、その時の理解度はどの程度になるかは、読み手の読書力、設定された目的、既有知識の程度によって決まるものである。速読術を習得しようとするなら、自分の目標・目的を踏まえ、速読術の方法論と目指す能力をよく調べて、自分に適するものを選ぶことが肝要である。\n状況に応じた読みわけ.\nここでは便宜上、速読を「全体理解」と「精読」に分類する。\n樹木に喩えると、「全体理解」で幹や大枝を捉え、全体のイメージを掴み、「精読」で葉っぱや花など細かな部分にまで注意を向ける。専門書や試験問題を読んで学習するためには、この「精読」の読み方が中心となる。\n速読術の歴史と現状.\n科学的研究では、速読術は全ての文字を順に読んでいく読み方が前提になっている。拾い読みや飛ばし読み、斜め読みを方法とする速読術は研究の対象外である。科学的には速読も読書行動の一種であり、その意味で速読術の研究は読書の研究から始まる。\n読書を最初に研究したのは、実験心理学の祖とされるW. M. ヴント（Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt）と言われている。１９世紀半ばのことである。ヴントは、ドイツのライプツィヒ大学教授で、感覚生理学を背景に、被験者の読書時の行動を観察する手法で研究を行った 。\nそのヴントの指導のもとに読書の研究を発展させていったのは、アメリカ人 J. M. キャッテルである。キャッテルは、綴りと単語認知、綴りと印刷形態、注意範囲などをテーマにした。キャッテルの影響を受けた研究者は数多く、２０世紀に入ると、研究の中心はアメリカに移った 。\nヴントとほぼ同じ時期に、読書行動過程を眼球運動と関連させた研究が、パリ大学の眼科医のE. ジャヴァールによって始められた。彼は、読書中の目の動きが停留（fixation）と飛越（saccade）の繰り返しであることを発見し、その論文は1879年に発表された。それまで読書中の目の動きは滑らかなものと考えられていたが、彼の研究によって、停留（fixation）と飛越（saccade）の繰り返しであることことが明らかにされたわけで、以後1950年頃まで、速読術は眼球運動との関係を研究テーマとして追及されていく。この意味で、速読術の研究は、ジャヴァールから始まったと言える。\nアメリカに読書研究の中心が移ると、その研究対象はさらに広げられていく。視声距離、読書速度、目や耳の認識、黙読中の唇の動き、視覚の鋭敏さなどといった研究がなされている。その中で、ウィスコンシン大学のクワンツ教授は、普通の人の読書は、目で見た文字を一度頭の中で音声化する過程を通して認識しているのに対して、読みの速い人は読書するときにこの音声化の過程を通すことなく、目で見た瞬間に認識できることを発見した 。\nさらに、眼球運動に関する研究は、２０世紀初頭、ヒューイやドッジ、ジャッドらによって眼球運動を記録する装置が工夫されたのを機に、精力的に進められた。その結果、読書中の眼球運動は、停留（fixation）、飛越運動（saccade）、行間運動（sweep）、逆行運動（regression）の４つに大別できることが明らかになった 。\nその後、これらの眼球運動と読書速度との関係が多数研究され、読書心理学では、次の２つの事実が実験で明確にされた。\n（１）読書速度の速い人は、遅い人よりも、１行当たりの停留数が、少ない。\n（２）読書速度の速い人は、遅い人よりも、逆行数が少ない。\nこれらの実験事実から、速く読むためには、速い人の眼球運動を身に付けるようにするという方法論が提示された。停留数が少ないということは、１回の停留で読み取れる文字数が多い、すなわち認知視野が広いこと意味する。そこで、認知視野を広げることが、速読術の要諦と考えられた。\nまた逆行数が少ないことは、集中して読んでいることを意味するので、集中して読むことも速読術の要諦となった。\nこのような原理で作られたトレーニングが、アメリカ式速読法である。シラキュース大学では１９２５年に速読法の講座が開講された。以来、米国では正式科目として採用する大学も多く、各地で行われている。民間で有名なのは、エヴェリンウッドの速読法であり、ケネディ大統領やカーター大統領もこの方法で速読トレーニングしたと言われている。\n日本では、田中広吉が読書中の眼球運動を最初に観察したとされる。この原理の速読術は、馬淵、佐藤、阪本らによって日本に紹介された。それによると、アメリカ式速読術によって達成される読書速度は、３〜８倍程度とされる。\n上記の読書心理学の研究者らが読書の啓蒙書として速読術に関する書を著したが、1960年代頃からは、ビジネス分野での情報処理速度を上げるための自己啓発書として速読関係の本が出版されるようになった。\nこのアメリカで発達した読書心理学の理論を踏まえながら、新しい読書力の教育法を提示したのは、大韓民国の国立ソウル大学校師範大学で専任講師をしていた朴鏵燁であった。その到達読書速度は１万字／分を超える画期的な方法であった。朴は、兵役で低下した学力を回復させた自分の体験をもとに、教育心理学と読書心理学の知見を総合して創案した読書教育であったが、結果的に画期的な速読教育を打ち出してしまったのであった。\n朴は、1970年代から研究を開始し、1976年12月に最初の研究論文を発表し、さらに1978年に最初の著書「読書能力を伸ばす実験読書方法」を著した。その講義は、師範大学教育研究所主催で1979年５月に開催された。その結果は、ソウル大学校総長、学長、所長の前で報告され、高く評価された。\n一方、その講義の様子は韓国の主要新聞やテレビで取り上げられ、「１分間に１万字を読む」と報道された。その結果、韓国内では直ちに、朴が独自に創案したトレーニング図を真似た速読術が多数現れた。その中には、１分間に100万字を読むというものまで現れ、その粗悪な内容がマスコミに批判され、やがて衰退していった。\n日本では1982年３月、NHK-TVの番組「NC９」で、韓国のソウル大学校の講義の様子や、民間の速読塾で子供たちが学ぶ様子が報道された。1984年、日本に韓国の速読術が入ってきたが、それは韓国で１分間に100万字を読むと宣伝して批判されたキム式速読術であったため、受講生の期待が大きい一方でトレーニングしても成果が出ないという批判も出た。そのため日本国内では、その後、様々な人がそれぞれ工夫した速読術を作り出していくこととなった。\n1980年代は、折しもパソコンやインターネットが普及し始めた時代であり、特にビジネス界では多量の情報を処理する能力の向上が望まれた。その流れに対応して、アメリカからも、フォトリーディングなど、民間で作られた方法が入ってきた。また国内でも、パソコンを使う方法のものなど、様々な速読トレーニングが生まれた。その流れは現在も続いている。\n1986年、清州師範大学（後に西原大学）助教授だった朴鏵燁は、NBS日本速読教育連盟に招かれ、「科学的速読法」について講演会やセミナーを開催するとともに、佐々木豊文と共同して、指導プログラムを作成した。\n以降、佐々木は自らの速読教室や目白大学（非常勤講師［1995.10〜2004.3］）で講義を担当しながら指導プログラムの改善を図ってきた。また、日本医科大学の故品川嘉也教授、河野貴美子研究員を皮切りに、情報通信研究機構の藤巻則夫研究員、東京大学の植田一博教授、早稲田大学の宮田裕光教授ら、多くの研究者と共同して、１万字/分以上の速度で読むことのできる「速読脳」習得者について、実験心理学、認知科学、脳神経科学の方法を用いた研究結果を発表している\n。\n科学的研究による知見.\n速読術に関係する科学的研究は、NBS日本速読教育連盟の受講生を被験者として、専門家によって共同研究が行われ、多くの論文が発表されている。速読力（1万字／分以上）を身につけた人が速読をしているときの脳活動を、脳波計（EEG）や機能的核磁気共鳴画像法（fM R I）、近赤外線分光法（NIRS; 光トポグラフィー）などの脳機能計測法を用いて測定した研究、速読中の文章理解や眼球運動を検討した研究、空間的注意を検討する視覚探索課題などの行動課題による研究、速読訓練とマインドフルネスや心理的健康との関連を調べた研究などがなされている。\n最終的な結論を提示するには、さらなる研究が待たれるが、現在おおよそ、次のような結果が得られている。\n⑴ 読書能力はトレーニングによって向上する。高度に熟達した速読者では、理解を伴った高速での読みができている事例が示されている。\n⑵ 速読時には脳の音韻的処理（音声化）に関係する部位（ブローカ野、ウェルニッケ野）の活動は低下する。\n⑶ 有効視野は、トレーニングによって拡大する。\n⑷ 速読時には右脳頭頂葉の空間認識領域（右頭頂間溝）が活性化している。\n⑸ 速読の読みには、視覚野や左脳の読書書字中枢（角回）、右脳の空間認識野、さらには視覚野（イメージ中枢）などが関係する新たな理解の脳神経回路が使われていると想定される。\n⑹ 速読時は、前頭葉の活動から見て、集中力が高まっている。\n⑺ 速読能力をトレーニングしている人では、していない人よりマインドフルネス傾向（観察・気づき・受容）や主観的幸福感、ポジティブな気分などは高く、抑うつ傾向は低い。\n⑻ 速読の訓練期間が長く熟達レベルが高いほど、マインドフルネス傾向や主観的幸福感が高い。\n高度な読書力と速読テクニックの混同.\n本来、高速で理解することができる読書能力は、多くの書物を読んだ人だけが到達する高度な読書力である。それは文章全体を順に追い、著者の思考経路をたどって正確な理解を期すものであり、記憶を伴った読書力である。\nしかし、1960年代頃から情報化時代が始まり、書籍の内容を思考して理解するよりも、知識を得るだけの読み方が意味を持つようになった。このような社会の動きが、早く知識を得る読みのテクニックとして速読術の登場を促した。確かに現代は膨大な情報が世に溢れており、日常生活でもビジネスでも、その情報をすばやく処理することは不可欠である。ここに、速読術の存在意義があることは間違いない。\nしかし、速読術のテクニックを使って、高速の情報処理ができたとしても、それが高度な読書力とは必ずしも言えない。「すばやく欲しい情報を得る」能力は高度な読書力の一面を表していることは確かだが、速読術のテクニックを使って内容を把握したとしても、高度な読書力の育成には、必ずしも結びつかないということである。\nもちろん、すでに多くの読書経験を持ち、思考力や知識を豊富に有している人が、速く読む力を身につけるなら、高度な読書力の獲得に大いに役立つ。しかし、本を読む習慣のない人が速読術のテクニックを駆使したとしても、読書力の向上に役立たないだけでなく、読書の本質を見失う可能性さえある。高度な読書力を得るためには、多くの書物を読み、語彙力や知識力、思考力などを磨くことが不可欠と言える。\n高度な読書力に発達するのは全ての文字を順に読んで、逐次理解しながら読んでいく読み方の読書である。この読み方（全部読み）で速く読めるようになる速読術なら、そのトレーニングは高度な読書力の育成に役立つ。一般に、速読術という言葉は、部分読みも全部読みも、また理解の低い読み方も高い読み方の意味も含んでいる。速読術を学ぼうとする人は、この点をよく考慮して方法を選択することが賢明であろう。\n速読術への批判.\n速読術は早く読むために一時的に用いる技術という面と、読書力を改善向上させた結果習得される能力という面がある。前者は、必ずしも読書力の向上を意味しない。したがって、読書力の低下が心配されている教育現場では、正確に理解する読解力が育っていない生徒や学生に速読術を教えることには批判的である。\n一方、教育現場の中でも受験になると速度を求められるので、受験勉強を指導する塾や予備校では速読術を採用しているところは多い。また、ビジネスの現場では常に事務処理の効率化が求められており、速読力の必要性は一般的に認識されている。このように、速読ないしは速読術については、是と否と両方の考えがある。\n研究者の間では批判的見解や研究も少なくない。すなわち、速読では、速く読むにつれて理解度が低下するので意味がないという批判である。アメリカでは、速読とは文字を高速で追う読み（scanning）や拾い読み（skimming）をして大意を把握しようとする読みのテクニックと一般的に受け止められている。速読術についてこのように理解されている中では、上述の批判は的を射ているといえよう。\nまた速読に関する研究は、人間の知的能力とその活動についての測定や調査である。被験者が速読できるとしても、どのレベルの速読のできる人なのか、そもそも速読能力をどのように評価して測定条件を統一するのか、速読力を発揮できる環境で測定を行なっているのかなど、その研究には難しい課題が多い。このことも速読術への評価を難しくしている。\n一方、日本では1987年12月５日にNHKニュースで、「読書は左脳を使っていると思われていたが、速読では右脳も使われていることが分かった」と日本医科大学とNBS日本速読教育連盟との共同研究の結果が報道され、また2002年１月２日にNHKの番組「ためしてガッテン」で、同じくNBS日本速読教育連盟で速読ができた人と普通の人の脳活動の違いと、吉本のお笑い芸人がトレーニングして速読できるようになる様子が報道されたことにより、速読術に対する見解は必ずしも批判一辺倒ではなくなった。\nこのことは、その後もNHK-ETVで繰り返し取り上げられたことや、2010年に再び「ためしてガッテン」のテーマとして取り上げられたことから判断される。また「速読」という言葉が見出し語になかった国語辞典「広辞苑」でも第六版（2008）から、見出し語として採用されるようになった。\n具体的な訓練方法.\n文章の全ての文字を順に読んでいく通常の読書速度は、成人でも200字／分程度から3000字／分程度まで、十倍以上の差がある。読書速度の速い人がごく当たり前にやっていることは、遅い人にとっては、速読テクニックとなる。そのようなテクニックとしては、次のような方法が挙げられる。\n　⑴ 精神集中\n　　集中して読むなら、誰でも必ず集中していないときより速く読むことができる。読み始める前に、気持ちを落ち着けて、深く集中して読むことを自らの意志を確認して読み始めることは、基本的に大切なことである。\n　　ストップウォッチを用意して、速度を意識しながら読むのは、集中力を刺激し、速読術テクニックとして有効である。\n　⑵ 読む目的に応じた読みわけ\n　　精読するにしても、予めその文ないしは本の概要を把握しておくことは、正確な理解や速く効率の良い読みに役立つ。多くの読書経験のある人は当然としてやっていることである。例えば、\n　　① 本文を読む前に、目次に目を通しておく。\n　　② 内容の解説文があれば、それを先に読む。\n　　③ 新聞や雑誌の記事では、前文をまず読む。\n　　④ 精読する前に、拾い読みや斜め読みをして、概要を把握し、読みの必要性の有無を判断する。\nなど。\n⑶ 「視読」と速読\n　速読とは「視読」だと言われる。文字を心の中で音声化していては速く読めないことは容易に納得できる。文字を見た瞬間に、音声化せずに理解できないと、速くは読めない。だから速読しようとするなら、音声化しないで理解することが必要であり、その理解能力を「視読」と読んでいる。\n　実は、高度な読書力を有する人は「視読」の能力を有している。多くの本を読んだことにより読書における理解機能として自然に発達しているからである。その「視読」能力には、音声化して読む時と同様に無理なく使える理解が伴っている。\n一方、一部の速読術では「視読」を速読のテクニックとして、「視読」で読むことを指導している。しかし、多読の結果として発達した読み方を、読書量の少ない人が、速読テクニックとして真似ても理解は伴わない。「視読」の能力は、即戦的に使えるテクニックではなく、多読の結果発達する読書能力だからである。\nもちろん、すべての文字を順に読み取っていく合理的な速読術トレーニングで速く読めるようになったなら、「視読」の能力は自ずと伴っている。「視読」の能力を高度に発達させたときには、１分間に数万字以上を読む驚異的な読書速度が可能とされている。\n速読術の効果と諸言語.\n日本語の速読.\n漢字は表意文字であるため、イメージ化しやすいという特徴がある。日本語には、漢字と平仮名があるので、漢字に注目して読んでいけば、自然に速読することができる。また、目次ページを最初によく見ておけば、章タイトルで筆者が何を言いたいのかが、理解しやすくなる。\n英語の速読.\n多くの日本人は1分間に100語以上の速さで英文を読むことができない。返り読みをせずに、英文を頭から読み下すことが必要である。自然な速さで英文を音読することで英文を読む速さを高めることができる。スローダウンしていない自然な速さのリスニングにも同様の効果がある。\nしかし、英文を音読した場合、1分間に150語程度が限界だと言われている。それ以上の速さを目指すのであれば黙読し、内言（心中発声）を止めなければならない。日本語の速読術と同様の方法が必要となるのはこのレベルからである。\n名詞や動詞などの内容語に注目し、冠詞や前置詞や代名詞などの機能語を軽く読むと良い。however, for example などのディスコースマーカーに注目し、段落相互の関係をつかむことも必要である。\nフォトリーディング.\nポール・シーリイによって提唱された速読法で、一分間に25,000文字を読解することが可能だとされている。2001年にフォレスト出版から発売された『あなたもいままでの10倍速く本が読める』により日本に広まった。しかしオールド・ドミニオン大学心理学部教授のダニエル・マクナマラ博士は、NASAに提出した論文で以下のようにその効果を疑問視している。\neyeQ.\nアメリカではeyeQと呼ばれる速読法が行われており、学生の学習能力の向上や企業の業務効率改善に効果を発揮している。\n", "マリ・エスプリ・レオン・ワルラス（ヴァルラス、 、1834年12月16日 - 1910年1月5日）は、フランス生まれの経済学者。スイスのローザンヌ・アカデミーで経済学の教鞭を執った。経済学的分析に数学的手法を積極的に活用し、一般均衡理論を最初に定式化し、ヨーゼフ・シュンペーターによって「すべての経済学者の中で最も偉大」と評された。生涯、労働者の貧困解決を課題とする社会主義者でもあった。\n生涯.\nワルラスは1834年、フランスのエヴルーに生まれた。エコール・ポリテクニークを受験するものの、最初は受験要件を満たせず、翌年は数学で失敗し、入学できなかった。やむなくパリ国立高等鉱業学校に入学したが、当時のこの学校の実学指向の強さを嫌い、文学に傾倒し、サンシモン主義者と交わったりして二年留年し、中退した。サンシモン主義者との交流や、父の影響で、土地国有化思想を身につけた。\nその後、父のオーギュスト・ワルラスの説得を受け入れて、経済学研究を始めた。経済雑誌記者、鉄道会社の事務員等職を転々とし、レオン・セイ（ジャン＝バティスト・セイの孫、後財務大臣などを務める）と、協同組合割引銀行を設立しその理事となる。この事業は、ワルラスの反対にも拘わらず、消費協同組合に過剰融資を行い、行き詰まって倒産した。事後処理のために管財人の銀行に雇われ、その間にローザンヌで開かれた租税会議の論文コンクールに応募し、4位に入っている（この時の1位はプルードン）。\n36歳の時、租税会議で彼に注目していたルショネーに誘われ、スイス、ヴォー州に完成したローザンヌ・アカデミー（後のローザンヌ大学）の新設に際して募集された経済学教授採用試験に応募した。その社会主義的主張に対する反対に対し、知名人二人と学問的寛容さを示したダメット教授、ルショネーの賛成を得て、4対3で辛うじて合格し、一年の仮採用の後、初代教授となった。\n彼の理論は、記述言語としての数学の利用がよく理解されず、難解と思われ、その重要性は長い間認められなかった。彼自身、そのことはよく理解しており、友人に宛てた手紙の中でもそのことに触れている。自分の理論の広がりを喩えて、彼は友人に宛てた手紙でこのように語っている。\nそれでも彼の理論は、徐々に広がっていき、その死の直前には、最初の著作（『経済学と正義』）以来の研究50周年を1909年に祝われ、世界中の経済学者から感謝のメッセージを受けたのは、幸いであった。彼は1892年に教授職を退き、1910年、モントレーの近くのClarensで死去した。\n思想・影響.\n父オーギュスト・ワルラスの影響.\n父のオーギュスト・ワルラスは、元は法学者であったが、当時の価値論に不満を持ち、経済学研究を始めた。オーギュスト・ワルラスは、中学校の校長、その後視学官を務めており、職業的な経済学者ではなかった。しかし、レオン・ワルラスの自伝によれば、その経済思想は、息子に着想を与えるという点では、特に土地国有化論と共に、価値論について大きな影響を及ぼした。もっとも、人間の欲求の絶対量に対する財の稀少性に基づいて価値を規定するオーギュスト・ワルラスの概念は、レオン・ワルラスの稀少性概念とは相当に異なるので、息子は父の言葉だけを受け継ぎ、その概念は独自のものであると言える。\nまた、ワルラスは、社会改革の理想も父から受け継いだ。レオン・ワルラスは、土地の国有化をオーギュストから受け継いで提唱した。その要点は次の通りである。社会が進歩するにつれて、資本蓄積が進行し、人口は増加していく。しかし、土地の存在量は事実上固定されているので、社会発展と共に地価は常に上昇していく。そして、私有財産制の下では、その収益は土地の所有者である地主に帰する。しかし、それは地主の活動によるものではなく、いわば社会の発展の成果を地主が独占することを意味する。一方、労働の成果は労働をした個人に帰するべきものであるから、賃金・俸給に対する課税は、個人の権利を侵害することになる。それでも、個人を超えた別個の存在としての国家或いは社会は、その活動のための収入を必要とする。ワルラス父子は、土地は自然からすべての人間に与えられたものであるから、社会が必要とする経費は地代収入によって賄うべきであり、それによって国家は個人の権利を侵害する課税の必要がなくなると論じた。もっとも、私有財産である土地を無償で権力的に取り上げることはできないので、ある種の債券を対価として発行することで、土地を国有化することを提案している。しかし、それも現実には不可能であるという結論に至っている。\n数学の導入.\nオーギュスト・ワルラスのエコール・ノルマル・シュペリウールでの学生時代の友人アントワーヌ・オーギュスタン・クールノーは、経済学への数学の導入について、レオン・ワルラスに大きな影響を与えた。また、A・N・イスナールからの影響も指摘されている。レオン・ワルラスの数学的手法やフランス的合理主義は、クールノーから学んだものである。クールノーは、生産量は需要、価格、費用に関係するという関数を考案したほか、独占的競争から出発して、市場参加者の数を増やしていき、一般的競争市場の理論に行き着こうとした。これに対して、ワルラスは、絶対的自由競争という理念型の下での一般的市場競争から出発し、特殊なケースに進むべきであると主著では主張している。\n小室直樹によれば、その後の数理経済学に絶大な影響を与えたワルラスだが、本人はそれほど数学が得意でなかったとしている。実際、ワルラスが経済学に導入した数学は、計算のためというよりは記述言語として使われており、連立方程式の数と未知数の数が一致することを示すことで、たいていの場合は解が存在する、ということに留まる。逆に、この壮大なモデルの穴を埋めていくことが、その後の経済学者の関心を引いたと言える。\n限界革命.\nレオン・ワルラスは、ウィリアム・スタンレー・ジェヴォンズやカール・メンガーと並んで限界革命を導いた理論家の一人に数えられる。この二人には、主著初版の発刊時期でこそ後れを取っているものの、二人とは独立して独自に理論形成を行った。『純粋経済学要論』の主要な内容は、『社会的富の数学的理論」で同時期に示されている。ジェヴォンズとは、頻繁に書簡を通じてのやり取りがあり、そこから二人は共に、ヘルマン・ハインリヒ・ゴッセンの理論を先駆者として認めている。アルフレッド・マーシャル、メンガーとも文通交流はあるものの、それ程活発とは言えない。特にメンガーは経済学の数学的定式化に懐疑的であったし、また均衡点の分析よりも均衡に至る過程を重視していたので、ワルラスとの文通も活発にはならなかった。\n一般均衡理論.\n彼の最大の著作である『純粋経済学要論』(\"Eléments d'économie politique pure, ou théorie de la richesse sociale\")は1874年に上巻が、1877年に下巻が出版された。この著作によってワルラスは、一般均衡理論の父と考えられている。ワルラスはその経済学大系（l'économie politique et sociale)を、三分する。それは三層に分かれる。現実の本質的な部分を抽出して再構成した（真理を示す）理論経済学を土台として、その論理的成果を利用して人々の経済的厚生を高める（効用を問題とする）応用経済学、更には人と人の関係を問題とする（正義に関わる）社会経済学である。特に理論経済学の最大の目的は、自由競争が適用されるべき範囲を画定することだと言ってもよい。当時のセーの流れを汲む正統派経済学者たち（同時に教条的自由放任主義者と言ってもよい）が、根拠を示すことなく、あらゆる側面で自由放任主義を唱えることを強く批判している。そこでワルラスが考える完全競争ではすべての市場で需給を一致させる競争均衡価格が実現する。\nワルラスの一般均衡理論は、ローザンヌ大学時代の弟子であるヴィルフレート・パレートを中心とするグループ（ローザンヌ学派）によって継承され、よく知られるようになった。後にワシリー・レオンチェフによって実際の経済に適用する道が開かれた。\nジョン・メイナード・ケインズはワルラスの一般均衡理論で想定されている経済が現実の市場と大きく乖離していることを強く批判し、ワルラス流の価格決定モデルは非現実的であると述べた。この批判は、ワルラス自身の方法論からいえば、それは問題が違う、ということになる。他方、「新しい古典派」の理論家たちはケインズを異端と見なし、ワルラスの一般均衡理論を再評価する。\n", "ルートヴィヒ・マクシミリアン大学ミュンヘン（ルートヴィヒ・マクシミリアンだいがくミュンヘン、、、略称: LMU München）は、ドイツ・バイエルン州の州都ミュンヘンにある総合大学である。1472年に設置された。通称、ミュンヘン大学。2019年のTHE世界大学ランキングにおいて32位にランクインした、ドイツ、そしてヨーロッパを代表する名門大学の１つである。また「人文科学部門」で16位（国内1位）、「物理科学部門」で23位（国内1位）、「教育部門」で36位（国内1位）、「医学部門」で40位（国内2位）に位置している。\n歴史.\n沿革.\n1472年に下バイエルン＝ランツフート公ルートヴィヒ9世によってインゴルシュタットにインゴルシュタット大学として創設されたが、北のプロテスタント系ライプツィヒ大学と対立して長らくイエズス会の支配下におかれ、ナポレオン戦争の後の1826年にバイエルン王ルートヴィヒ1世によってミュンヘンに移転再創設された。このとき、現在の名であるミュンヘン大学（）となった。ドイツ国内では、継続する大学のうち6番目に古く、世界でも最も古い大学に数えられる。\n白バラ抵抗運動.\nナチ時代には、反ナチ抵抗運動である「白バラ」の拠点となった。白バラは、ミュンヘン大学の学生で構成されており、ハンス・ショルとその妹ゾフィー・ショルを筆頭に、他にもクリストフ・プロープスト、ヴィリー・グラーフ、アレクサンダー・シュモレルの3人の学生、およびクルト・フーバー教授らが活動に参加していた。\n基礎データ.\n所在地.\n大学は南ドイツのバイエルン州の州都であるミュンヘンに位置する。\n&lt;mapframe latitude=\"50.972265\" longitude=\"10.349121\" zoom=\"5\" width=\"263\" height=\"300\" align=\"right\"&gt;{\n \"type\": \"FeatureCollection\",\n \"features\": [\n \"type\": \"Feature\",\n \"properties\": {},\n \"geometry\": {\n \"type\": \"Point\",\n \"coordinates\": [\n 11.58015310764313,\n 48.150837613459316\n ]\n}&lt;/mapframe&gt;\nミュンヘンは科学や研究の先進地で、1901年にノーベル物理学賞を受賞したヴィルヘルム・レントゲン（1900-1920年までミュンヘン大学に在籍）から2005年のテオドール・ヘンシュ（ミュンヘン大学教授）のノーベル物理学賞の受賞まで100年以上の長い研究地としての歴史がある。また、ルートヴィヒ4世の時代から既に精神的な中心地としてパドヴァのマルシリウスやオッカムのウィリアムなどの哲学者は王室の庇護の下にあった。\nマックス・プランク研究所関連の研究機関がミュンヘンには多く立地している他、フラウンホーファー協会など他の研究機関も様々なものが立地している。\n街については「ミュンヘン」を参照。\n最寄り駅\n・大学駅 (U3/U6)\nミュンヘン地下鉄3号・6号線に大学(Universität)という名の駅がある。これはミュンヘン大学本館の前に位置する駅である。\nキャンパス.\nミュンヘン大学は、キャンパスを持たない大学都市型のスタイルを採っているため、学科や大学施設などは街の至るところに点在している。しかし、大学施設が集まった地区があり、塀によって区切られたキャンパスは見られないものの、そこを便宜上キャンパスと呼ぶことができる。\n市街地キャンパス（Innenstadtcampus）\nミュンヘンの中心（シュヴァービング地区）にある位置し、ミュンヘン大学の歴史的な本館がある。主に、社会科学と人文科学が収容されている。 本館の南棟には大学図書館があり、その所蔵には他の13の場所と合わせて470万冊以上の蔵書が含まれている。 バイエルン州立図書館のほか、多くの重要な博物館やアーカイブにも近接している。 これにより、研究と教育に最適なインフラが確保されている。 キャンパス周辺の駐車場は非常に限られているため、アクセスは公共交通機関（バス・地下鉄・トラム）の利用が勧められている。\nハイテクキャンパス（HighTechCampus Großhadern/Martinsried）\n自然科学と生命科学のほとんどは、グロースハーデン・マーティン通りにあるハイテクキャンパスに集中している。 マックス・プランク研究所およびミュンヘン・ヘルムホルツ・センターに近接しているため、革新的な基礎研究をネットワーク化することができる。 IZBインキュベーターとBioMAGにより、優れた研究結果のアプリケーション指向技術への移転もハイテクキャンパスで促進することができる。\n組織.\n学部・学部附属機関.\n大学設立当初は、哲学部・法学部・医学部・神学部を備えていた。現在では、18学部に700人の教官を擁する学生数44,000人の総合大学となっている。学部は下記の通り組織されている。\n公式のナンバリングでは06と14が欠番となっている。このうち06であった林学部 (Forstwissenschaftliche Fakultät) は1999年にミュンヘン工科大学に移転されており、14は13に併合された。工学系学部がないのは工学教育がミュンヘン工科大学で行われているからである。\n施設.\nミュンヘン大学の本館（メインビルディング）はミュンヘン中心地の北側に位置し、すぐそばにはGeorgianum(神学校)、ルートヴィヒ教会、勝利の門 、バイエルン州立図書館がある。建物内部には多数の講堂、ゼミ教室、Audimax大講義室、大講堂、白バラ記念館、大学行政の一部がある。建物の前は、白バラ運動にちなみ「ショル兄妹広場」と名付けられ、地面には当該ビラのレプリカが見えるように埋められている。地下鉄3号線・6号線の大学(Universität)駅に直結している。\nLichthof(光の間)\n本館に入った正面にある広い空間。白バラでショル兄妹がビラをばら撒いた場所である。\n本館とそのすぐ周囲には、数多くの施設と主にカトリック神学部、福音主義神学部、法学部、経営学部、経済学部、史学・芸術学部、哲学・科学哲学・宗教学部、言語学・文学部、文化学部、 数学・情報学・統計学部の研究所がある。エングリッシュガーテンの東側に位置する研究棟には、情報学研究所の大部分と、政治学研究所が入っている。また、日本センターとその他の小さな施設もここに見られる。\n本館の南棟には大学図書館があり、その所蔵には他の13の場所と合わせて470万冊以上の蔵書が含まれている。それとは別に各学部付属図書館にて専門書が収集されている。また、レオポルト通りには教科書を集めた図書館があり貸出可能となっている。図書館に入るためには、カバンをロッカーに預ける必要があり、飲食物の持ち込みも禁止である。\nミュンヘン大学の大学病院は、市街地キャンパスと市内南部のグロースハーダーンの２か所に設備を持っている。\n学食(Mensa)は、Studierendenwerk Münchenによって運営されている。レオポルト通りメンザは、地下鉄Giselastraße駅を出てすぐの場所にある。\n大学公式グッズが販売されている。校章入りのマグカップ、パーカー、文房具などを購入することが可能である。Giselastraße駅直結の建物の中にあり、学食 (Leoportstraße) の建物の隣に位置する。\n教育と研究.\nミュンヘン大学は、ハイデルベルク大学やベルリン大学と並ぶ国内最高水準の教育と研究力を誇り、世界各国から多くの留学生や研究者が集まる最も権威のある学術機関の一つである。この点、各世界大学ランキングにおいて、ミュンヘン工科大学やハイデルベルク大学等と国内首位の座を常に争っている。また、ヨーロッパ研究大学連盟（LERU）に加盟している。\n専攻.\nミュンヘン大学は、学士・修士・博士の課程において約150の専攻を提供している。ドイツでは、伝統的なディプロームやマギスターから国際的な学士・修士へのシステムへの移行であるボローニャプロセスが進行している。ミュンヘン大学では100以上の専攻で主専攻と副専攻の組み合わせによる学位取得プログラムが提供されている。\nエクセレント・イニシアチブ.\nドイツ連邦政府による「エクセレント・イニシアチブ」に指定されている。すなわち、エリート大学という評価を受け、多くの研究資金を得ている。2006年の開始以来、継続して選出されていて2019年にも再選出された。\n学費.\n学費（Studiumgebühr）はドイツ人・外国人に関係なく無料である。そのため、世界各国の優秀な学生を獲得するのに成功している。\n大学関係者.\nこれまでに、42人の大学関係者がノーベル賞を受賞している。\nノーベル文学賞\nノーベル物理学賞\nノーベル医学生理学賞\nノーベル化学賞\n政治家\nその他\nなお、日本人留学生も少なくなく、ミュンヘン大学博士号取得者の中で、過去現在日本で活躍している人文社会科学思想理科系の学者としては、\nなどが挙げられる。\n対外関係.\n協定校（日本）\nその他.\n第二次世界大戦中、ドイツ国内における反ナチス運動の一つである白いバラの活動がミュンヘン大学を中心として行われた。メンバーは大学の医学部生であり、大学内でのパンフレット配布の際に逮捕され、その後、死刑に処されている。一方で、ミュンヘン一揆が発生した土地柄、ニュルンベルク裁判において絞首刑となったヘルマン・ゲーリングやハンス・フランク、ヴィルヘルム・フリックといったナチス・ドイツの幹部を多く輩出した。また、トゥーレ協会の一員で、ナチ党にも深く関わっていた地政学者、カール・ハウスホーファーがその教鞭をとったこともある。\n", "スイス連邦工科大学チューリッヒ校（スイスれんぽうこうかだいがくチューリッヒこう、, 英語: Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, ETH）は、スイス連邦のチューリッヒ市にある、スイス連邦経済・教育・研究省下の国立大学である。 自然科学と工学を対象とした工科大学であり、1855年に創設され、これまでに21名のノーベル賞受賞者を輩出している。\n留学生が多く、世界約120カ国から集まった2万1000人以上の学生が学ぶ。学費は年間約1380スイスフラン（日本円換算で約14万円）と、物価が高いスイス国内としては低く抑えている。世界中から優秀な人材を集めて、スイスの国際競争力向上やイノベーションを促す狙いがある。\nETHは世界有数の工科大学であり、様々な大学ランキングの上位に入ることが多い。また、フランス語圏のローザンヌには姉妹校であるスイス連邦工科大学ローザンヌ校（EPFL）がある。ETHはIDEAリーグと国際研究型大学連合の創設時のメンバーであり、 の一員でもある。\n建築学科、土木工学科、機械工学科、化学科、林学科に加えて、多目的学科（数学・自然科学・文学・社会学・政治学を包括）があり、レントゲン、アインシュタインなどが学んだ。アインシュタインは、大学に残って助手になりたがったが採用されなかった（後に教授職に就いている）。\n名称.\n一般にはチューリッヒ工科大学などと呼ばれることが多い。地元チューリッヒ（ドイツ語圏）では、Poly (ドイツ語での旧称である\"Eidgenössisches Polytechnikum\"に由来）や、ETH、ETH Zürich（いずれも現在のドイツ語の名称に由来）などとと呼ばれることも多い。とくに、ETH（ドイツ語では「エーテーハー」に近い発音になる）という呼称は大学の公式HPなどでも広く使われている。便宜上、本記事でもスイス連邦工科大学チューリッヒ校を指してETHの語を用いることにする。\n沿革.\nETHは1854年にスイス連邦共和国政府によって設立され、教育機関としてはその翌年から機能し始めた。創設時の名称は\"Eidgenössische Polytechnische Schule\"である（「国立技術専門学校」の意）。当初は建築学科、都市工学科、機械工学科、化学科、林業学科、多目的学科（数学、自然科学、文学、社会=政治学を包括）の6つの学科より構成されていた。ETHは国立の単科大学であり（スイス政府の直属の付置機関でもある）、チューリッヒ市街地のキャンパスのすぐ隣には州立のチューリッヒ大学がある。\nETH設立の際には、その妥当性を巡って議論が分かれた。自由主義者は「国立大学」の設立を政府に要求した一方、保守勢力は自由主義者の考えには妥協せず、スイス国内の全ての大学は州立であるべきだと主張した。設立当初、ETHはチューリッヒ大学内の建物に間借りしていた。\n1909年、ETHの教育課程は大学のものに沿った形に再構成され、博士号授与の権利が与えられた。1911年に現在の名前になった。1924年には学科の再編成が行われ、12の学科に再編された。現在、ETHには16の学科がある。\n1993年からは、ETHとEPFL、そのほか4つの国立研究所をあわせてETH領域というスイス連邦経済・教育・研究省直属の付置機関となった。\n評価.\nETHは常に世界のトップレベルの大学に位置づけられる。有名な世界大学ランキングでは毎年スイス国内の大学としては最上位に、ヨーロッパ圏としては上位5校、世界では上位15校にランク入りすることが多い。また、SwissUP Ranking スイス国内の大学ランキングやドイツ語圏の大学ランキングにおいても、ETHは特に自然科学分野・コンピューター分野で1位になることが多い。\nETHはこの5年連続で、タイムズ・ハイアー・エデュケーションの大学ランキングで15位以内に入っている。2019年度のランキングにおいては、総合で世界13位、工学とIT分野では8位、物理科学の分野では8位につけている。タイム誌の大学ランキングの中でのETHの順位の変動は右の通りである。\n上海交通大学が作成する世界研究大学ランキングでは、ETHはヨーロッパ圏の大学では4位に、全世界の大学で化学分野では6位、数学・自然科学分野では9位にランクされている。\nQS世界大学ランキング（2018-2019）においては、地球・海洋分野で世界1位、総合でも世界6位にランクされている。\n歴史的に、ETHは化学、数学、物理学の分野で評判が高かった。これまでに、卒業生・教官のなかから21人のノーベル賞受賞者を輩出している。最近のノーベル賞受賞者は、2002年に化学賞を受賞したクルト・ヴュートリッヒである。最も有名なETH出身の受賞者はアルベルト・アインシュタインであろう。その他の著名な受賞者にはレントゲン、ハー・ゴビンド・コラナなどがいる。\n西ヨーロッパにおけるフィールド生物学、化学、物理学、数学の分野の大学院教育についての調査では、インペリアル・カレッジ・ロンドンとケンブリッジ大学の2校とともに、ETHは突出して優れた大学院教育を行う3校のうちの1校に選ばれた。また2009年度には、ETHは最先端の研究のための助成金を13億スイスフラン(およそ12億ドル) 獲得している。\n起業も盛んで、1996年～2018年で400社以上のETH発スタートアップ企業が設立された。起業志望者への指導や研究開発費補助といった支援制度もある。\n入試と教育.\nスイスの他の公立大学と同様、ETHは基本的にスイスで教育を受けた者を対象には学部生を選抜する入試を行わず、基本的にスイス国内の大学入学資格（）を持つ全てのスイス国民に対して門戸を開放している。また、GCSEなどの試験で一定の成績をあげたり、一定の学力を持った留学生に対しても門戸を開放している。しかし、ほとんどの留学生は簡略入学試験（\"Reduced entrance exam）\"か総合入学試験 (\"Comprehensive entrance exam）\"のどちらかに合格する必要がある。特に総合入学試験は「高等学校卒業」などの学歴がない志願者でも受験することができる。\n1年度は2つのセメスターに分けられる。学部によっては、入学初年度の学生には試験はまったく課せられない。しかし、初年度の第2セメスター終了後の夏に各コースが定める\"Basisprüfung（\"「基礎試験」の意）と呼ばれる試験に合格しなければならない。この試験で平均点に届かなかった学生は留年して再び翌年の基礎試験を受けなければならない。初めて基礎試験を受けた学生のうち50%以上が不合格となり、そのほとんどはそのまま退学してしまう。高年次の試験も基礎試験と同様のシステムで行われるが、合格率は比較的高い。学部課程の規定の在学期間は6セメスター、修士課程の在学期間は3セメスターであり、各課程の最終セメスターでは論文を執筆しなければならない。\nETHは数学教育に力を入れており、全ての学科において論理力を鍛えるための大量の数学教育が施される。また、学部1年生・2年生を対象にした授業は主にドイツ語で行われる（例外としてフランス語・英語でのコースも少数ある）が、学部3・4年と大学院生の教育は主に英語で行われる。\nキャンパス.\nETHは2カ所のキャンパスを持つ。大学本部はチューリッヒ市街地に1860年代に建てられた。その後、ETHの発展とともに敷地は拡大していった。\nその中心部はチューリッヒ市街地に点在する多くの建物と研究所よりなる。大学本部は道を挟んで、チューリッヒ大学のまさに目と鼻の先にある。\n地理的な制約のために、ETHの拡大につれて中心市街では手狭になっていった。そこで、1964年から1976年にかけて、チューリッヒ郊外のヘンガーベルク(Hönggerberg)に新しいキャンパスを造成した。最近では2003年に、キャンパスの大規模な増築がなされた。そして、ヘンガーベルクには 物質科学、建築学、都市工学、物理学、生物学、化学などの学科の建物がある。\n学生生活.\nETHの学生たちはスイスで高等教育を受ける学生の中で最も忙しい学生であろう。学部生の過密なカリキュラムはスイスの他の大学に比べておよそ2倍の授業数からなっている。ETHには100を超える学生組合があり，学生組合は様々なイベントを企画する。隣のチューリッヒ大学のイベントにはよくETHの学生たちが参加し，同様にETHのイベントにもチューリッヒ大学の学生が参加する。ETHの学生組合でも有名なVSETHはPolyball(工科大学球技大会の意)やPolyparty(工科大学学祭の意)、Erstsemestrigenfest(第一長期休暇フェスティバルの意)など、ひろく一般から参加者を募る大規模なイベントを開催している。Erstsemestrigenfestなどはとりわけ規模の大きい会場で開かれることもあり(チューリッヒ空港など)、多くの若い学生がイベントを楽しむ。\n学術スポーツ組合(ASVZ)は80もの運動部からなっている。最大のスポーツイベントは\"SOLA-Stafette\"という14区間からなる120km以上を走る駅伝である。2009年のSOLA-Stafetteには780チームが参加した。\n", " \nマゾーンとは、『宇宙海賊キャプテンハーロック』に登場する架空の知的植物生命体、及び彼らの母星の名称。有機物による生命であり地球の生物との関連も示唆されているが、動物界よりも植物界の生物に近いとされ、人間とは成分（構成元素）・生物としての機構（代謝や骨格など）その他いずれも異なる。しかし外見だけはヒトに似た形状（ヒューマノイド）である。\n名前の由来はギリシア神話に登場する女性だけの部族・アマゾーン（アマゾネス）からで、作中でも女性の姿をした者だけの種族として描かれており男性型は登場していない。ただし前述のような人間とは全く異なる生物という設定からは、「雌雄」としてはともかく、人間の女性あるいは男性っぽさは（本来は）見掛け以上の意味はないことになる。\n姿・体構造など.\n人間の女性そっくりで、容姿・プロポーションなどの点において理想的な美女の姿をしているものが大多数である。『ハーロック』を特集したロマンアルバムでは雌雄同体と記述されている。\nアニメにおいては地球人にとってその理想的体型を活かしてファッションモデルの仕事に就き、人間社会に溶け込んでいた者もいる（第7話）。\n人間社会に潜伏している個体では、緑や青などの寒色系の色が若干入った白い肌をしている者が多いが、人間と同じ肌色を装う者もいる。体構造は分析の結果、植物と同様とされ、動物にみられる骨格や脳などの器官はなく、炭酸同化作用（=光合成）、皮膚呼吸、葉緑素などが確認されており、別の生物と理解されている。そのため、脳がないにもかかわらず人間同様の思考ができ、心があるという点に関しては謎である。またアニメ24話では、死臭を感知してトカーガ人の死体に気づくといった描写から嗅覚があることも判明している。\nその体構造から人間のような血液が流れていることはありえず、人間の血液に相当する体液の成分は植物の樹液に近いことが明らかになっており、アニメの第24話ではマゾーン艦隊から脱走した際に負傷した看護婦のルシアが、終盤の41話にて女王ラフレシアの側近・クレオは負傷した際に青い体液を流している。だが、一族の命運をかけハーロックと決闘に及んだラフレシアは彼に重力サーベルで斬られた際、人間同様に赤い血を流している。\n女性の姿をしていることについては、ハーロックは擬態と推測している。また地球には、地上の潜入部隊も多数存在する。彼らは普段、森林の樹木や海草などと同化しているが地球に投下したペナントの復活信号などを感知すると分離し、活動が活発になる。植物同様の体構造やもともと暮らしていた母星の環境（詳細は後述）からか寒さには弱く、雪が降ると同化していた樹木に戻っていくが水を与えれば元気付く。\n銃などで撃たれたり、重力サーベルで斬られたりすると「紙のように」青く発火して燃死し、アニメでは殆どのマゾーンがそうなるが、原作の終盤でヤッタランが殺傷した海賊島の内部に進入したマゾーン2体やラフレシアの指示なしでアルカディア号を攻撃して処刑されたマゾーンの上級士官のように焼死しない者もいる。\n社会・生態.\nその構成上、社会性昆虫であるアリ、シロアリ、ハチのような社会を構成している。\n前述の通り植物であり、人間のような男女の概念は存在しないはずである。作中でマゾーンの戦士・ジョジベルはハーロックに対し、人間の分類法を当てはめられることを「迷惑だ」と述べている。しかし人間の女性の姿をしていることから自らを「女」と看做している描写がなされており、一族を統率し氏族社会を束ねるラフレシアは「女王」と呼ばれ、ラフレシアもアニメ41話において、ハーロックとの決闘に及ぶ前の会話でこれまでの戦いで失ったマゾーンの兵士のことを「彼女たち」と表現している。\n生殖に関してもアニメ18話で植物の樹液から生まれることが判明している。生まれたばかりの子供の顔はミイラのような顔をしており、成長後の美しい女性にそっくりな姿とはほど遠いものである。アニメではアルカディア号の乗組員・魔地機関長は同艦に乗る以前、亜希という名の女性と、その間に儲けたと思っていた娘・ミドリ（正体はマゾーンのパトラス）の3人家族で暮らしていたが、妻の正体がマゾーンであることは知らずにいた。彼がその娘であるミドリのことを自分の実の娘だと信じていたことから、人間の男性との性行為（に類似した行為）は可能である。だが、先述の通り人間とは体構造が違うため、人間とマゾーンとの間に混血が生まれることはない。\n原作終盤でトカーガ星の海中に林立するピラミッド内にアルカディア号が入った際にその内部の海水を採取したところ、ヒューヒューと鳴く植物の種らしきものを採取しており、同艦の主治医であるドクター･ゼロはこれをマゾーンの種ではないか、と推測している。\n生存圏・地球との関わりなど.\n潜入部隊として地球に生息するマゾーン達は、南米アマゾンのジャングルを筆頭にインド、東南アジアのジャングルを住処としているが、エジプトのように植物が少ないところにも多数分布し、これらの事実から古代遺跡のあった地域の周辺部に多数が生息しているということが判明した。日本の都市部にも多数分布しており、ハーロック達はマゾーン探知機を利用し、額に白抜きのドクロの旗印を付け、黒い衣を着て暗殺者のごとくマゾーンを銃で片っ端から射殺している。また、アニメ第14話でハーロックに敵対する地球政府の軍人・切田長官がスフィンクスから見つけ出した超兵器のように、こうした遺跡からはオーパーツともいうべきものも見つかっており、地球の人類の進化や歴史にも影響を及ぼしてきたことがうかがえるが、ラフレシアが地球侵攻を開始するまで彼らは息を潜めていた。\nその生存圏は母星マゾーンと地球だけでなく、地球以外の太陽系の惑星では金星にもその痕跡を残している（詳細は後述）。また、先述したように多くの惑星に「種」を撒いており、宇宙はすべてマゾーンの畠といわれるほどの生存圏を確保しているにもかかわらず、マゾーンは一族を挙げて一路地球へと進路をとった。\nアニメでは41話のナレーションにおいて、マゾーンが遠い昔に地球に科学文明を伝えたことが語られている。また、アニメ放映当時にタカラから発売された「エアダッシュシリーズ宇宙海賊キャプテンハーロック」のボレットおよびコスモウイングの玩具に同梱された小冊子漫画でのラフレシアのセリフによれば「200万年前に金星にやってきたマゾーンが連れてきた金星の原住民を地球に移住させたのが現在の人類の祖先であり、人類を労働力とするために人間が家畜を飼うように育て、地球を去った」と語られている。\n使用文字・言語.\n投下したペナントや古代遺跡から出現した超兵器などに、古代マヤ文明の象形文字を使用している。また、地球の天文学者が古くから使用していた惑星の記号なども使用している。こうした描写から「言葉が同じであれば支配が容易」であるとして、ハーロックは地球の言語などもマゾーンの言葉ではないかと推測している。劇中でもマゾーン達は地球人の言葉を使用しているが、先述のヤッタランが殺傷したマゾーンは話している言葉がわからなかったことから、マゾーン独自の言語も存在していることがわかる。\n母星マゾーンの環境.\n博物館から持ち帰った日本の火焔土器はマゾーンの記憶装置であり、アルカディア号の中枢大コンピューターで解析した際に出力された映像で母星マゾーンと思しき惑星が映し出されるとともに「母なるわがマゾーンの大地に時間なし」という音声が記録されていた。\n原作においてペナントのあとに打ち込んだマゾーンの「実験室」内におけるハーロックと、首相秘書として地球に潜伏していたマゾーン・波野静香との会話や実験室内の大気のスペクトル分析の結果から、二酸化炭素を多く含み、母星マゾーンの大気は地球でいう石炭紀の大気の成分比率と似ていることが判明している。室内は草木が生い茂る熱帯のジャングルのような状態であり、室内の環境は湿度100パーセント、気温36℃となっていることから、母星の環境も同様であったとみられる。\nまた、ミーメの母星（アニメ版ではジュラ星と名称が設定されている）は巨大化した植物が異常繁茂していて先述の実験室内と同様に植物ばかりの世界と化しており、ミーメはハーロックに助けられた状況を振り返って「アノママイレバ イマゴロハ植物ニ飲マレテ 死体モ残ラナカッタ」と述懐している。原作においてミーメの母星で起こった植物の異常繁茂の原因について具体的には語られてはいないが、アニメ版ではミーメの母星において巨大植物の異常繁茂を引き起こし、ミーメの種族を滅ぼす原因を作ったのはミーメの友人「ジョジベル」として潜伏していたマゾーンの工作員フーレによることが明らかとなっており、原作終盤では地球もマゾーンの生息域を中心に植物の異常繁茂が確認され、そうした植物に飲み込まれつつあることを地球植物局の局長が首相に報告しようとしていた。\n科学・軍事力.\n先述した地球の遺跡の例にも見られるように高度な文明を持ち、その科学力は非常に高い。金星にあるマゾーンの基地にハーロック達が進入した際、自己修復能力を持つロボットに遭遇しており、ハーロックはその科学力を「限界を超えている」と評し、危険視している。原作においてその中心部で遭遇したラフレシアの「影」（ホログラフ）は人間のことを「まいた種」と発言しており、人間を造ったことも示唆されている。マゾーンの手先としてハーロックと戦ったトカーガの戦士・ゾルの小型艦に搭載されていたコスモグラフ記憶器はマッチ棒程度の長さをした棒状の記憶装置だが、これにトカーガ星などの惑星やマゾーンの中央艦隊の現在位置を示す情報がセットされている。これは人間の頭脳の容量にして10億人以上の情報量を持ち、魔地いわく「マゾーンの科学的能力を計る一種のバロメーター」。その情報量の多さにアルカディア号のコンピューターでは解析ができず、第2海賊島のコンピューターを使用することになった。\nその科学力をもってすれば、地球の人類が誕生したばかりの早い時期にすぐにでも植民地化できたはず、とハーロックは考え、マゾーンはあえてそれをせず何億年もそのままにしていたことが原作での終盤において謎として提示されたが作中で明確な答えは出ておらず、未完のまま連載を終了している。\n原作、アニメ両方で登場するマゾーンのペナントは、宇宙を進む際に次元波と呼ばれる無限大の到達距離を持つ波を掴み、地球に正確に打ち込まれた。アニメでの移動時には、アルカディア号の主砲パルサーカノンによる砲撃も受け付けなかったほどである。また、ペナントは遠い宇宙からのマゾーンを呼び寄せる次元波を誘導波に変えて発し続けるだけでなく、アニメでは地球潜入部隊のエネルギー活性源の役割も兼ねていた。このペナントの力だけでもマゾーンは脅威となることをクスコ教授は告げたが、地球人達はそれを真に受けなかった。\nバミューダトライアングル海底のピラミッドのマゾーンも、ペナントのように遙か宇宙の仲間に信号を発し続けた。その科学力は軍事力にも使用されており、アニメで登場したサルガッソ海の魔女アマンは、高水圧の中でも薄いビニール状ドーム内に生存し、第二次世界大戦で使用された戦艦武蔵や潜水艦を幽霊船として使用している。他にも幻影戦士（シャドーソルジャー）と呼ばれる実体と虚像の両方を用いてアルカディア号への潜入作戦を実行したり、惑星を動かしてアルカディア号に激突させようするなど、優れた科学力を用いた大小様々な方法でハーロックと40人の乗組員達を苦しめた。また、アニメで静香がスパイとしてアルカディア号に潜入する際には、マゾーン探知機を無効化する特殊光線も開発された。\n高い科学力による軍事力を持っているが、戦術に関しては初歩的であり原作においてハーロックは「広大な宇宙を無人の野を切り開くように来たので、戦い方を心得ていない」と評している。\nアニメでは地球上や惑星の至るところに兵器や戦艦を隠し持ち、終盤にそれらを用いて決起した際にはアルカディア号以外に対抗手段を持てなかった地球は簡単に蹂躙され、無気力な地球人達は右往左往して逃げまどうだけだった。\n精神構造.\nほぼ人間と同様の精神構造と高い知能を持っているとみられるが、その独特の社会構造や母星が消滅して新しい移住先を探す必要に迫られていることから「個人」より「種」としての集団を重要視する傾向がみられる。原作では目的達成のためには同じマゾーンをも巻き添えにし、アニメでも後述する戦いの障害となる市民を盾にする軍人達が描かれた。\n高度な文明を持っていることに誇りを持ち、地球人を含めマゾーンから見て「異星人」である彼らを家畜程度にしか捉えていない者も多く、幻覚などを見せてその心を弄ぶことを平気で行う者も少なくない。アニメではマゾーン以外の生命体は全て敵という考えが強いことが描写され、戦力増強のためにトカーガ星を征服したり（原作でもトカーガ星はマゾーンの支配下に置かれている）、アニメに登場したマゾーンの戦士ジョジベルは、ミーメの故郷ジュラ星をラフレシアに捧げる花園にすると称して滅ぼしている。ユリシーズ星雲の人間の星に潜伏していたマゾーンの工作員・ミユはハーロック達を抹殺すべく人間の星の住民の命を奪っていった。それゆえ、終盤となる40話でマゾーンの支配下にあったトカーガ族の市民船をアルカディア号が誤爆した際、状況確認のためにやって来たハーロック達が船内にいた女性のお産を手伝っていることに対し、ラフレシアやクレオは敵を助けようとするハーロックに驚く様子を見せていた。\nまた、アニメでは潜伏先の惑星などで美しい女性として生活をしているうちに、人間の女性同様に恋愛感情を持つ個体も確認されている。その結果、マゾーンの脅威を世界に伝えようとした台羽博士の息子・正に好意を抱いたり、マゾーンにとって最大の敵であるハーロックを愛する者も登場し、アニメ版のゾルの息子・ゾルバとマゾーンの看護婦・ルシアに至っては小型艇で駆け落ちまでしている。　\n地球侵攻の目的.\n彼らの母星である惑星マゾーンが超新星爆発に飲み込まれて消滅したため、新しい移住先を求めてマゾーンは女王ラフレシアに率いられ、彼らが「第2の故郷」と呼ぶ地球へと侵攻を開始する。この「民族大移動」は、惑星の住民全てという大規模なものである。\nゾルの弁によると、まるで星の川が流れるほどの大艦隊であり、後尾は暗黒ガス帯に隠れていてどれほど続いているかわからないほどだという。アニメ劇中でもその規模についてナレーションで「天の川を思わせる」と言及されている。その艦隊の構成は戦闘艦だけではなく、市民船や救護船、他星の奴隷船なども含めた大キャラバンであり、途中、戦力増強のためトカーガ星などを征服しているもののそうした惑星には移住せず、あくまでその目的地は地球である。\nアニメでは長旅に疲れたマゾーン市民達を見捨てて進撃しようとする武官達と市民達との同行を唱える文官達との対立が生じた。キャラバンの内紛は拡大し、ラフレシアに反抗した離脱者も出ている。軍人達は市民達を「足手まとい」としてハーロックもろとも攻撃したために市民達との間で亀裂が深まり、これにハーロックという唯一にして最大の障害が加わったことでラフレシアの地球移住計画の歯車は大きく狂うことになった。\nアニメ終了後も続いた原作の終盤でも指揮系統に乱れが生じており、ラフレシアの命令なしでアルカディア号を攻撃して処刑されたマゾーン指揮官がいた。\n補足.\nアニメでマゾーンが焼死するシーンの作画について、作画監督の菊池城二はロマンアルバムのスタッフインタビューで非常に苦労したと証言している。\n『キャプテンハーロック』以外では、そのリメイク的な作品『SPACE PIRATE CAPTAIN HERLOCK』で名称が語られるほか、ゲーム『松本零士999 〜Story of Galaxy Express 999〜』では、ラーメタルを襲う侵略者として登場している。同ゲームでは機械帝国の女王プロメシューム直属の戦闘集団とされており、機械帝国の傘下組織という扱いである。\nまた『銀河鉄道物語』に登場するアルフォート星団帝国の構成員は、植物から進化した生命体で女性型しか存在せず、死ぬときは青い炎を上げて燃えるという、マゾーンと共通する設定となっている。\n", "文民（ぶんみん）は、一般に軍人でない人物を指す。もとは日本国憲法を制定する際にシビリアン（）の訳語として造語された言葉である。シビリアンとは、一般に「警察、軍、消防の一員でない者」を指す。すなわち、公共のために犯罪、災害、戦争などへの対処にあたり、自分の命を危険にさらす業務に携わっていない人間のことである。\n国際人道法のもとでは、シビリアンは「武装組織の一員ではなく」、「公然と武装し戦時国際法を尊重する戦闘員」ではない者と定義されている。非戦闘員の定義に近いが若干の相違があり、例えば交戦団体や軍人に中立の立場で帯同する従軍聖職者は非戦闘員だがシビリアンではない。戦闘に関与している団体の領域にいるシビリアンは、慣習国際法や、ジュネーヴ第四条約をはじめとする国際条約のもとで一定の権利を与えられる。その内容は国際法に基づき、戦闘の性格が内戦か国家間の戦闘かによって変化する。\n本項では断りの無い限り国際法における「シビリアン」の概念を文民として説明する。日本、特に日本国憲法における日本語の「文民」の位置づけについては、「#日本における文民の意味」において述べる。一般的な言葉としての「シビリアン」に含まれる「一般市民」「民間人」といった意味合いは、自衛官以外の公務員、文官を含む「文民」と相違する部分があり、対照的な訳語にはなっていない。\n語源.\n英語における「シビリアン」(civilian)の語源は、14世紀後半の古フランス語の\"civilien\"すなわち「市民の法の」という言葉まで遡ることができる。1829年には、非戦闘員を指す言葉として「シビリアン」という言葉が使われ始めた。\n日本においては、日本国憲法制定にあたり「文民」という言葉が創出された。当時の日本語には\"civilian\"に対応する語がなかったため、貴族院の審議では、「現在、軍人ではない者」に相当する語として、「文官」「地方人」「凡人」などの候補が挙げられた。「文官」では官僚主義的であるとされ、「文民」という語が選ばれた。\nシビリアン.\n戦時国際法における位置づけ.\n赤十字国際委員会は、戦時における文民の保護に関する1949年8月12日のジュネーヴ条約についての1958年のコメンタリーにおいて「敵国の手の内にあるあらゆる者は、国際法に基づき一定の待遇を与えられなければならない。その者とは、第三条約で扱った戦争捕虜、第四条で扱った文民、または第一条約で扱った軍隊内の医療関係者が含まれる。中間に位置する資格は存在しない。敵国の手の内にある何人たりとも法の外に置かれることはあり得ない。我々は、これが満足いく解決法であると感じている。単なる気分的なものにとどまらず、何より、人道主義的な観点から満足できるものである。」と述べている。赤十字国際委員会は「もし文民が敵対行為に直接関与したならば、彼らは『不法な』あるいは『権利の無い』戦闘員あるいは交戦者と見なされる（なお人道の法に関する条約がこれに含まれているか否かは明確に示されていない）。彼らはその行動について、留置された国における国内法で裁かれる可能性がある。」とする見解を示している。\n1977年のジュネーヴ諸条約第一追加議定書第五十条は、文民について次のように定めている。\nこの定義は、一定の分類に属さない者、という消極的な定義になっている。第三条約第四条4A(1)、(2)、(3)、第一議定書第四十三条で定められている者は、戦闘員である。そのため、議定書のコメンタリーでは、武装組織に属さず敵対行為を行わない者が文民である、という解説が加えられている。文民は、武力紛争に関与することができないかわりに、ジュネーヴ諸条約および議定書の保護下に置かれる。第五十一条では、文民たる住民や個々の文民に対する保護が与えられなければならないことが述べられている \n第一追加議定書第三章では、文民に属するものを攻撃対象とすることを規制している。1998年の国際刑事裁判所ローマ規程の第八条8(2)(b)(i)でも、「そのような文民たる住民、あるいは敵対行為に加わっていない個々の文民に対する意図的な攻撃」が戦争犯罪にあたると定めている。すべての国家が第一追加議定書やローマ規程を批准しているわけではないが、文民に対する直接的な攻撃が戦争慣習法の違反に当たり、この点であらゆる交戦団体は規制を受ける、という認識は一般に国際人道法の原則として受け入れられている。\n近現代の戦闘における文民.\n近現代戦における文民の地位は、実際のところ曖昧なままである。戦闘中に起こり得る以下のような現象が、この問題を複雑にしている。\n1980年代初頭以降、近代戦における犠牲者の90パーセントは文民である、という主張がなされるようになった。この言説は広く受け入れられているが、実際のところよく引き合いに出されるユーゴスラビア紛争やアフガニスタン紛争などにおいてもエビデンスに基づく詳細な検証により立証されたわけではない。\n21世紀初頭、文民の法的位置づけについては、様々な問題をはらみつつも、メディアや国連において広く注目を集める議題となり、危機にさらされた住民を保護するという名目で軍事力の行使が正当化された。\n本来、文民は本質的に戦争の受動的な傍観者であると考えられているが、時には彼らが戦闘の中で積極的な役割を負うこともある。例えば1975年、モロッコ政府がスペイン植民地である西サハラへの領有主張を実現するべく、組織的に文民を越境させる緑の行進を実施した。同時にモロッコ軍も、秘密裏に西サハラへの侵攻を果たしていた。さらに文民は、非戦闘員の地位を放棄しないまま、独裁政権や他国の占領軍などに対して非暴力運動などで抵抗することがある。このような行動は戦闘員による戦闘やゲリラ的暴動と同時並行して発生することがあるが、多くの場合、抵抗運動を行う文民はそうした明確な軍事組織や軍事行動と一線を画している。\n国際人道法による文民の保護.\n国際人道法に属する諸条約では、調印国に国家間の戦争時における文民の保護を強制している。調印していない国であっても、この国際法に従う必要があるというのが慣例的な認識である。また国際人道法では、distinction、比例原則、緊急避難の原則が戦闘時の文民保護と結びついている。しかし国際連合は文民保護のために軍事組織を配置しているにもかかわらず、その運用における公式な方針を定めていない。国連安全保障理事会報告書4では、戦闘時の文民保護がさらなる文民保護の必要性の証拠をもたらすとしている。国連は文民の安全が大規模に脅かされることは国際的な平和と安定に対する脅威となることを認識しており、文民保護と地域的安定化の手段を構築しようとしている。2008年に最初に発表された安全保障理事会報告書4があるにもかかわらず、国連は各地域の諸国が地域内の戦争・内戦を調停し文民を保護するよう求めている（アフリカにおける紛争をアフリカ連合が取り締まるように）。国連事務総長コフィー・アナンは国連の諸国に対し、「人類の安全を約束し、平和と安全が不可分とみなす」認識を共有することを通して、アフリカの文民を守ることが各国の利益になるのだと説いた。\n国際連合安全保障理事会は、数々の決議 (1265、1296、1502、1674、1738)や議長声明を通じて、以下の事項に触れている。\n安全保障理事会は5つの方法を通して文民保護に携わっている。\n議長声明や事前の小委員会での議論に応じて、国連安全保障理事会は2009年1月に国際人権法に基づく文民保護に関する会議を行った。この会議では明確な結論が出なかったものの、1999年に通過した決議1265以降の安全保障理事会の評価が実施された。\n国際連合の協定に加え、各地域内でも文民保護に関する取り決めが生まれている。例えばアフリカ連合設立法第4条(h)は、文民の保護と「加盟国における『重大な状況』、すなわち戦争犯罪、ジェノサイド、人道に対する罪に対し、連合は強制力を持った介入を行う権利を持つ」ことを定めている。これはアフリカ連合が連合内における残虐行為によって立つことを否定したものである。2004年に平和安全理事のSaid Djinnitは「アフリカ人は……大陸で起きている悲劇を傍観し、それが国際連合やその他の者の責任であるということは出来ない。我々は非介入主義から非無関心主義に移行したのだ。我々は、アフリカ人として、我らの人々の悲劇に無関心であり続けることは出来ない。」 (IRIN News 2004)と述べている。ただ第4条(h)は実際に発動されたことが無く、本当にアフリカ連合に「重大な状況」へ介入する意思があるのか疑義が呈されている。\n国際連合やアフリカ連合、その他の主導的な組織であるか否かにかかわらず、「国際組織には、文民保護などの込み入った安全保障上の役回りを負うと、一般的に、高い水準の戦力、全面的なプロフェッショナリズム、そして長期的に対峙し続ける忍耐力によって支えられた、包括的な政治要素としての大規模な平和維持作戦でさえ実現できないような不相応な期待が地元民の間で高まるリスクが明白に存在している。アフリカやいたるところで見られる残念な結果は、分権化政策が履行されてきた道のりに対するいくらかの批判をもたらしてきた(MacFarlane and Weiss 1992; Berman 1998; Boulden 2003)。」\n日本における文民の意味.\n-日本国憲法第66条2項\n日本国憲法66条2項にいう「文民」とは、1973年の政府見解では、次に掲げる者以外の者をいう。\nなお、当時の政府見解では、軍国主義思想とは、「一国の政治、経済、法律、教育などの組織を戦争のために準備し、戦争をもって国家威力の発現と考え、そのため、政治、経済、外交、文化などの面を軍事に従属させる思想をいう」と定義づけている\n第二次世界大戦までは軍人が内閣総理大臣を務めることが多数あり、その反省から現行の日本国憲法第66条第2項には「内閣総理大臣その他の国務大臣は、文民でなければならない。」と規定されている。\n一般的な「文民」は、「一般市民」、「文官（一般公務員、警察官を含む）」、「戦闘員ではなく国際法上交戦権を持たない者」のニュアンスを持ち、「軍隊（現在の日本においては防衛省、自衛隊：陸上自衛隊、海上自衛隊、航空自衛隊）の中に職業上の地位を占めていない者、もしくは席を有しない者」を指すと考えられる。\n日本での文脈でいう「文民統制」とは、「軍人以外の人間」、具体的には「一般市民の代表である政治家」を指しており、軍務文官である「防衛省の官僚（通称「背広組」）」は、自衛隊法上の自衛隊員であり、国家公務員法第2条第3項第16号の規定に基づいて特別職の国家公務員とされている。\nなお、過去の日本において「文民」と言う場合に「旧職業軍人の経歴を有しない者」と規定するか、あるいは、「旧職業軍人の経歴を有する者であって軍国主義的思想に深く染まっている者でない者」とするか、については、意見が分かれていた時代もある（1965年（昭和40年）5月31日衆議院予算委員会 高辻正己・内閣法制局長官答弁など）。\n野村吉三郎（元海軍大将、太平洋戦争開戦時の駐米大使）の入閣が検討された際に、「文民」規定の問題から断念している。ポツダム宣言受諾時にすでに職業軍人であり、その後自衛隊に入隊した永野茂門が法務大臣に就任した時、元自衛官の中谷元、森本敏が防衛閣僚（防衛庁長官・防衛大臣）となった時にも問題視する意見が出た。ただしこの見解は国際的な基準があるわけではなく、例えば米国の国防長官も文民であることが条件であるが、アメリカ軍の職業軍人も退役してから10か年が経過すると文民として扱われる。また、イギリスでは、文民かつ政治家（＝国会議員、主に庶民院議員）であることを要する。野田第2次改造内閣・野田第3次改造内閣で防衛大臣を務めた森本敏については非国会議員の民間人閣僚であったため、「むしろ国会議員の地位をもたない者が防衛大臣に就任することは、文民統制の理念に反するのではないか」との指摘が出た。\n日本において、文民統制とは、軍事的組織構成員には発言権がないこと、と一般的に理解されているが、自衛隊は「軍」ではないとの建前から政軍関係に関する議論が乏しく、実態は、軍事的組織の予算、人事、そして行動につき、その「最終的な」命令権が、軍事的組織そのものにはなく政府や議会にあることが制度的に保障されている状態をいう、との理解にとどまっている。このため、現に防衛政策の形成と決定に際し、軍事の中枢たる統合幕僚監部及び陸海空幕僚監部が、防衛省内局と共に大きな役割を担っている。しかしながら、文民統制の観点からは、軍の役割・任務など、防衛政策の基本的問題は、立法府（国会）を中心とした開かれた国民的議論により、判断・決定されなければならない。開かれた国民的議論を通じて形成された広範な国民的合意に基づいてこそ、防衛政策は正当性を持ち、またそのより有効な実施が保障される。\n" ]

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[ "The Da Vinci Code of Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh and Henry Lincoln, who authored the book \"Holy Blood, Holy Grail\", in the program \"The Real Da Vinci Code\", shown on British TV Channel 4. The program featured lengthy interviews with many of the main protagonists cited by Brown as \"absolute fact\" in \"The Da Vinci Code\". Arnaud de Sède, son of Gérard de Sède, stated categorically that his father and Plantard had made up the existence of the Prieuré de Sion, the cornerstone of the Jesus bloodline theory: \"frankly, it was piffle\", noting that the concept of a descendant of Jesus was also an", "The Da Vinci Code are on the level of generalized or otherwise unprotectable ideas.\" Perdue appealed, the 2nd US Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the original decision, saying Mr. Perdue's arguments were \"without merit\". In early 2006, Michael Baigent and Richard Leigh filed suit against Brown's publishers, Random House. They alleged that significant portions of \"The Da Vinci Code\" were plagiarized from \"Holy Blood, Holy Grail\", violating their copyright. Brown confirmed during the court case that he named the principal Grail expert of his story Leigh Teabing, an anagram of \"Baigent Leigh\", after the two plaintiffs. In reply to the suggestion that Henry Lincoln", "Lincoln Cathedral of Isaac Newton's tomb and other Abbey monuments were set up. For a time these murals and replicas remained in the Chapter House, as part of a Da Vinci Code exhibit for visitors, but in January 2008 they were all sold off in an auction to raise money for the Cathedral. The cathedral also doubled as Westminster Abbey for the film \"Young Victoria\", filmed in September 2007, and did again in June 2018 for the upcoming Netflix film \"The King\". Lincoln Cathedral is one of the few English cathedrals built from the rock it is standing on. The cathedral has", "The Da Vinci Code (film) on June 30, 2005. The Louvre gave permission to film relevant scenes at their premises. A replica of the \"Mona Lisa\" was used during filming as the crew was not allowed to illuminate the original work with their lighting. During the on site filming at the Louvre the \"Mona Lisa\"s chamber was used as a storage room. Westminster Abbey denied the use of its premises, as did Saint-Sulpice. The Westminster Abbey scenes were instead filmed at Lincoln and Winchester cathedrals, which both belong to the Church of England. (Westminster Abbey is a Royal Peculiar, a church or chapel under direct" ]

[ "The Da Vinci Code WebQuests The Da Vinci Code WebQuests The Da Vinci Code\" WebQuests (also called The Da Vinci Code\" Challenges) are a series of web-based puzzles related to the bestselling 2003 novel \"The Da Vinci Code\", as well as the 2006 film. There have been several web quests, none of which directly related to any other. Probably the most well known is the game run by Google, though it was ultimately met with much more public criticism than the other various games. The original \"Da Vinci Code\" web quest challenges were first made available via the website of the book's author, Dan Brown,", "The Da Vinci Code WebQuests of the book's dustcover jacket, and to search the web to learn the answers to certain questions or clues. The second Da Vinci Code WebQuest, titled \"Uncover The Code\", followed a similar style. On April 17, 2006, Google launched its own \"Da Vinci Code\"-related quest, based around the release of \"The Da Vinci Code's\" film version. It was created in coordination with Sony Pictures, and was called the \"Da Vinci Code\" Google Quest, an online series of puzzles with a prize offered to those who answer all 24 puzzles correctly. Participants were required to sign up for a Google Account", "The Da Vinci Code (soundtrack) The Da Vinci Code (soundtrack) The official motion picture soundtrack for The Da Vinci Code with Thomas Bowes (violinist), King's Consort Choir, Hugh Marsh, Orchestra, Richard Harvey, Hila Plitmann, Martin Tillman was released on May 9, 2006 via Decca label. The film's music was composed by Hans Zimmer, whose work resulted in a nomination for the 2007 Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score. For a soundscape that was religious to the core, Zimmer used a massive orchestra and chorus to create a dramatic 'stained glass cathedral' feeling. While the score has more in common with Zimmer's previous work for", "The Da Vinci Code in the Philippines The Da Vinci Code in the Philippines \"The Da Vinci Code\" is a 2006 American mystery-thriller film directed by Ron Howard. The screenplay was written by Akiva Goldsman and based on Dan Brown's worldwide bestselling 2003 novel, \"The Da Vinci Code\". It was produced by Howard with John Calley and Brian Grazer and released by Columbia Pictures in the United States on May 19, 2006. Due to controversial and inaccurate historical interpretations and perceived anti-Catholic elements, the film proved highly controversial in the Philippines, a highly religious country in Southeast Asia in which Catholicism is widely practised. Many organisations protested", "Criticism of The Da Vinci Code in \"The Da Vinci Code\". On April 11, 2005, novelist Lewis Perdue sued Brown and his publisher Random House for plagiarizing his novels \"The Da Vinci Legacy\" (1983) and \"Daughter of God\" (1999), claiming \"there are far too many parallels between my books and \"The Da Vinci Code\" for it to be an accident.\" On August 4, 2005, District Judge George B. Daniels granted a motion for summary judgment and dismissed the suit, ruling that \"a reasonable average lay observer would not conclude that \"The Da Vinci Code\" is substantially similar to \"Daughter of God.\" Any slightly similar elements are", "Criticism of The Da Vinci Code Criticism of The Da Vinci Code \"The Da Vinci Code\", a popular suspense novel by Dan Brown, generated criticism and controversy after its publication in 2003. Many of the complaints centered on the book's speculations and misrepresentations of core aspects of Christianity and the history of the Catholic Church. Additional criticisms were directed towards the book's inaccurate descriptions of European art, history, architecture, and geography. Charges of copyright infringement were also leveled by the novelist Lewis Perdue and by the authors of the 1982 book \"The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail\", which puts forward the hypothesis that the historical", "The Da Vinci Code in the Philippines MTRCB does not allow the showing of the movie. The Da Vinci Code in the Philippines \"The Da Vinci Code\" is a 2006 American mystery-thriller film directed by Ron Howard. The screenplay was written by Akiva Goldsman and based on Dan Brown's worldwide bestselling 2003 novel, \"The Da Vinci Code\". It was produced by Howard with John Calley and Brian Grazer and released by Columbia Pictures in the United States on May 19, 2006. Due to controversial and inaccurate historical interpretations and perceived anti-Catholic elements, the film proved highly controversial in the Philippines, a highly religious country in Southeast Asia", "The Da Vinci Code just to remind myself that life is too short to read books like \"The Da Vinci Code\".\" Author Lewis Perdue alleged that Brown plagiarized from two of his novels, \"The Da Vinci Legacy\", originally published in 1983, and \"Daughter of God\", originally published in 2000. He sought to block distribution of the book and film. However, Judge George Daniels of the US District Court in New York ruled against Perdue in 2005, saying that \"A reasonable average lay observer would not conclude that \"The Da Vinci Code\" is substantially similar to \"Daughter of God\"\" and that \"Any slightly similar elements", "The Da Vinci Code in the Philippines to six months. It was not banned in any of the other cities in Metro Manila, making the film easily accessible to citizens living in the capital. The SM Supermalls, the largest chain of shopping malls in the Philippines, prohibited the showing of \"The Da Vinci Code\" in all of their movie theaters throughout the country. This decision is in line with their policy for not showing films that were rated by MTRCB as R-18. Although, \"The Da Vinci Code\" was banned in the City of Manila and all SM Malls, it was still shown in other cinemas all over", "The Da Vinci Code (soundtrack) the men, but this did not occur. \"The Da Vinci Code\"s director, Ron Howard, said that the soundtrack was \"powerful, fresh and wonderfully effective\" and most film music reviewers agreed with him. Soundtrack.Net and Scorereviews rated the score highly. The music was nominated for a 2007 Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score but lost to Alexandre Desplat's work for \"The Painted Veil\". The Da Vinci Code (soundtrack) The official motion picture soundtrack for The Da Vinci Code with Thomas Bowes (violinist), King's Consort Choir, Hugh Marsh, Orchestra, Richard Harvey, Hila Plitmann, Martin Tillman was released on May 9, 2006", "The Da Vinci Code The Da Vinci Code The Da Vinci Code is a 2003 mystery thriller novel by Dan Brown. It follows \"symbologist\" Robert Langdon and cryptologist Sophie Neveu after a murder in the Louvre Museum in Paris causes them to become involved in a battle between the Priory of Sion and Opus Dei over the possibility of Jesus Christ having been a companion to Mary Magdalene. The title of the novel refers to the finding of the first murder victim in the Grand Gallery of the Louvre, naked and posed similar to Leonardo da Vinci's famous drawing, the \"Vitruvian Man,\" with a", "Criticism of The Da Vinci Code Catholic groups sought to use interest in this book and film as a means to educate Catholics and non-Catholics on the history of the Christian Church, and what it teaches regarding Jesus Christ. Similarly, other Christians have looked to use the film as a tool for evangelism. Criticism of The Da Vinci Code \"The Da Vinci Code\", a popular suspense novel by Dan Brown, generated criticism and controversy after its publication in 2003. Many of the complaints centered on the book's speculations and misrepresentations of core aspects of Christianity and the history of the Catholic Church. Additional criticisms were directed", "Criticism of The Da Vinci Code on the level of generalized or otherwise unprotectable ideas.\" He affirmed that \"The Da Vinci Code\" does not infringe upon copyrights held by Perdue. In February 2006, Michael Baigent and Richard Leigh, two of the three authors of \"Holy Blood, Holy Grail\", took the UK publisher of \"The Da Vinci Code\" to court for breach of copyright, alleging plagiarism. Some sources suggested the lawsuit was a publicity stunt intended to boost sales of \"The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail\" (a boost which did in fact occur). However, the projected court costs of over 1 million pounds outweigh or at", "The Life of Leonardo da Vinci hours. The Life of Leonardo da Vinci La Vita di Leonardo Da Vinci — in English, The Life of Leonardo da Vinci — is a 1971 Italian television miniseries dramatizing the life of the Italian Renaissance genius Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519). The Golden Globe-winning miniseries was directed by Renato Castellani, and produced by RAI (the Italian national television) and distributed in the United States by CBS, which aired it from August 13, 1972 to September 10, 1972. Castellani wrote the screenplay. It was filmed entirely on location in Italy and France. The total runtime of the five episodes is nearly", "The Life of Leonardo da Vinci The Life of Leonardo da Vinci La Vita di Leonardo Da Vinci — in English, The Life of Leonardo da Vinci — is a 1971 Italian television miniseries dramatizing the life of the Italian Renaissance genius Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519). The Golden Globe-winning miniseries was directed by Renato Castellani, and produced by RAI (the Italian national television) and distributed in the United States by CBS, which aired it from August 13, 1972 to September 10, 1972. Castellani wrote the screenplay. It was filmed entirely on location in Italy and France. The total runtime of the five episodes is nearly five", "The Da Vinci Code Vinci or Theology on Canvas\", a book published in 2000, but \"The Da Vinci Code\", published three years later, makes no mention of Anikin and instead asserts that the idea in question is a \"well-known opinion of a number of scientists.\" The book has been translated into over 40 languages, primarily hardcover. Major English-language (hardcover) editions include: Columbia Pictures adapted the novel to film, with a screenplay written by Akiva Goldsman, and Academy Award winner Ron Howard directing. The film was released on May 19, 2006, and stars Tom Hanks as Robert Langdon, Audrey Tautou as Sophie Neveu, and Sir", "The Da Vinci Code released in 2016. Ron Howard returned to direct both sequels. The Da Vinci Code The Da Vinci Code is a 2003 mystery thriller novel by Dan Brown. It follows \"symbologist\" Robert Langdon and cryptologist Sophie Neveu after a murder in the Louvre Museum in Paris causes them to become involved in a battle between the Priory of Sion and Opus Dei over the possibility of Jesus Christ having been a companion to Mary Magdalene. The title of the novel refers to the finding of the first murder victim in the Grand Gallery of the Louvre, naked and posed similar to", "The Da Vinci Code (video game) The Da Vinci Code (video game) The Da Vinci Code is a 2006 adventure puzzle video game developed by The Collective, Inc. and published by 2K Games for PlayStation 2, Xbox and Microsoft Windows. The game was released on the same day the film of the same name opened in theaters, but is based directly on the 2003 novel by Dan Brown rather than the film. As such, the characters in the game do not resemble nor sound like their filmic counterparts. \"The Da Vinci Code\" received mixed reviews across all platforms. Although some critics praised the game's fidelity to", "The Da Vinci Code WebQuests all 24 puzzles before the closing date for that country were entered in a prize draw with prizes ranging from a set of Da Vinci Code Top Trumps cards to illustrated copies of \"The Da Vinci Code\". The Google-sponsored webquest was taken offline once the final phase was completed. According to a written response for the Official Winners List from Hilltop New Media, Inc. on behalf of Google, the winner was Anthony N. (last name withheld) from Collierville, Tennessee. It is unknown what his final puzzle time was. Perhaps due to complications arising out of the American version of the", "The Da Vinci Code (soundtrack) \"Hannibal\", there is also a solid mixture of the motifs used for \"The Thin Red Line\" and \"Batman Begins\". The thirteenth cue, \"Chevaliers de Sangreal\", is the most bombastic; powerfully underscoring the 'discovery' scene in the film. Like Media Ventures protégé Harry Gregson-Williams, who composed the soundtrack for \"\", Zimmer used Abbey Road Studios to help create his music for \"The Da Vinci Code\". Additional sections were recorded at London's AIR Studios, atop Rosslyn Hill. Director Ron Howard commented that \"Like every other facet of this movie, the score for \"The Da Vinci Code\" demanded a range of textures that", "The Da Vinci Code (film) was released in North America. While there is no regular DVD release of the extended version in the United States or a Region 2 release in the United Kingdom, a version of the extended cut was released in Germany. \"The Da Vinci Code\" was also released on UMD for the Sony PlayStation Portable (PSP) on the November 14, 2006. Screenwriter Akiva Goldsman, with the help of \"Jurassic Park\" screenwriter David Koepp, adapted \"Angels & Demons\" (a Dan Brown novel published before \"The Da Vinci Code\") into a film script, which was also directed by Howard. Chronologically, the book takes place", "The Da Vinci Code in the Philippines and organised boycotts against the showing of \"The Da Vinci Code\" in the Philippines, and the film was banned from being shown in the Philippine capital of Manila. The Philippine Alliance Against Pornography (PAAP) appealed to Philippine President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo to stop the showing of \"The Da Vinci Code\" in the Philippines. They branded the film as \"the most pornographic and blasphemous film in history\" and also requested the help of Pope Benedict XVI, the Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines (CBCP) and other religious groups to stop the showing of the film. In addition, they compared Dan Brown to", "The Da Vinci Code in the Philippines Adolf Hitler. However, Cecille Guidote Alvarez, Philippine Presidential Adviser on Culture and the Arts, said Malacañang will not interfere in controversy about the film and leaves the decision to the Movie and Television Classification Board's (MTRCB) rating. Eventually, MTRCB decided to give \"The Da Vinci Code\" an R-18 rating (restricted to those under 18 years of age) despite PAAP's opposition for showing it. Jaro Archbishop Angel Lagdameo, president of the Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines (CBCP), expressed through a pastoral letter that even though \"The Da Vinci Code\" is a work of fiction, it \"shapes the imagination, stirs emotions", "Criticism of The Da Vinci Code her membership of the conservative Opus Dei organization which features in the best-selling novel \"The Da Vinci Code\".\" The novel asserts that Mary Magdalene was of the Tribe of Benjamin, but historians dispute this claim, and there is no mention of this in the Bible or in other ancient sources. Sandra Miesel and Carl E. Olson, writing in their 2004 book, \"The Da Vinci Hoax\", state the fact that Magdala was located in northern Israel, whereas the tribe of Benjamin resided in the south. In Chapter 58 it is suggested that the marriage of Jesus and Mary Magdalene created a", "Criticism of The Da Vinci Code was from Vinci, or of Vinci. As many critics have pointed out, calling it The Da Vinci Code is like referring to Lawrence of Arabia as Mr. Of Arabia, or asking What Nazareth Do?\". The allegation that Pope Clement V burned the Templars to ashes and threw the ashes into the Tiber River in Rome is false. The last leaders of the Knights Templar were killed in France in 1314 by King Philip IV of France, being burned at the stake on a small island in the Seine. Pope Clement's administration was not in Rome as he had moved the", "The Da Vinci Code (film) The Da Vinci Code (film) The Da Vinci Code is a 2006 American mystery thriller film directed by Ron Howard, written by Akiva Goldsman, and based on Dan Brown's 2003 best-selling novel of the same name. The first in the \"Robert Langdon\" film series, the film stars Tom Hanks, Audrey Tautou, Sir Ian McKellen, Alfred Molina, Jürgen Prochnow, Jean Reno, and Paul Bettany. In the film, Robert Langdon, a professor of religious iconography and symbology from Harvard University, is the prime suspect in the grisly and unusual murder of Louvre curator Jacques Saunière. In the body, the police find a", "The Da Vinci Code (film) film was banned in Lebanon. The film was banned in Iran due to protests by Muslim and Christian minorities. Pakistan banned \"The Da Vinci Code\" for showing what officials called blasphemous material about Jesus. Christian groups, along with the Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal held protests against the film calling for a global ban. The Philippine Alliance Against Pornography (PAAP) appealed to then Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo to stop the showing of \"The Da Vinci Code\" in the Philippines. They branded the film as \"the most pornographic and blasphemous film in history\" and also requested the help of Pope Benedict XVI, the", "The Da Vinci Code (film) talks to star in the film. Bollywood actor Irrfan Khan was cast as The Provost. Danish actress Sidse Babett Knudsen was added to the cast as Elizabeth Sinskey. The following are reference sources, repeated in alphabetic order: The Da Vinci Code (film) The Da Vinci Code is a 2006 American mystery thriller film directed by Ron Howard, written by Akiva Goldsman, and based on Dan Brown's 2003 best-selling novel of the same name. The first in the \"Robert Langdon\" film series, the film stars Tom Hanks, Audrey Tautou, Sir Ian McKellen, Alfred Molina, Jürgen Prochnow, Jean Reno, and Paul Bettany.", "The Duh-Vinci Code like shows that build on emotional relationships, but the rules are different here. Although I'm starting to wonder if a little more cohesion might do the show good\". The Duh-Vinci Code \"The Duh-Vinci Code\" is the fifth episode of \"Futurama\" sixth season. It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on July 15, 2010. In the episode, Fry finds a drawing of a lost Leonardo da Vinci invention which leads him and Professor Farnsworth to planet Vinci. The episode's title and plot is a parody of \"The Da Vinci Code\". It received positive reviews from critics and went", "The Duh-Vinci Code The Duh-Vinci Code \"The Duh-Vinci Code\" is the fifth episode of \"Futurama\" sixth season. It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on July 15, 2010. In the episode, Fry finds a drawing of a lost Leonardo da Vinci invention which leads him and Professor Farnsworth to planet Vinci. The episode's title and plot is a parody of \"The Da Vinci Code\". It received positive reviews from critics and went up one-tenth in the 18-49 demographic from the previous episode, \"Proposition Infinity\". Fry misses the first question on \"Who Dares to Be a Millionaire?\", and Professor Farnsworth berates", "The Da Vinci Code (video game) little out of place, does provide for variation in the game.\" The game was met with poor sales figures. In the UK, it debuted at #12 in the sales charts across all systems. It sold slightly better in its second week, climbing up to #8. The Da Vinci Code (video game) The Da Vinci Code is a 2006 adventure puzzle video game developed by The Collective, Inc. and published by 2K Games for PlayStation 2, Xbox and Microsoft Windows. The game was released on the same day the film of the same name opened in theaters, but is based directly", "The Da Vinci Code (video game) impressed than most other critics, giving the game 6.5 out of 10 and writing, \"\"The Da Vinci Code\" game offers a challenging and varied gameplay experience that will satisfy the amateur cryptographer in everyone.\" He praised the game's integrity to the novel, but, like most critics, was critical of the combat system. He concluded that \"the biggest fault of \"The Da Vinci Code\" is the overall presentation. The voice actors sound completely flat and disinterested in the dialogue, the character animations are all jerky and unnatural looking, and there are even a few frustrating bugs that make the game feel", "The Da Vinci Code (video game) of movie-license dog food, instead is a refreshing re-thinking on the rather worn adventure genre.\" The game was also shown at E3 2006 in May. Announced a month before the main game was a two-part mobile phone adaptation of the novel, developed by Kayak Interactive. The first part, \"The Da Vinci Code: The Quest Begins\", was released on April 14, 2006 prior to both the main game and the film. The adaptation took the form of an isometric puzzle game. The second part of the game was never made. The original music of \"The Da Vinci Code\" video game was", "The Da Vinci Code WebQuests Quest, it \"appears\" that winners have never been announced in any of the other countries in which the Quest was running. These countries (including Australia and the United Kingdom) had a cut-down version of the quest that included neither codexes nor a timed \"final challenge\". Another webquest launched in mid-May 2006, called the Eurostar Quest. Participants were invited to \"board the Eurostar\", taking them through various destinations in Paris and London, encountering riddles, puzzles and hidden clues scattered across both cities. It was won by Olivier Klein, a 28-year-old IT technician from Schweighouse-sur-Moder. The Da Vinci Code WebQuests The Da", "The Da Vinci Treasure The Da Vinci Treasure The Da Vinci Treasure is a 2006 direct-to-video mystery film produced by American studio The Asylum, and directed by Peter Mervis. The film is considered to be a mockbuster of the film \"The Da Vinci Code\", and both films were released within the same month. The film centres on Michael Archer (C. Thomas Howell), a forensic anthropologist who inadvertently discovers a set of subtle clues within the works of Leonardo da Vinci, that, when interpreted correctly, will lead the finder to \"enlightenment\". Archer, convinced of the authenticity of the clues, sets out to locate the treasure", "Criticism of The Da Vinci Code criticised the non-appearance of Blythe Brown and the vagueness of Dan Brown's evidence, saying, \"He has presented himself as being a deep and thorough researcher...evidence in this case demonstrates that as regards DVC [\"The Da Vinci Code\"] that is simply not correct with respect to historical lectures...The reality of his research is that it is superficial.\" The judge also included a code in his judgment. Throughout the judgment, apparently random letters are italicised and these form the message. The letters in the first paragraphs spell \"smithy code\" and the rest appear as follows \"jaeiextostgpsacgreamqwfkadpmqzv\". This was subsequently decoded to read", "The Da Vinci Code (film) the movie as fictitious \"and that any resemblance to reality is pure coincidence\". According to a statement by Manuel Sánchez Hurtado, Opus Dei Press Office Rome, in contrast to Sony Corporation's published \"Code of Conduct\" the company has announced that the film will not include such a disclaimer. U.S. Catholic bishops launched a website, JesusDecoded.com, refuting the key claims in the novel that were about to be brought to the screen. The bishops are concerned about errors and serious misstatements in \"The Da Vinci Code\". The film has also been rated morally offensive—by the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops'", "The Da Vinci Code mathematical message written beside his body and a pentagram drawn on his chest in his own blood. The novel explores an alternative religious history, whose central plot point is that the Merovingian kings of France were descended from the bloodline of Jesus Christ and Mary Magdalene, ideas derived from Clive Prince's \"The Templar Revelation\" (1997) and books by Margaret Starbird. The book also refers to \"The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail\" (1982) though Dan Brown has stated that it was not used as research material. \"The Da Vinci Code\" provoked a popular interest in speculation concerning the Holy Grail", "The Da Vinci Code you need to check your meds.\" While interviewing Umberto Eco in a 2008 issue of \"The Paris Review\", Lila Azam Zanganeh characterized \"The Da Vinci Code\" as \"a bizarre little offshoot\" of Eco's novel, \"Foucault’s Pendulum\". In response, Eco remarked, \"Dan Brown is a character from \"Foucault's Pendulum\"! I invented him. He shares my characters' fascinations—the world conspiracy of Rosicrucians, Masons, and Jesuits. The role of the Knights Templar. The hermetic secret. The principle that everything is connected. I suspect Dan Brown might not even exist.\" The book appeared on a 2010 list of 101 best books ever written, which", "The Da Vinci Code \"The Da Vinci Code\", the Roman Emperor Constantine I suppressed Gnosticism because it portrayed Jesus as purely human. The novel's argument is as follows: Constantine wanted Christianity to act as a unifying religion for the Roman Empire. He thought Christianity would appeal to pagans only if it featured a demigod similar to pagan heroes. According to the Gnostic Gospels, Jesus was merely a human prophet, not a demigod. Therefore, to change Jesus' image, Constantine destroyed the Gnostic Gospels and promoted the gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, which portray Jesus as divine or semi-divine. But Gnosticism did not portray", "Criticism of The Da Vinci Code \"Smithy Code Jackie Fisher who are you Dreadnought\", referring to the British admiral whom Judge Smith admires. As with the book, this secret message made use of Fibonacci numbers for its encoding. Dan Brown has been sued twice in The United States by author Jack Dunn who claims Dan Brown copied his book The Vatican Boys (1997) to create The Da Vinci Code, Angels & Demons and Brown's now famous character Robert Langdon. Jack Dunn calls Dan Brown's actions, \"The Largest Literary and Movie Crime in History.\" At a conference on April 28, 2006 Archbishop Angelo Amato, the secretary of", "Criticism of The Da Vinci Code who can remain celibate, for the kingdom of heaven's sake should do so\" (Matt. 19:12) were made in response to criticisms of his own celibacy. In the novel, a line of the Gospel of Philip is quoted where Mary Magdalene is referred to as Jesus's \"companion\", and a character of \"The Da Vinci Code\" says that Aramaic scholars know that this means \"wife\". James M. Robinson, an authority on the gnostic gospels, has responded to this passage by pointing out that \"companion\" was not necessarily a sex-related term. In addition, \"the Gospel of Philip is in Coptic, translated from Greek,", "Criticism of The Da Vinci Code the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, a Vatican curial department, specifically called for a boycott of the film version of \"The Da Vinci Code\", characterizing the film as \"full of calumnies, offenses, and historical and theological errors.\" The film was rated as \"morally offensive\" by the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops. In India, home to 30 million Christians (3% of the population), the Central Board of Film Certification gave the film an adult rating on condition that disclaimers saying it was a work of fiction were inserted at the beginning and end of the film. In contrast, some", "The Da Vinci Code in the Philippines there an attack on the divinity of Jesus Christ, which was as vicious and as momentarily profitable as this venture of Dan Brown and Sony Film Productions.\" Although, the CBCP and Cardinal Rosales didn't categorically demand for a ban of the film, they have issued guidelines for Filipino Catholics on watching the film. Just like MTRCB's rating, Fr. Mario Sobrejuanite, vice chairman of the Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines-Catholic Initiative for Enlightened Movie Appreciation (CBCP-Cinema), rated \"The Da Vinci Code\" as R-18 and stated that the film is something that Catholics should not be afraid of. However, the CBCP-Cinema", "Criticism of The Da Vinci Code papal headquarters to Avignon. The legend of the Holy Grail alleged that a sacred relic (in many versions, either the cup used at the Last Supper, or the cup said to have been used by Joseph of Arimathea to collect blood of Christ – or both) existed, which would bring untold blessings to any pure knight who found it. The story appeared around the time of the Crusades and is featured in Thomas Malory's \"Le Morte d'Arthur\". In Old French, the Holy Grail was written as \"San Graal\". However \"The Da Vinci Code\", taking cues from \"The Holy Blood and", "The Da Vinci Hoax The Da Vinci Hoax The Da Vinci Hoax is a non-fiction book written by Carl E. Olsen and Sandra Miesel for the express purpose of critiquing Dan Brown's novel \"The Da Vinci Code.\" The book was first published in 2004 by Ignatius Press. According to Olson and Miesel, they wrote it out of concern that Brown's novel is popularizing unfounded theories and misrepresentations of history and beliefs, which are used as the basis of the novel's plot, and defended by its author as factual, and that purport to expose Christianity as founded on lies that have been kept secret by", "The Da Vinci Code (film) before \"The Da Vinci Code\". However, the filmmakers re-tooled it as a sequel. Hanks reprises his role as Langdon in the film, which was released in May 2009 to moderate (but generally better) reviews. Sony Pictures produced a film adaptation of \"Inferno\", the fourth book in the \"Robert Langdon\" series, which was released in October 2016 with Ron Howard as director, David Koepp adapting the screenplay and Tom Hanks reprising his role as Robert Langdon. Filming began on April 27, 2015, in Venice, Italy, and wrapped up on July 21, 2015. On December 2, 2014, Felicity Jones was in early", "The Da Vinci Code (film) adaptation of \"The Da Vinci Code\".\" The film was poorly received at the Cannes Film Festival, where it debuted. Michael Medved gave the film a negative review, citing it as \"an attack on religion\". Anthony Lane of \"The New Yorker\" addressed the concerns of Catholics in his film review, stating that the film \"is self-evident, spirit-lowering tripe that could not conceivably cause a single member of the flock to turn aside from the faith.\" In his \"Movie Guide\", Leonard Maltin called the film \"a letdown in every respect.\" Director Howard noted that the overwhelmingly negative reviews were \"frustrating\" to him.", "The Da Vinci Code Geoffrey Pullum and others posted several entries critical of Dan Brown's writing, at Language Log, calling Brown one of the \"worst prose stylists in the history of literature\" and saying Brown's \"writing is not just bad; it is staggeringly, clumsily, thoughtlessly, almost ingeniously bad\". Roger Ebert described it as a \"potboiler written with little grace and style\", although he said it did \"supply an intriguing plot\". In his review of the film \"National Treasure\", whose plot also involves ancient conspiracies and treasure hunts, he wrote: \"I should read a potboiler like \"The Da Vinci Code\" every once in a while,", "The Da Vinci Code element of the 1999 Kevin Smith film, \"Dogma\". The earliest appearance of this theory is due to the 13th-century Cistercian monk and chronicler Peter of Vaux de Cernay who reported that Cathars believed that the 'evil' and 'earthly' Jesus Christ had a relationship with Mary Magdalene, described as his concubine (and that the 'good Christ' was incorporeal and existed spiritually in the body of Paul). The program \"The Real Da Vinci Code\" also cast doubt on the Rosslyn Chapel association with the Grail and on other related stories, such as the alleged landing of Mary Magdalene in France. According to", "The Da Vinci Code of some of the more controversial aspects being fact on his web site, stating that the \"FACT\" page at the beginning of the novel mentions only \"documents, rituals, organization, artwork and architecture\", but not any of the ancient theories discussed by fictional characters, stating that \"Interpreting those ideas is left to the reader\". Brown also says, \"It is my belief that some of the theories discussed by these characters may have merit\" and \"the secret behind \"The Da Vinci Code\" was too well documented and significant for me to dismiss.\" In 2003, while promoting the novel, Brown was asked in", "The Da Vinci Code was derived from a survey of more than 15,000 Australian readers. Salman Rushdie said during a lecture, \"Do not start me on \"The Da Vinci Code\". A novel so bad that it gives bad novels a bad name.\" Stephen Fry has referred to Brown's writings as \"complete loose stool-water\" and \"arse gravy of the worst kind\". In a live chat on June 14, 2006, he clarified, \"I just loathe all those book[s] about the Holy Grail and Masons and Catholic conspiracies and all that botty-dribble. I mean, there's so much more that's interesting and exciting in art and in history.", "The Da Vinci Code (film) \"Da Vinci Code\" cast and director, Matt Lauer posed a question to the group about how they would have felt if the film had borne a prominent disclaimer that it is a work of fiction, as some religious groups wanted. (Some high-ranking Vatican cabinet members had called for a boycott of the film.) McKellen responded: According to the Associated Press, during a preview for movie critics in Cannes, a line spoken by Tom Hanks \"drew prolonged laughter and some catcalls\". Nearing the end of the screening, \"there were a few whistles and hisses, and there was none of the scattered", "The Da Vinci Code to her life. The real meaning of the last message is that the Grail is buried beneath the small pyramid directly below the \"La Pyramide Inversée\", the inverted glass pyramid of the Louvre. It also lies beneath the \"Rose Line,\" an allusion to \"Rosslyn.\" Langdon figures out this final piece to the puzzle; he follows the Rose Line to \"La Pyramide Inversée\", where he kneels before the hidden sarcophagus of Mary Magdalene, as the Templar knights did before him. \"The Da Vinci Code\" was a major success in 2003 and was outsold only by J. K. Rowling's \"Harry Potter and", "The Da Vinci Code (film) terrorism.\" The National Organization for Albinism and Hypopigmentation (NOAH) expressed concern about Silas' character giving people with albinism a bad name. However, the filmmakers did not change his appearance. The film was banned in Syria. Although \"The Da Vinci Code\" was passed by Chinese censors, it was abruptly removed by authorities from public view in mainland China, after \"a remarkable run in China, grossing over $13 million\", due to protests by Chinese Catholic groups. Both the book and the film were banned in Egypt due to pressure from Coptic Christians. Some Muslims compared the film to the Danish cartoons that", "The Da Vinci Hoax the Roman Catholic Church throughout the centuries. The authors state that the theories, while presented as great revelations of hidden knowledge, are actually based on elements of gnostic and feminist ideas. They contend that the theories transparently contradict serious scholarship, and present detailed arguments and expositions against them. The Da Vinci Hoax The Da Vinci Hoax is a non-fiction book written by Carl E. Olsen and Sandra Miesel for the express purpose of critiquing Dan Brown's novel \"The Da Vinci Code.\" The book was first published in 2004 by Ignatius Press. According to Olson and Miesel, they wrote it out", "The Da Vinci Treasure by travelling around the world, following each clue. As time passes, however, Archer soon realizes that he is not alone in the quest for the treasure, and that he must combat other, more determined, treasure-seekers who would sooner see him dead. The efilmcritic, while stating Asylum can make the occasionally good movie, found this movie to rip off both the Da Vinci Code and National Treasure and found the movie disappointing and \"lazy\" with failed attempts to be historically accurate. The Da Vinci Treasure The Da Vinci Treasure is a 2006 direct-to-video mystery film produced by American studio The Asylum,", "The Da Vinci Code (film) was silent for the first time since World War II during that time. Although it remained a closed set, protesters led by a 61-year-old woman named Sister Mary Michael demonstrated against the filming. Sister Mary Michael spent 12 hours praying on her knees outside the cathedral in protest against what she saw as the blasphemous use of a holy place to film a book containing heresy. Winchester Cathedral answered criticism by using its location fee to fund an exhibition, lecture series and campaign to debunk the book. The scenes for the Pope's summer residence, Castel Gandolfo were filmed on location", "The Da Vinci Code (film) of calumnies, offences, and historical and theological errors\". Cardinal Francis Arinze, in a documentary called \"The Da Vinci Code: A Masterful Deception\", urged unspecified legal action against the makers of the film. He was formerly Prefect of the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments in the Vatican. Stating that it does not intend to organize any boycotts, Opus Dei (the Catholic organization that is featured prominently in the novel and the film) released a statement on February 14, 2006, asking Sony Pictures to consider editing the soon-to-be-released film so that it would not contain references that", "The Da Vinci Code (film) Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines (CBCP) and other religious groups to stop the showing of the film. However, Cecille Guidote Alvarez, Philippine Presidential Adviser on Culture and the Arts, said the Philippine government would not interfere in the controversy about the film and leaves the decision to the Movie and Television Review and Classification Board's (MTRCB) rating. Eventually, MTRCB decided to give \"The Da Vinci Code\" an R-18 rating (restricted to those 18 years of age and above) despite PAAP's opposition to showing it. The film was banned outright in the Independent State of Samoa after church leaders watching", "The Da Vinci Code (film) film the day before its widespread release. Protests also occurred at the filming sites, but only a monk and a nun stood in a quiet protest at the Cannes premiere. In Chennai, India, the film was banned for a two-month period to appease local Christian and Muslim groups. \"The Da Vinci Code\" received a 25% approval rating on the film review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes based on a sample of 220 reviews and an average rating of 4.8/10. The critics consensus states: \"What makes Dan Brown's novel a best seller is evidently not present in this dull and bloated movie", "The Da Vinci Code (film) a pre-release showing filed a complaint with film censors. Solomon Islands Prime Minister Manasseh Sogavare said he would seek to have the film banned in his country, as it might threaten the Solomons' predominantly Christian faith: Sri Lanka is also one of the countries that banned the film from being released. It was banned by presidential order of Mahinda Rajapakse. Public Performances Board to ban the screening of the movie 'The Da Vinci Code' in local cinemas and on local television channels. Apparently the Catholic Bishops Conference made the appeal through an epistle. \"The decision to ban the film was", "The Da Vinci Code (film) moviegoers spent an estimated $77 million in America, and $224 million worldwide. \"The Da Vinci Code\" is the best domestic opening for both Tom Hanks and Ron Howard. It also enjoyed the third biggest opening weekend for that year (after \"\" and \"\", and the second biggest worldwide opening weekend ever, just behind 2005's \"\".) This has led some critics, particularly in the UK, to moot the idea of the 'critic-proof film'. The film was released on DVD and VHS on November 14, 2006 in three editions: All DVD sets include an introduction from director Howard, ten featurettes, and other", "Da Vinci Project Da Vinci Project The Da Vinci Project was a privately funded, volunteer-staffed attempt to launch a reusable manned suborbital spacecraft. It was formed in 1996 specifically to be a contender for the Ansari X PRIZE for the first non-governmental reusable manned spacecraft. The project was based in Toronto, Ontario, Canada and led by Brian Feeney. The original da Vinci Project is no longer operating. A documentary was filmed throughout much of the project's life from 2000 through post-XPRIZE roundup footage in 2008. The documentary accumulated some 1000 hours or so of footage. It was a private undertaking by Michel Jones", "The Da Vinci Code (video game) its source material, the majority criticized the graphics and basic gameplay, particularly the melee combat. \"The Da Vinci Code\" is an action-adventure/puzzle game played from a third-person perspective. The aim of the game, as with both the book and the film, is to locate the Holy Grail. To achieve this goal, the player must gather clues, solve puzzles, and successfully evade or defeat enemies. Players control both Robert Langdon and Sophie Neveu. Who the player controls during any given level is pre-determined; the player has no choice as to which character to use at any given time in the game.", "The House of Da Vinci The House of Da Vinci The House of Da Vinci is a 2016 puzzle adventure game developed by Slovak indie studio Blue Brain Games. The game is based on fictional events that occurred during the Renaissance. The game is available in English, French, German, Spanish, Brazilian Portuguese, Czech, Slovak, Russian, Turkish, Italian, Polish, Japanese, Korean, Simplified Chinese, Hindi and Malay. The story is set up in Florence, Italy during the Renaissance. The player is the Leonardo Da Vinci’s most promising apprentice. Leonardo has disappeared. The player starts searching for the truth in his house. However, Leonardo's workshop is full of", "The Da Vinci Code (video game) done that they're hard to put up with even if you did want them.\" He felt the game captured the tone of the novel well, but concluded \"The Collective appears to have over-egged the pudding a little, putting far too much needless emphasis on repetitive and increasingly tedious action elements to the detriment of the already unpolished adventuring. In trying to fulfill the needs of what gamers want as well as \"Da Vinci Code\" fans, The Collective has ended up with a game that ultimately proves only half satisfying to either and great to none.\" GameSpot's Greg Mueller was more", "The Da Vinci Code (video game) grace of a three-toed sloth.\" He praised the puzzles, but was critical of the combat system, and concluded \"on the whole the game is a pretty bland and uninspiring attempt to cash in on a successful franchise. The game's poor presentation and frustrating combat system make the mystery behind \"The Da Vinci Code\" one that most gamers would be better off leaving unsolved.\" Game Revolution's JP Hurh gave the PlayStation 2 and Xbox versions a D, citing a \"multitude of glitches and unintuitive programming missteps. Odd tics include the game freezing when you try to use certain weapons, an essential", "The Duh-Vinci Code the failed machine, and Leonardo defiantly pulls a lever and is killed by a giant cog that falls on him. Farnsworth and Fry fly home in Leonardo's ship, and Farnsworth clumsily apologizes to Fry for insulting his intelligence. The basic plot and title of the episode is a parody of \"The Da Vinci Code\". They also make a reference to \"Achilles' Heel\" and \"Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?\". In its original broadcast on Comedy Central, \"The Duh-Vinci Code\" was viewed by an estimated 2.204 million viewers (up nearly 200,000 or 10% from \"Proposition Infinity\") with a 1.5 household rating", "The Da Vinci Code (video game) locations not featured in the novel, although it would adhere to Brown's overall plot. IGN's Douglass C. Perry wrote of the demo, \"the game demoed well, with clean sharp graphics for the current gen systems, offering interesting dialog, and a premise that stands out from many other titles in the adventure genre. The linear, story-based title intrigued us with its focus on art and culture, but it backed the heady concepts up with smart puzzles, a fun grappling system, and good gameplay. Despite the rage for everything next-gen these days, \"The Da Vinci Code\", a game that ordinarily would smack", "The Da Vinci Code (video game) composed by Winifred Phillips. The game's music was praised by several reviewers. Jeff Hall of the music review site ScreenSounds called it \"a fine piece of contemporary action scoring.\" Jonathan Fildes of BBC News wrote, \"the accompanying music lends a suitably ethereal atmosphere to proceedings.\" Juan Castro of IGN described it as \"moody, atmospheric and decidedly creepy. It's the right kind of music for slow-paced puzzle solving.\" JP Hurh of Game Revolution wrote, \"the ambient music is properly tense and sets the mood.\" \"The Da Vinci Code\" received mixed reviews across all three platforms. The PlayStation 2 version holds an", "The Da Vinci Code (video game) was highly critical of the melee combat, and concluded \"as a videogame, \"The Da Vinci Code\" captures a fraction of the intrigue from the best-selling novel. It weaves an interesting tale of conspiracy and corruption, but the gameplay simply doesn't back it up. It doesn't offer enough puzzle variety for serious adventure fans, and the combat will irritate or bore most action aficionados.\" GameSpy's David Chapman scored the Xbox and PlayStation versions 2 out of 5. He was highly critical of the graphics; \"the only thing stiffer than the acting is the character animations. The characters move with all the", "The Da Vinci Code (video game) clue being invisible and the inability to go through doors or interact with objects when you are carrying something.\" He was also highly critical of the enemy AI and the melee combat. Eurogamer's James Lyon gave the PC version 5 out of 10. Like most critics, he was critical of the combat system, writing \"the real problem with \"The Da Vinci Code\" is that it doesn't really know who to appeal to. The fighting and sneaking are so inharmoniously overlaid as to render them an irritating chore for those who just want to solve puzzles, yet they're also so poorly", "Pierino da Vinci 1500–1561), who was then in Pisa in the service of Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany. It depicts Ugolino and his sons. The work is now in the collection of the Liechtenstein Museum. Several sculptures, now believed to be by Pierino da Vinci, were at one time attributed to Michelangelo. Pierino da Vinci Pierino da Vinci (–1553 or 1554), born Pier Francesco di Bartolomeo di Ser Piero da Vinci (), was an Italian sculptor, born in the small town of Vinci in Tuscany; he was the nephew of Leonardo da Vinci. The son of Bartolomeo da Vinci, Leonardo’s", "Leonardo da Vinci: The Flights of the Mind a levitation technology. David Gelernter criticized his interpretations around the hypothetical encounter of Michelangelo and da Vinci. The release of \"Leonardo da Vinci: Flights of the Mind\" coincided with the release of another da Vinci biography, \"Leonardo\" by Martin Kemp. Leonardo da Vinci: The Flights of the Mind Leonardo da Vinci: Flights of the Mind is a 2004 biography of Leonardo da Vinci by Charles Nicholl. The book researches the life of Leonardo da Vinci in Tuscane and explores the reasons of his historic success. The author's main observation is that most of da Vinci's work was unfinished. Through a", "The Secrets of Da Vinci: The Forbidden Manuscript current title in January 2006. It came out at a time when the culture was saturated with Da Vinci (including a book, film, and competing video game). Marianne Tostivint believes \"The Da Vinci Code\" projects helped get this game be sold to a publisher and financed. A lot of effort was put into making the Clos Lucé as historically accurate as possible. The designers had three key focuses to ensure an optimum player experience: gameplay, ergonomy, and interfaces. In terms of educational goals, the designers wanted to make the game as historically accurate as it was fun to play. Coladia", "Leonardo da Vinci: The Flights of the Mind Leonardo da Vinci: The Flights of the Mind Leonardo da Vinci: Flights of the Mind is a 2004 biography of Leonardo da Vinci by Charles Nicholl. The book researches the life of Leonardo da Vinci in Tuscane and explores the reasons of his historic success. The author's main observation is that most of da Vinci's work was unfinished. Through a thorough research, the author dismisses most of the romanticized facts about da Vinci and concludes that a lot is unknown about the genius inventor. Da Vinci is described as an engineer obsessed with natural designs. \"Washington Post\" writer Alexander Nagel", "Chiaroscuro: The Private Lives of Leonardo da Vinci Chiaroscuro: The Private Lives of Leonardo da Vinci Chiaroscuro: The Private Lives of Leonardo da Vinci is a Vertigo comic book limited series published from 1995 to 1996, which was later repackaged in 2005 as a single volume. The series was written by Pat McGreal and David Rawson and illustrated by Chaz Truog and Rafael Kayanan. The original series covers were done by Stephen John Philips and Richard Bruning. A work of historical fiction, Chiaroscuro narrates the life of Leonardo da Vinci from the point of view of Gian Giacomo Caprotti da Oreno (almost exclusively called \"Salai\" in the story),", "Leonardo da Vinci (video game) that computer technology could be a form of art. \"The Wall Street Journal\" wrote that while Da Vinci is a popular subject for video games, this title \"beats them all\". Corbis did not earn a profit from the game. Leonardo da Vinci (video game) Leonardo da Vinci is a 1997 interactive CD-ROM game by Corbis, consisting of a \"computerized viewing tool which permits the user to examine English translations of the Codex [Leicester] superimposed onto facsimiles of its pages\". The tool, known as Codescope, is licensed by Corbis. In 1994, Bill Gates acquired the Codex Leicester. In 1997, Gates' privately", "Criticism of The Da Vinci Code that it is simply a masterful portrait of a woman. Olson and Meisel also take issue with the idea that Leonardo painted the \"Mona Lisa\" as a self-portrait, and that this idea is based on the fact that points of congruency are found between Leonardo's face and the Mona Lisa's. Olson and Meisel respond that points of congruency can be found among many faces, which is how computer morphing of faces is facilitated. The title of the book is not consistent with naming conventions, because \"Da Vinci\" was not Leonardo's surname. As Tom Chivers of \"The Daily Telegraph\" comments, \"[Leonardo]", "Da Vinci Medallion Da Vinci Medallion The Leonardo da Vinci Society for the Study of Thinking and the Da Vinci Medallion were created to award scholarship in the realm of human thinking. The name was chosen to honor Leonardo da Vinci, the archetypal Renaissance man. In 2005, the inaugural chair was awarded to Professor Edward de Bono, for his work in the field of creative thinking and in the direct teaching of thinking as a skill. Dr. Margaret J. Wheatley, credited with establishing new approaches to thinking about organizations, accepted the award in 2006. In the fall of 2006, the society announced that", "Da Vinci Medallion Fritjof Capra would receive the 2007 award in recognition for his work in systems thinking. Award recipients include: Da Vinci Medallion The Leonardo da Vinci Society for the Study of Thinking and the Da Vinci Medallion were created to award scholarship in the realm of human thinking. The name was chosen to honor Leonardo da Vinci, the archetypal Renaissance man. In 2005, the inaugural chair was awarded to Professor Edward de Bono, for his work in the field of creative thinking and in the direct teaching of thinking as a skill. Dr. Margaret J. Wheatley, credited with establishing new approaches", "The House of Da Vinci after completion of every level. Blue Brain Games is an indie team of graphic artists and developers, all of whom are people interested in both 3D puzzle games and the renaissance genius Leonardo Da Vinci. The House of Da Vinci was successfully funded on Kickstarter in late 2016. 2,391 adventure game enthusiasts backed the game. Merlina McGovern of adventuregames.com rated the game 3.5 out of 5 wrote that \"Although \"The House of Da Vinci\" is slightly marred by persnickety mechanics and the occasionally frustrating puzzle, exploring the mind of a genius by reverse engineering his inventions will pull you into", "The House of Da Vinci Droidgamer rated the game 9/10. The game was rated 9 for aesthetics, 9.2 for gameplay, 8.7 for innovation and 9.1 for value. \"\"The House of Da Vinci\" is a massive, gorgeous, cleverly designed puzzler that gives \"The Room\", its main inspiration, a pretty good run for its money.\", she said. The game does not have a clear ending. The developers have revealed that a sequel is under development in a discussion on Steam. The House of Da Vinci The House of Da Vinci is a 2016 puzzle adventure game developed by Slovak indie studio Blue Brain Games. The game is", "Da Vinci Schools \"Da Vinci Schools are among the very finest I've seen.\" Former California State Superintendent of Public Instruction Jack O'Connell, said \"Da Vinci Schools should be a model for other public schools in the state.\" The Los Angeles Times reported that Da Vinci Schools offer a teaching model that would make Leonardo da Vinci proud. Ninety-eight (98%) of Da Vinci graduates have successfully completed the A-G subject requirements for admission to a University of California or Cal State campus (a rate 51% higher than the State Average). Da Vinci graduates have been accepted to every UC and CSU, and to Stanford,", "Pierino da Vinci Pierino da Vinci Pierino da Vinci (–1553 or 1554), born Pier Francesco di Bartolomeo di Ser Piero da Vinci (), was an Italian sculptor, born in the small town of Vinci in Tuscany; he was the nephew of Leonardo da Vinci. The son of Bartolomeo da Vinci, Leonardo’s younger brother, Pierino demonstrated artistic ability at an early age; and was seen by his family as the heir to his uncle's talent. He studied under both Baccio Bandinelli (1488–1560) and Niccolò Tribolo (1500–1550). Pierino died from malarial fever at the age of 23, in Pisa, in 1553-4. The biographical information about", "Cultural references to Leonardo da Vinci Leonardo's backwards handwriting to hide a secret message on the American bookjacket. Among the many criticisms of Brown's writing is that he uses the name da Vinci (meaning \"from Vinci\") in the manner that surnames are commonly used nowadays. Leonardo would never have been referred to simply as \"da Vinci\" in his lifetime. Such designations were appended to common baptismal names in order to identify individuals. Films which are about the life of Leonardo or in which he appears as a character: Films which refer to Leonardo's works or inventions: Cultural references to Leonardo da Vinci Leonardo da Vinci (April", "Da Vinci Schools MIT, Yale, Columbia, Brown, Princeton, Dartmouth, Purdue, USC, LMU, and many other prestigious private and public universities across the nation. In Fall 2017, Da Vinci Communications, Da Vinci Design and Da Vinci Science high schools co-located to a new Wiseburn campus at 201 N. Douglas Street, El Segundo, CA. Da Vinci Schools are fully accredited by the Western Association of Schools & Colleges (WASC) and are a member of the Coalition of Essential Schools. Da Vinci Connect (K-8) is a public K-8 charter school offering families two unique learning models that combine homeschool instruction with school-based learning: (1) Homeschool Hybrid", "The Da Vinci Code in the Philippines the Philippines. Robinsons Malls Movieworld, Gaisano Cinemas, Ayala Malls Cinemas, Glorietta Cinemas are a few of the cinema companies that showed the film. Despite \"The Da Vinci Code's\" R-18 rating by the MTRCB, Filipino Congressman Bienvenido Abante Jr. rallied to abolish the MTRCB for allowing the film to be shown. Abante, who is also the president of the Metropolitan Baptist Church of the Philippines and called the film as demonic and diabolical, filed House Bill 3269 that seek to abolish the television and film board. In Cebu City, city moralist Rene Josef Bullecer said that the law that created the", "Da Vinci Systems Vinci engineered Transformer technology. The first generation Resolve systems were called the Resolve RT and Resolve DI. In 2008, DaVinci offered the Resolve R series (R-100, R-200, R-250, R-300, R-350, R-4K, R-3D), replacing DaVinci’s proprietary parallel processing PowerPlant cards with parallel processing NVIDIA GPUs, enabling super-computing image processing and a significantly greater feature set. Resolve features offered by da Vinci Systems included: Da Vinci Systems da Vinci Systems was a digital cinema company founded in 1984, based in Coral Springs, Florida and wholly owned by JDSU. It was known for products like the 888, 2K and 2K Plus (hardware based", "The Secrets of Da Vinci: The Forbidden Manuscript The Secrets of Da Vinci: The Forbidden Manuscript The Secrets of Da Vinci: The Forbidden Manuscript is an adventure game developed by Kheops Studio and published by Tri Synergy on June 7, 2006 on the PC. In 2009 it was released on the Mac OS X. This game was a co-production between Nobilis, Elektrogames, TOTM Studio, Kheops Studio, Mzone Studio, in collaboration with the Clos Lucé. It was the first ever game created about the life and work of Leonardo da Vinci. In September 2005, the project was originally announced as <nowiki>\"</nowiki>Da Vinci Experience, but this was changed to its", "Da Vinci Systems 888 digital video processing in place of the analog video processing. This system was manufactured from 1992–1998. Its features included: Additional options for the digital 888 included: Early versions had a double backplane chassis (4:2:2 only) and used an extra interface module, the EMC, to function with URSA control busses. 888s were normally used with a separate TLC1 or 2 editors and an additional interface was required for this on URSA installations. da Vinci also made the da Vinci Light. This was not marketed, so not many were sold. It is a da Vinci DUI 888 without the digital 888", "Da Vinci Schools by a once per year fundraiser, and Da Vinci Science students are creating a documentary that follows its development. Da Vinci Schools Da Vinci Schools is a public charter school network located at the corners of Hawthorne, El Segundo, Manhattan Beach, and Redondo Beach in Los Angeles, California, United States. Da Vinci Schools are dedicated to preparing students for college completion and 21st century jobs through an interdisciplinary real-world, project-based \"learn by doing\" curriculum that exceeds state content standards and California's \"a-g\" university admissions requirements. Da Vinci signature programs and practices include: project-based real-world learning; career pathways: a small and", "Lucan portrait of Leonardo da Vinci Lucan portrait of Leonardo da Vinci The Lucan portrait of Leonardo da Vinci is a late 15th- or early 16th-century portrait of a man that was discovered in 2008 in a cupboard of a private house in Italy. It strongly resembles a portrait of Leonardo da Vinci by Cristofano dell'Altissimo held by the Uffizi Gallery. The painting was previously thought by its owners to represent Galileo but on its discovery a claim was made that it is a self-portrait by Leonardo da Vinci. Alessandro Vezzosi, director of the Museo Ideale Leonardo da Vinci at Vinci said in 2011 that he", "The Romance of Leonardo da Vinci The Romance of Leonardo da Vinci The Romance of Leonardo da Vinci (, \"Resurrected Gods. Leonardo da Vinci\", in literal translation) is the second novel by Dmitry Merezhkovsky, first published in 1900 by \"Mir Bozhy\" magazine, then released as a separate edition 1901. The novel constitutes the second part of the Christ and Antichrist trilogy (1895-1907), started by the writer's debut novel \"The Death of the Gods\". Merezhkovsky started working upon the second novel right after the first one, \"The Death of Gods\", was finished, submerging himself in studying the history of Renaissance. By this time he had the vision", "The Romance of Leonardo da Vinci from Nietzsche.\" Other detractors have spotted Nietzchean influences, particularly in that the author \"valued will power higher than morality\" and saw Arts as being beyond the good and the evil. Modern critic Oleg Mikhaylov saw the novel as marked by tendentiousness, being driven by one motif, that of inevitable resurrection of Antiquity's gods and values. The Romance of Leonardo da Vinci The Romance of Leonardo da Vinci (, \"Resurrected Gods. Leonardo da Vinci\", in literal translation) is the second novel by Dmitry Merezhkovsky, first published in 1900 by \"Mir Bozhy\" magazine, then released as a separate edition 1901. The novel" ]

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[ "The primary responsibility for a boy's studies lies with his House Master, but he is assisted by an additional director of studies, known as a tutor. Classes, colloquially known as \"divs\" (divisions), are organised on a School basis; the classrooms are separate from the houses. New school buildings have appeared for teaching purposes every decade or so since New Schools, designed by Henry Woodyer and built 1861-3. Despite the introduction of modern technology, the external appearance and locations of many of the classrooms have remained unchanged for a long time." ]

[ "The London Underground in England is one of the few networks that uses a four-rail system. The additional rail carries the electrical return that, on third rail and overhead networks, is provided by the running rails. On the London Underground, a top-contact third rail is beside the track, energized at +420v DC, and a top-contact fourth rail is located centrally between the running rails at −210v DC, which combine to provide a traction voltage of 630v DC. London Underground is now upgrading its fourth rail system to 750v DC with a positive conductor rail energised to +500v DC and a negative conductor rail energised to -250v DC. However, many older sections in tunnels are still energised to 630v DC. The same system was used for Milan's earliest underground line, Milan Metro's line 1, whose more recent lines use an overhead catenary or a third rail.", "After World War I the US Army started developing a dual-role (AA/ground) automatic 37 mm cannon, designed by John M. Browning. It was standardised in 1927 as the T9 AA cannon, but trials quickly revealed that it was worthless in the ground role. However, while the shell was a bit light (well under 2 lbs) it had a good effective ceiling and fired 125 rounds per minute; an AA carriage was developed and it entered service in 1939. The Browning 37mm proved prone to jamming, and was eventually replaced in AA units by the Bofors 40 mm. The Bofors had attracted attention from the US Navy, but none were acquired before 1939. Also, in 1931 the US Army worked on a mobile anti-aircraft machine mount on the back of a heavy truck having four .30 caliber water-cooled machine guns and an optical director. It proved unsuccessful and was abandoned.", "The Empire was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I of Sangama Dynasty. The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka, India. The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction, first in the Deccan and later in the Dravidian idioms using the local granite. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician Madhava of Sangamagrama founded the famous Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like Parameshvara, Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeṣṭhadeva in medieval south India. Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation. The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian history that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor. The empire reached its peak during the rule of Sri Krishnadevaraya when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalinga, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south. Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of Krishna Deva Raya. Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in the Battle of Talikota (1565).", "Cuban immigrants in the 1960s brought the Cuban sandwich, medianoche, Cuban espresso, and croquetas, all of which have grown in popularity to all Miamians, and have become symbols of the city's varied cuisine. Today, these are part of the local culture, and can be found throughout the city in window cafés, particularly outside of supermarkets and restaurants. Restaurants such as Versailles restaurant in Little Havana is a landmark eatery of Miami. Located on the Atlantic Ocean, and with a long history as a seaport, Miami is also known for its seafood, with many seafood restaurants located along the Miami River, and in and around Biscayne Bay. Miami is also the home of restaurant chains such as Burger King, Tony Roma's and Benihana.", "The culture of Greece has evolved over thousands of years, beginning in Mycenaean Greece and continuing most notably into Classical Greece, through the influence of the Roman Empire and its Greek Eastern continuation, the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. Other cultures and nations, such as the Latin and Frankish states, the Ottoman Empire, the Venetian Republic, the Genoese Republic, and the British Empire have also left their influence on modern Greek culture, although historians credit the Greek War of Independence with revitalising Greece and giving birth to a single, cohesive entity of its multi-faceted culture.", "The gates of the Temple of Jerusalem used Corinthian bronze made by depletion gilding. It was most prevalent in Alexandria, where alchemy is thought to have begun. In ancient India, copper was used in the holistic medical science Ayurveda for surgical instruments and other medical equipment. Ancient Egyptians (~2400 BC) used copper for sterilizing wounds and drinking water, and later on for headaches, burns, and itching. The Baghdad Battery, with copper cylinders soldered to lead, dates back to 248 BC to AD 226 and resembles a galvanic cell, leading people to believe this was the first battery; the claim has not been verified.", "The earliest variant of the name that became Tennessee was recorded by Captain Juan Pardo, the Spanish explorer, when he and his men passed through an American Indian village named \"Tanasqui\" in 1567 while traveling inland from South Carolina. In the early 18th century, British traders encountered a Cherokee town named Tanasi (or \"Tanase\") in present-day Monroe County, Tennessee. The town was located on a river of the same name (now known as the Little Tennessee River), and appears on maps as early as 1725. It is not known whether this was the same town as the one encountered by Juan Pardo, although recent research suggests that Pardo's \"Tanasqui\" was located at the confluence of the Pigeon River and the French Broad River, near modern Newport." ]

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[ "Viceroy Egypt, especially during the reign of Muhammad Ali Pasha (1805–1848). This officer established an almost autonomous regime in Egypt, which officially still was under Ottoman rule. Although Mehemet Ali/Muhammad Ali used different symbols to mark his independence from the Sublime Porte, he never openly declared himself independent. Adopting the title of viceroy was yet another way to walk the thin line between challenging the Sultan's power explicitly and respecting his jurisdiction. Muhammad Ali Pasha's grandson, Ismail Pasha, subsequently received the title of Khedive which was almost an equivalent to viceroy. The post of Tổng Trấn (\"governor of all military provinces\")", "Abdülaziz (a son of Queen Victoria), Franz Joseph I of Austria and Alexander II of Russia. Also in 1867, Abdülaziz became the first Ottoman Sultan to formally recognize the title of Khedive (Viceroy) to be used by the Vali (Governor) of the Ottoman Eyalet of Egypt and Sudan (1517–1867), which thus became the autonomous Ottoman Khedivate of Egypt and Sudan (1867–1914). Muhammad Ali Pasha and his descendants had been the governors (Vali) of Ottoman Egypt and Sudan since 1805, but were willing to use the higher title of Khedive, which was unrecognized by the Ottoman government until 1867. In return, the", "Khedive Khedive The term Khedive ( \"Hıdiv\") is a title largely equivalent to the English word viceroy. It was first used, without official recognition, by Muhammad Ali Pasha (, General Muhammad Ali of Kavala), the governor of Egypt and Sudan, and vassal of the Ottoman Empire. The initially self-declared title was officially recognized by the Ottoman government in 1867, and used subsequently by Ismail Pasha, and his dynastic successors until 1914. This title, known for its use by the Muhammad Ali Dynasty of Egypt and Sudan, is recorded in English since 1867, derived via the French ; based on the Turkish", "Khedive 1923, Turkey formally ceded (retroactive to 5 November 1914) all remaining claims and rights in Egypt and Sudan. Khedive The term Khedive ( \"Hıdiv\") is a title largely equivalent to the English word viceroy. It was first used, without official recognition, by Muhammad Ali Pasha (, General Muhammad Ali of Kavala), the governor of Egypt and Sudan, and vassal of the Ottoman Empire. The initially self-declared title was officially recognized by the Ottoman government in 1867, and used subsequently by Ismail Pasha, and his dynastic successors until 1914. This title, known for its use by the Muhammad Ali Dynasty of", "Isma'il Pasha we are now part of Europe. It is therefore natural for us to abandon our former ways and to adopt a new system adapted to our social conditions\". In 1867 he also secured Ottoman and international recognition for his title of \"Khedive\" (Viceroy) in preference to \"Wāli\" (Governor) which was previously used by his predecessors in the Ottoman Eyalet of Egypt and Sudan (1517–1867). However, Isma'il's policies placed the Ottoman Khedivate of Egypt and Sudan (1867–1914) in severe debt, leading to the sale of the country's shares in the Suez Canal Company to the United Kingdom, and his ultimate toppling", "Abbas II of Egypt Abbas II of Egypt Abbas II Helmy Bey (also known as \"‘Abbās Ḥilmī Pasha\", ) (14 July 1874 – 19 December 1944) was the last Khedive (Ottoman viceroy) of Egypt and Sudan, ruling from 8 January 1892 to 19 December 1914. In 1914, after Turkey joined the Central Powers in World War I, the nationalist Khedive was removed by the British, then ruling Egypt, in favor of his more pro-British uncle, Hussein Kamel, marking the \"de jure\" end of Egypt's four-century era as a province of the Ottoman Empire, which had begun in 1517. Abbas II (full name: Abbas Hilmy),", "Abbas II of Egypt they had six children - two sons and four daughters: His second marriage in Çubuklu, Turkey on 1 March 1910 was to Hungarian noblewoman Marianna Török de Szendrö, who took the name Zübeyde Cavidan Hanım (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S., 8 January 1874after 1951). They divorced in 1913 without issue. Abbas II of Egypt Abbas II Helmy Bey (also known as \"‘Abbās Ḥilmī Pasha\", ) (14 July 1874 – 19 December 1944) was the last Khedive (Ottoman viceroy) of Egypt and Sudan, ruling from 8 January 1892 to 19 December 1914. In 1914, after Turkey joined the Central Powers in World War", "Albanians in Egypt and Sinai. Muhammad Ali had conquered Sudan in the first half of his reign and Egyptian control would be consolidated and expanded under his successors, most notably Ibrahim Pasha's son Isma'il I. Though Muhammad Ali and his descendants used the title of Khedive (Viceroy) in preference to the lesser Wāli, this was not recognized by the Porte until 1867 when Sultan Abdul-Aziz officially sanctioned its use by Isma'il Pasha and his successors. In contrast to his grandfather's policy of war against the Porte, Isma'il sought to strengthen the position of Egypt and Sudan and his dynasty using less confrontational means,", "Postage stamps and postal history of Egypt . First Egyptian stamps were issued on 1 January 1866. The 1867 issue featured a pyramid and the sphinx. Stamps issued in 1872 were inscribed in Italian \"Poste Khedive Egiziane'. Egypt joined the UPU in 1875. From 1879 stamps were inscribed in French. It was occupied by British forces during the Anglo-Egyptian War in 1882, Egypt remained an autonomous province of the Ottoman Empire, but the British occupation constituted a \"de facto\" protectorate over the country. In 1914, Egypt was declared a British protectorate when the Ottoman Empire joined the First World War on the side of the Central Powers.", "Khedivate of Egypt and Lower Egypt. Amid these disturbances, Husrev Pasha attempted to disband his Albanian bashi-bazouks (soldiers) without pay. This led to rioting that drove Husrev Pasha from Cairo. During the ensuing turmoil, the Porte sent Muhammad Ali Pasha to Egypt. However, Muhammad Ali seized control of Egypt, declaring himself ruler of Egypt and quickly consolidating an independent local powerbase. After repeated failed attempts to remove and kill him, in 1805, the Porte officially recognised Muhammad Ali as Wāli of Egypt. Demonstrating his grander ambitions, Muhammad Ali Pasha claimed for himself the higher title of Khedive (Viceroy), ruling the self-proclaimed (but not", "Hussein Kamel of Egypt Hussein Kamel of Egypt Sultan Hussein Kamel (, ; November 1853 – 9 October 1917) was the Sultan of Egypt from 19 December 1914 to 9 October 1917, during the British protectorate over Egypt. Hussein Kamel was the son of Khedive Isma'il Pasha, who ruled Egypt from 1863 to 1879. Hussein Kamel was declared Sultan of Egypt on 19 December 1914, after the occupying British forces had deposed his nephew, Khedive Abbas Hilmi II, on 5 November 1914. The newly created Sultanate of Egypt was declared a British protectorate. This brought to an end the de jure Ottoman sovereignty over", "History of Egypt under the British Empire joined the First World War on the side of the Central Powers in November 1914 and Britain unilaterally declared a protectorate over Egypt. The ruling khedive was deposed and his successor, Hussein Kamel, compelled to declare himself Sultan of Egypt independent of the Ottomans in December 1914. The formal protectorate over Egypt did not long outlast the war. It was brought to an end by the unilateral declaration of Egyptian independence on 28 February 1922. Shortly afterwards, Sultan Fuad I declared himself King of Egypt, but the British occupation continued, in accordance with several reserve clauses in the declaration", "Khedive control of the country, and declared himself ruler of Egypt, quickly consolidating an independent local powerbase. After repeated failed attempts to remove and kill him, in 1805, the Sublime Porte officially recognized Muhammad Ali as Pasha and Wāli (Governor) of Egypt. However, demonstrating his grander ambitions, he claimed for himself the higher title of Khedive (Viceroy), as did his successors, Abbas I, Sa'id I and Ibrahim Pasha. The Muhammad Ali dynasty’s use of the title Khedive was not sanctioned by the Ottoman Empire until 1867 when Sultan Abdülaziz officially recognized it as the title of Ismail Pasha. Moreover, the Porte", "Sultan of Egypt a province of the Ottoman Empire, semi-officially a virtually independent state with its own monarchy, armed forces, and territorial possessions in Sudan, and for practical purposes a British puppet. The legal fiction of Ottoman sovereignty in Egypt was finally ended in 1914 when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in First World War. Alarmed that the anti-British Khedive Abbas II would side with the Ottomans, the British deposed him in favor of his uncle Hussein Kamel and declared Egypt a British protectorate. Symbolizing the official end of Ottoman rule, Hussein Kamel took the title Sultan as did his brother", "Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire April 1882, British and French warships appeared in Alexandria to support the khedive and prevent the country from falling into the hands of anti-European nationals. In August 1882 British forces invaded and occupied Egypt on the pretext of bringing order. The British supported Khedive Tewfiq and restored stability with was especially beneficial to British and French financial interests. Egypt and Sudan remained as Ottoman provinces \"de jure\" until 1914, when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers of World War I. Great Britain officially annexed these two provinces and Cyprus in response. In 1867, the Council of States took charge" ]

[ "Viceroy of Kush at Soleb during the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt and then Amara West. The title lapsed under Paiankh. Pinudjem II named one of his wives 'Superintendent of Southern Foreign Lands and Viceroy Kush'. Below is a list of viceroys mainly based on a list assembled by George Reisner. Viceroy of Kush The former Kingdom of Kerma in Nubia, was a province of Ancient Egypt from the 16th century BCE to eleventh century BCE. During this period, the polity was ruled by a viceroy who reported directly to the Egyptian Pharaoh. It is believed that the Egyptian 25th Dynasty were descendants of", "Post-Confederation Canada (1867–1914) Post-Confederation Canada (1867–1914) Post-Confederation Canada (1867–1914) is the history of a new nation from its formation to the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Canada had a population of 3.5 million, residing in the large expanse from Cape Breton to just beyond the Great Lakes, usually within a hundred miles or so of the Canada–US border. One in three Canadians was French, and about 100,000 were aboriginal (First Nation, Inuit, Métis). It was a rural country composed of small farms. With a population of 115,000, Montreal was the largest city, followed by Toronto and Quebec at about 60,000. Pigs", "Post-Confederation Canada (1867–1914) its war plans to focus on Germany, economizing on defending against lesser threats in peripheral areas such as the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Defending Canada was a low priority. Post-Confederation Canada (1867–1914) Post-Confederation Canada (1867–1914) is the history of a new nation from its formation to the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Canada had a population of 3.5 million, residing in the large expanse from Cape Breton to just beyond the Great Lakes, usually within a hundred miles or so of the Canada–US border. One in three Canadians was French, and about 100,000 were aboriginal (First Nation, Inuit,", "Egypt Egypt remained semi-autonomous under the Mamluks until it was invaded by the French forces of Napoleon Bonaparte 1798 (see French campaign in Egypt and Syria). After the French were defeated by the British, a power vacuum was created in Egypt, and a three-way power struggle ensued between the Ottoman Turks, Egyptian Mamluks who had ruled Egypt for centuries, and Albanian mercenaries in the service of the Ottomans. After the French were expelled, power was seized in 1805 by Muhammad Ali Pasha, an Albanian military commander of the Ottoman army in Egypt. While he carried the title of viceroy of Egypt,", "Viceroy of Norway Viceroy of Norway The Viceroy of Norway (Constitutional Danish: Vice-Konge) was the appointed head of the Norwegian Government in the absence of the King, during the era of the Union between Sweden and Norway. The role was essentially the same as that of the Governor-general, which has led to confusion as to who filled which office. Decisive, however, is that the title of Viceroy could only be held by the crown prince, or his oldest son, when he had come of age. Commoners with a similar mandate were merely styled \"Statholder\" (Governor-general). On November 9, 1814, the King appointed Crown", "Amenhotep (Viceroy of Kush) Amenhotep (Viceroy of Kush) Amenhotep was an Ancient Egyptian official with the title \"king's son of Kush\". In this function he was the main administrator of the Nubian provinces. Amenhotep was in office under Thutmosis IV. He appears with his main title in a rock inscription on the island of Sehel. Here he also bears the titles \"overseer of the cattle of Amun\", \"overseer of works in Upper and Lower Egypt\", \"chief of the stalls of his majesty\", \"overseer of the southern foreign lands\" and \"king's scribe\". The inscription is not dated by a king's name. However, there is a", "Ottoman Egypt Ottoman Egypt Ottoman Egypt covers two main periods of the history of Egypt from the 16th through early 20th centuries, when under the rule of or allied to the Ottoman Empire that was based in (present day) Turkey. The Egypt Eyalet (1517–1867) was established when the Egypt region came under the direct rule of the Ottoman Empire with their 1517 victory over the Mamluk Sultanate. The interruption of the Napoleon's French campaign in Egypt and Syria (1798–1801) allowed Muhammad Ali's seizure of power from Ottoman Hurshid Pasha, and the founding of the Muhammad Ali dynasty. The Khedivate of Egypt (1867–1914)", "Huy (Viceroy of Kush) Nubia Huy (Viceroy of Kush) Huy was Viceroy of Kush during the reign of Ramesses II. He may have served either before or after Setau. Huy was also Mayor of Tjarw and a royal messenger to the Hatti. According to an inscription, he escorted Queen Maathorneferure from Hatti to Egypt. His titles include: Stablemaster of the Residence of Ramesses II, Royal Envoy to every foreign country, Viceroy of Kush, superintendent of the Southern Desert Lands, Fanbearer on the king's Right Hand. Viceroy Huy is known from several sources: Further attestations of Huy appear at the fortress of Buhen and in", "Huy (Viceroy of Kush) Huy (Viceroy of Kush) Huy was Viceroy of Kush during the reign of Ramesses II. He may have served either before or after Setau. Huy was also Mayor of Tjarw and a royal messenger to the Hatti. According to an inscription, he escorted Queen Maathorneferure from Hatti to Egypt. His titles include: Stablemaster of the Residence of Ramesses II, Royal Envoy to every foreign country, Viceroy of Kush, superintendent of the Southern Desert Lands, Fanbearer on the king's Right Hand. Viceroy Huy is known from several sources: Further attestations of Huy appear at the fortress of Buhen and in Lower", "History of the Jews in Egypt Egypt in 1543. Joseph ben Moses di Trani was in Egypt for a time (Frumkin, l.c. p. 69), as well as Ḥayyim Vital Aaron ibn Ḥayyim, the Biblical and Talmudical commentator (1609; Frumkin, l.c. pp. 71, 72). Of Isaac Luria's pupils, a Joseph Ṭabul is mentioned, whose son Jacob, a prominent man, was put to death by the authorities. According to Manasseh b. Israel (1656), \"The viceroy of Egypt has always at his side a Jew with the title 'zaraf bashi,' or 'treasurer,' who gathers the taxes of the land. At present Abraham Alkula holds the position.\" He was succeeded", "Egypt Eyalet Egypt remained semi-autonomous under the Mamluks until it was invaded by the French forces of Napoleon I in 1798. After the French were expelled, power was seized in 1805 by Muhammad Ali Pasha, an Albanian military commander of the Ottoman army in Egypt. Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty remained nominally an Ottoman province. It was granted the status of an autonomous vassal state or \"Khedivate\" in 1867. Isma'il Pasha and Tewfik Pasha governed Egypt as a quasi-independent state under Ottoman suzerainty until the British occupation of 1882. Nevertheless, the Khedivate of Egypt (1867–1914) remained a de jure Ottoman province", "Agreement between Great Britain and Portugal Relating to the Suppression of the Capitulations in Egypt Agreement between Great Britain and Portugal Relating to the Suppression of the Capitulations in Egypt The Agreement between Great Britain and Portugal Relating to the Suppression of the Capitulations in Egypt (1920) was an agreement concluded between the British and Portuguese governments in Lisbon on 9 December 1920, in order to regulate legal relations between Portuguese citizens and the court system in Egypt. Ratifications were exchanged in Lisbon on 29 September 1921 and the agreement went into effect. It was registered in the \"League of Nations Treaty Series\" on 12 December 1921. The capitulations system had been introduced into the", "Viceroy (butterfly) mimicry to defend themselves against predators. In these experiments, birds that had not been exposed to monarchs willingly ate viceroys, but those that had tasted the unpalatable monarch refused to touch the mimic. In addition, when given the choice between a mimic and non-mimic after being exposed to an unpalatable model, avian predators never ate the viceroy mimic. Recent research has argued that the viceroy may be unpalatable to avian predators. If that is the case, then the viceroy butterfly displays Müllerian mimicry, and both viceroy and monarch are co-mimics of each other. Some literature suggests that the queen-viceroy may", "History of Egypt was followed by four years of anarchy in which Ottomans, Mamluks, and Albanians — who were nominally in the service of the Ottomans – wrestled for power. Out of this chaos, the commander of the Albanian regiment, Muhammad Ali (Kavalali Mehmed Ali Pasha) emerged as a dominant figure and in 1805 was acknowledged by the Sultan in Istanbul as his viceroy in Egypt; the title implied subordination to the Sultan but this was in fact a polite fiction: Ottoman power in Egypt was finished and Muhammad Ali, an ambitious and able leader, established a dynasty that was to rule Egypt", "Seti (Viceroy of Kush) Scribe of the letters of Pharaoh, First chief in the stable, Eyes of the King of Upper Egypt, Ears of the King of Lower Egypt, High-Priest of the Moon-god, Thoth, Overseer of the Treasury, and Overseer of the letter-scribes in the Court of the Palace-of-Ramesses-Miamun, in the Court. Seti is attested in: Seti (Viceroy of Kush) The Viceroy of Kush Seti is attested in year 1 of Siptah. Seti is also mentioned on some monuments of his son Amenemhab. Amenemhab was the son of Seti and the Lady Amenemtaiauw. Seti held the titles fan-bearer on the king's right, and king's", "RMS Viceroy of India to P&O on 7 March 1929 and made her maiden voyage on the Indian mail route. \"Viceroy of India\" was also suited for leisure cruises, which she made every year until the outbreak of World War II in September 1939. On 9 August 1929, she collided with the tug at Venice, Italy; \"Olanda\" was beached after the collision. On 23 November 1929 \"Viceroy of India\" rescued 25 crew members from the Italian cargo steamer which sank in the eastern Mediterranean off the coast of Egypt. In February 1930 \"Viceroy of India\" was bethed in Bombay when the British India Line", "Viceroy (cigarette) Czech Republic, Romania, Bulgaria, Turkey, Belarus, Russia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Egypt, Israel, Thailand and Hong Kong. Viceroy (cigarette) Viceroy is an American brand of cigarettes, currently owned and manufactured by R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company in the United States and British American Tobacco outside of the United States. Viceroy was introduced by Brown & Williamson in 1936 and was the world's first cork-tipped filter cigarette. It was a mid-priced brand at the time, equivalent to B&W's Raleigh cigarettes flagship brand, but more expensive than Wings cigarettes introduced by B&W in 1929. In 1952 Viceroy was the first brand to add", "Viceroy of Kush Viceroy of Kush The former Kingdom of Kerma in Nubia, was a province of Ancient Egypt from the 16th century BCE to eleventh century BCE. During this period, the polity was ruled by a viceroy who reported directly to the Egyptian Pharaoh. It is believed that the Egyptian 25th Dynasty were descendants of these viceroys, and so were the dynasties that ruled independent Kush until the fourth century CE. The 'King's Son of Kush' ruled the area north of the Third Cataract. The area was divided into Wawat in the north, centered at Aniba, and Kush in the south, centered", "Viceroy (butterfly) evolutionary relationship between prey and predator. The viceroy's main predators – like many other butterflies – consist mostly of birds. The viceroy's wing color ranges from tawny orange (resembling monarchs) in the north to dark mahogany (resembling queens) in the south. It has been argued that selective pressures from predators have given rise to \"model switching\" in the viceroy, with each subspecies being selected to copy the color pattern of the locally dominant Danaine subspecies. When the monarch's breeding range overlaps with the viceroy, the viceroy will adopt the lighter shades of orange. Towards the south, the viceroy mostly displayed", "RMS Viceroy of India interior decoration was designed by the Honourable Elsie Mackay, youngest daughter of James Mackay, 1st Earl of Inchcape, who was the chairman of P&O from 1914 until his death in 1932. \"Viceroy of India\" carried cargo as well as passengers, and her holds were refrigerated for carrying perishables. The ship was launched as \"Viceroy of India\" on 15 September 1928 by Dorothy, Countess of Halifax, the wife of the Viceroy of India, E. F. L. Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax. The name had been changed to avoid offending Indians, particularly Muslims, for whom the Taj Mahal mausoleum is sacred. Fitting", "Sultan of Egypt Sultan of Egypt Sultan of Egypt was the status held by the rulers of Egypt after the establishment of the Ayyubid dynasty of Saladin in 1174 until the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517. Though the extent of the Egyptian Sultanate ebbed and flowed, it generally included Sham and Hejaz, with the consequence that the Ayyubid and later Mamluk sultans were also regarded as the Sultans of Syria. From 1914, the title was once again used by the heads of the Muhammad Ali dynasty of Egypt and Sudan, later being replaced by the title of King of Egypt and Sudan", "Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces General of Jilin, General of Heilongjiang and General of Shengjing were merged under a single office, Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces. The Viceroy also received an additional honorary title as an Imperial Commissioner. From 1910 to 1911, the Viceroy concurrently held the appointment of Provincial Governor of Fengtian. Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces The Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces, fully referred to in Chinese as the Governor-General of the Three Northeast Provinces and Surrounding Areas Overseeing Military Generals of the Three Provinces, Director of Civil Affairs of Fengtian (Manchu: \"dergi ilan goloi uheri kadalara amban\"), sometimes referred", "Agreement Between Great Britain and Greece Relating to the Suppression of the Capitulations in Egypt (1920) the operation of Greek associations in Egypt. Agreement Between Great Britain and Greece Relating to the Suppression of the Capitulations in Egypt (1920) An agreement concluded between the British and Greek governments in Athens on 22 August (Gregorian style)/4 September 1920, in order to regulate legal relations between Greek citizens and the court system in Egypt. Ratifications were exchanged in Athens on 4 January 1921 and the agreement went into effect. It was registered in the \"League of Nations Treaty Series\" on 26 February 1921. The Capitulations system was introduced into the legal system of the Ottoman Empire and some", "Viceroy to indicate a viceroy's wife. \"Viceroy\" is a form of royal appointment rather than noble rank. An individual viceroy often also held a noble title, however, such as Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma who was also Viceroy of India. The title was originally used by the Crown of Aragon; where beginning in the 14th century, it referred to the Spanish governors of Sardinia and Corsica. After the unification, at the end of the 15th century, later kings of Spain came to appoint numerous viceroys to rule over various parts of the increasingly vast Spanish Empire in Europe, the", "Agreement Between Great Britain and Norway Relating to the Suppression of the Capitulations in Egypt Agreement Between Great Britain and Norway Relating to the Suppression of the Capitulations in Egypt An agreement concluded between the British and Norwegian governments in Christiania (now Oslo) on April 22, 1921, in order to regulate legal relations between Norwegian citizens and the court system in Egypt. Ratifications were not exchanged for this agreement, since the issue was not mentioned in it, and the agreement went into effect. It was registered in the \"League of Nations Treaty Series\" on May 28, 1921. The Capitulations system has been introduced into the legal system of the Ottoman empire and some other Middle", "Agreement Between Great Britain and Denmark Relating to the Suppression of the Capitulations in Egypt Agreement Between Great Britain and Denmark Relating to the Suppression of the Capitulations in Egypt An agreement concluded between the British and Danish governments in Copenhagen on July 14, 1921, in order to regulate legal relations between Danish citizens and the court system in Egypt. Ratifications were not exchanged for this agreement, since that was not required by its provisions, and the agreement went into effect. It was registered in the \"League of Nations Treaty Series\" on August 20, 1921. The Capitulations system has been introduced into the legal system of the Ottoman empire and some other Middle Eastern countries", "Turks in Egypt and politician Hasan Celal Güzel claimed that the Turkish descended population in Egypt numbered 25 million people. According to the National Geographic, 3% of the genetic makeup of Egyptians can be traced to Asia Minor and 3% to Southern Europe. Turks in Egypt The Turks in Egypt, also referred to as Egyptian Turks, Turkish-Egyptians and Turco-Egyptians () are Egyptian citizens of partial or full Turkish ancestry, who are the descendants of settlers that arrived in the region during the Tulunid (868–905), Zengid (1127–1250), Mamluk (1250–1517), and Ottoman eras (1517–1867 and 1867–1914). Today their descendants continue to live in Egypt and", "King of Egypt and the Sudan other monarch to officially use the title \"King of Egypt and the Sudan\" besides Farouk I was his infant son Fuad II. The title was used very briefly, as the Egyptian monarchy was abolished on 18 June 1953. Despite its short-lived existence, the title was used as an overprint on numerous Egyptian postage stamps. Many of the currently surviving stamps featuring Farouk I's portrait thus bear the Arabic inscription \"King of Egypt and the Sudan\". King of Egypt and the Sudan King of Egypt and the Sudan ( \"\") was the title used by the Egyptian monarch from 16 October", "The Spanish Viceroy its original title. Yet commentators also developed the hypothesis that \"The Spanish Viceroy\" exists in an altered form, as the extant 1634 play \"A Very Woman\". This is one of Massinger's collaborations with John Fletcher, and the play does feature a Spanish viceroy of Sicily as a supporting character. Yet plays are normally named after their protagonists, or on rare occasion the protagonists of their comic subplots; they are not named after supporting characters. This makes \"A Very Woman\" seem an unlikely candidate for \"The Spanish Viceroy\". \"A Very Woman\" also has nothing to do with the Count of Gondomar", "Agreement Between Great Britain and Sweden Relating to the Suppression of the Capitulations in Egypt (1921) Agreement Between Great Britain and Sweden Relating to the Suppression of the Capitulations in Egypt (1921) An agreement concluded between the British and Swedish governments in Stockholm on 8 July 1921, in order to regulate legal relations between Swedish citizens and the court system in Egypt. Ratifications were not exchanged for this agreement, since that was not required by its provisions, and the agreement went into effect. It was registered in the \"League of Nations Treaty Series\" on 19 July 1921. The Capitulations system has been introduced into the legal system of the Ottoman Empire and some other Middle Eastern", "Agreement Between Great Britain and Greece Relating to the Suppression of the Capitulations in Egypt (1920) Agreement Between Great Britain and Greece Relating to the Suppression of the Capitulations in Egypt (1920) An agreement concluded between the British and Greek governments in Athens on 22 August (Gregorian style)/4 September 1920, in order to regulate legal relations between Greek citizens and the court system in Egypt. Ratifications were exchanged in Athens on 4 January 1921 and the agreement went into effect. It was registered in the \"League of Nations Treaty Series\" on 26 February 1921. The Capitulations system was introduced into the legal system of the Ottoman Empire and some other Middle Eastern countries as a result", "Turks in Egypt Turks in Egypt The Turks in Egypt, also referred to as Egyptian Turks, Turkish-Egyptians and Turco-Egyptians () are Egyptian citizens of partial or full Turkish ancestry, who are the descendants of settlers that arrived in the region during the Tulunid (868–905), Zengid (1127–1250), Mamluk (1250–1517), and Ottoman eras (1517–1867 and 1867–1914). Today their descendants continue to live in Egypt and still identify as Egyptians of Turkish or mixed origin, though they are also fully integrated in Egyptian society. During the four centuries of Ottoman rule, Turkish settlers arrived predominately from Anatolia; however, many also arrived from the Ottoman Isles (such", "Khedivate of Egypt Britain now removed the nominal role of Constantinople, proclaimed a Sultanate of Egypt and abolished the Khedivate on 5 November 1914. Abbas II, who supported the Central Powers and was in Vienna for a state visit, was deposed from the Khedivate throne in his absence by the enforcement of the British military authorities in Cairo and was banned from returning to Egypt. He was succeeded by his uncle Hussein Kamel, who took the title of Sultan on 19 December 1914. During the khedivate, the standard form of Egyptian currency was the Egyptian pound. Because of the gradual European domination of", "Wasita (title) powerful military leaders who occupied the position of chief minister in the second half of the 11th century, however, the title was abandoned again in favour of that of vizier. Wasita (title) Wāsiṭa (\"intermediary\") was a title given to the senior administrative official in Fatimid Egypt in the late 10th and early 11th centuries. The title signified the role of the chief minister as the \"intermediary\" between the Fatimid caliphs and the administration and the people, but was junior to the rank of vizier (\"wazīr\"), which was more common in the Islamic world. It was first given to al-Hasan ibn", "Viceroy Governor-General as representing the Crown became known as the Viceroy. The designation \"Viceroy,\" although it was most frequently used in ordinary parlance, had no statutory authority, and was never employed by Parliament. Although the Proclamation of 1858 announcing the assumption of the government of India by the Crown referred to Lord Canning as \"first Viceroy and Governor-General,\" none of the Warrants appointing his successors referred to them as \"viceroys,\" and the title, which was frequently used in warrants dealing with precedence and in public notifications, was basically one of ceremony used in connection with the state and social functions of", "Agreement Between Great Britain and Denmark Relating to the Suppression of the Capitulations in Egypt a result, the British government agreed to modify some legal arrangements. In article 1, the Danish government renounced all privileges to its citizens in Egypt in exchange for their protection under the British system. Article 2 stipulated for the abolition of Danish consular courts throughout Egypt. Article 3 stipulated that Danish citizens in Egypt shall enjoy the same privileges as British citizens. Article 4 stipulated that Danish consular agents shall retain their diplomatic privileges as before. Article 5 determined which Anglo-Danish treaties shall remain valid under the new arrangements. Agreement Between Great Britain and Denmark Relating to the Suppression of", "Agreement Between Great Britain and Norway Relating to the Suppression of the Capitulations in Egypt system. As a result, the British government agreed to modify some legal arrangements. In article 1, the Norwegian government renounced all privileges to its citizens in Egypt in exchange for their protection under the British system. Article 2 stipulated for the abolition of Norwegian consular courts throughout Egypt. Article 3 stipulated that Norwegian citizens in Egypt shall enjoy the same privileges as British citizens. Article 4 stipulated that Norwegian consular agents shall retain their diplomatic privileges as before. Article 5 determined which Anglo-Norwegian treaties shall remain valid under the new arrangements. Agreement Between Great Britain and Norway Relating to the", "Tuthmose (Viceroy of Kush) was Tuthmose as he is so far the only known viceroy of Kush datable under Akhenaten. Tuthmose (Viceroy of Kush) Tuthmose was the Viceroy of Kush during the reign of Akhenaten. Tuthmose was given the titles \"King's Son of Kush, Overseer of the Gold Lands of Amun, Overseer of masons, Overseer of the borderlands of His Majesty\", and \"Fan-bearer on the King's right\". In year 12 of Akhenaten, Tuthmose was ordered to put down a rebellion by some of the Nubians, according to a stela set up at Buhen. Here were found the fragments of the stela mentioning this rebellion", "Viceroy Special in Kandy, Sri Lanka. This train was the inspiration for the \"Viceroy Special\". The \"Viceroy Special\" has been running for over 25 years. The \"Viceroy Special\" acts as a heritage service. Passenger carriages on the train are fitted with nineteenth-century period fittings and include a restaurant car, an observation car and a bar. It is also given some modern features like air-conditioning. It is run by the only steam locomotive still in operation in Sri Lanka. Currently three steam locomotives run the \"Viceroy Special\" service. Viceroy Special The Viceroy Special is a special passenger train service operated by J.F. Tours", "Tuthmose (Viceroy of Kush) Tuthmose (Viceroy of Kush) Tuthmose was the Viceroy of Kush during the reign of Akhenaten. Tuthmose was given the titles \"King's Son of Kush, Overseer of the Gold Lands of Amun, Overseer of masons, Overseer of the borderlands of His Majesty\", and \"Fan-bearer on the King's right\". In year 12 of Akhenaten, Tuthmose was ordered to put down a rebellion by some of the Nubians, according to a stela set up at Buhen. Here were found the fragments of the stela mentioning this rebellion and a viceroy of Kush. The latters name is lost but it seems likely that it", "Viceroy extraordinary break from the centralized traditions of the Roman Empire and was an early example of the principle of Viceroyalty. As with many princely and administrative titles, viceroy is often used, generally unofficially, to render somewhat equivalent titles and offices in non-western cultures. In cultures all over the continent of Africa, the role of viceroy has been subsumed into a hereditary noble as opposed to strictly administrative position. In the Arabo-Berber north, for example, the title of Khalifa is often used by individuals who derive their authority to rule from someone else in much the same way as a viceroy", "Postage stamps and postal history of Egypt which was not addressed in Arabic as the staff of the \"Ottoman Postal Service\" were unable to read the Latin alphabet. In 1866 a second service was set up on behalf of the Egyptian post office operating in the city to solve the same problem. Both services were short lived. Four post offices were opened in what is now Somalia and one in present-day Eritrea. They were open between 1867 and 1885. Egypt provided the postal stamps for Gaza between 1948 and 1967. On May 5, 1948, Egypt set up postal services and issued overprints of Egyptian stamps with \"Palestine\"", "Viceroy Han, Ming and Qing dynasties, there existed positions of viceroys having control over various provinces (e.g., Liangguang = Guangdong and Guangxi, Huguang = Hubei and Hunan). In Siam before 1885, the title was used for the heir-apparent or heir presumptive (Thai: กรมพระราชวังบวรสถานมงคล) The title was abolished and replaced with that of the Crown Prince of Siam. Viceroy A viceroy () is an official who runs a country, colony, city, province, or sub-national state, in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory. The term derives from the Latin prefix \"vice-\", meaning \"in the place of\"", "Viceroy of Norway Prince Carl Johan to the office, but it was vacated eight days later. Crown Prince Carl was the longest-serving Viceroy, sitting for about a year. The office was vacant most of the time, and it was ultimately abolished on June 30, 1891. Viceroy of Norway The Viceroy of Norway (Constitutional Danish: Vice-Konge) was the appointed head of the Norwegian Government in the absence of the King, during the era of the Union between Sweden and Norway. The role was essentially the same as that of the Governor-general, which has led to confusion as to who filled which office. Decisive, however,", "Wasita (title) Wasita (title) Wāsiṭa (\"intermediary\") was a title given to the senior administrative official in Fatimid Egypt in the late 10th and early 11th centuries. The title signified the role of the chief minister as the \"intermediary\" between the Fatimid caliphs and the administration and the people, but was junior to the rank of vizier (\"wazīr\"), which was more common in the Islamic world. It was first given to al-Hasan ibn Ammar in 996, and continued to be held by several chief ministers during the reigns of al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah (r. 996–1021) and Ali az-Zahir (r. 1021–1036). With the rise of", "Grand title of the Emperor of Austria important monarchical titles of various countries and territories under Habsburg rule, and also of titular rulers of former possessions. With the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 the grand title was again slightly modified. Although the Austrian emperor was also the nominal head of the German Confederation, this was not included in the grand title since it was an elected office. The grand title was not a complete listing of all the titles held; instead it ends with an etc. There were also a middle title and a small title. The empress, as consort of the emperor, was also given the feminine", "Viceroy of Yun-Gui Viceroy of Yunnan and Viceroy of Guizhou, which were respectively headquartered in Qujing and Anshun. Two years later, the two viceroys were merged and the headquarters shifted to Guiyang. In 1673, the Kangxi Emperor restored the Viceroy of Yunnan, with its headquarters in Qujing. Between 1673 and 1681, the Revolt of the Three Feudatories broke out in Yunnan, Guangdong and Fujian provinces. The Viceroy of Yun-Gui was restored in 1680. In 1728, the Yongzheng Emperor put the Viceroy of Yun-Gui in charge of Guangxi Province as well but reversed the changes in 1734. This system lasted until the fall of", "King of Egypt and the Sudan King of Egypt and the Sudan King of Egypt and the Sudan ( \"\") was the title used by the Egyptian monarch from 16 October 1951 until the abolition of the monarchy on 18 June 1953. In 1951, the Egyptian Parliament amended the Constitution by Law 176 of 16 October 1951 to provide that the title of the King should be \"King of Egypt and the Sudan\" instead of \"King of Egypt, Sovereign of Nubia, Sudan, Kordofan, and Darfur\". This move came in the wake of Wafdist Prime Minister Nahhas Pasha's decision to unilaterally abrogate the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936.", "Abbas II of Egypt to support the Central Powers against the British, so when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in World War I, the United Kingdom declared Egypt a Sultanate under British protection on 18 December 1914 and deposed Abbas II. During the war, Abbas II supported the Ottomans, including leading an attack on the Suez Canal. He was replaced by the British by his uncle Hussein Kamel from 1914 to 1917, with the title of sultan. Hussein Kamel issued a series of restrictive orders to strip Abbas II of property in Egypt and Sudan and forbade contributions to him. These also", "Agreement Between Great Britain and Sweden Relating to the Suppression of the Capitulations in Egypt (1921) As a result, the British government agreed to modify some legal arrangements. In article 1, the Swedish government renounced all privileges to its citizens in Egypt in exchange for their protection under the British system. Article 2 stipulated for the abolition of Swedish consular courts throughout Egypt. Article 3 stipulated that Swedish citizens in Egypt shall enjoy the same privileges as British citizens. Article 4 stipulated that Swedish consular agents shall retain their diplomatic privileges as before. Article 5 determined which Anglo-Swedish treaties shall remain valid under the new arrangements. Agreement Between Great Britain and Sweden Relating to the Suppression", "King of Egypt King of Egypt King of Egypt ( \"\") was the title used by the ruler of Egypt between 1922 and 1951. When the United Kingdom ended its protectorate over Egypt on 28 February 1922, Egypt's Sultan Fouad I issued a decree on 15 March 1922 whereby he adopted the title of \"King of Egypt\". It has been reported that the title change was due not only to Egypt's newly independent status, but also to Fouad I's desire to be accorded the same title as the newly installed rulers of the newly created kingdoms of Hejaz, Syria and Iraq. The only", "King of Egypt (derived from \"pr ˤ3\"). King of Egypt King of Egypt ( \"\") was the title used by the ruler of Egypt between 1922 and 1951. When the United Kingdom ended its protectorate over Egypt on 28 February 1922, Egypt's Sultan Fouad I issued a decree on 15 March 1922 whereby he adopted the title of \"King of Egypt\". It has been reported that the title change was due not only to Egypt's newly independent status, but also to Fouad I's desire to be accorded the same title as the newly installed rulers of the newly created kingdoms of Hejaz, Syria", "Palace of the Viceroy (Barcelona) 1844. It was destroyed by a fire in 1875. The palace has its origins in the ‘Porxo del Forment’, a wheat warehouse constructed in 1314. Next to it, a cloth market was built in 1389, which was also known as the Hala dels Draps. The buildings were merged in 1514 and a floor was added to the building which served as an arsenal. King Philip IV confiscated the building in 1652 and purposed it to serve as the residence of the Viceroy of Catalonia. By order of Viceroy Vicente Gonzaga Doria a new palace was constructed between 1668 and 1688.", "Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces The office of the Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces previously existed as the \"General of Liaodong\" (遼東將軍), which was created in 1662 during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor. The post was subsequently renamed to \"General of Fengtian\" (奉天將軍) and \"General of Shengjing\" (盛京將軍). In 1876, during the reign of the Guangxu Emperor, the General of Shengjing was given additional concurrent appointments as Secretary of Defence and Secretary of Justice and Prefect of Fengtian Prefecture (奉天府尹). He also gained honorary titles as a Viceroy, Secretary of Defence, and Right Censor-in-Chief of the Detection Branch. In 1907, the offices of", "Viceroy (cigarette) introduced. In 1990, Viceroy Box Kings and Lights Box Kings were introduced on the U.S. market, followed by Viceroy Ultra Lights Kings and Ultra Lights 100's in 1992. New Viceroy 100's box styles changed in the 1990s, and Viceroy Menthol was introduced in 2000. All Viceroy styles changed to a more contemporary packaging on packs and cartons without changes to the product blend. On July 30, 2004, parent company Reynolds American was formed as a joint venture between the U.S. branch of BAT and R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company. The Viceroy brand was brought under the Reynolds American umbrella as a", "Viceroy of Sichuan Sichuan relocated its headquarters to Hanzhong. In 1668, during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor, the Viceroy of Huguang was abolished and merged into the Viceroy of Sichuan, which was then renamed \"Viceroy of Chuan-Hu\" (川湖總督) and based in Jingzhou. In 1670, the Viceroy of Chuan-Hu relocated to Chongqing. Four years later, the Viceroy of Chuan-Hu reverted to pre-1668, separating into the Viceroy of Huguang and Viceroy of Sichuan. In 1680, the Kangxi Emperor merged the Viceroy of Sichuan with the Viceroy of Shaanxi under the \"Viceroy of Chuan-Shaan\" (川陝總督), with its headquarters in Xi'an. In 1718, a separate Viceroy", "Viceroy (butterfly) at avian responses to butterfly abdomen, it was found that the viceroy butterfly was significantly more unpalatable than the queen. The queen-viceroy relationship is too asymmetrical for them to be considered real co-mimics of each other. Instead, mathematical models have suggested that the queen enjoys the benefits of mimicry at the viceroy's expense, and that the model-mimic dynamic between the two should be switched. In light of this new interpretation, it has been speculated that different food plants in different geographical locations influence the palatability of the viceroy. Further investigation is needed to clarify the relationship between the viceroy and", "History of Egypt the Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517). In 1517, Ottoman sultan Selim I captured Cairo, absorbing Egypt into the Ottoman Empire. Egypt remained entirely Ottoman until 1867, except during French occupation from 1798 to 1801. Starting in 1867, Egypt became a nominally autonomous tributary state called the Khedivate of Egypt. However, Khedivate Egypt fell under British control in 1882 following the Anglo-Egyptian War. After the end of World War I and following the Egyptian revolution of 1919, the Kingdom of Egypt was established. While a \"de jure\" independent state, the United Kingdom retained control over foreign affairs, defense, and other matters. British occupation", "Given to the Wild recording of the LP, which is the follow-up to 2009's \"Wall of Arms\". Speaking about the title of the album, singer Orlando Weeks told the NME: \"'Given to the wild' is the first line on the album and was a title idea we had pretty early on. But it wasn't until we'd finished recording that we could come back to it and know that it suited, it just felt right.\" On 12 January 2012 \"Given to the Wild\" entered the Irish Albums Chart at number 31. Given to the Wild Given to the Wild is the third studio album by", "Viceroy of Huguang Wuhan, Hubei). It was abolished in 1668 during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor but was restored in 1670 as the \"Viceroy of Chuan-Hu\" (川湖總督; \"Viceroy of (Si)chuan and Hu(guang)\"), with its headquarters in Chongqing. In 1674, the office of Viceroy of Chuan-Hu was split into the Viceroy of Sichuan and Viceroy of Huguang, and had remained as such until 1904. In 1904, during the reign of the Guangxu Emperor, the office of Provincial Governor of Hubei was merged into the office of Viceroy of Huguang. Viceroy of Huguang The Viceroy of Huguang, fully referred to in Chinese as the", "Viceroy command. Because the long distances to the viceregal capital would hamper effective communication, both audiencias and captains general were authorized to communicate directly with the crown through the Council of the Indies. The Bourbon Reforms introduced the new office of the intendant, which was appointed directly by the crown and had broad fiscal and administrative powers in political and military issues. See also: The title of Viceroy being awarded to members of the nobility, Viceroys, Governors and Governing Commissions were many times interleaved until the last Viceroy Afonso, Prince Royal of Portugal, in 1896. From 1505 to 1896 Portuguese India", "King of Egypt and the Sudan The change in King Farouk I's title was intended to further Egypt's claims over the Sudan, which had been an Anglo-Egyptian condominium since 1899. The title had long been used by Egyptian nationalists to emphasize their desire for the unity of the Nile Valley. For instance, expatriate Egyptian students in France greeted Farouk I during his 1937 tour of Europe by proclaiming \"Long live the King of Egypt and Sudan\". A Member of Parliament is also reported to have cried out \"Long live His Majesty, King of Egypt and Sudan!\" during Farouk I's coronation ceremony. However, the title had no", "Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces The Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces, fully referred to in Chinese as the Governor-General of the Three Northeast Provinces and Surrounding Areas Overseeing Military Generals of the Three Provinces, Director of Civil Affairs of Fengtian (Manchu: \"dergi ilan goloi uheri kadalara amban\"), sometimes referred to as the Viceroy of Manchuria, was a regional viceroy in China during the Qing dynasty. It was the only regional viceroy whose jurisdiction was outside China proper. The Viceroy had control over Fengtian (present-day Liaoning), Jilin and Heilongjiang provinces in Northeast China, which was also known as Manchuria.", "Kingdom of Egypt Ottoman Empire in 1805, its occupation by Britain in 1882, and its transformation into a sultanate and British protectorate in 1914. In line with the change in status from sultanate to kingdom, the Sultan of Egypt, Fuad I, saw his title changed to King. The kingdom's sovereignty was subject to severe limitations imposed by the British, who retained enormous control over Egyptian affairs, and whose military continued to occupy the country. Throughout the kingdom's existence Sudan was formally united with Egypt. However, actual Egyptian authority in Sudan was largely nominal due to Britain's role as the dominant power in Anglo-Egyptian", "RMS Viceroy of India ship collided with her. The collision pushed the liner against a dockside crane, which she demolished. \"Viceroy of India\" herself escaped serious damage. Later in 1930 \"Viceroy of India\" twice assisted the Greek cargo steamer in the Bay of Biscay. In September she stood by when \"Theodoros Bulgaris\" cargo of grain shifted in storms and the Greek merchantman's crew were transferred to another vessel. On 31 December 1930 \"Theodoros Bulgararis\" sank and \"Viceroy of India\" rescued all of the crew. In September 1932, \"Viceroy of India\" set a new record time between London and Bombay of 17 days, 1 hour,", "Viceroy of Sichuan was created for Sichuan, so the Viceroy of Chuan-Shaan stopped managing Sichuan. However, these changes were reversed in 1721. In 1731, the Yongzheng Emperor split the Viceroy of Chuan-Shaan into the Viceroy of Sichuan and Viceroy of Shaan-Gan, with the latter headquartered in Chengdu. In 1736, the Qianlong Emperor abolished the Viceroy of Sichuan and recreated the office of Viceroy of Chuan-Shaan. In 1748, during the campaign against the Jinchuan hill peoples in Sichuan, the Qianlong Emperor split the Viceroy of Chuan-Shaan into the Viceroy of Sichuan and Viceroy of Shaan-Gan. He merged the two Viceroys in 1759 but reversed", "Viceroy of Liangguang was called \"Viceroy of Guangdong\" (廣東總督) even though its jurisdiction included Guangxi. The headquarters were in Guangzhou, Guangdong. In 1655, the headquarters shifted back to Wuzhou. In 1663, during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor, the office was split into two: Viceroy of Guangdong and Viceroy of Guangxi. The headquarters of the Viceroy of Guangdong moved to Lianzhou (廉州; present-day Hepu County, Guangxi). A year later, the Viceroy of Guangxi was merged with the Viceroy of Guangdong, and the headquarters shifted back to Zhaoqing. In 1723, during the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor, the office was divided into Guangdong and", "Muhammad Ali of Egypt reducing his standing army to 18,000 men, provided that he and his descendants would enjoy hereditary rule over Egypt and Sudan: an unheard-of status for an Ottoman viceroy. After 1843, fast on the heels of the Syrian debacle, and the treaty of Balta Liman, which forced the Egyptian government to tear down its import barriers, and to give up its monopolies, Muhammad Ali's mind became increasingly clouded and tended towards paranoia. Whether it was genuine senility or the effects of the silver nitrate he had been given years before to treat an attack of dysentery remains a subject of debate.", "The Viceroy of Ouidah in a 1999 review of Nicholas Shakespeare's biography of Chatwin, \"The Guardian\" described the Viceroy novel as \"a rococo piece of candyfloss.\" The Viceroy of Ouidah The Viceroy of Ouidah is a novel published in 1980 by Bruce Chatwin, a British author. Chatwin's novel portrays the life of a fictional slave trader named Francisco Manuel da Silva, who is loosely based on a historical Jewish Brazilian, Francisco Félix de Sousa. He became powerful in Ouidah, on the so-called Slave Coast of West Africa, now Benin, Togo, and parts of the Volta Region in Ghana. Chatwin was caught up in the", "Seti (Viceroy of Kush) Seti (Viceroy of Kush) The Viceroy of Kush Seti is attested in year 1 of Siptah. Seti is also mentioned on some monuments of his son Amenemhab. Amenemhab was the son of Seti and the Lady Amenemtaiauw. Seti held the titles fan-bearer on the king's right, and king's scribe of the letters of the Pharaoh. His son Amenemheb served as Head Bowman, Charioteer of His Majesty, and Overseer of the Southern Lands. In Abu Simbel Seti is given the titles: Hereditary Prince, Count, King's Son of Kush, Overseer of the Gold Lands of Amun, Fan-bearer on the King's right, King's", "Viceroy of Sichuan Sichuan (四川巡撫). Its headquarters were in Chengdu. In 1645, the Qing government created the Viceroy of Huguang-Sichuan with Luo Xiujin (羅繡錦) as the first Viceroy overseeing both Huguang (present-day Hubei and Hunan) and Sichuan provinces. In 1653, Sichuan was placed under the jurisdiction of the Viceroy of the Three Borders in Shaanxi, which was subsequently renamed \"Viceroy of Chuan and the Three Borders in Shaanxi\" (川陝三邊總督) with Meng Qiaofang (孟喬芳) as the officeholder. In 1656, the office was divided into two separate Viceroys for Shaanxi and Sichuan. The Viceroy of Sichuan was based in Chongqing. In 1661, the Viceroy of", "Sultanate of Egypt protection of minorities; and Sudan. Sultan Ahmad Fuad became King Fuad I, and his son, Faruk, was named as his heir. Field Marshal Lord Allenby remained on, until 1925, as British High Commissioner. On 19 April, a new constitution was approved. Also that month, an electoral law was issued that ushered in a new phase in Egypt's political development—parliamentary elections. Sultanate of Egypt The Sultanate of Egypt () was the short-lived protectorate that the United Kingdom imposed over Egypt between 1914 and 1922. Opposition to European interference in Egypt's affairs resulted in the emergence of a nationalist movement that coalesced", "Viceroy of Shaan-Gan become a Viceroy when he was appointed as Viceroy of Chuan-Shaan. In 1731, the office was renamed \"Viceroy of Shaanxi\" (陝西總督) and its jurisdiction covered Shaanxi and Gansu; a separate Viceroy of Sichuan was created for Sichuan. In 1736, the Qianlong Emperor abolished the Viceroy of Sichuan and recreated the office of Viceroy of Chuan-Shaan. In 1748, he split the Viceroy of Chuan-Shaan into Viceroy of Sichuan and Viceroy of Shaan-Gan, but reversed the changes again in 1759 and established a separate Viceroy of Gansu, with its headquarters in Suzhou (肅州; present-day Suzhou District, Jiuquan, Gansu). In 1760, the Qianlong", "Viceroy of Liangjiang name \"Liangjiang\" (\"two Jiangs\"). The office of Viceroy of Liangjiang originated in 1647 during the reign of the Shunzhi Emperor. It was called \"Viceroy of the Three Provinces of Jiangdong, Jiangxi and Henan\" (江東江西河南三省總督) and headquartered in Jiangning (江寧; present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu). In 1652, the office was renamed \"Viceroy of Jiangxi\" (江西總督) and its headquarters shifted to Nanchang for a short while before the old system was restored. During the reign of the Kangxi Emperor, in 1661 and 1674 two separate Viceroy offices were created for Jiangdong and Jiangxi, but they were merged under the Viceroy of Liangjiang later in", "Sultanate of Egypt Sultanate of Egypt The Sultanate of Egypt () was the short-lived protectorate that the United Kingdom imposed over Egypt between 1914 and 1922. Opposition to European interference in Egypt's affairs resulted in the emergence of a nationalist movement that coalesced and spread after the British military intervention and occupation of 1882. The immediate causes of what is known to Egyptians as the 1919 Revolution, however, were British actions during World War I that caused widespread hardship and resentment. Specifically, these included Britain's purchase of cotton and requisitioning of fodder at below market prices, Britain's forcible recruitment of about 500,000 peasants", "Viceroy of Liangjiang across different locations, including Yangzhou, Changzhou, Shanghai, Suzhou and Anqing. In 1866, during the reign of the Tongzhi Emperor, the Viceroy of Liangjiang was also put in charge of trade and commerce in the five treaty ports. He also concurrently held the appointment of \"Nanyang Trade Minister\" (南洋通商大臣); \"cf.\" \"Beiyang Trade Minister\" (北洋通商大臣) held by the Viceroy of Zhili. After the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912, the former headquarters of the Viceroy of Liangjiang in Nanjing was converted into a Presidential Palace for the President of the Republic of China until 1949. Viceroy of Liangjiang The Viceroy of", "Viceroy of Shaan-Gan Emperor abolished the Viceroy of Gansu and restored the two offices of Viceroy of Sichuan and Viceroy of Shaan-Gan. The Viceroy of Shaan-Gan was headquartered in Lanzhou and concurrently held the appointment of a Provincial Governor. In 1882, during the reign of the Guangxu Emperor, the newly established Xinjiang Province was included under the jurisdiction of the Viceroy of Shaan-Gan. Viceroy of Shaan-Gan The Viceroy of Shaan-Gan, fully referred to in Chinese as the Governor-General of Shaanxi and Gansu Provinces and the Surrounding Areas; Overseeing Military Affairs and Food Production, Manager of Waterways, Director of Civil Affairs, was one of", "Viceroy (butterfly) area of wing pattern genes explains how mimetic phenotypes are not broken up during recombination during sexual reproduction. Viceroys display geographic color polymorphism, which occurs when the viceroy butterflies are observed having different color forms in different regions of their territory. Color polymorphism is hypothesized to be affected by interaction between the viceroy, monarch and queen's overlapping environments. In the northern areas of their region, where monarchs predominate, viceroys are lighter, while in southern Florida, they are darker due to queens being more abundant than monarchs. Viceroy (butterfly) The viceroy (\"Limenitis archippus\") is a North American butterfly that ranges through", "Sultana (title) (now part of Indonesia and Malaysia), there have been four ruling sultanas: In Maldives, there have been five ruling sultanas: On 5 May 2015, Hamengkubuwono X, Sultan and Governor of Yogyakarta, Indonesia, appointed his eldest daughter, Lady Nurmalita Sari (henceforth titled Princess Mangkubumi), as his heiress presumptive. If she does succeed her father, she will become the first Javanese woman to become a Sultan in her own right. Sultana is also used for sultan's wives. Between 1914 and 1922, monarchs of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty used the title of Sultan of Egypt, and their wives were legally styled as sultanas.", "London Conference of 1867 in August 1914. Since Germany inherited Prussia's 1867 commitment to a collective guarantee, by invading Luxemburg it rendered impossible any joint action in defense of Luxemburg's neutrality. Britain was therefore not required to intervene to defend Luxemburg. However, since Belgium was individually guaranteed by the major powers (including Britain), the British government felt obliged to defend its neutrality against German invasion. London Conference of 1867 The conference of the six Great Powers (which for the first time included Italy) which met at London in May, 1867, to settle the political order of northern Europe after the disruption of the German", "Viceroy of Min-Zhe At the time of its creation, its headquarters were in Fuzhou, Fujian Province. In 1648, the headquarters shifted to Quzhou, Zhejiang Province. About 10 years later, the office split into the Viceroy of Fujian and Viceroy of Zhejiang, which were respectively based in Zhangzhou and Wenzhou. In 1672, during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor, the office of the Viceroy of Fujian shifted from Zhangzhou back to Fuzhou. In 1687, the Viceroy of Fujian was renamed \"Viceroy of Min-Zhe\". In 1727, the Yongzheng Emperor specially appointed Li Wei as Viceroy of Zhejiang. The Viceroy of Min-Zhe, on the other hand,", "Viceroy of Sichuan Viceroy of Sichuan The Viceroy of Sichuan, fully referred to in Chinese as the Governor-General of Sichuan Province and the Surrounding Areas Overseeing Military Affairs and Food Production, Director of Civil Affairs, was one of eight regional viceroys in China proper during the Qing dynasty. As its name suggests, the Viceroy of Sichuan had control over Sichuan (Szechuan) Province, as well as modern Chongqing Municipality, which was split off in 1997. The origins of the Viceroy of Sichuan trace back to 1644, during the reign of the Shunzhi Emperor, with the creation of the office of the Provincial Governor of", "Viceroy of Sichuan the changes in the following year. The system had remained as such until the end of the Qing dynasty. Viceroy of Sichuan The Viceroy of Sichuan, fully referred to in Chinese as the Governor-General of Sichuan Province and the Surrounding Areas Overseeing Military Affairs and Food Production, Director of Civil Affairs, was one of eight regional viceroys in China proper during the Qing dynasty. As its name suggests, the Viceroy of Sichuan had control over Sichuan (Szechuan) Province, as well as modern Chongqing Municipality, which was split off in 1997. The origins of the Viceroy of Sichuan trace back to", "Viceroy of Southern Rivers Viceroy of Southern Rivers The Viceroy of Rivers and Waterways in Jiangnan Overseeing Military Affairs, better known simply as the Viceroy of Southern Rivers or Viceroy of Southern Rivers and Waterways, was a government office in China proper during the Qing dynasty. The office was based in Qingjiangpu (清江浦), which is now a district of Huai'an City, Jiangsu Province. The Viceroy usually held the rank of a deputy first-grade official or a regular second-grade official. The Viceroy was in charge of dredging and embankment projects in the waterways of Jiangsu Province. The office of Viceroy of Rivers and Waterways was", "Viceroy (cigarette) first Latin American country to which BAT had introduced Rothmans. Brown & Williamson made various poster and magazine advertisements to promote the Viceroy brand. Various TV ads were also made to promote the brand from the 1950s to the 1970s. One of the most notable Viceroy advertisements, were the ones that advertised that, because Viceroy cigarettes were filter-tipped, less tar would manifest on and between the teeth, and would thus be a \"healthier\" alternative to other brands. A slogan used in the 1940s ads at the time was \"\"As your dentist, I would recommend Viceroys\"\". In the 1970s, Brown &" ]

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[ "Some humans walking" ]

[ "Nobody is walking.", "An excerpt is available.", "The central security group is often at the financial services corporation.", "4 people are on a bench.", "Two girls are swimming in a lake.", "The two children are wearing matching clothing.", "A woman sits on a chair." ]

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[ "Culcairn Culcairn is a town in the south-east Riverina region of New South Wales, Australia. Culcairn is located in the Greater Hume Shire Council local government area on the Olympic Highway between Albury and Wagga Wagga. The town is 514 km south-west of the state capital, Sydney and at the 2006 census had a population of 1,120.", "Wagga Wagga Wagga Wagga ( ; informally called Wagga) is a major regional city in the Riverina region of New South Wales, Australia. Straddling the Murrumbidgee River, with an urban population of 55,820 people, Wagga Wagga is the state's largest inland city, and is an important agricultural, military, and transport hub of Australia. The ninth fastest growing inland city in Australia, Wagga Wagga is located midway between the two largest cities in Australia–Sydney and Melbourne–and is the major regional centre for the Riverina and South West Slopes regions." ]

[ "Main Southern railway line, New South Wales The Main Southern Railway is a major railway in New South Wales, Australia. It runs from Sydney to Albury, near the Victorian border. The line passes through the Southern Highlands, Southern Tablelands, South West Slopes and Riverina regions.", "Chiltern, Victoria Chiltern is a town in Victoria, Australia, in the northeast of the state between Wangaratta and Wodonga, in the Shire of Indigo. At the 2006 census, Chiltern had a population of 1063. The town is close to the Chiltern-Mount Pilot National Park. Chiltern was once on the main road between Melbourne and Sydney but is now bypassed by the Hume Freeway running one kilometre to the east.", "Coonabarabran is a town in Warrumbungle Shire that sits on the divide between the Central West and North West Slopes regions of New South Wales, Australia. At the 2011 census, the town had a population of 3,174. The town's nickname is \"Coona\".", "Mount Lewis, New South Wales Mount Lewis, a suburb of local government area City of Bankstown, is 18 km south-west of the Sydney central business district, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. It is a part of the South-western Sydney region.", "Boree Creek Boree Creek is a town in the Riverina district of New South Wales, Australia. The town is located 539 km south west of the state capital, Sydney and 82 km west of the regional centre, Wagga Wagga. Boree Creek is situated in the Federation Council local government area but is closer to the town of Lockhart. At the 2011 census , Boree Creek and the surrounding area had a population of 212.", "Bourke Shire Bourke Shire is a local government area in the Orana region of New South Wales, Australia. The Shire is located adjacent to the Darling River, which is known as the Barwon River upstream from Bourke; and located adjacent to the Mitchell Highway. The northern boundary of the Shire is located adjacent to the border between New South Wales and Queensland. The Shire is a wool and beef producing area.", "City of Newcastle The City of Newcastle is a local government area in the Hunter region of New South Wales, Australia. The City of Newcastle incorporates much of the area of the Newcastle metropolitan area.", "Muswellbrook Shire Muswellbrook Shire is a local government area in the Upper Hunter region of New South Wales, Australia. The Shire is situated adjacent to the New England Highway and the Hunter railway line.", "Mathoura Mathoura is a small town in the Riverina region of southern New South Wales, Australia, in the Murray River Council local government area. At the 2011 census , Mathoura had a population of 650. The town's name is derived from an aboriginal word for 'windy'.", "Warren Shire Warren Shire is a local government area in the Orana region of New South Wales, Australia. The Shire is located adjacent to the Macquarie River and the Mitchell and Oxley Highways. The use of the area is mainly for wool and cotton growing.", "Logie Brae, New South Wales Logie Brae is a locality in the Riverina region of New South Wales, Australia. The locality is in the Murrumbidgee Council local government area, 647 km south west of the state capital, Sydney and 311 km from Melbourne.", "Berrigan Shire Berrigan Shire is a local government area in the southern Riverina region of New South Wales, Australia. The Shire lies on the New South Wales State border with Victoria formed by the Murray River. The Shire is adjacent to the Newell and Riverina Highways. The Shire is a mainly agricultural region, with dairying, cattle raising, woolgrowing and cropping the main activities. The vast majority of the Shire is irrigated. Tourism is another major activity, concentrated on the river towns of Tocumwal and Barooga.", "Wyalong Wyalong is part of the Bland Shire located in the Northern Riverina Region of New South Wales, Australia. Established as a gold mining town, it is now a quiet town with historic buildings a few kilometres east of West Wyalong, the major district service centre. At the 2011 census , Wyalong had a population of 851.", "Culgoa Culgoa is a town in the Mallee region in the north west of the Australian state of Victoria. The town is approximately 319 km from the state capital, Melbourne. At the 2011 census, Culgoa had a population of 339.", "Ballina, New South Wales Ballina is a town in the Northern Rivers region of New South Wales, Australia, and the seat of the Ballina Shire local government area. Ballina's urban population at the 2011 census was 15,963. A larger area including Lennox Head had an estimated population of 25,194 at 30 June 2015. The town lies on the Richmond River and serves as a gateway to Byron Bay.", "Wauchope, New South Wales Wauchope is a town in the Mid North Coast region of New South Wales, Australia. It is within the boundaries of the Port Macquarie-Hastings Council area. Wauchope is inland on the Hastings River and the Oxley Highway 19 km west of Port Macquarie. The town is 406 km north of the state capital Sydney.", "Gundagai wine region Gundagai is an Australian Geographical Indication for a wine region centred on the town of Gundagai in the Australian state of New South Wales. It is part of the Southern New South Wales zone. The region includes Tumut on the northwestern slopes of the Snowy Mountains, Cootamundra in its north and extends west to Junee and almost to Wagga Wagga. Junee is on the boundary to the Riverina wine region (which also includes Wagga Wagga). Gundagai is also bounded on the northeast by Hilltops, the east by Canberra District and the south by Tumbarumba.", "City of Wagga Wagga City of Wagga Wagga is a local government area in the Riverina region of south-western New South Wales, Australia.", "Narrabri Shire Narrabri Shire is a local government area in the North West Slopes region of New South Wales, Australia. The Shire is located adjacent to the Namoi River and the Newell and Kamilaroi Highways.", "Berrigan, New South Wales Berrigan is a town on the Riverina Highway in the Riverina region of New South Wales, Australia. Berrigan is in the Berrigan Shire local government area and contains the Berrigan Shire Council offices. At the 2011 census , Berrigan had a population of 922." ]

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[ "There are children playing." ]

[ "Both children are girls.", "The federal government never offers tax incentives to encourage saving and investment.", "OCA headquarters is part of a 30-story complex.", "They can afford fancy therapists, they don't need help.", "A man is in a big city.", "Discworld is a rectangle.", "The man is eating." ]

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[ "Gold Digger (Kanye West song) Gold Digger (Kanye West song) \"Gold Digger\" is a song recorded by American rapper Kanye West featuring guest vocals by Jamie Foxx. Released as the second single from West's second album, \"Late Registration\" (2005), \"Gold Digger\" peaked at number one on the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100 on September 6, 2005, becoming West's and Foxx's second number one single. Co-produced with Jon Brion, the song contains samples of Ray Charles' \"I Got a Woman\". The single broke a record for the most digital downloads in a week, selling over 80,000, and at the time was also the fastest-selling digital download of" ]

[ "The Gold Diggers' Song (We're in the Money) The Gold Diggers' Song (We're in the Money) \"The Gold Diggers' Song (We're in the Money)\" is a song from the 1933 Warner Bros. film \"Gold Diggers of 1933\", sung in the opening sequence by Ginger Rogers and chorus. The entire song is never performed in the 1933 movie, though it introduces the film in the opening scene (wherein the performance is busted up by the police). Later in the movie, the tune is heard off stage in rehearsal as the director continues a discussion on camera about other matters.<br> The lyrics were written by Al Dubin and the music", "Gold Digger (Dolly Rockers song) and bangin' floor-filler.\" The single reached number forty-six on the UK Singles Chart, where it spent one week only. The unreleased original music video for \"Gold Digger\", directed by David Allain and produced by Sarah Tognazzi for Pulse Films, was shot in East London on 27 May 2009. The video stars Christopher Goh as city boy, Gavin Molloy as rock star, Ben Baker as young boy, Stephen Kelly as victim, Mehran Armando as Antony and various other actors as newspaper seller and victims of a gorgeous, sexy and glamorous gold digger. The released video for the song, directed by James", "The Gold Diggers' Song (We're in the Money) in the 1935 film, \"We're in the Money.\" The Gold Diggers' Song (We're in the Money) \"The Gold Diggers' Song (We're in the Money)\" is a song from the 1933 Warner Bros. film \"Gold Diggers of 1933\", sung in the opening sequence by Ginger Rogers and chorus. The entire song is never performed in the 1933 movie, though it introduces the film in the opening scene (wherein the performance is busted up by the police). Later in the movie, the tune is heard off stage in rehearsal as the director continues a discussion on camera about other matters.<br> The lyrics", "Gold Digger (Kanye West song) version he sang from start to finish, but the track was retracted as his performance didn't coincide well with the song's instrumentation. After recording another version, Foxx decided to re-record it once more as he felt it contained too many explicit lyrics. Once the track was finally in place, it was layered with additional instruments provided by American film score composer Jon Brion and individually selected by West. By the end of their very first studio session together, the pair had completed the basic tracks for the final version of \"Gold Digger\". Despite being a featured singer, Foxx's part only", "Alex Pennie themselves The Automatic, after previously being known as White Rabbit. Pennie's unique vocal style and energetic live performances became trademark signatures of The Automatic. During his time in The Automatic Pennie was featured on Never Mind the Buzzcocks, and with band mate Robin Hawkins stood in for Zane Lowe on BBC Radio 1. He also took on lead vocal responsibilities on the band's cover of \"Gold Digger\" by Kanye West and \"Epic\" by Faith No More. With writing commencing on the band's second album, Pennie was finding being in the band \"\"increasingly unenjoyable\"\", and after completing the Not Accepted Anywhere", "Jamie Cullum and \"Gold Digger\", originally by Kanye West. He also often uses a looping machine; this plays a major part in Cullum's versions of \"Seven Nation Army\" and \"Teardrop\" by Massive Attack. Cullum also beatboxes at most gigs. As well as The White Stripes and Kanye West, Cullum has performed work by Massive Attack, Pharrell, Rihanna, Pussycat Dolls, Radiohead, Gnarls Barkley, Elton John, Justin Timberlake, John Legend, Joy Division, Lady Gaga and many others. He has performed with Deltron 3030, Kylie Minogue, Sugababes, will.i.am, Burt Bacharach and The Heritage Orchestra. Cullum has played at many large music festivals, including Festival International", "Blonde Electra \"Do It like a Dude\" by Jessie J and were accepted to go on with three 'yes' votes from Cowell, Louis Walsh and Mel B and one 'no' vote from Cheryl Fernandez-Versini. At the bootcamp the group sang \"I Love Rock and Roll\" by Joan Jett and at the judges' houses, which took place in Bermuda, they performed \"Gold Digger\" by Kanye West. Walsh, their mentor, selected them as the first act to perform in the live shows, after which Jazzy King told the show host that they needed to succeed because they did not have \"a plan B\" and", "Rylan Clark-Neal Dubai, Clark-Neal performed a stripped-back rendition of Rihanna's \"We Found Love\" in front of Scherzinger and Ne-Yo. Scherzinger later put Clark-Neal through to live shows as one of her final three, along with James Arthur and Jahméne Douglas. She told him: \"Rylan, it's such a big risk... but I have to take it, and you are in my final three.\", and then Clark-Neal appeared to have an immense breakdown on the spot. Clark-Neal sang \"Gold\" by Spandau Ballet in the first week of the live shows, and was in the bottom two with Carolynne Poole the following night. Scherzinger backed", "Gold Diggers of 1933 before release: \"I've Got to Sing a Torch Song\" was to have been sung by Ginger Rogers, but instead appears in the film sung by Dick Powell near the beginning. According to \"Sin in Soft Focus: Pre-Code Hollywood\" by Mark A. Vieira, \"Gold Diggers of 1933\" was one of the first American films made and distributed with alternative footage in order to circumvent state censorship problems. Busby Berkeley used lavish production numbers as a showcase of the female anatomy that were both \"lyrical and lewd\". \"Pettin' in the Park\" and \"We're in the Money\" are prime examples of this. The", "Late Registration written and thought was perfect for it. The track was recorded quickly after the 2005 Grammy Awards ceremony, as Levine only had a couple of free hours available for time in the studio, and Brion was able to translate the two compositions in a matter of hours. West originally produced and recorded \"Gold Digger\" in Ludacris's home in Atlanta, Georgia for Shawnna's 2004 debut album \"Worth tha Weight\" and had written the chorus from a female first-person viewpoint. However, Shawnna passed on the song. West rewrote the two verses from a male's point-of-view for himself; about a year later, just", "Raoul (song) Obriens, limited to 500 through the band's website. The band was asked in an interview with \"The Sun\" if \"Raoul\" had befitted from the song endorsement and in actuality the shop had been closed down. In 2007, the band's record labels Polydor Records and B-Unique Records decided to re-release \"Raoul\" against the band's wishes to release another track from \"Not Accepted Anywhere\" or their newly recorded tracks \"Steve McQueen\" and \"Revolution\". The re-release was accompanied by a cover of Kanye West's \"Gold Digger\" as a B-side, as well as a new track, \"Easy Target\". It's not something us as a", "Gold Diggers of 1933 director. The film was nominated for the following American Film Institute lists: The film contains four song and dance sequences designed, staged and choreographed by Busby Berkeley. All the songs were written by Harry Warren and Al Dubin. (In the film, when producer Barney Hopkins hears Brad's music he picks up the phone and says: \"Cancel my contract with Warren and Dubin!\") \"We're in the Money\" is sung by Ginger Rogers accompanied by scantily-clad showgirls dancing with giant coins. Rogers sings one verse in Pig Latin. \"Pettin' in the Park\" is sung by Ruby Keeler and Dick Powell. It includes", "8Bit Heart song, a line from \"If U Seek Amy\" by Britney Spears is copied before Curtis realizes \"oh wait, this song isn't mine\". In \"Beat Drop\" a clip from Lady Gaga's \"Bad Romance\" is used as backing vocals on the last line of the second verse. The operatic singing comes from the second aria of the Der Hölle Rache from the Magic Flute. Extracts from an interview with former KGB agent Yuri Bezmenov in 1985 are used as an intro and outro for \"Brainwash\". \"The Dark Crystal Overture\" is also heavily sampled on the track \"The Dark\". \"8Bit Heart\" has received", "Gold Diggers of Broadway \"Gold Diggers of 1933\", is the most frequently seen version of the story. The film opens on an audience watching a lavish 1929 Broadway show, featuring a giant gold mine production number (\"Song of the Gold Diggers\"). Famous guitarist Nick Lucas sings \"Painting the Clouds with Sunshine\", which climaxes on stage with a huge art deco revolving sun. Backstage, the star of the show (Ann Pennington) fights over Nick with another girl. Also introduced are a group of chorus girls who are 'man hungry'. They are all looking for love and money, but are not sure which is the more", "Shirley Bassey Shirley Bassey Dame Shirley Veronica Bassey, (; born 8 January 1937) is a Welsh singer whose career began in the mid-1950s, best known both for her powerful voice and for recording the theme songs to the James Bond films \"Goldfinger\" (1964), \"Diamonds Are Forever\" (1971), and \"Moonraker\" (1979). In January 1959, Bassey became the first Welsh person to gain a No. 1 single. In 2000, Bassey was made a Dame for services to the performing arts. In 1977 she received the Brit Award for Best British Female Solo Artist in the previous 25 years. Bassey has been called \"one of", "Gold (Guy Sebastian song) a 1950s warehouse party, and Sebastian and his band are shown performing to an audience dressed in clothing of the era. He and his backing vocalist leave the stage and join the dancers on the dance floor. The video is shot in black and white, and in the last 45 seconds is infused with gold highlights and then progresses to full subdued colour. \"Gold\" \"Diamond in My Hand\" \"Lost in the Streets of LA\" \"Who's That Girl\" Credits taken from \"Gold\" CD liner notes. Gold (Guy Sebastian song) \"Gold\" is a song written and performed by Australian singer-songwriter Guy Sebastian.", "Crazy Rich Asians (soundtrack) by Kanye West (\"Gold Digger\"), Hall & Oates (\"Rich Girl\"), the Notorious B.I.G. (\"Mo Money Mo Problems\"), Lady Gaga (\"Money Honey\"), and Barrett Strong (\"Money (That's What I Want)\"). Seeking to create a multilingual soundtrack, Chu and Hilfer compiled Chinese songs from the 1950s and 1960s by Ge Lan (Grace Chang) and Yao Lee, as well as contemporary songs, and then searched through YouTube videos for singers fluent in Mandarin Chinese to provide cover versions of songs. Two versions of \"Money (That's What I Want)\" were performed—one in English and one in Chinese—by Malaysian singer Cheryl K, who had originally", "Winnie Lightner Winnie Lightner Winnie Lightner (September 17, 1899 – March 5, 1971) was an American stage and motion picture actress. Perhaps best known as the gold-digging Mabel in \"Gold Diggers of Broadway\" (1929), Lightner was often typecast as a wise-cracking gold-digger and was known for her talents as a comedian and singer. She is also noted for introducing the song \"Singin' in the Bathtub\" in the 1929 motion picture \"The Show of Shows\". Born Winifred Josephine Reeves was born in Greenport, Suffolk County, New York (on Long Island) but was raised in Manhattan's Hell's Kitchen by her aunt and uncle, Margaret", "Gold Diggers of 1933 place and the film ends with the number. Gold Diggers of 1933 Gold Diggers of 1933 is a pre-Code Warner Bros. musical film directed by Mervyn LeRoy with songs by Harry Warren (music) and Al Dubin (lyrics), staged and choreographed by Busby Berkeley. It stars Warren William, Joan Blondell, Aline MacMahon, Ruby Keeler, and Dick Powell, and features Guy Kibbee, Ned Sparks and Ginger Rogers. The story is based on the play \"The Gold Diggers\" by Avery Hopwood, which ran for 282 performances on Broadway in 1919 and 1920. The play was made into a silent film in 1923 by", "Dionne Warwick highlight in each show was Warwick's vocal rendition of the \"Solid Gold\" theme, composed by Miller (with lyrics by Dean Pitchford). After a brief appearance in the Top Forty in early 1982 with Johnny Mathis on \"Friends in Love\" — from the album of the same name — Warwick's next hit later that same year was her full-length collaboration with Barry Gibb of the Bee Gees for the album \"Heartbreaker\". The song became one of Warwick's biggest international hits, returning her to the Top 10 of Billboard's Hot 100 as well as #1 Adult Contemporary and No. 2 in both", "Lindsay Cooper Frith and Georgie Born (all from Henry Cow) and Phil Minton and Sally Potter. In 1982 Cooper formed her own group, The Lindsay Cooper Film Music Orchestra, in which she wrote and performed film and TV scores, including the soundtrack to Sally Potter's debut feature film, \"The Gold Diggers\" (1983), starring Julie Christie. During the 1980s, she toured the United States with David Thomas and played in various bands in England led by jazz composer Mike Westbrook. In 1983 Cooper collaborated with Chris Cutler and formed the English avant-rock group News from Babel, composing all the music for their two", "Gold Digger (Kanye West song) 5 times platinum on April 10, 2014. The high digital download sales helped propel the song from number 19 to number one in one week, the fifth highest jump ever to that position on the Hot 100. The jump ended the 14-week (and 10th consecutive week) run of Mariah Carey's \"We Belong Together\" at number one, and kept Carey's \"Shake It Off\" from replacing \"We Belong Together\" as the number one single. The song spent 10 weeks at the top of the Hot 100 until rising pop star Chris Brown's hit \"Run It!\" shot up to the pole position for", "Crazy Rich Asians (film) the other jewelry pieces, including Astrid's pearl earrings, were loaned from Mouawad, and guards were employed to protect the jewelry, which sometimes dictated the filming. The extras who attended the wedding reception were drawn from the Peranakan Association, a historical society, and were asked to wear their own vintage formal clothing to add local flavor to the party. During the production process, Chu and music supervisor Gabe Hilfer assembled a list of hundreds of songs about money, including songs by Kanye West (\"Gold Digger\"), Hall & Oates (\"Rich Girl\"), the Notorious B.I.G. (\"Mo Money Mo Problems\"), Lady Gaga (\"Money Honey\"),", "Rebecca Ferguson (singer) more radio friendly. Ferguson dueted with Lionel Richie on an ITV1 special entitled \"This Is Lionel Richie\", in which she performed \"Endless Love\". Starting in February 2012, an excerpt from Ferguson's \"Nothing's Real but Love\" was used in a television advertisement campaign for Nescafé Gold Blend coffee. \"Glitter & Gold\" was confirmed via Ferguson's official website to be the third single taken from the album which was released on 29 April 2012. In April 2012, Ferguson broke her left leg during a night out, which kept her wearing a cast for several weeks. During performances on \"Britain's Got Talent\" and", "Build Me Up Buttercup chorus. Leaked recordings from the \"Let It Be\" sessions revealed that the Beatles sang the song (along with other covers) in between takes of their own songs. Pop-rock band Busted included a cover as a B-side to their number 2 single \"Crashed the Wedding\". American pop-rock singer Eddie Money covered the song, along with several other '60s classics, on his eleventh studio album, 2007's \"Wanna Go Back\". During a \"Behind the Scenes\" video of the Twenty One Pilots' song \"House of Gold\", the lead singer Tyler Joseph can be heard playing and singing an original ukulele cover of the song.", "Patty Schemel a brief relationship with drummer Polly Johnson of 764-HERO. Around this time, she also recorded with Phranc, playing drums on the \"Goofyfoot\" EP. In 1996, Schemel played drums on Hole's cover of Fleetwood Mac's song \"Gold Dust Woman\", which was the first song on the soundtrack to \"\". She also sang backing vocals and appeared prominently in the video for the song. During this time, Schemel and Hole bassist Melissa Auf der Maur formed a short-lived side project called Constant Comment. The band played a small number of shows before disbanding. Hole became active again in 1997 and entered the", "Simon Hussey maybe. There's no doubt: I love it. I will fight for it, I will stick up for it. I know at the end of the day it's not mine.\" Hussey worked as a backing vocal producer with artists during his active years, including, Farnham and Scott on Braithwaite's \"Edge\" and \"Rise\" albums, Shirley Strachan (ex-Skyhooks), Margaret Urlich and Dale Ryder of Boom Crash Opera on \"Rise\", and Renée Geyer on \"Electric Digger Dandy\" by James Reyne. Credits adapted from Australian Rock Database and AllMusic: Simon Hussey as producer, co-producer, audio engineer and/or mixer These awards were established by Australasian Performing", "The Gold Diggers' Song (We're in the Money) landlord,\" \"We can look that guy right in the eye!\" \"We're in the money!\" \"Come on, my honey!\" \"Let's lend it, spend it, send it rolling along!\" Early popular recordings of this song were by performed by Ted Lewis & His Band and by Hal Kemp & His Orchestra. Dick Powell, who does not sing a note of \"The Golddigger's Song\" in the motion picture, recorded a version that also sold well. Other 1933 versions were by The Dorsey Brothers (vocal by The Boswell Sisters), and Leo Reisman and His Orchestra (vocal by Fred Astaire). He probably did not know", "6 Underground song is played when Amanda Beckett (Jennifer Love Hewitt) first walks into the party. In 2000, the song was used as the main theme for the US primetime soap opera \"Titans\". In 2014, the song was used for the enhanced version of the popular video game \"Grand Theft Auto V\". \"6 Underground\" is played on Non-Stop-Pop FM. The horns and the harp melody at the beginning of the song are both sampled from \"Golden Girl\", a track from the 1964 James Bond film \"Goldfinger\" (the song plays during a scene when Bond discovers Jill Masterson covered in gold paint). The", "Carmen Smith episode of \"The Voice Australia\"'s first season. She joined coach Joel Madden's team after singing the Alicia Keys song \"How Come You Don't Call Me\". For her Battle Round, she sang the song \"We Found Love\" by Rihanna with Michelle Serret-Cursio whom she won against. However, after her vocals appeared in Guy Sebastian's song \"Gold\", she was disqualified from the show by the show's producers after she appeared in the song's music video. The Voice producers said she had broken the \"spirit\" of the rules as the video would give her an unfair advantage over other contestants. Smith later stated", "John Stewart (musician) \"The Phoenix Concerts\"). Stewart followed his release from RCA with a contract at the Robert Stigwood organization, the same organization that serviced the recording contracts for Eric Clapton, the Bee Gees, as well as several other disco performers. It was at RSO Records that Stewart enjoyed his most commercially successful years as a solo artist. Teaming with Stevie Nicks and Lindsey Buckingham (then in Fleetwood Mac), Stewart recorded and released \"Bombs Away Dream Babies\", which included the No. 5 hit, \"Gold,\" in 1979. He would later stop performing the song, calling it \"vapid\" and \"empty\", meaning nothing to him, having", "Gold digging 1930s American cinema the \"gold digger\" was the type of \"femme fatale\" that gradually replaced the \"vamp\". The character type would be featured, for example, in \"How to Marry a Millionaire\", a 1953 film starring Marilyn Monroe, alongside Schatze Page and Loco Dempsey. In the analysis of rap music it has been theorized that the \"gold digger script\" is one of a few prevalent sexual scripts present for young African American women. Kanye West's \"Gold Digger\" references gold digging. Gold digging Gold digging is a type of transactional relationship in which people, especially women, engage in relationships for money rather", "Gold Digger (Kanye West song) all time; both records have since been broken. It was 2005's second-longest running number one on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 behind \"We Belong Together\" by Mariah Carey and is the joint sixth longest ever at ten weeks. At the 2006 Grammy Awards, \"Gold Digger\" was nominated for Record of the Year and won the award for Best Rap Solo Performance. The song lists at number 60 on \"Billboard\" magazine's All Time Top 100 and at number 9 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 Songs of the Decade. \"Gold Digger\" was voted number 20 on VH1's 100 Greatest Songs of Hip Hop.", "Filipa Azevedo as arranged by Leona Lewis, Evanescence's \"My Immortal\", Shirley Bassey's \"Goldfinger\", Tina Turner's \"GoldenEye\", Madonna's \"Like a Prayer\", Whitney Houston's \"When You Believe\", Simon and Garfunkel's \"Bridge Over Troubled Water\" (also as arranged by Leona Lewis), and Mariah Carey's \"Endless Love\". In the final of the show, Clara de Sousa described Azevedo as “worth 3 or 4 singers.” Sérgio Rosado called her “absolutely perfect”, and his brother Nélson said she was a “raw talent (…) a very good singer (…) a brilliant performer.” Tózé Brito, a music mogul and the chief judge of the show, said Azevedo was “like an", "Nona Gaye another track with no Prince contribution, \"A Woman's Gotta Have It\". Gaye provided backing vocals on \"We March\" for Prince's 1995 album, \"The Gold Experience\", and on the title track to the \"Girl 6\" soundtrack, released in 1996. Gaye has candidly admitted that during this time she had a long personal battle with drug abuse, which she successfully overcame in 1996. In addition to these projects, she starred in a Prince-produced European TV special called \"The Beautiful Experience\", consisting of a loose storyline to promote new material from Prince (most of which would be released at some point over the", "Jerry Reed Reed\"s career as a singles artist was revitalized by the chart-topping hit \"She Got the Goldmine (I Got the Shaft)\", followed by \"The Bird\", which peaked at No. 2. His last chart hit, \"I'm a Slave\", appeared in 1983. That same year, he co-starred with Robin Williams and Walter Matthau in the Michael Ritchie comedy \"The Survivors\". Reed guest-starred in the October 13, 1983, episode of \"Mama's Family\", \"The Return of Leonard Oates\" (Episode 13, Season 2), as Naomi Harper's ex-husband. He accepted the invitation to open for the British group Dexys Midnight Runners in the US in 1984, yet", "Not Accepted Anywhere James Frost and threatened the band with legal action. This matter was later resolved. The band have stated that they doubt they will ever be asked back, although they have 'not been banned' by GMTV. The band appeared in radio session for Zane Lowe's BBC Radio 1 show on 22 February 2006 on, performing tracks in session. The band covered Kanye West's song \"Gold Digger\" in BBC Radio 1 Live Lounge in summer 2006. Their performance at the Lemon Grove in Exeter was also broadcast on Steve Lamacq's BBC 6 Music show on 3 October 2006. In 2005 and in", "Gold Digger (Kanye West song) digital downloads of \"Gold Digger\" were sold through legal music services such as iTunes and Napster in that first week, making it the most successful digital sales debut ever. The song broke the record for the most digital downloads sold in one week, and the record for the fastest selling digital single of all time, both previously held by Gwen Stefani's \"Hollaback Girl\". \"Gold Digger\" sold over 1,000,000 downloads during its seven weeks of release. This makes \"Gold Digger\" one of the first songs in history to sell over 1,000,000 downloads in the United States. \"Gold Digger\" was certified as", "Franne Golde Lauryn Hill and M People, who recorded the song and made it a hit for the fourth time in the UK. Saxophonist Dave Koz gave it a jazz interpretation on \"Lucky Man\" and Michelin Tires tapped it for commercial advertising. Golde's work has been featured on some of the biggest soundtrack hits of the past decade, including the Grammy Award–winning \"The Bodyguard\", and the soundtracks for \"Top Gun\", \"Beverly Hills Cop II\", \"Selena\" (the biopic) which featured Golde's hit single \"Dreaming of You\" and the television series \"Miami Vice\" and \"Touched by an Angel\", which included the country hit single", "Carole Davis such as \"The A-Team\", \"\", \"Sex and the City\", \"Angel\" and more recently in \"2 Broke Girls\" and \"Madam Secretary\". In 1989, Davis’s career as a singer and songwriter took off when she signed with Warner Bros. Records and released her first album \"Heart of Gold\" which was produced by Nile Rodgers. Her single \"Serious Money\" (a cover of The O'Jays hit \"For the Love of Money\") was a dance hit and the video was number one and became the original theme song to the hip hop music video show \"Rap City\" on BET. The song's success enabled Davis to", "Luther Vandross Luther Vandross Luther Ronzoni Vandross Jr. (April 20, 1951 – July 1, 2005) was an American singer, songwriter and record producer. Throughout his career, Vandross was an in-demand background vocalist for several different artists including Todd Rundgren, Judy Collins, Chaka Khan, Bette Midler, Diana Ross, David Bowie, Barbra Streisand, Ben E. King, and Donna Summer. He later became a lead singer of the group Change, which released its gold-certified debut album, \"The Glow of Love\", in 1980 on Warner Bros. Records. After Vandross left the group, he was signed to Epic Records as a solo artist and released his debut", "Gold Digger (Kanye West song) story arises within the third verse, which illustrates a once destitute black male who earns a fortune and decides to leave a loyal, unselfish girlfriend for a white girl. In 2013 it was reported that Trena Steward and Lorenzo Pryor, two children of the late musician David Pryor had filed a lawsuit against West for allegedly sampling \"get down girl, go 'head, get down\" from their father's 1974 obscure single \"Bumpin' Bus Stop\". The song's music video was directed by Hype Williams, who also directed West's previous video, \"Diamonds from Sierra Leone\". Shot in a widescreen letterbox format, using stylized", "Aimee Osbourne The Howard Stern Show in 1998, but did not reach mainstream acting success until being cast in MTV's 2003 adaptation of Wuthering Heights. She later provided voiceover work in the 2014 animated film \"\". Around 2010, she began recording and releasing music under the project name ARO (her initials). ARO, in contrast to her father's heavy metal, has been described as synth pop, and is influenced by Kate Bush and Portishead, as well as PJ Harvey and Massive Attack. She has appeared in her own music videos, and her video for \"Raining Gold\" received 2 million hits in just two", "Amy Shark Artist of the Year and Song of the Year at the Gold Coast Music Awards. In early November 2017, She was named Apple's next Apple Music UpNext artist, and on 15 November 2017 she was featured on \"The Late Late Show with James Corden\" performing her song \"Adore\" which she performed again on 13 March 2018 on \"The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon\". In March 2018, She contributed the song \"Sink In\" to the \"Love, Simon\" soundtrack. The soundtrack debuted at 37 on the \"Billboard\" 200. On 11 April 2018, Shark premiered a single called \"I Said Hi\" on Triple", "Andrew Gold Gold's material was British singer Petula Clark who covered \"Lonely Boy\" in French (\"Poor Lonesome Play Boy\") on her \"Paris, Orleans, Paris\" album. On his 1976 \"Endless Flight\" album, Leo Sayer covered Gold's song \"Endless Flight,\" drawn from Gold's own debut album released the previous year. The year 1975 also marked a successful collaboration with Art Garfunkel, wherein Gold played most of the instruments on Garfunkel's solo hit \"I Only Have Eyes For You\" (which went to #1 on the UK Singles Chart), as well as several other cuts on Garfunkel's album \"Breakaway.\" In 1977 Gold also played guitar on", "Showmance (Glee) while \"Entertainment Weekly\"s Tim Stack called the episode \"really really fun\", observing that: \"The quality seen in the pilot definitely does not waver. If anything, the show seems to be finding its footing and tone.\" David Hinckley of the \"Daily News\" rated the episode 4 out of 5 stars and commented: \"\"Glee\" could have a hard time sustaining what it has set up. But the opening number gives us a rousing good show.\" The episode's musical numbers attracted positive reviews, particularly Will's rendition of \"Gold Digger\". Raymund Flandez for \"The Wall Street Journal\" praised this performance, also describing the group", "Love over Gold recorded. Knopfler decided that a female voice would be more appropriate and handed the song to Tina Turner for her comeback album, \"Private Dancer\". \"The Way It Always Starts\" ended up on Knopfler's soundtrack to the film \"Local Hero\", with vocals sung by Gerry Rafferty. \"Badges, Posters, Stickers and T-Shirts\" was cut from the album and later released in the UK as a B-side to \"Private Investigations.\" It was subsequently released in the United States as the fourth track on the \"ExtendedancEPlay\" EP. \"Love over Gold\" was released on 20 September 1982 on vinyl LP and cassette. \"Private Investigations\" was", "Till I Loved You (album) Jones. Later, the song appeared on his own album \"Back on the Block\", which received a Grammy Award for Album of the Year in 1991. Streisand's version featured an all-star backup group - background vocals were credited to Luther Vandross, Dionne Warwick, James Ingram, Howard Hewett, Jennifer Holliday, Peggi Blu, Clif Magness, Siedah Garrett and Edie Lehmann. On \"Back on the Block\"'s version, Siedah Garrett sang the first verse and chorus, followed by Chaka Khan singing the second verse. Jones utilized the same arrangement and background singers for his album, and also incorporated some African chanting during the bridge and", "Robert Glasper his prominent role on Lamar’s acclaimed album To Pimp A Butterfly. He has written/performed on albums by Mac Miller, Anderson Paak, Banks (remix), Big K.R.I.T., Bilal, Kendrick Lamar, Q-Tip and Talib Kweli. In September 2017, Glasper appeared on a live stream with Esperanza Spalding while recording \"Heaven in Pennies\" for Spalding's album \"Exposure\", which was released in December 2017. In August, 2018, The Guardian newspaper reported claims that Glasper accused Lauryn Hill of 'stealing' his music. Guardian journalist Lara Snapes wrote that \"Lauryn Hill has responded to recent allegations by the jazz pianist and producer Robert Glasper that she “stole", "Kelly Moneymaker of Power); Sean Holt, sax (Bruno Mars); Scott Sheriff, B3 (Carrie Underwood); Michael Webb, B3 (Poco ) and Kenny Vaughan, guitar (Lana Del Rey). Guest Vocalists: Robbie Wyckoff (Roger Waters); Will Wheaton (Michael Jackson); Michael Mishaw (Don Henley). Choir: Bernadette Barlow (Melissa Etheridge); Gia Cambiotti (Lucinda Williams); Lynn Fanelli (Delaney Bramlett); Adam \"Ae'jaye Jackson (Anita Whitaker); Connie Jackson (Joe Walsh); KW Miller (Wicked); Janelle Sadler (Natalie Cole) and Marina V. Kelly Moneymaker Kelly Susan Moneymaker (born June 4, 1970) is an American singer, songwriter, and producer. Moneymaker was born and raised in Fairbanks, Alaska. As a teenager, she moved to", "Cover Songs: Complete Best 'Track 3' April 2, 2010, alongside singers Miho Fukuhara and MiChi. Superfly's cover of Elvin Bishop's 1976 song \"Fooled Around and Fell in Love\", was used in the drama \"Gold\" as an incidental song, alongside the theme song \"Wildflower\", also performed by Superfly. On September 15, \"Wildflower & Cover Songs: Complete Best 'Track 3\"' was released as an iTunes LP, the first such download released by a Japanese artist. Hirokazu Koike of \"Rockin' On Japan\" described listening to the album like attending a rock festival, and felt that Ochi sung the 1960s and 70s classic rock and soul songs magnificently. \"CDJournal\" reviewers", "Shanice of Disney's 1995 film \"Pocahontas\". Shanice occasionally does background vocals for other artists; she can be heard on Toni Braxton's \"Come on Over Here\" and \"Un-Break My Heart\", as well as Usher's \"Bedtime\". In 2010 she performed vocals on the track \"Behind the Mask\", from Michael Jackson's posthumous album \"Michael\". Wilson recorded the song \"A Midnight Rendezvous\" for the 2012 Kinect game \"Rhythm Party\". She also performed the English theme song for the video game \"The Bouncer\", called \"Love Is the Gift\". Wilson return to recording after a five-year hiatus and released her fifth studio album \"Every Woman Dreams\" on", "Val Bennett by the Dave Brubeck Quartet, which would later go on to be used as the theme tune to the British television series \"The Secret Life of Machines\" in the late-1980s; and \"Tons Of Gold\" (1970), with the Harry J Allstars, a version of their track \"The Liquidator\". Bennett also worked for producer Lee \"Scratch\" Perry, and his spaghetti western-inspired \"Return of Django\", recorded with Perry's studio band The Upsetters was a major UK hit in 1969. His track \"Baby Baby\" was also included on The Upsetters' album \"Eastwood Rides Again\". Perry was the only producer to get Bennett to perform", "Me. I Am Mariah... The Elusive Chanteuse is built over a \"disco beat\", lyrically the song is a running \"commentary on celebrity culture\", and contains a sample from \"Goin' Up in Smoke\", performed by Eddie Kendricks. \"Camouflage\" is a piano ballad, followed by \"Money\" featuring rapper Fabulous and features a sample from \"Alabeke\", performed by Dan Snatch, and \"Rapper Dapper Snapper\" performed by Edwin Birdsong.\"Money\" is an R&B song built over a \"thumping\" beat produced by Hit-Boy with lyrics that revolve around money not being important. \"One More Try\" is a cover of George Michael's 1988 single of the same name, with an \"'80s taste\" and a", "Macklemore the Bells, SoundSet, Sasquatch, and Bonnaroo. Their album \"The Heist\" was released in October 2012 and debuted on the U.S. \"Billboard\" 200 at number 2 of the week dated October 27, 2012, selling over 78,000 copies. \"Same Love\" was released on July 18, 2012 and after \"White Walls\". In January 2013, Music Choice featured Macklemore in the brand new series \"Primed\", which focuses on emerging artists. In May 2013, Haggerty was featured on Clinton Sparks's single \"Gold Rush\", along with 2 Chainz and D.A. The Heist World Tour began in August 2012 to promote \"The Heist\". In January 2015, Macklemore", "Goldmine (Kimbra song) Goldmine (Kimbra song) \"Goldmine\" is a song co-written, co-produced and performed by New Zealand recording artist Kimbra, issued as the third single from her second studio album \"The Golden Echo\". \"Goldmine\" has received positive reviews from critics, with many complimenting the song's R&B-ish sound. Stan Mahoney of \"The Guardian\" complimented the song's \"rising R&B chant\" as a seemingly welcome \"departure from [Kimbra's] art pop stereotype\"; while Sasha Geffen of Consequence of Sound called Kimbra's vocals on the song \"elastic\" while also stating that the song has the strongest chorus on the album. Ryan Reed of \"Paste\" echoed this notion, highlighting", "J.W. CUDD Artist\" in Texas Music. Cudd went on to release his follow-up single, \"Gold Digger's Dream\"; although, the song did not gain much attention in the US, it charted internationally at #17 in the European Country Music Association. In 2014, Cudd began work on a new release: \"Open Your Heart\". The song was inspired by the loss of a close friend, Michelle Liedke, who died from complications during a medical procedure. In an interview, Cudd stated that the lyrics and melody came to him in a dream. Multi-platinum record producer, Andrew Lane, produced the song—helping to rebrand the singer/songwriter as a", "Carly Simon fright. In the appearance, she sang two songs: \"Half A Chance\" and her signature song, \"You're So Vain\". In 1977, Simon had a surprise international hit with the million-selling gold single \"Nobody Does It Better\", the theme to the James Bond film \"The Spy Who Loved Me\". Simon's second-biggest U.S. hit, after \"You're So Vain\", was 1977's biggest Adult Contemporary hit, where it held at No. 1 for seven straight weeks. The single peaked one step behind Debby Boone's mega-hit \"You Light Up My Life\" on \"Billboard's\" Pop Singles chart from October 22 to November 5, 1977 and received Grammy", "Andrew Gold series.) \"Thank You for Being a Friend\" has also shown up in places as diverse as an episode of the long-running animated TV sitcom \"The Simpsons,\" a 2013 Super Bowl ad for the National Football League, and an audio file in various musical greeting cards. Gold's biggest UK hit was \"Never Let Her Slip Away,\" which made it to #5 twice on the British singles charts, once by him and again 14 years later by dance-pop group Undercover. Freddie Mercury, who was a friend of Gold's, assisted him with harmony vocals as an uncredited background singer. Among the artists recording", "Showmance (Glee) club. The episode features covers of six songs. Studio recordings of three of the songs performed were released as singles, available for digital download. Three of the tracks also appear on the album \"\". \"Showmance\" introduces recurring cast members Jennifer Aspen, Kenneth Choi, and Heather Morris, and guest-stars Valorie Hubbard. The episode was watched by 7.3 million US viewers, and was the best-received scripted premiere by Fox in three years. The performance of Kanye West's \"Gold Digger\" in particular drew positive reviews from critics, with Jarett Wieselman of the \"New York Post\" and \"Entertainment Weekly\"s Tim Stack comparing the episode", "Dollar$ (soundtrack) involved with the soundtrack. Little Richard, Roberta Flack and Doug Kershaw were all artists with the Warner Bros. Records/Reprise group. The film was released in December 1971, followed by the early 1972 release of the soundtrack album. Jones' \"Money Runner\", was the promoted single from the album, released concurrently with the film, in December 1971. \"Money Is\", written by Jones and sung by Little Richard, was the B-side. The album was released by Warner Bros. Records on CD in 2001 and then re-released on CD in 2008, coinciding with the DVD release of the film. Allmusic's Jason Birchmeier said \"Jones", "Ari Gold (filmmaker) world. The film was written and directed by Ari Gold, starring Ari Gold, Michael McKean, Jane Lynch, Shoshannah Stern, Chiu Chi Ling, and Adrian Grenier and featuring Steven Williams, Jimmy Jean-Louis, Annie Golden and Nick Kroll, with a cameo performance by Rush drummer Neil Peart. The film features a soundtrack with original music written by Gold's brother, Ethan Gold, and hits by Rush, Mr. Mister, Judas Priest, Phil Collins, Dazz Band, Loverboy, Bow Wow Wow, and Woody Guthrie. Although the film was not released by a studio, it was influential to several Hollywood comedies such as \"The Hangover\" and \"I", "Gold Forever a negative review writing, \"It's getting quite hard to tell the members of The Wanted apart seeing as they all sound the same with the harsh distortion of Auto-Tune. Fans of dance tracks tinged with a soppy edge and cheesy Euro beats will like this.\" On 20 March, \"Gold Forever\" entered the UK Singles Chart at number 3, behind Adele's \"Someone Like You\" and Nicole Scherzinger's \"Don't Hold Your Breath\". The song slipped to number 4 the following week. Gold Forever \"Gold Forever\" is a dance-pop song by British-Irish boy band The Wanted. It was produced by Steve Mac, who", "Robbie Buchanan James Ingram, The Isley Brothers, Jewel, Elton John, Phil Keaggy, Stacy Lattisaw, Crystal Lewis, Kenny Loggins, The Manhattan Transfer, Luis Miguel, Aaron Neville, Stevie Nicks, Kazumasa Oda, Dolly Parton, Sam Phillips, Diana Ross, Richie Sambora, Dusty Springfield, Ringo Starr, Steely Dan, Russ Taff as well as on soundtracks for such films as \"Ghostbusters\", \"Aladdin,\" and others. Robbie makes his home in Vancouver for three months of the year, and L. A. for the remainder. Robbie Buchanan Robbie Buchanan (born 1957) is a Canadian keyboardist, songwriter, arranger, and producer. Buchanan, who hails from Vancouver, began playing the piano at age six.", "Gold Diggers of 1933 Gold Diggers of 1933 Gold Diggers of 1933 is a pre-Code Warner Bros. musical film directed by Mervyn LeRoy with songs by Harry Warren (music) and Al Dubin (lyrics), staged and choreographed by Busby Berkeley. It stars Warren William, Joan Blondell, Aline MacMahon, Ruby Keeler, and Dick Powell, and features Guy Kibbee, Ned Sparks and Ginger Rogers. The story is based on the play \"The Gold Diggers\" by Avery Hopwood, which ran for 282 performances on Broadway in 1919 and 1920. The play was made into a silent film in 1923 by David Belasco, the producer of the Broadway play,", "Linda Ronstadt Ronstadt, Parton, and Harris agreed to release the \"Trio II\" album, as was originally recorded in 1994. It included an ethereal cover of Neil Young's \"After The Gold Rush\" which became a popular music video. The effort was certified Gold (over 500,000 copies sold) and won them a Grammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals for the track. Ronstadt co-produced the album with George Massenburg and the three ladies also received a nomination for the Grammy Award for Best Country Album. At the end of 1987, Ronstadt released \"Canciones de Mi Padre\", an album of traditional Mexican folk songs,", "Bad Romance actress Meryl Streep recorded the song for her film, \"Ricki and the Flash\". The song was briefly played on violin by Geoffrey Rush, portraying Albert Einstein in a promo for the National Geographic Channel historical anthology series \"Genius\". The ad aired during Super Bowl LI, immediately following Lady Gaga's halftime performance. Brazilian singer Luiza Possi covered \"Bad Romance\" in May 2017 during \"Domingão do Faustão\". She later sang it during the encore of a show in tribute to singer Michael Jackson, whick took place in July 2017. Credits adapted from \"The Fame Monster\" album liner notes. Bad Romance \"Bad Romance\"", "Gold Diggers in Paris in Writing\", \"Stranger in Paree\" and \"Waltz of the Flowers\" were their creations in this film. In addition, Harry Warren wrote two other songs, \"My Adventure\" and \"Daydreaming All Night Long\", but with lyrics by Johnny Mercer. The Schnickelfritz Band, (\"schnickelfritz\" supposedly being German slang for \"silly fellow\"), a comedy musical group somewhat reminiscent of Spike Jones (who came later), performs novelty songs in the film. Led by Freddie Fisher, who played woodwinds, sang and also composed the song \"Colonel Corn\" for the band, the band consisted of Stanley Fritts (trombone, drums, jug, washboard), Nels Laakso (cornet, trumpet), Paul Cooper", "Diana Ross Ross' final single with Motown during her initial run with the company achieved her sixth and final US number-one Pop hit, the duet \"Endless Love\", composed for Brooke Shields' film of the same name, by and performed with Commodores front man, Lionel Richie. Ross and Richie performed the song on the telecast for the 54th Academy Awards, where the song was nominated in the category of \"Best Song\". The success of the single launched Richie's successful solo career. Ross has also ventured into acting, with a Golden Globe Award and Academy Award-nominated performance for her performance in the film \"Lady", "Forgotten man plans that rest upon the forgotten, the unorganized but the indispensable units of economic power, for plans like those of 1917 that build from the bottom up and not from the top down, that put their faith once more in the forgotten man at the bottom of the economic pyramid. The term quickly appeared within popular culture, supplanting Sumner's concept of the forgotten man. Joan Blondell and Etta Moten Barnett sing the song \"Remember My Forgotten Man\" in the climactic sequence of the film \"Gold Diggers of 1933\", with scenes of mass unemployment. In the film \"My Man Godfrey\" (1936)", "Gold Digger (Dolly Rockers song) Abadi through Fingertip Films and cinematographed by Hazel Palmer, was shot in the River Island shop on London's Oxford Street. It premiered on Parlophone's YouTube channel, the 2D version on 24 July 2009, and the 3D version on 4 September 2009. Credits adapted from CD single liner notes. Gold Digger (Dolly Rockers song) \"Gold Digger\" is the debut single by English girl group The Dolly Rockers. It was released digitally in the United Kingdom on 30 August 2009 and physically the day after. The track heavily borrows from Kid Creole and the Coconuts' 1982 song \"Stool Pigeon\" and Tom Tom", "Tamar Braxton music video of \"Love It\" from her 2015 album \"Calling All Lovers\". On the 26, she released the music video of \"Wanna Love You Boy\", from her last album \"Bluebird of Happiness\". On the 29, she released the music video of \"Pieces\", from her 2013 album \"Love and War\". In the same time, she made her movie acting debut in the upcoming film \"Gangland\" from Jean-Claude La Marre. Braxton possesses a four-octave soprano vocal range. She lists Mariah Carey, Whitney Houston, Diana Ross, Kim Burrell, and her eldest sister, Toni Braxton, as some of her influences. Braxton is the youngest", "Moonraker (film) the theme song was performed by Shirley Bassey (following \"Goldfinger\" and \"Diamonds Are Forever\"). Frank Sinatra was originally considered for the vocals, and Kate Bush was asked, but she declined. Johnny Mathis was approached and offered the opportunity. However, Mathis—despite having started recording with Barry—was unable to complete the project, leaving producers to offer the song to Bassey just weeks before the premiere date in England. Bassey made the recordings with very short notice and as a result, she never regarded the song 'as her own' as she had never had the chance to perform it in full or promote", "Golden Lady (song) Golden Lady (song) \"Golden Lady\" is a song by Stevie Wonder for the Tamla (Motown) label, from his \"Innervisions\" album. While it was never released as a single, the album itself peaked at number 4 on the Billboard Top 200. The love song, written by Stevie Wonder contrasts with the other songs on the record that comment upon societal issues within America. Examples include his comments on drug addiction within the song \"Too High\" and his political commentary on Richard Nixon in \"He's Misstra Know-It-All\". This song is influenced by the montuno style due to the chord progression and syncopated", "Rayvon Owen amount of times I tried to pray the gay away from me or tried to tell God to take this away from me. No kid should have to do what I did and pray to not be who they are. That’s why I think it’s important even in 2016 to say this.\" In January 2018, Owen was picked as Elvis Duran's Artist of the Month. He was featured on NBC's \"Today\" show hosted by Hoda Kotb and Meghan Trainor, the co-host for that episode broadcast nationally where Owen performed live his single \"Gold\". On February 14, 2016, Owen premiered a", "Joseph Brooks (songwriter) an aspiring singer, starring Didi Conn, became a box office success despite poor reviews. The title song Brooks composed for the film was an even bigger success; a cover version by Debby Boone reached #1 on the U.S. \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart and held the top position for 10 consecutive weeks, at that time the longest Number One reign in the chart's history. With sales of over five million copies, the song ultimately became the biggest hit of the 1970s, and earned Brooks a Grammy Award for Song of the Year, an Academy Award for Best Original Song, a Golden", "Shirley Bassey the title role. Bassey was one of the line-up of artists on 4 June 2012 who performed at the Queen's 60th Jubilee Party at Buckingham Palace, singing \"Diamonds Are Forever\". She performed at the 2013 Academy Awards on 24 February 2013 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the James Bond movie franchise. It was her first appearance at an Oscars ceremony as a performer. She sang \"Goldfinger\" to a standing ovation. Bassey performed \"I'm Still Here\" and \"The Lady Is A Tramp\" on 13 November 2014 at the 2014 Royal Variety Performance in the presence of The Duke and Duchess", "Mariah Carey although not to the degree of her previous albums \"Mariah Carey\", \"Music Box\" and \"Daydream\". Carey began developing other projects during the late 1990s. On April 14, 1998, Carey partook in the VH1 Divas benefit concert, where she sang alongside Aretha Franklin, Celine Dion, Shania Twain, Gloria Estefan, and Carole King. Carey had begun developing a film project \"All That Glitters\", later re-titled to simply \"Glitter\", and wrote songs for other projects, such as \"Men in Black\" (1997) and \"How the Grinch Stole Christmas\" (2000). After \"Glitter\" fell into developmental hell, Carey postponed the project, and began writing material for", "All I Intended to Be is a celebration of life and death; “How She Could Sing the Wildwood Flower” refers to the relationship between A. P. and Sara Carter and was inspired by a documentary that Harris, together with Kate and Anna McGarrigle, saw on television. The song “Gold” features guest vocals by Dolly Parton and Vince Gill while “Old Five and Dimers Like Me” is a duet between Harris and John Starling. “Moon Song” was written by Harris' close friend Patty Griffin and appeared as an ITunes bonus track on her 2007 album \"Children Running Through\". The album was made #49 in \"Q\"’s 50", "Rachel Fury release intended to capitalise on weenybopper enthusiasm for David Cassidy, Donny Osmond, and Michael Jackson. By 1978, Brennock was an established London session singer, known for a \"sassy 'Ronettes' sound.\" In the 1980s, Brennock adopted the stage name Rachel Fury, and toured as a backing singer with Howard Devoto and The Lover Speaks. She co-wrote the song \"When We Dream\" with Phil Saatchi for his 1987 album \"Wheel of Fortune\", and performed vocals on several Saatchi songs. Fury signed on as a backing singer for the Pink Floyd A Momentary Lapse of Reason Tour after being introduced to the band", "Gold Diggers of 1935 an arm and a leg, but in the end she realizes that having a doctor in the family will save money in the long run. The songs in \"Gold Diggers of 1935\" were written by Harry Warren (music) and Al Dubin (lyrics), and the two production numbers were staged by Busby Berkeley. \"Gold Diggers of 1935\" was in production at Warner Bros. Burbank studios until 14 January 1935, and was released on 15 March of that year. During production a chorus dancer, Jack Grieves, died on the set due to acute indigestion. The film was Busby Berkeley's first time at", "Freda Payne of the PBS series American Soundtrack. Her performance of \"Band Of Gold\" was included on the accompanying live album that was released in 2004. On April 22, 2009 Payne appeared on \"American Idol\" and sang \"Band of Gold\". In February 2010, Payne joined Kanye West, Jordin Sparks, Jennifer Hudson, Barbra Streisand and many more on We Are The World for Haiti Relief. In 2011 Payne recorded a duet, \"Saving A Life\", with British pop star Sir Cliff Richard for inclusion on his \"Soulicious\" album. She also joined Richard on his \"Soulicious\" tour of the UK in October of the same", "Gold Digger (Dolly Rockers song) debut\" and wrote that \"[t]he 'wonky' pop sound gets you bopping from the off and the quirkyness of their style matches the eccentricity of the song.\" However, he criticised the track by stating that \"fame hungry girls talking about other fame hungry girls is a touch hypocritical\", while noting the lack of \"a killer melody to match the killer dance/pop production\". ILikeMusic described the song as a \"barn-storming and truly inspired collision of the Tom Tom Club's 'Wordyrappinghood' and Kid Creole's 'Stool Pigeon'\", naming it \"one of the greatest pop tunes of 2009\" as well as \"both a social diatribe", "Andrew Gold planned. On Marc Maron's January 17, 2013 WTF podcast, Foo Fighters leader Dave Grohl said that the band's cover of \"Lonely Boy\" would eventually be released as the A-side of a special \"Solid Gold\" 45 rpm single with a Foo Fighters version of Gold's \"Never Let Her Slip Away\" as the B-side. Although \"Lonely Boy\" was the bigger radio hit in the States, his single \"Thank You for Being a Friend,\" which peaked at #25 in 1978, later gained popularity as the theme song for \"The Golden Girls.\" (It was performed by Cindy Fee over the opening titles of the", "Showmance (Glee) Hudson, Ken Choi as Terri's OB/GYN Dr. Wu, and Rivera and Morris as new glee club members Santana Lopez and Brittany Pierce. Valorie Hubbard guest stars as Peggy. It was revealed at the 2011 \"Glee\" Comic-Con panel that a scene had been written for this episode that featured Rachel's fathers, but it was subsequently cut from the script even though the actors had already been cast and reported for shooting. The episode features cover versions of Kanye West's \"Gold Digger\", Salt-n-Pepa's \"Push It\", \"Take a Bow\" by Rihanna, \"I Say a Little Prayer\" by Dionne Warwick, Chic's \"Le Freak\", and", "Not Accepted Anywhere re-recorded and re-released on 18 September 2006, similarly second single \"Raoul\" was re-worked slightly and received a re-release on 8 January 2007, along with a studio-recording of the band's cover of Kanye West's single \"Gold Digger\" and a new b-side \"Easy Target\". The re-release was made on a limited 7\" picture disc. In support of the band's 2007 tour of the United States of America the album was set for release on 26 June 2007, proceeded by a USA release of single \"Monster\" on 5 June 2007, and an EP So Nice Say It Twice on 19 June 2007. The", "Joyce Cobb Awards list for \"New Female Single Pop Artist\" in the company of singers Irene Cara (#1), Charlie Dore (#2), and Bernadette Peters (#3). She was the opening act for Al Jarreau and The Temptations during this time. During the 1980s she recorded a number of records under contract with Willie Mitchell on his Waylo Records label. From 1984-1987 she recorded several singles, one of which made it to #3 on the British R&B charts: her earlier success with \"Dig The Gold\" paved the way for that single to chart well overseas. She toured internationally in the Netherlands with Waylo artist", "Diana Ross N Harmony. \"It's My House\" has been referenced in music by Snoop Dogg and MC Hammer. \"Upside Down\" has been covered and sampled by Salt-n-Pepa, Sean Combs, Kid Rock, Missy Elliott and MC Lyte. \"I'm Coming Out\" has been sampled in music recorded by The Notorious B.I.G. (who also sampled \"Missing You\"), Keyshia Cole featuring Iggy Azalea and Ariana Grande. \"Endless Love\" was recorded by Luther Vandross and Mariah Carey, and Ross's partner Lionel Richie later recorded a version with Shania Twain singing Ross's part. \"Muscles\" was sampled by Lil' Kim and Young Jeezy. \"When You Tell Me That You", "Ann-Margret the Academy Awards presentation in 1962, singing the Oscar-nominated song \"Theme from Bachelor in Paradise.\" Her contract with RCA Victor ended in 1966. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, she had hits on the dance charts, the most successful being 1979's \"Love Rush,\" which peaked at number eight on the disco/dance charts. In 2001, working with Art Greenhaw, she recorded the album \"God Is Love: The Gospel Sessions\". The album went on to earn a Grammy nomination and a Dove nomination for best album of the year in a gospel category. Her album \"Ann-Margret's Christmas Carol Collection\", also produced", "Julie Gold station the first time Americans worked with Russians in space. A wide range of recording artists have covered it, including Jewel, Elaine Paige, Cliff Richard, the African Children's Choir, Judy Collins, the Byrds, Fairport Convention and Donna Summer. Nanci Griffith, the first to record \"From a Distance\", has also recorded Gold's songs \"Heaven\", \"Southbound Train\", \"Good Night New York\" and \"Mountain of Sorrow\". Other artists who performed Gold's songs include Patti LaBelle, Patti LuPone, Lea Salonga, and Andrea Marcovicci. Her song \"Thanks to You\" was featured in the 1993 film \"Andre\", and \"Dream Loud\" was featured in the 2002 film", "Gold Digger (Kanye West song) an artist, Charles topped the Hot 100 three times in the 1960s, but always with other writers' songs. As of May 2011, the song has sold 3,083,000 copies in the US. On April 10, 2014, \"Gold Digger\" was certified as 5 times platinum. \"Gold Digger\" is Kanye West's second highest charting single in the UK, only behind his number one single \"Stronger\". It was only held off the top spot by The Pussycat Dolls' \"Don't Cha\". It is by far West's longest charting single in the UK having amassed an impressive 48 weeks inside the top 100 songs. 295,000 copies", "Wini Shaw She is best remembered for introducing the song \"Lullaby of Broadway\" in the musical film \"Gold Diggers of 1935\" (1935). Shaw's only recording, (Decca 408) with Dick Jurgens and his Orchestra, was \"Lullaby of Broadway\" and \"I'm Goin' Shoppin' with You\". Both songs were from the film, and the recording was made on February 28, 1935. She also sang \"The Lady in Red\" in the musical film \"In Caliente\" (1935), starring Dolores del Rio; the song was later made famous when Bugs Bunny sang it in drag. Shaw appeared in a brief revival of the musical-theatre production of \"Simple Simon\"", "Shake It Off (Mariah Carey song) hip hop influences and a simple, sparse production. Lyrically, the song follows Carey as she moves on from her relationship with an unfaithful lover, packing her things and breaking up with him over an answering machine. The song was well received by music critics, with many complimenting its simple yet inspirational lyrics, as well as calling it a standout track from the album. It peaked at number two on the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100, blocked by Carey's own \"We Belong Together\" and Kanye West's \"Gold Digger\" for six weeks. Furthermore, it marked the first time a female lead artist occupied", "Gold Digger (Kanye West song) the week of November 19. \"Gold Digger\" also became West's first Top 10 single on the Mainstream Top 40 chart, peaking at number two. On the Pop 100, \"Gold Digger\" also broke a record by jumping from number 94 to number two, giving West the record for the biggest ever jump on that chart. In MAX music TV's top 1000 songs of all time, 'Gold Digger' was number 462 on the list. By reaching number one, \"Gold Digger\" gave Charles his first Hot 100 chart-topper as a songwriter, credited as a result of the \"I Got a Woman\" sample. As", "Wildflower (Superfly song) song featured a different style of rock, and a different commercial tie-up. The single came packaged with \"Cover Songs: Best 'Track 3\"', a compilation album compiling Superfly's English language cover songs that were featured on the B-sides of her singles, as well as three new recordings. One of the new recordings was a cover of Elvin Bishop's 1976 song \"Fooled Around and Fell in Love\", which was used in the drama \"Gold\" as an incidental song, alongside \"Wildflower\". A limited edition version of the set featured a bonus 8cm single, featuring an acoustic version of \"Fooled Around and Fell in", "Love You I Do of remaining a mere backup singer for Jimmy Early. The song also helps further illustrate Effie's feelings for Curtis, though he is clearly more interested in Deena Jones. It is highly likely that he is merely feigning love for Effie to control and manipulate her. Produced by The Underdogs, \"Love You I Do\" was one of three \"Dreamgirls\" songs nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song at the 79th Academy Awards; the others were \"Patience\" and \"Listen\". At the Academy Awards ceremony, Hudson performed \"Love You I Do\" as a duet with her co-star, Beyoncé Knowles. All three", "Gold (Amanda Lear song) was Lear's cover of the wartime classic \"Lili Marleen\", which would later be released on her third album, \"Never Trust a Pretty Face\". In 1989, DJ Ian Levine produced Hi-NRG remixes of \"Gold\" and \"Follow Me\". The new versions were released as the double A-side single on both vinyl and CD, and received promotion on TV. The remixed version of \"Gold\" would later be included on several Amanda Lear hits compilations. Gold (Amanda Lear song) \"Gold\" is a song by French singer Amanda Lear from her second album \"Sweet Revenge\", released as the single in 1978. The song was composed", "Alina Baraz child in her family born in America. Growing up, her parents raised her on classical music and on her own she became interested in 90s music and singers such as Adele, Amy Winehouse and Corinne Bailey Rae. She began singing at a young age in her gospel choir. At age 19 she decided to move to Los Angeles, California to pursue singing as a professional career. She developed a passion for songwriting and wrote her first song titled \"Roses Dipped in Gold\". After moving to Los Angeles Baraz discovered Danish electronic producer Galimatias' music online. She wrote lyrics for one", "Gwyneth Paltrow a hustler (Lewis). She performed a cover version of Smokey Robinson's \"Cruisin', which was released as a single and went to number one in Australia, while her rendition of the Kim Carnes classic \"Bette Davis Eyes\" reached number three. Also in 2000, Paltrow co-starred with Ben Affleck in the moderately successful romantic drama \"Bounce\" as Abby Janello. She starred with Jack Black in the comedy \"Shallow Hal\" (2001), about a shallow man falling in love with an overweight woman. To play her role, she had to wear a specially designed 25-pound fatsuit and heavy make-up. \"Shallow Hal\" opened with US$22.5", "Candy (Cameo song) a high level of video compositing, with multiple layers of the band members and dancers appearing on screen at once. \"Honey\", a reworked version with different lyrics was included on their next album, \"Machismo\". The song has been sampled by various artists, including 2Pac (\"All Bout U\", featured on his album \"All Eyez on Me\"), Will Smith (\"Candy\", on his album \"Big Willie Style\"), and Mariah Carey (\"Loverboy\", on the soundtrack to the film \"Glitter\"); the latter song would reach #2 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 in 2001. The Black Eyed Peas sampled it for the song \"Ba Bump\" from" ]

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[ "Daniel Gluckstein, né le à Paris, est un homme politique trotskiste français.\n\nIl est secrétaire national du Parti des travailleurs (PT) de 1991 à 2008. Il participe ensuite à la fondation du Parti ouvrier indépendant démocratique (POID), après avoir été l'un des quatre secrétaires nationaux du Parti ouvrier indépendant (POI) et coordinateur de l'Entente internationale des travailleurs et des peuples.\n\nCandidat du PT à l'élection présidentielle de 2002, il finit en dernière position du premier tour avec 0,47 % des voix.\n\nBiographie \nL'intérêt de Daniel Gluckstein pour son histoire familiale — l'un de ses ancêtres, juif d'Europe de l'Est, aurait participé en 1897 à la fondation de l'Union générale des travailleurs juifs de Lituanie, de Pologne et de Russie (Bund) — contribue, durant son adolescence, à le faire s'engager en politique. Il fait partie, à l'âge de 14 ans, des comités Viêt Nam, dans le contexte de l'opposition à la guerre du Viêt Nam.\n\nEn 1968, il adhère à la Jeunesse communiste révolutionnaire (JCR), puis rejoint la Ligue communiste. Il utilise à l'époque le pseudonyme de Michaël ; en 1973, lors de la dissolution de la Ligue communiste et sa refondation sous le nom de Ligue communiste révolutionnaire, il adopte le nouveau pseudonyme de Seldjouk.\n\nAprès des études d'histoire et de lettres, il enseigne ces matières en lycée professionnel.\n\nÀ la fin des années 1970, il participe à une tendance de la LCR, la « tendance léniniste-trotskiste » (ou TLT) animée par Christian Leucate, et qui regroupe plusieurs centaines de membres. En 1979, exclus de la LCR, les animateurs de la TLT partent avec environ 400 militants et fondent la Ligue communiste internationaliste (LCI) ; l'année suivante, ce mouvement fusionne avec l’Organisation communiste internationaliste (OCI), nom utilisé à l'époque par le courant lambertiste. Au départ réticent à la collaboration avec , Daniel Gluckstein finit par devenir proche de ce dernier, dont il fera avec le temps figure de . Il quitte à cette époque l'Éducation nationale pour devenir permanent salarié de l'organisation lambertiste.\n\nEn 1991, il est élu secrétaire national du Parti des travailleurs (PT), lors de la fondation de cette nouvelle incarnation du parti lambertiste. Aux élections européennes de 1994, il est à la tête d'une liste pour l'Europe des travailleurs et de la démocratie, contre l'UE de Maastricht, qui obtient 0,43 % des voix.\n\nEn 1997, il est candidat aux élections législatives à Montreuil (Seine-Saint-Denis). Il obtient 0,87 % des voix.\n\nL'année suivante, il initie avec 40 autres militants, dont Frédéric Mérat et des responsables de divers courants internes du Parti communiste français, dont Jean-Jacques Karman et Rémy Auchedé, et du Mouvement des citoyens de Jean-Pierre Chevènement le Comité national pour l'abrogation du traité de Maastricht.\n\nEn 2002, il est candidat du Parti des travailleurs à l'élection présidentielle, et remporte au premier tour 0,47 % des suffrages, arrivant dernier parmi les seize candidats présents.\n\nDès le , il appelle avec divers élus dont Gérard Schivardi à la victoire du « non » au référendum sur le traité constitutionnel de l'Union européenne par la création d'un comité ad hoc.\n\nEn 2007, il est directeur de campagne de Gérard Schivardi, « candidat de maires », à l'élection présidentielle.\n\nEn 2008, lors du congrès fondateur du Parti ouvrier indépendant (POI), dans lequel s'est auto-dissout le PT, il devient un des quatre secrétaires nationaux du nouveau parti, avec Claude Jenet, Gérard Schivardi et Jean Markun.\n\nEn 2015, à l'approche du du POI, peu après la rencontre d'un millier de syndicalistes le 6 juin à Paris sous l'égide du journal Informations ouvrières, de fortes tensions se font sentir au sein du parti. Pour ne pas avoir respecté les décisions majoritaires de son courant (les deux tiers de la conférence des cadres, composée des délégués au précédent congrès), après avoir annoncé vouloir créer une tendance soutenue par plus de 700 membres du Courant communiste internationaliste et intitulée « Revenir à une politique de construction de parti », Gluckstein est suspendu ainsi que les autres membres de la direction nationale l'ayant soutenu. Un bureau national le démet, ainsi que Gérard Schivardi et Jean Markun, de leur mandat de secrétaire national. À noter que la création d'une tendance est tout à fait légale et légitime dans les textes de fondements du parti et de la Internationale et que cette dernière prône l'indépendance des syndicats par rapport aux partis politiques.\n\nÀ l'issue de deux congrès distincts se tenant les 21 et 22 novembre 2015, la tendance initiée par Daniel Gluckstein décide de se former en tant que Parti ouvrier indépendant démocratique afin de revenir à la création d'un vrai parti ouvrier, indépendant des appareils syndicaux.\n\nVie privée \nMarié, il est le père de trois enfants.\n\nPublications \n , à propos de la grève de 1986 contre la réforme Devaquet\n\nNotes et références\n\nVoir aussi\n\nArticles connexes \n Courant lambertiste\n Parti communiste internationaliste (lambertiste)\n Pierre Lambert\n Trotskisme en France\n Informations ouvrières\n La Vérité\n\nLiens externes \n \n Entente internationale des travailleurs et des peuples\n\nNaissance en mars 1953\nNaissance à Paris\nPersonnalité liée à Montreuil (Seine-Saint-Denis)\nTrotskiste français\nPersonnalité de la Ligue communiste révolutionnaire\nPersonnalité du Parti ouvrier indépendant\nCandidat à une élection présidentielle en France (Cinquième République)" ]

[ "Claude Pennetier, né le , est un historien français.\n\nChercheur au CNRS, il est spécialiste de la socio-histoire du militantisme.\n\nBiographie\n\nAscendance, jeunesse \nFils de Marcel Pennetier (1914-1993) instituteur, licencié de philosophie, refondateur du courant syndical enseignant l'École émancipée à la Libération, Claude Pennetier, fut dans un premier temps militant du MRAP puis des comités d'action en 1968, alors qu'il était étudiant en histoire à la Sorbonne.\n\nRecherches \nLa carrière de Claude Pennetier a été consacrée à la recherche historique au sein du CNRS.\n\nAu début des années 1980, il devient l’associé de Jean Maitron à la direction du Dictionnaire biographique du mouvement ouvrier français, œuvre qu’il poursuit depuis le décès du créateur en 1987. Il a dirigé la collection « La Part des Hommes » aux Éditions de l'Atelier, qui Il a été responsable du pôle « Lien militant » et du programme « Prosopographie des militants » au Centre d’histoire sociale du de l'université Paris I.\n\nIl a travaillé sur le socialisme dans les milieux ruraux, sur la banlieue rouge et la sociobiographie du militantisme, notamment avec le politiste Bernard Pudal.\n\nTravaux éditoriaux \nAvec Jean-Pierre Besse, il a publié un ouvrage Juin 40, la négociation secrète et préparé un dictionnaire des fusillés de l'occupation qu'il poursuit, après la mort de celui-ci, avec Thomas Pouty.\n\nLe Dictionnaire biographique du mouvement ouvrier français, devenu Dictionnaire biographique, mouvement ouvrier, mouvement social a publié 71 volumes et productions, dont 53 volumes alphabétiques français. La période 1940-1968 compte 12 volumes. La publication s'est étalée entre 2006 et 2016. À partir du volume 9, Claude Pennetier a associé Paul Boulland à la direction. Parmi les dictionnaires thématiques, il a participé au livre Les anarchistes. Dictionnaire biographique du mouvement libertaire francophone (2014), et au Dictionnaire biographique des militant des industries électriques et gazières de la Libération aux années sous la direction de Paul Boulland.\n\nEngagements \nClaude Pennetier est adhérent de la fondation Copernic et de la Ligue des droits de l'Homme. Il s'est publiquement opposé à la loi de février 2005 défendant « le rôle positif » de la colonisation française.\n\nPublications \n L’histoire collective de Jean Maitron, La République des idées, , .\n Le souffle d', Pourquoi ont-ils cru au communisme ?, avec Bernard Pudal, Editions de l'Atelier, .\n Les Fusillés (1940-1944) : dictionnaire biographique des fusillés et exécutés par condamnation et comme otages et guillotinés en France pendant l'Occupation, codirection avec Jean-Pierre Besse, Thomas Pouty et Delphine Leneveu, Éditions de l'Atelier, 2015, 1952 p.\n Le Sujet communiste, avec Bernard Pudal, Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2014\n Le Mouvement ouvrier au miroir de la biographie. Matériaux pour l’histoire de notre temps, n°104-105, 2012, avec Bruno Groppo et Bernard Pudal\n Juin 40, la négociation secrète, avec Jean-Pierre Besse, Paris, Éditions de l'Atelier, 2006, 208 p.\n André Marty, l’homme, l’affaire, l’archive, avec Paul Boulland et Rossana Vaccaro, Paris, Codos édition, 2005, 189 p.\n Autobiographies, autocritiques, aveux dans le monde communiste, avec Bernard Pudal (sd), Paris, « Socio-histoire », Belin, 2002, 368 p.\n Marges et replis, frontières, cas limites dans la gauche française : l’apport des itinéraires militants, (sd), CHS, 2002, 78 p.\n Le Siècle des communismes, codirection avec Michel Dreyfus, Bruno Groppo, Claudio Ingerflom, Roland Lew, Bernard Pudal et Serge Wolikow, Paris, Éditions de l'Atelier, 2000, 542 p. (réédition de poche : Points Seuil, 2004, 790 p.).\n La Part des militants, avec Michel Dreyfus et Nathalie Viet-Depaule, Paris, Éditions de l'Atelier, 1996.\n Itinéraires orlysiens. Les militants de l’entre-deux-guerres, avec Nathalie Viet-Depaule, Paris, Éditions de l'Atelier, 1994, 139 p.\n L’Internationale des dictionnaires. Matériaux pour l’histoire de notre temps, , 1994, avec Michel Dreyfus et Nathalie Viet-Depaule\n Le Socialisme dans le Cher, 1851-1921, La Charité/Paris, Éditions Delayance/Maison des sciences de l'homme, 1982, 306 p.\n\nNotes\n\nVoir aussi\n\nArticle connexe \nDictionnaire biographique du mouvement ouvrier français\n\nLiens externes \n \n Le site du Centre d'histoire sociale du \n Le Maitron en ligne\n Hommage au Maitron, cet Atlantide de l'espérance\n\nCatégorie:Chercheur au CNRS\nCatégorie:Historien français du XXe siècle\nCatégorie:Historien du mouvement ouvrier\nCatégorie:Naissance en novembre 1947\nCatégorie:Lieu de naissance inconnu\nCatégorie:Historien de l'anarchisme", "Marie Félix Charles de Gorostarzu, né le à Saint-Vincent-de-Tyrosse (diocèse d'Aire-Dax) et mort le à Penang, est un missionnaire catholique français qui fut vicaire apostolique dans le Yunnan.\n\nBiographie\n\nJeune missionnaire \n\nIssu d'une famille basque , il poursuit ses études au petit séminaire de Larressore, fait sa philosophie au séminaire d'Issy-les-Moulineaux et sa théologie au séminaire français de Rome. Après son ordination sacerdotale, le , il prolonge son séjour à Rome. Il entre au séminaire de la rue du Bac des Missions étrangères de Paris, le . Il embarque un an plus tard à Marseille pour la Chine avec plusieurs compagnons dont le Père de Guébriant. Ils sont destinés au vicariat apostolique du Yunnan (aujourd'hui archidiocèse de Kunming) qu'ils atteignent après cinq mois de navigation en mer et deux mois de navigation sur le fleuve Bleu. Le jeune P. de Gorostarzu rejoint Fenouil en février 1886 qui l'envoie à Long-ki (dans le Bas Yunnan chez les Lolos), poste lointain à deux jours de Sui-fu par la route, mais à une quinzaine de jours de la préfecture. Il s'occupe ensuite de différents postes reculés dans le gouvernement de Lo-pin-tchéou. Il est appelé en 1890 à Yunnan-fou pour succéder au procureur. Il lance des bulletins de liaison de nouvelles polycopiés (Le Petit Novelliste). En 1897, il est nommé à la procure de Mong-tsé où se trouve un consulat de France, une gare et un poste de douane chinoise. Il missionne dans la région notamment auprès des minorités ethniques, ce qui provoque des troubles de la part des Chinois Han: le quartier européen de Mong-tsé est attaqué et brûlé le , alors que la révolte des Boxers s'annonce. Lorsqu'elle éclate, Fenouil et ses missionnaires doivent se réfugier au Tonkin, possession française. Le P. de Gorostarzu demeure en Chine, ayant été nommé administrateur de la mission, et se réfugie à la frontière tonkinoise côté chinois pendant l'apogée des troubles. En 1905, le P. de Gorostarzu ainsi que le P. Kirchner ont une centaine de villages aborigènes sous leur responsabilité pastorale. La mission d'Ou-sé Tchang est incendiée en 1907 avec une quinzaine de maisons de convertis.\n\nVicaire apostolique \nAprès la mort de Fenouil, le , le P. de Gorostarzu est nommé en décembre 1907 - sous le pontificat de saint Pie X - évêque d'Aila et vicaire apostolique du Yunnan. Gendreau le consacre à Hanoï le . Il tente de visiter régulièrement les districts de sa mission malgré les difficultés matérielles. Il fait venir les Sœurs de Saint-Paul de Chartres à Tchongking. Les temps sont extrêmement troublés. Le P. Mérigot est tué à Tsing-y le et la république de Sun Yat-sen est proclamée en 1911. En 1912, la région de Long-ki et du Bas Yunnan sont éprouvées par les troubles politiques. Malgré cela, de Gorostarzu visite les districts de l'est et de l'ouest de son vicariat. En 1914, cinq de ses missionnaires sont mobilisés et pendant quelque temps, il assure seul le service de la procure de la mission. Le , à Ning-Yuan-Fu, il assiste de Guébriant pour la consécration épiscopale de Bourgain. \n\nIl part pour la France en 1920 et, du 7 mai au , assiste, à Rome, en tant que délégué du groupe des missions de la Chine du Sud, à la réunion préparatoire en vue de l'Assemblée générale de la Société des Missions étrangères prévue pour 1921 à la procure de Hong Kong. Il profite de son séjour à Rome pour obtenir la division de son vicariat, et en France, pour contacter les Pères du Sacré-Cœur de Bétharram de son cher Pays basque. Il se rend ensuite à Hong Kong où, du 9 février au , il prend part aux travaux de l'Assemblée générale des Missions étrangères.\n\nIl est décoré en 1922 de l'ordre des Millions d'Éléphants et du Parasol Blanc du Louang Prabang. Il quitte Yunnan-fou en septembre 1922, pour assister à la réunion synodale de Sui-fu pour étudier les questions de la future assemblée de Shanghai. À son retour, il visite les districts du nord-est de sa mission, et rentre à Yunnan-fou le . En mai 1924, il est à l'assemblée plénière de Shanghai présidée par le délégué apostolique. En octobre 1924, les Pères de Bétharram se voient confier les districts de Tali, Monghoa, Yangpi, Euluen, Uinpin, et Paochan et les cinq sous-préfectures qui relient les six premières à l'intendance de Poueul. Ce territoire est érigé en mission distincte en 1929, et devient en 1948 le diocèse de Dali. Il célèbre les funérailles de Bourgain (1872-1925) à Yunnan-fou le samedi . \n\n de Gorostarzu assiste à Hanoï le , avec le P. Degenève, au triduum en l'honneur de sainte Thérèse de l'Enfant-Jésus, récemment canonisée par Pie XI et qui priait pour les carmels d'Indochine et les missions de Chine, en union avec saint Théophane Vénard. En 1927, il est de retour à Hanoï, puis à Hué au début de juillet, en vue de préparer une future fondation d'un carmel à Yunnan-fou, projet auquel il songeait depuis 1910. Mais, en 1928, en raison des désordres politiques au Yunnan, cette réalisation est repoussée. De Hué, il se rend à Bien-Hoa près de Saigon ; puis passe quelques jours à la clinique Angier de Saïgon. Il s'embarque à bord de l'Amboise le , mais doit entrer en clinique le 29 juillet à Hanoï. Le , marchant péniblement, il retrouve son évêché de Yunnan-fou. Il se résout alors à demander un coadjuteur. \n\nLe juillet 1928, de Gorostarzu inaugure un avec trente-quatre élèves, et une école de catéchistes. Soucieux de la formation de ses prêtres, dès 1915, il envoie ses séminaristes au collège général de Penang. En 1933, le vicariat apostolique de Yunnan-fou compte (les missionnaires mis à part) dix-huit prêtres autochtones, treize grands séminaristes dont deux étudiants au séminaire Saint-Sulpice de Paris, et quarante-huit élèves dans les classes secondaires supérieures du petit séminaire.\n\nDernières années \n\nEn mai 1930, il part pour Hong Kong où il arrive le 17 mai pour la préparation de l'Assemblée générale de la Société, puis s'embarque à bord du Sphinx à destination de la France. Il prend part à Paris aux travaux de l'Assemblée générale rue du Bac (son ami de Guébriant est alors supérieur général) et fait fin août sa visite à Rome. Il s'embarque à Marseille pour le retour en mai 1931. Au début de 1932, de Guébriant en tournée générale en Asie vient le visiter. En mai suivant Audren est nommé coadjuteur.\n\nIl quitte Yunnan-fou (devenu Kunming) le , et Saigon, le , à bord du Porthos, pour se rendre en France. Après avoir dépassé Singapour, il est victime d'une congestion. Lorsque le bateau arrive à Penang, de Gorostarzu est débarqué à l'hôpital. Il y meurt le .\n\nSes obsèques se déroulent à l'église de l'Assomption le lendemain et il est enterré au cimetière de Penang à côté de Perrichon (de la même promotion des MEP que lui, 1861-1920), dans la concession de la mission. de Jonghe d’Ardoye lui succède en mai 1933.\n\nNotes et références\n\nLiens externes \nBiographie sur le site des MEP\n Chronologie sur catholic-hierarchy\n\nCatégorie:Vicaire apostolique en Chine\nCatégorie:Évêque français d'un diocèse chinois\nCatégorie:Décès en mars 1933\nCatégorie:Naissance en octobre 1860\nCatégorie:Naissance à Saint-Vincent-de-Tyrosse\nCatégorie:Missions étrangères de Paris\nCatégorie:Yunnan\nCatégorie:Évêque du XXe siècle\nCatégorie:Missionnaire catholique français\nCatégorie:Décès en Malaisie\nCatégorie:Séminaire pontifical français\nCatégorie:Famille de Gorostarzu\nCatégorie:Décès à 72 ans", "János Kádár , (né Giovanni Czermanik, puis appelé János Csermanek) est un homme d'État hongrois né à Fiume (aujourd'hui Rijeka) le et mort à Budapest le . Il fut de 1956 à 1988 le principal dirigeant de la République populaire de Hongrie.\n\nUn fidèle militant communiste \n\nEnfant naturel, de condition modeste, de formation rudimentaire, il devient mécanicien de précision et militant syndical dès l’âge de 17 ans. Il adhère au mouvement communiste clandestin en 1931. Emprisonné, il monte dans la hiérarchie du parti et fait preuve d’un talent certain d’organisateur. En 1943, il est membre du Comité central qui décide de transformer le Parti des communistes de Hongrie en parti de la paix, prenant à la lettre la dissolution du Komintern.\n\nEn 1945, Kádár est un des espoirs du parti hongrois et occupe des postes de haute responsabilité : membre du bureau politique, secrétaire général adjoint, ministre de l’Intérieur, chef de la police secrète AVH (1948-1951).\n\nAu sein du Parti des travailleurs hongrois, il sert la politique stalinienne de Mátyás Rákosi et ne critique pas l’inculpation, le procès et l’exécution de son camarade et ami László Rajk, qui l'avait précédé au ministère de l'intérieur. Actif durant la politique de répression, il assiste personnellement à certains interrogatoires. Victime d’une purge, suspecté de titisme, il est lui-même emprisonné à cause de sa participation au comité central de 1943 et de sa décision de dissolution. (1951-1953).\n\nUn instrument de la répression soviétique \n\nLibéré en 1954 par Imre Nagy, Premier ministre d’un courant réformateur, il hésite à prendre parti entre les réformateurs et les staliniens. Pendant l’insurrection de Budapest du , Kádár sera d’abord favorable aux insurgés puis formera un contre-gouvernement qui soutiendra l’intervention soviétique. Il passe en Union soviétique puis y forme un \"gouvernement ouvrier-paysan\" qui fait appel, officiellement à l'aide de l'Armée rouge pour y rétablir le pouvoir socialiste. Le slogan qu'il utilise est \"Qui n'est pas contre nous est avec nous\". L'ambassadeur soviétique à Budapest, Iouri Andropov téléguide l'opération. La répression fera environ morts. Imre Nagy et son ministre de la Défense, Pál Maléter seront sommairement exécutés. Il est nommé chef du gouvernement après l’écrasement du mouvement national (1956-1958, 1961-1965).\n\nUn dirigeant réformateur \n\nIl dirige de 1956 à 1988 le parti, reconstitué sous le nom de Parti socialiste ouvrier hongrois (premier secrétaire et membre du praesidium de 1956 à 1985, secrétaire général depuis 1985). S'il ne remet pas en cause la dictature du parti unique et le suivi de la politique étrangère soviétique (il participe à l'occupation de la Tchécoslovaquie en 1968), il s'emploie, tirant profit de la résignation des Hongrois après la dure répression de l'insurrection de 1956, à libéraliser le régime dans la limite du régime socialiste : ainsi, il atténue la répression anti-religieuse, diminue la censure et tolère une dissidence politique ; les passeports sont délivrés avec beaucoup de liberté et l’homosexualité dépénalisée en 1961. Des anciens dissidents reviennent en Hongrie et reçoivent des responsabilités importantes : le gouverneur de la banque centrale, nommé à la fin des années 1970, avait passé 15 ans en Australie. Kadar achève néanmoins l'expulsion des juifs communistes de la vie publique, commencée avec la chute de Mátyás Rákosi. En 1968, il introduit certains mécanismes du marché dans l'économie et au début des années 1980, il laisse se développer des activités économiques privées. En 1986, le Primat de Hongrie, le Cardinal Lekai, est même sollicité pour devenir député, poste qu'il refusera à la suite d'un veto formel de Jean-Paul II. La Hongrie était alors surnommée « la baraque la plus gaie du camp socialiste ».\n\nCet allègement de la collectivisation a pour conséquence une augmentation du niveau de vie, au prix néanmoins d'un fort endettement public et d'une balance commerciale déficitaire.\n\nMalade, sombrant progressivement dans la sénilité, il est écarté du secrétariat général du Parti socialiste ouvrier hongrois (PSOH) en et son successeur Károly Grósz ne peut se maintenir longtemps au pouvoir, tant Kádár est allé loin dans les concessions. Le Parti renonce de lui-même à son rôle dirigeant au début de l'année 1989, ce qui ouvre la voie à l'effondrement du régime. Dès le mois de , la frontière avec l'Autriche est ouverte, ce qui provoque la ruée de réfugiés est-allemands et la chute du mur de Berlin, le .\n\nIl est mort le , le jour même où la Cour suprême de Hongrie réhabilitait solennellement Imre Nagy et ses compagnons, que Kádár avait fait exécuter en 1958, en déclarant nulle et non avenue leur condamnation, c’est-à-dire en détruisant la thèse politique sur laquelle le régime de Kádár avait tiré sa légitimité.\n\nSelon un sondage publié fin 2006, 65 % des Hongrois jugent que Kádár a joué un rôle positif dans l'histoire du pays.\n\nLa tombe de Kádár dans le cimetière Kerepesi à Budapest a été profanée le . Près de la tombe se trouvait une inscription disant qu'. La plupart des ossements de Kádár, dont son crâne, ont été volés. L'urne contenant les cendres de sa femme a également disparu.\n\nNotes et références\n\nVoir aussi\n\nBibliographie \n Johanna Granville , vol. 112, , (2007): 1280.\n Johanna Granville, (Le Premier Domino), , 2004. .\n Johanna Granville, « » (« Documents d'archives soviétiques sur la Hongrie »), , (), , 1995, , 29-34.\n\nLiens externes \n \n\nCatégorie:Premier ministre de Hongrie\nCatégorie:Communiste hongrois\nCatégorie:Pseudonyme\nCatégorie:Naissance à Rijeka\nCatégorie:Naissance en mai 1912\nCatégorie:Décès en juillet 1989\nCatégorie:Décès à 77 ans\nCatégorie:Décès à Budapest\nCatégorie:Dirigeant d'un État communiste\nCatégorie:Lauréat du prix Lénine pour la paix", "Corinne Lepage, née le à Boulogne-Billancourt, est une avocate et une femme politique française engagée dans la protection de l'environnement.\n\nBiographie \nCorinne Lepage est issue d’une famille juive bourgeoise ; son père est nez chez Rochas. Elle étudie au collège et au lycée Molière de Paris, du CM2 à la terminale.\n\nEn 1971, elle sort diplômée de l'Institut d'études politiques de Paris. Corinne Lepage obtient ensuite un diplôme d'études supérieures (DES) de droit public, un DES de sciences politiques et le certificat d'aptitude à la profession d'avocat en 1974. Elle prête serment pour devenir avocate le .\n\nAvocate associée au Cabinet Huglo-Lepage \n\nJeune avocate, Corinne Lepage rejoint en 1978 le cabinet d’avocats qu'a fondé Christian Huglo en 1969, premier cabinet d’avocats spécialisé dans le droit de l'environnement (cabinet Huglo-Lepage). Elle est élue en 1987 au Conseil de l'Ordre des avocats de Paris.\n\nSon nom apparaît dans les médias dès 1978, lors du naufrage de l'Amoco Cadiz. Ce pétrolier battant pavillon américain provoque une marée noire au large des côtes bretonnes. Le cabinet Huglo-Lepage s'engage alors aux côtés des collectivités locales du Finistère et des Côtes-du-Nord, et s'oppose à la société pétrolière américaine Amoco. À l'issue d'un procès qui dure une quinzaine d'années, le cabinet Huglo-Lepage et les collectivités bretonnes obtiennent gain de cause et créent ainsi une première mondiale qui protège davantage les collectivités victimes de pollution grave. Une controverse naîtra sur les honoraires après que le cabinet Huglo-Lepage a saisi la justice pour dégager sa responsabilité et faire les comptes en raison du refus du Président du syndicat de communes, un élu UDF, de rapatrier les sommes gagnées aux États-Unis par la comptabilité publique. Au terme d'une procédure longue et fastidieuse, ce dossier s’est terminé par un arrêt de la Cour européenne des droits de l'homme en sa faveur. À la même période, elle défend les collectivités locales et associations qui s’opposent à l’installation des centrales nucléaires en particulier les collectivités locales allemandes et luxembourgeoises à Cattenom et suisses à Creys-Malville.\n\nLe cabinet travaille ensuite sur de nombreux dossiers concernant l'environnement, aux côtés d'associations comme Ecoropa, ou de collectivités locales. Depuis 2006, Corinne Lepage est avocate des collectivités locales et associations qui se sont constituées parties civiles dans le procès de la marée noire causée par le pétrolier Erika en 1999 et qui met en cause, entre autres, la compagnie pétrolière Total. Le 25 septembre 2012, la chambre criminelle de la Cour de cassation, dans sa formation plénière, a rendu, sur avis non conforme de l’avocat général, une décision approuvant la cour d’appel de Paris d’avoir retenu sa compétence pour statuer tant sur l’action publique que sur l’action civile dans l’affaire de la catastrophe écologique dite du pétrolier l’Erika. L’affréteur Total, qui avait commis une telle faute et qui avait, à tort, bénéficié d’une immunité de responsabilité, a, en conséquence, sur les pourvois de plusieurs parties civiles, vu sa responsabilité retenue par la chambre criminelle qui l’a condamné à réparer les conséquences du dommage solidairement avec ses coprévenus d’ores et déjà condamnés par la cour d’appel.\n\nEn 2010, elle défend l'association « Mouvement pour les droits et le respect des générations futures » (MDRGF), assignée pour dénigrement par la Fédération nationale des producteurs de raisins de table (FNPRT). Elle est également l'avocate de l'Association des victimes des inondations de La Faute-sur-Mer à la suite du passage de la tempête Xynthia, ainsi que de en appel.\n\nEn 2011, elle remporte le prix , organisé par l'IFLR (International Financial Law rewiew) dans la catégorie droit de l'environnement.\n\nEn 2015, elle obtient le prix du Livre politique du Barreau de Paris pour son livre Les mains propres, aux éditions Autrement.\n\nEngagements politiques \n\nDepuis sa participation au gouvernement d'Alain Juppé (1995-1997), Corinne Lepage est considérée comme une écologiste de droite, qualification dans laquelle elle ne veut pas se reconnaître, ne se disant ni de droite, ni . En 2011, Corinne Lepage a signé la lettre de 108 parlementaires français à Nicolas Sarkozy lui demandant de s'opposer, en cas de saisine du Conseil de sécurité, à la reconnaissance d'un État palestinien. La lettre est publiée dans un article du Journal du dimanche avec la liste des signataires.\n\nDébuts en politique (1981-1995) \n\nCandidate écologiste en 1981, elle est élue en 1989 sur une liste divers droite, maire adjointe chargée de l’environnement et de l’urbanisme à Cabourg. À la suite du vote d’une délégation de service public de l’eau ne respectant pas les règles de concurrence, elle entre en opposition durant l'hiver 1990. Elle saisira en 1992 le procureur de la République de Caen de ces faits. La bataille juridique durera jusqu’en 1995.\n\nElle est candidate en 1993 aux élections législatives sous la bannière Génération écologie qu’elle a cofondé en 1989 avec Brice Lalonde, Jean-Louis Borloo et Jean-Michel Belorgey. Elle arrive cependant loin derrière Nicole Ameline, candidate UDF et dauphine de Michel d'Ornano avec un score de 6,17 %.\n\nCorinne Lepage est réélue en 1995 sur la liste RPR de Jacques Porcq dont elle devient première adjointe au maire de Cabourg, et malgré tout, la politique de délégation de l'eau à Veolia se poursuivra.\n\nMinistre de l'Environnement (1995-1997) \n\nEn 1995, elle répond positivement à la proposition d'Alain Juppé de prendre en charge le ministère de l’Environnement. Elle n'est alors membre d'aucun parti. Selon le journal Libération, sa nomination est aussitôt vivement critiquée par certains membres de la droite normande.\n\nCorinne Lepage fait partie des douze femmes (nombre inhabituellement élevé à l'époque) — les « juppettes » — qui composent le premier gouvernement Juppé. Le 7 novembre 1995, lors du remaniement ministériel donnant lieu au second gouvernement Juppé, elle est la seule femme à rester ministre de plein exercice. Si elle n'a pas souffert de difficultés particulières en tant que femme au sein du gouvernement, elle déplore d'avoir eu à subir, à l'Assemblée nationale, des injures .\n\nEn tant que ministre de l'Environnement, Corinne Lepage se donne pour priorité de montrer que l'environnement peut « contribuer à la lutte contre le chômage ». En 1996, le Conseil des ministres adopte son projet concernant la pollution de l'air. Il rend obligatoire la surveillance de la qualité de l'air et renforce les mesures de limitation de la circulation en cas d'alerte. Ce projet aboutit à l’adoption par le Parlement de la loi LAURE du , également appelée « loi Lepage ». Cette loi instaure notamment des limitations de vitesse dans les métropoles françaises en cas de pic de pollution à l'ozone. La même année, Corinne Lepage obtient la création du Comité de la prévention et de la précaution. Dès son arrivée en 1995, elle met un terme à la participation de la puissance publique au Comité permanent amiante.\n\nLe redémarrage très contesté du réacteur Superphénix, qui connaît de nombreuses difficultés techniques, est l'occasion d'un vigoureux bras de fer entre Corinne Lepage et le ministre de l'Industrie Franck Borotra : en raison d'irrégularités juridiques, Corinne Lepage refuse de signer le décret d'autorisation de redémarrage du réacteur et menace implicitement Alain Juppé de démissionner. Le syndicaliste Christian Moesl (CGC) , lors de son audition par la commission d'enquête parlementaire sur Superphénix et la filière des réacteurs à neutrons rapides.\n\nFemme de consensus, Corinne Lepage est l'objet de critiques pour le silence qu'elle est parfois obligée de s'imposer, sous la présidence de Jacques Chirac, face à de grands thèmes écologiques : reprise des essais nucléaires, redémarrage du réacteur nucléaire Superphénix en septembre 1995 (dont elle obtient le non redémarrage en 1997 après l'annulation du Conseil d'État), réduction du budget de l'Environnement, difficultés de mise en place de la directive européenne Natura 2000…\n\nCorinne Lepage tire de son expérience au ministère le livre On ne peut rien faire, Madame le ministre, dans lequel elle s'en prend aux lobbies industriels (automobile, nucléaire…), aux chasseurs et aux technocrates de la haute administration. (1997-2007)\n\n Elle affirme ainsi avoir toujours voulu mener « une politique centriste ». En 1996, elle crée le club de réflexion politique Cap21 (Citoyenneté, action, participation pour le ), qui\n\nUne vision indifférente aux clivages traditionnels \n\nÀ la suite de la dissolution de 1997, Corinne Lepage se présente aux élections législatives de mai 1997, dans la de Paris, sous l'étiquette Divers droite. Elle perd au second tour face à Patrick Bloche avec près de d'écart entre les deux candidats (54,50 % contre 45,50 %). La défaite de la droite met fin à l’expérience ministérielle de Corinne Lepage. Elle mène une liste indépendante lors des Régionales de 1998 en Basse-Normandie avec Olivier Stirn, face au président de droite sortant René Garrec (Démocratie libérale), mais elle n'obtient aucun siège.\n\nthumb|Corinne Lepage, Sakae Menda et Robert Badinter lors d'une manifestation contre la peine de mort, en février 2007.\n\nElle continue néanmoins son combat pour une écologie « soutenable », c'est-à-dire compatible avec les contraintes économiques. En 2000, elle transforme son club de réflexion Cap21 en mouvement politique. Le , elle devient chevalier de l'ordre national de la Légion d'honneur. Elle déclare « travailler à la constitution d'un grand pôle au centre de l'échiquier politique, où puissent se retrouver des gens de droite et de gauche autour de l'écologie, de l'humanisme et de la citoyenneté ».\n\nEn 2002, elle se lance dans la course à l’Élysée. Accusée d'être en lien direct avec Jacques Chirac, elle rétorque : Elle choisit, au cours de sa campagne, de s'opposer directement aux Verts, le parti écologiste de la Gauche plurielle, à qui elle reproche d'avoir « instrumentalisé l'environnement ». Elle critique vivement Noël Mamère, qui l'accuse pour sa part de , et elle réclame, sans l'obtenir, l'organisation d'un débat public entre eux deux. Elle affirme qu'elle n'appellerait . Elle recueille 1,88 % des voix au premier tour.\n\nAux élections régionales de 2004, elle est tête de liste du département de Paris sur la liste d'André Santini (UDF). Sa liste obtient 16,5 % des suffrages, et arrive ainsi en troisième position, derrière celles de Jean-Paul Huchon (PS, 37,25 %) et de Jean-François Copé (26,6 %). Elle refuse de participer à la fusion de second tour avec la liste UMP. La liste indépendante qu'elle conduit ensuite aux élections européennes de juin sur la circonscription Île-de-France recueille 3,61 % des voix.\n\nElle précise en novembre 2006 sa position politique en déclarant sur France 3 : \n\nSi elle se positionne de la sorte sur l'échiquier politique, elle affiche néanmoins une volonté de « transcender les clivages politiques » et de dépasser l'opposition traditionnelle droite/gauche afin de « rassembler au-delà des couleurs politiques, sur l'écologie ».\n\nLe , elle confirme être l'auteur, avec André Bercoff, de deux pamphlets politiques, J'arrive et On efface tout et on recommence, publiés en 2005 et 2006 sous le nom de plume de Catherine Médicis, stratagème nécessaire, selon elle, pour être entendue en tant que petit candidat.\n\nUne collaboration avec François Bayrou (2007-2010) \nthumb|upright|Corinne Lepage en 2008.\nLe 10 mars 2007, elle décide de ne pas se présenter à l'élection présidentielle de 2007. Elle l'explique dans un entretien accordé au Journal du dimanche du 11 mars : « J'ai décidé de rejoindre François Bayrou malgré ma capacité à obtenir mes ». Elle apporte ainsi son soutien au candidat centriste qui « incarne aujourd'hui un véritable changement dans le pays, qui peut permettre à l'écologie politique d'occuper la place qui lui revient ». Cap21 est alors l'un des membres fondateurs du nouveau parti politique de François Bayrou, le MoDem.\n\nEn mai 2007, après la défaite de François Bayrou au premier tour de l'élection présidentielle, et la victoire de Nicolas Sarkozy face à Ségolène Royal, Corinne Lepage refuse de participer au gouvernement Fillon par « fidélité à ses convictions ». Elle signe, le , avec seize autres personnalités politiques de tous bords, l'« Appel du 14 février » pour une vigilance républicaine lancé par l'hebdomadaire Marianne. À la suite du discours de Nicolas Sarkozy, le au Palais de Saint-Jean de Latran, sur la place de la religion dans la vie publique, ainsi qu'à ses déclarations sur la scientologie, elle considère que le pouvoir développe « une philosophie générale » qui mène à une « déconstruction de la laïcité à la française » (Canal+, ).\n\nElle est candidate MoDem aux élections municipales de mars 2008 dans le de Paris, face à Jean-Marie Cavada (ex-MoDem, passé à l'UMP) et Michèle Blumenthal (PS). Sa candidature est soutenue par Jean-Luc Romero, qui déclare faire alors « un choix d'ami » et « un choix de militant ». Avec 9,95 % des voix au premier tour de l'élection, elle arrive en troisième position derrière le PS (46,07 %) et l'UMP (24,3 %) (le MoDem réalise une moyenne de 9 % sur l'ensemble de la ville).\n\nCorinne Lepage devient vice-présidente du MoDem le 15 juin 2008. Quelques mois plus tard, le , François Bayrou la présente comme tête de liste du MoDem dans la circonscription Nord-Ouest (Basse-Normandie ; Haute-Normandie ; Nord-Pas-de-Calais ; Picardie) à l'occasion des élections européennes de juin 2009. Elle est élue eurodéputée avec 8,67 % des voix, derrière les listes de Dominique Riquet (Majorité présidentielle, 24,2 %), Gilles Pargneaux (PS, 18,1 %), Hélène Flautre (Europe Écologie, 12,1 %) et Marine Le Pen (FN, 10,2 %)\n\nÀ l'automne 2009, Corinne Lepage démissionne de la présidence des commissions thématiques du Mouvement démocrate, mais reste vice-présidente du parti. De vives tensions apparaissent entre Cap21 et le MoDem lorsque le parti de Corinne Lepage choisit, dans plusieurs régions, de s'allier pour les élections régionales de mars 2010 avec Europe Écologie, et non avec le MoDem : Haute-Normandie, Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, Languedoc-Roussillon, Lorraine, Alsace, Pays de la Loire.\n\nAprès avoir critiqué la stratégie de François Bayrou et du MoDem, qu'elle estime « refermé sur lui-même », elle annonce avoir décidé de quitter le MoDem le 17 mars 2010. Au second tour des élections régionales, elle appelle à voter à gauche, sauf en Aquitaine où Jean Lassalle (MoDem) se maintient. Lors de son congrès du , Cap21 se présente comme un « parti autonome » et ses adhérents votent « à une très large majorité » le départ du Mouvement démocrate.\n\nDéputée européenne (2009-2014) \n\nthumb|Logotype utilisé dans le cadre de sa campagne.\nLe , elle est l'une des six députés élus du MoDem (tête de liste pour le Nord-Ouest) lors des élections européennes, seule élue dans la circonscription Nord-Ouest. En juin et juillet 2009, à la suite du mauvais score du MoDem aux élections européennes (qui n'obtient que 8,46 % des suffrages exprimés), elle remet en cause la stratégie du parti, trop orienté sur la personnalité et les choix de François Bayrou. Elle appelle alors de ses vœux une alliance, au Parlement européen, entre le MoDem et Europe Écologie.\n\nEurodéputée MoDem, puis CAP 21 après le 17 mars 2010, elle siège au sein du groupe ADLE dont fait partie le MoDem. Elle devient, le 17 juillet 2009, la première vice-présidente de la commission Envi (Environnement, santé publique et sécurité alimentaire), et membre suppléant de la commission ITRE (Industrie, recherche et énergie), au Parlement européen.\n\nAu sein du groupe ADLE, elle est très active sur les directives IPPC, RoHS, WEEE, nouveaux aliments, informations des consommateurs et sur les thématiques du changement climatique, du mix énergétique, de l'expertise non dépendante, du lien entre santé et environnement, la neutralité du net, la régulation Internet, les libertés individuelles et fondamentales. Elle défend par ailleurs le traité de Lisbonne, en mettant en valeur en particulier le pouvoir politique des européens à travers les pétitions inter-européennes.\n\nDu 14 décembre au 19 décembre 2009, elle est la seule députée européenne française de la délégation du Parlement européen au sommet de Copenhague.\n\nLe 15 octobre 2009, elle annonce la création du club politique « Terre démocrate, l’imagination au pouvoir », dont la feuille de route tient en trois mots : « débat, échange et construction ».\n\nAu Parlement européen, en janvier 2010, elle crée l'intergroupe « Mers et zones côtières » pour traiter des dossiers comme la biodiversité marine, la création d’un corps européen de garde-côtes, le développement des énergies marines, la protection du littoral, le traitement des déchets marins, le transport maritime et le changement climatique. Cet intergroupe qu'elle préside rassemble une quarantaine de députés issus de la quasi-totalité des groupes politiques du Parlement.\n\nLe , elle annonce sa candidature à l'élection présidentielle française sur le plateau de TF1. En février 2012, onze personnalités (Jean-Marie Pelt, Yann Arthus-Bertrand, Jean-François Viel, Dominique Belpomme, Gilles-Éric Séralini, Philippe Desbrosses, Jean-Paul Jaud, Serge Orru, Isabelle Autissier, Christian Vélot et Joël Spiroux) lancent « un appel démocratique à parrainer Corinne Lepage », pour qu'elle obtienne les qui lui permettent de concourir. Elle déclare avoir obtenu entre 470 et 520 parrainages. Or, elle ne fait pas partie de la liste des candidats dévoilée par le président du Conseil constitutionnel le . Le , le Conseil constitutionnel publie une décision dans laquelle il rejette son recours, et indique qu'il n'a reçu que 476 (c'est-à-dire 476 parrainages dont la validité n'a pas été examinée) en faveur de sa candidature. Corinne Lepage, qui reconnaît avoir écrit au Conseil constitutionnel, affirme en revanche « ne pas avoir fait » de recours ou de réclamation auprès de lui.\n\nLe , elle annonce qu'elle crée avec Michel Suchod un nouveau mouvement : le Rassemblement démocrate écologiste et républicain. Elle appelle à voter pour François Hollande dès le premier tour.\n\nAprès un entretien avec François Hollande le , au cours duquel elle demande des garanties sur les forages pétroliers au large de la Guyane comme le financement d'éventuels dommages écologiques, elle réitère son souhait de voir se constituer un rassemblement de tous ceux qui avaient appelé à voter pour lui.\n\nCorinne Lepage n'est pas réélue lors de l'élection européenne du 25 mai 2014.\n\nFondatrice et présidente de l'association Essaim et du parti Le Rassemblement citoyen - Cap21 \nÀ la suite du sommet de Copenhague (2009), Corinne Lepage déclare que . Selon elle, la mobilisation des ONG et de la société civile est nécessaire pour changer notre mode de développement. Elle affirme que le citoyen doit choisir entre la centralisation du pouvoir et sa distribution.\n\nElle lance le Rassemblement citoyen, une coopérative politique qui propose de faire travailler les politiques et la société civile. Elle affirme vouloir donner au citoyen les instruments pour reprendre son destin en main en s'investissant en politique ou en lui donnant des solutions testées sur le terrain grâce au do tank Essaim, créé en 2012. Elle déclare souhaiter qu'élus, universitaires, entrepreneurs, associatifs coopèrent et préparent ensemble une transition économique, écologique, énergétique et agricole. Mais elle affirme vouloir également permettre à la société civile de faire entendre ses idées, ses solutions, son savoir-faire et d'être un contre-pouvoir au sein de cette coopérative pour veiller à ce que les élus fassent ce qu'ils disent. L'association Cap 21 créée par Corinne Lepage en 1996 devenue parti politique fusionne avec Le Rassemblement Citoyen le 13 décembre 2014. Corinne Lepage devient ainsi la présidente du parti LRC - Cap 21.\n\nEn , Corinne Lepage annonce soutenir Emmanuel Macron dans la perspective de l'élection présidentielle, estimant que l'ancien ministre représente « la meilleure solution pour la France aujourd'hui ». Alors qu'Emmanuel Macron a jusqu'alors proposé un discours favorable au diesel et au nucléaire, à rebours de ses positions historiques, Corinne Lepage affirme entendre faire évoluer le candidat sur les questions environnementales, jugeant qu'on « ne peut pas être le candidat de la modernité et ne pas faire de la transition écologique un axe majeur de sa campagne ». Elle devient membre du comité politique de son parti La République en marche et participe à l'élaboration de son programme en matière d'écologie. Deux ans après, elle l'accuse d'être revenu de ne pas être\n\nEngagement et missions en faveur de l'environnement \nCorinne Lepage exerce une intense activité de défense des intérêts écologiques tant au barreau de Paris qu’à celui de Bruxelles, et s'implique dans de nombreuses associations. Elle est ainsi cofondatrice de l'Observatoire de vigilance et d’alerte écologique avec Michèle Rivasi. Elle dirige en outre le Comité de recherche et d'information indépendantes sur le génie génétique (CRIIGEN), comité scientifique sur les risques environnementaux et sanitaires liés à la diffusion des OGM.thumb|left|Conférence de Corinne Lepage à l'IEP de Toulouse en février 2007.\nLa mobilisation des ONG et de la société civile est pour elle nécessaire pour changer notre mode de développement. À la suite du sommet de Copenhague, elle réaffirme en 2009 : « La société civile ne peut désormais plus compter que sur elle-même pour assurer son avenir. »\n\nEn février 2008, elle rend au ministre de l'Environnement, Jean-Louis Borloo, un rapport sur la « gouvernance écologique ».\n\nLe Parlement européen a approuvé, à une large majorité, en août 2011, son rapport relatif à la « possibilité pour les États membres de restreindre ou d'interdire la culture d'OGM sur leur territoire, dans le cadre du projet de directive de la Commission ».\n\nCorinne Lepage a enseigné par ailleurs à l'université Paris , Paris , ainsi qu'à l'université de Versailles-Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines et à l'Institut d'études politiques de Paris, dans le cadre de la chaire de développement durable.\n\nCorinne Lepage soutient une plainte déposée le 9 février 2016 auprès de l'État français et de l'Union européenne pour non-respect de la réglementation en matière d'accès à l'information sur les OGM, par le collectif citoyen « Consommateurs pas cobayes ». Invoquant notamment la Convention d'Aarhus, le collectif réclame l'étiquetage obligatoire de tous les produits alimentaires issus d'animaux nourris avec des OGM.\n\nLe 20 janvier 2015, la ministre de l'Écologie Ségolène Royal a chargé Corinne Lepage d'une mission sur la « transition économique » afin de soutenir les acteurs de « l'économie verte ». Corinne Lepage a donc créé un groupe de travail en vue de « répertorier les entreprises innovantes afin de permettre la création d'un réseau », « déterminer les blocages auxquels ces secteurs sont confrontés », et enfin « déterminer l'utilité et les conditions d'une mise en synergie globale » de ces acteurs.\n\nCorinne Lepage a remis, en septembre 2015, à François Hollande, un rapport pour la création d'une Déclaration universelle des droits de l'humanité en vue d'une éventuelle adoption par l'Assemblée générale des Nations-Unies. Elle s'en était vue confier l'élaboration par le président de la République en juin 2015.\n\nLutte pour les libertés\n\nCombat contre le fichier Edvige \n\nEn 2008, Corinne Lepage s'engage dans une campagne contre le décret instaurant le fichier de police Edvige. CAP 21 dépose le 7 octobre 2008 un recours devant le Conseil d'État pour obtenir l'annulation de ce décret, qui devait permettre aux forces de police de recenser et collecter des informations d'ordre privé (orientation sexuelle, état de santé, données fiscales et patrimoniales…) relatives à toute personne âgée de ou plus jugée « susceptible de porter atteinte à l'ordre public ». Ce recours est rejeté le 29 octobre 2008 par le Conseil d'État.\n\nRefus de la loi Hadopi \n\nCorinne Lepage s'est opposée, dans la presse française et par le biais du Parlement européen, à la loi Hadopi, destinée à protéger les œuvres artistiques et culturelles du téléchargement illégal.\n\nOuvrages \n\n Code annoté de procédures administratives contentieuses, 1990\n Les Audits d'environnement, 1992\n On ne peut rien faire, madame le Ministre, Éditions Albin Michel 1998\n Bien gérer l'environnement, une chance pour l'entreprise, 1999\n La Politique de précaution, en coll. avec François Guéry, 2000\n Oser l'espérance, 2001\n De l'Écologie hors de l'imposture et de l'opportunisme, collection Temps critique, 2003 \n Santé & Environnement : l'ABCdaire, février 2005\n J'arrive, sous le pseudonyme de Catherine Médicis, 2005\n Ecoresp 2006, 2006\n L'Entreprise responsable. Sociale, éthique, “verte”… et bénéficiaire ?, de Cécile Jolly, préface de Corinne Lepage, Éd. du Félin, 2006 .\n Et si c’était elle, roman de politique fiction. Éditions Michalon, 2006 .\n Constitution pour une nouvelle République, 2006 .\n On efface tout et on recommence sous le pseudonyme de Catherine Médicis, 2006 \n Français, encore un effort pour passer d'une monarchie bananière à une République durable, sous le pseudonyme de Catherine Médicis, 2007\n Vivre autrement, Grasset, 2009 \n Entre colère et espoirs, livre broché et e-book, 2009 \n Sans le nucléaire on s'éclairerait à la bougie : Et autres tartes à la crème du discours techno-scientifique, en collaboration avec Jean-François Bouvet, Seuil, 2010\n La vérité sur le nucléaire, Éditions Albin Michel, 2011 \n À vos droits citoyens !, Ilv Bibliotheca, 2011\n Déficit public: Le patrimoine des Français en péril, Archipel 2011\n La vérité sur les OGM, c'est notre affaire !, Éditions Charles Léopold Mayer, 2012 \n L'État nucléaire, Albin Michel, 2014\n Les Mains propres : plaidoyer pour la société civile au pouvoir, Autrement, janvier 2015\n Atlas mondial du nucléaire, Autrement, 2015\n À bout de confiance. De la morale en politique, Autrement, 2017\n\nNotes et références\n\nNotes\n\nRéférences\n\nVoir aussi\n\nBibliographie \n Parcours d'avocat(e)s, entretien avec Corinne Lepage, par Christophe Perrin et Laurence Gaune, Éditeur Le Cavalier bleu, 2010\n\nArticles connexes \n Liste de femmes ministres françaises | Juppette\n Liste des députés européens de France 2009-2014\n\nLiens externes \n \n Site de Corinne Lepage\n Blog de Corinne Lepage\n \n\nCatégorie:Ministre de la Cinquième République\nCatégorie:Personnalité politique liée au Calvados\nCatégorie:Député européen membre du Mouvement démocrate\nCatégorie:Personnalité de La République en marche\nCatégorie:Avocat français du XXe siècle\nCatégorie:Personnalité politique écologiste\nCatégorie:Ministre français de l'Environnement\nCatégorie:Candidat à une élection présidentielle en France\nCatégorie:Femme politique française\nCatégorie:Député européen élu en France 2009-2014\nCatégorie:Député européen du groupe Alliance des démocrates et des libéraux pour l'Europe 2009-2014\nCatégorie:Personnalité connue sous un pseudonyme\nCatégorie:Professeur à l'université Paris-Est Créteil Val-de-Marne\nCatégorie:Enseignant à l'Institut d'études politiques de Paris\nCatégorie:Naissance en mai 1951\nCatégorie:Naissance à Boulogne-Billancourt\nCatégorie:Élève du lycée Molière (Paris)\nCatégorie:Docteur en droit de l'université Panthéon-Assas", "Jean-Michel Eymeri-Douzans, né en 1969 à Toulouse (Haute-Garonne), est un politiste français.\n\nIl est professeur de science politique à l'Institut d'études politiques de Toulouse et chercheur au Laboratoire des sciences sociales du politique (LaSSP).\n\nIl est Président du Groupe européen pour l'administration publique/European Group for Public Administration (GEAP/EGPA), Bruxelles.\n\nBiographie \nAprès une petite enfance toulousaine, Jean-Michel Eymeri-Douzans passe sa jeunesse entre l’Afrique des Grands Lacs, l’Amérique du Sud et la Caraïbe avant de rentrer en France pour ses études supérieures. \n\n, il est diplômé de Sciences Po Paris en 1990, section service public. En 1992, il est major de la maîtrise de science politique à l'Université Paris-1 Panthéon-Sorbonne puis l'année suivante, du diplôme d'études approfondies « Institutions et action publiques ». En 1999, il soutient sa thèse sous la direction de Jacques Lagroye et devient docteur. Après son service national, il est ATER et fait de la participation observante comme chargé d'études au Ministère de la fonction publique et au Ministère de la Santé. Détaché à l'Institut européen d'administration publique de Maastricht comme représentant officiel français de 1999 à 2001, il en revient quand il est recruté comme maître de conférences à l'Université Paris-1 Panthéon-Sorbonne. Il est major du concours de l'agrégation externe de science politique, qui lui confère le titre de professeur des universités titulaire en juin 2003 et il choisit de rejoindre à la rentrée 2003 l'Institut d'études politiques de Toulouse. \n\nIl est spécialiste de l'État et des institutions politico-administratives de gouvernement dans une perspective comparée en Europe.\n\t\n, chargée des recrutements d'enseignants-chercheurs. Il crée aussi le Master « Conseil et Expertise en Action publique » (CEAP), qu'il dirige depuis lors. . Il est reconduit dans cette fonction en 2015. En , il se présente au poste de directeur de l'IEP de Toulouse, laissé vacant par la démission de Philippe Raimbault. Au conseil d'administration du , iI obtient 10 voix, contre 19 à l'économiste Olivier Brossard, et un vote nul.\n\nEn parallèle, Jean-Michel Eymeri-Douzans préside le Conseil scientifique de la direction générale de l'administration et de la fonction publique (DGAFP), au Ministère de la Fonction publique à Paris. Il préside aussi le groupe de travail de l'Association française de science politique (AFSP) « Science politique comparée des administrations » (SPCA), éponyme de l'ouvrage qu'il codirige avec Françoise Dreyfus en 2006, et, depuis 2012, le Groupe d'études permanent n°XVII « » de l' (EGPA), au sein de l'Institut international des sciences administratives (IISA) à Bruxelles. En , au congrès d'Utrecht, il est élu par l'assemblée générale de l'EGPA à son Comité directeur. En septembre 2020, au congrès de Belfast, il est élu Président de l''EGPA/GEAP, pour un mandat de trois ans.\n\nFamille \nJean-Michel Eymeri-Douzans est le petit-fils du député de Haute-Garonne, maire de Muret et haut fonctionnaire Jacques Douzans.\n\nOuvrages et publications \nJean-Michel Eymeri-Douzans est l'auteur de plus de cinquante articles publiés dans des revues scientifiques et chapitres d'ouvrages collectifs à comité de lecture.\nIl est l'auteur, seul ou en co-écriture, de dix ouvrages : \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Avec Xavier Bioy et Stéphane Mouton (dir.), Le Règne des entourages. Cabinets et conseillers de l'Exécutif, Paris, Presses de Sciences Po, .\n Avec Gildas Tanguy (dir.), Prefects, Governors & Commissioners. A European Survey on the territorial representatives of the State, Bruxelles, Bruylant, à paraître 2020.\n\nDécorations \n (2019)\n (2016)\n\nNotes et références\n\nLiens externes \n \n \n\nCatégorie:Politologue français\nCatégorie:Agrégé de science politique\nCatégorie:Élève du lycée Pierre-de-Fermat\nCatégorie:Docteur en science politique de l'université Paris I Panthéon-Sorbonne\nCatégorie:Élève de l'Institut d'études politiques de Paris\nCatégorie:Professeur à l'université Paris I Panthéon-Sorbonne\nCatégorie:Enseignant à l'Institut d'études politiques de Toulouse\nCatégorie:Professeur à l'université Toulouse-I-Capitole\nCatégorie:Naissance en 1969\nCatégorie:Naissance à Toulouse", "François Claudius Koënigstein dit Ravachol, le « Rocambole de l'anarchisme », est un ouvrier et militant anarchiste français, né le à Saint-Chamond. S'étant rendu coupable de plusieurs délits, assassinats et attentats, il est guillotiné le à Montbrison.\n\nBiographie \nFrançois Claudius Koënigstein est né le à Saint-Chamond, dans le département de la Loire. Marie Ravachol, sa mère, exerce la profession de moulinière en soie. Elle vit alors en concubinage avec son père, Jean-Adam Koënigstein, dit « L'Allemand », originaire des Pays-Bas, arrivé dans le Forez un an plus tôt, en 1858. Il est employé comme lamineur aux forges d'Izieux.\n\nFrançois est confié à une nourrice jusqu'en 1862, date à laquelle Jean-Adam Koënigstein reconnaît la paternité de l'enfant et épouse Marie Ravachol. Il est par la suite placé dans un hospice qui le prend en charge jusqu'à l'âge de six ou sept ans. Son père se montre violent avec sa femme et interroge régulièrement Ravachol pour trouver des prétextes à son encontre. Sans résultat, d'après Ravachol dans ses Mémoires. Son père abandonne bientôt le foyer conjugal pour retourner aux Pays-Bas où il décède de maladie l'année suivante.\n\nNe pouvant subvenir seule aux besoins de quatre enfants, Marie Ravachol doit mendier de l'aide et placer son fils dans une ferme. Dès ses huit ans, il travaille dur pour subvenir aux besoins de sa famille. Il est tour à tour berger, mineur, cordier, chaudronnier, avant de trouver à 16 ans une place à Saint-Chamond comme apprenti teinturier chez Richard et Puteau.\n\nthumb|« Le crime de Chambles. L'assassinat d'un ermite », Le Progrès illustré (1891).\n\nÀ 18 ans, Ravachol entame la lecture du livre Le Juif errant d'Eugène Sue et commence à se détacher des idées religieuses. Après une conférence donnée par Paule Minck le à Saint-Chamond, il les abandonne totalement. Il assiste aux conférences de Léonie Rouzade et de Charles-Edme Chabert, s'intéresse à la presse socialiste notamment à travers Le Prolétariat et Le Citoyen de Paris. Il entre dans un Cercle d'études sociales où il rencontre Toussaint Bordat et Régis Faure, tous deux militants anarchistes. Ravachol est alors collectiviste, il deviendra anarchiste à la suite de ses lectures.\n\nRenvoyé avec son frère de la maison Vindrey, il se retrouve sans travail, dans la misère et commence par voler des poules pour nourrir sa famille. Vers 1888, il joue de l'accordéon dans les bals pour un cachet de cinq francs par soirée. Il s'adonne à la contrebande d'alcool pour faire face à ses périodes de chômage, puis à la fabrication de fausse monnaie et, à partir de , au cambriolage. En 1890, il est arrêté brièvement pour un vol et est à la prison de Saint-Étienne.\n\nDans la nuit du 14 au , à Terrenoire, il profane la sépulture de la baronne de la Rochetaillée dans le but de dépouiller le cadavre de ses bijoux. Mal renseigné, il ne trouve aucun bijou.\n\nLe , à Chambles, il tue et dévalise Jacques Brunel, un ermite de 93 ans, qui vivait d'aumônes depuis une cinquantaine d'années. Sans ressources mais non sans fortune, le vieillard amassait les dons tout en vivant dans une extrême pauvreté. Le crime est découvert le vers midi. La police identifie rapidement l'assassin et, le , tend une souricière à Ravachol. Arrêté par le commissaire Teychené et cinq inspecteurs, il parvient à s'enfuir en profitant de l'occasion offerte par un ivrogne.\n\nActivement recherché par la police, il met en scène son suicide le , puis se rend à Barcelone chez Paul Bernard, anarchiste condamné par contumace, en novembre et , à deux et trois ans de prison pour « excitation au meurtre, au pillage et à l'incendie ». À Barcelone, Ravachol s'exerce avec d'autres compagnons à la fabrication d'explosifs, avant de rejoindre Paris en août 1891 sous le nom de Léon Léger.\n\nIl trouve alors refuge chez Charles Chaumentin, 12, place du square Thiers à Saint-Denis, qui le fait entrer à la Chambre syndicale des hommes de peine. Puis Ravachol loue une chambre à L'Île-Saint-Denis, au 2, quai de la Marine. Il est apprécié par la famille Chaumentin. Il apprend à lire à leur fille qui l'appelle « cousin Léon ».\n\nL'affaire de Clichy \nthumb|left|Échauffourée de Clichy (1891).\n\nRavachol est l'instigateur de deux attentats contre les magistrats impliqués dans l'affaire de Clichy. Le , jour de la fusillade de Fourmies, une trentaine de manifestants improvisent un défilé allant de Levallois-Perret à Clichy, drapeau rouge en tête. Un peu avant trois heures, alors que le drapeau est roulé et que les manifestants se dispersent, le commissaire Labussière donne l'ordre de s'emparer de l'emblème. C'est l'incident, des coups de feu sont échangés et des agents de police légèrement blessés. Trois anarchistes sont aussitôt arrêtés, dont Louis Leveillé, lui-même blessé par balle. Dès leur arrivée au poste, ils subissent un violent passage à tabac, ce qui révolte les anarchistes. Lors de leur procès, le 28 août de la même année, l'avocat général Bulot requiert la peine de mort contre l'un des prévenus. Le verdict est sévère : Henri Louis Decamps est condamné à cinq ans de prison, Charles Auguste Dardare à trois ans, Louis Leveillé est acquitté.\n\nD'abord occultée par la fusillade de Fourmies, l’affaire est suivie avec plus d’intérêt par les journaux anarchistes. La Révolte met en valeur l'attitude exemplaire d'Henri Louis Decamps lors de son procès ainsi que les violences subies par ses compagnons. Sébastien Faure édite une brochure sur les débats judiciaires intitulée L'anarchiste en cour d'assises.\n\nRavachol rencontre Auguste Viard, et deux compagnons qui lui racontent le procès de Clichy. Révoltés par la brutalité policière et les condamnations par les magistrats de l'affaire de Clichy, Ravachol, Charles Achille Simon dit « biscuit », Charles Ferdinand Chaumentin dit « Chaumartin », Joseph Marius Beala dit « Jas-Béala » ou « Joseph Marius » et sa compagne Rosalie Mariette Soubert dite « Mariette Soubère », décident de passer à l'action et organisent plusieurs attentats.\n\nLe vol de Soisy-sous-Étiolles \nDans la nuit du 14 au , 360 cartouches de dynamite, 3 kilogrammes de poudre, de mèche et d'amorces, sont dérobés dans une carrière de Soisy-sous-Étiolles. L'enquête, confiée au parquet de Corbeil, se dirige rapidement vers les milieux anarchistes parisiens. La police les soupçonne de préparer des attentats contre l'ambassade d'Espagne et lors des manifestations du . Le , la police perquisitionne chez de nombreux militants anarchistes, dont Jean Grave, administrateur du journal Le Révolté, Constant Martin et Émile Pouget. Ces premières perquisitions donnent peu de résultats, sauf chez Benoit Chalbrey et Bordier, où elle découvre plusieurs cartouches de dynamite provenant du vol de Soisy-sous-Étiolles. Selon l'indicateur de police Jacot, c'est un agent de la troisième brigade nommé Laux, alors sous les ordres de l'officier de paix Fédée, qui aurait expliqué à un proche de Ravachol comment s'emparer de la dynamite On sait que pour nuire à la propagande anarchiste, la préfecture de police avait organisé le premier « attentat anarchiste » le contre la statue d'Adolphe Thiers à Saint-Germain et que les éléments de la bombe lancée par Auguste Vaillant le à la Chambre des députés lui avaient été fournis, sans qu'il le sache, par la préfecture.\n\nLes attentats\n\nAttentat du boulevard Saint-Germain \nLeur cible est d'abord le commissariat de Clichy qu'ils envisagent de faire exploser le à l'aide d'une marmite chargée de mitraille et d'une cinquantaine de cartouches de dynamite. Devant les difficultés d'approche, le groupe renonce et décide de changer d'objectif pour viser le conseiller Edmond Benoît, président des assises lors de l'Affaire de Clichy. Pour trouver l'adresse du conseiller, Ravachol consulte simplement l'annuaire téléphonique. Charles Simon part reconnaître les lieux, un immeuble situé au 136, boulevard Saint-Germain à Paris, sans parvenir à trouver l'étage où habite le conseiller. Le concierge, Augustin Pinot, interrogé par Charles Simon, refuse de le renseigner.\n\nLe , vers , le groupe passe à l'action. Charles Chaumentin les accompagne jusqu'au tramway avant d'être remercié et invité à les quitter car « père de famille ». Pour passer les préposés chargés de l'octroi, Mariette Soubère dissimule la marmite sous ses jupes. Le groupe passé, elle quitte ses trois compagnons et retourne chez elle. Au niveau des Bouffes du Nord, Ravachol congédie Charles Simon et Joseph Beala qui retournent à Saint-Denis. Arrivé devant l'immeuble, Ravachol, armé de deux pistolets, entre et dépose la bombe sur le palier du premier étage. Il allume la mèche, redescend et, au moment même où il gagne le trottoir, la bombe explose. « J'ai cru que la maison me tombait dessus ! », déclara Ravachol lors de son procès. Une personne est blessée. Au quatrième étage, le conseiller Benoît est indemne. Les dégâts matériels sont évalués à francs de l'époque. Pour le journal anarchiste La Révolte, cet attentat « réhabilite un peu la dynamite que les tentatives précédentes avaient un peu amoindrie ».\n\nLe , Ravachol et ses compagnons envisagent un nouvel attentat, cette fois contre l'avocat général Bulot. Ravachol et Charles Simon se chargent de préparer une nouvelle bombe, composée de 120 cartouches de dynamite.\n\nLe , une bombe explose à la caserne Lobau. Si cet attentat organisé par Théodule Meunier n'est pas lié à Ravachol, la police est sur les dents. Elle diffuse le signalement de Ravachol à la presse et insiste sur la cicatrice qu'il porte à la main gauche :\n\nDénoncés cinq jours après le premier attentat par une indicatrice anonyme, S. d’A. dite « X2 », rétribuée 800 francs, Charles Simon et Charles Chaumentin sont interpellés le 17 mars. Ravachol parvient à échapper à la police et à joindre Saint-Mandé où il dispose d'une chambre. Il coupe sa barbe et décide de maintenir l'attentat contre Bulot. Charles Chaumentin fait un portrait de Léon Léger qui permet de reconnaître, grâce à l'anthropométrie judiciaire, qu’il s’agit de Ravachol dont on a pris les mensurations et une photographie à la prison de Saint-Étienne deux ans auparavant.\n\nAttentat de la rue de Clichy \n\nLe , à , Ravachol prend l'omnibus pour se rendre rue de Clichy où il arrive vers huit heures. Il dépose la bombe au numéro 39 de cette rue, au deuxième étage où demeure le substitut Bulot. Il a parcouru cinquante mètres quand la bombe explose. Sept personnes sont blessées, l'immeuble est ravagé. Les dégâts sont évalués à francs.\n\nAprès l'attentat, Ravachol prend l'omnibus Batignolles-Jardin des plantes pour constater les dégâts causés par la bombe. Mais le transport en commun est détourné de son trajet habituel et Ravachol ne peut rien voir. Vers 11 heures, il s'arrête au restaurant Véry, situé au 24, boulevard de Magenta et fait la connaissance de Jules Lhérot, garçon de café et beau-frère du patron. Jules Lhérot émet quelques critiques à propos du service militaire et Ravachol en profite pour lui exposer les théories anarchistes et antimilitaristes. Il lui parle également de l'explosion qui vient d'avoir lieu. Intrigué par un homme qu'il trouve suspect, Jules Lhérot laisse néanmoins partir Ravachol.\n\nL'arrestation \n\nthumb|left|upright=0.8|L'arrestation de Ravachol le (Le Petit Journal, 16 avril 1892).\n\nLe , Ravachol retourne au restaurant Véry. Alarmé par les propos tenus quelques jours plus tôt et reconnaissant en lui l'auteur des attentats décrit par la presse, Jules Lhérot alerte la police. Ravachol est interpellé avec difficulté par le commissaire Dresch et une dizaine d'agents de police.\n\nLe , veille de son procès, une bombe dissimulée au restaurant Véry explose, tuant le patron et un client. « Véryfication », écrit Émile Pouget dans Le Père Peinard. Jules Lhérot, lui, est indemne. Il touche 100 francs offerts par le journal Le Temps et 300 francs sur le montant d'une souscription lancée par le journal Le Matin en faveur des victimes de l'attentat. Il quitte alors la France pour l'étranger afin d'échapper aux représailles anarchistes. À son retour, il sollicite une place dans la police, qui lui sera accordée.\n\nLes procès\n\nProcès devant la cour d'assises de La Seine \nL'instruction du procès ne traîne pas. Ravachol et ses compagnons comparaissent le devant la Cour d'assises de La Seine. Le tribunal est alors sévèrement gardé pour prévenir toute attaque organisée par des anarchistes. Pour entrer, il faut exhiber un laissez-passer. À onze heures, les inculpés sont présentés devant le tribunal. Le siège du ministère public est occupé par le procureur général Quesnay de Beaurepaire. Le banc de la défense par maître Lagasse. Les débats se déroulent dans le calme. Ravachol tente de disculper ses compagnons et d'assumer seul la responsabilité des attentats. Il explique ses actes par sa volonté de venger Dardare et Decamps condamnés à la suite des manifestations du et victimes de brutalités policières. Présenté comme quelqu'un de doux et estimé de tout le monde, à cause de sa physionomie sympathique et de ses sentiments humanitaires, par Charles Chaumentin et ses compagnons, Ravachol apparaît alors comme le justicier anarchiste, compatissant avec les opprimés, mais implacable avec ceux qu'il jugeait responsables de leur misère. Le verdict est inattendu. Charles Simon et Ravachol sont condamnés aux travaux forcés à perpétuité, les trois autres acquittés. Les membres du jury craignant des représailles ont accordé de « surprenantes circonstances atténuantes ».\n\nDénoncé par une habituée de la maison, Charles Chaumentin est jugé sévèrement par les anarchistes qui, à l'époque, ne connaissent pas l'existence de l'indicatrice « x.2 ». Dans le numéro 47 du journal Le Libertaire (3-), Sébastien Faure juge avec sévérité « le délateur, le traître, celui qui, dans cette affaire, récolta le mépris de tous les gens de cœur, parce qu'il acheta son acquittement au prix de l'acte le plus ignoble qu'un homme puisse commettre ». Lors des aveux de Charles Chaumentin, la police connaissait déjà toute l'histoire. L'étude des archives de la Préfecture de police par l'historien Jean Maitron le réhabilita « quelque peu ».\n\nCondamné avec Ravachol aux travaux forcés à perpétuité, Charles Simon meurt au bagne, lors d'une révolte de forçats sur les Îles du Salut. En , François Briens est mortellement blessé par un surveillant nommé Moscart. Avant de mourir, il a le temps de prononcer ses dernières paroles : « Je meurs pour l'anarchie ; les anarchistes me vengeront. » Le , Moscart est assassiné de dix-neuf coups de couteau, avec un de ses collègues et deux contremaitres. La révolte s'étend, l'alarme est rapidement donnée. La répression tue onze forçats, dont plusieurs anarchistes connus comme Jules Léauthier, Edouard Marpeaux, Pierre Meyrues, Benoît Chevenet, etc.\n\nLe , Quillemary, condamné deux mois plus tôt pour un crime de droit commun, est exécuté. Perché dans un arbre, Charles Simon, matricule 26507, voit la tête rouler dans le panier du bourreau et crie « Vive l'anarchie ! ». Un soldat l'interpelle : « Veux-tu que je tire en haut ou en bas ? » « Vive l'anarchie ! », fut la dernière réponse du bagnard. Le soldat fait feu, Charles Simon, dit « Biscuit », dit « Ravachol II » s'effondre, mortellement blessé.\n\nProcès devant la cour d'assises de la Loire \nthumb|Intérieur des assises de Montbrison.\n\nLe second procès se déroule le , à Montbrison, devant la Cour d'assises de la Loire. Ravachol est accusé de plusieurs crimes et délits antérieurs aux attentats. Il reconnaît la violation de la sépulture et l'assassinat de l'ermite de Chambles, mais nie énergiquement être responsable des meurtres de La Varizelle et de Saint-Étienne. Sa participation au double meurtre de Saint-Étienne repose essentiellement sur les déclarations de Charles Chaumentin le : « … Béala m'a confié que Ravachol (alors qu'il se cachait à Saint-Étienne après l'assassinat de l'ermite de Chambles) aurait assassiné deux vieilles filles qui tenaient un fonds de quincaillerie à Saint-Étienne, et qu'il n'avait jamais été soupçonné de ce crime. »\n\nPour sa défense, Ravachol déclare qu'il a tué pour satisfaire ses besoins personnels et soutenir la cause anarchiste. Le président réfute cette thèse. Pour lui, Ravachol a tué pour vivre du crime, et « mener une vie tranquille, sans rien faire ». Sa cause est désespérée, seuls son frère et sa sœur le soutiennent en témoignant de son rôle de père pendant leur enfance.\n\nRavachol est condamné à mort. Il accueille le verdict au cri de « Vive l'anarchie ! » Le président des assises lui refuse le droit de lire une dernière déclaration qu'il remet à son avocat, maître Lagasse :\n\nL'exécution \nRavachol est exécuté le , à Montbrison, par le bourreau Louis Deibler. Il refuse l'assistance de l'aumônier et chante Le Père Duchesne en allant vers la guillotine. Ses dernières paroles sont « Vive la ré… » au moment où le couperet tombe. Le télégramme partiellement chiffré de l'annonce de l'exécution le traduit par « Vive la république ! » Il semble plus juste de penser avec Jean Maitron que ses dernières paroles furent « Vive la révolution ! » ou « Vive la révolution sociale ! » comme le firent de nombreux anarchistes avant et après lui.\n\nMythe et postérité \nthumb|Partition de La Ravachole, L'Almanach du Père Peinard, Paris, 1894.\nAvant de devenir l'un des symboles de la révolte désespérée, Ravachol traîne une réputation de mouchard et d'agent provocateur depuis son évasion rocambolesque de . Les journaux anarchistes lui sont alors peu favorables. En , le journal La Révolte commente le procès des complices de Ravachol en des termes sans équivoque : « … L'opinion publique est tellement persuadée que la police l'a fait évader, qu'on rit dans l'auditoire dès qu'il en est question… ».\n\nAu lendemain de son exécution, Ravachol devint un mythe pour de nombreux compagnons et va faire l'objet d'un « véritable culte de la personnalité ». Exalté pour son sang-froid lors des attentats, sa logique implacable et le courage dont il fit preuve devant la guillotine, des chansons lui sont consacrées, à l'exemple de La Ravachole, sur l'air de la Carmagnole et de Ça ira ou de Ravachol, chanté par Renaud en 1974. Dans L'Éloge de Ravachol, l'écrivain Paul Adam en fait un saint, le « Rénovateur du Sacrifice Essentiel ». Comme le remarque le criminologue Cesare Lombroso, « il fallait aux révolutionnaires français, malgré leur internationalisme, un martyr national, exécuté par la guillotine ».\n\nLe , Auguste Vaillant jette une bombe à Paris, à la Chambre des députés, pour venger Ravachol. Et le , c’est Sante Caserio qui poignarde mortellement à Lyon le Président de la République, Sadi Carnot ; le lendemain sa veuve reçoit une photo de Ravachol et ces mots : « Il est bien vengé… »\n\nSa renommée dépassa les frontières de la France et donna un nom commun en wallon ravachol(e) qui désigne, au masculin, un homme bagarreur ou un enfant désobéissant. Au féminin, une option au whist où aucun joueur ne propose un jeu et où les gagnants des et du dernier plis perdent. En lorrain gaumais, également un don Juan ou des dégâts occasionnés par des humains ou des animaux. Mais certains de ces sens pourraient bien être antérieurs au personnage, son surnom étant lui-même basé sur un mot dérivé de l'ancien français « ravagier ».\n\nEn , une moitié de sa tête conservée dans du formol à l'École de médecine de Paris est volée et retrouvée au pied du Panthéon. Jean-Christophe Rufin affirme qu'un ami et lui, alors internes en médecine, dérobèrent la moitié de tête de Ravachol puis la déposèrent au Panthéon.\n\nDans leur chanson Salut à toi, Bérurier Noir le cite aux mots de :\n\nZe Ravacholians, le groupe de musique de Clément Méric, militant antifasciste tué à l'âge de 18 ans lors d'une rixe, tire son nom de Ravachol.\n\nRavachol sert également d'inspiration au personnage de Claude Ravache, anarchiste français, interprété par Thierry Neuvic en 2011 dans le film Sherlock Holmes : Jeu d'ombres de Guy Ritchie.\n\n« Ravachol » est aussi le surnom plaisant donné par les habitants de Saint-Maurice au docteur Parpalaid, dans Knock, de Jules Romains.\n\nDans la bande dessinée Tintin, \"Ravachol\", parfois au pluriel, est un juron du Capitaine Haddock.\n\nDans la comédie française La Vengeance du serpent à plumes (de Gérard Oury, 1984), un groupuscule terroriste et anarchiste se baptise « Ravachol-Kropotkine ».\n\nNotes et références\n\nAnnexes\n\nSources et bibliographie \n\n Gaetano Manfredonia, La Chanson anarchiste en France des origines à 1914, Paris, L'Harmattan, 1997 \n Thierry Maricourt, Plaidoyer pour Ravachol, Encrage, 1997 \n Jean Maitron, Le Mouvement anarchiste en France, Gallimard, coll. « Tel », 1992 \n Jean Maitron, Ravachol et les anarchistes, Gallimard, coll. « Folio-Histoire », 1992 \n Pierre Bouchardon, Ravachol et Cie, Librairie Hachette, 1931 .\n René Dumas, Ravachol, l'homme rouge de l'anarchie, Saint-Étienne, Le hénaff, coll. « Héros populaires », 1981 \n Ernest Alfred Vizetelly, The Anarchists: Their Faith and Their Record, Edingurgh, Turnbull and Spears Printers, 1911.\n , .\n\nArticles \n Jacques Julliard, « Proudhon, Pelloutier, Ravachol… Le fond de l'air est libertaire », Le Nouvel Observateur, , , .\n Gilbert Rochu, « Ces anarchistes qui tuaient pour des idées », Marianne, , .\n\nRadio \n Jean Lebrun, Philippe Pelletier, Les anarchistes : le moment terroriste, et après ?, France Inter, , écouter en ligne.\n\nVidéographie \n Chrisitian Mottier, Anarchie et terrorisme, Temps présent, Radio télévision suisse, , voir en ligne.\n Bernard Cerf, Ravachol, Les Productions Aléatoires, 2016, 63 minutes, présentation éditeur, bande annonce.\n\nIconographie \n Flavio Costantini, Saint-Étienne 1890 - Ravachol et Madeleine Labret, 1976, en ligne.\n\nNotices \n Jean Maitron, Anne Steiner, Dictionnaire des anarchistes, « Le Maitron », 2014 : François Koenigstein, qui se faisait appeler Ravachol du nom de sa mère.\n Dictionnaire biographique du mouvement ouvrier français, « Le Maitron » : notice biographique.\n L'Éphéméride anarchiste : notice biographique.\n\nArticles connexes\n\nLiens externes \n \n .\n \n \n \n \n Hervé, Ravachol, sur forez-info.com. \n La Ravachole, L'Almanach du Père Peinard, sur kropot.free.fr, 1894.\n Zanzara athée, Déclaration de Ravachol pour son procès (1892), sur infokiosques.net.\n 11 juillet 1892, exécution de Ravachol à Montbrison (Loire).\n Octave Mirbeau, « Ravachol », sur Scribd.\n\nCatégorie:Anarchiste français\nCatégorie:L'Île-Saint-Denis\nCatégorie:Personnalité condamnée pour activités terroristes\nCatégorie:Personnalité française condamnée pour meurtre\nCatégorie:Condamné à mort guillotiné\nCatégorie:Terrorisme en France\nCatégorie:Naissance en octobre 1859\nCatégorie:Naissance à Saint-Chamond\nCatégorie:Décès en juillet 1892\nCatégorie:Décès à Montbrison (Loire)\nCatégorie:Poseur de bombe\nCatégorie:Décès à 32 ans\nCatégorie:Anarchiste exécuté\nCatégorie:Illégaliste", "thumb|right|250px|La région Basse-Normandie\n\nLes élections régionales en Basse-Normandie ont eu lieu les 14 et .\n\nMode d'élection\n\nRappel des résultats de 2004 \nLes listes PS et des verts ont fusionné entre les deux toursL'UDF n'a pas fusionné avec l'UMP au second tour.\n\nContexte régional \nthumb|center|upright=4| L'Abbaye aux Dames de Caen, siège du Conseil Régional\n\nLa Basse-Normandie a, en règle générale, un électorat traditionnellement orienté à droite, plus particulièrement vers la famille dite de la « droite indépendante » ou « conservatrice libérale » (CNIP, RI, PR, UDF, certains « Balladuriens » au sein du RPR, DL puis cette tendance au sein de l'UMP), ainsi qu'au centre. Ainsi, les trois conseils généraux ont à ce titre été présidés, ne serait-ce que depuis le début de la Cinquième République, par des membres de la droite et plus généralement de cette famille politique « libérale » (les seules exceptions semblant être, tout en étant de droite, Robert Bisson, gaulliste de l'UDR, de 1970 à 1979 dans le Calvados, Jean-François Le Grand, issu du RPR mais soutien en 1995 d'Édouard Balladur, dans la Manche ou surtout les deux présidents gaullistes successifs de l'Orne Hubert d'Andigné puis Gérard Burel de 1967 à 2007). C’est donc à la surprise générale que l'Abbaye aux Dames, nom donné par métonymie au conseil régional de Basse-Normandie, est passée aux mains de la gauche plurielle, menée par Philippe Duron, en 2004. Notamment grâce au maintien de la liste FN dans une triangulaire au second tour et dans un contexte de « vague rose » où 20 des 22 régions métropolitaines seront remportées par le PS, il l'a emporté face au président sortant, en place depuis la création des conseils régionaux élus au suffrage direct en 1986, le sénateur UDF-PPDF, DL puis UMP René Garrec. Le principal enjeu du scrutin des régionales de 2010 réside donc en la capacité du Parti socialiste à garder cette région, face à l’union de la Majorité présidentielle emmenée par le sénateur et président UMP du conseil général de la Manche Jean-François Le Grand qui compte bien reconquérir cet ancien bastion.\n\nLes résultats en Basse-Normandie des élections nationales ou locales qui ont eu lieu entre 2004 et 2010 semblent indiquer la persistance d'un avantage à la droite, mais avec des réussites notables néanmoins pour la gauche. À l'élection présidentielle de 2007, Nicolas Sarkozy est placé en tête tant au premier tour (30,84 % des suffrages, contre 22,99 % à Ségolène Royal et une percée à 20,23 % pour François Bayrou traduisant l'important électorat centriste de la région) qu'au second (54,22 % contre 45,78 % à la candidate socialiste) par les électeurs bas-normand, scores toutefois pratiquement similaires à ses résultats nationaux. De plus, aux élections législatives du mois de juin suivant, si la droite conserve 11 des 14 circonscriptions de la région (10 UMP, 1 Nouveau Centre), elle en perd deux dans le Calvados (la première, au profit de Philippe Duron, et la deuxième) et une (la cinquième) dans la Manche. Il faut noter toutefois que l'UMP-UDF avait réussi en 2002 à remporter la totalité des circonscriptions de Basse-Normandie, et que les trois circonscriptions perdues en 2007 ont été en réalité reconquises par la gauche qui les détenait depuis plus ou moins longtemps avant 2002. \n\nAux élections municipales de mars 2008, collant à la tendance nationale, la gauche réalise un plutôt bon résultat dans les communes basses-normandes. Alençon, préfecture de l'Orne et de la région, détenue par la droite depuis 1989, est conquise par le socialiste Joaquim Pueyo dès le premier tour. Et la capitale régionale, Caen, qui n'avait plus eu de maire clairement à gauche depuis René Perrotte en 1919, donne une large victoire au second tour, avec 56,26 % des suffrages, à la liste unissant toute la gauche caennoise, une première depuis 1971, derrière le président de région Philippe Duron qui est donc élu maire au détriment de Brigitte Le Brethon (UMP, maire sortant). Il quitte la présidence du conseil régional pour cause de cumul de mandat et est remplacé le par son Laurent Beauvais. Ce dernier reste alors relativement peu connu du grand public de Basse-Normandie, n'ayant jamais été parlementaire (contrairement à Philippe Duron qui le fut déjà de 1997 à 2002) et n'ayant pas occupé de mandats locaux autres que ceux d'adjoint au maire d'Argentan, sous-préfecture de l'Orne de moins de habitants, et de président de la Communauté de communes du Pays d'Argentan. Depuis l'élection des conseils régionaux au suffrage universel direct en 1986, il est le premier chef de l'exécutif régional à ne pas être issu du Calvados, département le plus peuplé, et le premier depuis la création de l'institution en 1974 à venir de l'Orne, département le moins peuplé. Toutefois, un sondage LH2 réalisé en décembre 2009 montre 56 % des personnes interrogées en Basse-Normandie savent, spontanément ou après qu'on a cité son nom, que Laurent Beauvais est leur président de région, même si seulement 15 % ont pu donner directement son nom (ce qui en fait le d'exécutif régional le plus méconnu de France). Parmi les autres villes de Basse-Normandie à passer à gauche figure également Granville dans la Manche. \n\nLors des élections européennes de juin 2009, la liste UMP de Dominique Riquet avait obtenu dans la région le meilleur score, avec 27,05 % des suffrages exprimés (soit légèrement inférieur au résultat national de la majorité présidentielle, établi à 27,88 %). Il faut y ajouter la relative bonne performance en Basse-Normandie de la liste eurosceptique Libertas unissant le CPNT au MPF, deux partis associés à l'UMP et aux autres mouvements de la majorité gouvernementale pour les régionales de 2010, qui avait alors réuni 5,8 % des voix. Les listes PS de Gilles Pargneaux et Europe Écologie d'Hélène Flautre, deux entités également présentes séparément pour ces régionales sous la conduite respective du président de conseil régional sortant Laurent Beauvais et de l'ancien dirigeant d'ATTAC et de la Confédération paysanne François Dufour, s'étaient pour leur part talonnées avec 15,51 % des suffrages pour la première et 14,81 % pour la seconde.\n\nMalgré son unité sous l'étiquette de la Majorité présidentielle, le lancement de la droite parlementaire dans la course des régionales de 2010 ne s'est pas fait sans heurt, notamment dans le choix de son chef de file et la composition de sa liste. C'est le sénateur et président du conseil général de l'Orne Alain Lambert qui est tout d'abord désigné chef de file de l'UMP pour les régionales de 2010 en Basse-Normandie par les militants de cette région le par voix (54,49 %) contre (45,41 %) à la députée du Calvados et chef de l'opposition au conseil régional sortant Nicole Ameline. Mais Lambert finit par renoncer à mener la droite bas-normande six mois plus tard, par suite de l'absence de consensus autour de sa candidature et parce qu'il s'oppose à ce que la tête de la liste soit confiée à son homologue pour le Nouveau Centre, le maire de Deauville Philippe Augier, qu'il accuse d'avoir « fait perdre la Région, il y a 5 ans » (Philippe Augier avait conduit alors au premier tour une liste UDF contre la majorité sortante de droite René Garrec, et n'avait pas fusionné avec elle pour le second tour, bien qu'appelant à faire barrage à la gauche). Un temps pressentie pour le remplacer, Nicole Ameline se voit préférer par la direction de l'UMP Jean-François Le Grand le . Et, la semaine suivante, le comité de liaison de la majorité présidentielle confirme Le Grand comme tête de liste régionale et départementale dans la Manche, Philippe Augier obtenant celle du Calvados et les deux hommes formant une forme de « tandem » ou de « ticket ». Nicole Ameline annonce à la suite de cela apporter un « soutien de principe » au tandem Le Grand-Augier mais qu'elle ne sera pas présente sur la liste, regrettant de ne pas avoir été investie alors que, selon elle, elle seule « réunissait toutes les conditions de la victoire pour la droite ». De son côté, les centristes du MoDem sont conduits par le maire d'Hérouville-Saint-Clair, conseiller général pour le canton de Caen-6 et député sortant Rodolphe Thomas pour la région et le Calvados, associé à la conseillère municipale d'opposition à Argentan Odile Le Crosnier dans l'Orne et le maire de Périers Gabriel Daube dans la Manche. Il espère réaliser au moins le même score que la liste de Corinne Lepage aux européennes de 2009 dans la région (à savoir 10,77 % des voix), ce qui lui permettrait de se qualifier pour le second tour. \n\nLaurent Beauvais réussit à réunir derrière lui dès le premier tour le PCF (comme en 2004, les militants communistes de la région ayant préféré, à 52,4 %, l'alliance avec les socialistes plutôt que la constitution d'une liste Front de gauche qui n'avait d'ailleurs recueilli que 3,96 % des voix en Basse-Normandie lors des européennes de 2009) et le PRG (alors que ce mouvement s'était associé au premier tour en 2004 avec les Verts). Il échoue toutefois à trouver un accord avec le MRC qui annonce à la fin du mois de janvier 2010 la constitution d'une liste distincte avec le Mouvement socialiste, écologique et autogestionnaire (MSEA) sous la conduite, régionalement et dans le Calvados, de l'ancien conseiller général pour le canton d'Hérouville-Saint-Clair (Caen-5) et conseiller municipal d'opposition d'Hérouville-Saint-Clair Serge Lézement. Finalement ce dernier n'a pas pu présenter de liste à la date limite du 15 février 2010 en préfecture. Europe Écologie pour sa part espère surfer sur la vague de son bon résultat aux européennes, même si une fusion avec la liste Beauvais (qui propose notamment que la tête de liste dans le Calvados revienne alors à un écologiste) paraît acquise pour le second tour tout en voulant « un projet écologiste de gauche pour la Basse-Normandie ». Les deux autres listes de gauche sont donc le NPA qui mène bataille commune avec le Parti de gauche de Jean-Luc Mélenchon, et Lutte ouvrière qui part seul. \n\nEnfin à l’extrême droite, le FN aura sans doute du mal à pouvoir se maintenir au second tour comme en 2004. En effet son impact a non seulement diminué (avec seulement 6,86 % réalisés aux européennes dans la région, mais en plus une liste concurrente du Parti de la France lui fait face, avec à sa tête Fernand Le Rachinel, qui était lui-même tête de liste du FN en 2004.\n\nCandidats\n\nTêtes de liste au premier tour \n LO : Pierre Casevitz\n NPA-PG Liste unitaire anticapitaliste antilibérale et écologiste : Christine Coulon (NPA), conseillère municipale d'Alençon (Orne)\n PS-PRG-PCF La Gauche solidaire, innovante et écologique : Laurent Beauvais (PS), président sortant, conseiller municipal d'Argentan et président de la Communauté de communes du Pays d'Argentan (Orne). \n Europe Écologie : François Dufour ancien dirigeant d'Attac et de la confédération paysanne.\n MoDem La Normandie de toutes nos forces : Rodolphe Thomas, maire d'Hérouville-Saint-Clair et conseiller général du Calvados\n Majorité présidentielle Pour notre Normandie, ensemble, soyons conquérants : Jean-François Le Grand (UMP), sénateur et président du conseil général de la Manche, ancien maire de Lessay jusqu'en 1996. \n PDF Pour notre Normandie, nos emplois, notre sécurité, nos familles, nos traditions, notre identité, d'union des nationaux normands : Fernand Le Rachinel, ancien député européen, ancien conseiller général de la Manche et ancien conseiller régional\n FN : Valérie Dupont, conseillère régionale\n\nTêtes de liste se maintenant au second tour\n\nTêtes de liste départementale\n\nNotoriété \nUne étude de décembre 2009 du cabinet LH2 démontre que seulement 15 % des Bas-Normands connaissent spontanément le nom de leur président : Laurent Beauvais, qui n'a pris la présidence régionale qu'en mars 2008.\n\nRésultats\n\nRégionaux \n\n* liste du président sortant\n\nDépartementaux\n\nCalvados \n\n* liste du président sortant\n\nManche \n\n* liste du président sortant\n\nOrne \n\n* liste du président sortant\n\nRéférences\n\nVoir aussi\n\nLiens internes \n Élections régionales françaises de 2010\n Conseil régional de Basse-Normandie\n\nLiens externes \n Dossier de presse publié par le ministère de l'Intérieur sur les élections\n Candidatures sur le site dédié du ministère de l'Intérieur\n\nCatégorie:Élection en Normandie\nNormandie Basse", "Cet article détaille la liste des 45 épisodes de la série télévisée Monty Python's Flying Circus (1969-1974).\n\nSaison 1 \n\nPhrase d'introduction :\n\n1. Whither Canada? \nEnregistré le 7 septembre et diffusé le 5 octobre 1969.\n\n It's Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart\n Famous Deaths\n Italian Lesson\n Whizzo Butter\n It's the Arts\n Arthur « Two Sheds » Jackson\n Picasso / Cycling Race\n The Funniest Joke in the World\n\n2. Sex and Violence \n\nEnregistré le 30 août et diffusé le 12 octobre 1969.\n\n Flying Sheep\n French Lecture on Sheep-Aircraft\n A Man with Three Buttocks\n A Man with Two Noses\n Musical Mice\n Marriage Guidance Counsellor\n The Wacky Queen\n Working-class playwright\n The Wrestling Epilogue\n The Mouse Problem\n\n3. How to Recognise Different Types of Trees From Quite a Long Way Away \n\nEnregistré le 14 septembre et diffusé le 19 octobre 1969.\n\n Court Scene with Cardinal Richelieu\n The Larch\n Bicycle Repair Man\n Tirade Against Communists\n Children's Stories\n Restaurant Sketch (The Dirty Fork)\n Seduced Milkmen\n Stolen newsreader\n The Horse Chestnut\n Children's Interview\n\n4. Owl Stretching Time \nEnregistré le 21 septembre et diffusé le 26 octobre 1969.\n\n Jerusalem (“And did those feet”)\n Art Gallery\n Art Critic\n It's a Dog's Life in the Modern Army\n Undressing in Public\n Self Defence Against Fresh Fruit]\n Secret Service Dentists\n\n5. Man's Crisis of Identity in the Latter Half of the 20th Century \n\nEnregistré le 3 octobre et diffusé le 16 novembre 1969.\n\n Confuse-a-Cat\n The Smuggler\n A Duck, a Cat and a Lizard\n Vox Pops on Smuggling\n Police Raid\n Letters and Vox Pops\n Newsreader Arrested\n Erotic film\n Silly Job Interview\n Careers Advisory Board\n Burglar / Encyclopedia Salesman\n\n6. The BBC Entry For the Zinc Stoat of Budapest\n\nEnregistré le 5 novembre et diffusé le 23 novembre 1969.\n\n It's the Arts\n Johann Gambolputty\n Non-Illegal Robbery\n Vox Pops\n Crunchy Frog (Whizzo Chocolate Company)\n The Dull Life of a City Stockbroker\n Red Indian in Theatre\n Policemen Make Wonderful Friends\n A Scotsman on a Horse\n Twentieth-Century Vole\n\n7. You're No Fun Anymore \nEnregistré le 10 octobre et diffusé le 30 novembre 1969.\n\n Camel Spotting\n You're No Fun Any More\n The Audit\n Science Fiction Sketch\n Man Turns into Scotsman\n Police station\n Blancmanger Playing Tennis\n\n8. Full Frontal Nudity \n\nEnregistré le 25 novembre et diffusé le 7 décembre 1969.\n\n Army Protection Racket\n Vox Pops on Full Frontal Nudity\n Art Critic: The Place of the Nude\n Buying a Bed\n Hermits\n Dead Parrot\n The Flasher\n Hell's Grannies\n\n9. The Ant, an Introduction \n\nEnregistré le 7 décembre et diffusé le 14 décembre 1969.\n\n Llamas\n A Man with a Tape Recorder Up His Nose\n Kilimanjaro Expedition (Double Vision)\n A Man with a Tape Recorder Up His Brother's Nose\n Homicidal Barber\n The Lumberjack Song\n Gumby Crooner\n The Refreshment Room at Bletchley\n Ken Buddha and His Inflatable Knees\n Brian Islam and Brucie\n Hunting Film\n The Visitors\n\n10. Untitled \n\nEnregistré le 30 novembre et diffusé le 21 décembre 1969.\n\n Walk-on Part in Sketch\n Bank Robber in a Lingerie Shop\n Trailer\n It's a Tree\n Vocational Guidance Counsellor\n Ron Obvious : The First Man to Jump the Channel\n Tunnelling from Godalming to Java\n Pet Conversions\n Gorilla Librarian\n Letters to “Daily Mirror” \n Strangers in the Night\n\n11. The Royal Philharmonic Orchestra Goes to the Bathroom \n\nEnregistré le 14 décembre et diffusé le 28 décembre 1969.\n\n Lavatorial Humour\n Interruptions\n Agatha Christie (Inspector Tiger)\n Literary Football Discussion\n Interesting People\n Undertakers Film\n Eighteenth-Century Social Legislation\n The Battle of Trafalgar\n Batley Townswomans Guild Presents the Battle of Pearl Harbour\n Undertakers Film\n\n12. The Naked Ant \n\nEnregistré le 21 décembre 1969 et diffusé le 4 janvier 1970.\n\n Falling From Building\n Spectrum: Talking About Things\n Visitors From Coventry\n Mr. Hilter and the Minehead by-election\n Silly Voices at the Police station\n Upper Class Twit of the Year\n Ken Shabby\n How Far Can a Minister Fall?\n\n13. It's the Arts \n\nEnregistré le 4 janvier et diffusé le 11 janvier 1970.\n\n Restaurant Abuse/Cannibalism\n Advertisements\n Albatross\n Come Back to My Place\n Me Doctor\n Historical Impersonations\n Quiz Programme: Wishes\n Probe-Around on Crime\n Stonehenge and Mr. Attila the Hun\n Psychiatry\n Operating theatre\n\nSaison 2 \nPhrases d'introduction :\n\n1. Face the Press \nEnregistré le 9 juillet et diffusé le 15 septembre 1970.\n\n Face the Press\n New Cooker Sketch\n Tobacconist's (Prostitute Advert)\n The Ministry of Silly Walks\n La March Futile\n Piranha Brothers]\n\n2. The Spanish Inquisition \n\nEnregistré le 2 juillet et diffusé le 22 septembre 1970.\n\n Man-Powered Flight\n The Spanish Inquisition\n Jokes and Novelties Salesman\n Tax on Thingy\n Vox Pops\n Photos of Uncle Ted\n The Semaphore Version of “Wuthering Heights” \n “Julius Caesar” on an Aldis Lamp\n “Gunfight at the OK Corral” in Morse Code\n Smoke Signal Version of “Gentlemen Prefer Blondes”\n Court Charades\n\n3. Déjà Vu \n\nEnregistré le 16 juillet et diffusé le 29 septembre 1970.\n\n A Bishop Rehearsing\n Flying Lessons\n Hijacked Plane\n The Poet McTeagle\n Psychiatrist Milkman\n Complaints\n Déjà Vu\n\n4. The Buzz Aldrin Show \n\nEnregistré le 18 septembre et diffusé le 20 octobre 1970.\n\n An Apology\n Gumby Announcement\n Architects Sketch\n How to Recognize a Mason\n An Apology / Another Gumby Announcement\n Motor Insurance Sketch\n The Bishop\n Living Room on Pavement\n Poets\n A Choice of Viewing\n An Interview with a Nude Man\n The Bishop... Again?!\n An apology\n Gumby Frog Curse / Another Another Gumby Announcement\n Chemist Sketch\n An Apology / Words Not to Be Used Again\n After-shave\n Vox Pops\n Police Constable Pan-Am\n Another Apology\n End Credits\n Last Gumby Announcement (The End)\n\n5. Live from the Grill-O-Mat \n\nEnregistré le 10 septembre et diffusé le 27 octobre 1970.\n\n Live From the Grill-o-Mat\n The First Item\n Blackmail\n Society for Putting Things on Top of Other Things\n Escape from Film\n The Next Item (or Dish)\n Current Affairs\n Continued from the Escape from Film\n The Next Item (Prawn Salad?)\n Accidents Sketch (Prawn Salad Ltd.)\n Interruption\n Seven Brides for Seven Brothers\n The Butcher Who Is Alternately Rude and Polite\n The Last Item (Coffee)\n Ken Clean-Air System\n On the Bus (End Credits)\n\n6. It's a Living \n\nEnregistré le 10 septembre et diffusé le 3 novembre 1970.\n\n It's a Living\n The Time on BBC 1\n School Prize-Giving\n “if....”, a film by Mr Dibley\n “Rear Window”, a film by Mr Dibley\n Finian's Rainbow\n The Foreign Secretary and Other News\n Free Dung from the Book of the Month Club\n Dead Indian\n Timmy Williams Interview\n Raymond Luxury Yacht\n Marriage Registry Office\n Election Night Special\n\n7. The Attila the Hun Show \n\nEnregistré le 2 octobre et diffusé le 10 novembre 1970.\n\n The Attila the Hun Show\n Attila the Nun\n Secretary of State Striptease\n Vox Pops on Political Groupies\n Ratcatcher\n Wainscotting\n Killer Sheep\n The News for Parrots\n The News for Gibbons\n Today in Parliament\n The News for Wombats\n Attila the Bun\n The Idiot in the Rural Society\n Test Match Against Iceland\n The Epsom Furniture Race\n Spot The Braincell\n\n8. Archaeology Today \n\nEnregistré le 9 octobre et diffusé le 17 novembre 1970.\n\n Trailer\n Archaeology Today\n Silly Vicar and Leapy Lee\n Registrar (Wife Swap)\n Silly doctor sketch (Immediately Abandoned)\n Mr. and Mrs. Git\n Roy and Hank Spim: Mosquito Hunters\n Poofy Judges\n Mrs. Thing and Mrs. Entity\n Beethoven's Mynah Bird\n Shakespeare\n Michelangelo\n Colin « Chopper » Mozart (Ratcatcher)\n Judges\n\n9. How to Recognise Different Parts of the Body \n\nEnregistré le 25 septembre et diffusé le 24 novembre 1970.\n\n How to Recognise Different Parts of the Body\n Bruces Sketch\n Naughty Bits\n The Man who Contradicts People\n Cosmetic Surgery\n Camp Square-Bashing\n Killer Cars\n Cut-Price Airline\n Batley Townswomen's Guild Presents the First Heart Transplant\n The First Underwater Production of Measure for Measure \n The Death of Mary Queen of Scots\n Exploding Penguin on the TV Set\n There's Been a Murder\n Sgt. Duckie's Song: Police Entry for Eurovision Song Contest\n Bing Tiddle Tiddle Bang\n\n10. Scott of the Antarctic \n\nEnregistré le 2 juillet et diffusé le décembre 1970.\n\n French Subtitled Film\n Scott of the Antarctic\n Scott of the Sahara\n Conrad Poohs and His Dancing Teeth\n Fish Licence\n Derby Council v. All Blacks Rugby Match\n Long John Silver Impersonators v. Bournemouth Gynaecologists\n\n11. How Not to Be Seen \n\nEnregistré le 23 juillet et diffusé le 8 décembre 1970.\n\n Conquistador Coffee Campaign\n Repeating Groove\n Ramsay MacDonald Striptease\n Job Hunter\n International Chinese Communist Conspiracy\n Crelm Toothpaste / Shrill Petrol\n Agatha Christie Sketch (railway timetables)\n Mr Neville Shunte-Railroad Playwright\n Gavin Millarrrrrrrrr Writes\n Film Director/Dentist Martin Curry (teeth)\n City Gents Vox Pops\n Crackpot Religions Ltd\n How Not to Be Seen\n Crossing the Atlantic on a Tricycle\n Interview in Filing Cabinet\n Yummy Yummy Yummy, I've Got Love In My Tummy / Music Time\n Monty Python's Flying Circus Again in Thirty Seconds\n\n12. Spam \n\nEnregistré le 25 juin et diffusé le 15 décembre 1970.\n\n The Black Eagle\n Opening credits\n Dirty Hungarian Phrasebook\n Court (Phrasebook)\n World Forum - Communist Quiz\n Ypres, 1914\n Art Gallery Strikes\n Ypres, 1914\n Hospital for Over-Actors\n Gumby Flower Arranging\n Spam\n\n13. Royal Episode 13 \n\nEnregistré le 16 octobre et diffusé le 22 décembre 1970.\n\n The Queen Will Be Watching\n Coal Mine in Llandarogh Carmarthen\n The Man Who Says Things in a Very Roundabout Way\n The Man Who Speaks Only the Ends of Words\n The Man Who Speaks Only the Beginnings of Words\n The Man Who Speaks Only the Middles of Words\n Commercials\n How to Feed a Goldfish\n The Man Who Collects Birdwatcher's Eggs\n Insurance Sketch\n Hospital Run by RSM\n Mountaineer\n Exploding Version of “The Blue Danube” \n Girls Boarding School\n Submarine\n A Man with a Stoat Through His Head\n Lifeboat (Cannibalism)\n Undertaker's Sketch\n\nSaison 3 \n\nPhrases d'introduction :\n\n1. Whicker's World \nEnregistré le 14 janvier et diffusé le 19 octobre 1972.\n\n Njorl's Saga/Opening Credits\n Multiple Murderer Court Scene\n Investigating the body\n Njorl's Saga - Part II\n A Terrible Mess\n Njorl's Saga - Part II: North Malden?\n Starting Over\n Njorl's Saga - Part II: Invest in Malden?\n Phone Conversation About the Word “Malden” in the Saga\n Eric Njorl Court Scene (Njorl's Saga - part III)\n Stock Exchange Report\n Mrs. Premise and Mrs. Conclusion at the Launderette\n Mrs. Premise and Mrs. Conclusion at North Malden\n Back to the saga...\n Njorl's Saga - Part IV: Mrs. Premise and Mrs. Conclusion visit Sartre in Paris\n Whicker's World\n\n2. Mr. and Mrs. Brian Norris' Ford Popular \n\nEnregistré le 28 janvier et diffusé le 26 octobre 1972.\n\n Emigration from Surbiton to Hounslow\n Schoolboys' Life Assurance Company\n How to Do It\n Mrs. Niggerbaiter Explodes\n Vicar/Salesman\n Farming Club\n Life of Tschaikowsky\n Trim-Jeans Theatre\n The Fish-Slapping Dance\n World War Two (animation)\n Titanic Sinking\n The BBC is Short of Money\n SS Mother Goose\n It's Man Show\n\n3. The Money Programme \n\nEnregistré le 4 décembre 1971 et diffusé le 2 novembre 1972.\n\n The Money Programme\n Money Song\n Erizabeth L\n Fraud Film Director Squad\n Hands Up (Animation)\n Dead Bishop or Church Police or Salvation Fuzz\n Jungle Restaurant\n Apology for Violence and Nudity\n Ken Russell's “Gardening Club”\n The Lost World of Roiurama\n Six More Minutes of Monty Python's Flying Circus\n The Argument Skit\n Hitting on the Head Lessons\n Inspector Flying Fox of the Yard\n One More Minute of Monty Python's Flying Circus\n\n4. Blood, Devastation, Death, War, and Horror \n\nEnregistré le 11 décembre 1971 et diffusé le 9 novembre 1972.\n\n Blood, Devastation, Death, War and Horror\n The Man Who Speaks in Anagrams\n Anagram Quiz\n Merchant Banker\n Pantomime Horses\n Life and Death Struggles\n Househunters\n Mary Recruitment Office\n Bus Conductor Sketch\n The Man Who Makes People Laugh Uncontrollably\n Army Captain as Clown\n Gestures to Indicate Pauses in a Televised Talk\n Neurotic Announcers\n The News with Richard Baker\n The Pantomime Horse is a Secret Agent\n\n5. The All-England Summarize Proust Competition \n\nEnregistré le 24 avril et diffusé le 16 novembre 1972.\n\n Summarize Proust Competition\n Hairdressers Climb Up Mount Everest\n Fire Brigade\n Our Eamonn\n “Party Hints” with Veronica Smalls\n Language Laboratory\n Travel Agent\n Watney's Red Barrel\n Anne Elk's Theory on Brontosauruses\n\n6. The War Against Pornography \nEnregistré le 21 janvier et diffusé le 23 novembre 1972.\n\n Tory Housewives Clean-up Campaign\n Gumby Brain Specialist\n Molluscs: Live TV Documentary\n Report on the Minister reports\n Tuesday Documentary\n Children's Story\n Match of the Day\n An Apology\n Expedition to Lake Pahoe\n The Silliest Interview We've Ever Had\n The Silliest Sketch We've Ever Done\n\n7. Salad Days \nEnregistré le 7 janvier et diffusé le 30 novembre 1972.\n\n Biggles Dictates a Letter\n Climbing the North Face of the Uxbridge Road\n Lifeboat\n Old Lady Snoopers\n Storage Jars\n The Show so Far\n Cheese Shop Sketch\n Philip Jenkinson on Cheese Westerns\n Sam Peckinpah's “Salad Days”\n Apology\n The News with Richard Baker\n Seashore Interlude Film\n\n8. The Cycling Tour \n\nEnregistré le 4 mai et diffusé le 7 décembre 1972.\n\n Mr. Pither\n Mr. Gulliver and Clodagh Rogers\n Trotsky\n Smolensk\n Bingo-Crazed Chinese\n Not Secret Police\n Trotsky / Eartha Kitt\n Firing Squad\n Eartha Kitt / Edward Heath\n\n9. The Nude Organist \nEnregistré le 11 mai et diffusé le 14 décembre 1972.\n\n Bomb on Plane\n A Naked Man\n Ten Seconds of Sex\n Housing Project Built by Characters from Nineteenth-century English Literature\n M1 Interchange Built by Characters from “Paradise Lost”\n Mystico and Janet: Flats Built by Hypnosis\n Mortuary Hour\n The Olympic Hide-and-seek Final\n The Cheap-Laughs\n Bull-Fighting\n The British Well-Basically Club\n Prices on the Planet Algon\n Mr. Badger Reads the Credits\n\n10. E. Henry Thripshaw's Disease \n\nEnregistré le 25 mai et diffusé le 21 décembre 1972.\n\n Tudor Jobs Agency\n Pornographic Bookshop\n Elizabethan Pornography Smugglers\n Silly Disturbances\n The Free Repetition of Doubtful Words Sketch\n “Is There?”... Life after Death?\n The Man Who Says Words in the Wrong Order\n Thripshaw's Disease\n Silly Noises\n Sherry-drinking Vicar\n\n11. Dennis Moore \nEnregistré le 17 avril 1972 et diffusé le 4 janvier 1973.\n\n \"“Boxing Tonight”: Jack Bodell v. Sir Kenneth Clark\n Dennis Moore\n What the Stars Foretell\n Doctor\n TV4 or Not TV4 Discussion\n Lupins\n Ideal Loon Exhibition\n Off-Licence\n Dennis Moore Rides Again\n Prejudice\n Redistribution of Wealth\n\n12. A Book at Bedtime \n\nEnregistré le 18 décembre 1971 et diffusé le 11 janvier 1973.\n\n Party Political Broadcast (Choreographed)\n A Book at Bedtime: “Redgauntlet”\n Kamikaze Scotsmen\n No Time to Lose\n Frontiers of Medicine: Penguins\n BBC Programme Planners\n Unexploded Scotsmen\n Spot the Looney\n Rival Documentaries\n Dad's Doctors, Dad's Pooves and Other Interesting Stories\n\n13. Grandstand \n\nEnregistré le 18 mai 1972 et diffusé le 18 janvier 1973.\n\n Thames TV Introduction\n Light Entertainment Awards with Dickie Attenborough\n Dickie Attenborough\n The Oscar Wilde Sketch\n Charwoman\n David Niven's Fridge\n Pasolini's Film “The Third Test Match”\n New Brain from Curry's\n Blood Donor\n International Wife-Swapping\n Credits of the Year\n The Dirty Vicar Sketch\n\nSaison 4 \nCette dernière saison est intitulée simplement Monty Python. John Cleese en est absent, hormis dans le premier épisode, mais continue à participer à l'écriture des sketches.\n\n1. The Golden Age of Ballooning \n\nEnregistré le 12 octobre et diffusé le 31 octobre 1974.\n\n The Montgolfier Brothers\n Montgolfier Brothers in Love\n Louis XVI\n The Court of George III\n Party Political Broadcast on Behalf of the Norwegian Party (subtitled)\n Zeppelin\n\n2. Michael Ellis \nEnregistré le 19 octobre et diffusé le 7 novembre 1974.\n\n Department Store\n Buying an Ant\n At Home with the Ant and Other Pets\n Documentary on Ants\n Ant Complaints\n Ant Poetry Reading\n Toupee Department\n Different Endings\n\n3. The Light Entertainment War \n\nEnregistré le 26 octobre et diffusé le 14 novembre 1974.\n\n Up Your Pavement\n RAF Banter\n Trivializing the War\n Courtmartial\n Basingstoke in Westphalia\n Anything Goes \n Film Trailer\n The Public Are Idiots\n Programme Titles Conference\n The Last Five Miles (8 km) of the M4\n Woody and Tinny Words\n Show-Jumping\n Newsflash\n When Does a Dream Begin?\n\n4. Hamlet \n\nEnregistré le 2 novembre et diffusé le 21 novembre 1974.\n\n Bogus Psychiatrists\n Nationwide\n Police Helmets\n Father-in-Law\n Hamlet and Ophelia\n Boxing Match Aftermath\n Boxing Commentary\n Piston Engine (a Bargain)\n A Room in Polonius' House\n Dentists\n Live from Epsom: Jockey Interviews\n Queen Victoria Handicap\n\n5. Mr. Neutron \n\nEnregistré le 9 novembre et diffusé le 28 novembre 1974.\n\n Post-Box Ceremony\n Mr. Neutron\n F.E.A.R. / Mr. Neutron Is Missing!\n Teddy Salad\n Secretary of State and Prime Minister\n Bombing\n Mrs. Scum\n Teddy Salad Explodes\n Mr. Neutron Escapes\n Conjuring Today\n\n6. Party Political Broadcast \n\nEnregistré le 16 novembre et diffusé le 5 décembre 1974.\n\n Most Awful Family in Britain - coécrit par Neil Innes\n Icelandic Honey Week\n Patient Abuse - coécrit par Douglas Adams\n Brigadier and Bishop\n Appeal on Behalf of Extremely Rich People\n The Man Who Finishes Other People's Sentences\n David Attenborough\n The Walking Trees of Dahomey\n Batsmen of the Kalahari\n Cricket Match (Assegais)\n BBC News (Handovers)\n\nRéférence \n\nCatégorie:Monty Python\nMonty Python Flying Circus", "vignette|Mémorial de l'Holocauste à Berlin\nDans les décennies suivant la Shoah, plusieurs gouvernements et organismes internationaux ont été critiqués pour leur incapacité à avoir pris les mesures appropriées pour sauver les millions d'Européens, Juifs, Roms et autres victimes de la Solution finale. Les critiques affirment que certaines interventions, notamment de la part des Alliés, auraient pu sauver un grand nombre de personnes sans détourner d'importantes ressources de l'effort de guerre.\n\nD'autres, au contraire, font valoir que l'idée selon laquelle les Alliés n'aient pris aucune action n'est qu'un mythe, que les Alliés ont accepté autant d'immigrants juifs allemands que les nazis l'autorisaient, et que des actions militaires comme le bombardement d'Auschwitz auraient sauvé la vie de très peu de gens. D'autres enfin estiment que les renseignements à la disposition des Alliés, qui à la fin d' ne connaissaient pas l'emplacement de la plupart des camps de la mort nazis, ne permettaient pas un bombardement précis.\n\nL'Europe et l'Amérique face à la Shoah \n\nBien que le Gouvernement polonais en exil soit parvenu à informer les Alliés du génocide juif dès , cela n'a pas débouché sur des actions de terrain pour mettre un terme au génocide de millions de personnes, ni pour sauver et accueillir les réfugiés. Les Alliés ont plutôt exclusivement concentré leurs efforts sur la conduite des campagnes militaires visant à la défaite du Troisième Reich.\n\nDanemark \nLe Danemark est le seul pays occupé qui a réussi à sauver 95 % de ses ressortissants juifs. Grâce aux conseils d'un diplomate allemand, des milliers de Juifs ont été évacués vers la Suède neutre.\n\nGrande-Bretagne \nEn 1939, près de personnes sur les 522.000 Juifs allemands qui avaient fui l'Allemagne cherchèrent à se réfugier en Grande-Bretagne, incluant les personnes allant en Palestine mandataire (y compris plus de individus qui avaient profité de l'accord Haavara, entre les Sionistes allemands et les Nazis), mais les quotas d'immigration britanniques ont empêché de nombreuses personnes de pouvoir immigrer. En , Hitler a annexé l'Autriche rendant les réfugiés Juifs d'Autriche apatrides. En septembre, la Grande-Bretagne et la France ont accordé à Hitler, le droit d'occuper la région des Sudètes de la Tchécoslovaquie, et, en , Hitler a occupé le reste du pays, ce qui fit encore 200.000 Juifs apatrides.\n\nEn 1939, la politique britannique, déclarée dans son Livre blanc de 1939, a plafonné le nombre d'immigrés Juifs pour la Palestine mandataire à individus pour les cinq prochaines années, après quoi le pays devait devenir un état indépendant. La Grande-Bretagne a offert des foyers pour les enfants d'immigrants Juifs et proposé le Kenya comme un refuge pour les Juifs, mais a refusé de soutenir un État juif ou de faciliter la colonisation juive, en violation des termes du mandat de la Société des Nations sur la Palestine\n\nAvant, pendant et après la guerre, le gouvernement britannique a entravé l'immigration Juive vers la Palestine mandataire afin d'éviter une réaction négative des Arabes palestiniens. Au cours de l'été 1941, Chaim Weizmann estima qu'avec les restrictions britanniques sur l'immigration juive, lorsque la guerre serait terminée, il faudrait deux décennies à l'immigration clandestine pour transporter 1,5 million de Juifs d'Europe vers la Palestine ; David Ben Gourion avait initialement estimé que 3 millions pourraient être apportés en dix ans. Ainsi, la Palestine, comme le soutien au moins un auteur, une fois la guerre commencée, ne pouvait être le sauveur que d'une petite minorité des Juifs assassinés par les nazis.\n\nLe gouvernement britannique a reçu des preuves de la Shoah, et cela dès 1942, de la part du Gouvernement polonais en exil. Intitulé L'Extermination massive des Juifs en Pologne occupée par les Allemands, ce rapport rend compte des conditions de vie dans les ghettos et de l'extermination. En outre, le ministre des affaires Étrangères Anthony Eden a rencontré Jan Karski, le messager de la résistance polonaise qui a apporté les éléments au Gouvernement polonais en exil. Pour que Karski puisse parler comme témoin oculaire du sort des Juifs, il avait été introduit clandestinement dans le ghetto de Varsovie avec l'aide de juifs mais aussi dans un camp d'extermination sous l'apparence d'un garde estonien ou ukrainien. Il pouvait alors témoigner, et avec des détails, des atrocités commises par les Nazis contre les Juifs.\n\nCes efforts visant une prise de conscience sont à l'origine de la Déclaration interalliée du 17 décembre 1942 qui a rendu publique, et condamné l'extermination en masse des Juifs en Pologne occupée. La déclaration a été lue à la chambre des Communes britannique dans un discours prononcé par le ministre des affaires ÉtrangèresAnthony Eden, et publié sur la première page du New York Times, ainsi que de nombreux autres journaux. La radio de la BBC a diffusé deux émissions à propos de la solution finale au cours de la guerre: la première à 9h du matin, le , où le Ministre des affaires Étrangères polonais en exil Edward Raczynski a lu la Déclaration conjointe de l'ONU, et la seconde en , où Arthur Koestler a lu un témoignage de Jan Karski sur l'exécution de masse des juifs. Cependant, la rhétorique politique et les rapports publics n'ont pas été suivis par une action militaire du gouvernement britannique - une omission qui a été la source d'un débat historique important.\n\nPays-Bas \nConnue sous le nom de Grève de février 1941, une grève générale a été organisée le contre les mesures anti-juives et les activités nazies. Cependant, le suivant, la police allemande mena des opérations de répression pour empêcher toute nouvelle manifestation. Bien que finalement sans succès, cette grève reste importante en ce qu'elle est le premier acte de grande ampleur d'une résistance intérieure aux Pays-Bas.\n\nPologne \n\nvignette|L'Extermination massive des Juifs polonais durant l'occupation nazie, document du Gouvernement polonais en exil adressé aux Alliés, 1942\nLes nazis ont construit la majorité de leurs camps de la mort en Pologne occupée, qui comptait 3,3 millions de ressortissants juifs. À partir de 1942, le Gouvernement polonais en exil a fourni aux Alliés certains rapports des plus anciens et précis sur l'extermination des Juifs d'Europe. Intitulé L'Extermination massive des Juifs en Pologne occupée par les Allemands, ce rapport rend compte des conditions de vie dans les ghettos et leur liquidation. Bien que ses représentants, comme le ministre des Affaires étrangères Edward Raczyński et le courrier du mouvement Armia Krajowa, Jan Karski, aient appelé à des mesures pour faire arrêter la Shoah, ces appels ont été infructueux. Plus particulièrement, Jan Karski a rencontré le secrétaire britannique des Affaires étrangères, Anthony Eden, ainsi que le président des États-Unis Franklin D. Roosevelt, en fournissant les premiers témoignages sur la Shoah. Toutefois, Roosevelt sembla peu intéressé, questionnant sur l'état des chevaux polonais mais sans une question sur les Juifs.\ngauche|vignette|Jan Karski\nLe rapport que le ministre des Affaires étrangères polonais en exil, le comte Edward Raczynski, a envoyé le , à tous les gouvernements alliés a été la première dénonciation officielle de l'extermination ayant comme but l'anéantissement de la population juive. C'était également le premier document officiel distinguant les souffrances des Juifs européens en tant que Juifs et non seulement en tant que citoyens de leurs pays d'origine respectifs. Le rapport du et les efforts de la part du Gouvernement polonais en exil à une prise de conscience du génocide est à l'origine de la Déclaration interalliée du 17 décembre 1942 qui a rendu publique et condamné l'extermination des Juifs en Pologne occupée. La déclaration a été lue à la Chambre des communes britannique dans un discours prononcé par le ministre des Affaires étrangères Anthony Eden, et publiée en une du New York Times et de nombreux autres journaux. En outre, la BBC a diffusé deux émissions sur la Solution finale qui ont été préparés par le Gouvernement polonais en exil. Ces initiatives, cependant, n'ont pas été suivies d'actions militaires par les nations alliées. Lors d'une interview avec Hannah Rosen en 1995, Jan Karski dit que \"les Alliés ont jugé impossible et trop coûteux de sauver les Juifs, parce qu'ils ne l'ont pas fait. Les Juifs ont été abandonnés par tous les gouvernements, les hiérarchies ecclésiastiques et les sociétés, mais des milliers de Juifs ont survécu parce que des milliers de personnes en Pologne, en France, en Belgique, au Danemark et en Hollande ont aidé à sauver des Juifs\".\n\nEn l'absence d'une intervention internationale, ce sont des Polonais et des organisations clandestines locales qui ont aidé les juifs. Cela a été difficile parce que, quiconque cachait un Juif, lui donnait ou lui vendait de la nourriture était puni de la peine capitale par les Nazis. De plus, les nazis récompensaient la dénonciation des Juifs avec d'autres rations alimentaires, ce qui a renforcé et récompensé les comportements antisémites. Néanmoins, beaucoup de personnes ont risqué leur vie pour nourrir et loger plus de Juifs en Pologne occupée. Parmi les organisations clandestines, la plus efficace fut Zegota, le Conseil de l'aide des Juifs, qui, fondé par des catholiques, est devenu un mouvement mixte catholique-juif, avec près de 100 cellules. Le sociologue polonais Tadeusz Piotrowski estime qu'environ Juifs qui ont survécu à la guerre en Pologne occupé ont été aidés par Zegota de diverses manières —nourriture, fournitures, contrebande, abris, financiers, juridiques, médicaux, soins aux enfants et aide contre les maîtres chanteurs.\n\nNéanmoins, les nazis ont assassiné 90 % des Juifs polonais, soit 3 millions de personnes, soit la moitié de tous les Juifs exterminés au cours de la Shoah. De plus, les nazis ont réalisé un nettoyage ethnique sur 1,8 à 2 millions d'autres Polonais, portant le nombre de victimes polonaises à environ 4,8-5 millions de personnes.\n\nAprès la guerre, la Pologne a défié à la fois l'Angleterre et Staline, permettant l'émigration juive en Palestine mandataire. Environ Juifs profitèrent de cette opportunité, ne laissant qu'environ Juifs en Pologne.\n\nScandinavie \nLa Norvège et le Danemark avait une population Juive de ressortissants. Profitant d'une offre suédoise d'accueil de réfugié, le Danemark a presque sauvé tous ses citoyens Juifs, tandis que la Norvège en a sauvé environ la moitié. Après la libération des camps de concentration, la Suède a accepté des milliers de survivants pour traitement médical.\n\nSuisse \nDes cinq pays neutres de l'Europe continentale, la Suisse a la particularité d'être le seul à avoir promulgué une loi antisémite.\n\nLe pays a fermé sa frontière française pour les réfugiés pour une période allant du jusqu'au et n'a pas permis un accès sans entraves aux Juifs cherchant refuge. En 1942, le Président de la Confédération Suisse, Philipp Etter en tant que membre du CICR basé à Genève, a même convaincu le comité de ne pas émettre une proclamation concernant les \"attaques\" allemandes contre \"certaines catégories de nationalités\".\n\nVatican \nvignette|Le pape Pie XII\nPie XII a utilisé la diplomatie pour aider les victimes des nazis pendant la guerre et, en dirigeant son Église pour fournir une aide discrète aux Juifs, a sauvé des milliers de vies. Il a maintenu des liens vers la Résistance allemande et partagé des informations avec les Alliés. Sa plus forte condamnation publique du génocide a cependant été jugée insuffisante par les Alliés, tandis que les nazis le considéraient comme un sympathisant des Alliés qui avait déshonoré la politique de neutralité du Vatican. À Rome, différentes mesures ont été prises pour sauver de nombreux Juifs d'Italie de la déportation, y compris la mise à l'abri de plusieurs centaines de Juifs dans les catacombes de la basilique Saint-Pierre. Dans ses discours, lors de Noël 1941 et 1942, le souverain pontife a été ferme sur le sujet, mais ne mentionne pas les Nazis par son leur nom. Le pape a encouragé les évêques à s'élever contre le régime nazi et à ouvrir des maisons religieuses dans leurs diocèses pour cacher des Juifs. À Noël 1942, une fois connues les preuves du meurtre industriel des Juifs, le pape a exprimé son inquiétude vis-à-vis de l'assassinat de \"centaines de milliers\" de personnes \"sans faute\" en raison de leur \"nationalité ou de leur race\". Pie XII est intervenu pour tenter d'empêcher la déportation de Juifs par les nazis dans différents pays de 1942 et 1944.\n\nLorsque la Gestapo et soldats allemands occupèrent Rome en 1943, des milliers de Juifs ont été cachés dans des églises, des couvents, des presbytères, au Vatican et dans les résidences d'été du pape. Selon Joseph Lichten, le Vatican a été sollicité par le Conseil de la communauté juive de Rome, pour l'aider à rassembler les cent livres d'or exigés par les nazis. Le Conseil a été en mesure de rassembler soixante-dix livres, mais à moins que la totalité du montant ne soit donnée aux nazis, trois cents Juifs auraient été emprisonnés. Le pape a accepté la demande, selon le grand rabbin de Rome Israel Zolli. Malgré le paiement de la rançon, 2 091 Juifs ont été déportés le , et la plupart d'entre eux sont morts en Allemagne.\n\nÉtats-Unis \nvignette|Henry Morgenthau\n\nLes États-Unis et la Shoah \nSelon Peter Novick, \"les Américains, y compris de nombreux Juifs américains, ont été largement ignorant de ce que nous appelons aujourd'hui l'Holocauste tandis qu'il se passait; la nation était occupé à vaincre l'Axe.\" Une certaine conscience du traitement réservé aux Juifs en Europe, en particulier en Pologne, existait; HR Knickerbocker écrivait en 1941: \"La Pologne doit entrer dans une catégorie à part puisque Hitler s'est apparemment mis à exterminer les 3.000.000 de Juifs sans la retenue qu'il semble s'être imposée ailleurs ... l'intention évidente des Allemands en Pologne est d'anéantir complètement les Juifs, et il est étonnant que d'aucuns d'entre eux vivent aujourd'hui\". À la fin de 1942, le gouvernement américain avait des preuves suffisantes pour conclure qu'une campagne visant à l'anéantissement des Juifs d'Europe était en cours. Cependant, comme les autres Alliés, les États-Unis ont décidé de ne pas bombarder le camp d'extermination d'Auschwitz, même si des bombardiers lourds américains ont organisé plusieurs attaques à proximité. (Voir le débat sur les bombardements d'Auschwitz.). Les États-Unis ont également refusé d'accueillir temporairement les Juifs fuyant l'Europe. Dans le sillage de la Grande Dépression, les États-Unis avaient un système d'immigration très restrictif basé sur des quotas, mais même le quota autorisé n'a pas été pourvu, Le Département d'État ayant refusé de remplir 90 % des places du quota disponible pour les Juifs européens.\n\nAvec les 998 conférences de presse durant la décennie de l'ère nazie, le Président Roosevelt n'a jamais délivré \"d'appel au peuple allemand\" concernant le traitement des Juifs. C'est le fonctionnaire du Trésor Josiah DuBois qui, au péril de sa carrière, a écrit son célèbre \"Rapport au Secrétaire sur l'acquiescement de ce gouvernement au meurtre des juifs\" qui documentait les efforts du Département d'État pour contrecarrer l'immigration juive en provenance d'Europe. C'est le rapport de DuBois qui a fourni au secrétaire au Trésor Henry Morgenthau les munitions dont il avait besoin pour forcer Roosevelt à créer le Conseil des réfugiés de guerre.\n\nAvant, pendant et après la Seconde Guerre mondiale, le New York Times a maintenu une politique générale visant à minimiser la Shoah. À cette fin, les reportages sur ce sujet étaient profondément enfuis à l'intérieur de ses éditions quotidiennes, avec un contenu obscur quant à l'impact des crimes nazis sur les Juifs. Le New York Times a cependant publié en une la Déclaration interalliée du 17 décembre 1942 qui condamnait publiquement l'extermination des Juifs en Pologne occupée.\n\nLe projet Wagner-Rogers \n\nAu lendemain de la nuit de Cristal (), le projet Wagner-Rogers tente d'augmenter les quotas d'immigration pour accueillir enfants juifs menacés par l'Allemagne nazie, en 1939 et 1940. Ce projet de loi est l'œuvre du sénateur démocrate Robert F. Wagner (1877-1953) et de la députée républicaine Edith Nourse Rogers (1881-1960).\n\nL’initiative reçoit de nombreux soutiens mais se heurte à des groupes de pression nationalistes pendant que Roosevelt se refuse à prendre parti publiquement. Jointe au silence de la Maison-Blanche, l’opposition parvient à dénaturer le projet , ce qui aboutit à son annulation.\n\nLe projet Ickes pour l'Alaska \n\nEn , le secrétaire à l'Intérieur des États-Unis Harold L. Ickes proposa l'utilisation de l'Alaska comme unrefuge pour les réfugiés juifs d'Allemagne et des autres pays d'Europe. La proposition a été présentée comme un projet de loi par le sénateur William King (Utah) et le représentant Franck Havenner (Californie), deux démocrates. La proposition a reçu le soutien du théologien Paul Tillich, du Conseil fédéral des Églises et de l'American Friends Service Committee.\n\nCependant, le projet n'a obtenu que peu de soutien de la part des Juifs américains, à l'exception des sionistes travaillistes américains. De plus, un coup sévère fut porté à ce plan quand Roosevelt annonça à Ickes qu'il insistait pour qu'il y ait une limitation du nombre de réfugiés à par an pendant cinq ans, et que les Juifs ne devaient pas représenter plus que 10 % des réfugiés. Sans son soutien, le plan était mort.\n\nConférences internationales\n\nConférence d'Évian \n\nLa conférence d'Évian a été organisée à l'initiative de Franklin D. Roosevelt en pour discuter du problème des réfugiés juifs. Pendant dix jours, du 6 au , les délégués de trente-deux pays se sont rencontrés à Évian-les-Bains, en France. Cependant, la plupart des pays occidentaux ont été réticents à accepter des réfugiés Juifs, et la question n'a pas été résolu. Seule la République Dominicaine se montrait prête à accepter des réfugiés Juifs—jusqu'à un maximum de individus.\n\nConférence des Bermudes \n\nLe Royaume-Uni et les États-Unis se sont rencontrés aux Bermudes en , pour discuter de la question des réfugiés juifs qui avait été libéré par les forces Alliées et les Juifs qui sont restés dans en Europe occupée. Néanmoins, la conférence des Bermudes n'a abouti à aucun changement : les Américains ne changent pas leurs quotas d'immigration pour accepter plus de réfugiés, et les Britanniques ne modifient pas leur politique d'immigration , qui permettrait d'entrer en Palestine mandataire.\n\nL'échec de la conférence des Bermudes incita le secrétaire américain au Trésor Henry Morgenthau, le seul Juif membre du cabinet de Franklin D. Roosevelt, à publier un livre blanc inspiré du \"Rapport du Secrétaire sur l'Acquiescement de ce Gouvernement pour le Meurtre des Juifs\" de Josiah DuBois. Cette initiative fut à l'origine de la création d'une nouvelle agence, la Guerre du statut de Réfugié.\n\nCroix-Rouge \nLe Comité international de la Croix-Rouge a fait relativement peu de choses pour sauver les Juifs pendant la Shoah et n'a pas tenu compte des rapports sur le génocide organisé par les nazis, comme celui du meurtre de prisonniers juifs polonais qui a eu lieu à Lublin. À l'époque, la Croix-Rouge justifiait son inaction en suggérant que l'aide aux prisonniers juifs aurait nui à sa capacité d'aider les prisonniers de guerre alliés. En outre, la Croix-Rouge a affirmé que si elle prenait une position franche pour améliorer la situation des Juifs européens, la neutralité de la Suisse, où était basée la Croix-Rouge internationale, aurait pu être compromise. Aujourd'hui, la Croix-Rouge reconnaît sa passivité pendant l'Holocauste et s'est excusée pour cela.\n\nJapon \nEn 1936, le pacte anti komintern entre le Reich allemand et l'empire japonais fut conclu. Cependant, le , le gouvernement Japonais a pris la résolution d'interdire l'expulsion des Juifs du Japon, du Mandchoukouo, et du reste de la chine occupée par le japon. Le , le Ministre des affaires Étrangères , Yosuke Matsuoka a demandé à l'Armée Japonaise et à la Marine de recevoir les réfugiés Juifs provenant de l'Allemagne Nazie. De plus, le diplomate Chiune Sugihara, consul en Lituanie, a accordé plus de 2 000 visas de transit et sauvé 6 000 réfugiés Juifs de Lituanie.\n\nAu quartier général de l'armée du Guandong, les généraux Hideki Tojo et Kiichiro Higuchi ont observé une réelle obéissance envers la politique nationale en sauvant de nombreux réfugiés juifs en leur permettant de traverser la frontière entre l'Union soviétique et le Mandchoukouo.\n\nL'après-guerre\n\nProcès de Nuremberg \nLa réponse internationale pour les crimes de guerre de la Seconde Guerre mondiale et la Shoah a été d'établir le tribunal international de Nuremberg. Les trois grandes puissances militaires alliées, les États-Unis, l'URSS et la Grande-Bretagne, ont accepté de sanctionner les responsables. Les procès ont placé les droits de l'homme dans le domaine de la politique mondiale, redéfini la moralité au niveau mondial et donné une valeur politique au concept de crimes contre l'humanité, où les individus plutôt que les gouvernements étaient tenus pour responsables des crimes de guerre.\n\nGénocide \nLes Nations unies ont adopté le terme en 1948 quand elles ont adopté le texte \"Prévention et la répression du crime de génocide\".\n\nDéclaration universelle des droits de l'homme \nBeaucoup croient que l'extermination des Juifs pendant la Shoah a inspiré l'adoption de la Déclaration universelle des droits de l'homme par l'Assemblée générale des Nations unies en 1948. Ce point de vue a été remis en question par des recherches historiques récentes. Une étude a montré que le massacre des Juifs par les nazis était ignoré lors de la rédaction de la déclaration universelle, bien que ceux qui ont participé aux négociations n'aient pas hésité à citer de nombreux autres exemples de violations des droits de l'Homme par les nazis. D'autres historiens ont rétorqué que l'activisme envers les droits de l'homme du délégué français René Cassin, qui a reçu le prix Nobel de la paix en 1968 pour son travail sur la Déclaration universelle, était motivé en partie par la mort de nombreux parents juifs dans l'Holocauste ou par leur implication dans les organisations juives fournissant de l'aide aux survivants de l'Holocauste.\n\nBibliographie \n Brazeal, Gregory (2011). \"Bureaucracy and the U.S. Response to Mass Atrocity\". National Security & Armed Conflict Law Review. 1 (1): 57–71. SSRN 1724387\n Cooper, John (2008). Raphael Lemkin and the Struggle for the Genocide Convention. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.\n Favez, Jean-Claude (1999). The Red Cross and the Holocaust. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.\n Goodman, David G.; Miyazawa, Masanori (2000). Jews in the Japanese Mind: The History and Uses of a Cultural Stereotype. Lexington Books.\n Hilberg, Raul (1995) [1992]. Perpetrators Victims Bystanders: The Jewish Catastrophe 1933–1945. London: Secker & Warburg.\n ——— (2003). The Destruction of the European Jews (3rd ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.\n Kennedy, David M. (1999). Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.\n Kitchens, James H. (1994). \"The Bombing of Auschwitz Re-examined\". The Journal of Military History. 58 (2): 233–266. JSTOR 2944021.\n Leff, Laurel (2005). Buried by the Times: The Holocaust and America's Most Important Newspaper. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. .\n Makinda, Sam (2005). \"Following postnational signs: the trail of human rights\". Futures. 37 (9): 943–957. doi:10.1016/j.futures.2005.01.009.\n Medoff, Rafael (2008). Blowing the Whistle on Genocide: Josiah E. DuBois, Jr. and the Struggle for an American Response to the Holocaust. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press.\n Morse, Arthur D. (1968). While Six Million Died: A Chronicle of American Apathy. New York, NY: Random House.\n Novick, Peter (1999). The Holocaust in American Life. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin.\n Penkower, Monty Noam (1988). The Jews Were Expendable: Free World Diplomacy and the Holocaust. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press.\n Power, Samantha (2002). \"A Problem from Hell\": America and the Age of Genocide. New York, NY: Basic Books.\n Rubinstein, William D. (1997). The Myth of Rescue: Why the Democracies Could Not Have Saved More Jews from the Nazis. New York, NY: Routledge.\n Segev, Tom (2000). One Palestine, Complete: Jews and Arabs Under British Mandate. London: Little, Brown.\n Sugihara, Seishirō (2001). Chiune Sugihara and Japan's Foreign Ministry: Between Incompetence and Culpability, Part 2. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.\n Tokayer, Marvin; Swartz, Mary (2004). The Fugu Plan: The Untold Story Of The Japanese And The Jews During World War II. Gefen Publishing House; 1st Gefen Ed edition.\n Wyman, David S. (1984). The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust. New York, NY: Pantheon Books.\n\nNotes et références\n\nVoir aussi\n\nArticles connexes \n Kindertransport\n Débat sur le bombardement d'Auschwitz\n Télégramme Riegner\n Juste parmi les nations\n Samuel Zygelbojm\n\nLiens externes \n Pniné Halakha, Jour du souvenir de la Choah et de l’héroïsme\nLe rabbin Eliezer Melamed, Les Grandes Démocraties \" Honte sur Arutz Sheva.\n\nCatégorie:Attitude des Alliés face à la Shoah", "vignette|Tchebourachka\n\nTchebourachka (), est un personnage de la littérature enfantine russe, adaptée en une série de films d'animation de la fin des années 1960 au début des années 1980 (directeur Roman Katchanov).\n\nLe personnage \n\nTchebourachka (en ) est un personnage tiré d'une histoire de l'écrivain Edouard Ouspenski.\n\nD'après l'histoire, Tchebourachka est un petit animal de la taille approximative d'un enfant de cinq ans, aux grandes oreilles rondes pelucheuses, inconnu de la science ainsi que cela est montré dans le premier épisode de la série (on l'y voit refusé à l'entrée du zoo car relevant d'une espèce inconnue), et vivant dans la forêt tropicale. Il fut trouvé dans une caisse d'oranges, endormi après avoir mangé son contenu.\n\nTchebourachka n'a pas de nom à proprement parler ; le vendeur d'oranges qui l'a trouvé en premier l'a ainsi baptisé. Lorsqu'il le prit dans la caisse et l'assit sur la table, les pattes du petit animal étaient encore engourdies, après son long séjour dans la caisse, et il tomba (tchiebourakhnoulsya, en russe, un mot russe du langage courant signifiant « dégringola » en français) de la table sur la chaise, où il ne put s'asseoir pour la même raison, avant de finalement choir sur le sol. Les mots comportant cette racine sont vieillis en russe ; Ouspenski leur donna une seconde vie.\n\nLa série animée \nvignette|alt=Timbre soviétique de 4 kopecks de 1988 avec Tchebourachka et Crocodile Guenia traversant une rue|Timbre soviétique de 4 kopecks de 1988. Tchebourachka suit Guéna le crocodile.\nvignette|Tchebourachka et Guéna le crocodile assis sur un banc en Ukraine\nTchebourachka est le héros d'une série de films d'animation de la fin des années 1960 au début des années 1980, produite par Soyuzmultfilm Studio. Ces films ont été créés par l'animateur soviétique Roman Katchanov. Dans cette série, sa voix est celle de Klara Roumianova.\n\nCette série est composée de quatre épisodes :\n Guéna le crocodile et ses amis (), 1969\n , 1971\n Chapeau claque, 1974\n , 1983\n\nTchebourachka a quelques amis, le plus notable étant Guéna le crocodile, qui porte un manteau et un chapeau, fume la pipe, marche sur ses pattes de derrière et occupe un emploi de crocodile au zoo. Il joue de l'accordéon, et ses chansons préférées sont Les Anniversaires n'arrivent qu'une fois l'an et Le Wagon bleu. Ces deux chansons font maintenant partie de la culture populaire russe, et la première est souvent jouée dans les anniversaires.\n\nTchebourachka et Guéna ont parfois affaire à une vieille dame nommée Chapeau-claque (). Chapeau-claque est une vieille dame charmante en apparence, portant un chapeau et une robe sombre. Partant du principe que « Personne ne devient célèbre avec de bonnes actions », qui constitue d'ailleurs le thème de sa chanson, elle passe son temps à jouer des tours aux gens, aidée de son rat apprivoisé Lariska, qu'elle emporte dans son réticule.\n\nRéutilisation de Tchebourachka \nvignette|Antonov An-72 de face, évoquant Tchebourachka\nLe personnage a été choisi comme mascotte de l'équipe olympique russe aux Jeux olympiques d'été de 2004 en Grèce, et des poupées à son effigie ont circulé dans l'équipe russe aux Jeux olympiques d'hiver de 2006 à Turin. Il s'agit aussi d'un des rares personnages de film d'animation russes à faire l'objet de nombreuses plaisanteries et devinettes.\n\nLe mot Tchebourachka est aussi utilisé dans un sens figuré pour nommer des objets ressemblant peu ou prou au personnage (comme l'Antonov An-72 qui, vu de face, montre deux réacteurs de part et d'autre de la cabine lui donnant l'air d'arborer deux grandes oreilles), ou bien pour des objets mignons tout comme lui (par exemple, il s'agit du surnom donné à une petite bouteille de limonade).\n\nTchebourachka est maintenant décliné dans une série de dessins animés russes, et plusieurs produits sous licence sont vendus, comme des livres d'histoire pour enfants ou des jouets en peluche.\n\nLe personnage devint aussi connu dans d'autres pays de l'ancienne URSS, ainsi que du Bloc de l'Est. Sa célébrité s'étend aussi au Japon, où il a été le héros d'une série de films d'animation projetés dans quinze cinémas dans le pays, attirant environ spectateurs entre l'été 2001 et le printemps 2002.\n\n, Suède \n\nDans les années 1970, des émissions télévisées et radiophoniques, des disques et des magazines ont été produits en Suède, reprenant les personnages de Tchebourachka et Guéna. Ces deux personnages sont basés sur des peluches achetées lors d'un voyage en Union soviétique, et ressemblent à Tchebourachka et Guéna. Cependant, les histoires n'ont pas de rapport avec les histoires russes.\n\nPièces de collection \n\nDes peluches de Tchebourachka et d'autres objets de collection de son univers, produits en Russie et au Japon, sont recherchés de par le monde. Le patineur artistique américain Johnny Weir est ainsi connu pour être un collectionneur acharné de ce genre d'objets. Shinya de Dir En Grey en fait également la collection.\n\nLa Chanson de Tchebourachka \n\nPlusieurs chansons issues du dessin animé sont passées dans la culture populaire (la chanson de l'anniversaire, le wagon bleu). On peut retrouver des versions de ces chansons dans différentes langues (chinois, hébreu, japonais, suédois, etc.).\n\nLe film \n\nIvan Maximov a déclaré en 2004 lors d'une interview, que Pilot Studio avait mis en chantier un film sur Tchebourachka, dont le scénario avait été écrit, mais dont le tournage fut interrompu pour manque de fonds. Au Japon, sa popularité est telle que le , la chaîne de télévision TV Tokyo Broadband Entertainment a publié un communiqué de presse déclarant qu'en partenariat avec Frontier Works, Inc. elle avait acquis les droits de réaliser un remake des films d'animation d'origine sous la forme d'un film. Il est possible que cette nouvelle fasse référence au projet de Pilot Studio. Quoi qu'il en soit, le film annoncé, tout comme les films d'animation, utiliserait des marionnettes, mais en y ajoutant des techniques modernes comme l'animation en volume (stop motion) ou des images de synthèse, et serait réalisé en anglais et en russe. Un long métrage d'animation, Cheburashka et ses amis, réalisé par Makoto Nakamura, sort finalement en 2011 ; il emploie la technique de l'animation en volume et regroupe trois histoires de Tchebourachka.\n\nControverse sur le droit d'auteur \n\nLes droits d'auteur de Tchebourachka et son image ont fait l'objet de nombreux débats. En 1994, Edouard Ouspensky a déposé le nom du personnage ainsi que son image, et entreprit de vendre les droits à de nombreux pays. Leonid Schwarzman, réalisateur de films d'animation, a essayé de prouver qu'il était le créateur de la figure du personnage, et que les droits d'auteur de cette figure devaient être séparés de ceux du personnage de littérature. Le , Schwarzman et son avocate n'ont pas obtenu gain de cause et leur demande de 4,7 millions de roubles à BRK Cosmetics et Edouard Ouspensky a été rejetée. Schwarzman affirmait qu'Ouspensky avait vendu l'image de Tchebourachka à la société BRK Cosmetics pour qu'elle l'utilise sur des tubes de dentifrice. La défense prétendit que l'artiste qui avait dessiné le personnage pour les tubes dentifrice n'avait jamais vu le personnage des films d'animation, et, en dépit du fait que son dessin était une copie exacte du personnage des films, qu'il s'était inspiré uniquement des livres d'Ouspensky. L'avocat Vladimir Entine soupçonna que le jury avait été soudoyé pour rendre un tel verdict, mais admit qu'il n'en avait aucune preuve.\n\nRéférences\n\nLiens externes \n\n La fiche du film sur IMDB\n Site personnel russe sur Tchebourachka\n Chez Tchebourachka Galerie d'images et d'objets au Musée du Dessin animé de la République populaire de Pologne\n\nCatégorie:Personnage d'animation\nCatégorie:Créature de la littérature\nCatégorie:Mascotte olympique", "Éric Alliez (né en 1957) est un philosophe français. Il est docteur en philosophie (sous la direction de Gilles Deleuze), professeur à l'université Paris 8 et professeur détaché au Centre for Research in Modern European Philosophy, à la Kingston university (Londres).\n\nEnseignement et recherches \nÉric Alliez a commencé son travail avec Félix Guattari, en 1977. Son premier article est publié en 1981 dans la revue Critique, sur le livre de Toni Negri. Il écrit avec Guattari l'essai \"Systèmes, structures et processus capitalistiques\" en 1984. Il a été responsable de séminaire, puis directeur de programme au Collège international de philosophie à Paris, entre 1984 et 1986, puis de nouveau entre 1992 et 1998. Il a également été titulaire de la chaire d'Esthétique à l'Akademie der Bildenden Künste (Vienne, 2000-2003), directeur de recherche associé à l'École des hautes études en sciences sociales (Paris, 2002-2003) et Senior research fellow à l'IKKM (Weimar, 2010).\n\nIl a également été Professeur invité à l'Université de l'État de Rio de Janeiro (1988-1996), à Warwick University (1999), à l'Akademie der Bildenden Künste (Vienne, 1997-2000), à Goldsmiths College (Londres, 2003) et à la Hochschule für Gestaltung (Karlsruhe, 2003-2005). \n\nSenior research fellow au Centre for Research in Modern European Philosophie (Londres, 2004-2007), il y est titulaire de la Chaire de Philosophie française contemporaine depuis 2007, d'abord à Middlesex University (2007-2010), puis à Kingston University (depuis Juillet 2010). En 2011, il est élu sur la chaire de Philosophie et Créations Contemporaines en Art à l'université Paris 8. \n\nÉric Alliez a assuré la direction scientifique de la réédition des œuvres de Gabriel Tarde aux Empêcheurs de penser en rond/Le Seuil et est membre fondateur de la revue Multitudes qu'il a quitté au printemps 2009.\n\nDepuis 2005, il propose de nouvelles directions dans les relations \"entre l'art et la philosophie\".\n\nPublications \n avec Michel Féher, Didier Gille, Isabelle Stengers, Contretemps, Michel de Maule, 1988.\n Les Temps capitaux, Tome 1, Récits de la conquête du temps, préface de Gilles Deleuze, Paris, Éditions du Cerf, 1991.\n Les Temps capitaux, Tome 2, La Capitale du temps, volume 1, l'État des choses, Éditions du Cerf, 1999.\n La Signature du monde, ou Qu'est-ce que la philosophie de Deleuze et Guattari, Éditions du Cerf, 1993.\n De l'impossibilité de la phénoménologie. Sur la philosophie française contemporaine, Paris, Vrin, 1995.\n Deleuze Philosophie Virtuelle, Les Empêcheurs de penser en rond, 1996.\n (dir.), Gilles Deleuze. Une vie philosophique, Les Empêcheurs de penser en rond, 1998.\n avec Gerhard Schröder (éd.), Konzeptionen der Zeit im Ausgehenden Mittelalter, Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 1999.\n avec Elisabeth Samsonow (éd.), Telenoia. Kritik der virtuellen Bilder, Turia + Kant, 1999.\n avec Elisabeth Samsonow (éd.), Hyperplastik. Kunst und Konzepte der Wahrnemung in Zeiten der Mental Imagery, Turia + Kant, 2000. \n avec Elisabeth Samsonow (éd.), Chroma. Widerstand der Farbe, Turia + Kant, 2001.\n avec Elisabeth Samsonow (éd.), Biographien des Organlosen Körpers, Turia + Kant, 2003.\n avec Jean-Claude Bonne, La Pensée-Matisse, Le Passage, 2005 (élu Livre du mois Art Press, septembre 2006 (extraits).\n avec Danielle Cohen-Levinas, Françoise Proust, Lucien Vinciguerra (dir.), Gilles Deleuze. Immanence et vie, Paris, PUF, 2006 (réédition de Rue Descartes, n°20, 1998).\n avec la collaboration de Jean-Clet Martin, L'Œil-Cerveau, Vrin, 2007 (élu Livre du mois Art Press, septembre 2007).\n Capitalism and Schizophrenia and Consensus. Of Relational Aesthetics, Istanbul, Baglam, 2010 (en anglais / turc).\n Diagram 3000 [Words] / Diagramm 3000 [Worte], dOCUMENTA 13, N° 090, Hatje Cantz Verlag, 2012 (en anglais / allemand).\n avec la collaboration de Jean-Claude Bonne, Défaire l'image, Les Presses du réel, 2013.\n avec Maurizio Lazzarato, Guerre et capital, Editions Amsterdam, 2016.\n\nRéférences\n\nLiens externes \n \n\nCatégorie:Philosophe français du XXe siècle\nCatégorie:Philosophe français du XXIe siècle\nCatégorie:Philosophie continentale\nCatégorie:Naissance en 1957\nCatégorie:Leopold von Sacher-Masoch", "Hans Joachim Morgenthau (–), né en Allemagne et émigré aux États-Unis, est un théoricien des relations internationales connu pour son approche académique, définie comme réaliste. Il est en outre juriste et consultant en politique étrangère au sein de plusieurs administrations américaines. \n\nExpert en droit international, pendant sa carrière Morgenthau s’approche de plus en plus de l’étude du pouvoir en politique internationale. C’est à ce sujet qu’est dédiée son œuvre la plus célèbre, Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, où il s’oppose à une orientation idéaliste quant à la politique étrangère, en se basant sur des postulats rationalistes et une conception pessimiste des aspirations humaines. \n\nEn tant que consultant pour le Département de la Défense, il est connu pour avoir pris position contre l’intervention américaine au Vietnam, avis qui conduit à son licenciement pendant l’administration Johnson.\n\nBiographie\n\nLes années européennes \nNé à Coburg en Allemagne en 1904, Hans Morgenthau, issu d’une famille juive, étudie la philosophie à l’Université de Berlin et de Francfort avant d’entamer un cursus en droit à l’Université de Munich. Suite à l’obtention de son diplôme en 1927, il retourne à Francfort pour finaliser sa formation en droit international et devient docteur en 1929.\n\nEnsuite, après avoir commencé sa carrière en droit à Francfort, il est nommé président par intérim de la Cour du Droit du Travail en 1931. L’année suivante, il se consacre à nouveau à la vie académique en s’inscrivant à un programme postdoctoral à l’Institut de hautes études internationales de Genève.\n\nEn 1934, ses études achevées, il évite de retourner en Allemagne à cause des premières lois discriminatoires contre les Juifs. Par conséquent, avec l’aide de collègues académiques, il s’installe en Espagne, où il se marie plus tard.\n\nLes années américaines \nEn 1937, il émigre avec son épouse aux États-Unis. De 1939 à 1943, il enseigne à l’Université du Missouri à Kansas City, et ensuite, à l’Université de Chicago. Là, il commence alors à travailler officiellement dans ce qui était le nouveau champ interdisciplinaire des relations internationales.\n\nC’est sur ce sujet qu’il publie en 1948 la première édition d’International Politics : le vif succès qu’il remporte lui permet d’obtenir, en 1950, un financement pour établir le Centre de l’Université de Chicago pour l’étude de la politique étrangère américaine. Il assure le poste de directeur de ce centre jusqu’en 1968.\n\nIl se lance dans une carrière en consultance politique en 1948, dès lors que s’établit un contact régulier avec le Département d’État des États-Unis. En 1951, ce même Département le charge d’une visite officielle en Autriche et ensuite en Indochine en 1954. À partir de cette dernière visite, il marque son opposition contre l’engagement américain au Vietnam. En 1963, il devient consultant pour le Département de la Défense, poste qu’il est contraint de quitter en 1965. C’est en effet cette année-là que paraît son article pour le New York Times dans lequel il dénonce la présence continuelle des troupes américaines en Indochine. Selon Morgenthau, voilà la raison qui pousse l’administration Johnson, irritée par sa prise de position publique et insistante, à ordonner son licenciement du Département de la Défense et à engager d’autres mesures de pression. Déçu par cette administration, il devient consultant en 1968 pour la campagne présidentielle du démocrate Eugène McCarthy, campagne qui se solde finalement par un échec. \n\nIl est l'un des passagers qui a survécu au crash du vol Swissair 316 près de l'aéroport international d'Hellinikon à Athènes, le . Ayant déménagé à New York et après s’être séparé de son épouse en 1973, il continue à écrire sur la politique internationale jusqu’à sa mort qui survient en 1980.\n\nLa Pensée\n\nLe fonctionnalisme en droit international \nEncore étudiant à l’Université de Munich, Morgenthau approfondit ses recherches sur la caractérisation du droit international comme une branche particulièrement faible du droit. À Francfort, il élabore en outre davantage ce concept, en trouvant la cause de cette faiblesse dans l’implication de la politique internationale au sein des questions juridiques. Ce lien complexe entre les différends légaux et politiques est aussi le sujet de son œuvre La notion du politique et la théorie des différends internationaux. En particulier, en trouvant problématique la distinction entre ces deux genres de conflits, il souligne l’importance de la notion du politique pour mieux classifier et comprendre le système du droit international. \n\nEn dépit de cet intérêt précoce pour le domaine politique, pendant ses années européennes, les recherches de Morgenthau se concentrent surtout sur la conception d’une alternative réaliste au positivisme juridique. Pour ce faire, il s’inspire de perspectives philosophiques, notamment celle de Freud, qui soulignent la complexité et les aspirations profondes de la nature humaine. L’opposition de Morgenthau contre la science légale traditionnelle se fait encore plus explicite au début de ses années américaines, quand il écrit l’article Positivism, Functionalism and International Law. Dans celui-ci, il identifie un programme de recherche pour un fonctionnalisme légal, soit une approche interdisciplinaire des questions juridiques internationales qui reconnaîtrait les aspects sociologiques. En effet, il soutient que les intérêts économiques, les tensions sociales et les aspirations au pouvoir sont les forces motivantes du domaine international et que, par conséquent, elles doivent être considérées par les juristes internationaux.\n\nLe réalisme classique en politique internationale \nDans Politics among Nations, Morgenthau vise à contrer ce qu’il voit comme une tendance nuisible et idéaliste de la politique américaine de son époque, en proposant ce qui est désormais considéré comme l’approche réaliste classique. Un de ses postulats initiaux est une conception pessimiste des aspirations humaines, assimilées à la tendance à dominer les autres individus. Un autre pilier de sa théorie est l’hypothèse selon laquelle les politiques étrangères, comme toutes les actions humaines, seraient rationnelles et cohérentes ; cependant il critique les dérives déterministes du rationalisme et les tendances prophétiques en relations internationales.\n\nEn se basant sur ces prémisses, il soutient que le pouvoir représente le but suprême de chaque politique étrangère, gouvernée par des lois immuables inhérentes à la nature humaine. Dès lors, tous les États peuvent poursuivre seulement trois types de politiques rationnelles : maintenir leur puissance, l’augmenter ou la démontrer. Il affirme également que ces aspirations à dominer ne doivent jamais être assimilées à des lois morales universelles, faisant valoir que les considérations politiques doivent en être dépourvues.\n\nDans ce sillage, la guerre a un rôle dominant et fait partie des forces naturelles et immuables qui, aux yeux de Morgenthau, ne doivent pas être contrées mais utilisées. Toutefois, par rapport aux engagements militaires prolongés, il se montre généralement hostile : il les tient pour contre-productifs, vains et surtout trop coûteux en raison des ressources nationales limitées. Morgenthau s’efforce de défendre ces convictions quand il s’oppose à l’intervention américaine au Vietnam.\n\nDans ses œuvres, il a notamment mis l'accent sur la notion d'intérêt national : il considère que \"le principal principe directeur du réalisme politique est le concept d'intérêt, défini en termes de puissance\". Il définit également les déterminants matériels de la puissance : un vaste territoire, une population nombreuse, une économie forte (qui permet le cas échéant de financer une guerre), une technologie de pointe, etc. À ces éléments, il a ajouté les déterminants immatériels, comme le sentiment national, la qualité du gouvernement et celle de la diplomatie.\n\nHans Morgenthau disait que \"le but de la politique est la domination : notre ennemi, tout comme nous, utilise sa moralité pour resserrer l'ouverture de sa conscience et ignorer son appétit de pouvoir\". Le réaliste ne nie pas la dimension morale de l'action politique, mais les principes moraux doivent être adaptés à la situation concrète (et non pas être appliqués dans leur formulation abstraite et universelle). Le réaliste doit également déterminer l'endroit où l'intérêt national diverge de considérations morales et légales, pour privilégier le premier.\n\nOn range parfois Morgenthau sous l'étiquette \"réaliste classique\", pour bien le distinguer du néo-réalisme (ou réalisme structurel, qui lui est associé à d'autres auteurs comme Kenneth Waltz)\n\nLes six principes du réalisme politique selon Hans Morgenthau \nHans Morgenthau énonce les six principes du réalisme politique dans son ouvrage Politics Among Nations (1948):\n La politique suit des règles objectives, celles de la nature humaine;\n Le concept d'intérêt, dans sa signification de pouvoir, permet de comprendre le but de la politique;\n Le concept d'intérêt, dans sa signification de pouvoir, ne change pas dans le temps et dans l'espace, mais bien selon \"l'essence de la politique\" ;\n Les principes moraux ne peuvent être pris en compte pour comprendre les relations entre les États. Ils changent dans le temps et dans l'espace: les États agissent toujours en fonction du principe moral suprême de survie nationale;\n Les aspirations morales des États (par exemple, promouvoir la paix dans le monde) ne peuvent être considérées comme aspirations morales universelles, mais comme intérêts des États à un moment donné;\n Le réalisme politique reconnaît que l'homme possède plusieurs sphères d'intérêts, telle que la sphère du Politique et parmi les sphères d'intérêt de l'individu, si celui-ci veut pouvoir comprendre une sphère en particulier, il doit faire abstraction des autres. Cependant, la sphère politique est indépendante des autres. religieuse, moral, politique, etc.\n\nNotes et références\n\nLiens externes \n \n\nCatégorie:Chercheur en relations internationales\nCatégorie:Professeur à l'université de Chicago\nCatégorie:Naissance en février 1904\nCatégorie:Naissance en Bavière\nCatégorie:Décès en juillet 1980\nCatégorie:Décès à 76 ans", "thumb|290px|right|Une manifestation de Lotta continua en 1973.\nthumb|150px|Logo\n\nLotta continua (Lutte continue) est l'une des plus importantes organisations de la « gauche extraparlementaire » italienne de la fin des années 1960 jusqu'au milieu des années 1970. \n\nIl s'agit de la principale organisation de tendance opéraïste, aux côtés de Potere operaio. \n\nAu départ, suivant les principes de la théorie opéraïste, Lotta continua prône la stratégie de l' insurrection ouvrière : celle-ci doit naître spontanément à partir des luttes dans les usines, puis, dans un deuxième temps seulement, la lutte armée devrait surgir sui generis d'un affrontement inéluctable avec l'Etat. Mais peu à peu, l'organisation va changer sa stratégie et passer aux actions armées. La plus célèbre est l'assassinat du juge Luigi Calabresi en 1972.\n\nHistoire\n\nLa période 1969-1972\n\nLes contexte de l'automne 1969 \nLotta continua est créé en par « des militants du groupe Potere Operaio pisano, des militants étudiants de Turin et de Venise, et des groupes de Porto Marghera, Bologne, Naples sur une base idéologique composite : anti-stalinisme, spontanéisme, opéraïsme et maoïsme ».\n\nLe contexte italien est alors à des grèves très radicales, hors des syndicats, avec occupations, cortèges internes, mais aussi des « corridor de la honte » et autres opérations punitives à l’encontre des agents de maîtrise. Ces grèves sont considérées comme « le modèle des jacqueries dans l’entreprise », auxquelles les syndicalistes se joignent peu à peu. Entre septembre et , près de et responsables syndicaux seront inculpés pour violence, alors que l'agitation dure depuis un an et demi.\n\nLes prémices du printemps 1968\n\nLes grèves chez Fiat, Pirelli, Italsider et Marzotto \nDans le triangle industriel du nord de l’Italie, les quatre premiers mois de 1968 avaient été en effet déjà été marqués par de nombreuses grèves, à la Fiat de Turin ou à l’Italsider ou encore dans les textiles Marzotto à Valdagno, en Vénétie, où le conflit prend un tour violent : 42 arrestations. En juin, des ouvriers de Pirelli à Milan, mécontents de l’accord direction/syndicats fondent le premier Comité unitaire de base (CUB) hors de tout contrôle syndical. Dans ces comités se mêlent étudiants et ouvriers : ce sont les groupes « Lega degli studenti » et « Degli operai » de Gênes en , ou encore le groupe « Avanguardia Operaia », né en 1967 de la rencontre de militants trotskystes de la Internationale et d'ouvriers de Sit-Siemens et Pirelli.\n\nLa bataille étudiante de Valle Giulia le mars \nLa Bataille de Valle Giulia entre des étudiants et la police, le , est considérée comme l'un des signes avant-coureurs des années de plomb. Les premiers tentent alors de reconquérir la faculté d'Architecture de l'Université de Rome, que la police occupe depuis la veille après en avoir délogé les étudiants à la suite de l'occupation des locaux. Le 1er mars, environ se rassemblent . De là, le cortège se sépare en deux : une partie se rend à la cité universitaire tandis que la majorité des étudiants se dirige vers Valle Giulia avec l'intention d'occuper à nouveau la faculté que la police avait investie. La bataille fait parmi les forces de l'ordre et 478 chez les étudiants, il n'y a paradoxalement que quatre arrestations. Huit véhicules de police ont été incendiés et cinq pistolets pris aux agents.\n\nLes événements d'avril 1969 \nLa tension reprend l'année suivante, cette fois dans le sud de l'Italie. Le à Battipaglia, Carmine Citro, typographe et Teresa Ricciardi, enseignante, sont tués par les forces de l'ordre pendant une manifestation contre la fermeture d'une usine de tabacs. La police occupait militairement la ville, la plaçant en état de siège et sous la pression des grenades lacrymogènes. Le lendemain, dans toute l'Italie, les événements de Battipaglia provoquent une vague de colère populaire et de salariés se mettent en grève. Toute la province de Salerne est bloquée pendant 24 heures. Des violences sont rapportées à Rome, à Florence et à Milan.\n\nPuis le , une bombe éclate à Milan, dans le pavillon Fiat de la Foire, causant plusieurs blessés graves\n\nDu jour au lendemain, la plupart des opinions publiques à l’extérieur de l’Italie crurent qu’il s’agissait là d’un signe avant-coureur, sinon de la révolution, du moins de troubles graves qui allaient rapidement s’étendre d’un bout à l’autre de la péninsule.\n\nAutomne 1969: syndicalistes et comités de base \nLa révolte gagne ainsi les grandes concentrations industrielles lors de « l’automne chaud » de 1969, à la surprise des responsables syndicaux car de 1953 à 1968, toutes les grèves avaient échoué et les conquêtes de la Libération (conseil de gestion, liberté de réunion et des activités politiques notamment) avaient été effacées. Ceux-ci réagissent plutôt bien et les relations entre syndicats et extrême gauche sont assez bonnes jusqu’en 1972, malgré l'activisme des seconds. À partir de 1972, les premiers tentent de reprendre la main car les mouvements s'essoufflent. Parallèlement, la violence est de plus en plus organisée. Un premier groupe armé est fondé en 1969 par l’éditeur Feltrinelli, les Gruppi di azione partigiana (GAP), puis les Brigades Rouges (BR) sont créées en 1970. Elle culminera en 1972, comme en Allemagne et en France.\n\nLes dirigeants \nDans la continuité idéologique et territoriale avec le « Pouvoir ouvrier » pisan, les dirigeants principaux sont Adriano Sofri (chef de l'organisation), Mauro Rostagno, Guido Viale, Giorgio Pietrostefani, Paolo Brogi et Marco Boato et l'écrivain Erri De Luca. Au plus fort de son existence, le nombre de ses « militants » est proche de selon l'organisation elle-même.\n\nPositionnement politique et relations internationales \nStéphane Gatti, étudiant au Centre universitaire de Vincennes, se souvient que les étudiants étaient totalement fascinés par « tous ces mots d'ordre qui fonctionnaient en France (et qui) étaient des mots d'ordre de Lotta Continua sur la Fiat ». L'année suivante, il est présent à un congrès de Lotta Continua, où étaient présentes les trois organisations, ainsi que des gens de toute l‟Europe. Le journal de la Gauche prolétarienne française, La Cause du peuple, s'y intéresse particulièrement dans un article du numéro daté d'avril-, titré « L'essor du mouvement révolutionnaire en Italie ». Son directeur André Glucksmann passera un mois à Milan en 1972 pour étudier le paysage politique. \n\nLors des Grèves de l'industrie automobile française de 1971, « La révolution culturelle entre dans les usines » scande une lettre de « camarades de Renault-Flins de  », publiée aux côtés d'un article de deux pages dans Lotta continua, et titrée « Fiat-Renault, même lutte ». \n\nAutre similarité avec le mouvement maoïste français, alors actif dans les prisons, un article du titré « Détenus en lutte » estime que « la prison est l'école de la Révolution ».\n\nCette première période, jusqu'en 1972, fut caractérisée par une forte connotation mouvementiste et spontanéiste (mao-spontex). La forte réorganisation qui suivit porta à un remarquable recentrage de l'organisation jusqu'en 1974, quand l'ouverture aux nouveaux mouvements sociaux ne résista pas au changement de climat politique de la seconde moitié des années 1970.\n\nLe passage de Lotta continua à la lutte armée\n\nL'affaire de de la Piazza Fontana à Milan\n\nLe mouvement et son journal sont persuadés que l'Italie va être l'objet d'un coup d'État militaire, du type de celui survenu en Grèce en 1967. Lorsque est commis l'Attentat de la piazza Fontana à Milan le , qui fait 16 morts et 88 blessés, Lotta Continua affirme qu'il s'agit d'un signal avant-coureur du coup d'État. Au cours de l'enquête, le cheminot anarchiste Giuseppe Pinelli fait une chute mortelle du quatrième étage de la Préfecture de police, où il était interrogé en tant que suspect. Cet incident sera le thème de la pièce de théâtre Mort accidentelle d’un anarchiste de Dario Fo. \n\nLa suite de l'enquête voit l'arrestation de . Les mouvements de gauche considèrent que l'attentat et la répression qui le suit seraient les prémices d’une évolution autoritaire en Italie. En effet, au cours de la même période, commence une longue série d'attentats, souvent désignés dans la presse comme des « massacres d’État », en raison d'hypothèses sur une collusion entre une partie des services secrets avec certains groupes d’extrême droite :\n\n attentat contre un train à Gioia Tauro le (, ) ;\n explosion d’une bombe au passage d’un cortège antifasciste le (, ). \n\nSelon la presse de gauche de l'époque, entre 1969 et 1975, 83 % des faits dits de violence politique auraient été imputables aux groupes d’inspiration néo-fasciste.\n\nLa voie de l'insurrection armée \nL'année 1972 voit l’accélération du projet insurrectionnaliste de l'autre grande organisation opéraïste, Potere Operaio, et les logiques de surenchère entre organisations qui entraînent la parenthèse militariste de LC, l'une répondant de toute évidence au durcissement de l'autre. C'est l'année où la violence de l'extrême-gauche s'attaque à des personnes autre que les simples policiers : meurtre et enlèvements.\n\nDe plus, les Brigades rouges entrent en scène. Jusque-là, leurs actions étaient les mêmes que celles des autres groupes activistes, mais le survient leur première séquestration, celle du dirigeant de la Sit Siemens Idalgo Macchiarini, relâché le jour même. \n\nComme en Allemagne, le premier semestre est l'occasion de débats intenses sur le recours à la violence au sein de l'extrême gauche, interpellée par la séquestration d'ldalgo Macchiarini et peu après par la mort accidentelle de l'éditeur Giangiacomo Feltrinelli alors qu'il posait une bombe.\n\nL'assassinat du juge Calabresi \nDès le lendemain de la mort de Giuseppe Pinelli, Lotta Continua lance une campagne qui proclame qu'il s'agit d'un assassinat, et, sans apporter aucune preuve, affirme que le commissaire Luigi Calabresi en est responsable. L'enquête démontrera plus tard que le commissaire n'était pas dans la pièce au moment des faits et que la chute avait été due à des causes accidentelles. Le 17 mai 1972, le commissaire Calabresi est assassiné devant son domicile. En 1988, Leonardo Marino, ex-militant de Lotta Continua, avoue avoir servi de chauffeur lors de l'assassinat de Calabresi. Il désigne, comme commanditaires de l'attentat, Adriano Sofri et Giorgio Pietrostefani, et, comme tireur, Ovidio Bompressi. Tous étaient membres de l'organisation Lotta Continua.\n\nLa période 1973-1980 \nLotta Continua subit plusieurs scissions en 1974 et 1975 :\n\n les militants de La Fraction et du Courant créent le Comitato Comunista Autonomo ;\n à Naples, la Commission Prison et les Damnés de la terre créent les Nuclei Armati Proletari ;\n un autre groupe fonde les Prima Linea avec d'autres groupes ;\n un autre groupe fonde les Formazioni Armate Comuniste.\n\nLotta Continua rejoint en 1976 la coalition Démocratie prolétarienne en vue des élections générales. Mais le scrutin est une déception pour la coalition d'extrême gauche, qui n'obtient que 1,5 % des voix ; ce médiocre résultat contribue à la disparition de Lotta continua, qui s'auto-dissout la même année en tant que groupe politique. Son journal continue néanmoins à paraître jusqu'en 1982.\n\nDe nombreux membres de Lotta Continua, au cours des années 1980, ont abandonné l'idéologie d'origine pour devenir sympathisants du Parti socialiste italien, soutenant en particulier les positions de son secrétaire Bettino Craxi, après avoir milité au Parti radical (Marco Boato et Mimmo Pinto), ou travaillé à la télévision (Rai ou Fininvest) ou dans divers journaux. Quelques-uns seulement, comme Marco Revelli ou Fulvio Grimaldi, ont adhéré au Parti de la refondation communiste.\n\nRéférences culturelles et culture populaire \n\n Lotta Continua a inspiré à Vini Reilly, leader du groupe de rock britannique The Durutti Column, le titre de leur deuxième album : LC.\n L'écrivain Nanni Balestrini (1935-2019) va jouer le rôle de chantre littéraire de l'opéraïsme. Il publie en 1971 le roman Vogliamo tutto (Nous voulons tout), dans le but de faire connaître les thèses opéraïstes à un plus large public que le milieu estudiantin d'extrême gauche. Le roman raconte, sous la forme d'un monologue-fleuve, le parcours d'un jeune operaio-massa (« ouvrier de masse », concept de base et « sujet révolutionnaire » de l'opéraïsme) venu d'un village méridional pour travailler à l'usine de FIAT à Turin, où il va se politiser au cours des grèves géantes. L'organisation Lotta continua est nommée plusieurs fois dans le texte.\n\nArticles connexes\n Gauche prolétarienne\n Opéraïsme\n Adriano Sofri\n Luigi Calabresi\n Extrême gauche en Italie\n Prima Linea\n Extrême gauche\n Parti politique\n Revolutionärer Kampf\n Mao-spontex\n\nRéférences\n\nLiens externes \n Lotta continua, documents de l'organisation - traduction en français.\n Lotta Continua, Take over the city : community struggle in Italy, 1973, Libcom, .\n\nCatégorie:Parti politique fondé en 1969\nCatégorie:Extrême gauche en Italie\nCatégorie:Histoire contemporaine de l'Italie\nCatégorie:Organisation maoïste\nCatégorie:Parti politique disparu en 1976", "La Jeunesse socialiste suisse (abrégé en JS Suisse ou JSS, en allemand JungsozialistInnen Schweiz, JUSO Schweiz ou JUSO, en italien Gioventù Socialista Svizzera, GS Svizzera ou GS, en romanche Giuventetgna Socialista Svizra, GS Svizra ou GS) est l'organisation de jeunesse officielle du Parti socialiste suisse (PS), créée en 1961.\n\nSes membres sont âgés de et sont réunis dans 47 sections (état 2016) dans tout le pays. Au niveau international, la JSS est membre de la IUSY et membre associée de la YES (Jeunes socialistes européens).\n\nLa Jeunesse socialiste suisse est représenté au Conseil national par cinq membres. Elle est relativement proche de l'aile gauche du PS, dite syndicale (socialisme réformiste fidèle à l'idéal de dépassement démocratique du capitalisme), majoritaire dans les cantons romands.\n\nLe parti publie un journal trilingue appelé Infrarouge.\n\nHistoire\n\nNouveau départ après 1945 \nEn 1961, la « Jeunesse social-démocrate » (VJS) est fondée.\n\nDès 1971, elle est appelée « Jeunes socialistes suisses » (JSS). Elle porte aujourd’hui encore ce nom. Son premier président est le conseiller national Andreas Gross, qui reste en fonction jusqu'en 1983.\n\n Le lancement de la première initiative pour l'abolition de l'armée en 1989 conduit à des tensions avec le parti socialiste.\n\nLe milieu des années 1990, le conflit entre «réformistes» et «marxistes», s'intensifie, comme le mentionne eux-mêmes les deux camps. Il existe des débats, par exemple, sur la présence au gouvernement du PS ou le renversement du capitalisme. La JSS s’occupe, à cette époque, essentiellement d’elle-même. À une exception, le lancement de l’initiative sur l'apprentissage (LIPA) qui est en 2003 rejetée par le peuple.\n\nUn renouveau à partir de 2007 \nEn 2007, le PS perd les élections. En plus des jeunes démocrates-chrétiens, la JSS est le seul parti de jeune sans conseiller national ou conseiller d’État. À ce moment, le parti prend conscience que des changements sont nécessaires. La JSS se dote d’un bureau pour gérer le parti au quotidien.\n\nEn , il est décidé de réintroduire une présidence après plus de vingt années. Le , Cédric Wermuth, , de Baden, remporte l'élection dans laquelle il était opposé à Priska Grütter de Roggwil par contre 8. Cédric Wermuth étudie les sciences politiques à Zurich et a déjà été actif à plusieurs fonctions au sein de la JSS. Le , Cédric Wermuth, déjà président de la JSS, a été élu vice-président du PSS et porte ainsi les deux casquettes. Il a été élu au Conseil national en 2011.\n\n. La présence du parti dans les médias et l’influence de la JSS sur le PS augmentent. La formation des membres redevient une priorité. En , plus de participent au premier camp d’été de la JSS.\n\nEn , l’initiative « 1:12 pour des salaires équitables » est lancée. La proposition est la suivante : dans une entreprise, personne ne peut gagner plus en un mois que ses employés en . En , l'initiative est déposée. En , l’initiative 1:12 obtiendra 35 % de votes positifs.\n\nNouveau bureau, nouvelle initiative \nLe parti se renouvelle avec l’élection de David Roth comme président après Cédric Wermuth et l’entrée de Kristina Schüpbach comme secrétaire centrale à la place de Tanya Walliser. Puis, ils seront rejoints par Filippo Rivola, vice-secrétaire central et responsable pour la Romandie. Lors des élections nationales de l'automne 2011, la JSS aligne 167 candidats dans 17 cantons et obtient un peu moins de 1 % des voix des électeurs suisses.\n\nEn 2012, la JSS a adopté un nouveau document de fond, Démocratie socialiste, présentant sa vision du dépassement du capitalisme par le socialisme démocratique. Ce document comporte notamment la socialisation des moyens de production, l'autogestion dans l'organisation du travail, et l'abolition du salariat.\n\nLa JSS lance en 2012 sa deuxième initiative: \"Pas de spéculation sur les denrées alimentaires\". L'initiative a été déposée, en 2014, à la Chancellerie fédérale, avec environ .\n\nPositions \nLa JSS s’engage pour une société dans laquelle personne n’est défavorisé du fait de son origine, de la couleur de sa peau ou de son sexe. À cet effet se bataille officiellement pour le « renversement du capitalisme » et le « sociale démocratique ». Le traditionnel appel qu’elle poursuit est d’atteindre son objectif grâce à l’utilisation de la démocratisation de l’économie et de la distribution des politiques et des initiatives réglementaires telles que l’initiative 1 :12 et l’initiative contre la spéculation sur les denrées alimentaires.\n\nElle se bataille aussi contre les interdictions de périmètre ou zone géographique. En été 2008, la JSS appelait par exemple, aux organisateurs de Bottelones de ne pas tenir compte des interdictions de périmètre dans une ville comme Berne.\n\nLa JSS était très critique vis-à-vis de l’armée suisse, et participe, par exemple, au référendum contre l’achat de nouveaux avions de combat. Elle s’engage pour la protection du climat et exige la sortie de l’énergie nucléaire.\n\nDans la politique de formation, la JSS appelle à l’abolition des notes qui devraient être remplacées par une « appréciation qualitative ». Elle appelle également à une augmentation du personnel enseignant, puisqu’elle espère un meilleur environnement d’apprentissage pour les élèves. La JSS exige aussi un salaire minimum pour les apprenti-e-s. Les bourses d’études devraient être, à l’échelle nationale, plus unifiées et garantir le minimum vital.\n\nInitiatives\n\n1:12 – pour des salaires équitables \n\nEn , la JSS lance l’initiative « 1:12 pour des salaires équitables ». La proposition est la suivante : dans une entreprise, personne ne peut gagner plus en un mois que ses employés en . L’initiative fait sensation à l’échelle nationale et scandalise les partis de la droite bourgeoise. En , l’initiative est déposée avec près de .\n\nL’initiative sera soumise au vote populaire en . Elle obtiendra 35 % de votes en sa faveur. Le canton du Tessin sera le plus ouvert à la proposition avec 49% de oui.\n\nPas de spéculation sur les denrées alimentaires \n\nEn 2012, la JSS lance sa deuxième initiative : « Pas de spéculation sur les denrées alimentaires ». Cette initiative vise à interdire aux banques et aux caisses de pensions de jouer sur les prix des denrées alimentaires sur les marchés boursiers. Elle interdit l’échange ou la création d’outils financiers sur les contrats à terme. L'initiative a été déposée, en 2014, à la Chancellerie fédérale, avec environ . L’initiative a été rejetée par 40,1 % d'avis favorables contre 59,9 %, lors du vote du . Seuls les cantons du Jura et de Bâle-Ville ont accepté l’initiative.\n\n99 % \nC'est le que la JSS lance sa troisième initiative : « Alléger les impôts sur les salaires, imposer équitablement le capital » dite Initiative 99 %. Celle-ci propose que les revenus issus du capital soient imposable avec un coefficient de 150 %. En toile de fond, il s'agit de dénoncer le fait que les salaires, revenus du travail, soient imposés plus fortement que les revenus issus de la détention d'un patrimoine.\n\nOrganisation\n\nRelations avec le PS \nLa JSS est une association indépendante, regroupant des jeunes membres ou non du PS. Cela étant, elle est reconnue comme jeunesse de parti officielle du PS Suisse et elle s'engage totalement au sein du PS pour influencer les positions du parti. Elle dispose notamment d'un représentant au Comité directeur, élu par l'Assemblée annuelle de la JSS.\n\nElle a par le passé affiché publiquement ses divergences avec le PS, par exemple en demandant en 2002 la démission du ministre PS Moritz Leuenberger, jugé trop à droite en matière de services publics.\n\nComité directeur \n\n Ronja Jansen (présidente)\n Muriel Günther (secrétaire centrale)\n Clément Borgeaud (vice-secrétaire central)\n Nicola Siegrist (vice-président)\n Pauline Schneider (vice-présidente)\n Barbara Keller\n Sandro Covo\n Simon Constantin\n Mia Jenni\n\nRéférences\n\nAnnexes\n\nBibliographie\n\nLien externe \n\nCatégorie:Mouvement de jeunesse de parti politique\nCatégorie:Parti politique en Suisse\nCatégorie:Parti politique fondé en 1906\nCatégorie:Parti socialiste suisse", "Thaksin Shinawatra est un homme d'affaires et homme politique thaïlandais né le à Chiang Mai.\n\nIl a été nommé Premier ministre par le roi Rama IX le pour cinq ans. Après les élections du , il a été reconduit pour un second mandat. À la suite de la contestation qui a agité le pays en mars 2006 et des élections anticipées boycottées par l'opposition, il démissionne le 5 avril. Il est remplacé provisoirement par son vice-Premier ministre Chitchai Wannasathit. Il est finalement renversé par un coup d'État, le alors qu'il se trouve à New York pour l'Assemblée générale des Nations unies. Il disposerait également de la nationalité monténégrine.\n\nBiographie\n\nLes débuts \nThaksin Shinawatra, ancien lieutenant-colonel de police, docteur en criminologie, diplômé de l'Université du Kentucky (États-Unis) est issu d'une famille aisée sino-thaï de la province de Chiang Mai.\n\nLa famille Shinawatra commence à émerger sur la scène politique dès les années 1970 : le père de Thaksin et de Yingluck, Lert, est le premier Shinawatra élu député de la province de Chiang Mai en 1969 ; dans les années 1980, le frère cadet de son père Lert devient à son tour député de Chiang Mai ; en 2001, l'une de ses sœurs cadettes, Yoawapa Wongsawat est élue députée de Chiang Mai ; son beau-frère Somchai Wongsawat est Premier Ministre en 2008 durant un trimestre etc. (mais le fils de Taksin, Phanthongthae, directeur d'une chaîne de télévision anti-militariste, encore jamais impliqué officiellement en politique, est soigneusement préservé afin de prendre un jour le relais de son père, son oncle et sa tante).\n\nEn 1987, Thaksin Shinawatra commence sa carrière dans le monde des affaires et crée le Shinawatra Computer and Communication Group. Il obtient par ses anciens collègues un contrat pour équiper toute la police thaï en ordinateurs. Puis, profitant de l'essor spectaculaire de la téléphonie mobile, des liaisons satellite et du boom boursier, il fait rapidement fortune et est devenu aujourd'hui, avec sa famille, la première fortune du pays.\n\nEnsuite, il entame une carrière politique et gravit rapidement les échelons, député du parti Palang Dharma, puis ministre des Affaires étrangères en 1994. Il devient vice-Premier ministre en 1997. Mais son parti explose à la suite de la crise de 1997. \n\nEn 1998, il crée un nouveau parti le Thai Rak Thai (, « les Thaï aiment les Thaï ») afin d'appuyer son ambition de devenir Premier ministre. Thaksin (les Thaïlandais utilisent le prénom de préférence au nom de famille) est relativement jeune, dynamique et sait séduire la population. Son programme est assez populiste, mais les milieux d'affaires ne sont pas oubliés. Comme toujours, les problèmes de corruption et de détournement de l'argent public sont d'actualité en Thaïlande, mais Thaksin arrive à se dépêtrer de diverses accusations. Sa famille prend le contrôle financier de la seule chaîne de télévision indépendante et 21 journalistes sont renvoyés après avoir critiqué le contrôle de la famille sur la ligne éditoriale. Il finance le parti avec sa fortune personnelle, utilise des techniques électorales modernes, cible les paysans pauvres et remporte les élections législatives du . Le roi le nomme effectivement Premier ministre.\n\nSelon la politologue Eugénie Mérieau, Thaksin « bouscule l’ordre hiérarchique traditionnel en réclamant une réforme de l’espace politique réservé jusque-là à des personnes qualifiées de « supérieures » en termes moraux et de compétences, excluant les travailleurs pauvres et les petits paysans jugés trop incultes pour voter. Cette volonté de démocratisation s’est accompagnée sur le plan économique, à côté de politiques nettement néolibérales, de stimuli keynésiens destinés à combattre la pauvreté et à contrecarrer les inégalités galopantes résultant de la crise de 1997 ».\n\nThaksin Premier ministre \n\nIl crée une sécurité sociale dans les trois premiers mois de son mandat, ce qui constitue sa réforme la plus importante, conférant aux Thaïlandais démunis le droit de se soigner. En réponse au surendettement dont sont victimes les paysans suite à la suite de la crise financière de 1997, Thaksin déclare un moratoire sur les dettes. Il lance en outre un micro-crédit et des fonds pour les villages, permettant de relancer l'économie dans les campagnes, ainsi qu'un système de bourses pour les provinciaux.\n\nIl parvient à financer ses réformes et obtient de bons résultat en matière de gestion de la dette publique ou du taux de croissance, tout en diminuant la pauvreté.\n\nIl montre une volonté d'action radicale et même ses adversaires doivent reconnaître ses succès, bien que ceux-ci soient parfois obtenus avec des méthodes qui lui vaudront le surnom de Thaksinator. Il s'attaque au problème de la drogue, promettant de le régler en six mois, son action se solde par plus de deux mille morts dans des opérations de police litigieuses et des critiques contre les exactions d'escadrons de la mort. La crise du poulet est traitée dans une transparence toute militaire. Dans le sud du pays, il traite le problème des revendications des populations musulmanes d'une main de fer ce qui entraîne une insurrection et plus de morts. Mais le bilan économique de son mandat paraît positif et sur le terrain social son gouvernement a travaillé à un système de salaire minimal et de sécurité sociale qui lui ont valu une popularité à travers le pays. Cependant, l'échec inattendu du candidat qu'il soutenait pour le poste de gouverneur de Bangkok en septembre 2004 a démontré que les critiques de l'opposition commençaient à être entendues.\n\nDes élections législatives se déroulent le 6 février 2005 afin de renouveler la Chambre des représentants. La popularité de Thaksin avait légèrement baissé fin 2004 et ces élections pouvaient sembler indécises. Mais, d'une façon imprévisible, le tsunami du 26 décembre qui a durement frappé la région de Phuket a été l'occasion pour le Premier ministre de raffermir ses positions. Il a très bien géré la crise, en étant très présent sur le terrain et en montrant l'image d'un gouvernement efficace et actif. Les résultats obtenus par le parti de Thaksin ont dépassé ses espérances et en gagnant 399 sièges sur les 500 de la Chambre, il peut se permettre de gouverner sans coalition. Le Parti Démocrate ne recueille que 80 sièges.\n\nDéclin politique \n\nEn janvier 2006, la famille Shinawatra vend Shin Corp, la maison-mère, pour plus d'un milliard de livres sterling. Les comptes, alors rendus publics, montrent que la valeur de l'entreprise a quadruplé depuis que Thaksin est au pouvoir et que l'entreprise n'a jamais payé d'impôts. À partir de février 2006, la situation se dégrade pour Thaksin. Accusé une nouvelle fois d'avoir profité de sa position pour favoriser des opérations financières bénéficiant à ses proches alors que la Constitution du pays impose formellement que les dirigeants politiques abandonnent toutes fonctions dans le domaine privé, il se retrouve mis en cause et fragilisé. Il pense cependant redresser la situation en décrétant des élections législatives anticipées le .\n\nLes partis d'opposition thaïlandais annoncent alors leur intention de boycotter ces élections nationales du 2 avril pour protester contre le rejet de leurs propositions de réforme politique par le Premier ministre. Thaksin entame des négociations avec eux, mais refuse leurs propositions. Le boycott est donc décrété par le Parti démocrate, le Chart Thai (CTP) et Mahachon. Le bras de fer a accentué la crise déclenchée par un mouvement d'opinion croissant (dizaines de milliers de manifestants à Bangkok) en faveur d'une démission de Thaksin, soupçonné de corruption et d'abus de pouvoir.\n\nThaksin est finalement renversé par un coup d'État militaire, mené par le général Sonthi Boonyaratglin, le alors qu'il se trouve à New York pour l'Assemblée générale des Nations unies. \n\nLe 21 septembre, il se rend au Royaume-Uni en visite privée. À la suite de ces événements, l'ex-premier ministre reste en exil à Londres, où il possède une résidence.\n\nthumb|Mandat d'arrêt lancé contre Thaksin Shinawatra en août 2008\nEn octobre 2008, Thaksin est reconnu coupable de conflit d’intérêts dans le cadre d’une transaction immobilière liée à son épouse et condamné par contumace à deux ans d'emprisonnement par la Cour suprême criminelle des délits politiques, une justice fortement politisée affirme la politologue Eugénie Mérieau, alors qu'il est en fuite à Hong Kong. Les autorités thaïlandaises essayent d'obtenir son extradition.\n\nDébut avril 2009, des manifestations monstres, menées par les Chemises rouges, demandant le retour de Thaksin au pouvoir se sont déroulées à Bangkok. La répression violente du Gouvernement d'Abhisit Vejjajiva a fait trois morts et 113 blessés. \n\nIl a ensuite vécu à Dubaï avant de s'installer dans un pays voisin de la Thaïlande, le Cambodge, où il est arrivé le 10 novembre 2009, à l'invitation du Premier ministre Hun Sen. Thaksin Shinawatra a été nommé conseiller économique du gouvernement cambodgien. La Thaïlande a aussitôt réclamé l'extradition de Thaksin Shinawatra, refusée par le Cambodge. Les relations, déjà tendues, entre les deux pays, se sont donc un peu plus dégradées.\n\nLe 26 février 2010, la cour suprême rend son jugement sur les avoirs de Thaksin gelés dans les banques locales depuis 2007, soit environ 1,7 milliard d'euros. Considérant qu'il avait illégalement conservé des parts dans le conglomérat de communication Shin Corp alors qu'il dirigeait le pays mais qu'une partie de cette somme était en sa possession avant ses mandats, elle ordonne la confiscation d'un milliard d'euros. Les Chemises rouges du Front national uni pour la démocratie et contre la dictature (UDD), qui comptent nombre de ses partisans, ont organisé une grande manifestation à partir du 14 mars à Bangkok pour obliger le gouvernement à organiser des élections anticipées.\n\nCette manifestation aboutit à une occupation pacifique d'une partie du centre financier de Bangkok (Siam Square, Trade Center). Ces campements sont plus tard contraints de devenir camp retranché des chemises rouges, lorsque le gouvernement décide d'en finir. Les forces armées donnent l'assaut final le 19 mai, les manifestants finissent par se rendre mais la répression a été sanglante et a fait au moins 16 morts. Le gouvernement ne cède sur aucune des revendications, pas d'élections anticipées. Un coup d'arrêt aux partisans de Thaksin est donné, mais la mobilisation reste active en province, moins médiatisée, tandis que la Cour criminelle de Bangkok a émis le 25 mai 2010, un mandat d’arrêt international pour «terrorisme» contre Thaksin Shinawatra.\n\nEn 2011, il pousse sa sœur, Yingluck Shinawatra, à briguer le poste de Premier ministre. Après les élections législatives du 3 juillet 2011 où son parti, le Pheu Thai, obtient 265 sièges sur les 500 de l'assemblée, elle accède à ce poste. La large victoire des pro Thaksin aux élections pose désormais le délicat problème de l'amnistie de l'ex-Premier ministre. En 2014, après une crise politique, Yingluck Shinawatra est destituée de son poste par la Cour suprême et l'armée provoque un coup d'État.\n\nFootball \n\nEn juillet 2007, Shinawatra achète, via sa société UK Sports Investments, le club anglais de football de Manchester City Football Club pour une somme évaluée à 122 millions d'euros. Shinawatra avait déjà essayé d'acheter le club de Liverpool en 2004. Les associations de défense des droits de l'homme Amnesty International et Human Rights Watch ont critiqué la vente de parts de City à Shinawatra, le décrivant comme Dès son arrivée, Shinawatra convainc Sven-Göran Eriksson, ancien entraîneur de la sélection anglaise, de venir entraîner MCFC. La prise de contrôle du club est acceptée par Shinawatra et la premier League le considère comme une personne adéquate et intègre pour diriger un club.\n\nEn septembre 2008, Shinawatra revend son club au Abu Dhabi United Group (ADUG).\n\nRéférences\n\nvoir aussi\n\nArticle connexe \n Politique de la Thaïlande\n\nLiens externes \n \n\nCatégorie:Personnalité thaïlandaise du monde des affaires\nCatégorie:Premier ministre de Thaïlande\nCatégorie:Criminologue thaïlandais\nCatégorie:Ministre thaïlandais des Affaires étrangères\nCatégorie:Personnalité politique condamnée pour fraude\nCatégorie:Récipiendaire de l'ordre de l'Éléphant blanc\nCatégorie:Naissance en juillet 1949\nCatégorie:Naissance à Chiang Mai\nCatégorie:Personnalité politique thaïlandaise", "Eduardo Geada, né le à Lisbonne au Portugal, est un réalisateur, professeur et essayiste portugais.\n\nBiographie \nFormé en études anglo-américaines par la faculté des lettres de l'université de Lisbonne (1976), il se forme aussi en cinéma, tout comme d'autres cinéastes de sa génération, grâce au mouvement des ciné-clubs. En 1978, en tant que boursier de la Fondation Gulbenkian de Lisbonne, il obtient à la Slade School of Fine Art (London College University) la post-graduation en Film Studies. À l'université nouvelle de Lisbonne, il complète une maîtrise en communication, avec une thèse ayant pour sujet Le Cinéma spectacle (1985) et obtient un doctorat en histoire des médias, avec la thèse Les mondes du cinéma : modèles dramatiques et narratifs durant la période classique (1997). Il a été professeur à l’Escola Superior de Teatro e Cinema de Lisboa (1978-2004) et l'est depuis 2004 à l’Escola Superior de Comunicação Social. Il est professeur et chercheur invité à l'université de Californie à Berkeley (2007/2008).\n\nEntre 1968 et 1976, il développe une intense et importante activité comme critique de cinéma dans diverses publications – Seara Nova, Vértice, A Capital, Républica et Expresso. À la radio, il fut auteur et présentateur de l'émission Moviola (1985/1986), pour Antena 1, consacrée à la musique du cinéma. Au tournant de la fin des années 1960 et du début des années 1970, Geada fut un élément clé pour la réflexion sur le cinéma, activité qu'il va continuer avec la publication de plusieurs livres.\n\nDe 1997 à 2002, il est l'administrateur délégué de la Fondation de la culture de Sintra, à Quinta da Regaleira.\n\nEn tant que réalisateur il se divise entre le cinéma et la télévision. Son premier film, Sophie ou l'éducation sexuelle (1973), est l'un des derniers à être interdit par la censure, ainsi il ne sortira en salle qu'après la Révolution du 25 avril. Avec pour participants de très grands noms de la culture portugaise, comme David Mourão-Ferreira, Jorge Peixinho ou bien Eduardo Prado Coelho, et l'assistance à la mise-en-scène d'un autre critique de cinéma de renom, João Lopes, le film crée une attente un peu déçue au vu l'œuvre finale, dont les défauts peuvent être attribuées en partie au manque de structures de productions solides.\n\nImmédiatement après la Révolution, il se consacre à des travaux d'ordre sociologique propres à l'époque. Les documentaires Lisbonne, Le Droit à la Ville, La Révolution est à l'ordre du jour et Nous sommes en fête, réalisé pour la télévision, analysaient la nouvelle réalité portugaise d'un point de vue marxiste, commun à d'autres productions de cette période : ils sont aujourd'hui devenus des documents historiques de grand valeur. Il en est de même pour le travail collectif Les armes et le peuple (1975), dont il a été l'un des réalisateurs et qui illustre la semaine qui s'écoula entre le (date de la Révolution) et le , célébré dans la liberté la plus totale, et qui se penche aussi sur les quarante-huit ans qui séparèrent le coup d'État militaire et la chute du marcelisme.\n\nL'enterrement du patron (1975) a pour base la pièce de théâtre du fameux dramaturge italien Dario Fo. La sainte alliance (1976), sélectionné par la Quinzaine des réalisateurs du Festival de Cannes, continue à être l'un des films les plus lucides et stimulants sur la période post .\n\nIl débute les années 1980 avec divers travaux reconnus pour la télévision à partir d'œuvres et de personnalités de la littérature portugaise : Mariana Alcoforado (1980),s’appuyant sur les lettres attribuées à Sóror Mariana Alcoforadi, une religieuse du Couvent de Beja, du , et la série Lisbonne Societé Annonyme (1982-1983), signant les épisodes suivants Le Banquier anarchiste (d'après le texte homonyme de Fernando Pessoa), L'Homme qui ne sait pas écrire (textes de Almada Negreiros), L'Impossible Évasion (texte de Urbano Tavares Rodrigues), Un Voyage dans notre pays (texte de José Rodrigues Miguéis) et Le Rituel des petits vampires (texte de José Cardoso Pires).\n\nRetour au long-métrage en 1983 avec Saudades para D. Genciama, à partir de plusieurs histoires de José Rodrigues Miguéis. Il travaille à nouveau pour la télévision avec La Forme des choses (1986), Une Aventure à Lisbonne (1989) et Portraits de Madère (1990).\n\nSon dernier long-métrage, Passage à Lisbonne, de 1993 est un hommage à la mémoire du cinéma (le film est d'ailleurs dédié à Félix Ribeiro et Luis de Pina, deux piliers de la cinémathèque portugaise, décédés quelques années auparavant), avec un curieux mélange entre fiction et réalité, en revisitant la Lisbonne du début des années 1940, et la présence de noms célèbres comme Pola Negri, Leslie Howard, le Duc de Windsor, Primo de Rivera, et le mythique Viktor Laszlo (de Casablanca).\n\nBibliographie \n \n 1977 : L'Imperialisme et le fascisme dans le cinéma (Moraes Editores)\n 1978 : Cinéma et transfiguration (Livros Horizonte)\n 1985 : Le Pouvoir du cinéma (Livros Horizonte)\n 1986 : Esthétiques du cinéma (Publicações Dom Quixote)\n 1987 : Le Cinéma spectacle (Edições 70)\n 1998 : Les Mondes du cinéma (Editorial Notícias)\n\nFilmographie \n 1973 : Sofia e a Educação Sexual (titre français littéral : Sophie et l'éducation sexuelle), aussi scénario et montage\n 1976 : La Sainte Alliance\n 1985 : Nostalgie pour Dona Genciana\n 1993 : Passage à Lisbonne\n\nLien externe \n \n\nCatégorie:Réalisateur portugais\nCatégorie:Historien du cinéma\nCatégorie:Universitaire portugais\nCatégorie:Essayiste portugais\nCatégorie:Écrivain portugais\nCatégorie:Étudiant de l'université de Lisbonne\nCatégorie:Étudiant de la Slade School of Fine Art\nCatégorie:Professeur à l'université de Californie à Berkeley\nCatégorie:Naissance en mai 1945\nCatégorie:Naissance à Lisbonne", "La politique européenne d'immigration a commencé à se développer à partir de l'intégration de l'acquis de Schengen dans le droit de l'Union européenne et le constat selon lequel l'Union européenne est devenu l'une des principales régions de destination des voies migratoires dans le monde.\n\nHistoire\n\nContexte historique \nAu et pendant la première moitié du , les migrations s'effectuaient principalement d'Europe vers les autres continents ou entre les pays européens eux-mêmes, la plupart des pays européens sont devenus des terres d'émigration après la Seconde Guerre mondiale.\n\nDébut de formation d'un droit européen de l'asile \nLe droit d'asile se forme depuis un demi-siècle au niveau européen avec la Convention du 28 juillet 1951 relative au statut des réfugiés. Il évolue sous l'effet de politiques communes apparaissant dans les années 1990 en relation avec la création de l'espace Schengen. \n\nEn 2002, seules la Lettonie, la Lituanie et la Pologne avaient un solde migratoire négatif. La même année, le taux de migration net était de 2,8 pour 1000 dans les 25 pays aujourd'hui membres de l'Union européenne.\n\nEn 2010, il y avait 47,3 millions de personnes nées à l'étranger qui vivaient dans l'UE27, dont 16,0 millions (32 %) nés dans un autre État membre de l'UE27 et 31,4 millions (63 %) nés dans un pays hors de l'UE des 27. Au total, la population née à l'étranger comptait pour 9,4 % de la population totale de l'UE27. \n\nPour ce qui est des migrations internes entre États membres, on parle de mobilité en Europe.\n\nDans l'Union européenne, la politique relative à l'immigration se place dans le cadre institué par le traité d'Amsterdam.\n\nLe Conseil européen de Tampere () a programmé la réalisation de l'espace de liberté, de sécurité et de justice institué par le traité d'Amsterdam (titre IV) pour fin 2004.\n\nAccords de réadmission \n\nL'UE a inséré dans l'accord de Cotonou (2000), à visée économique, une clause-cadre obligeant les États ACP (Afrique, Caraïbes, Pacifique) à prévoir des accords de réadmission de leurs ressortissants entrés irrégulièrement en Europe.\n\nL'Italie a signé avec la Libye un traité italo-libyen d'amitié, de partenariat et de coopération en , qui prévoit entre autres la coopération libyenne dans la lutte contre l'émigration clandestine.\n\nProgramme de La Haye (2004) \n\nLe programme de La Haye, ensemble de dix priorités relatives à l'espace de liberté, de sécurité et de justice adoptées lors du Conseil européen des 4 et , prévoit en ce qui concerne l'immigration, dans un délai de cinq ans :\n de mettre en place un plan relatif à l'immigration légale ;\n de favoriser l'intégration des immigrants dans les pays de l'Union en fournissant par exemple aux administrations locales et aux employeurs un recueil de bonnes pratiques.\n\nIl a insisté sur la mise en place du Système d'information des visas (SIV), une base de données biométriques, ainsi que sur la création d'un « Fonds européen pour le retour », mis en place dans le cadre d'un sous-programme du Programme européen pour la protection des infrastructures critiques (PEPIC).\n\nPolitique d'« externalisation de l'asile » \n\nL'UE accueille très peu de réfugiés en comparaison avec les États-Unis ou le Canada : ainsi, selon la Commission européenne (2011), « Durant l'année 2010, environ réfugiés ont été réinstallés dans l'ensemble de l'UE, chiffre à comparer avec les quelque réfugiés réinstallés aux États-Unis la même année. En fait, les États membres de l'UE dans leur totalité acceptent actuellement moins de réfugiés réinstallés que le seul Canada. »\n\nL’externalisation de l’asile, est une expression d’usage courant dans les réseaux de spécialistes de l’asile et des migrations pour désigner une idée politique relativement simple ainsi que les politiques publiques qui la mettent en œuvre : il s'agit d'accorder l'asile aux exilés politiques, mais non sur le sol européen. L’idée n’est pas nouvelle mais devient plus explicite dans un projet du gouvernement autrichien en 1999 puis est théorisée en 2002 par le Haut Commissaire aux Réfugiés de l'ONU, Ruud Lübbers, ancien premier ministre des Pays-Bas et, en 2003, par le Premier Ministre britannique Tony Blair. Débattue peu de temps avant le Sommet de Thessalonique de , elle s’institutionnalise ensuite en politique centrale de l’Union Européenne avec l’appui des gouvernements hollandais, danois, autrichien, italien notamment; et le soutien explicite ou implicite d’à peu près tous les autres.\n\nD'après le sociologue Jérôme Valluy, la genèse de cette politique est d'abord technocratique (de à ) avant de donner lieu à une communication politique des ministres de l'intérieur des pays membres de l'Union Européenne (-).\n\nAu moment même de l'adoption du programme de La Haye (2004), qui prévoit une politique d'« externalisation de l'asile », le Haut Commissariat des Nations unies pour les réfugiés (HCR), qui accompagne la politique d'immigration de l'UE, ouvrait un bureau au Maroc. Une série de camps d'exilés a ainsi été ouverte, en Mauritanie (à Nouadhibou, avec des fonds espagnols), au Maroc (avec la promulgation de la loi 02-03 sur l’entrée et le séjour des étrangers au Maroc du ) ou en Algérie (par exemple le camp d'Adrar ou celui des Rochers, près de Tamanrasset) En , l'UE annonçait qu'elle allait ouvrir un autre bureau de réception de demandes d'asile, avec le HCR, en Libye.\n\nCrise migratoire 2014-2017 \n\nDans les années 2010, l'Europe est confrontée à une forte augmentation du nombre des migrants - certains étant des réfugiés de la guerre civile syrienne -. Les nouveaux venus arrivent via la mer Méditerranée et les Balkans, depuis l'Afrique, le Moyen-Orient et l'Asie du Sud. L'Europe fait face à partir de 2014 à l'une des plus importantes crises migratoires de son histoire.\n\nL'Europe a enregistré demandes d’asile au deuxième trimestre 2015, le pic se trouvant en , où demandes d'asile sont déposées.\n\nLe , à Bruxelles, la Commission européenne propose des quotas pour réguler l’accueil des réfugiés : « Agenda européen sur la migration ». En , l'Union européenne adopte un programme de répartition sur deux ans de personnes à protéger enregistrées en Italie et en Grèce.\n\nAngela Merkel annonce vouloir accueillir migrants notamment pour des raisons économiques, mais confrontée à l'afflux des réfugiés dont le nombre atteint en 2015 le chiffre d'un million et aux critiques de plusieurs pays européens de cette politique d'accueil, l'Allemagne rétablit sa frontière avec l'Autriche le , le ministre de l'Intérieur Thomas de Maizière déclarant que « la solidarité allemande ne peut pas être abusée ». \n\nPrincipale instigatrice du mécanisme de répartition obligatoire des migrants et confrontée à une très forte opposition notamment des pays d'Europe centrale, Angela Merkel est contrainte d'annoncer en au sommet de Bratislava l'abandon du système des « quotas » nationaux. De manière répétée, les pays du groupe de Visegrád (Hongrie, Pologne, République tchèque et Slovaquie) soutenus par leurs opinions publiques, critiquent la répartition des nouveaux venus par quote part et affirment leur refus de se plier à ce qu'ils désignent comme un « chantage » et au « diktat » de l'Union européenne à leur égard concernant la politique migratoire commune. En , le Brexit l'emporte dans le référendum sur le maintien dans l'Union européenne où la question de l'immigration a été au cœur de la campagne.\n\nDroit européen de l'immigration, des visas et d'asile \n\nDans l'Union européenne, la politique relative à l'immigration se place dans le cadre de l'espace de liberté, de sécurité et de justice institué par le traité d'Amsterdam (titre IV). Elle est mise en place en particulier par le Commissaire européen pour la justice, la liberté et la sécurité, actuellement Věra Jourová. Si l'immigration, le crime organisé et le terrorisme relevaient de différents groupes de travaux au sein du Troisième pilier (Justice et Affaires intérieures), ces distinctions ont progressivement été effacées, la politique d'immigration de l'UE étant considérée comme partie de la politique de défense et de sécurité. Ces politiques ont une forte dimension intergouvernementales.\n\nLe Conseil européen de Tampere () a programmé la réalisation de cet espace pour fin 2004. Un grand nombre d'engagements demandent toutefois encore à être traduits dans la législation européenne et les directives adoptées dans ce cadre ne sont pas toutes transposées intégralement dans les législations nationales. Aucun État de l'Union européenne n'a ratifié, à ce jour, la Convention internationale sur la protection des droits de tous les travailleurs migrants et des membres de leur famille de l'ONU du .\n\nProcédures de décision selon les traités \nLes traités répartissent les pouvoirs de décision entre institutions communautaires d'une manière différenciée selon les politiques menées. Le traité d'Amsterdam, entré en vigueur en 1999, prévoyait de faire passer la politique de l'immigration, des visas et d'asile (titre IV) dans le premier pilier et de lui appliquer donc la méthode communautaire, c’est-à-dire que les décisions seraient prises en commun, sur proposition de la Commission européenne, par le Conseil de l'Union européenne, se prononçant à la majorité qualifiée, et le Parlement (article 251 du traité CE). La politique d'immigration a été mis en place en France sous 5 raisons.\n\nToutefois ce passage n'est que progressif. D'une part le traité d'Amsterdam prévoyait que la Commission n'aurait le monopole sur les propositions dans ce domaine qu'au bout de cinq ans. Cette phase est terminée depuis le .\n\nD'autre part la mise en œuvre dépend des matières concernées (article 67) :\n Jusqu'au début de l'année 2005, la plupart des mesures relatives à l'immigration, à l'asile et aux contrôles aux frontières étaient exclues de la méthode communautaire : le Conseil décidait à l'unanimité sur simple consultation du Parlement européen. La codécision s'appliquait toutefois à certaines mesures dans le domaine des visas.\n Depuis le , en vertu des dispositions de l'article 67 (passage automatique de certaines matières à la méthode communautaire) et de la décision du Conseil 2004/927/CE (qui traite des autres matières de l'article 62 et de certaines matières de l'article 63), l'ensemble de la politique de visas et de la politique d'asile relèvent du premier pilier de l'Union, c’est-à-dire de la méthode communautaire (majorité qualifiée au Conseil et codécision avec le Parlement), sauf sur certains points : l'unanimité reste la règle au Conseil pour adopter des mesures relatives à la délivrance de titres de séjour (y compris pour le regroupement familial). Certains États, en particulier l'Allemagne et l'Autriche, ne souhaitent pas abandonner leur droit de veto dans le domaine de l'immigration légale. Les autres matières (libre circulation des personnes à l'intérieur de l'Union, immigration clandestine...) sont désormais régies par la procédure de codécision.\n\nLe traité établissant une Constitution pour l'Europe, rejeté par la France et les Pays-Bas, prévoyait l'achèvement du passage des politiques de visa, d'asile et d'immigration dans le premier pilier.\n\nLe traité de Lisbonne supprime la structure par pilier et communautarise une partie des questions liées à l'immigration. Certaines, comme la définition de quotas d'immigrants légaux, restent des prérogatives nationales.\n\nLégislation européenne \nLes institutions européennes ont adopté des textes dans plusieurs domaines spécifiques :\n droit au regroupement familial : directive 2003/86/CE du Conseil, du .\n statut des ressortissants de pays tiers résidents de longue durée : la directive 2003/109/CE du Conseil, du , harmonise les législations des États membres, qui doivent reconnaître un statut de « résident de longue durée » obtenu après cinq années de résidence légale et ininterrompue. Ce statut est lié à la possession de ressources stables et suffisantes sans avoir recours à l'aide sociale. Il peut aussi être soumis à la maîtrise de la langue locale. Ce statut assure au ressortissant des droits égaux aux nationaux par exemple dans les domaines professionnel, scolaire et social, tout en admettant un certain nombre de dérogations nationales à ce principe d'égalité.\n reconnaissance mutuelle des décisions d'éloignement des ressortissants de pays tiers : la directive 2001/40/CE du Conseil, du , assure qu'une décision d'éloignement formulée par un État membre s'applique automatiquement sur tout le territoire de l'Union.\n sanctions pécuniaires contre les transporteurs : la directive 2001/51/CE du Conseil, du , prévoit des sanctions contre les transporteurs qui font entrer dans l'Union des ressortissants de pays tiers dépourvus des titres ou visas nécessaires.\n « Paquet asile » voté par le Parlement européen le . Inclut une proposition de révision de la directive \"accueil\" et une autre proposition visant à améliorer le système de Dublin. La Commission propose en outre de réviser le règlement Eurodac et de créer un Bureau européen d'appui en matière d'asile, partiellement financé par les fonds précédemment octroyés au Fonds européen pour les réfugiés, qui aura pour tâche d'assister les États membres dans la gestion des demandes d'asile.\n\nDirective retour \n\nLe Parlement européen a adopté la directive sur le retour des étrangers en situation irrégulière le par 367 voix contre 206. Le texte fixe des règles communes en matière de départ des États membres des étrangers en situation irrégulière. Le maintien en rétention avant expulsion est autorisé jusqu'à un maximum de dix-huit mois (la récente loi sécurité intérieure et immigration du gouvernement Berlusconi, en Italie, a augmenté la durée légale de rétention de deux à six mois; en France, la durée de rétention a été augmentée par la loi du 16 juin 2011 relative à l'immigration, à l'intégration et à la nationalité). Une possibilité d'interdiction du territoire communautaire pour cinq ans peut être également prononcée.\n\nJurisprudence \n\n arrêt Soysal de la Cour de justice des Communautés européennes (CJCE) du concernant les obligations de visa pour les ressortissants turcs (les relations entre la Turquie et l'Union européenne sont régies par l'accord d'Ankara de 1963 et son protocole additionnel de 1970). La CJCE y conclut que « L’article 41, paragraphe 1, du protocole additionnel, signé le (…) s’oppose à l’introduction, à compter de l’entrée en vigueur de ce protocole, de l’exigence d’un visa pour permettre à des ressortissants turcs (…) d’entrer sur le territoire d’un État membre aux fins d’y effectuer des prestations de services pour le compte d’une entreprise établie en Turquie, dès lors que, à cette date, un tel visa n’était pas exigé. » Le débat juridique porte donc sur la question de savoir qui peut être considéré comme se déplaçant « aux fins d’y effectuer des prestations de services » (voir la question posée par le député européen Cem Özdemir (Verts/ALE) en ).\n Arrêt du de la CJCE, dans les affaires jointes C-261/08 et C-348/08, García et Cabrera contre Delegado del Gobierno en la Región de Murcia, au sujet d'une question concernant l'obligation, ou non, d'expulser un étranger extracommunautaire en situation irrégulière.\n\nGestion commune de l'immigration et des frontières : l'agence Frontex \nthumb|250px|La barrière de Melilla (enclave espagnole dans l'Afrique du Nord).\nL'Union européenne a créé en 2004, par un règlement, l'Agence européenne pour la gestion de la coopération opérationnelle aux frontières extérieures des États membres de l'Union, plus communément appelée Frontex, afin de gérer de manière intégrée les frontières extérieures des États membres de l'Union européenne.\n\nUne « patrouille européenne contre l'immigration clandestine » a été créée par l'UE, en 2006, avec un budget de 3,2 millions d'euros.\n\nLe a été mis en œuvre un plan d'action sous l'égide de Frontex pour réduire les migrations clandestines d'origines subsahariennes à destination des îles Canaries . Le centre de commandement et de coordination des opérations se situe à Tenerife.\n\nDes États membres de l'UE fournissent des ressources pour aider l'Espagne notamment, en mettant à disposition en particulier une corvette de la marine portugaise, un avion et un patrouilleur des garde-côtes italiens et un avion finlandais .\n\nFranco Frattini, commissaire européen à la justice (2004-2008), avait alors estimé que la création de cette coopération était « un moment historique dans l'histoire des politiques d'immigration européennes et l'expression vraiment tangible de la solidarité » des États membres .\n\nDes accords entre l'UE et la Mauritanie et le Cap-Vert autorisent les patrouilles de Frontex sur les côtes de ces pays. Cependant, avec le Sénégal, les négociations n'avaient toujours pas abouti en .\n\nEn , la Commission européenne a examiné la possibilité de créer un Système européen de surveillance des frontières extérieures (EUROSUR).\n\nStatistiques \n\nSelon les Nations unies, en l'absence de migrations, dans les cinquante ans à venir, l'Union européenne verrait sa population diminuer de 43 millions, soit 11 %. Pour éviter cela elle aurait donc besoin de 47 millions d'immigrants, soit presque un million par an, ce qui correspond pratiquement à la situation actuelle.\n\nDepuis 2008, la collecte officielle de données sur la migration, la nationalité et l’asile est basée sur le règlement (CE) n° 862/2007. L’analyse et la composition des groupes des pays de l’Union européenne, des pays de l’AELE et des pays candidats au janvier de l’année de référence figurent dans le règlement d’exécution (UE) n° 351/2010. Celui-ci définit un ensemble élémentaire de statistiques sur les flux migratoires internationaux, les stocks de population étrangère, l’acquisition de la nationalité, les titres de séjour, l’asile et les mesures prises contre l’entrée et le séjour irréguliers. Les États membres de l’Union peuvent continuer d’utiliser toute donnée appropriée selon la disponibilité et les pratiques nationales, mais les statistiques établies au titre de ce règlement doivent reposer sur des définitions et des concepts communs. La plupart des États membres fondent leurs statistiques sur des sources de données administratives, telles que les registres de population, les registres des étrangers, les registres de titres de séjour ou de permis de travail, les registres de l’assurance-maladie et les registres fiscaux. Certains recourent aussi à des statistiques miroir, à des enquêtes par sondage ou à des méthodes d’estimation pour produire leurs statistiques sur la migration.\n\nDemandeurs d'asile \n\nEn 2008, sur près de demandes d'asile (soit 480 par million d'habitants), 73 % ont été rejetées (). demandeurs (13 %) se sont vu octroyer le statut de réfugié, (10 %) la protection subsidiaire et (5 %) une autorisation de séjour pour des raisons humanitaires. Ces demandeurs étaient principalement de nationalité irakienne (, soit 12 % de l’ensemble des demandeurs), russe (, soit 9 %), somalienne (, soit 6 %), serbe (, soit 6 %) et afghane (, soit 5 %).\n\nAu cours des huit premiers mois de l'année 2006, plus de personnes ont atteint les îles Canaries sur des embarcations de fortune. Selon le HCR, en 2008, environ 75 % des personnes arrivées par la mer en Italie ont déposé une demande d'asile et 50 % d'entre elles se sont vu octroyer le statut de réfugié ou une protection pour d'autres raisons humanitaires.\n\nImmigration dans quelques pays européens \n\nSelon l'Union européenne, les informations relatives à la nationalité ont souvent été utilisées pour étudier les immigrants d’origine étrangère. Néanmoins, étant donné que la nationalité peut changer au cours de la vie d’une personne, il est également utile de présenter des informations par pays de naissance.\n\nSelon la définition des Nations unies, est immigrée toute « personne née dans un autre pays que celui où elle réside ». Elle peut avoir la nationalité de son pays de naissance ou avoir une autre nationalité, notamment celle du pays dans lequel elle réside. Dans le premier cas, elle est étrangère, et dans le dernier, elle ne l’est pas, ayant la nationalité du pays où elle habite.\n\nToutefois, cette définition peut être soumise à interprétation, par exemple en France, on réserve la dénomination d’immigré aux seules personnes « nées étrangères à l’étranger », en excluant les personnes nées françaises (cas des Harkis, rapatriés d'Algérie européens et juifs etc). Ainsi, chaque pays adopte ses propres normes pour identifier les immigrés et les compter ce qui affecte directement la quantité et la proportion d'immigrés.\n\nEn 2010, il y avait 47,3 millions de personnes nés à l'étranger qui vivaient dans l'UE27, dont 16,0 millions (3,2 %) nés dans un autre État membre de l'UE27 et 31,4 millions (6,3 %) nés dans un pays hors de l'UE27. Au total, la population née à l'étranger comptait pour 9,4 % de la population totale de l'UE27. Les pays avec le plus grand nombre de personnes nées hors de l'UE27 sont l'Allemagne (6,4 millions), la France (5,1 millions), le Royaume-Uni (4,8 millions), l'Espagne (4,1 millions), l'Italie (3,2 millions) et les Pays-Bas (1,4 million).\n\nImmigration par nation\n\nDécès de migrants clandestins \n\nCertaines personnes décèdent lorsqu'elles tentent de gagner clandestinement le territoire d'un État membre. Les flux de migrants, qui prennent souvent le risque de voyager dans des embarcations précaires (les pateras), posent des problèmes particuliers aux États frontaliers. Certaines zones font ainsi l'objet de tentatives récurrentes d'accostage, tentatives se soldant souvent par la mort des migrants (appelés « harraga » en arabe): ainsi, le canal de Sicile, entre l'Italie et la Libye, les enclaves espagnoles au Maroc de Ceuta et Melilla, ou les îles Canaries sont des points d'entrée possibles sur le territoire européen. Au fil des ans, les États concernés (l'Espagne, l'Italie, etc.) ont réussi à obtenir une aide de l'UE concernant ce problème. L'externalisation des frontières de l'UE vers les pays du Maghreb (en particulier le Maroc) a aussi été une forme de réponse à cette question.\n\nSelon le Centre international pour le développement des politiques migratoires, au moins immigrants sont morts entre 1997 et 2007 en essayant de rejoindre les rives du sud de l'Europe. Selon l'ONG United for intercultural action, plus de migrants sont morts entre 1988 et 2012. Les données collectées avant ont été mises sous forme de carte interactive par Le mémorial des morts aux frontières de l'Europe. Selon l’association Fortress Europe, basée en Italie, plus de clandestins ont trouvé la mort et plus de ont été portés disparus entre 1988 et 2008, en tentant de traverser la Méditerranée dans la zone du canal de Sicile. En mer Méditerranée, ont perdu la vie migrants. Dans le Canal de Sicile personnes sont mortes, entre la Libye, l'Égypte, la Tunisie, Malte et l'Italie, dont disparus, et 70 autres ont perdu la vie le long des nouvelles routes entre l'Algérie et l'île de Sardaigne; personnes sont mortes au large des îles Canaries et du détroit de Gibraltar entre le Maroc et l'Espagne, dont disparus; 895 personnes sont mortes en mer Égée, entre la Turquie et la Grèce, dont 461 disparus; 603 personnes sont mortes en mer Adriatique, entre l'Albanie, le Monténégro et l'Italie, dont 220 disparus.\n : 800 migrants syriens, somaliens et érythréens trouvent la mort au large des côtes libyennes, l'embarcation aurait chaviré sous l'effet d'un mouvement de foule, alors qu'approchait un cargo portugais appelé à son secours. L'Union européenne s'est réunie en sommet extraordinaire le afin de répondre à la catastrophe humanitaire en mer Méditerranée. Selon le HCR, en 2015 un migrant meurt toutes les deux heures sur le chemin de l'exil vers l'Union européenne. \n\n : 500 migrants égyptiens, palestiniens, soudanais et syriens, partis de Damiette (Égypte) se noient au large de Malte, leur navire ayant été sabordé par leurs passeurs à la suite de leur refus d'embarquer sur un autre bateau trop petit.\n : 360 immigrés, érythréens pour la plupart, trouvent la mort lors du naufrage du bateau qui les transportait, au large de l'île de Lampedusa.\n : 200 migrants se noient dans une embarcation au large de la Libye.\n : 70 migrants africains portés disparus au large de Malte ; huit survivants.\n : 2 femmes (l'une enceinte) meurent près de l'île de Lampedusa.\n : au moins 40 personnes ont péri et près de 100 sont portées disparues après le naufrage d'un bateau transportant des migrants vers l'Italie, au large de Zuwarah en Libye.\n 2007 : plus de décès et disparitions enregistrées.\n août 2007: 45 migrants de nationalité mauritanienne, marocaine, ghanéenne et nigériane meurent au large de Lampedusa. Le ministre de l'Intérieur italien, Giuliano Amato, déclare alors que la Méditerranée est « de plus en plus une mer de cadavres ».\n : un bateau de 49 migrants est intercepté au large de l'île de Tenerife ; trois migrants sont morts lors de la traversée.\n début juillet 2006 : 3 migrants africains meurent alors qu'ils essayaient d'escalader la barrière de Melilla.\n août 2005 : 535 migrants africains sont expulsés du Maroc vers l'Algérie; de là, ils sont déportés en camion et abandonnés au milieu du désert entre Algérie et Mali. On ne retrouve que quelques survivants.\n septembre 2005 : à Ceuta, enclave espagnole au Maroc, la police espagnole tire sur des migrants escaladant les murs. Au moins 11 morts.\n : deux migrants (nationalité inconnue) meurent dans des champs de mines à Evros, en Grèce.\n : deux Géorgiens meurent à Evros, alors qu'ils essaient de passer de Turquie en Grèce, à cause de mines anti-personnel.\n : un Mauritanien et un Tunisien meurent à Evros, en Grèce, à cause de mines anti-personnel; un Irakien est blessé\n\nMarché du travail \n« Selon la Commission européenne (2011), un tiers des migrants sont surqualifiés par rapport au travail qu’ils exercent, ce qui constitue un gaspillage de capital humain que l’Europe ne peut se permettre. »\n\nNe souhaitant pas accueillir d’immigrés arabo-musulmans, les pays d’Europe de l’Est comme la Pologne, la Hongrie ou la Roumanie, en manque de main d’œuvre, font appel à des travailleurs issus de pays comme l’Ukraine, la Moldavie ou des pays asiatiques (Viêt Nam, Chine, Inde, Mongolie).\n\nSources\n\nRéférences\n\nBibliographie\n\nCompléments\n\nArticles connexes \n Démographie de l'Union européenne\n Système d'information des visas, base de données biométriques de l'UE devant entrer en vigueur au printemps 2009\n Immigration\n Mobilité dans l'Union européenne\n Citoyenneté européenne\n Mémorial des morts aux frontières de l'Europe\n Règlement Dublin III\n\nLiens externes \n Politique d'immigration et droits des ressortissants des États tiers sur le site de la Communauté européenne (SCADPlus).\n Politiques européennes de migration. Un dialogue, Revue Emulations, . Article de vulgarisation des débats entre académiques et experts européens concernant la question des politiques de migration en Europe.\n\nCatégorie:Droit des étrangers dans l'Union européenne\n*\nCatégorie:Démographie de l'Union européenne\n\nes:Migración en la Unión Europea", "La représentativité syndicale est la capacité, pour des organisations syndicales de salariés, de parler au nom de ces derniers. La reconnaissance de cette capacité permet en particulier aux organisations de négocier et de signer, avec l'employeur ou les représentants du patronat, des accords s'appliquant à l'ensemble des salariés d'une entreprise, d'une branche d'activité au niveau local ou national, ou encore à tous les salariés de l'ensemble des secteurs d'activité.\n\nLa situation française a été pendant plus de 50 ans marquée par l'empreinte de l'état des forces syndicales à la Libération. De 1944 aux années 2000, seules cinq confédérations syndicales bénéficiaient d'une présomption irréfragable de représentativité au niveau national interprofessionnel. La loi du a modifié ce statu quo.\n\nLa participation aux élections professionnelles est devenue un baromètre de représentativité majeur qui permet aux syndicats de salariés de peser dans les négociations avec leurs employeurs.\n\nDe manière générale, le taux de syndicalisation en France est très bas en comparaison avec d'autres pays, où se syndiquer permet de bénéficier des accords collectifs obtenus par les syndicats. En 2012, avec un taux de syndicalisation de 7,7 %, la France est le troisième pays le moins syndicalisé de l'OCDE, et le dernier au niveau de l'Union européenne (8 %).\n\nReprésentativité syndicale 2017 \nLa représentativité syndicale au niveau national et interprofessionnel a été définie à la suite de la loi de 2008. Les cinq confédérations « historiques » restent les seules représentatives en dépassant la barre des 8 % des votants. Les syndicats dits « réformistes » (CFDT, CFE-CGC et CFTC) passent, en poids relatif, la barre des 50 % ce qui ne permet pas aux deux autres (CGT et FO) de bloquer seuls des accords. En dépassant les 30 %, la CFDT est le seul syndicat à pouvoir signer seul un accord, sauf si au moins trois autres syndicats, dont la CGT, font jouer leur droit d'opposition.\n\nOrigines de la représentativité en France\n\nLa genèse \nLa notion juridique de représentativité en matière syndicale a pour origine un texte international : les dispositions du traité de Versailles relatives à la création de l'Organisation internationale du travail prévoient que les États membres s'engagent à désigner, pour la Conférence générale, « les délégués et conseillers techniques non gouvernementaux en accord avec les organisations professionnelles les plus représentatives. »\n\nEn France, le décret du relatif à la réorganisation du Conseil supérieur du travail crée une distinction entre les syndicats en fonction de leur nombre d'adhérents. \n\nCependant, il faut attendre 1936, et notamment le vote de la loi du , qui limite aux seules organisations syndicales les plus représentatives la possibilité de signer des conventions collectives, pour que cette notion devienne prépondérante.\n\nLa situation de l'après-guerre \nLa loi du organise un retour aux principes de la loi de 1936 qui avaient été remis en cause par les décrets-lois de l'État français. Elle maintient le monopole de négociation des organisations syndicales les plus représentatives.\n\nLa représentativité des syndicats est ensuite définie par la loi en 1950. Elle est alors déterminée d'après les critères suivants :\n les effectifs ;\n l'indépendance ;\n les cotisations ;\n l'expérience et l'ancienneté du syndicat ;\n l’attitude patriotique pendant l'Occupation. \nCes critères seront inscrits dans le code du travail jusqu'en 2008.\n\nPour la négociation des conventions collectives de travail, une première liste de syndicats représentatifs avait été fixée en 1948 (par un arrêté du président du conseil des ministres et du ministre du travail). Étaient, à l'époque, considérées comme les plus représentatives les organisations syndicales nationales de salariés affiliées aux confédérations suivantes : \n Confédération générale du travail ;\n Confédération générale du travail - Force ouvrière ;\n Confédération française des travailleurs chrétiens ;\n Confédération générale des cadres.\n\nElle a été actualisée par l'arrêté du pour prendre acte de la scission de la CFTC en 1964 avec la transformation en CFDT et la création d'une CFTC « maintenue ». \n\nEn 1968, la loi a permis à tout syndicat affilé à une organisation représentative sur le plan national, « considéré comme représentatif dans l'entreprise », de désigner un délégué syndical dans les structures de plus de 50 salariés.\n\nL’objet de l'arrêté de 1966 visait la négociation des conventions collectives ; celui de la loi de 1968, l'exercice du droit syndical en entreprise. En 1983, un arrêt de la cour de cassation a précisé que les organisations syndicales déclarées représentatives sur le plan national bénéficient d'une présomption irréfragable de représentativité dans les entreprises lors des élections.\n\nProblèmes posés par la présomption de représentativité \nLes structures syndicales s'étant constituées postérieurement à la fin du rencontrent des problèmes au quotidien, car elles ne bénéficient pas de la présomption de représentativité : cela les exclut de diverses instances syndicales où ne peuvent siéger que des syndicats « représentatifs », et donc complique leur activité.\n\nC'est pourquoi l'UNSA a attaqué l'arrêté du sur la base de son score de plus de 5 % aux élections prud'homales de 2002, mais elle a été déboutée en 2004.\n\nDébats ayant amené à la réforme de 2008 \nLe rapport réalisé par Raphaël Hadas-Lebel, à la demande du premier ministre, lui a été remis en et porte sur la représentativité et le financement des organisations professionnelles et syndicales. Le rapport élabore plusieurs pistes pour réformer le système actuel, les pistes portant sur un système de présomption irréfragable qui ne jouerait plus à tous les niveaux, sur une représentativité établie par le vote et sur la simplification du système de validité des accords.\n\nDans son avant-projet rendu public le , le Conseil économique et social propose que la représentativité ne soit établie que sur la seule audience électorale des syndicats, et ainsi de mettre fin à la présomption irréfragable de représentativité accordée à cinq organisations syndicales. Les auteurs proposent d'accorder un statut de « représentativité nationale » aux organisations obtenant plus de 5 % aux élections prud'homales. \n\nLa CFDT objecte le risque de créer une sorte de démocratie d'opinion, plus basée sur l'image d'un syndicat que sur sa réelle activité sur le terrain et propose donc de se fonder sur l'audience dans les branches professionnelles. \n\nLa partie du rapport concernant la représentativité des organisations patronales fait le constat qu'« aucun texte ni critère ne fixe les conditions de représentativité des organisations d'employeurs », précisant aussi que, dans ce cas, il n'est pas possible de se baser sur les élections prud'homales puisque les organisations d'employeurs font liste commune.\n\nUn projet de réforme est validé avec 18 voix contre 4 par une commission du Conseil économique et social et le rapport se présente comme un prémisse à la réforme de 2008.\n\nUne position commune sur la représentativité syndicale est signée par la CGT, la CFDT, le MEDEF et la CGPME (refus de la CFE-CGC, de la CFTC et de la CGT-FO, côté salariés, et de l'UPA, côté patronat). Elle conforte la présence dominante de la CFDT et de la CGT mais fragilise la CFE-CGC et la CFTC qui pourraient ne plus être reconnues comme représentatives au niveau national quand bien même elles le seraient dans certaines entreprises ou certaines branches. Force ouvrière resterait représentative au niveau national mais pas dans certaines entreprises. Quant à l'UNSA et à Solidaires, leur représentativité interprofessionnelle pourrait être difficile à obtenir du fait de leur absence dans de nombreuses entreprises et branches.\n\nPour les non signataires de la « position commune », ce texte est dangereux pour la démocratie syndicale puisqu'il ne tient compte que des élections en entreprise. Or, aujourd'hui, 50 % des salariés français ne votent pas à des élections professionnelles du fait de la taille de leur entreprise. Une élection nationale, du type des prud'homales, aurait permis à tous les travailleurs (chômeurs et jeunes retraités compris) de voter pour le syndicat de leur choix, qu'il soit présent ou non dans leur entreprise.\n\nLa « position commune » a été transposée dans un projet de loi présenté par le gouvernement et débattu au parlement à l'été 2008. Après la saisine et l'avis du conseil constitutionnel, la loi adoptée a été publiée au Journal officiel le .\n\nLa réforme de 2008 \n\nLa loi du a supprimé la représentativité irréfragable et a institué de nouveaux critères. \n\nIl n'y a pas de vérification préalable de la représentativité. La loi n'ayant pas modifié les règles de contentieux sur la représentativité, en cas de litiges c'est le tribunal d'instance qui doit être saisi et qui devra vérifier si tous les critères sont effectivement remplis. \n\nDésormais la représentativité des organisations syndicales sera reconnue sur la base de critères communs qui ont été réactualisés et adaptés aux niveaux de l'entreprise, de la branche et de l'interprofessionnel.\n\nCritères de la représentativité en France \nLa représentativité d'un syndicat résulte de sept critères légaux qui sont cumulatifs :\n Le respect des valeurs républicaines ;\n L'indépendance ;\n La transparence financière ;\n Une ancienneté minimale de deux ans dans le champ professionnel et géographique couvrant le niveau de négociation. Cette ancienneté s'apprécie à compter de la date de dépôt légal des statuts ; \n L'influence, prioritairement caractérisée par l'activité et l'expérience ;\n Les effectifs d'adhérents et les cotisations.\n L'audience établie selon les niveaux de négociation conformément aux articles L2122-1, L2122-5, L2122-6 et L2122-9.\n\nCes critères reprennent ceux de la position commune. Selon les termes de l'exposé des motifs de la loi lors de sa présentation à l'assemblée nationale, ils seront cumulatifs « mais leur ensemble sera apprécié de manière globale, c’est-à-dire que tous les critères devront être remplis mais que leur pondération pourra varier, selon les situations et les niveaux, en fonction de leur importance relative. »\n\nRespect des valeurs républicaines \nCe nouveau critère remplace celui de l’« attitude patriotique pendant l'Occupation », devenu obsolète.\n\nSelon les organisations signataires de la position commune, le respect des valeurs républicaines implique le respect de la liberté d'opinion, politique, philosophique ou religieuse ainsi que le refus de toute discrimination, de tout intégrisme et de toute intolérance. Cette définition est reprise dans les communications du ministère du Travail.\n\nCe critère doit être rapproché d'une jurisprudence de la cour de cassation selon laquelle « un syndicat professionnel ne peut pas être fondé sur une cause ou en vue d'un objet illicite. Il en résulte qu'il ne peut poursuivre des objectifs essentiellement politiques ni agir contrairement aux dispositions de l'article L. 122-45 du code du travail et aux principes de non-discrimination contenus dans la Constitution, les textes à valeur constitutionnelle et les engagements internationaux auxquels la France est partie. »\n\nIndépendance \nCe critère ancien a été conservé, il oblige les organisations syndicales à être indépendantes de l'employeur mais également de mouvements politiques et religieux.\n\n L'indépendance vis-à-vis de l'employeur est un élément essentiel pour la légitimité d'un syndicat. L'objectif du critère est d'exclure les syndicats jaunes ou les syndicats-maison, compris dans le sens d'organisations inféodées à l'employeur, des syndicats représentatifs. Selon la jurisprudence, un syndicat ne peut être reconnu représentatif lorsque le juge constate « outre le montant dérisoire des cotisations perçues par ce syndicat, les pressions exercées par l'employeur sur le choix des candidats, la prise en charge par la direction des frais d'avocat du syndicat, la complaisance manifestée par cette même direction à l'égard du représentant dudit syndicat. »\n\n Une partie prépondérante du syndicalisme français repose sur l'affirmation de l'indépendance syndicale face aux partis politiques (notamment de gauche) et un refus de liens entre le parti et le syndicat tels qu'ils peuvent exister dans le modèle allemand ou anglais. Le syndicat FO a notamment repris à son compte cette affirmation de l'indépendance, proclamée initialement dans la Charte d'Amiens, pour se distinguer de la CGT, jugée trop proche du PCF. Par ailleurs, l'objet exclusif des syndicats professionnels doit être, selon la loi, l'étude et la défense des droits ainsi que des intérêts matériels et moraux, tant collectifs qu'individuels, des personnes mentionnées dans leurs statuts. Au sens strict, l'action syndicale se distingue de l'action politique.\n\nTransparence financière \nLa loi ajoute là un critère nouveau qui figurait, lui aussi, dans la position commune.\n\nElle introduit dans le Code du travail l'obligation de tenue d'une comptabilité pour tout syndicat constitué ainsi que des obligations en matière de certification et de publication des comptes des confédérations, fédérations, unions régionales et syndicats à partir d'un seuil de ressources fixé par décret.\n\nAncienneté \nSi ce critère existait auparavant, il n'avait pas un caractère prépondérant : selon la jurisprudence, la création récente d'un syndicat pouvait être compensée par son nombre d'adhérents, son activité, l'expérience syndicale de ses dirigeants et son indépendance financière. Le caractère cumulatif des critères et la période minimale de deux ans exigés maintenant par la loi devraient donner plus de poids à ce critère.\n\nInfluence \nElle se distingue de l'audience. Selon la Haute juridiction, « c'est l'influence du syndicat qui caractérise son implantation durable et effective dans une entreprise, l'influence s'entendant des résultats objectifs d'une activité authentiquement tournée vers la défense des intérêts des travailleurs et pas seulement de l'aptitude à faire connaître le syndicat. »\n\nLes effectifs d'adhérents et cotisations \nIl s'agit des effectifs des adhérents comparés à l'effectif de l'entreprise et en fonction du taux de syndicalisation dans la profession. Les cotisations doivent être significatives.\n\nAudience\n\nLa mesure de l'audience \nLe critère de l'audience est la clef de voûte de la réforme. Les élections professionnelles deviennent le passage obligé des syndicats pour prouver leur représentativité et pouvoir ensuite signer des accords engageant les salariés. La réforme introduit la notion d'une remise en cause périodique de cette représentativité : l'audience sera mesurée à chaque élection.\n\nReprésentativité au niveau de l'entreprise \nLe critère d'audience est mesuré lors du premier tour des élections au comité d'entreprise ou de la délégation unique du personnel ou à défaut des délégués du personnel.\n\nLa prise en compte des résultats aux élections des DP n'intervient qu'à titre subsidiaire. Ce n'est qu'en l'absence de CE que ce résultat aura un impact. Ce premier tour est ouvert à toutes les organisations syndicales, représentatives ou non. \n\nÀ l'issue de ce , pour qu'une organisation syndicale soit reconnue représentative dans l'entreprise, il faut, en plus des 6 autres critères, qu'elle ait recueilli au moins 10 % des suffrages exprimés.\n\nLe texte précise que ce résultat s'apprécie « quel que soit le nombre de votants ». Peu importe donc que le quorum ait été atteint.\n\nReprésentativité au niveau des branches \nLe critère d'audience pour la représentativité au niveau des branches professionnelles est mesuré par agrégation des résultats électoraux des entreprises de la branche. Une organisation syndicale doit recueillir au moins 8 % des suffrages exprimés pour être représentative dans la branche. Elle doit en outre disposer d'une implantation territoriale équilibrée au niveau de la branche.\n\nReprésentativité au niveau national \nLe critère d'audience pour la représentativité au niveau national interprofessionnel est mesuré par agrégation de l'ensemble des résultats électoraux. Une organisation syndicale doit recueillir au moins 8 % des suffrages exprimés pour être représentative au niveau national interprofessionnel. Elle doit en outre être représentative à la fois dans des branches de l'industrie, de la construction, du commerce et des services.\n\nSes résultats pour la période 2008-2012 ont été rendus publics en . Les cinq organisations syndicales précédemment reconnues gardent seules leur représentativité interprofessionnel en dépassant toutes les 8 % : CGT (26,77 %), CFDT (26,0 %), FO (15,94 %), CFTC (9,3 %) et CFE-CGC (9,3 %), alors que l'UNSA obtient 4,26 %, et Solidaires (SUD) 3,47 %. En rapportant les résultats aux 5 seules organisations représentatives, la CFDT obtient alors 29,74 %, ce qui avec la CFTC (10,6 %) et la CGC (10,8 %), fait que leur union pèse 51 % contre 49 % au bloc CGT (30,6 %) - FO (18,2 %).\n\nLa seconde mesure d'audience publiée prend en compte les scores obtenues par les organisations syndicales pour la période 2013-2016 lors  des élections professionnelles (comité d’entreprise, délégation unique du personnel, à défaut délégués du personnel) organisées dans les entreprises d’au moins 11 salariés entre le et le  ; lors du scrutin organisé auprès des salariés des très petites entreprises et des employés à domicile du au (et jusqu’au pour l’Outre-Mer)  et lors et des élections aux chambres départementales d’agriculture, pour les salariés de la production agricole, qui se sont déroulées en . Les 5 organisations qui ont dépassées les 8 % sont ː CFDT : 26,37 % - CGT : 24,85 % - CGT-FO : 15,59 % - CFE-CGC : 10,67 % - CFTC : 9,49 % .\n\nMesures transitoires \nLa représentativité des syndicats, issue de l'arrêté du ou d'une décision d'un tribunal d'instance, a été maintenue après la promulgation de la loi du , pour les entreprises déjà pourvues d'instances représentatives du personnel, jusqu'à l'organisation de nouvelles élections professionnelles. Cette disposition concernait également les entreprises qui avaient commencé à négocier le protocole électoral avant la promulgation de la loi.\n\nLes effets de la représentativité \nLes syndicats reconnus représentatifs disposent de prérogatives exclusives quant aux moyens dont ils disposent dans l'entreprise et a la faculté de négocier des accords collectifs.\n\nDésignation d'un délégué syndical \nSeule une organisation syndicale représentative, peut, quand elle constitue une section syndicale, désigner un salarié, délégué syndical. \n\nCette personne doit impérativement (dans les entreprises ou établissements de plus de cinquante salariés) :\n Avoir 18 ans révolus, travailler dans l'entreprise depuis un an au moins et n'avoir fait l'objet d'aucune interdiction, déchéance ou incapacité relatives à ses droits civiques. Ce délai est réduit à 4 mois en cas de création d'entreprise ou d'ouverture d'établissement (art. L2143-1 du code du travail).\n Avoir été candidat à une élection professionnelle (CE, DUP ou DP) et avoir recueilli, en son nom, au moins 10 % des suffrages exprimés au premier tour.\n\nLa désignation du délégué syndical peut intervenir lorsque l'effectif de cinquante salariés ou plus a été atteint pendant 12 mois consécutifs ou non au cours des trois années précédentes (art. L2143-3 al.3 du code du travail).\n\nDans les établissements de moins de cinquante salariés :\n Un délégué du personnel en exercice peut être désigné délégué syndical par les syndicats représentatifs dans l'établissement ou dans l'entreprise (art. L2143-6 du code du travail).\n\nLes règles de la représentativité du syndicat sont aménagées lors de la désignation d'un délégué syndical central dans les entreprises de plus de .\n\nCapacité à négocier \nSeules les organisations syndicales représentatives peuvent, normalement, signer des accords collectifs.\n\nConditions de validité des accords collectifs\n\nConvention et accord d'entreprise ou d'établissement \nDepuis le , les modalités de négociation et les conditions de validité d'un tel accord, définies par les dispositions de la loi du 20 août 2008, sont fonction de la présence de délégués syndicaux.\n\nEntreprises pourvues d'un ou plusieurs délégués syndicaux\nLa validité de l'accord est subordonnée : \n à sa signature par une ou plusieurs organisations syndicales de salariés représentatives ayant recueilli au moins 30 % des suffrages exprimés au premier tour des dernières élections des titulaires au comité d'entreprise ou de la délégation unique du personnel ou, à défaut, des délégués du personnel, quel que soit le nombre de votants ;\n à l'absence d'opposition, dans les 8 jours, d'une ou de plusieurs organisations syndicales de salariés représentatives ayant recueilli la majorité des suffrages exprimés à ces mêmes élections, quel que soit le nombre de votants.\n\nEntreprises non pourvues de délégués syndicaux\n\nDans la fonction publique en France \nLes cinq confédérations qui bénéficient de la présomption irréfragable de représentativité et la Fédération de l'Éducation nationale (FEN) ont longtemps formé les syndicats majeurs de la fonction publique française. Il n'existait pas de critère officiel de représentativité jusqu'en 1996. À la suite des grèves de 1995 et de l'éclatement de la FEN, le gouvernement Juppé (par le ministre de la fonction publique, Dominique Perben) a proposé de nouvelles règles : pour être considéré comme représentatif, il faut dépasser le seuil des 3 % des suffrages dans chacune des trois fonctions publiques (fonction publique d'État, fonction publique hospitalière, fonction publique territoriale).\n\nL'UNSA a vite obtenu sa reconnaissance, la FSU plus difficilement, SUD/Solidaires en a été tenu un temps à l'écart. Bien que semblant répondre aux critères, SUD/Solidaires a été, en , débouté de cette reconnaissance de représentativité avant que, le , le Conseil d'État ne finisse par la lui reconnaître<ref>« Union syndicale Solidaires : la décision du Conseil d'État », Les Échos, 22 décembre 2006</ref>.\n\nCes huit organisations sont donc représentées au Conseil supérieur de la fonction publique de l'État.\n\nDans les entreprises publiques, les grèves doivent être précédées d'un préavis déposé par une organisation syndicale représentative.\n\n Représentativité dans le « syndicalisme » étudiant en France \n\nLes critères de représentativité des associations d'étudiants ont été déterminés par la loi Jospin en 1989. \n\nSont regardées comme représentatives celles qui ont pour objet la défense des droits et intérêts matériels et moraux, tant collectifs qu'individuels, des étudiants et, à ce titre, siègent au CNESER ou au conseil d'administration du CNOUS\n\nActuellement, quatre organisations étudiantes sont considérées comme représentatives en France en raison de leurs résultats électoraux :\n Fédération des associations générales étudiantes (FAGE)\n Mouvement des étudiants (MET)\n Promotion et défense des étudiants (PDE)\n Union nationale des étudiants de France (UNEF)\n\n Représentativité des organisations patronales \nLes différents rapports et projets de loi sur la représentativité syndicale n'ont, jusqu'à présent, jamais remis en question la représentativité des principales organisations patronales existantes, ce que contestent des organisations comme la CEDI. \n\nLe MEDEF est, aujourd'hui encore, en position dominante mais il ne tire sa légitimité, tout comme les autres organisations patronales (CPME, U2P, etc.) d'aucune élection en dehors des élections prud'homales où, dans certains conseils, les alliances entre organisations ne facilitent pas la lisibilité de cette représentativité. Les élections de 2008 ont d'ailleurs vu le MEDEF et ses alliés perdre de façon significative de leur audience face, notamment, aux organisations de l'économie dite « sociale et solidaire », unies dans des listes nommées « Employeurs de l'économie sociale ».\n\nLa représentativité des organisations patronales au niveau interprofessionnel dépend de la compétence du Premier ministre tandis que pour les organisations professionnelles au niveau des branches la représentativité est accordée après enquête administrative du ministère du Travail sur le champ concerné. Le débat sur la représentativité des organisations patronales se heurte à plusieurs difficultés comme la prise en compte des entreprises qui adhèrent à plusieurs organisations (par exemple au niveau national et au niveau local ; ainsi un patron d'entreprise peut en plus de sa fédération professionnelle adhérer à l'un des 155 MEDEF territoriaux) et le fait de savoir dans quelle mesure il faut prendre en compte le nombre de salariés employés plutôt que le nombre d'employeurs.\n\n Notes et références \n\n Source \n « Loi portant rénovation de la démocratie sociale », Liaisons Sociales Quotidien'', 01/09/08, /2008\n\nAnnexes\n\nArticles connexes \n Syndicat professionnel\n Permanent syndical\n Haut conseil du dialogue social (France)\n Financement des syndicats de salariés en France\n Délégué syndical\n Accords collectifs en France\n\nLiens externes \n Rapport du Sénat sur la représentativité des syndicats de salariés\n Portail d'information officiel du ministère du travail\n\nCatégorie:Représentation du personnel en France\nCatégorie:Syndicalisme en France", "Manuel Marín González, né le à Ciudad Real et mort le à Madrid, est un homme d'État espagnol membre du Parti socialiste ouvrier espagnol (PSOE).\n\nUniversitaire, il adhère au PSOE quand celui-ci se trouve toujours dans la clandestinité. Dès , il est élu député de Ciudad Real au Congrès des députés. Il devient secrétaire d'État aux Affaires européennes plus tard.\n\nIl est choisi en pour intégrer la Commission européenne à la suite de l'adhésion de l'Espagne à la CEE. Il intègre l'exécutif communautaire en , avec le titre de vice-président qu'il conserve . Sur la même période, il est successivement commissaire aux Affaires sociales, puis commissaire au Développement et enfin commissaire aux Relations extérieures. Il est considéré comme étant le fondateur du programme européen Erasmus.\n\nAprès que Jacques Santer a dû remettre sa démission en , le Conseil européen le nomme président de la Commission par intérim. Il est remplacé plus tard par Romano Prodi. À cette occasion, Pedro Solbes le remplace au sein de l'exécutif communautaire. Il est ainsi le seul Espagnol à avoir présidé cette instance de l'Union européenne.\n\nIl revient à la politique espagnole dès , comme député de Ciudad Real. Après les élections de , il est élu au poste de président du Congrès des députés. Ne se représentant pas en , il se retire de la vie politique.\n\nBiographie \n\nLicencié en droit de l'université complutense de Madrid, il se spécialise en droit européen à l'université de Nancy et au Collège d'Europe de Bruges.\n\nIl a également été professeur à l'université Charles III de Madrid.\n\nLe , il devient président de la fondation Iberdrola.\n\nActivité politique\n\nLes débuts en Espagne \nLors de son passage en Belgique, Manuel Marín entre en contact avec des membres du Parti socialiste ouvrier espagnol, qui se trouve alors dans la clandestinité. Il y adhère en .\n\nIl revient ensuite en Espagne et travaille au département des Relations internationales du PSOE. Pour les élections législatives constituantes du , il se présente dans la circonscription électorale de Ciudad Real et se fait élire au Congrès des députés. Il est réélu au cours des élections législatives du . Pendant ces deux premiers mandats, il est notamment membre de la commission des Affaires étrangères.\n\nIl obtient un troisième mandat lors des élections législatives anticipées du . Il est nommé le suivant secrétaire d'État aux Relations avec les Communautés européennes. Il participe alors à la phase finale des négociations d'adhésion de l'Espagne, qui s'achèvent le par la signature du traité d'adhésion. Il devient secrétaire d'État aux Communautés européennes en suivant.\n\nAu niveau européen \nIl remet sa démission au mois d', après avoir été désigné avec Abel Matutes comme futur commissaire européen espagnol.\n\nLe , Manuel Marín devient vice-président de la Commission européenne, commissaire aux Affaires sociales, à l'Emploi, à l'Éducation et à la Formation dans la première Commission des Communautés européennes formée par le Français Jacques Delors.\n\nLors de la formation de la Commission Delors le , il est confirmé en tant que vice-président du collège. Il est parallèlement désigné commissaire européen à la Coopération, au Développement et à la Pêche. À la nomination de la Commission Delors le , il perd le portefeuille de la Pêche au profit de celui de l'Aide humanitaire.\n\nQuand le Luxembourgeois Jacques Santer prend la suite de Delors et constitue sa Commission, Marín est choisi comme premier vice-président et commissaire aux Relations extérieures avec le Sud de la Méditerranée, l'Amérique latine et le Moyen-Orient. Il est alors le plus ancien commissaire européen en fonction, étant le dernier membre de la Commission Delors encore en fonction.\n\nPrésident de la Commission par intérim \nLe collège des commissaires annonce sa démission le , après avoir été mis en cause par le Parlement européen pour des affaires de mauvaise gestion budgétaire et de népotisme. Dès le lendemain, le Conseil européen acte que Manuel Marín occupe par intérim le poste de président de la Commission européenne. La Commission Marín constitue alors une réplique exacte de la Commission Santer, le nouveau chef de l'exécutif communautaire conservant ses fonctions de commissaire.\n\nIl cède ses fonctions le à l'Italien Romano Prodi. Il n'est alors pas reconduit dans la Commission que constitue ce dernier, les socialistes espagnols ayant proposé Pedro Solbes pour siéger au sein du collège des commissaires. Solbes était déjà son successeur comme secrétaire d'État, plus tôt.\n\nLe retour en Espagne \nDe retour en Espagne, il prend la tête de la liste socialiste pour les élections générales du dans la province de Ciudad Real.\n\nÉlu au Congrès des députés à l'occasion du scrutin, il est réélu au moment des législatives du , remportées par le PSOE. Le suivant et à la suite d'un accord avec les partis minoritaires, il est élu Président du Congrès des députés. Il reste à ce jour le seul à avoir appliqué une mesure d'expulsion à l'encontre d'un autre député, en l'occurrence Vicente Martínez-Pujalte, du Parti populaire, qu'il avait rappelé à l'ordre par trois fois.\n\nLe , Manuel Marín annonce qu'il se retire de la vie politique, et qu'il prend la présidence d'une fondation du géant basque de l’énergie Iberdrola consacrée à la lutte contre le changement climatique.\n\nIl meurt le à Madrid, des suites d'un cancer du poumon.\n\nHommages \nLa promotion 2014 de la European School of Political and Social Sciences (ESPOL) de l'Université Catholique de Lille porte son nom.\n\nLa promotion 2018-2019 du Collège d'Europe porte son nom, faisant de lui le premier ancien élève de l'école à devenir patron de promotion.\n\nSources\n\nRéférences\n\nBibliographie\n\nCompléments\n\nArticles connexes \n Commission Delors , et \n Commission Santer ; Commission Marín\n Président du Congrès des députés (Espagne)\n\nLiens externes \n \n\nCatégorie:Naissance en octobre 1949\nCatégorie:Naissance à Ciudad Real\nCatégorie:Étudiant de l'université complutense de Madrid\nCatégorie:Étudiant du Collège d'Europe\nCatégorie:Personnalité politique espagnole de l'époque démocratique\nCatégorie:Personnalité du Parti socialiste ouvrier espagnol\nCatégorie:Président de la Commission européenne\nCatégorie:Commission Santer\nCatégorie:Président du Congrès des députés espagnol\nCatégorie:Député de la province de Ciudad Real\nCatégorie:Député espagnol de la législature constituante\nCatégorie:Député espagnol de la Ire législature\nCatégorie:Député espagnol de la IIe législature\nCatégorie:Député espagnol de la VIIe législature\nCatégorie:Député espagnol de la VIIIe législature\nCatégorie:Universitaire espagnol\nCatégorie:Commission Delors I\nCatégorie:Commission Delors II\nCatégorie:Commission Delors III\nCatégorie:Commission Marín\nCatégorie:Grand-croix de l'ordre d'Isabelle la Catholique\nCatégorie:Grand-croix de l'ordre d'Alphonse X le Sage\nCatégorie:Grand-croix de l'ordre de Charles III (roi d'Espagne)\nCatégorie:Grand-croix de l'ordre du grand-duc Gediminas\nCatégorie:Récipiendaire de l'ordre de la Croix de Terra Mariana de première classe\nCatégorie:Décès à Madrid\nCatégorie:Décès à 68 ans\nCatégorie:Mort d'un cancer du poumon\nCatégorie:Mort d'un cancer en Espagne\nCatégorie:Décès en décembre 2017\nCatégorie:Commissaire européen espagnol", "Yvan Beck, né au Congo en 1956, est un vétérinaire belge, qui pratique à Bruxelles son métier en lien direct avec les domaines fondamentaux associés au bien-être animal : l’environnement, l’éthique, l’interdépendance entre l’homme et l’animal, le droit du vivant, les relations entre l’économie et le monde vivant. Depuis 1996, comme président de l’association Planète Vie, il réalise des films, publie des livres et des études, et organise des cycles de conférences et des événements afin de sensibiliser le public et le monde politique à la cause animale.\n\nBiographie\n\nJeunesse et formation, sa carrière vétérinaire \nAu Congo belge, Yvan Beck se découvre une passion pour le monde animal. De retour en Belgique, il obtient à 12 ans un diplôme d’apiculteur. Après des études en médecine vétérinaire (1981), il pratique d’emblée son métier selon une approche holistique et complète sa formation par une spécialisation en ostéopathie. Parallèlement, il se spécialise en biologie clinique et est responsable de départements vétérinaires dans différents laboratoires d’analyse médicale (1982-1992). Il crée en 1985 un département de diagnostic des maladies virales chez les carnivores domestiques, en collaboration avec l’université de Liège. De 1986 à 1990, il se fait connaître en animant quotidiennement l’émission animalière Poils et Plumes sur la chaîne de télévision belge RTL.\n\nEtude de l’environnement, la cause animale \nA partir de 1990, sa carrière marque un tournant. Yvan Beck accomplit des études universitaires en sciences de l’environnement, terminant cum lauda en 1993 avec un mémoire sur la production de foie gras comme choix de société. Dans les années suivantes Yvan Beck intervint comme expert dans de nombreux procès qui menèrent à l’interdiction de la production de foie gras dans l’État de New York, de Californie et en Israël. \n\nEn 1993, il devient délégué permanent pour le comité anti-fourrure au sein de l’Institut belge de Normalisation (IBN) et expert scientifique pour cet institut à Utrecht (1994), Denver (1995) et Londres (1996). Sa rencontre avec le sénateur Roland Gillet, alors président de la délégation belge de l’IBN et défenseur de la cause animale, sera déterminante. Ensemble, en collaboration avec d’autres pays ils réussissent a faire interdire l’utilisation des pièges à mâchoire pour la capture d’espèces sauvages et le commerce de la fourrure. En 1996, Roland Gillet lui propose la présidence de son association Rassemblement pour une Nouvelle Société asbl qui fut ensuite baptisée Planète Vie.\n\nPlanète Vie \nA travers la réalisation de documentaires, la publication de livres, l’organisation d’événements, cycles de conférences et débats, l’association Planète Vie devient le medium permettant au Docteur Beck de diffuser largement un regard éthique sur les relations entre l’animal, l’homme et l’environnement et de lancer des actions concrètes sur le terrain. En 1998, une campagne contre les delphinarium aboutit à la fermeture de celui du zoo d’Anvers. Les combats de Planète vie portent sur la détention d’espèces sauvages dans les zoos, la présence d’animaux dans les cirques, la corrida, la consommation de viande, et depuis 2010 se concentrent sur l’interdépendance du monde vivant et la question de la personnalité juridique des animaux. Le volet éducatif prend de l’ampleur par la diffusion de ses films et de dossiers pédagogiques dans les écoles belges et étrangères. En 2011, le documentaire Lovemeatender - selon l’idée originale et le scénario d’Yvan Beck - fut récompensé par le Magritte du meilleur documentaire . \n\nPlanète Vie initie avec l’asbl EVA le Jeudi Veggie, une journée sans consommation de viande promue par la Région de Bruxelles Capitale. En 2015, elle lance la version belge du Meat free Monday de Paul Mc Cartney. En avril 2016, l’organisation d’un symposium international sur l’effondrement de la biodiversité, l’interdépendance et le droit du vivant ouvre en Belgique le débat politique de la reconnaissance des animaux en tant que personnalité juridique non humaine, dans le but de modifier le code civil et la constitution.\n\nYvan Beck fut également pendant plusieurs années directeur-conseil en Belgique de la World Society for the protection of animals (1995-2000). Par ailleurs, il suit depuis 1992 les enseignements de grands maîtres du bouddhisme tibétain, devenant personne de référence pour les sujets traitants du monde animal dans l’émission de télévision sagesse bouddhiste sur France 2.\n\nBibliographie \n L’animal L’homme, la vie, trouver le sens, éditions les Eperonniers, Bruxelles, 1998.\n Liberté pour les dauphins, éditions Labor, Bruxelles, 2000.\n L’éthique et le bien-être animal, in La Wallonie à l’aube du XXIe siécle.\n L’animal : de la bien-traitance au bien-être, un autre regard porté sur le monde vivant, in L’État de la Wallonie : portrait d’un pays et de ses habitants », éditions Namuroises, 2011\n La solidarité : une évidence ou un combat, in La solidarité, soyons sagement égoïstes, les printemps de l’éthique, éditions Weyrich, avril 2012.\n Ceci n’est pas un dauphin : manifeste pour une reconnaissance juridique du monde vivant, préface de Matthieu Ricard, éditions Weyrich, 2017.\n\n Filmographie \n Nuit Blanche le film de l’expédition commémorative de la présence belge en Antarctique, 1897-1997. Membre de l’expédition belge qui gravit le mont Vinson en Antarctique.\n Lovemeatender'' documentaire produit par AT-Production et la RTBF, ainsi que Planète-Vie comme producteur associé, selon une idée originale et un scénario d’Yvan Beck. Réalisateur Manu Coeman.\n\nRéférences \n\nCatégorie:Vétérinaire belge" ]

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[ "Gordon Riots Bow Street\" depicts the Gordon Riots and the recalcitrance of Lord North to the establishment of a police force. In Bernard Cornwell's \"Sharpe\" novels, the protagonist Richard Sharpe's mother was killed during the riots while he was still a child. Miranda Hearn's 2003 historical novel \"A Life Everlasting\" depicts the main protagonists caught up in the riots as innocent Londoners. Gordon Riots The Gordon Riots of 1780 were several days of rioting based on anti-Catholic feeling. They began with a massive and orderly protest in London against the Papists Act of 1778, which was intended to reduce official discrimination against", "Gordon Riots Gordon Riots The Gordon Riots of 1780 were several days of rioting based on anti-Catholic feeling. They began with a massive and orderly protest in London against the Papists Act of 1778, which was intended to reduce official discrimination against British Catholics. Lord George Gordon, head of the Protestant Association warned that the law would enable Catholics in the British Army to become a dangerous threat. The protest evolved into riots and widespread looting. Local magistrates were afraid of reprisals and did not issue the riot act. There was no repression until the Army finally moved in and started shooting.", "Gordon Riots he saw as the dangers of the Act. George III initially humoured Gordon, but grew increasingly irritated with him and eventually refused any future audiences. The political climate deteriorated rapidly. On 29 May 1780, Gordon called a meeting of the Protestant Association, and his followers subsequently marched on the House of Commons to deliver a petition demanding the repeal of the Act. After the first march to Parliament, further riots occurred involving groups whose grievances were nationalistic, economic, or political, rather than religious. Aside from the issue of Catholic emancipation, it has also been suggested that the driving force of", "Lord George Gordon Gordon are to be found in \"The Annual Registers\" from 1780 to the year of his death. Lord George Gordon Lord George Gordon (26 December 1751 – 1 November 1793) was a British politician best known for lending his name to the Gordon Riots of 1780. A colourful personality, he was born into the Scottish nobility and sat in the House of Commons from 1774 to 1780. His life ended after a number of controversies, notably one surrounding his conversion to Judaism for which he was ostracised. He died in Newgate Prison. George Gordon was born in London, England, third", "Priestley Riots Dissenters (Protestants who did not adhere to the Church of England or follow its practices) in the Sacheverell riots during the London trial of Henry Sacheverell, and in 1751 and 1759 Quakers and Methodists were assaulted. During the anti-Catholic Gordon Riots in 1780, large crowds assembled in Birmingham. In 1766, 1782, 1795, and 1800 mobs protested about high food prices. One contemporary described Birmingham rioters as the \"bunting, beggarly, brass-making, brazen-faced, brazen-hearted, blackguard, bustling, booby Birmingham mob\". Up until the late 1780s, religious divisions did not affect Birmingham's elite. Dissenter and Anglican lived side by side harmoniously: they were on", "Lord George Gordon Lord George Gordon Lord George Gordon (26 December 1751 – 1 November 1793) was a British politician best known for lending his name to the Gordon Riots of 1780. A colourful personality, he was born into the Scottish nobility and sat in the House of Commons from 1774 to 1780. His life ended after a number of controversies, notably one surrounding his conversion to Judaism for which he was ostracised. He died in Newgate Prison. George Gordon was born in London, England, third and youngest son of Cosmo George Gordon, 3rd Duke of Gordon, and his wife, Catherine, and the", "Gordon Riots He implied that Catholics in the military would, given a chance, join forces with their co-religionists on the Continent and attack Britain. He enjoyed popularity in Scotland where he took part in a successful campaign to prevent the same legislation from being introduced into Scots law, although the Act continued in force in England and Wales and in Ireland. The success in obstructing the law in Scotland led Gordon to believe he could enjoy similar success in the rest of Britain. Early in 1780 Gordon had several audiences with King George III but was unable to convince him of what", "Sacheverell riots Sacheverell riots The Sacheverell riots were a series of outbreaks of public disorder, which spread across England during the spring, summer and autumn of 1710 in which supporters of the Tories attacked Dissenters', particularly Presbyterians', homes and meeting-houses, whose congregations tended to support the Whigs. (Further violence, again targeting Presbyterian chapels, occurred in the Coronation riots of 1714 and the Rebellion riots of 1715.) The Sacheverell and Rebellion riots are regarded as the most serious instances of public disorder of the eighteenth century, until, perhaps, the anti-Catholic protests of 1780. The riots reflected the dissatisfaction of many Anglicans to the", "2011 England riots the death of Smiley Culture. The very widespread scale of the violence prompted comparisons with the Gordon Riots of 1780. \"The Sun\" called the scenes \"shameful\" and lamented that \"[w]ith the London Olympics less than a year away, our reputation is being damaged at the worst moment\". It added: \"This is anarchy, pure and simple. And it presents a serious threat to life and property.\" \"The Daily Telegraph\"s editorial said: \"What we have experienced in London and elsewhere since Saturday night is a wholly new phenomenon: violent disorder whose sole intent is criminal... In such circumstances, there can be only", "Gordon Riots The main violence lasted from 2 June to 9 June, 1780. The Popery Act 1698 had imposed a number of penalties and disabilities on Roman Catholics in England; the 1778 Act eliminated some of these. An initial peaceful protest led on to widespread rioting and looting and was the most destructive in the history of London. Painted on the wall of Newgate prison was the proclamation that the inmates had been freed by the authority of \"His Majesty, King Mob\". The term \"King Mob\" afterwards denoted an unruly and fearsome proletariat. The Riots came at the height of the American" ]

[ "Gordon Riots worn inside the bank. From that date until 31 March 1973 the detachment became more functional than ceremonial, doing their duties in service dress with automatic weapons. Maria Edgeworth's 1817 novel \"Harrington\" contains a vivid evocation of the Gordon Riots, with two characters readers would find unsympathetic taken for Papists and finding refuge in the home of the rich Spanish Jew, the father of the young Jewish woman at the centre of the love story. Charles Dickens' 1841 novel \"Barnaby Rudge\" depicts the Gordon Riots and features Lord George in a prominent role. John Creasey's 1974 novel \"The Masters of", "Gordon Riots the riots was Britain's poor economic situation: the loss of trade during the war had led to falling wages, rising prices, and periodic unemployment. As Rudé noted, there was no general attack on the Catholic community, \"the victims of the riots\" being distinguished by the fact they were \"on the whole, persons of substance\". Voting in parliamentary elections was restricted by a property threshold, so most Londoners were unable to vote and many hoped for reforms to make Parliament more representative of the people. Shortly after the riots had broken out, the Duke of Richmond suggested that they were directly", "Gordon Riots to end Spanish support of the United States. After learning of the riots, the Spanish government pulled back from peace negotiations with Britain, concerned that the disorder would lead to a widespread collapse of the current British administration. The riots highlighted the problems Britain faced by not deploying a professional police force, a notion which was opposed as it was considered foreign and absolutist. The Earl of Shelburne shocked many the day after the riots broke out by proposing in parliament that Britain should consider forming a force modelled on the French police. The riots destroyed the popularity of radical", "Alexander Gordon, 4th Duke of Gordon and also possibly at Harrow. He succeeded as 4th Duke of Gordon in 1752. His younger brother was Lord George Gordon who led the Gordon riots. He was elected as a Scottish representative peer in 1767. He was appointed a Knight of the Thistle in 1775 and was created a Peer of Great Britain as Baron Gordon of Huntley, of Huntley in the County of Gloucester, and Earl of Norwich, in the County of Norfolk, in 1784. His new titles were not universally popular. He was thought to have taken designations to which he had no right. The Scots Peerage", "Ed Gordon (journalist) at the then-fledgling cable network Black Entertainment Television and in 1988 became anchor of the weekly program \"BET News\", which covered African-American social issues and popular culture. While Gordon worked at BET, its news staff had only around 20 people, and Gordon produced most of his interviews with only one or two assistants. Following the 1992 Los Angeles riots, Gordon hosted a BET special, \"Black Men Speak Out: The Aftermath\" and interviewed President George H. W. Bush about the riots. Gordon also hosted hour-long interviews on several occasions in the series \"Conversations with Ed Gordon\". His subjects have included President", "Lord William Gordon (September 18, 1824 - January 27, 1876) in 1857, and died the following year. Jane Gordon is buried in the English Cemetery, Florence. Lord William Gordon Lord William Gordon (1744–1823) was a Scottish nobleman. He was the second son of Cosmo Gordon, 3rd Duke of Gordon (1720–1752) and his wife Lady Catherine Gordon (1718 – 10 December 1779), daughter of William Gordon, 2nd Earl of Aberdeen. His elder brother was Alexander Gordon, 4th Duke of Gordon (1743–1827). His younger brother was the controversial Lord George Gordon, notorious for the anti-Catholic riots named after him. He also had a sister, Lady", "2001 Oldham riots markedly, which was highlighted in \"The Cantle Report\" during the same year. 2001 Oldham riots The 2001 Oldham riots were a brief period of violent rioting which occurred in Oldham, a town in Greater Manchester, England, in May 2001. They were the worst ethnically-motivated riots in the United Kingdom since 1985, briefly eclipsing the sectarian violence seen in Northern Ireland. The Oldham Riots were the first of a series of major riots during summer 2001, which saw similar ethnic conflicts follow in Bradford, Leeds and Burnley. The riots followed a long period of ethnic tensions and attacks in Oldham, occurring", "1946 Bihar riots 1946 Bihar riots Communal riots occurred in Bihar from 24 October to 11 November 1946, in which Hindu mobs targeted Muslim families. The riots were triggered by the Great Calcutta Killings, as well as the Noakhali riots earlier that year. Mahatma Gandhi declared that he would fast unto death if the riots did not stop. The riots were part of a sequence of communal violence that culminated in the partition of India. The 1946 Bihar riots were part of a series of incidents of communal violence that occurred across North India. The frequency of such riots increased in the 1930s", "Gordon Riots fire upon groups of four or more who refused to disperse. About 285 people were shot dead, with another 200 wounded. Around 450 of the rioters were arrested. Of those arrested, about twenty or thirty were later tried and executed. Gordon was arrested and charged with high treason, but was found not guilty. Brackley Kennett, the Lord Mayor, was convicted of criminal negligence for not reading out the Riot Act and given a £1,000 fine. The military units which dealt with the rioters included the Horse Guards, Foot Guards, Inns of Court Yeomanry, the Honourable Artillery Company, line infantry including", "Gordon Riots large numbers of Catholics, recruited in Ireland and the Scottish Highlands, were already serving in the military. In spite of this, the government decided to press ahead with the Bill, and had it introduced in Parliament by Sir George Savile. The Protestant Association of London had the support of leading Calvinist religious figures, including Rowland Hill, Erasmus Middleton, and John Rippon. Lord George Gordon became its President in 1779, in an effort to force the repeal of the Papists Act. An articulate propagandist, though eccentric, Gordon inflamed the mob with fears of Papism and a return to absolute monarchical rule.", "2005 Macquarie Fields riots 2005 Macquarie Fields riots The Macquarie Fields riots were a series of disturbances in southwest Sydney in February 2005 which were referred to as a riot by both the Parliament of New South Wales and the media. The riots were sparked by a high speed police pursuit on 25 February through the Glenquarie housing estate in the South West Sydney suburb of Macquarie Fields. The chase resulted in the driver, 20-year-old Jesse Kelly, crashing the stolen vehicle into a tree and killing his two passengers, 17-year-old Dylan Raywood and 19-year-old Matthew Robertson. Certain circumstances around the riots including the fatal", "Cincinnati riots of 2001 Cincinnati riots of 2001 The Cincinnati riots of 2001 were a series of civil disorders which took place in and around the Over-the-Rhine neighborhood of downtown Cincinnati, Ohio from April 9 to 13, 2001. The riots were the largest urban disturbance in the United States since the 1992 Los Angeles riots. The riots were sparked after 19-year-old Timothy Thomas, an unarmed African American man, was shot and killed by Cincinnati Police Department Patrolman Stephen Roach during an attempt to arrest him for non-violent misdemeanors, most of which were traffic citations. Tensions were already high in the city following a series", "1946 Bihar riots Indian National Congress were responsible for the massacre. The Muslim League stated that Hindu mobs had killed 30,000 people in the province. Historians such as Suranjan Das have referred to the Great Calcutta Killings of 1946 as the first explicitly political communal violence in the region. 1946 Bihar riots Communal riots occurred in Bihar from 24 October to 11 November 1946, in which Hindu mobs targeted Muslim families. The riots were triggered by the Great Calcutta Killings, as well as the Noakhali riots earlier that year. Mahatma Gandhi declared that he would fast unto death if the riots did not", "1925 Indian riots 1925 Indian riots The 1925 Indian riots refers to the sixteen communal riots which occurred throughout British India. Reported as being among the worst were in March in Delhi, during September in Aligarh, at Arvi in the Wardha district and in Solapur. The Aligarh riot occurred on 22 September in the United Provinces of British India (now Uttar Pradesh). Of the sixteen communal riots that occurred that year, it was counted as one of the most severe. The London Times wrote two stories on the riots. The riot, was confined to Aligarh which is in the top five of most", "Gordon Riots crowd, estimated at 40,000 to 60,000 strong, assembled and marched on the Houses of Parliament. Many carried flags and banners proclaiming \"No Popery\", and most wore blue cockades which had become the symbol of their movement. As they marched, their numbers swelled. They attempted to force their way into the House of Commons, but without success. Gordon, petition in hand, and wearing in his hat the blue cockade of the Protestant Association, entered the Commons and presented the petition. Outside, the situation quickly got out of hand and a riot erupted. Members of the House of Lords were attacked as", "Gordon Hill, London named after an early occupant, Lord George Gordon (1751–93), instigator of the Gordon Riots. It later belonged to Sir Thomas Hallifax (1721–89), Lord Mayor of London. Gordon House was demolished in about 1860, and the area laid out for housing. Development accelerated in 1909 with the arrival of the railway. Gordon Hill is in the Highlands ward, which also includes World's End and eastern Oakwood. According to the 2011 census, 80% of the population was white (64% British, 13% Other, 3% Irish). Gordon Hill is served by many bus links with London Buses route 191 which stops at the bottom", "Cincinnati riots of 2001 as investment in schools and minority-hiring programs. Police behavior and protocols were investigated, and changes were made to improve training and interaction with the community. On the ten-year anniversary of the riots, \"Cincinnati Enquirer\" reported that \"[t]he riots neither initiated the racial tension nor the police reforms, but accelerated both.\" Among the reforms were the following: Cincinnati riots of 2001 The Cincinnati riots of 2001 were a series of civil disorders which took place in and around the Over-the-Rhine neighborhood of downtown Cincinnati, Ohio from April 9 to 13, 2001. The riots were the largest urban disturbance in the United", "1989 riots in Argentina wave of riots, mainly February and March, in Rosario and Greater Buenos Aires. The economic crisis had not abated, and many businesses had resumed operating with physical barriers. The riots were contained quickly, again with delivery of food assistance to the poorer neighbourhoods. 1989 riots in Argentina The 1989 riots were a series of riots and related episodes of looting in stores and supermarkets in Argentina, during the last part of the presidency of Raúl Alfonsin, between May and June 1989. The riots were caused by the rampant hyperinflation and food shortage, and were associated with legal protests and demonstrations.", "1946 Bihar riots riots. The failure of this rescue attempt turned into a riot, in which 200 houses belonging to 144 Muslim families were burned down, and 14 people were killed. The largest riots of the year occurred from 27 October to 6 November, during which period a large number of Muslims were killed by Hindus in retaliation for the Noakhali riots that had occurred earlier that month. There was wide variation in estimates of the number of casualties. A statement given to the British Parliament put the death-toll at 5,000. \"The Statesman\" estimated the number of fatalities at between 7,500 and 10,000,", "1925 Indian riots in the riot was six, four Muslims and two Hindus. 1925 Indian riots The 1925 Indian riots refers to the sixteen communal riots which occurred throughout British India. Reported as being among the worst were in March in Delhi, during September in Aligarh, at Arvi in the Wardha district and in Solapur. The Aligarh riot occurred on 22 September in the United Provinces of British India (now Uttar Pradesh). Of the sixteen communal riots that occurred that year, it was counted as one of the most severe. The London Times wrote two stories on the riots. The riot, was confined", "Klågerup riots Klågerup riots The Klågerup riots (Swedish: \"Klågerupskravallerna\") is the name for a series of Swedish rebellions which took place in Scania in Sweden in the summer of 1811. That year a series of rebellions took place in Scania, caused by discontent about, among other things, the draft for military service. This led to demonstrations by civilian armies of peasantry, who demanded negotiations with the authorities. The rebels were displeased with both the army, which wanted to enforce conscription, and the Swedish priests who refused to stand up for the people. The name \"Klågerup riots\" are given to the events from", "1920 Nebi Musa riots 1920 Nebi Musa riots The 1920 Nebi Musa riots or 1920 Jerusalem riots took place in British-controlled part of Occupied Enemy Territory Administration (which would shortly become Mandatory Palestine) between Sunday, 4 and Wednesday, 7 April 1920 in and around the Old City of Jerusalem. Five Jews and four Arabs were killed, and several hundred were injured. The riots coincided with and are named after the Nebi Musa festival, which took place every year on Easter Sunday, and followed rising tensions in Arab-Jewish relations. The events came shortly after the Battle of Tel Hai and the increasing pressure on Arab", "Hough riots Hough riots The Hough riots were riots in the predominantly African-American community of Hough (pronounced \"Huff\") in Cleveland, Ohio, which took place from July 18 to 23, 1966. During the riots, four African Americans were killed and 50 people were injured. There were 275 arrests and numerous incidents of arson and firebombings. City officials at first blamed black nationalist and communist organizations for the riots, but historians generally dismiss these claims today, arguing that the cause of the Hough Riots were primarily poverty and racism. The riots caused rapid population loss and economic decline in the area, which lasted at", "The Trumpton Riots EP There, the title of the second song is given as \"Architecture and Morality Ted and Alice\". In a 2001 appreciation of the band, music writer and novelist Kevin Sampson described the EP as \"utterly marvellous\". In May 2016, \"The Guardian\" newspaper reported that Gordon Murray's family were contemplating suing the band Radiohead for infringing the copyright of the idea of Trumptonshire in the video for their single \"Burn the Witch\". The same report noted that Half Man Half Biscuit's 1980s song \"The Trumpton Riots\" had \"portrayed Trumptonshire as a place of striking firemen, militant socialism, and military coups\". The following", "1981 Toxteth riots 1981 Toxteth riots The Toxteth riots of July 1981 were a civil disturbance in Toxteth, inner-city Liverpool, which arose in part from long-standing tensions between the local police and the black community. They followed the Brixton riots earlier that year. The Merseyside police force had, at the time, a poor reputation within the black community for stopping and searching young black men in the area, under the \"sus\" laws, and the perceived heavy-handed arrest of Leroy Alphonse Cooper on Friday 3 July, watched by an angry crowd, led to a disturbance in which three policemen were injured. The existing tensions", "Food riots in the Middle East the 1977 Egyptian Bread Riots. Egypt experienced food riots in 1977 and 1984. On Sunday, October 1, 1984 Egyptians in the Kfar el-Dewar industrial outside of Alexandria rioted and fought with police for eight hours. The rioters, who were said to number in the hundreds, \"pelted police with stones, overturned carts in the town market, and smashed shop windows,\" according to one news report. The police reported that one person was killed, 13 people were injured, and 40 people (including police) were arrested. Food riots hit Jordan in 1989 and 1996. At the beginning of 1989, Jordan defaulted on debt", "The Trumpton Riots EP The Trumpton Riots EP The Trumpton Riots E.P. is a 1986 12\" 45½rpm vinyl EP by the English indie band Half Man Half Biscuit. The original release (TRUMP1) comprised the first four tracks listed below. A re-release later that year (TRUMX1) included the fifth one also. \"The Trumpton Riots (Top 20 Mix)\" and \"All I Want For Christmas Is a Dukla Prague Away Kit\" were released in 1986 on a 7\" vinyl single (Probe Plus ), before the release of the five-track EP. The EP was incorporated into the 2003 re-release on CD of the album \"Back in the DHSS\".", "1989 riots in Argentina 1989 riots in Argentina The 1989 riots were a series of riots and related episodes of looting in stores and supermarkets in Argentina, during the last part of the presidency of Raúl Alfonsin, between May and June 1989. The riots were caused by the rampant hyperinflation and food shortage, and were associated with legal protests and demonstrations. The first riots started in Rosario, the third-largest city in the country, when people demanded supermarkets to give away food; they quickly spread to other cities, specially in Greater Buenos Aires. The national government established a state of emergency. More than 40 people", "The Riots 2012. The Riots The Riots is a play created by Gillian Slovo from spoken evidence, which explains and evaluates the events that took place during the 2011 England riots. The play is written in the style of verbatim theatre using interviews from politicians, police, rioters and victims involved in the riots. \"The Riots\" first opened at the Tricycle Theatre in Kilburn on 22 November 2011, after previewing from 17 November 2011. On 6 August 2011 rioting broke out in Tottenham, London in reaction to the death of Mark Duggan, who was shot dead by a police officer on 4 August.", "The Riots The Riots The Riots is a play created by Gillian Slovo from spoken evidence, which explains and evaluates the events that took place during the 2011 England riots. The play is written in the style of verbatim theatre using interviews from politicians, police, rioters and victims involved in the riots. \"The Riots\" first opened at the Tricycle Theatre in Kilburn on 22 November 2011, after previewing from 17 November 2011. On 6 August 2011 rioting broke out in Tottenham, London in reaction to the death of Mark Duggan, who was shot dead by a police officer on 4 August. Over", "Trial of Lord George Gordon riots had finished a week later, 300 had died, and more property had been damaged than during the entire French Revolution. Gordon was almost immediately arrested, and indicted for levying war against the King. Defended by Thomas Erskine and Lloyd Kenyon, Gordon was accidentally assisted by the Attorney General, James Wallace, who managed to \"ridicule\" some of his own evidence before Gordon was set back by Kenyon's lacklustre and confusing speech. However, an impassioned speech by Erskine, which argued that Gordon's actions were only crimes under the illegally extended law of constructive treason, led to the jury finding him not", "Léopoldville riots next year, bringing large numbers of black people from outside the \"évolué\" class into the independence movement. The bulk of the ABAKO leadership was arrested, leaving the MNC in an advantageous position. Léopoldville riots The Léopoldville riots were an outbreak of civil disorder in Léopoldville (modern-day Kinshasa) in the Belgian Congo which took place in early 1959 and which were an important moment for the Congolese independence movement. The rioting occurred when members of the \"Alliance des Bakongo\" (ABAKO) political party were not allowed to assemble for a protest and colonial authorities reacted harshly. The exact death toll is not", "1981 Chapeltown riots In 1987 there was further rioting in Chapeltown and in 2001 there was widespread rioting in nearby Harehills. Other riots in the UK the same year 1981 Chapeltown riots The Chapeltown Riots of 1981 took place in the Leeds district of Chapeltown in West Yorkshire, England, during a time when many other areas of the UK were suffering similar problems (such as London, Birmingham and Liverpool). The riots unfolded in July 1981 from a background of racial tension, inner city poverty, poor housing and high unemployment (which was rising rapidly as a result of the recession at the time). This", "May 2002 Belfast riots Protestants the night before. North Belfast had already seen tensions and violence up to that point in the year, including in both March and April 2002, the latter of which involved a bomb explosion. May 2002 Belfast riots The May 2002 Belfast riots were riots that occurred in north Belfast, Northern Ireland. On Saturday May 2002, up to 800 people were involved in sectarian clashes beginning shortly after the Scottish Cup Final in which Rangers F.C. beat Celtic F.C. Petrol bombs and fireworks were thrown at Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI) officers. That night 28 police officers and 10", "1981 Toxteth riots 1981) recognised that the riots did represent the result of social problems, such as poverty and deprivation. The Government responded by sending Michael Heseltine, as \"Minister for Merseyside\" to set up the Merseyside Task Force and launch a series of initiatives, including the Liverpool international garden festival and the Mersey Basin Campaign. Novel by John Cornelius called Liverpool 1981 Toxteth riots The Toxteth riots of July 1981 were a civil disturbance in Toxteth, inner-city Liverpool, which arose in part from long-standing tensions between the local police and the black community. They followed the Brixton riots earlier that year. The Merseyside", "Jubilee riots Jubilee riots The Jubilee riots of 1875 were an outbreak of Protestant-Catholic sectarian violence in Toronto. The riots happened during a series of Catholic religious pilgrimages related to the Jubilee year declared by Pope Pius IX. The first riot occurred on September 22, during a pilgrims' march to the bishop's palace at St. Michael's Cathedral. The parade had been advertised in the \"Irish Canadian\" newspaper, which led a group of opponents to petition Mayor Francis Henry Medcalf to have the event banned. It proceeded, however, with a pledge from the Catholic clergy that is would remain \"quiet, peaceful, and Christian\".", "1917 Bath Riots and DDT continued into the 1950s. A similar riot the following year was averted when prompt action by Mexican authorities intervened with American authorities. Reports of a typhus death in Juárez were denied by Mexicans and the port and trolleys were temporarily closed to prevent altercations. In 2006, David Dorado Romo published \"Ringside Seat to a Revolution\" which brought the story back to the attention of the public and Chicano scholars. National Public Radio featured a story on the riots in 2006. 1917 Bath Riots 1917 Bath Riots occurred in January 1917 at the Santa Fe Bridge between El Paso,", "2002 Gujarat riots 2002 Gujarat riots The 2002 Gujarat riots, also known as the 2002 Gujarat violence and the Gujarat pogrom, was a three-day period of inter-communal violence in the western Indian state of Gujarat. Following the initial incident there were further outbreaks of violence in Ahmedabad for three months; statewide, there were further outbreaks of violence against the minority Muslim population for the next year. The burning of a train in Godhra on 27 February 2002, which caused the deaths of 58 Hindu pilgrims karsevaks returning from Ayodhya, is cited as having instigated the violence. According to official figures, the riots ended", "Gordon Riots politician John Wilkes, who led troops against the rioters. Many of his followers saw this as a betrayal; some of them may have been among the rioters. A pamphlet and a book of poems defending the role of Gordon were written and published by the polemicist and hymn-writer Maria De Fleury. The events at the Bank of England started a tradition where a detachment of soldiers, usually from the Brigade of Guards would march to the bank to perform security duties. Until 1963 the duty was performed by the Guards in Home Service Dress with bearskin, though tennis shoes were", "Food riots in the Middle East of its basic needs. Food riots in the Middle East Food riots refer to protests, riots, and civil unrest attributed to popular outrage against food shortages and high or rising prices of food. In the 20th and 21st century, food riots occurred across the Middle East in several different countries. Immediate causes of food riots have included reduction in food subsidies, inflation, and economic stagnation. Food riots have also occurred as part of larger social movements, as in the case of 1988 riots in Algeria. Food riots also figure prominently in criticism of austerity, neoliberal, and related IMF structural adjustment", "Food riots in the Middle East Food riots in the Middle East Food riots refer to protests, riots, and civil unrest attributed to popular outrage against food shortages and high or rising prices of food. In the 20th and 21st century, food riots occurred across the Middle East in several different countries. Immediate causes of food riots have included reduction in food subsidies, inflation, and economic stagnation. Food riots have also occurred as part of larger social movements, as in the case of 1988 riots in Algeria. Food riots also figure prominently in criticism of austerity, neoliberal, and related IMF structural adjustment policies, such as during", "Sacheverell riots were attacked, with many being burnt to the ground. The Sacheverell riots and further disturbances in 1714 and 1715, led to the passing of the Riot Act. Sacheverell riots The Sacheverell riots were a series of outbreaks of public disorder, which spread across England during the spring, summer and autumn of 1710 in which supporters of the Tories attacked Dissenters', particularly Presbyterians', homes and meeting-houses, whose congregations tended to support the Whigs. (Further violence, again targeting Presbyterian chapels, occurred in the Coronation riots of 1714 and the Rebellion riots of 1715.) The Sacheverell and Rebellion riots are regarded as the", "The Blackburn Riots The Blackburn Riots The Blackburn riots occurred during the summer of 1833 in Detroit, Michigan. They were the first race riots in the history of the city. The riots were spurred by the imprisonment of Thornton and Rutha Blackburn, an African American couple that had escaped slavery in Louisville, Kentucky in 1831. They were caught by slave catchers, thrown in jail, and sentenced to be returned to their owners in Kentucky. This ruling angered the African American population of Detroit. Rutha Blackburn was smuggled out by two African American women, and the following day, a mob formed outside the jail,", "Lord William Gordon Lord William Gordon Lord William Gordon (1744–1823) was a Scottish nobleman. He was the second son of Cosmo Gordon, 3rd Duke of Gordon (1720–1752) and his wife Lady Catherine Gordon (1718 – 10 December 1779), daughter of William Gordon, 2nd Earl of Aberdeen. His elder brother was Alexander Gordon, 4th Duke of Gordon (1743–1827). His younger brother was the controversial Lord George Gordon, notorious for the anti-Catholic riots named after him. He also had a sister, Lady Susan Gordon. In the mid-1760s, Lord William had an affair with a married woman, Lady Sarah Bunbury, who had once been courted by", "Hong Kong 1981 riots of snooker and arcade games among youth. The government channeled additional resources into youth welfare. Two other riots in 1982 and 1984 were ignited by football fans and a tax on taxis. Hong Kong 1981 riots Multiple disturbances broke out on Christmas Day of 1981 and New Year's Day of 1982 in Hong Kong. Since the majority of the participants were youths, the riots were also named as the Christmas youth riots of 1981 and New Year youth riots of 1982. The riots had a long-term impact on the government's youth policy. A riot broke out in the early morning", "2001 Oldham riots 2001 Oldham riots The 2001 Oldham riots were a brief period of violent rioting which occurred in Oldham, a town in Greater Manchester, England, in May 2001. They were the worst ethnically-motivated riots in the United Kingdom since 1985, briefly eclipsing the sectarian violence seen in Northern Ireland. The Oldham Riots were the first of a series of major riots during summer 2001, which saw similar ethnic conflicts follow in Bradford, Leeds and Burnley. The riots followed a long period of ethnic tensions and attacks in Oldham, occurring particularly between groups of the local white and South Asian communities. The", "Bombay riots Bombay riots The Bombay riots usually refers to the riots in Mumbai, in December 1992 and January 1993, in which around 700 people died. The riots were mainly due to escalations of hostilities after large scale violent protests by Muslims in reaction to the 1992 Babri Masjid Demolition by Hindu Karsevaks in Ayodhya. An investigative commission was formed under Justice B.N. Srikrishna, but the recommendations of the Inquiry were not enacted. Many scholars stated that the riots were allegedly pre-planned, and that the Hindu rioters were allegedly granted access to information about the locations of Muslim homes and businesses through", "1977 Egyptian bread riots its debt to the IMF in 1987 did Egypt return to the IMF for a one-year arrangement. 1977 Egyptian bread riots The Egyptian \"bread riots\" of 1977 (, \"\", “The Bread Intifada”) affected most major cities in Egypt from 18–19 January 1977. The riots were a spontaneous uprising carried outby hundreds of thousands of lower-class people protesting World Bank and International Monetary Fund-mandated termination of state subsidies on basic foodstuffs. As many as 70 people were killed and over 550 injured in the protests, which only ceased with the deployment of the army and the re-institution of the subsidies. The", "Worli riots rumours were never substantiated, they were the subject of a disagreement between factions of the Panthers, which played a role in the split that followed. The riots were referred to several times in Dalit poetry from the period. In 2010, Dalit activist Namdeo Dhasal described the Worli riots as \"showcasing the worst of [Indian] democracy.\" Worli riots The Worli riots refers to the violence that occurred in the \"chawl\", or tenement, in the Worli neighborhood of Mumbai between January and April 1974. The riots began on 5 January 1974 after the police attempted to disperse a rally of the Dalit", "Priestley Riots the next year. Priestley Riots The Priestley Riots (also known as the Birmingham Riots of 1791) took place from 14 July to 17 July 1791 in Birmingham, England; the rioters' main targets were religious dissenters, most notably the politically and theologically controversial Joseph Priestley. Both local and national issues stirred the passions of the rioters, from disagreements over public library book purchases, to controversies over Dissenters' attempts to gain full civil rights and their support of the French Revolution. The riots started with an attack on the Royal Hotel, Birmingham—the site of a banquet organised in sympathy with the French", "1933 Palestine riots stabbed. 26 Arab protesters were killed and about 180 were wounded until the riots were eventually completely subdued by the British police forces. The 1933 Palestine riots were a prelude to the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine, during which the Arab community of Mandatory Palestine, supported by foreign Arab volunteers, held a mass revolt against the British authorities, also targeting the Palestinian Jewish community. 1933 Palestine riots The 1933 Palestine riots () (commonly known as Me'oraot Tartsad) were a series of violent riots in Mandatory Palestine, as part of the intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine. The riots erupted on 28", "2006 Vadodara riots 2006 Vadodara riots The 2006 Vadodara riots also known as the 2006 Dargah riots occurred on 1 May of that year in the city of Vadodara in the state of Gujarat in India. The riots were caused by the municipal council's decision to remove the \"dargah\" (shrine) of Syed Chishti Rashiduddin, a medieval Sufi saint. The shrine was between two and three hundred years old. The incident resulted in six to eight people being killed and forty-two injured, 16 of these were from police shooting. The \"dargah\" was first mentioned in a municipal survey carried out in 1912, when Vadodara", "1930 Rangoon riots 1930 Rangoon riots The 1930 Rangoon riots were a pair of race riots between Indian dockworkers and Burman labourers. The first broke out on 26 May near the Rangoon docks. It spread to nearby districts with high Indian populations and resulted in over one hundred killed and about one thousand injured. The second, a prison riot, began on 24 June in Rangoon Central Jail, where the staff was predominantly Indian and the inmates overwhelmingly Burman. The riots were overshadowed by the Saya San rebellion that erupted in December that year. In early May 1930—in the midst of the Great Depression—Indian", "Gordon Riots the Queen's Royal Regiment (West Surrey), and militia brought in from neighbouring counties. The defence of the Bank of England was conducted by the 9th (East Norfolk) Regiment of Foot under the command of Thomas Twisleton, 13th Baron Saye and Sele. The Riots damaged the reputation of Britain across Europe, where many saw British constitutional monarchy as an inherently unstable form of government. This came at a time when Britain was searching for allies, particularly Catholic Austria, in the American War of Independence to challenge the strong coalition the French had built. Britain had also initiated secret negotiations with Spain", "Irish in the British Armed Forces women were massacred by the Roundheads, who mistook them for Irish-speakers. Some of the Penal Laws against Catholics were reversed with the Papists Act 1778, which was passed by the Parliaments of Great Britain and Ireland. This allowed for Catholics to own property, inherit land and join the British Army. The British Army needed soldiers to fight in the contemporary American Revolutionary War and had made some concessions to North American Catholics with the Quebec Act earlier in 1774. Despite ensuing ultra-Protestant riots in Scotland and also the Gordon Riots in London against reversing the ban, many Irish Catholics from", "1948 Anti-Jewish riots in Tripolitania have been for several years and that understanding, tolerance and cooperation are present at any top level meeting between the leaders of the two communities.\" The insecurity which arose from anti-Jewish attacks led many Jews to abandon Libya and emigrate. The emigration, which was prompted by the 1945 Tripoli pogrom, had become a refugee \"flood\" with the ending of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. From 1948 to 1951, and especially after immigration became legal in 1949, 30,972 Jews moved to Israel, which had gained independence. 1948 Anti-Jewish riots in Tripolitania The 1948 Anti-Jewish riots in Tripolitania were riots between the Arab", "Hong Kong 1981 riots Hong Kong 1981 riots Multiple disturbances broke out on Christmas Day of 1981 and New Year's Day of 1982 in Hong Kong. Since the majority of the participants were youths, the riots were also named as the Christmas youth riots of 1981 and New Year youth riots of 1982. The riots had a long-term impact on the government's youth policy. A riot broke out in the early morning of Christmas Day, 25 December 1981 in Central, Hong Kong. In a minor road accident, a car driver accidentally hit a pedestrian near the Mandarin Oriental hotel around 1:30 am, arousing unrest", "Gavazzi Riots in accusing the mayor for the riots. The Montrealer painter James D. Duncan depicts the event in his work \"Gavazzi riot\" (1853). Gavazzi Riots The Gavazzi Riots were disturbances created in Quebec and Montreal, in June 1853, by mobs which attacked halls in which ex-Catholic monk Alessandro Gavazzi was lecturing. During the spring of 1853 Alessandro Gavazzi, an Italian patriot, visited North America. His lectures at Quebec and Montreal were strongly anti-Roman Catholic; and at both places the soldiers had to be called out to restore order. The riots also caused political repercussions. On the evening of the June 6th,", "Dhule riots Dhule riots The Dhule riots of 2008 were riots between the Hindu and Muslim community that took place in October 2008 in Dhule, Maharashtra. The communical riots erupted in October 2008 after tearing of posters posted by one of the Hindutva outfit called as Hindu Rakhshak Sabha in which had \"provocative language and had branded the entire Muslim community as terrorists.\" Total 10 people feared to have been killed in the rioting as well as police firing. Hundreds of houses and shops mostly owned by the minority community have been looted and burned. There were riots again in January 2013.", "Canboulay riots Canboulay riots The Canboulay riots were riots by the descendants of freed slaves on the islands of Trinidad and Tobago by the British police to crack down on aspects of the celebration of Carnival. The riots occurred in February 1881 in Port of Spain, the capital of Trinidad and in the southern cities of San Fernando and Princes Town in February 1884 causing loss of life. The riots are still commemorated today and canboulay music is an important part of the music of Trinidad and Tobago notably the use of steel pans which were the descendants of percussion instruments banned", "The Riots manner, which describes, discusses and questions the causes of the 2011 England Riots. The original cast consisted of fourteen actors playing 30 characters: Michele Austin, Sarah Ball, Kingsley Ben-Adir, Grant Burgin, Christopher Fox, Rupert Holliday Evans, Clementine Marlowe-Hunt, Okezie Morro, Cyril Nri, Tom Padley, Alan Parnaby, Selva Rasalingam, Steve Toussaint and Tim Woodward. After a sell out show and 4 star reviews from major newspapers including \"The Guardian\" and \"The Daily Telegraph\" the production of \"The Riots\" closed at the Tricycle Theatre on 10 December 2011. \"The Riots\" transferred to the Bernie Grant Arts Centre in Tottenham from 4–14 January", "Food riots in the Middle East payment to the IMF, leading it to introduce price increases between 10-15% In April. That month the unrest began in the southern town of Ma'an before spreading to other cities in the south of Jordan. At least four civilians and one off-duty soldier were killed and total casualties reached at least 32 people in what would come to be known as \"habbat nissan\", or the \"Squalls of April. While the 1989 riots were occurring in Jordan, King Hussein gave an interview with PBS’ Robert MacNeil. At the time, Hussein stated: Morocco experienced food riots in 1937, 1981, and 1984. Food", "Champagne Riots but the classification system still serves as an aid in determining prices with Grand and Premier crus vineyards receiving considerably more for their grapes than vineyards in villages with ratings below 90%. Champagne Riots The Champagne Riots of 1910 and 1911 resulted from a series of problems faced by grape growers in the Champagne area of France. These included four years of disastrous crop losses, the infestation of the phylloxera louse (which destroyed of vineyards that year alone), low income and the belief that wine merchants were using grapes from outside the Champagne region. The precipitating event may have been", "Champagne Riots Champagne Riots The Champagne Riots of 1910 and 1911 resulted from a series of problems faced by grape growers in the Champagne area of France. These included four years of disastrous crop losses, the infestation of the phylloxera louse (which destroyed of vineyards that year alone), low income and the belief that wine merchants were using grapes from outside the Champagne region. The precipitating event may have been the announcement in 1908 by the French government that it would delimit by decree the exact geographic area that would be granted economic advantage and protection by being awarded the Champagne appellation.", "King assassination riots and civil rights advocates, the riots were a turning point. They increased an already-strong trend toward racial segregation and white flight in America's cities, strengthening racial barriers that looked as though they might weaken. The riots were political fodder for the Republican party, which used fears of black urban crime to garner support for \"law and order\", especially in the 1968 presidential campaign. The assassination and riots radicalized many, helping to fuel the Black Power movement. King assassination riots The King assassination riots, also known as the Holy Week Uprising, was a wave of civil disturbance which swept the United", "Meadow Well riots volunteering opportunities. The Meadow Well riots were one of several waves of rioting which hit parts of Britain during 1991 and 1992. Other areas affected by rioting were Handsworth in Birmingham, Ely in Cardiff, Kates Hill in Dudley and Blackbird Leys in Oxford. These riots were comparable with earlier waves of rioting which had been seen across Britain in 1981 and again in 1985. Rioting on this scale in Britain was not seen again until August 2011. Meadow Well riots The Meadow Well riots were a series of violent protests that took place on 9 September 1991 on the Meadow", "1985 Handsworth riots 1985 Handsworth riots The second Handsworth riots took place in the Handsworth district of Birmingham, West Midlands, from 9 to 11 September 1985. The riots were reportedly sparked by the arrest of a man near the Acapulco Cafe, Lozells and a police raid on the \"Villa Cross\" public house in the same area. Hundreds of people attacked police and property, looting and smashing, even setting off fire bombs. Two brothers (Kassamali Moledina, 38, and his 44-year-old brother Amirali) were burnt to death in the post office that they ran. Two other people were unaccounted for, 35 others injured, more than", "Maria Hertogh riots Maria Hertogh riots The Maria Hertogh riots began on 11 December 1950 in Singapore after a court decided that a child who had been raised by Muslims should be returned to her Catholic biological parents. A protest by outraged Muslims escalated into a riot when images were published showing 13-year-old Maria Hertogh (or Bertha Hertogh) kneeling before a statue of the Virgin Mary. Riots in Singapore lasted until noon on 13 December 1950. Eighteen people were killed and 173 injured. Many properties were also damaged. Hertogh (also known as \"Nadrah\") had been in the care of Che Aminah binte Mohamed", "1964 race riots in Singapore foster greater cultural appreciation and to enable students to inculcate values such as respect. Every year on July 21, schools commemorate the racial riots to emphasise the need for tolerance among each other. During this commemoration day, schools recall the racial riots that occurred but however, the emphasis on the events are focused on the tension between the Malays and the Chinese rather than on the political differences between UMNO and PAP. External Links 1964 race riots in Singapore The 1964 July racial riot is considered to be one of the worst incidents in the history of Singapore as this", "2011 England riots and violence. He was given a two-year sentence for violence and handling stolen goods. 2011 England riots The 2011 England riots, more widely known as the London Riots were a series of riots between the 6th of August and 11 August 2011, when thousands of people rioted in cities and towns across England, saw looting, arson, and mass deployment of police, and resulted in the deaths of five people. Protests started in Tottenham, London, following the death of Mark Duggan, a local man who was shot dead by police on 4 August. Several violent clashes with police ensued, along with", "2014 anti-Muslim riots in Sri Lanka urged the government to take action to end the violence immediately, rein in groups targeting religious minorities, protect Muslims and bring to account those responsible for the violence. Human Rights Watch has urged the government to urgently investigate the violence, and identify and investigative those responsible for the attacks on Muslims. The riots took place in a popular tourist area which prompted some foreign governments to issue travel advisories to their citizens. 2014 anti-Muslim riots in Sri Lanka The 2014 anti-Muslim riots in Sri Lanka were religious and ethnic riots in June 2014 in south-western Sri Lanka. Muslims and their", "1958 Grozny riots 1958 Grozny riots The Grozny riots of 1958 occurred between 23 and 27 August that year in Grozny (Soviet Union). Although beginning as a small-scale event, it turned a major event in the history of the city, of Chechnya and of Russo-Chechen relations, starting a series of ethnic riots, to continue until 1965. The riots were provoked by the killing of one Russian by an Ingush. The Russian, a sailor, had asked an Ingush woman to dance and tried to seduce her, but an Ingush man who was engaged to her intervened and the ensuing confrontation escalated into a brawl", "Watts riots the perspectives of those affected by and participating in the riots' chaos. National civil rights leader Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. spoke two days after the riots happened in Watts. The riots were partly a response to Proposition 14, a constitutional amendment sponsored by the California Real Estate Association and passed that had in effect repealed the Rumford Fair Housing Act. In 1966, the California Supreme Court reinstated the Rumford Fair Housing Act in the \"Reitman v. Mulkey\" case (a decision affirmed by the U.S. Supreme Court the following year), declaring the amendment to violate the US constitution and laws.", "Lord George Gordon had beards and wore head coverings. He would often, in keeping with Jewish \"chesed\" (laws of mercy and charity), go into other parts of the prison to comfort prisoners by speaking with them and playing the violin. In keeping with \"tzedaka\" (charity) laws, he gave what little money he could to those in need. Charles Dickens, in his novel \"Barnaby Rudge\", which centres around the Gordon Riots, describes Gordon as a true \"tzadik\" (pious man) among the prisoners: On 28 January 1793, Lord George Gordon's sentence expired and he had to appear to give claim to his future good behaviour.", "2014 anti-Muslim riots in Sri Lanka 2014 anti-Muslim riots in Sri Lanka The 2014 anti-Muslim riots in Sri Lanka were religious and ethnic riots in June 2014 in south-western Sri Lanka. Muslims and their property were attacked by Sinhalese Buddhists in the towns of Aluthgama, Beruwala and Dharga Town in Kalutara District. At least four people were killed and 80 injured. Hundreds were made homeless following attacks on homes, shops, factories, mosques and a nursery. 10,000 people (8,000 Muslims and 2,000 Sinhalese) were displaced by the riots. The riots followed rallies by Bodu Bala Sena (BBS), a hard line Buddhist group. The BBS was widely blamed", "Hough riots the Cleveland City Council focused more on patronage than meeting the needs of the communities they represented. Cleveland's African Americans were unified in condemning the \"official narrative\", however. Mayor Locher's refusal to acknowledge racism, poverty, and police brutality as causes of the Hough Riots united the black community so strongly that it propelled Carl Stokes to the mayor's office in 1967. Cleveland's business community rallied around Stokes largely because it had lost faith in Locher's analysis of the race problem in the city, and believed Stokes would implement policies which would prevent additional riots. Hough riots The Hough riots were", "The Trumpton Riots EP tracks have been said to have been recorded for this, their first, EP; but no trustworthy evidence, or even recordings, have been found: As is usual with Half Man Half Biscuit, the songs contain multiple cultural references, often obscure. Those identified include: The Trumpton Riots EP The Trumpton Riots E.P. is a 1986 12\" 45½rpm vinyl EP by the English indie band Half Man Half Biscuit. The original release (TRUMP1) comprised the first four tracks listed below. A re-release later that year (TRUMX1) included the fifth one also. \"The Trumpton Riots (Top 20 Mix)\" and \"All I Want For Christmas", "1967 anti-Chinese riots in Myanmar 1967 anti-Chinese riots in Myanmar The 1967 anti-Chinese riots in Myanmar (formerly known as Burma) () were a number of days of conflict between Chinese expatriates in Burma and Burmese nationals. The trouble flared in Rangoon on 26 June 1967. The cause of the trouble was the spread of China’s cultural revolution ideology amongst Chinese expatriates in Burma. The riots caused a deterioration in Sino-Burmese relations which did not normalize until 1970. Burma was the first non-communist country to recognize the People's Republic of China after its founding on the 21 September 1949. Burma and China settled their border disputes", "2014 Saharanpur riots 2014 Saharanpur riots The 2014 Saharanpur Riots occurred on 25 July of that year in the city of Saharanpur in the state of Uttar Pradesh in India. The riots occurred between Muslims, led by Muharram Ali Pappu, and Sikhs, led by Shri Guru Singh Sabha, over a piece of land and some religion faith aspects. Three people were killed and several were injured. The ruling Samajwadi Partymade a false call that it’s an act of RSS, whereas BJP blames ISI though UP police say that the riot was well planned to divide members of the two minority communities. The root", "Stour Valley riots destroyed it, and destroyed the home of the village priest, Dr Robert Warren. There are few records of the riots from the Privy Council of England, demonstrating the lack of central royal authority over the region during 1642. The riots subsided during late Autumn 1642 as the civil war spread across the country. Stour Valley riots The Stour Valley riots, also called the Anti-Popery riots, were a series of anti-Roman Catholic riots and attacks which took place across southern East Anglia throughout 1642. The unrest was concentrated in the area surrounding the River Stour, Suffolk. The riots are believed to", "1988 October Riots 1988 October Riots The 1988 October Riots were a series of street-level disturbances and riotous demonstrations by Algerian youth, which started on 5 October 1988 and ended on the 11th. The riots were \"the most serious\" since Algeria's independence\", and involved thousands of youth who \"took control of the streets\". Riots started in Alger and spread to other cities, resulting in about 500 deaths and 1000 wounded. The riots indirectly led to the fall of the country's one-party system (Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) party had been in power since 1962) and the introduction of democratic reform, but also to", "2011 England riots riots as a role model to be applied to their political activities in Germany as well. The riots were described by one journalist as \"the worst disturbances of their kind since the 1995 Brixton riots\". Commentators likened the riots to the Broadwater Farm riot of 1985, during which a police officer, Keith Blakelock, was murdered. The disturbances were preceded by calls for better oversight of the Metropolitan Police, repeating observations which go back to the death of Stephen Lawrence and the New Cross Fire. In April 2011 there was a large nonviolent march to Scotland Yard as a result of", "Gavazzi Riots Gavazzi Riots The Gavazzi Riots were disturbances created in Quebec and Montreal, in June 1853, by mobs which attacked halls in which ex-Catholic monk Alessandro Gavazzi was lecturing. During the spring of 1853 Alessandro Gavazzi, an Italian patriot, visited North America. His lectures at Quebec and Montreal were strongly anti-Roman Catholic; and at both places the soldiers had to be called out to restore order. The riots also caused political repercussions. On the evening of the June 6th, pursuant to previous announcement, Gavazzi proceeded to deliver a discourse in the Free Presbyterian Church, in St. Ursule Street, on the subject", "Nika riots Nika riots The Nika riots ( \"Stásis toû Níka\"), or Nika revolt, took place against Emperor Justinian I in Constantinople over the course of a week in AD 532. They were the most violent riots in the city's history, with nearly half of Constantinople being burned or destroyed and tens of thousands of people killed. The ancient Roman and Byzantine empires had well-developed associations, known as \"demes\", which supported the different factions (or teams) under which competitors in certain sporting events took part; this was particularly true of chariot racing. There were initially four major factional teams of chariot racing,", "1912 Fez riots 1912 Fez riots The Fez Riots, also known as the Fez Mutiny, Fez Uprising, Tritl (by the Jewish community) and Fez's Bloody Days (from ) were riots which took place in Fez, then the capital of Morocco, shortly after the signing of the Treaty of Fez on 30 March 1912 which created the French protectorate in Morocco. Shortly before the riots the population of Fez learnt about the treaty, and in general viewed it as a betrayal by Sultan Abd al-Hafid who had travelled to Rabat to ensure his safety. After the riots he was forced to abdicate in favour", "Southern bread riots Southern bread riots The Southern bread riots were events of civil unrest in the Confederacy during the American Civil War, perpetrated mostly by women in March and April 1863. During these riots, which occurred in cities throughout the South, women and men violently invaded and looted various shops and stores. The riots were triggered by the women's lack of money, provisions, and food. All were the result of multiple factors: As in the French Revolution, citizens, mostly women, began to protest the exorbitant price of bread. The protesters believed a negligent government and speculators were to blame. To show their", "1953 Lahore riots 1953 Lahore riots The Lahore riots of 1953 were a series of violent riots against the Ahmadiyya Movement, mainly in the city of Lahore, Pakistan as well as the rest of Punjab, which were eventually quelled by the Pakistan Army who declared three months of martial law. The demonstrations began in February 1953, soon escalating into citywide incidents, including looting, arson and the murder of somewhere between 200 and 10,000 people, while thousands more were left displaced. According to the official inquiry conducted by the Punjab Government the actual number killed in these riots were around 20 people. The page", "The Riots answer some questions. \"The Riots\" is staged in two-halves. The first half gives a thorough and vivid image of how the riots unfolded and spread from city to city. This is told through witness accounts from rioters, police officers, onlookers and local residents, in particular, Mohamed Hammoudan, whose house was burnt down. The second half reflects on the riots, using interviews from politicians, rioters, police, teachers, community leaders, lawyers and social workers, analyzing why the riots occurred, for what reasons and how society and the government can learn from them. Slovo has compiled a plurality of voices, in an unbiased", "1948 Anti-Jewish riots in Oujda and Jerada France), in which 5 Jews were killed and 30 injured in the space of 3 hours before the army arrived. The mob riots in the neighbouring mining town of Jerada were even more violent, with 39 deaths. 1948 Anti-Jewish riots in Oujda and Jerada The 1948 Anti-Jewish riots in Oujda and Jerada, the latter also known as Djerada, occurred on June 7–8, 1948, in the towns of Oujda and Jerada, in the northeast of the French protectorate in Morocco. In those events 43 Jews and one Frenchman were killed and approximately 150 injured at the hands of local Muslims. French", "2011 Dohuk riots 2011 Dohuk riots The 2011 Dohuk riots refers to riots which began on December 2, 2011 in the Dohuk Governorate, Iraq. They were instigated by Friday prayers' sermons by Ismail Osman Sindai, a radical Kurdish imam, calling for attacks against stores selling alcohol and massage parlours in Zakho. The riots soon developed into the looting and burning down of Assyrian and Yazidi-owned properties in other towns in the governorate, causing four million dollars of damage. The riots ended after Kurdistan Regional Government security forces intervened and began a massive crackdown on demonstrators. As a result of the riots, a group" ]

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[ "The voice of the secretary could be heard again." ]

[ "The voice could not be heard.", "They did not fake the confession.", "a man runs down the street", "It will never be a regional leader.", "Eleven girls pose on stage.", "Her eyes went big.", "she was killed quickly." ]

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[ "Someone is having their shoes shined outdoors." ]

[ "Someone is having their sandal fixed.", "It was just like my parents house only it was on the water.", "woman in casino", "Three dogs are howling.", "A man kicks another man.", "men drinking at a bar", "The Asian man is not wearing a black backpack.", "\t" ]

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[ "Jane began, with little confidence." ]

[ "Jane began with confidence.", "Several people are building items.", "Random House can halt scrabble players and copy editors.", "A white girl is at the beach with her parents.", "Schedule activities.", "They can only visit a site once, and move on the others.", "The realignment requires funding for GAO." ]

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[ "Wood is been split by a man with audience watching at it" ]

[ "A man is joining all the woods to make it as a furniture", "Three shirtless boys sit on the steps", "You heard what I said.", "A young boy with her face painted looks into a mirror held up by an older woman.", "Two people running down the beach.", "A barricade separates two women and three kids from a group of marching men.", "The man dribbles the basketball down the court." ]

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[ "เยรูซาเลม\nเยรูซาเลม (English: Jerusalem), เยรูชาลายิม (Hebrew: יְרוּשָׁלַיִם) หรือ อัลกุดส์ (Arabic: القُدس‎) เป็นเมืองในตะวันออกกลาง ตั้งอยู่บนที่ราบของภูเขายูดาห์ ระหว่างทะเลเมดิเตอร์เรเนียนกับทะเลเดดซี เยรูซาเลมเป็นเมืองที่พระยาห์เวห์ทรงเลือกสรรไว้ให้เป็นป้อมแห่งความเชื่อถึงพระเป็นเจ้าแต่เพียงองค์เดียว ประเทศอิสราเอลและรัฐปาเลสไตน์ต่างอ้างสิทธิเหนือเยรูซาเลมว่าเป็นเมืองหลวงของตน อย่างไรก็ตาม การกล่าวอ้างของทั้งสองฝ่ายไม่ได้รับการยอมรับจากนานาชาติ" ]

[ "เยรูซาเลม\n965-922 ปีก่อนค.ศ.: ซาโลมอน โอรสของกษัตริย์ดาวิดได้ปรับปรุงเมืองนี้และสร้างพระวิหารแห่งพระเจ้าสูงสุด 587 ปีก่อนค.ศ.: ชาวบาบิโลเนียได้ยึดกรุงเยรูซาเลม ทำลายพระวิหารและนำชาวยิวไปเป็นทาสในบาบิโลน 538 ปีก่อนค.ศ.: ชาวยิวได้กลับสู่กรุงเยรูซาเลมและสร้างพระวิหารขึ้นใหม่ 332 ปีก่อนค.ศ.: อเล็กซานเดอร์มหาราชได้ยึดกรุงเยรูซาเลม 168 ปีก่อนค.ศ.: กษัตริย์อันติโอกุส เอปีฟาเนส ได้ทำลายกำแพงกรุงเยรูซาเลม 63 ปีก่อนค.ศ.: ถูกโรมันเข้ายึดเมือง 37 ปีก่อนค.ศ.: เฮโรดได้แต่งตั้งให้เป็นกษัตริย์ของชาวยิว พระองค์เป็นนักก่อสร้างและปรับปรุงกรุงเยรูซาเลมให้สวยงาม ได้สร้างกำแพงและพระวิหาร ขึ้นมาใหม่ให้สวยงามกว่าในสมัยของกษัตริย์ของเฮโรดนี้เป็นกรุงเยรูซาเลมที่พระเยซูเจ้าทรงรู้จัก ค.ศ.70: เยรูซาเลมถูกทำลายโดยจักรพรรดิติตุส ค.ศ.132-135: จักรพรรดิเอเดรียนได้สร้างกรุงเยรูซาเลมขึ้นใหม่ตามแบบของเมืองโรมัน ตั้งชื่อว่า \"เอลีอา กาปีโตลียา\" และสร้างสักการสถานแด่พระเท็จเทียมบนซากของสักการสถานของชาวยิว และของชาวคริสต์ และพวกยิวถูกห้ามเข้าเมืองเด็ดขาด หากจับได้จะมีโทษมีประหารชีวิต ค.ศ.330: จักรพรรดิคอนสแตนตินที่ 1 มหาราชผู้กลับใจได้เปลี่ยนกรุงเยรูซาเลมให้เป็นเมืองคริสต์ ค.ศ.614: เปอร์เซียเข้ายึดกรุงเยรูซาเลมและทำลายวัดวาอารามต่าง ๆ ค.ศ.636: เยรูซาเลมตกอยู่ภายในอำนาจของชาวอาหรับ ซึ่งได้รักษาอำนาจนี้ตลอดมาเป็นเวลา 500 ปี ค.ศ.1099: เยรูซาเลมถูกยึดโดยครูเสดและกลับเป็นที่ตั้งของอาณาจักรละติน ค.ศ.1187: เยรูซาเลมถูกยึดโดยชาวมุสลิมภายใต้การนำของศอลาฮุดดิน ค.ศ.1517: เมืองตกอยู่ในเงื้อมมือของชาวเติร์ก และอยู่ในการปกครองของพวกเขาตลอด 400 ปี ค.ศ.1917: พันธมิตรได้ยึดกรุงเยรูซาเลมและให้อยู่ใต้การปกครองของทหารอังกฤษ ค.ศ.1948: สงครามอาหรับ-อิสราเอล; เยรูซาเลมถูกแบ่งดินแดนเป็นเยรูซาเลมตะวันตก ปกครองโดยอิสราเอล และเยรูซาเลมตะวันออก ปกครองโดยจอร์แดน และเป็นเมืองหลวงของประเทศอิสราเอลในส่วนที่เป็นเยรูซาเลมตะวันตก ระหว่างสงคราม 6 วัน ใน ค.ศ. 1967 เยรูซาเลมตะวันออกจึงตกอยู่ ภายใต้การปกครองของอิสราเอล และตามกฎหมายซึ่งออกใน ค.ศ. 1980 เยรูซาเลมจึงเป็นเมืองหลวงของอิสราเอลอย่างเป็นทางการ ค.ศ.1967: สงคราม 6 วัน; ชาวอิสราเอลได้ยึดกรุงเยรูซาเลมเก่า ซึ่งเคยอยู่ภายใต้การปกครองของจอร์แดน สถานการณ์ปัจจุบันยังยืดเยื้ออยู่ และชาวอาหรับรับไม่ค่อยได้ด้านประวัติศาสตร์ของคริสตชน เริ่มตั้งแต่ปีที่ 33 ของสมัยปกครองของกษัตริย์เฮโรด", "ประเทศอิสราเอล\nในปี 634–641 บริเวณนี้ รวมทั้งเยรูซาเลม ถูกอาหรับที่เพิ่งเข้ารีตอิสลามพิชิต การควบคุมดินแดนนี้เปลี่ยนแปลงระหว่างรัฐเคาะลีฟะฮ์รอชิดีน อุมัยยะฮ์ อับบาซียะฮ์ ฟาติมียะห์ เซลจุก ครูเซเดอร์และอัยยูบิดในช่วงสามศตวรรษถัดมา[35]", "ประเทศอิสราเอล\nวันที่ 15 พฤษภาคม 1947 สมัชชาใหญ่แห่งสหประชาชาติที่เพิ่งตั้งได้ข้อสรุปว่าให้ตั้งคณะกรรมการพิเศษแห่งสหประชาชาติว่าด้วยปาเลสไตน์ \"เพื่อเตรียมรายงานว่าด้วยปัญหาปาเลสไตน์สำหรับข้อพิจารณาในสมัยประชุมสามัญแห่งสมัชชาฯ\"[81] ในรายงานของคณะกรรมการฯ ลงวันที่ 3 กันยายน 1947 ถึงสมัชชาใหญ่ฯ[82] คณะกรรมการฯ ส่วนใหญ่ในบทที่ 6 เสนอแผนแทนที่อาณัติปาเลสไตน์ด้วย \"รัฐอาหรับเอกราช รัฐยิวเอกราช และนครเยรูซาเลม ... โดยอย่างหลังให้อยู่ภายใต้ระบบภาวะทรัสตีระหว่างประเทศ\"[83] วันที่ 29 พฤศจิกายน สมัชชาใหญ่ฯ รับข้อมติที่ 181 (II) แนะนำการมีมติเห็นชอบและการนำไปปฏิบัติซึ่งแผนการแบ่งพร้อมสหภาพเศรษฐกิจ[17] แผนที่แนบกับข้อมติมีความสำคัญที่เสนอโดยคณะกรรมการฯ ส่วนใหญ่ในรายงานวันที่ 3 กันยายน หน่วยงานยิวซึ่งเป็นผู้แทนชุมชนยิวที่ได้รับการรับรอง ยอมรับแผนนี้[19][20] ฝ่ายสันนิบาตอาหรับและคณะกรรมการสูงอาหรับปาเลสไตน์ปฏิเสธ และบ่งชี้ว่าจะปฏิเสธแผนแบ่งส่วนใด ๆ[18][84] วันรุ่งขึ้น คือ 1 ธันวาคม 1947 คณะกรรมการสูงอาหรับประกาศการหยุดงานประท้วงสามวัน และแก๊งอาหรับเริ่มโจมตีเป้าหมายยิว[85] ทีแรกยิวเป็นฝ่ายตั้งรับเมื่อสงครามกลางเมืองปะทุ แต่ในต้นเดือนเมษายน 1948 เปลี่ยนเป็นฝ่ายบุก[86][87] เศรษฐกิจปาเลสไตน์อาหรับล่มสลายและชาวอาหรับปาเลสไตน์หลบหนีหรือถูกขับไล่ 250,000 คน[88]", "ชาวยิว\nชนชาติอิสราเอลได้ก่อสร้างชาติจากชนเผ่าเชื้อสายของจาขอบหรืออิสราเอลทั้ง12เผ่า ช่วงนั้นจะเรียกว่า เลวี เบนยามิน และยูดาห์ กษัตริย์เดวิดก็กำเนิดในชนเผ่านี้ ชนชาติฮิบรูในช่วงที่มีกษัตริย์ได้ตกเป็นทาสของบาบิโลน และเปอร์เซีย และหลังจากถูกจับเป็นเชลยอยู่หลายปีได้เดินทางกลับไปสร้างชาติอีกครั้ง จนมาถึงสมัยพันธสัญญาใหม่ กองทัพโรมมหาอำนาจของโลกได้เข้ายึดกรุงเยรูซาเล็ม ช่วงสุดท้ายก่อนอิสราเอลจะสิ้นชาติ พระคริสต์ได้ประสูติ และบอกว่าพระองค์คือบุตรของพระเจ้า จนนำไปสู่การตรึงกางเขนโดยสาวกของพระองค์ที่ชื่อยูดัส เอสคาริโอ", "นครโฮจิมินห์\nไซ่ง่อนในอดีตเคยเป็นเมืองในการปกครองของเขมรมาก่อนเรียกว่า ไพรนคร (ตัวอักษรเขมรเขียนว่า ព្រៃនគរ ปรึย~เปรยโนโกร์) ต่อมาเมื่อเวียดนามเข้ามายึดครองดินแดนนี้ จึงได้เปลี่ยนชื่อเมืองเป็นภาษาเวียดนามว่า ยาดิ่ง (ซาดิ่ง) (ตัวอักษรเขียนว่า Gia Địng) และต่อมาเปลี่ยนชื่อว่า ไซ่ง่อน (Sài gòn ส่ายก่อน) กาลเวลาหลายร้อยปีต่อมาอีก เมื่อแยกประเทศเวียดนาม ออกเป็นสองส่วน ไซ่ง่อนเป็นเมืองหลวงของเวียดนามใต้ เมื่อเวียดนามเหนือยึดได้จึงเปลี่ยนชื่อเป็น นครโฮจิมินห์ ตามชื่อผู้นำเวียดมินห์ คือ โฮจิมินห์\nชาวเวียดนามในนครโฮจิมินห์ส่วนใหญ่เดินทางโดยรถจักรยานยนต์ มีรถแท็กซี่บริการโดยมีหลายบริษัท และมีรถประจำทางบริการ เรียกว่า ไซ่ง่อนบัส (Saigon Bus)\nท่าอากาศยานนานาชาติเตินเซินเญิ้ต () เป็นท่าอากาศยานที่ใหญ่ที่สุดในเวียดนามในด้านจำนวนผู้โดยสารตั้งอยู่ใจกลางนครโฮจิมินห์ อย่างไรก็ตาม ท่าอากาศยานนานาชาติล็องถั่ญ () จะสร้างแล้วเสร็จในปี ค.ศ. 2020 และจะกลายเป็นท่าอากาศยานที่ใหญ่ที่สุดแทน", "จอร์จ วอชิงตัน\nหลายสิ่งหลายอย่างได้นำชื่อของวอชิงตันไปตั้ง ชื่อของวอชิงตันถูกนำไปตั้งเป็นชื่อเมืองหลวงของสหรัฐอเมริกา นั่นคือ วอชิงตัน ดี.ซี. ซึ่งเป็น 1 ใน 2 เมืองหลวงของโลกที่ใช้ชื่อของประธานาธิบดีสหรัฐฯ (อีกเมืองหนึ่งคือ มอนโรเวีย เมืองหลวงของประเทศไลบีเรีย) รัฐวอชิงตัน เป็นเพียงรัฐเดียวที่ใช้ชื่อนี้หลังจากตั้งประเทศ (แมริแลนด์, เวอร์จิเนีย, เซาท์แคโรไลนา, นอร์ทแคโรไลนา และจอร์เจีย เป็นชื่อที่ตั้งขึ้นเพื่อเฉลิมพระนามพระราชวงศ์อังกฤษ) มหาวิทยาลัยจอร์จ วอชิงตัน และ มหาวิทยาลัยวอชิงตัน เซนต์หลุยส์", "เมืองหลวงญี่ปุ่น\nประเทศญี่ปุ่นนั้นมีเมืองหลวง (首都 ชุโตะ หรือ 都 มิยะโกะ) มานับต่อนับ แต่ส่วนมากจะอยู่ในยุคโบราณ และจะอยู่ในภาคคันไซทั้งหมด ยกเว้นโตเกียวซึ่งเป็นเมืองหลวงใหม่ เมืองหลวงที่ไม่ใช่เมืองโตเกียว ที่ยิ่งใหญ่ที่สุดของประเทศคือ เฮอังเกียว ซึ่งเป็นยุคที่ถือได้ว่าเป็นต้นกำเนิดของวัฒนธรรมญี่ปุ่น มีการประดิษฐ์ตัวอักษรญี่ปุ่น โดยดัดแปลงมาจากตัวอักษรจีน ผู้คนเริ่มที่จะสวมใส่กิโมโน ซึ่งในยุคก่อนหน้านั้น ชาวญี่ปุ่นยังแต่งตัวแบบจีนอยู่", "ไทยโยเดีย\nชื่อ \"โยดายา\" () เป็นการออกเสียงชื่อเดิมของกรุงศรีอยุธยา คืออโยธยา ตามสำเนียงพม่า ดังปรากฏชื่อเดิมของกรุงศรีอยุธยาจากจารึกบนเขาวัดวรนาถบรรพตว่า \"กรุงอโยธยาศรีรามเทพนคร\" อันเป็นนามเมืองเดียวกันกับเมืองของพระราม สอดคล้องกับบันทึกของชาวโปรตุเกสที่บันทึกชื่อเดิมของกรุงศรีอยุธยาว่า \"โอเดีย\" (Odiaa) แต่หลังเสียกรุงศรีอยุธยาครั้งที่หนึ่งในปี พ.ศ. 2112 สมเด็จพระนเรศวรมหาราชทรงปรับนามเมืองเสียใหม่ว่า \"ศรีอยุทธยา\" แปลว่า \"เมืองที่รบไม่แพ้\" แต่ชาวกรุงศรีอยุธยาเองจะเรียกเมืองหลวงของตนเองว่า \"กรุงเทพพระมหานคร\" ", "ประเทศอิสราเอล\nนับแต่มีชุมชนยิวพลัดมาตุภูมิแรกสุด ยิวจำนวนมากหวังคืนสู่ \"ไซออน\" และ \"แผ่นดินอิสราเอล\"[51] แม้ปริมาณความพยายามที่ควรใช้ไปเพื่อเป้าหมายนี้เป็นหัวข้อพิพาท[52][53] ความหวังและความปรารถนาของยิวที่อาศัยอยู่นอกมาตุภูมิเป็นแก่นสำคัญของระบบความเชื่อของยิว[52] หลังยิวถูกขับไล่ออกจากสเปนในปี 1492 บางชุมชนตั้งถิ่นฐานอยู่ในปาเลสไตน์[54] ระหว่างคริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 16 ชุมชนยิวตั้งรกรากในสี่นครศักดิ์สิทธิ์ ได้แก่ เยรูซาเลม ไทเบียเรียส ฮีบรอนและซาเฟ็ด และในปี 1697 แรบไบเยฮูดา ฮาชาซิด (Yehuda Hachasid) นำกลุ่มยิว 1,500 คนไปเยรูซาเลม[55] ในครึ่งหลังของคริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 18 ผู้คัดค้านลัทธิฮาซิดิมชาวยุโรปตะวันออก ที่เรีรยก เปรูชิม (Perushim) ตั้งถิ่นฐานในปาเลสไตน์[56][57][58]", "ประเทศพม่า\nพม่า[6] หรือ เมียนมา[7] (Burmese: မြန်မာ, [mjəmà], มฺยะหฺม่า) มีชื่อทางการว่า สาธารณรัฐแห่งสหภาพพม่า หรือ สาธารณรัฐแห่งสหภาพเมียนมา (Burmese: ပြည်ထောင်စု သမ္မတ မြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော်, [pjìdàuɴzṵ θàɴməda̯ mjəmà nàiɴŋàɴdɔ̀] ปหฺยี่เด่าง์ซุ ตัมมะดะ มฺยะหฺม่า ไหฺน่หฺงั่นด่อ) เป็นรัฐเอกราชในเอเชียตะวันออกเฉียงใต้ มีพรมแดนติดกับอินเดีย บังกลาเทศ จีน ลาว และไทย หนึ่งในสามของพรมแดนพม่าที่มีความยาว 1,930 กิโลเมตรเป็นแนวชายฝั่งตามอ่าวเบงกอลและทะเลอันดามัน ด้วยพื้นที่ 676,578 ตารางกิโลเมตร ประเทศพม่าเป็นประเทศที่ใหญ่เป็นอันดับที่ 40 ของโลก และใหญ่เป็นอันดับที่ 2 ในเอเชียตะวันออกเฉียงใต้ สำมะโนของประเทศในปี 2557 เผยว่าประเทศพม่ามีประชากรน้อยกว่าที่คาดการณ์ โดยมีบันทึกประชากร 51 ล้านคน มีเมืองหลวง คือ กรุงเนปยีดอ และนครใหญ่สุด คือ ย่างกุ้ง[1]", "ประเทศเยอรมนี\nหลังเยอรมนียอมจำนนแล้ว ฝ่ายสัมพันธมิตรก็ได้แบ่งกรุงเบอร์ลินและประเทศเยอรมนีออกเป็น 4 เขตในยึดครองทางทหาร เขตฝั่งตะวันตกซึ่งควบคุมโดยฝรั่งเศส สหราชอาณาจักร และสหรัฐอเมริกา ได้รวมกันและจัดตั้งขึ้นเป็นประเทศที่ชื่อว่า \"สหพันธ์สาธารณรัฐเยอรมนี\" เมื่อวันที่ 23 พฤษภาคม ค.ศ. 1949 ส่วนเขตทางตะวันออกซึ่งอยู่ในควบคุมของสหภาพโซเวียตได้จัดตั้งขึ้นเป็นประเทศที่ชื่อว่า \"สาธารณรัฐประชาธิปไตยเยอรมนี\" เมื่อวันที่ 7 ตุลาคม ค.ศ. 1949 ทั้งสองประเทศนี้ถูกเรียกอย่างไม่เป็นทางการว่า \"ประเทศเยอรมนีตะวันตก\" มีเมืองหลวงอยู่ที่กรุงบ็อน และ \"ประเทศเยอรมนีตะวันออก\" มีเมืองหลวงอยู่ที่กรุงเบอร์ลินตะวันออก", "เยรูซาเลม\nเยรูซาเลมถือเป็นหนึ่งในเมืองที่เก่าแก่ที่สุดในโลก โดยได้รับการกล่าวถึงในชื่อ \"อูรูซาลิมา\" ในแผ่นศิลาจารึกของเมโสโปเตเมีย ซึ่งมีความหมายว่า \"นครแห่งชาลิม\" อันเป็นนามของพระเจ้าในแผ่นดินคานาอันเมื่อราว 2,400 ปีก่อนคริสตกาล และเมื่อมาถึงยุคของวงศ์วานอิสราเอล การก่อร่างสร้างเมืองเยรูซาเลมอย่างจริงจังก็ได้เริ่มขึ้นในศตวรรษที่ 9 ก่อนคริสตกาล (ยุคเหล็กช่วงปลาย) และในศตวรรษที่ 8 ก่อนคริสตกาล เยรูซาเลมก็ได้เป็นศูนย์กลางการปกครองและทางศาสนาของอาณาจักรยูดาห์[6] ตลอดประวัติศาสตร์อันยาวนานของเยรูซาเลม นครแห่งนี้ได้ถูกทำลายไปอย่างน้อย 2 ครั้ง, ถูกปิดล้อม 23 ครั้ง, ถูกโจมตี 52 ครั้ง, ถูกยึดและเอาคืน 44 ครั้ง[7] มีส่วนหนึ่งของเยรูซาเลมที่เรียกว่า \"เมืองดาวิด\" ปรากฏการตั้งถิ่นฐานตั้งแต่สี่พันปีก่อนคริสตกาล กำแพงเมืองเยรูซาเลมซึ่งยังคงตั้งตะหง่านจนถึงปัจจุบันสร้างขึ้นในปี 1538 ในรัชกาลสุลัยมานผู้เกรียงไกร พื้นที่ภายในกำแพงเรียกว่าย่านเมืองเก่า ซึ่งแบ่งออกเป็นสี่เขตด้วยกันได้แก่ เขตอาร์มีเนีย, เขตยิว, เขตคริสเตียน และเขตมุสลิม[8] ย่านเมืองเก่านี้ได้รับการขึ้นทะเบียนเป็นมรดกโลกโดยยูเนสโกในปีค.ศ. 1981 และยังเป็นหนึ่งในมรดกโลกที่กำลังตกอยู่ในภาวะอันตราย[9]", "ประเทศเยอรมนี\nประเทศนี้มีระบอบการปกครองแบบประชาธิปไตยเชิงเสรีภาพและรัฐสวัสดิการ พรมแดนทางทิศเหนือติดทะเลเหนือ เดนมาร์ก และทะเลบอลติก ทิศตะวันออกติดโปแลนด์และเช็กเกีย ทิศใต้ติดออสเตรีย และสวิตเซอร์แลนด์ ทิศตะวันตกติดฝรั่งเศส ลักเซมเบิร์ก เบลเยียม และเนเธอร์แลนด์ มีเมืองหลวงและเมืองใหญ่ของประเทศคือเบอร์ลิน เยอรมนีมีประชากรประมาณ 80 ล้านคนและเป็นประเทศที่มีความหนาแน่นประชากรสูงสุดแห่งหนึ่ง อีกทั้งยังเป็นประเทศที่มีคนย้ายถิ่นมากที่สุดเป็นอันดับสามของโลก หลังจากที่สหรัฐอเมริกาเยอรมนีเป็นปลายทางการย้ายถิ่นที่สองได้รับความนิยมมากที่สุดในโลก[8]", "นาซาเรธ\nนาซาเรธ (; สัทอักษรสากล: ) (, ฮีบรู Natz'rat หรือ Natzeret; an-Nāṣira หรือ an-Naseriyye) เป็นเมืองหลวงและเมืองใหญ่สุดของเขตเหนือของอิสราเอล เป็นเสมือนเมืองหลวงของอาหรับสำหรับชาวอาหรับในประเทศอิสราเอล ผู้ที่เป็นประชากรส่วนใหญ่ในนาซาเรธ ในพันธสัญญาใหม่ นาซาเรธถูกอธิบายว่าเป็นบ้านเกิดของพระเยซูคริสต์ และ เป็นสถานที่ในการเดินทางแสวงบุญของชาวคริสต์ทั้งปวง", "พนมเปญ\nพนมเปญ หรือ ภนุมปึญ (Khmer: ភ្នំពេញ ภฺนุํเพญ ออกเสียง: [pʰnum pɨɲ]; English: Phnom Penh) อีกชื่อหนึ่งคือ ราชธานีพนมเปญ เป็นเมืองหลวงของประเทศกัมพูชา และยังเป็นเมืองหลวงของนครหลวงพนมเปญด้วย ครั้งหนึ่งเคยได้ชื่อว่า ไข่มุกแห่งเอเชีย (เมื่อคริสต์ทศวรรษ 1920 พร้อมกับเมืองเสียมราฐ) นับเป็นเมืองที่เป็นเป้าการท่องเที่ยวทั้งจากผู้คนในประเทศและจากต่างประเทศ พนมเปญยังมีชื่อเสียงในฐานะที่มีสถาปัตยกรรมแบบเขมรดั้งเดิมและแบบได้รับอิทธิพลฝรั่งเศส", "เวสต์แบงก์\nต่อมาอิสราเอลได้เข้ายึดครองเขตเวสต์แบงก์และนครเยรูซาเลมตะวันออกหลังสิ้นสุดสงครามหกวันในเดือนมิถุนายน ค.ศ. 1967 แม้ว่าเขตเวสต์แบงก์จะไม่ได้ถูกผนวกเข้ากับอิสราเอล (ยกเว้นพื้นที่นครเยรูซาเลมตะวันออกและดินแดนที่อิสราเอลกับจอร์แดนเคยกำหนดไว้ว่าไม่มีใครเป็นเจ้าของ) แต่ก็ต้องตกอยู่ภายใต้การควบคุมทางทหารจากอิสราเอล โดยอิสราเอลเรียกพื้นที่นี้ว่า \"พื้นที่จูเดียและซาแมเรีย\" (Judea and Samaria Area) จากนั้นในปี ค.ศ. 1974 ที่ประชุมสุดยอดองค์การสันนิบาตอาหรับ ณ กรุงราบัต มีมติกำหนดให้องค์การปลดปล่อยปาเลสไตน์ (Palestine Liberation Organization) เป็น \"ตัวแทนที่ชอบด้วยกฎหมายเพียงหนึ่งเดียวของชาวปาเลสไตน์\" แต่จอร์แดนก็ไม่ได้ถอนการอ้างกรรมสิทธิ์เหนือพื้นที่นี้อย่างเป็นทางการจนกระทั่งถึงปี ค.ศ. 1988 ซึ่งทำให้ความผูกพันทางการบริหารและกฎหมายกับเวสต์แบงก์ถูกตัดขาด และทำให้สถานะพลเมืองจอร์แดนของชาวปาเลสไตน์ในพื้นที่นี้ถูกยกเลิกไปในที่สุด ", "การปิดกั้นเบอร์ลิน\nระหว่างวันที่ 17 มิถุนายน - 2 สิงหาคม ค.ศ. 1945 ฝ่ายสัมพันธมิตรบรรลุข้อตกลงพอทสดัม (Potsdam Agreement) ซึ่งกำหนดให้แบ่งเยอรมนีออกเป็น 4 ส่วนโดยแต่ละส่วนจะถูกปกครองโดยชาติที่ครอบครองดินแดนในส่วนนั้นอยู่ก่อนหน้าสงครามจะยุติ กรุงเบอร์ลินซึ่งเป็นเมืองหลวงของเยอรมนีก็จะถูกแบ่งออกเป็นสี่ส่วนเช่นกัน อย่างไรก็ตาม การที่กรุงเบอร์ลินตั้งอยู่ในพื้นที่ของสหภาพโซเวียตทำให้กรุงเบอร์ลินส่วนที่เป็นของสหรัฐอเมริกา ฝรั่งเศส และอังกฤษ ถูกล้อมรอบด้วยทหารโซเวียต", "ลูซิเฟอร์\nชาวอิสราเอลในเยรูซาเลมไม่ได้เชื่อฟังคำสั่งสอนของพระเจ้าอีก พระเจ้าจึงต้องการลงโทษพวกเขา โดยอาศัยการเรืองอำนาจของจักรวรรดิบาบิโลนเข้าทำลายกรุงเยรูซาเล็ม เมื่อเยรูซาเลมถูกทำลายลง ชาวยิวผู้เป็นผู้พยากรณ์ของพระเจ้า คือดาเนียลและเพื่อนถูกจับพร้อมเหล่าเชลยไปยังบาบิโลน ดาเนียลมีโอกาสทำนายนิมิตที่แปลกประหลาดให้แก่ พระเจ้าเนบูคัดเนซซาร์ที่ 2 แห่งบาบิโลน ดาเนียลสามารถทำนายได้อย่างถูกต้อง ดาเนียลอธิบายว่าเดชานุภาพอันเกรียงไกรของพระองค์มาจากพรของพระผู้เป็นเจ้า และเมื่อดาเนียลทูลคำอธิบายจบแล้ว พระเจ้าเนบูคัดเนซซาร์ทรงหมอบกราบดาเนียล และหันไปนับถือพระยาห์เวห์ ทรงตั้งดาเนียลให้ปกครองบาบิโลนทั้งมณฑล ภายหลังมีเหตุการณ์ที่สหายของดาเนียลทำให้พระเจ้าเนบูคัดเนซซาร์พิโรธจึงถูกโยนเข้าเตาไฟ แต่ก็ไม่เป็นอะไรเลย พระเจ้าเนบูคัดเนซซาร์ยิ่งศรัทธาในองค์พระยาห์เวห์ ", "ฮูษี\nอันศอรอัลลอฮ์ (; , \"ผู้สนับสนุนพระเป็นเจ้า\") หรือที่รู้จักกันมากกว่าในชื่อ ฮูษี (; \"al-Ḥūthiyyūn\") เป็นกลุ่มชีอะฮ์ซัยดียะฮ์ (Zaidiyyah) ซึ่งปฏิบัติการในประเทศเยเมน กลุ่มนี้เอาชื่อมาจากฮุซัยน์ บัดร์อัดดีน อัลฮูษี (Hussein Badreddin al-Houthi) ซึ่งเปิดฉากการก่อการกำเริบในปี 2547 และมีรายงานว่าถูกกองทัพเยเมนฆ่าเมื่อเดือนกันยายนปีนั้น กลุ่มนี้นำโดย อับดุลมะลิก อัลฮูษี (Abdul-Malik al-Houthi) ซึ่งประสบความสำเร็จในรัฐประหารปี 2557/2558 และปัจจุบันยังควบคุมกรุงซานา เมืองหลวงของประเทศเยเมน และรัฐสภา", "ราชอาณาจักรเยรูซาเลม\nประเพณีและระบบต่างที่ใช้ในอาณาจักรนำมาจากยุโรปตะวันตกกับนักการสงครามครูเสด ระบบการปกครองและความเกี่ยวดองกับยุโรปเป็นไปตลอดอายุของอาณาจักร แต่เมื่อเทียบกับอาณาจักรในยุโรปแล้วราชอาณาจักรเยรูซาเลมก็เป็นเพียงอาณาจักรที่ค่อนข้างเล็กและมักจะขาดการหนุนหลังทางด้านการเงินและทางการทหารจากยุโรป ราชอาณาจักรเยรูซาเลมมีความสัมพันธ์ใกล้ชิดกับราชอาณาจักรข้างเคียงมากกว่าเช่นราชอาณาจักรอาร์มิเนียแห่งซิลิเซีย (Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia) และจักรวรรดิไบแซนไทน์ ที่ได้รับอิทธิพลตะวันออกมา นอกจากนั้นก็ยังได้รับอิทธิพลจากระบบมุสลิม แต่ทางด้านสังคมแล้วผู้อาศัยอยู่ในราชอาณาจักรจากยุโรปตะวันตกแทบไม่มีการติดต่อกับมุสลิมหรือชนคริสเตียนท้องถิ่นที่ปกครองเลย", "เวียนนา\nเวียนนา (English: Vienna) หรือ วีน (German: Wien) เป็นเมืองหลวงของประเทศออสเตรีย และเป็นชื่อเขตการปกครองในออสเตรียด้วย", "กรุงเทพมหานคร\nต่อมาเมื่อวันที่ 21 ธันวาคม พ.ศ. 2514 รัฐบาลจอมพลถนอม กิตติขจรได้รวม จังหวัดพระนคร และ จังหวัดธนบุรี เข้าด้วยกันเป็น นครหลวงกรุงเทพธนบุรี[12] และภายหลังการปรับปรุงการปกครองใหม่เมื่อวันที่ 14 ธันวาคม พ.ศ. 2515 จึงได้เปลี่ยนเป็นชื่อเป็น กรุงเทพมหานคร แต่นิยมเรียกกันว่า กรุงเทพฯ[13]", "ประเทศเบลเยียม\nชาววัลลูนและชาวเฟลมิชในเบลเยียมมีความแตกต่างกันทั้งทางภาษา ภูมิศาสตร์ เศรษฐกิจและการเมือง ในปี พ.ศ. 2511 ความตึงเครียดระหว่างประชากรในพื้นที่ที่ใช้ภาษาดัตช์และที่ใช้ภาษาฝรั่งเศสได้ทวีความรุนแรงขึ้น จนบางครั้งถึงขั้นจลาจล สถานการณ์นี้นำไปสู่การแก้ไขรัฐธรรมนูญให้มีรูปแบบการปกครองแบบสหพันธรัฐ-ราชอาณาจักร โดยแบ่งออกเป็นสามเขต คือ เขตฟลามส์ เขตวัลลูน และเขตเมืองหลวงบรัสเซลส์ แต่ละเขตมีรัฐบาลท้องถิ่นปกครองตนเอง และมีรัฐบาลกลางบริหารประเทศโดยมีพระมหากษัตริย์เป็นประมุขแห่งรัฐ", "ณ อยุธยา\nเมื่อวันที่ 24 มีนาคม พ.ศ. 2467 พระบาทสมเด็จพระมงกุฎเกล้าเจ้าอยู่หัวทรงพระราชดำริพิจารณา คำว่า “กรุงเทพ” นั้น เป็นคำที่ใช้นำหน้านามมหานครซึ่งเป็นราชธานี เช่น ใช้ว่า “กรุงเทพมหานครบวรทวาราวดีศรีอยุธยา” เป็นนามของพระนครศรีอยุธยาเมื่อครั้งเป็นราชธานี และใช้คำว่า “กรุงเทพมหานครอมรรัตนโกสินทร์” เป็นนามของพระมหานครราชธานีในปัจจุบัน ดังนั้น คำว่า “กรุงเทพ” จึงมีความหมายถึงราชธานี 2 แห่ง โดยไม่แน่ชัดว่าเป็นแห่งใด และเนื่องจากมีพระราชดำริว่า พระบรมราชวงศ์นี้เดิมเป็นสกุลอันมหาศาลที่มีมาตั้งแต่สมัยพระนครศรีอยุธยาเป็นราชธานี จึงมีพระบรมราชโองการโปรดเกล้าฯ ให้ “ประกาศแก้เครื่องหมายนามสกุลสำหรับราชสกุล” ความว่า ตามที่ทรงพระกรุณาโปรดเกล้าฯ ให้ผู้สืบสายแต่ราชสกุลใช้คำว่า “ณ กรุงเทพ” ต่อท้ายนามสกุลนั้น เป็น “ณ อยุธยา” ตั้งแต่วันที่ 6 เมษายน พ.ศ. 2468 ซึ่งตรงกับวันมหาจักรี ", "เยรูซาเลม\nปัจจุบัน สถานภาพของเยรูซาเลมยังเป็นประเด็นแกนกลางประเด็นหนึ่งในความขัดแย้งอิสราเอล–ปาเลสไตน์ ระหว่างสงครามอาหรับ–อิสราเอลปี 1948 เยรูซาเลมตะวันตกรวมอยู่ใบรรดาดินแดนที่ถูกอิสราเอลยึดและผนวกในภายหลังด้วย ส่วนเยรูซาเลมตะวันออก รวมทั้งนครเก่า ถูกจอร์แดนยึดและผนวกในภายหลัง ประเทศอิสราเอลยึดเยรูซาเลมตะวันออกจากจอร์แดนระหว่างสงครามหกวันปี 1967 แล้วผนวกเข้าเป็นเยรูซาเลมร่วมกับดินแดนแวดล้อมเพิ่มเติม กฎหมายเยรูซาเลมปี 1980 อันเป็นกฎหมายหลักพื้นฐานของอิสราเอลฉบับหนึ่ง อ้างถึงเยรูซาเลมว่าเป็นเมืองหลวงอันแบ่งแยกมิได้ของประเทศ อำนาจทั้งสามฝ่ายของรัฐบาลอิสราเอลตั้งอยู่ในเยรูซาเลม รวมทั้งนัสเซต (รัฐสภาอิสราเอล) ทำเนียบนายกรัฐมนตรีและประธานาธิบดี และศาลสูงสุด ทว่า ประชาคมนานาชาติปฏิเสธการผนวกดังกล่าวว่าไม่ชอบด้วยกฎหมายและถือว่าเยรูซาเลมตะวันออกเป็นดินแดนของปาเลสไตน์ที่ถูกอิสราเอลยึดครอง อิสราเอลมีการอ้างสิทธิ์อธิปไตยที่เข้มแข็งกว่าเหนือเยรูซาเลมตะวันตก ประชาคมนานาชาติ นอกเหนือจากสหรัฐและสาธารณรัฐเช็ก ไม่รับรองเยรูซาเลมว่าเป็นเมืองหลวงของประเทศอิสราเอล และนับแต่คริสต์ทศวรรษ 1980 นครดังกล่าวไม่มีสถานเอกอัครราชทูตต่างประเทศ แม้มีการออกคำสั่งประธานาธฺบดีในสหรัฐให้ย้ายสถานเอกอัครราชทูตไปเยรูซาเลม เยรูซาเลมยังเป็นที่ตั้งของสถาบันนอกภาครัฐของอิสราเอลที่มีความสำคัญด้วย เช่น มหาวิทยาลัยฮีบรู และพิพิธภัณฑ์อิสราเอล พร้อมทั้งอาคารแห่งหนังสือ", "เอเคอร์ (อิสราเอล)\nหลังจากกองทหารของเฮราคลิอุส (Heraclius) แห่งจักรวรรดิไบแซนไทน์ถูกทำลายโดยกองทัพมุสลิมของ คาลิด อิบน์ อัล-วาลิด (Khalid ibn al-Walid) ในยุทธการยาร์มุค (Battle of Yarmouk) และเมืองคริสเตียนแห่งเยรูซาเลมตกไปเป็นของกาหลิบอุมาร์ (Umar) แล้ว เอเคอร์ก็ตกไปเป็นของอาณาจักรกาหลิบราชิดัน (Rashidun Caliphate) ตั้งแต่ปี ค.ศ. 638, ต่อมาอาณาจักรกาหลิบอูมายยัด (Umayyad Caliphate) และต่อมาอาณาจักรกาหลิบอับบาซิด (Abbasid Caliphate) จนกระทั่งมาถูกยึดโดยบอลด์วินที่ 1 แห่งเยรูซาเลม ระหว่างสงครามครูเสดครั้งที่ 1 ในปี ค.ศ. 1104 หลังจากนั้นนักรบครูเสดก็สร้างเอเคอร์ให้เป็นเมืองท่าหลักในปาเลสไตน์ เอเคอร์ถูกยึดกลับไปเป็นของฝ่ายมุสลิมโดยSaladinศอลาฮุดดีนในปี ค.ศ. 1187 แต่อีกสองปีต่อมาก็มาถูกล้อมโดยไม่คาดโดยกีแห่งลูซิยอง (Guy of Lusignan) แต่ก็ยึดไม่ได้จนกระทั่งเดือนกรกฎาคม ค.ศ. 1191 โดยสมเด็จพระเจ้าริชาร์ดที่ 1 แห่งอังกฤษ, พระเจ้าฟิลิปที่ 2 แห่งฝรั่งเศส และเลโอโปลด์ที่ 5 ดยุคแห่งออสเตรีย และกองทัพเยอรมันบางส่วนและกองทัพครูเสด เอเคอร์จึงกลายเป็นเมืองหลวงของราชอาณาจักรเยรูซาเลมที่ยังเหลืออยู่ในปี ค.ศ. 1192 ต่อมาในปี ค.ศ. 1229 เอเคอร์ก็ตกอยู่ภายใต้การปกครองของอัศวินเซนต์จอห์น นักรบครูเสดเรียกเมืองนี้ว่า “เอเคอร์” หรือ “เซนต์จอห์นแห่งเอเคอร์” หรือ “แซงต์-ฌองดาเครอ” (Saint-Jean d'Acre) เพราะเข้าใจผิดว่าเป็นเมืองเอครอน (Ekron) ของฟิลลิสตีน (Philistines) ทางตอนเหนือของฟิลลิสเชียปัจจุบันตั้งอยู่ทางตอนไต้ของอิสราเอล เอเคอร์เป็นที่ตั้งมั่นสุดท้ายของนักรบครูเสดที่มาเสียแก่มามลุค (Mamluk) แห่งอาณาจักรกาหลิบอับบาซิด (Abbasid Caliphate) หลังจากการถูกล้อมในปี ค.ศ. 1291", "เม็กซิโกซิตี\nเอเธนส์ อาเรกีปา ปักกิ่ง เบรุต เบอร์ลิน โบโกตา บัวโนสไอเรส ไคโร ชิคาโก ซัวดัดคัวเรซ, รัฐชีวาวา กุสโก โดโลเรสอีดัลโก, รัฐกวานาวาโต กัวเตมาลาซิตี ฮิวสตัน อิสตันบูล คาลินินกราด ลาปาซ ลิมา ลิสบอน ลอนดอน ลอสแอนเจลิส มาดริด Malmö มะนิลา มิวนิก นะโงะยะ นิวยอร์กซิตี นิโคเซีย ปานามาซิตี", "ดินแดนปาเลสไตน์\nองค์การบริหารแห่งชาติปาเลสไตน์ คณะมนตรีความมั่นคงแห่งสหประชาชาติ สมัชชาใหญ่แห่งสหประชาชาติ สหภาพยุโรป ศาลยุติธรรมระหว่างประเทศและกาชาดสากลถือว่าเยรูซาเลมตะวันออกเป็นส่วนหนึ่งของเวสต์แบงก์ และจึงเป็นส่วนหนึ่งของดินแดนปาเลสไตน์ตามลำดับ ขณะที่อิสราเอลถือว่าเป็นส่วนหนึ่งของตนอันเป็นผลจากการผนวกในปี 2523 ตามศาลสูงสุดอิสราเอล อนุสัญญาเจนีวาฉบับที่สี่ ซึ่งห้ามการผนวกดินแดนที่ถูกยึดครองฝ่ายเดียว ใช้ไม่ได้กับเยรูซาเลมตะวันออก เพราะอิสราเอลและพันธมิตรไม่รับรอง \"องค์อธิปัตย์ที่ชอบด้วยกฎหมาย\" ที่เดิมเคยควบคุมดินแดนนั้น องค์การบริหารแห่งชาติปาเลสไตน์ (ซึ่งล่าสุดเปลี่ยนชื่อเป็นรัฐปาเลสไตน์ อันเป็นผลจากสหประชาชาติรับรองเอกราช) ซึ่งรักษาการอ้างสิทธิ์เหนือดินแดนเยรูซาเลมตะวันออก ไม่เคยใช้อำนาจอธิปไตยเหนือพื้นที่ดังกล่าว ทว่า ไม่มีประเทศใดรับรองอำนาจอธิปไตยของอิสราเอล นับแต่การผนวกดินแดนที่ถูกยึดครองระหว่างสงครามฝ่ายเดียวโดยฝ่าฝืนอนุสัญญาเจนีวาฉบับที่สี่ ข้อตกลงออสโล (2538) สถาปนาการออกสู่ทะเลสำหรับกาซาภายใน 20 ไมล์ทะเลจากฝั่ง ข้อผูกมัดเบอร์ลินปี 2545 ลดเหลือ 19 กิโลเมตร ในเดือนตุลาคม 2549 อิสราเอลกำหนดขีดจำกัด 6 ไมล์ และผลของสงครามกาซาจำกัดการออกลงเหลือขีดจำกัด 3 ไมล์ทะเล ซึ่งเกินกว่านั้นมีเขตห้ามเข้า (no-go zone) ผลคือ ชาวประมงกว่า 3,000 คนถูกปฏิเสธการออกสู่ 85% ของพื้นที่ทะเลตามที่ตกลงกันในปี 2538 พื้นที่เดดซีส่วนใหญ่ถูกห้ามไม่ให้ชาวปาเลสไตน์ใช้ และชาวปาเลสไตน์ถูกห้ามไม่ให้ออกสู่แนวชายฝั่ง", "เมืองหลวง\nเมืองหลวง หรือ ราชธานี คือ เมืองหลักที่เกี่ยวข้องกับรัฐบาล ส่วนใหญ่เป็นที่ตั้งของทำเนียบรัฐบาล คำในภาษาอังกฤษ capital มาจากภาษาละติน caput หมายถึง \"หัว\" และอาจเกี่ยวข้อง เนินเขาแคปิทอไลน์ เนินเขาที่สูงที่สุดในโรมโบราณ ศูนย์กลางทางประวัติศาสตร์และศาสนา", "เยรูซาเลม\nสถิติปี ค.ศ. 1993 มีประชากร 556,000 คน ในจำนวนนี้ 401,000 คน เป็นชาวยิว อาศัยในเยรูซาเลมใหม่ และอีก 139,000 คน อาศัยทางตะวันออกและเยรูซาเลมเก่า จำนวนนี้ส่วนใหญ่เป็นชาวมุสลิม มีเพียง 16,000 คน นับถือศาสนาคริสต์", "รถไฟรางเบาเยรูซาเลม\nรถไฟรางเบาเยรูซาเลม (, \"HaRakevet HaKala Birushalayim\") เป็นระบบรถไฟฟ้ารางเบาในเยรูซาเลม ประเทศอิสราเอล ปัจจุบันมีให้บริการ 1 เส้นทาง ได้แก่ สายสีแดง โดยเริ่มก่อสร้างในปี ค.ศ. 2002 และเสร็จสมบูรณ์ในปี ค.ศ. 2010 ก่อสร้างโดยสมาคมซิตีพาส ซึ่งมีสัญญาให้บริการ 30 ปี โครงการรถไฟรางเบานี้ยังรวมถึงการก่อสร้างสะพานคอร์ดและการบูรณะตามจุด ๆ ต่างของเยรูซาเลม", "บราซีเลีย\nนครรีโอเดจาเนโรเคยเป็นเมืองหลวงของประเทศบราซิลนานเกือบ 3 ศตวรรษ พื้นที่ติดชายฝั่งทะเลนี้ได้ชื่อว่าเป็นเมืองที่มีขนาดใหญ่เป็นอันดับ 2 ของประเทศ แต่ด้วยอาณาเขตที่อยู่ห่างไกลสุดขอบแผ่นดิน ทำให้รัฐบาลมีความคิดที่จะย้ายเมืองหลวงขยับเข้าไปใจกลางแผ่นดินมากขึ้น เพื่อกระจายความเจริญให้ทั่วถึงและป้องกันการโจมตีทางทะเลจากชาติต่าง ๆ เช่น โปรตุเกส ฝรั่งเศส เนเธอร์แลนด์ แผนการที่วางไว้ คือการทำให้บราซีเลียซึ่งตั้งอยู่บริเวณตอนกลางของฝั่งตะวันตก กลายเป็นศูนย์กลางของที่ทำการรัฐบาล แผนการสร้างกรุงใหม่ได้รับการเสนอขึ้นมาตั้งแต่ปี พ.ศ. 2366 และในที่สุด พื้นที่ 14,400 ตารางกิโลเมตรนี้ก็ได้กลายเป็นสถานที่ก่อสร้างเมืองหลวงแห่งใหม่ที่ชื่อว่า บราซีเลีย ในปี พ.ศ. 2499 รัฐบาลได้จัดการแข่งขันออกแบบผังเมืองใหม่และใช้ผังเมืองที่ชนะการแข่งขันเป็นต้นแบบในการก่อสร้าง ประธานาธิบดีฌูเซลีนู กูบีแชก (Juscelino Kubitschek) ซึ่งดำรงตำแหน่งผู้นำประเทศในขณะนั้น ต้องการสร้างเมืองใหม่ให้แล้วเสร็จในขณะที่อยู่ยังในตำแหน่ง ทำให้การก่อสร้างเป็นไปอย่างเร่งรีบโดยใช้เวลาเพียง 3 ปีครึ่ง รัฐบาลได้สถาปนากรุงบราซีเลียเป็นเมืองหลวงอย่างเป็นทางการเมื่อวันที่ 21 เมษายน พ.ศ. 2503 แม้ว่าการก่อสร้างจะยังเสร็จไม่สมบูรณ์ก็ตาม", "เยรูซาเลม\nกรุงเยรูซาเลม มีประชากรและวัฒนธรรมที่แตกต่างกันไป เมืองโบราณแห่งนี้ชุมชนนับถือศาสนายูดาห์ คริสต์ศาสนา นิกายอาร์เมเนียน และชาวมุสลิม ชนชาวยิวต้องทนทุกข์ทรมานระหว่าง ค.ศ.1974-48 และได้รับการบูรณะใหม่ แบบทางสถาปัตยกรรมของอาคารให้บรรยากาศความเป็นชนชาติตะวันออก", "ประเทศเม็กซิโก\nตามรัฐธรรมนูญแล้ว กรุงเม็กซิโกซิตีในฐานะเมืองหลวงและที่ตั้งอำนาจฝ่ายบริหารของสหพันธรัฐยังมีสถานะเป็นเฟเดอรัลดิสตริกต์หรือ \"เขตของสหพันธ์\" ([distrito federal]error: {{lang}}: text has italic markup (help)) ด้วย ทั้งสองถือเป็นหน่วยการปกครองเดียวกัน มีอาณาเขตเดียวกัน และมีลักษณะเป็นเขตการปกครองรูปแบบพิเศษที่ไม่ได้ขึ้นกับรัฐใดรัฐหนึ่งโดย เฉพาะ แต่เป็นของทุกรัฐในประเทศ ดังนั้นจึงมีอำนาจและกฎสำหรับท้องถิ่นค่อนข้างจำกัดกว่ารัฐต่าง ๆ[35] อย่างไรก็ตาม ตั้งแต่ปี พ.ศ. 2530 เขตสหพันธ์แห่งนี้ก็ได้รับอำนาจในการปกครองตนเองเพิ่มขึ้นเป็นลำดับ ปัจจุบันประชาชนในเขตสหพันธ์มีสิทธิ์ในการเลือกตั้งหัวหน้าคณะรัฐบาลประจำ เขตและสมาชิกสภาผู้แทนราษฎรประจำรัฐสภาของเขตได้โดยตรงเช่นเดียวกับประชาชน ในรัฐต่าง ๆ และถึงแม้เขตสหพันธ์จะไม่มีรัฐธรรมนูญ แต่ก็มีบทกฎหมายเป็นของตนเอง", "ลอนดอน\nลอนดอน (English: London, English pronunciation:/ˈlʌndən/(listen) ลันเดิน) เป็นเมืองหลวงของประเทศอังกฤษ และสหราชอาณาจักร และเป็นเมืองที่ใหญ่ที่สุดของสหภาพยุโรป [1]", "สยาม\nถึงแม้ว่าจะมีกล่าวถึง \"สยาม\" (ซึ่งอาจหมายความถึงคนไทยหรือไม่ใช่ก็เป็นได้) โดยผู้คนจากต่างแดนอย่างกว้างขวางดังที่ได้กล่าวไปข้างต้นแล้วก็ตาม แต่ทว่าในอดีตนั้น แนวคิดเรื่องรัฐชาติยังไม่ปรากฏชัดเจน ดังเช่นที่เกิดขึ้นในทวีปยุโรปตั้งแต่สมัยสมบูรณาญาสิทธิราชย์ การอ้างอิงถึงราชอาณาจักรของทางราชสำนักของไทยจึงยังคงอ้างอิงโดยใช้ชื่อเมืองหลวง ดังเช่นพระราชสาสน์ของสมเด็จพระเอกาทศรถที่มีไปถึงพระเจ้าดอน ฟิลิปแห่งโปรตุเกส ผ่านผู้สำเร็จราชการแห่งเมืองกัว ก็ได้มีการอ้างพระองค์ว่าเป็นผู้ปกครองแว่นแคว้นของ กรุงศรีอยุธยา เป็นต้น ส่วนชาวต่างชาติได้เรียกอาณาจักรอยุธยาว่า สยาม มาตั้งแต่ราว พ.ศ. 2000 เป็นต้นมา[7] ในรัชสมัยของสมเด็จพระนเรศวรมหาราชเคยใช้ชื่อประเทศว่า \"สยาม\"[15] ด้านโกวิท วงศ์สุรวัฒน์ได้ระบุว่า นามสยามได้เริ่มใช้ในฐานะของประเทศสมัยกรุงรัตนโกสินทร์ โดยแปลว่าผิวคล้ำ[16]", "โตเกียว\nโตเกียวเคยเรียกว่า<b data-parsoid='{\"dsr\":[4606,4617,3,3]}'>เอโดะ</b>แปลว่าปากน้ำ [7] เมื่อกลายเป็นเมืองหลวงของญี่ปุ่นในปี ค.ศ. 1868 ก็เปลี่ยนชื่อเป็น<b data-parsoid='{\"dsr\":[4909,4922,3,3]}'>โตเกียว</b>แปลว่ากรุงตะวันออก (โท 東 \"ตะวันออก\", เกียว 京 \"กรุง\")[7] ในตอนต้นยุคเมจิบางครั้งเรียกโตเกียวว่าโทเก ซึ่งเป็นวิธีอ่านอีกแบบของตัวคันจิ แต่ปัจจุบันเลิกใช้แล้ว[8] นอกจากนี้โตเกียวยังมีอีกความหมายหนึ่ง ซึ่งหมายถึงขนมที่ดังเป็นอย่างมากในเมืองไทย เนื่องจากชื่อมีความเหมือนขนมเมืองหลวงอย่างปักกิ่งอีกด้วย", "ประเทศอิสราเอล\nในปี 1947 สหประชาชาติลงมติรับแผนแบ่งส่วนสำหรับปาเลสไตน์ที่แนะนำการสถาปนารัฐอาหรับและยิวและให้เยรูซาเลมอยู่ในการควบคุมของหลายชาติ[17] หน่วยงานยิวยอมรับและผู้นำอาหรับปฏิเสธแผนดังกล่าว[18][19][20] ปีต่อมา หน่วยงานยิวประกาศอิสรภาพของรัฐอิสราเอล และสงครามอาหรับ–อิสราเอล ค.ศ. 1948 ในเวลาต่อมาทำให้อิสราเอลครอบครองดินแดนส่วนใหญ่ของอดีตอาณัติ ส่วนรัฐอาหรับเพื่อนบ้านถือครองเวสต์แบงก์และกาซา[21] นับแต่นั้นอิสราเอลสู้รบในสงครามหลายครั้งกับประเทศอาหรับ[22] และตั้งแต่ปี 1967 ยึดครองดินแดนรวมทั้งเวสต์แบงก์ ที่ราบสูงโกลันและฉนวนกาซา[23][24][25] อิสราเอลขยายกฎหมายไปยังที่ราบสูงโกลันและเยรูซาเลมตะวันออก แต่ไม่รวมเวสต์แบงก์[26][27][28][29] การยึดครองดินแดนปาเลสไตน์เป็นการยึดครองทางทหารยาวนานที่สุดในโลกในสมัยใหม่ ความพยายามระงับข้อพิพาทอิสราเอล–ปาเลสไตน์ยังไม่มีความตกลงสั้นติภาพขั้นสุดท้าย แต่มีการลงนามสนธิสัญญาสันติภาพระหว่างอิสราเอลกับอียิปต์และจอร์แดนแล้ว", "ยัวมาลา\nยัวมาลา (ลัตเวีย: \"Jūrmala\") เป็นเมืองในประเทศลัตเวีย ตั้งอยู่ใกล้กับกรุงรีกา เมืองหลวงของประเทศ คำว่า \"ยัวมาลา\" ในภาษาลัตเวียมีความหมายว่า \"ชายหาด\"", "เอกราชอัสซีเรีย\nเอกราชอัสซีเรีย (Assyrian independence) เป็นขบวนการทางการเมืองและลัทธิที่สนับสนุนการสร้างดินแดนอัสซีเรียสำหรับชาวคริสต์อัสซีเรียที่พูดภาษาแอราเมอิกในภาคเหนือของอิรัก การต่อสู้ของขบวนการเอกราชอัสซีเรียเริ่มตั้งแต่สิ้นสุดสงครามโลกครั้งที่ 1 จนถึงปัจจุบัน บริเวณที่ชาวอัสซีเรียอาศัยอยู่คือบริเวณนินนาวา-โมซูล ซึ่งเป็นที่ตั้งของนินเนเวห์ เมืองหลวงของอัสซีเรียในคัมภีร์ไบเบิล[1] บริเวณนี้เป็นที่รู้จักในชื่อสามเหลี่ยมอัสซีเรีย[2]", "ราชอาณาจักรและราษฎรสยาม\nเบาริ่งยังอธิบายอีกว่านักจดหมายเหตุชาวสยามแบ่งอาณาจักรนี้ออกเป็นสองส่วน คือภาคเหนือ หรือหัวเมืองเหนือ กับภาคใต้หรือเมืองใต้ ผู้คนตั้งบ้านเรือนในเมืองเหนือก่อนบางคราวได้เรียกชื่อพงศาวดารของถาคใต้ว่า \"พงศาวดารกรุง\" ที่เริ่มจดบันทึกตั้งแต่อยุธยาเป็นราชธานี\nชื่อที่ชาวพื้นเมืองของอาณาจักรนี้เรียกขานตัวเองคือ ไทย หมายความถึง อิสระ หรือเมืองไทย (อาณาจักรเสรี หรืออาณาจักรแห่งความอิสระ) สังฆราชเปอลัลกัวซ์ ผู้เป็นต้นตำหรับในการตั้งคำถามกว่าวชื่อสมัยใหม่ของ สยาม ว่าได้มาจากชื่อโบราณหรึ่งที่เรียกประเทศนี้ว่า ศา-ยาม หมายถึง เชื้อชาติผิวดำ สำหรับแกมป์เฟอร์ (Kämpfer) (ชื่ออาณาจักร) นั้นมันฟังดูยิ่งใหญ่พร้อมกับการแสดงลักษณะที่ว่า กรุงเทพพระมหานคร ตรงกับภาษาละตินที่ว่า \"Circuitus visitationis Deorum\" แปลความได้ว่า มณฑลแห่งการมาเยือนของเทพเจ้า ซึ่งมีความหมายคล้ายกับคำที่ชาวจีนใช้เรียกจักรวรรดิของตนว่า เทียนเซี่ย หรือภายใต้อำนาจของสวรรค์ หมายความถึงอิทธิพลของสวรรค์เป็นของเฉพาะแต่ประเทศจีนแต่เพียงผู้เดียว", "เบอร์ลิน\nเบอร์ลินเป็นเมืองหลวงของสหพันธ์สาธารณรัฐเยอรมนี และเป็นที่อยู่ของประธานาธิบดีแห่งเยอรมนี ซึ่งมีที่อาศัยอย่างเป็นทางการที่วัง \"Schloss Bellevue\" ตั้งแต่การรวมเยอรมนีเมื่อ 3 ตุลาคม พ.ศ. 2533 เบอร์ลินก็กลายเป็นหนึ่งในสามนครรัฐ เคียงคู่กับ ฮัมบูร์ก และ เบรเมน, ในทั้งหมด 16 รัฐของเยอรมนี\nสภาสหพันธ์ (Bundesrat) เป็นตัวแทนของรัฐสหพันธ์ (Bundesländer) ทั้งหลายของเยอรมนี และมีที่ตั้งที่อยู่ที่อาคาร Herrenhaus ซึ่งเคยเป็นสภาขุนนางของปรัสเซียในอดีต\nแม้กระทรวงส่วนใหญ่จะตั้งอยู่ในเบอร์ลิน แต่บางส่วน รวมถึงกรมเล็ก ๆ ก็ตั้งอยู่ที่บอนน์ เมืองหลวงเก่าของเยอรมนีตะวันตก\nสหภาพยุโรปลงทุนในหลายโครงการภายในเมืองเบอร์ลิน โดยส่วนใหญ่แล้วแผนงานด้านสาธารณูปโภค การศึกษา และสังคม จะได้ทุนสนับสนุนร่วมจากงบประมาณจากกองทุนเพื่อความเชื่อมแน่นของอียู (EU Cohesion Fund) ", "เยรูซาเลม\nหมวดหมู่:เมืองในประเทศอิสราเอล หมวดหมู่:เมืองในดินแดนปาเลสไตน์ หมวดหมู่:เมืองศักดิ์สิทธิ์ หมวดหมู่:ศาสนสถานอิสลาม", "อัศราเอล\nอัศราเอล (עזראל \"Azrael\") ในภาษาฮีบรู หรือ อัศราอีล (عزرائيل‎) ในภาษาอาหรับ เป็นทูตสวรรค์ในกลุ่มศาสนาอับราฮัม คัมภีร์ฮีบรูมักกล่าวถึงเขาในฐานะทูตสวรรค์แห่งความตาย ชื่อของเขามีความหมายว่า \"พระเจ้าคืออนุเคราะห์แห่งเรา\" หรือ \"ผู้ช่วยเหลือจากพระเจ้า\" ในศาลนาอิสลามเรียกอัศราเอลว่าเป็น \"มลาอิกะฮ์ อัลมอวติ์\" (مَلَكُ المَوْتِ) หรือแปลตรงตัวว่า \"ทูตสวรรค์แห่งความตาย\" และมุสลิมยังถือว่าเขาเป็นอัครทูตสวรรค์องค์หนึ่งด้วย", "กัวเตมาลาซิตี\nกัวเตมาลาซิตี () หรือ ซิวดัดเดกวาเตมาลา () ในท้องถิ่นเรียกว่า \"กวาเตมาลา\" (Guatemala) หรือ \"กวาเต\" (Guate) เป็นเมืองหลวงและเมืองที่ใหญ่ที่สุดของประเทศกัวเตมาลา และยังเป็นเป็นเมืองที่ใหญ่ที่สุดในอเมริกากลางด้วย", "พระเยซู\nเมื่อราชอาณาจักรยูดาห์เสียแก่บาบิโลน ก็สิ้นกษัตริย์ที่ได้รับการเจิม ต่อจากนั้นชาวยิวก็โหยหาพระเมสสิยาห์ที่จะมาสร้างอาณาจักรใหม่ของพระเจ้า \"พระคริสต์\" จึงเป็นชื่อตำแหน่ง ไม่ใช่ชื่อตัวบุคคล ผู้นิพนธ์พระวรสารสี่ท่านมักเรียกพระองค์ว่า \"พระเยซู\" และเพื่อให้แตกต่างจากคนอื่น ๆ ที่ชื่อเหมือนกัน ก็เรียกเป็น \"พระเยซูชาวนาซาเรธ\" หรือ \"พระเยซูบุตรของโยเซฟ\" แต่นักบุญเปาโลหรือเปาโลอัครทูตมักเรียกพระองค์ว่า \"พระคริสต์\" หรือ \"พระเยซูคริสต์\" ที่เรียกว่า \"พระคริสต์เยซู\" ก็มี", "การประหารทารกผู้วิมล\nตามพระวรสารนักบุญมัทธิว ความว่า มีโหราจารย์ () กลุ่มหนึ่ง เพื่อสืบหาผู้มีบุญซึ่งมาเกิดเป็น “กษัตริย์ของชาวยิว” ครองโลกไปนิรันดร ได้รอนแรมตามดวงดาวจากทางตะวันออกมาถึงกรุงเยรูซาเลม และคอยไต่ถามหาผู้มีบุญดังกล่าวไปทั่ว ข่าวนี้สร้างความประหวั่นพรั่นพรึงให้แก่ กษัตริย์เฮโรด พระเจ้ากรุงเยรูซาเลม อย่างยิ่ง เพราะเวลานั้นไม่มีราชโอรสเกิดใหม่ในพระราชวงศ์ เช่นนั้นจะเป็นผู้ใดเล่า ก็ทรงเรียกประชุมบรรดาธรรมาจารย์และปุโรหิตเพื่อค้นดูว่า บุคคลที่ได้ชื่อว่าเป็น “กษัตริย์ของชาวยิว” ผู้นั้นบังเกิดที่แห่งหนตำบลใด ได้ความว่า เกิด ณ หมู่บ้านแห่งหนึ่งในนครเบธเลเฮ็ม แคว้นยูเดีย ด้วยความที่ทรงเกรงว่า “กษัตริย์ของชาวยิว” นี้จะเป็นภยันตรายคุกคามความมั่นคงแห่งพระราชบัลลังก์ในภายภาคหน้า ก็มีพระราชประสงค์จะประหารทารกนั้นเสีย จึงทรงออกอุบายชี้แนะให้คณะโหราจารย์ไปสืบดูที่นครเบธเลเฮ็มแล้วขอให้กลับมาบอก เพื่อที่พระองค์จะได้เสด็จไปนมัสการทารกนั้นด้วยพระองค์เอง ฝ่ายคณะโหราจารย์เมื่อพบและถวายเครื่องนมัสการที่เตรียมมาแด่ทารกน้อยเยซูแล้ว เทวทูตองค์หนึ่งได้มาปรากฏในความฝันและเตือนมิให้กลับไปเฝ้ากษัตริย์เฮโรดอีกเป็นอันขาด พวกเขาจึงใช้เส้นทางอื่นกลับสู่มาตุภูมิ", "พระวิหารในกรุงเยรูซาเลม\nพระคัมภีร์เรียกพระวิหารแห่งเยรูซาเลมว่า “Beit HaMikdash” หรือ “พระวิหาศักดิ์สิทธิ์” และเป็นพระวิหารเดียวในเยรูซาเลมที่ใช้ชื่อนี้ แต่ก็ได้รับชื่ออื่นๆ ในคัมภีร์ฮีบรูที่รวมทั้ง “Beit Adonai” (พระนิเวศของพระเจ้า) หรือเพียง “Beiti” (นิเวศของฉัน) หรือ “Beitechah” (พระนิเวศของพระองค์)", "ประเทศอิสราเอล\nประเทศอิสราเอล (English: Israel; Hebrew: יִשְׂרָאֵל‎; Arabic: إِسْرَائِيل‎) มีชื่ออย่างเป็นทางการว่า รัฐอิสราเอล (English: State of Israel; Hebrew: מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל‎; Arabic: دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل‎) เป็นประเทศในตะวันออกกลางบนชายฝั่งตะวันออกเฉียงใต้ของทะเลเมดิเตอร์เรเนียนและชายฝั่งเหนือของทะเลแดง มีเขตแดนทางบกติดต่อกับประเทศเลบานอนทางทิศเหนือ ประเทศซีเรียทางทิศตะวันออกเฉียงเหนือ ประเทศจอร์แดนทางทิศตะวันออก ดินแดนเวสต์แบงก์และฉนวนกาซาของปาเลสไตน์ทางทิศตะวันออกและตะวันตกตามลำดับ และประเทศอียิปต์ทางทิศตะวันตกเฉียงใต้ ประเทศอิสราเอลมีภูมิลักษณ์หลากหลายแม้มีพื้นที่ค่อนข้างเล็ก[1][2] เทลอาวีฟเป็นศูนย์กลางเศรษฐกิจและเทคโนโลยีของประเทศ[3] ส่วนที่ตั้งรัฐบาลและเมืองหลวงตามประกาศคือ เยรูซาเลม แม้อำนาจอธิปไตยของรัฐเหนือเยรูซาเลมยังไม่มีการรับรองในระดับนานาประเทศ[4][5][6][7][fn 1]", "เมืองหลวง\nแอฟริกา: กรุงไคโร (16,100,000) เอเชีย: กรุงโตเกียว (21,237,000) ยุโรป: กรุงลอนดอน (14,400,000) อเมริกาเหนือ: เม็กซิโกซิตี (19,809,471) โอเชียเนีย: กรุงเวลลิงตัน (445,400) อเมริกาใต้: กรุงบัวโนสไอเรส (12,430,000)", "ลอนดอน\nลอนดอนเป็นหนึ่งในศูนย์กลางสำคัญทางธุรกิจ การเมือง วัฒนธรรม และประวัติศาสตร์ของโลก เป็นผู้นำด้านการเงิน[3] การเมือง การสื่อสาร การบันเทิง แฟชั่น และศิลปะ ในอดีตเป็นเมืองหลวงของโลก เป็นเมืองที่เจริญที่สุดในโลก ตั้งแต่อดีตจนถึงปัจจุบัน เป็นเมืองที่มีอิทธิพลไปทั่วโลก ถือกันว่าเป็นเมืองสากลหลักของโลก จีดีพีของลอนดอน คิดเป็นร้อยละ 19.5 ของสหราชอาณาจักร", "กัวลาลัมเปอร์\nกัวลาลัมเปอร์ (Malay: Kuala Lumpur, อักษรยาวี: كوالا لومڤور, ออกเสียงตามภาษามลายูว่า กัวลาลุมปูร์) เป็นเมืองหลวงของประเทศมาเลเซียและเป็นเมืองที่ใหญ่ที่สุดในประเทศด้วย ภายในมาเลเซียเอง กัวลาลัมเปอร์มักจะเรียกย่อ ๆ ว่า KL", "กรุงเทพมหานคร (องค์กรปกครองส่วนท้องถิ่น)\nการเรียกขานเมืองหลวงของประเทศไทย ในสมัยกรุงรัตนโกสินทร์ว่ากรุงเทพมหานครนั้น มีที่มาจากชื่อเต็มซึ่งเป็นพระราชนิพนธ์ในพระบาทสมเด็จพระพุทธยอดฟ้าจุฬาโลก และต่อมาพระบาทสมเด็จพระจอมเกล้าเจ้าอยู่หัวทรงปรับปรุงแก้ไขเล็กน้อย ต่อมาในรัชสมัยพระบาทสมเด็จพระจุลจอมเกล้าเจ้าอยู่หัว มีพระราชดำริให้ทดลองนำระบบคณะกรรมการปกครองเมืองหลวงมาใช้อยู่ระยะหนึ่ง ทว่าไม่ประสบความสำเร็จ ทั้งชาวบ้านก็ยังไม่พร้อม จึงโปรดเกล้าฯ ให้ยกเลิกเสีย แล้วกลับมาบริหารโดยกรมเวียง ในระบบจตุสดมภ์ตามเดิม ซึ่งต่อมาพัฒนาเป็นกระทรวงเมือง และกระทรวงนครบาล อันมีเสนาบดีทำหน้าที่รับผิดชอบการปกครอง มณฑลกรุงเทพมหานคร ที่ประกอบด้วย กรุงเทพมหานครและธนบุรี (เป็นเมืองเดียวกัน) รวมถึงนนทบุรี ปทุมธานี สมุทรปราการ ธัญบุรี (ปัจจุบันคือ อำเภอธัญบุรี จังหวัดปทุมธานี) มีนบุรี (ปัจจุบันเป็นส่วนหนึ่งในหลายเขตของกรุงเทพมหานคร) และนครเขื่อนขันธ์ (ปัจจุบันเป็นส่วนหนึ่งในอำเภอพระประแดงของจังหวัดสมุทรปราการ) อันเป็นหัวเมืองใกล้เคียง ตาม [1] และข้อบังคับการปกครองหัวเมือง[2]", "อัครบิดรแห่งเยรูซาเลม\nอัครบิดรแห่งเยรูซาเลม () คือประมุขฝ่ายคริสตจักรประจำกรุงเยรูซาเลม นับเป็นตำแหน่งอัครบิดรสำคัญ 1 ใน 5 ตำแหน่งตามหลักเบญจาธิปไตยของคริสตจักร (อีก 4 ตำแหน่ง ได้แก่ โรม คอนสแตนติโนเปิล อะเล็กซานเดรีย และแอนติออก ตามลำดับ) เชื่อว่าเป็นตำแหน่งที่สืบมาจากนักบุญยากอบผู้ชอบธรรม ", "มุมไบ\nบอมเบย์ (Bombay) หรือมุมไบ เป็นเมืองท่าที่สำคัญทางฝั่งทะเลอาหรับของอินเดีย และเป็นเมืองหลวงของรัฐมหาราษฏระ ในช่วงเวลาระหว่าง พ.ศ. 2230 – 2503 คำว่าบอมเบย์เป็นทั้งชื่อเมืองและชื่อรัฐที่เมืองบอมเบย์เป็นศูนย์กลาง โดยใน พ.ศ. 2230 บริษัทอินเดียตะวันออกของอังกฤษได้ใช้เมืองบอมเบย์เป็นที่ตั้งสำนักงานใหญ่ และสถาปนาเขตปกครองของตนเองขึ้น เมื่ออินเดียได้รับเอกราชใน พ.ศ. 2490 บอมเบย์ยังมีฐานะเป็นรัฐของอินเดีย จน พ.ศ. 2503 จึงแบ่งรัฐบอมเบย์ออกเป็นสองส่วนตามภาษาที่ใช้ คือบริเวณที่ใช้ภาษาคุชราตตั้งเป็นรัฐคุชราต และส่วนที่ใช้ภาษามราฐีตั้งเป็นรัฐมหาราษฏระ โดยบอมเบย์เป็นเมืองหลวงของรัฐมหาราษฏระ คำว่าบอมเบย์จึงหมายถึงชื่อเมืองเพียงอย่างเดียว", "พระเจ้าบอลดวินที่ 1 แห่งเยรูซาเลม\nสมเด็จพระเจ้าบอลวินด์ที่ 1 แห่งเยรูซาเลม เดิม บอลวินด์ที่ 1 เคานท์แห่งเอเดสสา เมื่อประสูติ บอลวินด์แห่งบูลอญ () (ราว ค.ศ. 1058 - 2 เมษายน ค.ศ. 1118) ทรงเป็นเคานท์แห่งเอเดสสาคนแรกมาก่อนที่จะขึ้นครองราชย์เป็นประมุของค์ที่สองแห่งราชอาณาจักรเยรูซาเลม แต่เป็นองค์แรกที่มีตำแหน่งเป็นพระมหากษัตริย์ บอลวินด์เป็นพระอนุชาของกอดฟรีย์แห่งบูลิยอง ผู้เป็นประมุขคนแรกของราชอาณาจักรเยรูซาเลม แต่ไม่ได้มีตำแหน่งเป็นกษัตริย์ บอลวินด์ครองเยรูซาเลมระหว่างวันที่ 25 ธันวาคม ค.ศ. 1100 จนเสด็จสวรรคตเมื่อวันที่ 2 เมษายน ค.ศ. 1118", "เบรุต\nเบรุต (; ) คือเมืองหลวงและเมืองที่ใหญ่ที่สุดของประเทศเลบานอน ตั้งอยู่บนปลายแหลมเล็กที่ยื่นออกไปในทะเลเมดิเตอร์เรเนียน", "ประเทศอิสราเอล\nรวมยิวกว่า 200,000 คนและอาหรับ 300,000 คนในเยรูซาเลมตะวันออก[192] เฉพาะพลเมืองอิสราเอล", "เยรูซาเลม\nเยรูซาเลมได้รับขนานนามว่าเป็น \"นครศักดิ์สิทธิ์\" ของศาสนาทั้งสามในกลุ่มศาสนาอับราฮัมอันได้แก่ ศาสนายูดาห์, ศาสนาคริสต์ และศาสนาอิสลาม ซึ่งในคัมภีร์ไบเบิลระบุว่า เมื่อกษัตริย์ดาวิดได้พิชิตเยรูซาเลมมาจากพวกเยบุสแล้ว ก็ทรงสถาปนาเยรูซาเลมเป็นเมืองหลวงของอาณาจักรอิสราเอล-ยูดาห์ กษัตริย์ซาโลมอน พระโอรสของกษัตริย์ดาวิด ได้ทรงสร้างพระวิหารแรกขึ้นที่เมืองนี้ เหตุการณ์อันเกิดขึ้นในช่วงสหัสวรรษที่ 1 ก่อนคริสตกาลนี้ได้ถือเป็นศูนย์รวมเชิงสัญลักษณ์ทั้งมวลของชาวยิว ความศักดิ์สิทธิ์ของเยรูซาเลมในศาสนาคริสต์มีทั้งที่ปรากฏในพันธสัญญาเดิมฉบับแปลกรีก (หนังสือ Septuagint)[10] ตลอดส่วนที่ถูกกล่าวถึงในพันธสัญญาใหม่ตอนพระเยซูถูกตรึงกางเขน ในศาสนาอิสลามนิกายซุนนีได้ถือว่าเยรูซาเลมเป็นเมืองศักดิ์สิทธิ์ที่สุดเป็นลำดับสามรองจากนครมักกะฮ์และอัลมะดีนะฮ์[11] ในปีค.ศ. 610 เยรูซาเลมกลายเป็นชุมทิศแห่งแรกสำหรับการประกอบพิธีละหมาดของชาวมุสลิม[12] และสิบปีหลังจากนั้น มุฮัมมัดได้เดินทางมายังเมืองแห่งนี้เพื่อขึ้นสรวงสวรรค์ไปพบกับพระเจ้าตามได้บันทึกไว้ในคัมภีร์อัลกุรอาน[13][14] ด้วยบันทึกทางประวัติศาสตร์นี้เองทำให้เมืองเก่าเยรูซาเลมซึ่งมีพื้นที่เพียง 0.9 ตารางกิโลเมตร เต็มไปด้วยสิ่งก่อสร้างอันมีความสำคัญทางศาสนามากมาย โดยเฉพาะบนเนินพระวิหาร อันเป็นที่ตั้งของ กำแพงประจิม, โดมแห่งศิลา, มัสยิดอัลอักศอ", "คันไซ\nภูมิภาคคินคิ หรือที่คนส่วนใหญ่จะเรียกกันในนามของภูมิภาคคันไซ หรือภาคกลางตอนใต้ของญี่ปุ่น ภูมิภาคคันไซแห่งนี้เป็นอีกภูมิภาคที่สำคัญแห่งหนึ่งของญี่ปุ่น นอกเหนือจากภูมิภาคคันโตซึ่งเป็นที่ตั้งของกรุงโตเกียวเมืองหลวง ภูมิภาคคันไซนับเป็นภูมิภาคที่ความเจริญมาช้านานเป็นที่ตั้งของเมืองหลวงของญี่ปุ่นในยุคแรก ๆ ประวัติศาสตร์คือ เมืองนาระและเมืองเกียวโต เมืองหลวงทั้งสองแห่งนี้เป็นศูนย์กลางการบริหารประเทศญี่ปุ่นมานับพันปี มีพระราชวังที่ประทับองค์จักรพรรดิหรือพระราชวังอิมพีเรียล ณ เมืองเกียวโต ก่อนที่จะย้ายเมืองหลวงไปอยู่ที่กรุงโตเกียว นอกจากจะเป็นศูนย์กลางประวัติศาสตร์ของญี่ปุ่นแล้ว ภูมิภาคแห่งนี้ยังเป็นที่ตั้งของเมืองอุตสาหกรรมหลายแห่ง ได้แก่ นครโอซากะ ศูนย์กลางการค้าและอุตสาหกรรมสำคัญของประเทศเป็นเมืองใหญ่อันดับสามรองจากกรุงโตเกียวและโยโกฮามะ เมืองเกียวโตและนารา เมืองหลวงเก่าที่ยังคงอนุรักษ์โบราณสถาน โบราณวัตถุที่สำคัญและงดงามเป็นเมืองแห่งอุตสาหกรรมการท่องเที่ยว รวมถึงเมืองโคเบะซึ่งเป็นเมืองท่าที่สำคัญแห่งหนึ่งของญี่ปุ่น", "สถานเอกอัครราชทูตสหรัฐ ณ เยรูซาเลม\nสถานเอกอัครราชทูตนี้เปิดทำการ ณ ที่ตั้งในเยรูซาเลมเมื่อวันที่ 14 พฤษภาคม พ.ศ. 2561 อันเป็นวันครบรอบ 70 ปีของการก่อตั้งรัฐอิสราเอลสมัยใหม่ โดยเป็นการย้ายที่ตั้งจากเทลอาวีฟมายังที่ตั้งสถานกงสุลเดิม ตามคำสั่งของคณะรัฐมนตรีโดนัลด์ ทรัมป์", "ดาวิด\nเมื่อพระเจ้าดาวิดได้ชัยชนะจากในการโจมตีป้อมเยบูไซท์ (Jebusite) ของเมืองเยรูซาเลมก็ยกเยรูซาเลมขึ้นเป็นเมืองหลวง “พระเจ้าฮิรามแห่งไทเร (Tyre) ก็ส่งผู้ถือสาส์นมาถึงพระเจ้าดาวิดพร้อมกับต้นซีดาร์ และช่างไม้และปูนเพื่อสร้างวังของดาวิด” พระเจ้าดาวิดก็นำหีบพันธสัญญาศักดิ์สิทธิ์ (Ark of the Covenant) มาเยรูซาเลมโดยตั้งใจประดิษฐานในวัดที่สร้างใหม่ แต่พระเจ้าก็ทรงกล่าวกับผู้เผยพระวจนะเนธาน (Prophet Nathan) ห้ามและกล่าวว่าการสร้างวัดต้องรอต่อมาให้ชนรุ่นหลังสร้าง แต่พระเจ้าก็ทรงทำพันธสัญญากับดาวิดว่าดาวิดจะเป็นผู้สร้างตระกูลดาวิด (House of David) และ “บัลลังก์ของเจ้าจะเป็นบัลลังก์ที่ยืนยาวตลอดไป” ", "ประเทศซีเรีย\nประเทศซีเรีย (English: Syria; Arabic: سورية‎ ซูริยา) หรือชื่ออย่างเป็นทางการว่า สาธารณรัฐอาหรับซีเรีย (English: Syrian Arab Republic; Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية‎) เป็นประเทศในเอเชียตะวันตกเฉียงใต้ มีพรมแดนทิศตะวันตกจดทะเลเมดิเตอร์เรเนียน ทิศเหนือจดประเทศตุรกี ทิศตะวันออกจดประเทศอิรัก ทิศใต้จดประเทศจอร์แดน และทิศตะวันตกเฉียงใต้จดประเทศอิสราเอล กรุงดามัสกัส เมืองหลวง เป็นนครที่มีผู้อยู่อาศัยต่อเนื่องที่เก่าแก่ที่สุดแห่งหนึ่งของโลก ประเทศซีเรียเป็นที่ราบอุดมสมบูรณ์ ภูเขาสูงและทะเลทราย มีประชากรกลุ่มชาติพันธุ์และศาสนาหลากหลาย ส่วนมากเป็นชาวอาหรับ ซึ่งรวมอลาวียะห์ ดรูซ มุสลิมซุนนีย์และคริสต์ศาสนิกชน กลุ่มชาติพันธุ์อื่น ได้แก่ ชาวอาร์มีเนีย อัสซีเรีย เคิร์ดและเติร์ก ชาวอาหรับซุนนีย์เป็นกลุ่มประชากรใหญ่ที่สุดในประเทศซีเรีย", "ประเทศอิสราเอล\nระหว่งการล้อมเยรูซาเลมในสงครามครูเสดครั้งที่หนึ่งในปี 1099 ผู้อยู่อาศัยในนครชาวยิวต่อสู้เคียงบ่าเคียงไหล่กับกำลังประจำที่ตั้งฟาติมียะห์และประชากรมุสลิมซึ่งพยายามปกป้องนครจากนักรบครูเสดอย่างไร้ผล เมื่อนครแตก มีผู้ถูกสังหารหมู่ประมาณ 60,000 คน รวมทั้งยิว 6,000 คนที่ลี้ภัยในธรรมศาลาแห่งหนึ่ง[36] ในเวลานั้นซึ่งล่วงเลยการล่มสลายของรัฐยิวมาครบหนึ่งพันปี มีชุมชนยิวอยู่ทั่วประเทศ มีชุมชนที่ทราบ 50 แห่ง รวมทั้งเยรูซาเลม ไทเบียเรียส รามลา แอชคะลอน เซซาเรีย และกาซา[37] อัลเบิร์ตแห่งอาเคินระบุว่า ผู้อยู่อาศัยในไฮฟาชาวยิวเป็นกำลังสู้รบหลักของนคร และ \"ปะปนกับทหารซาราเซ็น [ฟาติมียะห์]\" พวกเขาต่อสู้อย่างกล้าหาญเกือบเดือนจนถูกกองทัพเรือและทัพบกนักรบครูเสดบีบบังคับให้ล่าถอย[38][39]", "ประเทศอิสราเอล\nคณะมนตรีความมั่นคงแห่งสหประชาชาติประกาศว่าการผนวกที่ราบสูงโกลันและเยรูซาเลมตะวันออกไม่มีผลและเป็นโมฆะ และยังมองดินแดนดังกล่าวว่าถูกยึดครอง ศาลยุติธรรมระหว่างประเทศ องค์กรตุลาการหลักของสหประชาชาติ ประเมินในการให้คำปรึกษาปี 2004 ว่าด้วยความชอบด้วยกฎหมายของการก่อสร้างกำแพงเวสต์แบงก์ของอิสราเอล ว่าดินแดนที่อิสราเอลยึดในสงครามหกวันรวมทั้งเยรูซาเลมตะวันออกเป็นดินแดนถูกยึดครอง สถานภาพของเยรูซาเลมตะวันออกในการระงับข้อพิพาทสันติภาพในอนาคตใด ๆ บางทีเป็นประเด็นยากในการเจรจาระหว่างรัฐบาลอิสราเอลและผู้แทนชาวปาเลสไตน์ ซึ่งอิสราเอลมองว่าเป็นดินแดนเอกราชของประเทศ เช่นเดียวกับเป็นส่วนหนึ่งของเมืองหลวง การเจรจาส่วนใหญ่ที่เกี่ยวข้องกับดินแดนนี้เป็นพื้นฐานของข้อมติคณะมนตรีความมั่นคงแห่งสหประชาชาติที่ 242 ซึ่งครอบคลุม \"การอยมรับไม่ได้ซึ่งการได้มาซึ่งดินแดนจากสงคราม\" และเรียกร้องให้อิสราเอลถอนกำลังจากดินแดนยึดครองเพื่อแลกกับการฟื้นความสัมพันธ์กับรัฐอาหรับ ซึ่งเป็นหลักการที่เรียก \"แลกดินแดนกับสันติภาพ\"", "โซล\nในอดีตโซลเป็นที่รู้จักในชื่อ วีรเย-ซ็อง (위례성; 慰禮城, สมัยแพ็กเจ) ฮันจู (한주; 漢州, สมัยชิลลา) นัมกย็อง (남경; 南京, สมัยโครยอ) ฮันซ็อง (한성; 漢城, สมัยแพ็กเจและโชซ็อน) ฮันยัง (한양; 漢陽, สมัยโชซ็อน) และ คย็องซ็อง หรือ เคโจ (경성; 京城, ระหว่างตกเป็นอาณานิคมของญี่ปุ่น) ชื่อโซลในปัจจุบันมีที่มาจากคำในภาษาเกาหลีที่มีความหมายว่า \"เมืองหลวง\" ซึ่งเชื่อว่ามาจากคำว่า \"ซอราบอล\" (서라벌; 徐羅伐) ซึ่งดั้งเดิมใช้อ้างถึง คย็องจู เมืองหลวงของอาณาจักรชิลลา", "รายชื่อรัฐของสหรัฐเรียงตามลำดับการก่อตั้ง\nนอกจาก 50 รัฐที่กล่าวมาข้างต้นแล้ว ยังมีดินแดนอิสระที่เป็นเขตปกครองตนเอง ชื่อว่า ดิสตริกต์ออฟโคลัมเบีย (District of Columbia) ซึ่งแม้มิได้เป็นรัฐเต็มตัวเหมือนรัฐอื่น ๆ แต่ก็มีฐานะเทียบเท่ารัฐในการออกเสียงต่าง ๆ รวมทั้งการเลือกตั้งประธานาธิบดี ก็ต้องส่งตัวแทนลงเลือกตั้งตามอัตราส่วนที่ได้รับ รวมถึงมีผู้ว่าการเขตปกครองของตนเองเทียบเท่ากับผู้ว่าการของรัฐอื่น ๆ และประธานาธิบดีก็ต้องประจำอยู่ที่นี่ ดิสตริกต์ออฟโคลัมเบียนี้เรียกย่อ ๆ ว่า ดี.ซี. (D.C.) เป็นที่ตั้งของเมืองหลวงของประเทศ คือ กรุงวอชิงตัน (Washington) เรียกเต็ม ๆ คือ วอชิงตัน ดี.ซี. ตั้งอยู่ฝั่งตะวันออก ติดกับรัฐนิวยอร์ก ซึ่งกรุงวอชิงตัน ดี.ซี. นี้เป็นคนละหน่วยกับรัฐวอชิงตันที่อยู่ฝั่งตะวันตก ด้านเหนือพรมแดนติดกับประเทศแคนาดา และมีเมืองหลวงชื่อโอลิมเปีย และมีเมืองท่าสำคัญคือซีแอตเทิล\nทูซอน", "กรุงเทพมหานคร\nกรุงเทพมหานคร เป็นเมืองหลวงและนครที่มีประชากรมากที่สุดของประเทศไทย เป็นศูนย์กลางการปกครอง การศึกษา การคมนาคมขนส่ง การเงินการธนาคาร การพาณิชย์ การสื่อสาร และความเจริญของประเทศ เป็นเมืองที่มีชื่อยาวที่สุดในโลก ตั้งอยู่บนสามเหลี่ยมปากแม่น้ำเจ้าพระยา มีแม่น้ำเจ้าพระยาไหลผ่านและแบ่งเมืองออกเป็น 2 ฝั่ง คือ ฝั่งพระนครและฝั่งธนบุรี กรุงเทพมหานครมีพื้นที่ทั้งหมด 1,568.737 ตร.กม. มีประชากรตามทะเบียนราษฎรกว่า 5 ล้านคน ทำให้กรุงเทพมหานครเป็นเอกนคร (Primate City) จัด มีผู้กล่าวว่า กรุงเทพมหานครเป็น \"เอกนครที่สุดในโลก\" เพราะมีประชากรมากกว่านครที่มีประชากรมากเป็นอันดับ 2 ถึง 40 เท่า[1]", "รอมัลลอฮ์\nรอมัลลอฮ์ () เป็นเมืองหลวงโดยพฤตินัยของประเทศปาเลสไตน์ มีประชากรราว 301,296 คน มีพื้นที่ 16.3 ตารางกิโลเมตร ตั้งอยู่ห่างจากกรุงเยรูซาเลม ไปทางเหนือ 10 กิโลเมตร เมืองนี้เป็นที่ตั้งของที่ทำการรัฐบาลรัฐปาเลสไตน์", "จาการ์ตา\nในพ.ศ. 2070 เมืองถูกยึดครองโดยฟาตาฮิลลอฮฺหรือฟาเลเตฮาน (Fatahillah or Faletehan) ผู้นำอายุน้อยจากอาณาจักรใกล้เคียงจากทางเหนือ ฟาตาฮิลลอฮฺได้เปลี่ยนชื่อเมืองจากเกอลาปาเป็น จายาการ์ตา (Jayakarta แปลว่า \"มีชัยและเจริญรุ่งเรือง\" ในภาษาชวา) หรือตรงกับ \"ชยะ - กฤต\" ใน ภาษาสันสกฤต แปลว่า \"ชัยชนะอันเกิดขึ้นสมบูรณ์แล้ว\" เมื่อวันที่ 22 มิถุนายน พ.ศ. 2070 ซึ่งวันนี้ถือเป็นวันก่อตั้งกรุงจาการ์ตา ชื่อนี้เองที่ต่อมาได้กลายมาเป็นชื่อ จาการ์ตา ในปัจจุบัน", "เบอร์ลิน\nเบอร์ลิน ( \"แบร์ลีน\") เป็นเมืองหลวงและรัฐหนึ่งในสิบหกรัฐสหพันธ์ของประเทศเยอรมนี มีประชากร 3.4 ล้านคนในเขตเมือง มากที่สุดในเยอรมนี และมากเป็นอันดับสองในสหภาพยุโรป\nเป็นศูนย์กลางของเขตนครหลวงเบอร์ลิน-บรานเดนบูร์ก ทางตะวันออกเฉียงเหนือของเยอรมนี\nมีประชากรในเขตนครหลวงรวม 1คนจาก 1ชาติ มากเป็นอันดับเก้าในสหภาพยุโรป", "การถอดเสียง\nคำเดียวกันมักจะมีการทับศัพท์แตกต่างกัน ถ้าใช้ระบบที่ต่างกัน เช่นในภาษาจีน ชื่อเมืองหลวง ปักกิ่ง ได้มีการทับศัพท์ 2 แบบ คือ \"Beijing\" ในระบบฮั่นหยู่พินอิน และ \"Pei-Ching\" ในระบบWade-Giles", "กิบลัต\nกิบลัต หรือ กิบละหฺ () คือชุมทิศ ที่มุสลิมหันหน้าไปยามละหมาด หรือ นมาซ และขอดุอาอ์ นั่นคือ กะอฺบะหฺ ในนครมักกะหฺ ประเทศซาอุดิอาระเบีย\nเดิมกิบลัตอยู่ที่เยรูซาเลม ในปาเลสไตน์ แต่เปลี่ยนมาเมื่อสมัยท่านนบีมูฮัมมัด", "ประเทศอิสราเอล\nต่อมาได้เกิดภัยแล้งขึ้น ยาโคบ หรืออิสราเอล และครอบครัว ต้องทำมาหากินด้วยความยากลำบาก โยเซฟ บุตรคนหนึ่งของยาโคบได้ไปเป็นผู้ดูแลราชอาณาจักรในอียิปต์ เขาได้นำพี่น้องทั้งหมดที่ต้องประสบกับภัยแล้งในคานาอันเข้ามาอยู่อาศัยในแผ่นดินอียิปต์ ครั้นพอสิ้นโยเซฟไป ฟาโรห์องค์ต่อมาได้เกิดความไม่ไว้ใจต่อชาวฮีบรู จึงลดฐานะให้เป็นทาส แล้วเกณฑ์แรงงานไปใช้ในการทำอิฐเพื่อใช้ในการก่อสร้างพีรมิด และมีคำสั่งให้ประหารชีวิตเด็กเกิดใหม่เป็นจำนวนมาก มีทารกเพศชายคนหนึ่งรอดตายจากคำสั่งประหารนั้นมาได้ ชื่อว่า \"โมเสส\" (Moses) โมเสสเติบโตขึ้น เป็นผู้พาพวกอิสราเอล หรือ ฮีบรูซึ่งนับแต่ผู้ชายได้ถึง 600,000 คน ผู้หญิงและเด็กต่างหาก และยังมีฝูงชนชาติอื่นเป็นจำนวนมากติดตามไปด้วย พร้อมทั้งฝูงสัตว์ คือฝูงแพะแกะและโคจำนวนมาก ออกจากอียิปต์กลับไปสู่ประเทศปาเลสไตน์ โดยพระกรที่เหยียดออก พวกฮีบรูมีความสามัคคีและมีกำลังเข้มเข็งขึ้น จึงได้ทำการรวบรวมดินแดนโดยรอบ อันได้แก่ ดินแดนของพวกคานัน และพวกอาราเอลไลท์ แต่ก็ถูกรุกรานจากพวกพวกฟิลิเตีย (Philistine) ซึ่งอพยพจากเกาะครีต และเข้ามาตั้งภูมิลำเนาอยู่แถบชายทะเล ทางทิศตะวันตกเฉียงใต้ของปาเลสไตน์ และพวกอามอไรท์กับฮิตไตท์จากทางเหนือ ทำให้เกิดความจำเป็นที่จะต้องมีกษัตริย์ปกครอง พวกอิสราเอลไลท์ได้พร้อมใจกันเลือกหัวหน้ากลุ่มที่เข้มแข็งขึ้นมาผู้หนึ่งชื่อ \"ซาอูล\" (Saul) ขึ้นเป็นกษัตริย์องค์แรก เมื่อประมาณ 1,050 ปี ก่อนคริสตกาล หลังจากนั้น ชาวยิวมีกษัตริย์ที่เก่งกล้าอีก 2 องค์คือกษัตริย์ดาวิดและกษัตริย์โซโลมอน เมื่อกษัตริย์โซโลมอนสิ้นพระชนม์ เมื่อ ปี 930 ก่อนคริสต์ศักราช ทำให้อาณาจักรของโซโลมอนแตกออกป็นสองส่วนคือ อาณาจักรอิสราเอล (The Kingdom of Israel) โดยมีกรุงสะมาเรียเป็นเมืองหลวง และอาณาจักรยูดาห์ (Kingdom of Judah) โดยมีเยรูซาเลมเป็นศูนย์กลาง", "วอชิงตัน ดี.ซี.\nกรุงวอชิงตัน ดี.ซี. (English: Washington, D.C) มีชื่ออย่างเป็นทางการว่า เขตปกครองพิเศษโคลอมเบีย (English: District of Columbia) มักเรียกทั่วไปว่า กรุงวอชิงตัน (Washington) หรือ ดี.ซี (D.C.) เป็นเมืองหลวงของสหรัฐ ก่อตั้งขึ้นเมื่อภายหลังจากการปฏิวัติอเมริกา โดยชื่อ วอชิงตัน มาจากชื่อของจอร์จ วอชิงตัน ประธานาธิบดีสหรัฐคนแรก และบิดาผู้ก่อตั้งประเทศคนหนึ่ง[2] วอชิงตันเป็นนครหลักนครหนึ่งของเขตมหานครวอชิงตัน (Washington Metropolitan Area) โดยมีประชากรที่อาศัยอยู่ในวอชิงตันจำนวนประมาณ 6,131,977 คน[3] โดยวอชิงตันได้รับฉายาว่าเป็นเมืองหลวงทางการเมืองของโลก เนื่องจากเป็นที่ตั้งของรัฐบาลกลางสหรัฐและสถาบันทางเศรษฐกิจระหว่างประเทศจำนวนมาก อาทิ ธนาคารโลก กองทุนการเงินระหว่างประเทศ เป็นต้น[4] กรุงวอชิงตันเป็นนครที่นักท่องเที่ยวเข้าเยี่ยมชมมากที่สุดนครหนึ่งในโลก โดยในแต่ละปีจะมีนักท่องเที่ยวเข้ามาเยี่ยมชมวอชิงตัน ปีละประมาณ 20 ล้านคน[5][6]", "ประเทศไต้หวัน\nไต้หวันด้านตะวันตกติดกับจีนแผ่นดินใหญ่ ด้านตะวันออกและตะวันออกเฉียงเหนือติดกับญี่ปุ่น และด้านใต้ติดกับฟิลิปปินส์ กรุงไทเปเป็นเมืองหลวง[1] ส่วนไทเปใหม่เป็นเขตปกครองที่จัดตั้งขึ้นใหม่ กินพื้นที่กรุงไทเป และเป็นเขตซึ่งประชากรหนาแน่นที่สุดในเวลานี้", "เมืองหลวง\nชื่อทวีป ชื่อเมืองหลวง และจำนวนประชากรในวงเล็บ", "กรุงเทพมหานคร\nมหาวิทยาลัยลัฟเบอระ (Loughborough University) จัดกรุงเทพมหานครว่าเป็นนครโลกระดับแอลฟาลบ[2] กรุงเทพมหานครยังเป็นเมืองที่มีตึกระฟ้ามากที่สุดเป็นอันดับที่ 7 ของโลก[3] มีสถานที่ท่องเที่ยวหลายแห่ง เช่น พระบรมมหาราชวัง พระที่นั่งวิมานเมฆ วัดต่าง ๆ นอกจากนี้ยังมีแหล่งจับจ่ายใช้สอยและค้าขายที่สำคัญซึ่งดึงดูดนักท่องเที่ยวต่างชาติมากมาย โดยในปี พ.ศ. 2555 องค์กรการท่องเที่ยวโลก (UNWTO) ได้จัดอันดับกรุงเทพมหานครเป็นเมืองที่มีคนเดินทางเข้าเป็นอันดับที่ 10 ของโลกและเป็นอันดับที่ 2 ของเอเชีย โดยมีคนเดินทางมากกว่า 26.5 ล้านคน[4] นอกจากนี้จากการจัดอันดับการใช้จ่ายผ่านบัตรเครดิตมาสเตอร์การ์ด ประจำปี พ.ศ. 2557 กรุงเทพมหานครมีการใช้จ่ายผ่านบัตรเครดิตของนักท่องเที่ยวถึง 16.42 ล้านดอลลาร์ เป็นอันดับที่ 2 ของโลก รองจากกรุงลอนดอน สหราชอาณาจักร เท่านั้น[5]", "โตเกียว\nโตเกียวแต่เดิมเป็นหมู่บ้านประมงเล็ก ๆ ที่ชื่อเอโดะ ต่อมาใน ค.ศ. 1457 ปราสาทเอโดะได้ถูกสร้างขึ้น และต่อมาในปีทศวรรษที่ 1590 เป็นยุคที่โทกูงาวะ อิเอยาซุได้เริ่มปราบหัวเมืองต่าง ๆ ซึ่งภายหลังจากปราบหัวเมืองต่าง ๆ ลงได้อย่างราบคาบแล้วใน ค.ศ. 1603 เขาได้สถาปนารัฐบาลโชกุนขึ้นปกครองประเทศ โดยมีเอโดะเป็นที่ตั้งของ \"บากูฟุ\" (รัฐบาลทหาร) และสถาปนาตนขึ้นเป็นโชกุน เมืองเอโดะจึงได้กลายเป็นศูนย์กลางของรัฐบาลทหารของเขาซึ่งมีอำนาจปกครองทั้งประเทศ ในช่วงเวลาต่อมาในยุคเอโดะ เมืองเอโดะก็ขยายตัวขึ้นจนกลายเป็นเมืองที่ใหญ่ที่สุดเมืองหนึ่งในโลก โดยมีประชากรมากกว่า 1 ล้านคนใน คริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 18[9] และเป็นที่ยอมรับว่าเป็นเมืองหลวงของญี่ปุ่น[10] แม้ว่าองค์จักรพรรดิประทับอยู่ในนครหลวงเฮอังเกียว (เกียวโต)", "ประวัติศาสตร์อิสราเอล\nในกาลต่อมา กษัตริย์ซาอูลสิ้นพระชนม์จากการรบกับชนฟิลิสเตีย และหลังจากกษัตริย์วาอูลสิ้นพระชนม์แล้ว พวกอิสราเอลไลท์ได้เลือกอดีตข้าราชสำนักของพระเจ้าซาอูลผู้มีความสามารถในการสงครามไม่แพ้กันขึ้นเป็นกษัตริย์ มีพระนามว่ากษัตริย์ดาวิด (David)พระเจ้าดาวิดทรงครองราชย์ อยู่ระหว่าง 1010-970 ปี ก่อนคริสตกาล สมัยของพระองค์นับได้ว่า เป็นสมัยแห่งความรุ่งโรจน์ของพวกอิสราเอล ทรงตี12เผ่าของิอราเอลรวมกันเป็นหนึ่งเดียว โดยกษัติรย์เดวิดมาจากเผ่ายูดาห์ หนึ่งในสิบสิงเผ่าเชื้อสายของยาโคบ(อิสราเอล)และได้สถาปนานครเยรูซเร็ม ช่วงนี้ชาวอิสราเอลเรียกตนเองตามเผ่าของตัวเอง เช่น อารอนเผ่าเลวี ดาวิดแห่งยูดาห์ ซาอูเผ่าเบนยามิน หลังจากที่ช่วงเป็นทาสในอียิปต์ได้เรียกชนชาตินี้ว่า \"ฮีบรู\"", "สัปดาห์ศักดิ์สิทธิ์\n\"วันอาทิตย์ใบลาน\" (โรมันคาทอลิก) \"วันอาทิตย์ใบปาล์ม\" หรือ\"วันอาทิตย์ทางตาล\" (โปรเตสแตนต์) เป็นวันฉลองถึงเหตุการณ์ที่พระเยซูเสด็จเข้ากรุงเยรูซาเลมอย่างผู้พิชิต ซึ่งสื่อนัยะสำคัญ 2 ประการ คือ 1. พระเยซูเป็นพระเมสสิยาห์ 2. พระเยซูเป็นกษัตริย์แห่งสันติภาพ ", "ประเทศสโลวีเนีย\nประเทศสโลวีเนีย (English: Slovenia English pronunciation:/slɔˈʋèːnija/[1][2] sloh-VEE-nee-ə; Slovene: Slovenija [slɔˈʋèːnija])[3] หรือชื่อทางการคือ สาธารณรัฐสโลวีเนีย (Slovene: Republika Slovenija,[4] abbr.: RS[5]) เป็นประเทศที่ตั้งอยู่ในยุโรปกลาง ซึ่งเป็นเส้นทางการค้าและแหล่งวัฒนธรรมหลักของทวีปยุโรป[6][7] มีอาณาเขตทางตะวันตกจรดอิตาลี ทางตะวันตกเฉียงใต้จรดทะเลเอเดรียติก ทางใต้และตะวันออกจรดโครเอเชีย ทางตะวันออกเฉียงเหนือจรดฮังการีและทางเหนือจรดออสเตรีย[8] มีพื้นที่ประมาณ 20,273 ตารางกิโลเมตรและมีประชากร 2.06 ล้านคน[9] สโลวีเนียเป็นสาธารณรัฐระบบรัฐสภา[10]และเป็นสมาชิกของสหประชาชาติ สหภาพยุโรปและเนโท[11] เมืองหลวงและเมืองใหญ่สุดคือลูบลิยานา[12]", "ปักกิ่ง\nปักกิ่ง หรือ เป่ย์จิง (จีน: , พินอิน: Běijīng) เป็นเมืองหลวงของสาธารณรัฐประชาชนจีน มีชื่อย่อว่า จิง ตั้งอยู่ที่ภาคตะวันออกเฉียงเหนือของ ที่ราบหวาเป่ย์ ชื่อเดิมคือ จี่ (冀) สมัยวสันตสารท (春秋)และสมัยรณรัฐ (战国)เป็นเมืองหลวงของแคว้นเยียน สมัยราชวงศ์เหลียว เป็นเมืองหลวงรอง ชื่อ เยียนจิง เป็นเมืองหลวงของจีนตั้งแต่สมัยราชวงศ์จิน หยวน หมิง ชิงจนถึง สาธารณรัฐจีน เคยใช้ชื่อจงตู ต้าตู เป่ย์ผิงและเป่ย์จิง โดยมีชื่อเรียกทั้งหมดกว่า 60 ชื่อ [4] เริ่มตั้งเป็นเมืองตั้งแต่ปี 1928 ปัจจุบัน แบ่งเป็น 16 เขตและ 2 อำเภอ เป็นนครที่ขึ้นตรงต่อส่วนกลาง พื้นที่ทั่วกรุงปักกิ่งมีถึง 16,800 ตารางกิโลเมตร ถึงสิ้นปี ค.ศ. 2017 ทั่วกรุงเปย์จิงมีประชากร 21,107,000 คน[5] กรุงปักกิ่งเป็นศูนย์การเมือง วัฒนธรรม วิทยาศาสตร์ การศึกษาและเขตชุมทางการคมนาคมทั่วประเทศจีนและก็เป็นเมืองท่อง เที่ยวที่มีชื่อดังทั้งในประเทศจีนและในโลก แหล่งท่องเที่ยวที่สำคัญมีกำแพงเมืองจีน พระราชวังโบราณ หอสักการะฟ้าเทียนถัน สุสานจักรพรรดิสมัยราชวงศ์หมิง วังพักร้อนอี๋เหอหยวนและภูเขาเซียงซาน เป็นต้น ปัจจุบันปักกิ่งเป็นเขตการปกครองพิเศษแบบมหานคร 1 ใน 4 แห่งของจีน ซึ่งมีฐานะเทียบเท่ากับมณฑลหลังจากปักกิ่งได้รับการจัดตั้งเป็นเมืองหลวงของสาธารณรัฐประชาชนจีนในปี 1949 โดยเฉพาะหลังจากสมัย 80 ศตวรรษที่ 20 เมืองปักกิ่งได้พัฒนาอย่างรวดเร็วอย่างเหลือเชื่อ มีการเปลี่ยนแปลงจากหน้ามือเป็นหลังมือ ปัจจุบันนี้ปักกิ่งมีถนนที่สลับกัน ตึกสูงๆ โดยไม่เพียงแต่รักษาสภาพเมืองโบราณ และยังแสดงถึงสภาพเมืองที่ทันสมัย กลายเป็นเมืองใหญ่ของโลก", "สงครามครูเสด\nสงครามครูเสด (English: Crusades; Arabic: الحروب الصليبية‎, อัลฮุรูบ อัศศอลีบียะหฺ หรือ الحملات الصليبية, อัลฮัมลาต อัศศอลีบียะหฺ แปลว่า \"สงครามไม้กางเขน\") เป็นชุดสงครามรบนอกประเทศทางศาสนา ที่ถูกทำให้ศักดิ์สิทธิ์โดยสมเด็จพระสันตะปาปาเออร์บันที่ 2 และศาสนจักรคาทอลิก มีเป้าหมายที่แถลงไว้เพื่อฟื้นฟูการเข้าถึงที่ศักดิ์สิทธิ์ในและใกล้เยรูซาเล็มของคริสเตียน เยรูซาเล็มเป็นนครศักดิ์สิทธิ์และสัญลักษณ์ของศาสนาเอบราฮัมหลักทั้งสาม (ศาสนายูดาย ศาสนาคริสต์และศาสนาอิสลาม)[1] ภูมิหลังสงครามครูเสดเกิดเมื่อเซลจุคเติร์กมีชัยชนะอย่างเด็ดขาดเหนือกองทัพไบแซนไทน์เมื่อ ค.ศ. 1071 และตัดการเข้าถึงเยรูซาเล็มของคริสเตียน จักรพรรดิไบแซนไทน์ อเล็กซิสที่ 1 ทรงเกรงว่าเอเชียไมเนอร์ทั้งหมดจะถูกบุกรุก พระองค์จึงทรงเรียกร้องผู้นำคริสเตียนตะวันตกและสันตะปาปาให้มาช่วยเหลือโดยไปจาริกแสวงบุญหรือสงครามศาสนาเพื่อปลดปล่อยเยรูซาเล็มจากการปกครองของมุสลิม[2] อีกสาเหตุหนึ่งเป็นเพราะการทำลายล้างสถานที่ศักดิ์สิทธิ์ของคริสเตียนเป็นจำนวนมากและการเบียดเบียนคริสต์ศาสนิกชนภายใต้อัล-ฮาคิม กาหลิปราชวงศ์ฟาติมียะห์", "ประเทศเวเนซุเอลา\nเวเนซุเอลาเป็นสหพันธรัฐที่มีประธานาธิบดีเป็นประมุข ประกอบด้วย 23 รัฐ, แคปิทอลดิสตริกท์ (Capital District) ซึ่งมีกรุงการากัส และเฟเดอรัลดีเพนเดนซี (Federal Dependency) ซึ่งประกอบด้วยหมู่เกาะนอกชายฝั่งเวเนซุเอลา เวเนซุเอลาอ้างสิทธิ์เหนือดินแดนทั้งหมดของกายอานาที่อยู่ฝั่งตะวันตกของแม่น้ำเอสกวีโบ ซึ่งผืนดิน 159,500 ตารางกิโลเมตรนี้ถูกตั้งฉายาว่า กายอานาเอสกวีบา หรือ \"เขตที่ถูกเรียกร้องคืน\"", "ปารีส\nปารีสมีชื่อเล่นมากมาย แต่ชื่อที่โด่งดังที่สุดคือ \"นครแห่งแสงไฟ\" (French: La Ville-lumière) ซึ่งหมายความว่าเป็นศูนย์กลางแห่งการเรียนและความรู้ ทั้งยังหมายความว่าเป็นเมืองที่สว่างไสวเต็มไปด้วยแสงไฟอีกด้วย ตั้งแต่ต้นคริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 20 เป็นต้นมา นครปารีสมีชื่อเรียกในภาษาแสลงว่า \"ปานาม\" (French: Paname [panam]) เช่น ชาวปารีสมักแนะนำตนเองว่า \"มัว, เชอซุยเดอปานาม\" (French: Moi, je suis de Paname) หรือ \"ฉันมาจากปานาม\"", "ชาวยิว\nซึ่งในตอนนั้นก่อนที่ชนชาติอิสราเอลจะสิ้นชาติในปีคริสต์ศักราช 70 ชาวอิราเอล หรือ ฮีบรู ที่เชื่อในพระคริสต์จะถูกแยกออกจากชาวอิสราเอลที่นับถือลัทธิยูดาย และการประกาศพระกิติคุณพระเจ้าได้อนุญาตให้ชาวต่างชาติเชื่อในพระองค์ ซึ่งอิสราเอลในตอนนั้นเขาเชื่อว่าเขาคือชนชาติที่พระเจ้าเลือก และ รู้จักพระเจ้า ชาวต่างชาติเป็นแค่สุนัขตัวหนึ่งไม่สมควรที่จะรู้จักพระเจ้าผู้สร้างที่ยิ่งใหญ่ คำว่า<b data-parsoid='{\"dsr\":[7262,7310,3,3]}'>ยิวจึงน่าจะเริ่มมีการถูกเรียกกันในช่วงนั้น ซึ่งหมายถึงเป็นเชิงต่อต้านพวกอิสราเอลในด้านความเชื่อ สังคม และ อะไรหลายๆอย่าง เพราะในพระคัมภีร์ไบเบิ้ลไม่ได้บันทึกหรือเขียนคำว่ายิวเลย นอกจากคำว่า พระเจ้าของชนชาติอิสราเอล หรือ ชนชาติฮีบรู คำว่ายิวนั้น มาจากพวกฮิบรูเผ่ายูดา[ Judah tribe]ที่อาศํยอยู่แผ่นดินยูเดีย[Judea]แถวเยรูซาเลมก่อน อาณาจักรยูดาจะล่มสลาย", "แผ่นดินศักดิ์สิทธิ์\nแผ่นดินศักดิ์สิทธิ์ (; ; ; ; ภาษาอารามิคโบราณ: ארעא קדישא \" Ar'a Qaddisha\") หมายถึงดินแดนที่มีความสำคัญทางประวัติศาสตร์ในบริเวณประเทศอิสราเอลซึ่งมีความสำคัญต่อศาสนาสำคัญศาสนาอับราฮัมสามศาสนา ได้แก่ ศาสนายูดาห์ ศาสนาคริสต์ และศาสนาอิสลาม สาเหตุของความศักดิ์สิทธิ์เนื่องจากความสำคัญของกรุงเยรูซาเลมทางศาสนาและความสำคัญของการเป็นดินแดนแห่งอิสราเอล", "สหรัฐ\nสหรัฐเป็นสหพันธ์สาธารณรัฐประกอบด้วย 50 รัฐ เขตสหพันธรัฐ ห้าดินแดนและเกาะที่ไม่มีคนอยู่อาศัยสิบเอ็ดเกาะ[302] รัฐและดินแดนเป็นเขตการปกครองหลักในประเทศ แบ่งเป็นเขตย่อยเทศมณฑลและนครอิสระ เขตโคลัมเบียเป็นเขตสหพันธรัฐซึ่งมีเมืองหลวงของสหรัฐ คือ กรุงวอชิงตัน ดี.ซี. รัฐและเขตโคลัมเบียเลือกประธานาธิบดีสหรัฐ แต่ละรัฐมีผู้เลือกตั้งประธานาธิบดีเทียบเท่ากับผู้แทนราษฎรและสมาชิกวุฒิสภาในรัฐสภา เขตโคลัมเบียมีสามคน[303]", "ประเทศญี่ปุ่น\nตัวอักษรคันจิของชื่อญี่ปุ่นแปลว่า \"ถิ่นกำเนิดของดวงอาทิตย์\" จึงทำให้มักได้ชื่อว่า \"ดินแดนแห่งอาทิตย์อุทัย\" ประเทศญี่ปุ่นเป็นกลุ่มเกาะกรวยภูเขาไฟสลับชั้นซึ่งมีเกาะประมาณ 6,852 เกาะ เกาะใหญ่สุดคือ เกาะฮนชู ฮกไกโด คีวชู และชิโกกุ ซึ่งคิดเป็นพื้นที่แผ่นดินประมาณร้อยละ 97 ของประเทศญี่ปุ่น และมักเรียกว่าเป็นหมู่เกาะเหย้า (home islands) ประเทศแบ่งเป็น 47 จังหวัดใน 8 ภูมิภาค โดยมีฮกไกโดเป็นจังหวัดเหนือสุด และโอกินาวะเป็นจังหวัดใต้สุด ประเทศญี่ปุ่นมีประชากร 127 ล้านคน เป็นประเทศที่มีประชากรมากที่สุดเป็นอันดับ 10 ของโลก ชาวญี่ปุ่นเป็นร้อยละ 98.5 ของประชากรทั้งหมดของประเทศญี่ปุ่น ประมาณ 9.1 ล้านคนอาศัยอยู่ในกรุงโตเกียว เมืองหลวงของประเทศ", "ไถหนาน\nดังกล่าวมาแล้วว่า อาณาบริเวณซึ่งเป็นไถหนานในปัจจุบันนั้นเดิมมีชื่ออย่างเป็นทางการว่า \"ไต้หวัน\" ก่อนที่ชื่อนี้จะกลายเป็นคำเรียกดินแดนทั้งเกาะ ส่วนชื่อ \"ไถหนาน\" นั้นใช้เรียกท้องที่ดังกล่าวอย่างเป็นทางการแต่เมื่อใดไม่ปรากฏชัด ทว่า เมื่อญี่ปุ่นได้ครองไต้หวัน ญี่ปุ่นใช้ไถหนานเป็นเมืองหลวงของเกาะไต้หวัน และเปลี่ยนชื่อเมืองนี้ในภาษาตนเองหลายครั้ง ในปี 1895 ใช้ว่า \"ไทนังเก็ง\" (Tainanken) ในปี 1901 ใช้ \"ไทนันโช\" (Tainanchō) และในปี 1920 ใช้ \"ไทนันชู\" (Tainanshū) ช่วงนั้น ไถหนานประกอบด้วยท้องที่ที่ปัจจุบันเป็นเทศมณฑลเจียอี้ (; Chiayi County) และเทศมณฑลหยุนหลิน (; Yunlin County) นอกเหนือไปจากพื้นที่อื่น ๆ[8]", "กรุงเทพมหานคร\nโดยนามเดิมที่พระบาทสมเด็จพระพุทธยอดฟ้าจุฬาโลกมหาราช โปรดเกล้าฯ พระราชทานในตอนแรกนั้น ใช้ชื่อว่า “กรุงรัตนโกสินทร์อินท์อโยธยา” ต่อมาในในรัชสมัยพระบาทสมเด็จพระนั่งเกล้าเจ้าอยู่หัว ทรงแก้นามพระนครเป็น “กรุงเทพมหานคร บวรรัตนโกสินท์ มหินทอยุธยา” จนถึงรัชสมัยพระบาทสมเด็จพระจอมเกล้าเจ้าอยู่หัว ทรงเปลี่ยนคำว่า บวร เป็น อมร เปลี่ยนคำว่า มหินทอยุธยา โดยวิธีการสนธิศัพท์เป็น มหินทรายุธยา และเติมสร้อยนามต่อ ทั้งเปลี่ยนการสะกดคำ สินท์ เป็น สินทร์ จนเป็นที่มาของชื่อเต็มของกรุงรัตนโกสินทร์ ข้างต้น[17]", "บรัสเซลส์\nบรัสเซลส์ (), บรูว์แซล () หรือ บรึสเซิล (; ) เรียกอย่างเป็นทางการว่า เขตนครหลวงบรัสเซลส์ หรือ เขตบรัสเซลส์ (, ) เป็นเมืองหลวงของประเทศเบลเยียม และเป็นศูนย์กลางหรือเมืองหลวงอย่างไม่เป็นทางการของสหภาพยุโรป (อียู) เขตบรัสเซลส์แบ่งการปกครองย่อยเป็นเทศบาลจำนวน 19 แห่ง รวมถึง เทศบาลนครบรัสเซลส์ (City of Brussels) ซึ่งอยู่ใจกลางเขตมีอาณาเขตเพียง 32.61 ตร.กม. และเป็นที่มาของชื่อเขตนครหลวงซึ่งกินบริเวณกว้างกว่ามาก (161 ตร.กม.) นอกจากนั้นบรัสเซลส์ยังเป็นที่ตั้งของชุมชนฝรั่งเศสและชุมชนฟลามส์ เขตเทศบาลนครบรัสเซลส์มีประชากรประมาณ 140,000 คน แต่เขตนครหลวงบรัสเซลส์นั้นมีประชากรรวมประมาณเกือบ 2 ล้านคน", "ปารีส\nปารีส (French: Paris /paˈʁi/ ปารี) เป็นเมืองหลวงของประเทศฝรั่งเศส ตั้งอยู่บนแม่น้ำแซน บริเวณตอนเหนือของประเทศฝรั่งเศส บนใจกลางแคว้นอีล-เดอ-ฟร็องส์ (Île-de-France หรือ Région parisienne (RP) ) ภายในกรุงปารีสมีประชากรประมาณ 2,167,994 คน[5] เขตเมืองปารีส (Unité urbaine) ซึ่งมีพื้นที่ขยายเกินขอบเขตอำนาจการปกครองของเมืองนั้น มีประชากรกว่า 9.93 ล้านคน (พ.ศ. 2547) [6] ในขณะที่เขตมหานครปารีส (Agglomération parisienne) มีประชากรเกือบ 12 ล้านคน[7]และเป็นหนึ่งในพื้นที่ที่มีประชากรสูงที่สุดแห่งหนึ่งในทวีปยุโรป[8]", "เยรูซาเลม\nเยรูซาเลมตั้งอยู่บนที่ราบสูงทางตอนใต้ของเทือกเขาจูเดียน มีอาณาเขตติดกับทะเลเดดซี (Dead Sea) ทางด้านตะวันออก และข้างฝั่งแม่น้ำจอร์แดนเป็นเทือกเขาโมอาบ (Moab) ที่แห้งแล้ง ทางตะวันตกติดกับที่ราบชายฝั่งและทะเลเมดิเตอร์เรเนียน (Mediterranean Sea) ห่างจากชายฝั่ง 58 กิโลเมตร ถนนหลวงเป็นเส้นทางสู่เมืองเยริโค (Jericho) ห่างประมาณ 57.6 กิโลเมตร ไปทางตะวันออกทางเหนือมุ่ง สู่จอร์แดน และทะเลสาบกาลิลี ถนนอาลอน (Allon) หรือ ยิกัล (Yigal) ตัดผ่านทะเลทรายยูเดีย นำสู่เมืองสะมาเรีย", "รีโอเดจาเนโร\nรีโอเดจาเนโร (; ) หรือ รีอูจีฌาเนย์รู () มีความหมายว่า \"แม่น้ำเดือนมกราคม\") หรือมักเรียกโดยย่อว่า รีโอ (Rio) เป็นเมืองหลวงของรัฐรีโอเดจาเนโร ประเทศบราซิล โดยเป็นเมืองที่กล่าวขานกันว่างดงามที่สุดแห่งหนึ่งในโลก และเป็นที่รู้จักในด้านการท่องเที่ยว โดยเฉพาะชายหาดกอปากาบานา (Copacabana) และอีปาเนมา (Ipanema) เทศกาลรื่นเริงประจำปีของบราซิล และรูปปั้นพระเยซูขนาดใหญ่ที่รู้จักในชื่อ กริชตูเรเดงโตร์ บนยอดเขากอร์โกวาดู", "ราชอาณาจักรเยรูซาเลม\nในระยะแรกราชอาณาจักรเป็นเพียงกลุ่มเมืองใหญ่และเล็กที่รวมตัวกันอย่างหลวมๆ ระหว่างสงครามครูเสด ในสมัยที่รุ่งเรืองที่สุดอาณาบริเวณที่ปัจจุบันคืออิสราเอล และอาณาดินแดนปาเลสไตน์ (Palestinian territory) ที่ครอบคลุมตั้งแต่บริเวณเลบานอนปัจจุบันไปจนถึงทางเหนือของทะเลทรายไซนายทางด้านไต้ ไปยังจอร์แดน และซีเรียทางด้านตะวันออก ระหว่างนั้นก็มีการพยายามที่จะขยายดินแดนไปยังฟาติมิยะห์ (Fatimid) อียิปต์ นอกจากนั้นพระมหากษัตริย์ของราชอาณาจักรเยรูซาเลมก็ยังมีอำนาจบางอย่างเหนืออาณาจักรครูเสดอื่นๆ, ตริโปลี, อันติโอค, และเอเดสสา", "บีเอ็นเคโฟร์ตีเอต\nชื่อของวงนั้นตั้งตามชื่อย่อของ บางกอก (Bangkok) หรือ กรุงเทพมหานคร เมืองหลวงของประเทศไทย มีสีประจำวงเป็นสีม่วงอ่อนของดอกกล้วยไม้[8]", "หนังสือดาเนียล\n3. นิมิตของดาเนียลครั้งที่สาม เกิดในต้นรัชกาลของกษัตริย์ ดาริอัสของเปอร์เชีย เกี่ยวข้องกับชาวยิวอิสราเอลโดยเฉพาะ และนครเยรูซาเลมที่จะร้างเป็นเวลา70ปี ตรงกับคำพยากรณ์ของเยเรมีห์ที่ได้รับจากพระเจ้า ทูตสวรรค์ได้กล่าวกับดาเนียลว่า ระยะเวลากรุงเยรูซาเลมจะได้สร้างขึ้นใหม่และพระผู้มาโปรดกับชาติอิสราเอล ... \"พระเมสไซยาห์เป็นประมุขอยู่เจ็ดสัปดาห์ และเป็นเวลาหกสิบสองสัปดาห์... หลังจากหกสิบสองสัปดาห์แล้ว พระเมสไซยาห์จะถูกตัดออก ประชาชนจะทำลายกรุงเยรูซาเลม ในที่สุดปลายของโลกจะมาถึง ... น้ำท่วมและสงคราม จนสิ้นสุดการรกร้างที่กำหนดไว้ (9:26)", "เนปยีดอ\nเนปยีดอ มีความหมายว่า \"เมืองหลวงของราชวงศ์\"[1] \"ที่ตั้งของกษัตริย์\" หรือ \"ที่พำนักของกษัตริย์\"[9] เดิมมันถูกใช้เป็นคำต่อท้ายชื่อเมืองหลวงของราชวงศ์เช่น มัณฑะเลย์ ได้ถูกเรียกว่า ရတနာပုံနေပြည်တော် (ยาดานาบนเนปยีดอ) ชื่อนี้แท้จริงแล้วแปลว่า \"ที่พำนักของกษัตริย์\" ในภาษาพม่า" ]

[ 10.78125 ]

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[ "A dog is on the grass." ]

[ "The raven droned as is hopped along the grass.", "A yorkie plays outside.", "The men are playing baseball.", "This part of the city is named after a Christian missionary.", "The boy is partially protected from the sun.", "Martinique is named after the man.", "Two men dance." ]

[]

[]

[ "Most of the differences in the revised budget deficit numbers were due to a temporary change of accounting practices by the new government, i.e., recording expenses when military material was ordered rather than received. However, it was the retroactive application of ESA95 methodology (applied since 2000) by Eurostat, that finally raised the reference year (1999) budget deficit to 3.38% of GDP, thus exceeding the 3% limit. This led to claims that Greece (similar claims have been made about other European countries like Italy) had not actually met all five accession criteria, and the common perception that Greece entered the Eurozone through \"falsified\" deficit numbers." ]

[ "The religion's failure to report abuse allegations to authorities has also been criticized. The Watch Tower Society's policy is that elders inform authorities when required by law to do so, but otherwise leave that action up to the victim and his or her family. The Australian Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse found that of 1006 alleged perpetrators of child sexual abuse identified by the Jehovah's Witnesses within their organization since 1950, \"not one was reported by the church to secular authorities.\" William Bowen, a former Jehovah's Witness elder who established the Silentlambs organization to assist sex abuse victims within the religion, has claimed Witness leaders discourage followers from reporting incidents of sexual misconduct to authorities, and other critics claim the organization is reluctant to alert authorities in order to protect its \"crime-free\" reputation. In court cases in the United Kingdom and the United States the Watch Tower Society has been found to have been negligent in its failure to protect children from known sex offenders within the congregation and the Society has settled other child abuse lawsuits out of court, reportedly paying as much as $780,000 to one plaintiff without admitting wrongdoing.", "La Cueva De Las Ventanas (The Cave of Windows), a series of cliff dwellings along an important trade route, and Las Jarillas Cave scrambled along the canyons of the Sierra Madre in Northwestern Chihuahua date between AD 1205 and 1260 and belong to the Paquimé culture. Cuarenta Casas is thought to have been a branch settlement from Paquime to protect the trade route from attack. Archaeologists believe the civilization began to decline during the 13th century and by the 15th century the inhabitants of Paquime sought refuge in the Sierra Madre Occidental while others are thought to have emigrated north and joined the Ancestral Pueblo peoples. According to anthropologist current natives tribes (Yaqui, Mayo, Opata, and Tarahumara) are descendants of the Casas Grandes culture.", "As an important railroad and road junction and production center, Hanover was a major target for strategic bombing during World War II, including the Oil Campaign. Targets included the AFA (Stöcken), the Deurag-Nerag refinery (Misburg), the Continental plants (Vahrenwald and Limmer), the United light metal works (VLW) in Ricklingen and Laatzen (today Hanover fairground), the Hanover/Limmer rubber reclamation plant, the Hanomag factory (Linden) and the tank factory M.N.H. Maschinenfabrik Niedersachsen (Badenstedt). Forced labourers were sometimes used from the Hannover-Misburg subcamp of the Neuengamme concentration camp. Residential areas were also targeted, and more than 6,000 civilians were killed by the Allied bombing raids. More than 90% of the city center was destroyed in a total of 88 bombing raids. After the war, the Aegidienkirche was not rebuilt and its ruins were left as a war memorial.", "By September 2008, average U.S. housing prices had declined by over 20% from their mid-2006 peak. As prices declined, borrowers with adjustable-rate mortgages could not refinance to avoid the higher payments associated with rising interest rates and began to default. During 2007, lenders began foreclosure proceedings on nearly 1.3 million properties, a 79% increase over 2006. This increased to 2.3 million in 2008, an 81% increase vs. 2007. By August 2008, 9.2% of all U.S. mortgages outstanding were either delinquent or in foreclosure. By September 2009, this had risen to 14.4%.", "A sociological comparative study by the Pew Research Center found that Jehovah's Witnesses in the United States ranked highest in statistics for getting no further than high school graduation, belief in God, importance of religion in one's life, frequency of religious attendance, frequency of prayers, frequency of Bible reading outside of religious services, belief their prayers are answered, belief that their religion can only be interpreted one way, belief that theirs is the only one true faith leading to eternal life, opposition to abortion, and opposition to homosexuality. In the study, Jehovah's Witnesses ranked lowest in statistics for having earned a graduate degree and interest in politics.", "The movement to translate English and European texts transformed the Arabic and Ottoman Turkish languages, and new words, simplified syntax, and directness came to be valued over the previous convolutions. Educated Arabs and Turks in the new professions and the modernized civil service expressed skepticism, writes Christopher de Bellaigue, \"with a freedom that is rarely witnessed today.... No longer was legitimate knowledge defined by texts in the religious schools, interpreted for the most part with stultifying literalness. It had come to include virtually any intellectual production anywhere in the world.\" One of the neologisms that, in a way, came to characterize the infusion of new ideas via translation was \"darwiniya\", or \"Darwinism\".", "The Battle of Osan, the first significant American engagement of the Korean War, involved the 540-soldier Task Force Smith, which was a small forward element of the 24th Infantry Division which had been flown in from Japan. On 5 July 1950, Task Force Smith attacked the North Koreans at Osan but without weapons capable of destroying the North Koreans' tanks. They were unsuccessful; the result was 180 dead, wounded, or taken prisoner. The KPA progressed southwards, pushing back the US force at Pyongtaek, Chonan, and Chochiwon, forcing the 24th Division's retreat to Taejeon, which the KPA captured in the Battle of Taejon; the 24th Division suffered 3,602 dead and wounded and 2,962 captured, including the Division's Commander, Major General William F. Dean." ]

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[ "In November 1945, Eisenhower returned to Washington to replace Marshall as Chief of Staff of the Army. His main role was rapid demobilization of millions of soldiers, a slow job that was delayed by lack of shipping. Eisenhower was convinced in 1946 that the Soviet Union did not want war and that friendly relations could be maintained; he strongly supported the new United Nations and favored its involvement in the control of atomic bombs. However, in formulating policies regarding the atomic bomb and relations with the Soviets, Truman was guided by the U.S. State Department and ignored Eisenhower and the Pentagon. Indeed, Eisenhower had opposed the use of the atomic bomb against the Japanese, writing, \"First, the Japanese were ready to surrender and it wasn't necessary to hit them with that awful thing. Second, I hated to see our country be the first to use such a weapon.\" Initially, Eisenhower was characterized by hopes for cooperation with the Soviets. He even visited Warsaw in 1945. Invited by Bolesław Bierut and decorated with the highest military decoration, he was shocked by the scale of destruction in the city. However, by mid-1947, as East–West tensions over economic recovery in Germany and the Greek Civil War escalated, Eisenhower gave up and agreed with a containment policy to stop Soviet expansion." ]

[ "The third John Walter, the founder's grandson, succeeded his father in 1847. The paper continued as more or less independent, but from the 1850s The Times was beginning to suffer from the rise in competition from the penny press, notably The Daily Telegraph and The Morning Post.", "So-called voiced aspirated consonants are nearly always pronounced instead with breathy voice, a type of phonation or vibration of the vocal folds. The modifier letter ⟨◌ʰ⟩ after a voiced consonant actually represents a breathy-voiced or murmured dental stop, as with the \"voiced aspirated\" bilabial stop ⟨bʰ⟩ in the Indo-Aryan languages. This consonant is therefore more accurately transcribed as ⟨b̤⟩, with the diacritic for breathy voice, or with the modifier letter ⟨bʱ⟩, a superscript form of the symbol for the voiced glottal fricative ⟨ɦ⟩.", "When revolutionary France declared war on Great Britain in 1793, the United States sought to remain neutral, but the Jay Treaty, which was favorable to Great Britain, angered the French government, which viewed it as a violation of the 1778 Treaty of Alliance. French privateers began to seize U.S. vessels, which led to an undeclared \"Quasi-War\" between the two nations. Fought at sea from 1798 to 1800, the United States won a string of victories in the Caribbean. George Washington was called out of retirement to head a \"provisional army\" in case of invasion by France, but President John Adams managed to negotiate a truce, in which France agreed to terminate the prior alliance and cease its attacks.", "The gas centrifuge process, where gaseous uranium hexafluoride (UF\n6) is separated by the difference in molecular weight between 235UF6 and 238UF6 using high-speed centrifuges, is the cheapest and leading enrichment process. The gaseous diffusion process had been the leading method for enrichment and was used in the Manhattan Project. In this process, uranium hexafluoride is repeatedly diffused through a silver-zinc membrane, and the different isotopes of uranium are separated by diffusion rate (since uranium 238 is heavier it diffuses slightly slower than uranium-235). The molecular laser isotope separation method employs a laser beam of precise energy to sever the bond between uranium-235 and fluorine. This leaves uranium-238 bonded to fluorine and allows uranium-235 metal to precipitate from the solution. An alternative laser method of enrichment is known as atomic vapor laser isotope separation (AVLIS) and employs visible tunable lasers such as dye lasers. Another method used is liquid thermal diffusion.", "Deforestation and forest fires are a problem in many areas, as is the continual spread of the eucalyptus tree, a species imported from Australia, actively promoted by the paper industry since the mid-20th century. Galicia is one of the more forested areas of Spain, but the majority of Galicia's plantations, usually growing eucalyptus or pine, lack any formal management. Massive eucalyptus, especially Eucalyptus globulus plantation, began in the Francisco Franco era, largely on behalf of the paper company Empresa Nacional de Celulosas de España (ENCE) in Pontevedra, which wanted it for its pulp. Wood products figure significantly in Galicia's economy. Apart from tree plantations Galicia is also notable for the extensive surface occupied by meadows used for animal husbandry, especially cattle , an important activity. Hydroelectric development in most rivers has been a serious concern for local conservationists during the last decades.", "Democratic Party candidates were consistently elected to local office, increasing the city's ties to the South and its dominant party. In 1861, Mayor Fernando Wood called on the aldermen to declare independence from Albany and the United States after the South seceded, but his proposal was not acted on. Anger at new military conscription laws during the American Civil War (1861–1865), which spared wealthier men who could afford to pay a $300 (equivalent to $5,766 in 2016) commutation fee to hire a substitute, led to the Draft Riots of 1863, whose most visible participants were ethnic Irish working class. The situation deteriorated into attacks on New York's elite, followed by attacks on black New Yorkers and their property after fierce competition for a decade between Irish immigrants and blacks for work. Rioters burned the Colored Orphan Asylum to the ground, but more than 200 children escaped harm due to efforts of the New York City Police Department, which was mainly made up of Irish immigrants. According to historian James M. McPherson (2001), at least 120 people were killed. In all, eleven black men were lynched over five days, and the riots forced hundreds of blacks to flee the city for Williamsburg, Brooklyn, as well as New Jersey; the black population in Manhattan fell below 10,000 by 1865, which it had last been in 1820. The white working class had established dominance. Violence by longshoremen against black men was especially fierce in the docks area. It was one of the worst incidents of civil unrest in American history.", "Modern font technology provides a means to address the practical issue of needing to depict a unified Han character in terms of a collection of alternative glyph representations, in the form of Unicode variation sequences. For example, the Advanced Typographic tables of OpenType permit one of a number of alternative glyph representations to be selected when performing the character to glyph mapping process. In this case, information can be provided within plain text to designate which alternate character form to select." ]

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[ "These people are associated with both phones and homes." ]

[ "These people are homeless, living on the streets without any possessions.", "The man is inside of a building.", "The black dog is running around the ball.", "The hiker is outside.", "The soccer players are playing hockey.", "A black man is sitting", "A patient's bill of rights will help the uninsured." ]

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[ "Blokus Blokus ( ) is an abstract strategy board game for two to four players, invented by Bernard Tavitian and first released in 2000 by Sekkoïa, a French company. It has won several awards, including the Mensa Select award and the 2004 Teacher's Choice Award. In 2009, the game was sold to Mattel.", "Splendor (board game) Splendor is a multiplayer board game designed by Marc André and first published in 2014 by Space Cowboys. Players are gem merchants of the Renaissance buying gem mines, transportation, and shops. The game was nominated for the 2014 Spiel des Jahres (Game of the Year)." ]

[ "Blandia Blandia (ブランディア , Burandia ) is a 1992 one-on-one, weapon-based fighting arcade game developed and published by Allumer. It is the sequel to the 1986 arcade game, \"Gladiator\". Along with Strata's \"Time Killers\", \"Blandia\" is one of the earliest weapon-based fighting games modeled after its competitor Capcom's 1991 arcade hit \"Street Fighter II\", but later became overshadowed by the success of SNK's 1993 weapon-based fighting game, \"Samurai Shodown\".", "XIII Century (series) XIII Century is a series of real-time tactics computer video games developed by Unicorn Studio and released in 2007. The series consists of the titles \"XIII Century: Death or Glory\", its stand-alone expansion \"XIII Century: Blood of Europe\", and a \"XIII Century: Gold\" release, which combines the two titles. The games are similar in interface and game play to those of the Total War series but feature a more complex battle mechanism, in which results are calculated for each individual soldier in the units and the corps mechanics are more realistic. The units possess different grades of AI (called \"Self Control\"), which give them the capability to evaluate the situation: a low-Self Control unit demands more management by the player.", "Platypus (video game) Platypus is a horizontal scrolling shooter game created by Anthony Flack. The player flies an antiquated spacecraft (the last of the fictional F-27 Platypus fleet) and attempts to defend the peaceful country of Mungola from neighboring Colossatropolis, which has become so overcrowded that its inhabitants are taking over Mungola for space and resources. The game consists of four levels, with five areas per level and a strong boss enemy that must be defeated at the end of the fifth area. The player can collect power-ups that affect the type and firing rate of the ship's weapons, equip auxiliary cannons, or activate defensive shields.", "Invisible Wonder Games Invisible Wonder Games is an independent video game developer of casual games. Their titles include, Gemolition, a match three puzzle game, Battlefortress, a 3D space shooter, and Bongo Bunnies, a music hand eye coordination game for children and adults. They have published games on the Apple App Store and online flash portals such as Kongregate and Newgrounds.", "ELEX ELEX (Eclectic, Lavish, Exhilarating, Xenial) is an upcoming science fantasy themed action role-playing video game developed by Piranha Bytes and published by THQ Nordic for PlayStation 4, Xbox One and Windows. The publisher has described the game as \"edgy, dark, uncompromising, and complex\", and it was featured as a cover story in the German magazine \"GameStar\". The protagonist joins the war for a powerful resource, \"ELEX\", which gives people great magic-like powers, and is a factor in deciding whether emotion and humaneness or cold synthetic logic will rule the world of Magalan. The game world will be a mix of futuristic and medieval locations, in which the player can use guns, swords and magic against enemies. The game will also feature a jet pack which can be used for the exploration of the game's environment.", "The Horde (video game) The Horde is a hybrid action-strategy video game that was originally released on the 3DO platform, but was soon after ported to the Sega Saturn and MS-DOS. It was an unusual hybrid of action and strategy game for the time. It also featured full-motion video sequences featuring a number of actors including Kirk Cameron as Chauncey and Michael Gregory as Kronus Maelor. Video sequences were reduced to slideshows (with full sound) in some versions.", "Unlight Unlight (アンライト～Unlight～ ) is a free-to-play collectible card battle and role-playing browser game developed by the Japanese company Techway. With multiple language versions including Japanese, Chinese (both traditional and simplified), Korean, French, Thai, and English, the game boasts a playership of two million across all platforms (Facebook, Niconico, Naver, Yahoo! Mobage, Mixi, and Koei Tecmo's myGAMECITY). It is the top engrossing Facebook game in Asia. In 2014, the game won gold in the foreign browser game category for the 2014 Game Star award at the Taipei Game Show. Set in a \"medieval gothic\" world, the player assumes the role of an automaton given life by a \"Saint of Flame\" to recover the memories of warriors who have died in another world.", "Age of Wonders III Age of Wonders III is a 4X turn-based strategy video game developed and published by Dutch developer Triumph Studios. It is the fourth game in the \"Age of Wonders\" series, following \"Age of Wonders\", \"\" and \"\" released in 1999, 2002, and 2003 respectively. It was released on March 31, 2014 through digital distribution, as well as through retail in select territories for Microsoft Windows. A port to Linux and OS X was released on April 14, 2015.", "Glory of the Roman Empire Glory of the Roman Empire is a 2006 city-building game set during the age of the Roman Empire, developed by Haemimont Games. The game was released on 26 June 2006 in the United States. The game features a three-dimensional game engine and individual modeling of game character behaviors. The game was released in Spain and Italy in December 2006 by FX Interactive under the name \"Imperium Civitas\". The difference in naming is explained by the popularity of Haemimont's previous games, Imperium I, II and III, which sold more than 1 million copies in these countries.", "Enlight Software Enlight Software is a publisher and developer of interactive entertainment. The company was founded by Trevor Chan in 1993, and their first project was the economic strategy game \"Capitalism\", which was published by Interactive Magic in 1995. In 1997, they released \"Capitalism Plus\" (an updated version of \"Capitalism\") and the real-time strategy game \"Seven Kingdoms\". Later games include \"Virtual U\", \"Capitalism II\", \"\", \"\", \"Restaurant Empire\", \"Zoo Empire\", \"Marine Park Empire\" and \"Restaurant Empire II\".", "Pikmin (series) Pikmin (ピクミン , Pikumin ) is a series of puzzle strategy video games created by Shigeru Miyamoto and published by Nintendo. The games focus on directing a horde of plant-like creatures called Pikmin in order to collect items by destroying obstacles, avoiding hazards and/or fighting fauna that are hazardous to both the player and the Pikmin.", "BlazBlue BlazBlue (Japanese: ブレイブルー , Hepburn: BureiBurū ) is a fighting video game series developed and published in Japan by Arc System Works, and later localized in North America by Aksys Games and in Europe by Zen United. An anime adaptation aired in the fall of 2013. The \"BlazBlue\" series has sold 1.7 million games as of August 2012.", "Tales of Vesperia Tales of Vesperia (Japanese: テイルズ オブ ヴェスペリア , Hepburn: Teiruzu Obu Vesuperia ) is a Japanese role-playing video game developed by Namco Tales Studio for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 (PS3). The tenth mainline entry in the \"Tales series\", it was published in Japan and North America by Namco Bandai Games in 2008, and in European territories by Atari in 2009. An expanded port of the game for the PS3 was released in 2009 in Japan, but has not been released in Western territories. The gameplay is similar to previous \"Tales\" games, featuring a new version of the series' trademark action-based Linear Motion Battle System, while also introducing new elements such as online scoring boards.", "British Academy Games Award for Game Design The British Academy Video Games Award for Game Design is an award presented annually by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA). It is given in honor of \"the best game design that captivates and engages the player\", including recognition of elements such as game mechanics, use of controls, level and world structure, and pacing. The award was first given at the 8th British Academy Video Games Awards ceremony, held in 2012, with the Valve Corporation title \"Portal 2\" winning the award.", "List of best-selling Game Boy Advance video games The best-selling video games of all-time on the Game Boy Advance (GBA) are \"Pokémon Ruby\" and \"Sapphire\". First released in Japan on November 21, 2002, the games went on to sell over 16 million units worldwide. \"Pokémon FireRed\" and \"LeafGreen\", enhanced remakes of the original \"Pokémon Red\", \"Green\" and \"Blue\" games, are the second best-selling titles on the platform with sales in excess of 12 million copies. \"Pokémon Emerald\", the enhanced version of \"Ruby\" and \"Sapphire\", is third with sales of more than 7 million units. The top five is rounded out by \"\" and \"\", each of which sold over 5.5 million units.", "Battle Carnival Battle Carnival — is a free-to-play MMOFPS game. It was developed and published by Zepetto in 2016. By the end of the same year the game was also published by GameNet and became available in Russia and CIS.", "Quest for the Rings Quest for the Rings is a boardgame/video game hybrid for the Videopac. It is the first game in the Odyssey² \"Master Strategy Series\", and it was considered particularly innovative at the time of its release.", "BlayzBloo: Super Melee Brawlers Battle Royale BlayzBloo: Super Melee Brawlers Battle Royale, released in Japan as BlazBlue: Battle × Battle (ぶれいぶるー　-バトル×バトル- , BureiBurū: Batoru kurosu Batoru ) , is a 3D arena fighting video game developed by Arc System Works. It was published in Japan by Arc System Works on January 27, 2010 and for the Nintendo DSi/Nintendo DSi XL. The game was released in North America on August 2, 2010.", "Perpetuum Perpetuum is a video game by Avatar Creations Ltd. It is a player-driven persistent-world MMORPG set in a science fiction ground setting. Players pilot customisable robots on various islands connected by several teleports. These islands are either alpha ('safe' from attacks by players) or beta/gamma, meaning players can freely engage each other.", "PlatinumGames PlatinumGames Inc. (プラチナゲームズ株式会社 , Purachina Gēmuzu Kabushiki Gaisha ) is a Japanese video game development company. The company was founded in October 2007, as result of the merger between Seeds Inc. and Odd Inc. The following year, video game publisher Sega announced that it would be publishing four unique properties developed by the company, which included \"MadWorld\", \"Infinite Space\", \"Bayonetta\", and \"Vanquish\". Their partnership later extended to include \"Anarchy Reigns\". However, none of these were a commercial success, even though most of them received high critical praise." ]

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[ "1961 Tour de France 1961 Tour de France The 1961 Tour de France was the 48th edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. It took place between 25 June and 16 July, with 21 stages covering a distance of . Out of the 132 riders who started the tour, 72 managed to complete the tour's tough course. Throughout the 1961 Tour de France, two of the French national team's riders, André Darrigade and Jacques Anquetil held the yellow jersey for the entirety 21 stages. There was a great deal of excitement between the second and third places, concluding with Guido", "1964 Tour de France 1964 Tour de France The 1964 Tour de France was the 51st edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. It took place between 22 June and 14 July, with 22 stages covering a distance of . Stages 3, 10 and 22 were all two-part stages with the first half being a regular stage and the second half being a team or individual time trial. It was the only Tour de France to include a mid-stage climb to the L'Alpe D'Huez ski resort. The race was eventually won by Jacques Anquetil following an epic shoulder-to-shoulder battle with", "1964 Tour de France Raymond Poulidor during Stage 20. The 1964 Tour started with 132 cyclists, divided into 12 teams of 11 cyclists. The teams entering the race were: The main favourite was defending champion Jacques Anquetil. He had won the 1964 Giro d'Italia earlier that year, and was trying to win a Tour-Giro double, which at that moment had only been done by Fausto Coppi. The 1964 Tour de France started on 22 June, and had one rest day in Andorra. Anquetil, who was looking for his fifth Tour victory, was superior in the time trials, of which he won all three. But", "1965 Tour de France won the mountains classification at the 1965 Vuelta a España – becoming one of (now) four riders to complete the Tour/Vuelta double by winning both races' mountains competitions in the same year. The 1965 Tour started with 130 cyclists, divided into 13 teams of 10 cyclists. Each team had to include at least six cyclists with the same nationality. The Molteni–Ignis team was a combined team, with 5 cyclists from and 5 from . The teams entering the race were: Jacques Anquetil, who won the previous four Tours de France (1961–1964), did not participate in this tour. Cyclists in that", "1961 Tour de France Carlesi stealing Charly Gaul's second place position on the last day by two seconds. The teams entering the race were: Since Jacques Anquetil had won the 1957 Tour de France, he was unable to repeat it, due to illness, tiredness and struggle within the French team. For 1961, he asked the team captain Marcel Bidot to make a team that would only ride for him, and Bidot agreed. Anquetil announced before the race that he would take the yellow jersey as leader of the general classification on the first day, and wear it until the end of the race in", "1957 Tour de France 1957 Tour de France The 1957 Tour de France was the 44th edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 27 June to 20 July. It was composed of 22 stages over . The 1957 Tour was the first win for Jacques Anquetil, who won the Tour five times over his career. The French national team was very successful in the 1957 Tour de France; not only did they provide the winning cyclist, they also won the team classification, and almost every daily team classification. They lost only one cyclist (the previous year's winner Roger Walkowiak), and had the", "1985 Tour de France 1985 Tour de France The 1985 Tour de France was the 72nd Tour de France, taking place between 28 June and 21 July, over in 22 stages and a prologue. Bernard Hinault would attempt to equal the records of Jacques Anquetil and Eddy Merckx who had each won the Tour de France five times. Hinault was unable to compete due to tendinitis in 1983. In 1984 Hinault had finished second to Laurent Fignon, and was threatened by Greg LeMond who ended in third position on the final podium. In order to ensure the best support, Hinault's La Vie Claire team", "Tour de France to have won an Olympic gold medal in a velodrome; they were both on the team which won the Team Pursuit Gold Medal at the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Four riders have won five times: Jacques Anquetil (FRA), Eddy Merckx (BEL), Bernard Hinault (FRA), and Miguel Indurain (ESP). Indurain achieved the mark with a record five consecutive wins. Tour de France The Tour de France () is an annual men's multiple stage bicycle race primarily held in France, while also occasionally passing through nearby countries. Like the other Grand Tours (the Giro d'Italia and the Vuelta a España), it consists of", "1957 Tour de France over the Italian team. The Luxembourg/Mixed team finished with only one cyclist, so they were not included in the team classification. The combativity award was given to Nicolas Barone. Jacques Anquetil would later win the Tour de France four more times. From 1960 to 1967, the \"Alex Virot award\" was given to the most loyal cyclist, named after the journalist who died during the 1957 Tour de France. 1957 Tour de France The 1957 Tour de France was the 44th edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 27 June to 20 July. It was composed of 22 stages", "1982 Tour de France the 1980 Tour in leading position, was the clear favourite for the victory. In those other years, Hinault had won several races before the Tour, but in 1982 he had only won one major race, the 1982 Giro d'Italia. Hinault tried to be the fourth cyclist, after Fausto Coppi, Jacques Anquetil and Eddy Merckx, to win the Giro-Tour double. Notable absent was Lucien Van Impe, who was second in the 1981 Tour de France, winning the mountains classification. Since the 1969 Tour de France, Van Impe had started each edition, winning the general classification in the 1976 Tour and the" ]

[ "1961 Tour de France of team prizes. The combativity award was given to the entire regional West-South West team. As Anquetil had led the race after every stage, there was not much competitiveness, which organiser Jacques Goddet termed a \"fiasco\". After the race, the system with national teams was abandoned, and it was announced that the 1962 Tour de France would be run with sponsored teams. 1961 Tour de France The 1961 Tour de France was the 48th edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. It took place between 25 June and 16 July, with 21 stages covering a distance", "1961 Tour de France his way to win back a little time on Anquetil, when he crashed heavily, and could not find his pace again. Anquetil won almost three minutes on Gaul and extended his lead to more than ten minutes. In the final two stages, Anquetil did not get into problems. His main rival Gaul even lost time in the last stage, and conceded his second place to Guido Carlesi. There were several classifications in the 1961 Tour de France, two of them awarding jerseys to their leaders. The most important was the general classification, calculated by adding each cyclist's finishing times on", "1964 Tour de France second, third, or fourth-category; points for this classification were won by the first cyclists that reached the top of these climbs first, with more points available for the higher-categorized climbs. The cyclist with the most points lead the classification, but was not identified with a jersey. For the team classification, the times of the best three cyclists per team on each stage were added; the leading team was the team with the lowest total time. The riders in the team that lead this classification wore yellow caps. The combativity award was given to Henri Anglade. 1964 Tour de France The", "1961 Tour de France his own. Raymond Poulidor was convinced by his team manager Antonin Magne that it would be better to skip the Tour, because the national team format would undermine his commercial value. The 1961 Tour de France started on 25 June in Rouen, and had one rest day, in Montpellier. For the first time the finish on top of the Superbagnères was included to the race. André Darrigade won the opening stage, and it became the fifth time that he won the opening stage. Darrigade had been in a small group that broke away, which included Anquetil. Other competitors, such as", "1961 Tour de France Paris. Gastone Nencini, who won the previous edition, did not enter in 1961, but Graziano Battistini, his team mate and runner-up of 1960, started the race as leader of the Italian team. If the French team would again have internal struggles, the Italian team could emerge as the winner. The Spanish team had two outsiders, José Pérez Francés and Fernando Manzaneque. The last outsider was Charly Gaul, winner of the 1958 Tour de France, who rode in the mixed Luxembourg-Swiss team. He considered his team mates so weak that he did not seek their help, and rode the race on", "1964 Tour de France rode as fast as he could, and with all other cyclists but Anquetil finished, had the best time. Anquetil was the last rider to ride the time trial, and was five seconds slower at the intermediate time check, which gave Poulidor hope that he could emerge as winner. However, Anquetil was clearly faster in the second part, and won the time trial. Anquetil won the Tour by only 55 seconds, which was at that moment the smallest margin in history. There were several classifications in the 1964 Tour de France, two of them awarding jerseys to their leaders. The most", "1907 Tour de France won five stages and the general classification, and became the first cyclist to win the Tour de France two times. 1907 Tour de France The 1907 Tour de France was the fifth running of the annual Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. From 8 July to 4 August, the 93 cyclists cycled 4488 km (2,788 mi) in fourteen stages around France. The winner, Lucien Petit-Breton, completed the race at an average speed of 28.47 km/h (17.69 mi/h). For the first time, climbs in the Western Alps were included in the Tour de France. The race was dominated at", "1992 Tour de France the European Union. In the 1992 Tour de France, a national border was crossed seven times, and every time there was a special sprint, where points could be earned. This classification was won by Viatcheslav Ekimov. The \"Association Française pour un Sport sans violence et pour le Fair-play\" awarded the Fair Play award in the Tour for the first time. It was given to Stephen Roche. 1992 Tour de France The 1992 Tour de France was the 79th edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 4 to 26 July. The total race distance was 21 stages and a", "1922 Tour de France won some stages, wore the yellow jersey for a long time and with second placed Alavoine had competed for the victory. In the next year, the French Pélissier brothers joined the race again, and Henri Pélissier won the race. Firmin Lambot, who won the 1922 Tour, would start again two more times, but would never again win a stage or finish the Tour. 1922 Tour de France The 1922 Tour de France was the 16th edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 25 June to 23 July. The 1922 Tour consisted of 15 stages covering a total of", "1931 Tour de France up the times in the general classification of the three highest ranking cyclists per team; the team with the least time was the winner. Five stages were won by touriste-routiers: Stages 2, 4, 7, 12 and 17, the highest number of stages ever won by touriste-routiers. The organing newspaper, l'Auto named a \"meilleur grimpeur\" (best climber), an unofficial precursor to the modern King of the Mountains competition. This award was won by Jef Demuysere. After the Tour de France was over, the winner Antonin Magne was so tired that he had to rest for several weeks. 1931 Tour de France", "1920 Tour de France 1920 Tour de France The 1920 Tour de France was the 14th edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 27 June to 27 July. It consisted of 15 stages over , ridden at an average speed of . It was won by Belgian Philippe Thys, making him the first cyclist to win the Tour de France three times. The Belgians dominated this Tour: 12 of the 15 stages were won by Belgians, and the first eight cyclists in the final classification were Belgian. The 1919 Tour de France had been more difficult than before because of the influence", "1907 Tour de France 1907 Tour de France The 1907 Tour de France was the fifth running of the annual Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. From 8 July to 4 August, the 93 cyclists cycled 4488 km (2,788 mi) in fourteen stages around France. The winner, Lucien Petit-Breton, completed the race at an average speed of 28.47 km/h (17.69 mi/h). For the first time, climbs in the Western Alps were included in the Tour de France. The race was dominated at the start by Émile Georget, who won five of the first eight stages. In the ninth stage, he borrowed a", "1931 Tour de France 1931 Tour de France The 1931 Tour de France was the 25th edition of the Tour de France, which took place from 30 June to 26 July. It consisted of 24 stages over . The race was won by French cyclist Antonin Magne. The sprinters Charles Pélissier and Rafaele di Paco both won five stages. The cyclists were separated into national teams and \"touriste-routiers\", who were grouped into regional teams. In some stages (2, 3, 4, 6, 7 and 12), the national teams started 10 minutes before the touriste-routiers. One of these \"touriste-routiers\" was Max Bulla. In the second stage,", "1958 Tour de France 1958 Tour de France The 1958 Tour de France was the 45th edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 26 June to 19 July. The total race distance was 24 stages over . The yellow jersey for the leader in the general classification changed owner a record 11 times, and only at the penultimate stage in the time trial the decision was made, when Gaul created a margin of more than three minutes. In the final sprint, sprinter André Darrigade, who had already won five stages, collided with a stage official, who eleven days later died because of", "1948 Tour de France his bad relationship with Bartali, would enter and win the 1949 Tour de France. 1948 Tour de France The 1948 Tour de France was the 35th edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 30 June to 25 July. It consisted of 21 stages over . The race was won by Italian cyclist Gino Bartali, who had also won the Tour de France in 1938. Bartali had almost given up during the race, but drew inspiration from a phone call from the Italian prime minister, who asked him to win the Tour de France to prevent civil unrest in", "1948 Tour de France 1948 Tour de France The 1948 Tour de France was the 35th edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 30 June to 25 July. It consisted of 21 stages over . The race was won by Italian cyclist Gino Bartali, who had also won the Tour de France in 1938. Bartali had almost given up during the race, but drew inspiration from a phone call from the Italian prime minister, who asked him to win the Tour de France to prevent civil unrest in Italy after assassination attempt against Togliatti. Bartali also won the mountains classification, while the", "Doping at the 2007 Tour de France elected to withdraw their support due to the reputational damage caused by the scandals. The 2007 Tour de France has been referred to as one of the most controversial Tours. After the end of the Tour, \"The Times\" of London ranked it 4th in its list of the top 50 sporting scandals. Since the introduction of doping tests in 1964, many cyclists were caught in the Tour de France. In recent years, 1996 Tour de France winner Bjarne Riis and points classification winner Erik Zabel, along with most of their Team Telekom team-mates, confessed to using erythropoietin (EPO). In 1997,", "1988 Tour de France 1988 Tour de France The 1988 Tour de France was the 75th edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 4 to 24 July. It consisted of 22 stages over . The race was won by Pedro Delgado with the top three positions at the end of the race being occupied by specialist climbers. The points classification was won by Eddy Planckaert, while Steven Rooks won the mountains classification and the combination classification. The young rider classification was won by Erik Breukink, and Frans Maassen won the intermediate sprints classification. Both team classifications were won by the PDM team.", "Doping at the Tour de France in which Lance Armstrong won the Tour de France seven times (1999–2005), Fernando Escartín is the sole rider not to be implicated in a doping scandal. With \"20 of the 21 podium finishers in the Tour de France from 1999 through 2005 directly tied to likely doping through admissions, sanctions, public investigations or exceeding the UCI hematocrit (a blood test to discover EPO use) threshold\", Escartin's third-place finish in the 1999 Tour de France stands as the lone of the 21 podium finishes that was untainted, during the years (1999–2005) in which Lance Armstrong finished the Tour de France in", "1934 Tour de France chances for his team leader Magne, was convinced that he could have won the Tour instead. 1934 Tour de France The 1934 Tour de France was the 28th edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 3 to 29 July. It consisted of 23 stages over . The race was won by Antonin Magne, who had previously won the 1931 Tour de France. The French team was dominant, holding the yellow jersey for the entire race and winning most of the stages. Every member of the French team won at least one stage. French cyclist René Vietto rose to", "1912 Tour de France 1912 Tour de France The 1912 Tour de France was the tenth running of the Tour de France. It consisted of 15 stages for a total of . The Tour took place from 30 June to 28 July. The riders rode at an average speed of . After 4 stage wins during the Tour of Belgium, the Alcyon team hired Odile Defraye to help Gustave Garrigou repeat his win of the 1911 Tour de France. However, as the race progressed, it was clear that Defraye was the stronger rider, and he was made team leader. Defraye won the 1912 Tour", "1951 Tour de France 1951 Tour de France The 1951 Tour de France was the 38th edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 4 July to 29 July. It consisted of 24 stages over . The race started outside Île-de-France for the first time since 1926; a change that was to remain permanent. The race was won by Swiss cyclist Hugo Koblet. Koblet used his time-trial abilities to win large amounts of time. Dutch cyclist Wim van Est made fame, not only by becoming the first Dutch cyclist to lead the Tour de France, but more by falling down a ravine in", "1923 Tour de France these times were added up; the cyclist with the least accumulated time (after compensating for time bonuses and/or time penalties) was the race leader, identified by the yellow jersey. For his overall victory, Henri Pélissier received 10000 francs. In total, Henri Pélissier won 17638 francs in the 1923 Tour de France, almost ninety times the standard monthly wage at that time. Henri Pélissier was the first French winner of the Tour de France since 1911, and ended a series of seven Belgian victories. Desgrange, who had been in a fight with Pélissier for three years, wrote \"The mountains seemed to", "1904 Tour de France more times, but would never again play an important role. 1904 Tour de France The 1904 Tour de France was the second Tour de France, held from 2 to 24 July. With a route similar to its previous edition, 1903 Tour de France winner Maurice Garin seemed to have repeated his win by a small margin over Lucien Pothier, while Hippolyte Aucouturier won four of the six stages. But the race became a victim of its own success, plagued by scandals; cyclists were accused of having taken trains during the race. Twelve cyclists, including the first four of the final", "1920 Tour de France added up; the cyclist with the least accumulated time was the race leader. From the ninth stage on, the leader in the general classification was identified by the yellow jersey. The final general classification, calculated by adding the stages times, was won by Philippe Thys. 1920 Tour de France The 1920 Tour de France was the 14th edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 27 June to 27 July. It consisted of 15 stages over , ridden at an average speed of . It was won by Belgian Philippe Thys, making him the first cyclist to win the", "1976 Tour de France race in the 19th stage, but at that point it was already clear that Van Impe would win the race. The mountains classification was won by Giancarlo Bellini with 170 points, only one point ahead of Lucien Van Impe. The young rider classification was won by Enrique Martínez Heredia. Heredia had already won the Tour de l'Avenir in 1974, but never broke through after this win. The 1976 Tour started with 13 teams, each sent 10 cyclists, a total of 130. The teams entering the race were: Eddy Merckx, who already had won the Tour de France five times, had", "1958 Tour de France won by the Belgian team, with a large margin over the Italian team. The combativity award was won by Federico Bahamontes. 1958 Tour de France The 1958 Tour de France was the 45th edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 26 June to 19 July. The total race distance was 24 stages over . The yellow jersey for the leader in the general classification changed owner a record 11 times, and only at the penultimate stage in the time trial the decision was made, when Gaul created a margin of more than three minutes. In the final sprint,", "1932 Tour de France Ullrich became 2nd in 1996. The organing newspaper, l'Auto named a \"meilleur grimpeur\" (best climber), an unofficial precursor to the modern King of the Mountains competition. This award was won by Vicente Trueba. Winner André Leducq kept riding the Tour de France until 1938, but he never managed to win again, although he had three more stage victories. 1932 Tour de France The 1932 Tour de France was the 26th edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 6 to 31 July. It consisted of 21 stages over . André Leducq, who also won six stages, won the race,", "1934 Tour de France 1934 Tour de France The 1934 Tour de France was the 28th edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 3 to 29 July. It consisted of 23 stages over . The race was won by Antonin Magne, who had previously won the 1931 Tour de France. The French team was dominant, holding the yellow jersey for the entire race and winning most of the stages. Every member of the French team won at least one stage. French cyclist René Vietto rose to prominence by winning the mountains classification, but even more by giving up his own chances for", "2015 Tour de France 2015 Tour de France The 2015 Tour de France was the 102nd edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The -long race started in Utrecht, the Netherlands, on 4 July 2015, and concluded with the Champs-Élysées stage in Paris, on 26 July. A total of 198 riders from 22 teams entered the 21-stage race, which was won by Chris Froome of . The second and third places were taken by the riders Nairo Quintana and Alejandro Valverde, respectively. 's Rohan Dennis won the first stage to take the race leader's yellow jersey. rider Fabian Cancellara claimed", "1985 Tour de France The teams entering the race were: Laurent Fignon, the winner of the 1984 Tour de France was injured, and could not defend his title. Riding for the La Vie Claire team, Bernard Hinault, who already had won the Tour de France four times, and finished second in the previous edition, was the main pre-race favourite. Greg LeMond had finished in third place in 1984 as a team mate of Fignon, and was also considered capable of winning the Tour. LeMond had however changed teams, and was now a team mate of Hinault. There was no clear team leader decided before", "1976 Tour de France 1976 Tour de France The 1976 Tour de France was the 63rd edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. It took between 24 June and 18 July, with 22 stages covering a distance of . It was won by mountain specialist Lucien Van Impe. The revelation of the Tour however was Freddy Maertens, who in his first Tour won eight stages and the points classification, and led the general classification for ten days. Five-time winner Eddy Merckx did not join in the 1976 Tour de France because he was injured. 1975 winner Bernard Thévenet left the", "2005 Tour de France In 2005, Erik Zabel, who had won the points classification six times, was left out of the team, and Ullrich was supported by Klöden and Vinokourov, who both had already reached the podium on the Tour. On the day before the Tour started, Ullrich crashed into his team director's car, but was not seriously injured. The Tour commemorated the death of Fabio Casartelli. During the 15th stage the riders passed the Col de Portet d'Aspet, where Casartelli died exactly 10 years earlier, in the 1995 Tour de France. The Tour also commemorated the first time there was an official mountain", "1914 Tour de France 1914 Tour de France The 1914 Tour de France was the 12th edition of the Tour de France, taking place in 15 stages from 28 June to 26 July. The total distance was and the average speed of the riders was . It was won by the Belgian cyclist Philippe Thys. The day the Tour began, Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria was assassinated in Sarajevo, marking the start of World War I. On 3 August Germany invaded Belgium and declared war on France, making this Tour the last for five years, until 1919. The three men who won the Tour", "1959 Tour de France best three cyclists per team. It was won by the Belgian team. The combativity award was given to Gerard Saint. 1959 Tour de France The 1959 Tour de France was the 46th edition of the Tour de France, taking place between 25 June and 18 July. The race featured 120 riders, of which 65 finished. The Tour included 22 stages over . The race was won by Spanish cyclist Federico Bahamontes, who also won the mountains classification. The points classification was won by French sprinter André Darrigade. The Belgian team became the winner of the team classification. Although the French", "1938 Tour de France the first and so far only cyclist to win editions of the Tour de France ten years apart. 1938 Tour de France The 1938 Tour de France was the 32nd edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 5 July to 31 July. It was composed of 21 stages over .The race was won by Italian cyclist Gino Bartali, who also won the mountains classification. The bonification system was reduced compared to 1937: the winner of a stage now only received one minute bonification time, added by the margin to the second arriving cyclist, with a maximum of 75", "1951 Tour de France the leader's yellow jersey, starred in an advert for watch-making company Pontiac, that said \"His heart stopped but his Pontiac kept time.\" 1951 Tour de France The 1951 Tour de France was the 38th edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 4 July to 29 July. It consisted of 24 stages over . The race started outside Île-de-France for the first time since 1926; a change that was to remain permanent. The race was won by Swiss cyclist Hugo Koblet. Koblet used his time-trial abilities to win large amounts of time. Dutch cyclist Wim van Est made fame,", "1932 Tour de France 1932 Tour de France The 1932 Tour de France was the 26th edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 6 to 31 July. It consisted of 21 stages over . André Leducq, who also won six stages, won the race, thanks to the bonification system; had the bonification system not existed, the margin between Leducq and Kurt Stöpel had only been three seconds. In the 1931 Tour de France, there had been a time bonification system, which gave 3 minutes of bonification to the winner of the stage, if he finished more than three minutes ahead of the", "1948 Tour de France classification of the best three cyclists per team. The Tour de France in 1948 for the first time had a special award for the best regional rider. This was won by third-placed Guy Lapébie. The 1948 Tour de France first showed the strengths of Louison Bobet. Bobet would be the first rider to win three consecutive Tours de France, from 1953 to 1955. After the race, the Italian team manager Alfredo Binda said about Bobet: \"If I would have directed Bobet, he would have won the Tour.\" Coppi, who had not competed in the 1948 Tour de France because of", "1962 Tour de France Ercole Baldini () and Hans Junkermann (). Of these, three were former winners of the Tour: Gaul (1958), Bahamontes (1959) and Nencini (1960). Frenchman Anquetil, who also won the Tour in 1957, had dominated the 1961 Tour; he led from the first day to the end, with a winning margin of over twelve minutes. At the Vuelta a España (one of the three Grand Tours, along with the Tour de France and the Giro d'Italia) which ended on 13 May, he withdrew from the race before the final stage suffering from viral hepatitis; his position in the general classification after", "2001 Tour de France, Stage 11 to Stage 20 the green jersey from Stuart O'Grady. Zabel now had won the points classification for the sixth year in row. No one else had succeeded in winning the classification six times. 2001 Tour de France, Stage 11 to Stage 20 The 2001 Tour de France was the 88th edition of Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. The Tour began in Dunkirk with a prologue individual time trial on 7 July and Stage 11 occurred on 18 July with an individual time trial from Grenoble. The race finished on the Champs-Élysées in Paris on 29 July. 18 July 2001 —", "1984 Tour de France 1984 Tour de France The 1984 Tour de France was the 71st edition of the Tour de France, run over in 23 stages and a prologue, from 29 June to 22 July. The race was dominated by the Renault team, who won the team classification and ten stages: Renault's French rider Laurent Fignon won his second consecutive Tour, beating former teammate Bernard Hinault by over 10 minutes. Hinault was pursuing his fifth Tour victory after having sat out the 1983 Tour because of injuries. Also that year, Fignon's team-mate Greg LeMond became the first American rider to finish in the", "1979 Tour de France the general classification would be removed from the race. 1979 Tour de France The 1979 Tour de France was the 66th edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. It took place between 27 June and 22 July, with 24 stages covering a distance of . It was the only tour to finish at Alpe d'Huez twice. It was won by Bernard Hinault, who also won the points classification, and whose team won both team classifications. Remarkably Hinault and second place finisher Joop Zoetemelk finished nearly a half hour ahead of the other GC Contenders, and in", "1979 Tour de France 1979 Tour de France The 1979 Tour de France was the 66th edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. It took place between 27 June and 22 July, with 24 stages covering a distance of . It was the only tour to finish at Alpe d'Huez twice. It was won by Bernard Hinault, who also won the points classification, and whose team won both team classifications. Remarkably Hinault and second place finisher Joop Zoetemelk finished nearly a half hour ahead of the other GC Contenders, and in modern history this was the only time the Yellow", "1990 Tour de France seven minutes until LeMond was with them. The worked together and were able to get LeMond back to Chiappucci, but LeMond was angry at Chiappucci's tactics. The stage was won by Dimitri Konyshev, the first Soviet rider to win a Tour de France stage. In the last time trial in stage twenty, Breukink won, and as expected LeMond gained enough time on Chiappucci to win the Tour. There were several classifications in the 1990 Tour de France. The most important was the general classification, calculated by adding each cyclist's finishing times on each stage. The cyclist with the least accumulated", "1959 Tour de France 1959 Tour de France The 1959 Tour de France was the 46th edition of the Tour de France, taking place between 25 June and 18 July. The race featured 120 riders, of which 65 finished. The Tour included 22 stages over . The race was won by Spanish cyclist Federico Bahamontes, who also won the mountains classification. The points classification was won by French sprinter André Darrigade. The Belgian team became the winner of the team classification. Although the French national team had the favourites, the race was contested between Anglade, in a French regional team, and Bahamontes, in the", "1938 Tour de France 1938 Tour de France The 1938 Tour de France was the 32nd edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 5 July to 31 July. It was composed of 21 stages over .The race was won by Italian cyclist Gino Bartali, who also won the mountains classification. The bonification system was reduced compared to 1937: the winner of a stage now only received one minute bonification time, added by the margin to the second arriving cyclist, with a maximum of 75 seconds. The cyclists who reached a mountain top that counted towards the mountains classification first, now received only", "1908 Tour de France 1908 Tour de France The 1908 Tour de France was the sixth running of the annual Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. It was organized by the newspaper \"L'Auto\", and took place between 13 July and 9 August. The Tour was split in 14 stages, with a total distance of . The pre-race favourite was Lucien Petit-Breton, winner of the previous Tour. Petit-Breton dominated the race; he won the general classification and five of the fourteen stages, and thus became the first cyclist who won the Tour twice. For the first time, the final podium in Paris was", "1974 Tour de France 1974 Tour de France The 1974 Tour de France was the 61st edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. It took place between June 27 and July 21, with 22 stages covering a distance of . Eddy Merckx was attempting to win his fifth Tour de France in as many races, while Luis Ocaña and Joop Zoetemelk were notable absentees from the 1974 Tour. In 1974 the tour made its first visit to the United Kingdom, with a circuit stage on the Plympton By-pass, near Plymouth, England. The race was won by favourite Eddy Merckx, who", "1922 Tour de France 1922 Tour de France The 1922 Tour de France was the 16th edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 25 June to 23 July. The 1922 Tour consisted of 15 stages covering a total of . The race was won by the Belgian Firmin Lambot. It was the second time Lambot had won the overall Tour de France title; he had previously won the 1919 Tour de France. The first part of the race showcased the tactics of Robert Jacquinot, and some action from Eugène Christophe. During the Pyrenees stages, the climber Jean Alavoine became the leader after", "1995 Tour de France 1995 Tour de France The 1995 Tour de France was the 82nd Tour de France, taking place from 1 to 23 July. It was Miguel Indurain's fifth and final victory in the Tour. On the fifteenth stage Italian rider Fabio Casartelli died after an accident on the Col de Portet d'Aspet. The points classification was won by Laurent Jalabert, while Richard Virenque won the mountains classification. Marco Pantani won the young rider classification, and ONCE won the team classification. Lance Armstrong's best finish in the Tour de France went down to his 36th-place finish in 1995, after his results from", "1931 Tour de France when the \"touriste-routiers\" started 10 minutes later than the national teams, Bulla overtook the national teams, won the stage and took the lead, the only time in history that a \"touriste-routier\" was leading the Tour de France. In 1931, the touriste-routiers started 10 minutes later than the national teams in some stages (2, 3, 4, 6, and 12). The number of rest days in the Tour de France was reduced to three. The time bonus for the winner, which had been used before in the 1924 Tour de France, was reintroduced. For the second year, the race was run in", "Tour de France records and statistics Tour de France stage winner is Fabio Battesini, who was 19 when he won one stage in the 1931 Tour de France. Riders from 33 countries have won at least one stage in the Tour de France. Some cities and towns have hosted 25 or more stage starts and finishes: Tour de France records and statistics This is a list of records and statistics in the Tour de France, road cycling's premier competitive event. One rider has been King of the Mountains, won the combination classification, combativity award, the points competition, and the Tour in the same year - Eddy", "1921 Tour de France several means, but this failed. The 1920 Tour de France had been dominated by Belgian cyclists, who won twelve of the fifteen stages, and the top seven of the overall classification. The French cyclists Henri and Francis Pélissier had left the 1920 Tour de France after Henri received a penalty from the Tour organisation for throwing away a tire, and they were still fighting. Therefore, the Pélissier brothers did not join the 1921 Tour de France. Two veteran cyclists who did join the race were Ernest Paul and Lucien Pothier, both forty years old. Paul rode his first Tour de", "1986 Tour de France in the top 5 eleven times and won the 1980 Tour de France. He rode his final Tour wearing the rainbow jersey as world champion. In June, 23 teams had requested to start in the 1986 Tour. The Tour direction accepted 21 applications, so a total of 21 teams participated in the 1986 Tour de France. The two teams whose application was denied were Skala-Skil and Miko. Each team sent a squad of ten riders, which meant that the race would start with a peloton of 210 cyclists, a record setting total. From the 210 riders that began this edition,", "2009 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11 2009 Tour de France, Stage 1 to Stage 11 These are the individual stages of the 2009 Tour de France, with Stage 1 on July 4 and Stage 11 on July 15. 4 July 2009 — Monaco, 15.5 km (ITT) The 2009 Tour began, as have many in the past, with an individual time trial, but instead of a very brief prologue, this 15 kilometer ride saw the race's overall favorites show themselves on day one. The favourite for the stage, Fabian Cancellara, won with Alberto Contador coming in second. Time-trial specialist Bradley Wiggins came third. 5 July 2009 —", "1997 Tour de France years. However, Ullrich would never win the Tour again, although he did reach the podium four more times finishing second to Pantani in 1998 and standing 2nd on the podium to Lance Armstrong three times. He also reached the podium in the 2005 Tour de France, but that result was later voided. Ullrich would win another Grand Tour however, the 1999 Vuelta a Espana. 1997 Tour de France The 1997 Tour de France was the 84th edition of the Tour de France and took place from 5 to 27 July. Jan Ullrich's victory margin, of 9' 09\" was the largest", "1956 Tour de France was ridden at the fastest average speed so far, over 36 km/h. Walkowiak became only the second rider, after Firmin Lambot in the 1922 Tour de France, to win without taking a single stage, and is the only Tour de France winner to date who never won a stage in any year. In the previous years, a flat tyre had to be repaired, but from 1956 on, it was allowed to change wheels. As was the custom since the 1930 Tour de France, the 1956 Tour de France was contested by national and regional teams. Seven national teams were sent,", "Combativity award in the Tour de France to wear a red bib the following race day. The 1981 Tour de France marked the last time the winner of the general classification also won the combativity award. Since 1952, after every stage the most combative cyclist was given an award, and an overall competition was recorded. At the end of the 1956 Tour de France, André Darrigade was named the most attacking cyclist. At this point, the award was given the same importance as the award for the cyclist with the most bad luck, Picot in 1956. In 1961, the award was not given to an individual cyclist,", "1954 Tour de France winner of this classification. After he won the Tour de France, Bobet would later win the 1954 UCI Road World Championships. The next year he would win the 1955 Tour de France, thereby becoming the first cyclist to win three Tours in a row. 1954 Tour de France The 1954 Tour de France was the 41st edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 8 July to 1 August, 1954. It consisted of 23 stages over . The race was won by Louison Bobet, the second of his three consecutive wins. As was the custom since the 1930 Tour", "1990 Tour de France 1990 Tour de France The 1990 Tour de France was the 77th edition of the Tour de France, taking place between 30 June and 22 July. The total race distance was 21 stages over . American Greg LeMond repeated his 1989 victory in the overall competition, becoming a three-time winner despite not winning an individual stage, something which has happened only twice since, in the 2006 and 2017 Tour de France. The surprise of the Tour was Claudio Chiappucci, who won ten minutes in the first stage, and was still leading the race two days before the end. The points", "1970 Tour de France 1970 Tour de France The 1970 Tour de France was the 57th edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. It took place between 27 June and 19 July, with 23 stages covering a distance of . It was the second victory for Belgian Eddy Merckx, who also won the mountains classification, and finished second in the points classification behind Walter Godefroot. The Tour de France started with 15 teams, of 10 cyclists each, from five different countries. A few days before the Tour started, it became known that Paul Gutty had failed a doping test when", "1949 Tour de France France because of personal problems with his team mate Gino Bartali. Bartali had won the previous Tour, and was trying to equal Philippe Thys by winning the Tour three times. Coppi had won the 1949 Giro d'Italia, and wanted to be the first one to achieve the Tour-Giro double in one year. The Italian team manager Alfredo Binda convinced them two weeks before the start of the race to join forces, so both Italians were in the race. The teams entering the race were: The 1949 Tour de France started on 30 June, and had four rest days, in Les", "1933 Tour de France 1933 Tour de France The 1933 Tour de France was the 27th edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 27 June to 23 July. It consisted of 23 stages over . This race featured the introduction of the mountains competition, in which cyclists were challenged to climb the mountains the fastest, with points given to the fastest ascenders. This competition was won by Spaniard Vicente Trueba, who reached 9 of the 16 mountain peaks first. The time bonus of two minutes had a large influence on the outcome of the race. Thanks to this bonus, Georges Speicher won", "1992 Tour de France than eight minutes behind. With no big mountain stages remaining, the only stage that was likely to create time differences between the favourites was the time trial in stage nineteen. Indurain, being a time trial specialist, won that stage, and increased his margin to more than four minutes. Indurain thus won his second Tour de France. There were several classifications in the 1992 Tour de France. The most important was the general classification, calculated by adding each cyclist's finishing times on each stage. The cyclist with the least accumulated time was the race leader, identified by the yellow jersey; the", "1956 Tour de France expected this edition to be too easy. No other former Tour de France winner started the race. This was the third time in history that the race started without former winners, after the initial 1903 Tour de France and the 1927 Tour de France. Because Bobet was not there, the race was open, and there were many riders thought able to win the Tour. The most favourite of these was probably Charly Gaul, who had won the 1956 Giro d'Italia, although he was in a weak team, and would also be aiming for the mountains classification. The 1956 Tour de", "1974 Tour de France won the first five Tours that he entered. Merckx set a few new records after winning the 1974 Tour: Merckx had already won the 1974 Giro d'Italia earlier that year, and after winning the 1974 Tour de France also won the world championship, and became the first cyclist to win the Triple Crown of Cycling. 1974 Tour de France The 1974 Tour de France was the 61st edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. It took place between June 27 and July 21, with 22 stages covering a distance of . Eddy Merckx was attempting to", "1997 Tour de France 1997 Tour de France The 1997 Tour de France was the 84th edition of the Tour de France and took place from 5 to 27 July. Jan Ullrich's victory margin, of 9' 09\" was the largest margin of victory since Laurent Fignon won the 1984 Tour de France by 10' 32\". Ullrich's simultaneous victories in both the general classification and the young riders' classification marked the first time the same rider had won both categories in the same Tour since Laurent Fignon in 1983. The points classification was won by Ullrich's team mate Erik Zabel, for the second time, and", "Mountains classification in the Tour de France Polka Dot Jersey, during the 1975 Tour de France, was Joop Zoetemelk, and while he never won the King of the Mountains competition in the Tour De France he is considered to be one of the greatest climbers in Tour de France history. Zoetemelk did win the mountains classification in the 1971 Vuelta a Espana, as well as the general classification in the 1979 Vuelta a Espana and the 1980 Tour de France. At the top of many climbs in the Tour, there are points for the riders who are first over the top. The climbs are divided into categories", "1955 Tour de France cyclists, so they were not eligible for the team classification. In every stage, a jury gave points for the most combative cyclist. These votes were added in the combativity classification. At the end of the Tour de France, Charly Gaul won the classification. 1955 Tour de France The 1955 Tour de France was the 42nd edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 7 to 30 July. It consisted of 22 stages over . The race was won by Louison Bobet, the last of his three consecutive wins. The 1955 Tour de France saw the introduction of the photo", "1914 Tour de France between 1907 and 1910 would die in the war. Not much changed from the 1913 Tour de France, the most important novelty was the introduction of frame numbers. Philippe Thys, who had won the 1913 Tour de France, was returning in 1914 and considered favourite, together with his team mate Henri Pélissier. Apart from him six other previous Tour de France winners started the race: Louis Trousselier, Lucien Petit-Breton, Octave Lapize, François Faber, Odile Defraye and Gustave Garrigou. Four more cyclists started the race that would later win a Tour de France: Firmin Lambot, Léon Scieur, Henri Pélissier and Lucien", "Tour de France remains that of the first Tour in 1903: 2h 49m 45s between Maurice Garin and Lucien Pothier. Three riders have won 8 stages in a single year: Charles Pélissier (1930), Eddy Merckx (1970, 1974), and Freddy Maertens (1976). Mark Cavendish has the most mass finish stage wins with 30 as of stage 14 in 2016, ahead of André Darrigade and André Leducq with 22, François Faber with 19, and Eddy Merckx with 18. The youngest Tour de France stage winner is Fabio Battesini, who was 19 when he won one stage in the 1931 Tour de France. The fastest massed-start", "1934 Tour de France Magne won there, increasing the margin to Martano by 8 minutes. Vietto had won back enough time to end in fifth place in the general classification, and won the mountains classification. Magne had ridden consistently in the entire Tour, and had benefitted from his team support. He won his second Tour de France, the fifth in a row for France. The time that each cyclist required to finish each stage was recorded, and these times were added together for the general classification. If a cyclist had received a time bonus, it was subtracted from this total; all time penalties were", "1966 Tour de France classification were won by the first cyclists that reached the top of these climbs first, with more points available for the higher-categorized climbs. The cyclist with the most points led the classification, but was not identified with a jersey. For the team classification, the times of the best three cyclists per team on each stage were added; the leading team was the team with the lowest total time. The riders in the team that led this classification wore yellow caps. The combativity award was won by Rudi Altig. 1966 Tour de France The 1966 Tour de France was the 53rd", "1913 Tour de France 8'37\" in front of Gustave Garrigou in the general classification. In the final stage, Thys stayed with Garrigou, and so won the 1913 Tour de France. For each cyclist, the times they had needed in each stage was added up for the general classification. The cyclist with the least accumulated time after the last stage was the winner. Of the 140 starting cyclists, 25 finished. In the points system that had been used in previous years in the Tour de France, Garrigou would have won the race with 45 points, followed by Buysse with 48 points; Thys would have been", "1989 Tour de France 1989 Tour de France The 1989 Tour de France was the 76th edition of the Tour de France, a race of 21 stages and a prologue, over . It started on 1 July 1989 in Luxembourg before taking an anti-clockwise route through France to finish in Paris on 23 July. The race was won by Greg LeMond (). It was the second overall victory for the American, who had spent the previous two seasons recovering from a near-fatal hunting accident. In second place was former two-time Tour winner Laurent Fignon (), ahead of Pedro Delgado (), the defending champion. Delgado", "2013 Tour de France Mountains classification 2013 Tour de France Mountains classification The 2013 Tour de France King of the Mountains is Nairo Quintana. He won the mountains classification of the 2013 Tour de France which is in place to decide the best climber of the tour. The race featured 5 Hors catégorie climbs, 6 Category-one climbs, 12 Category-two climbs, 16 Category-three climbs, and 17 Category-four climbs. That means the 2013 Tour de France included 28 mountain climbs or altitude finishes ranked Category-two, Category-one or Hors catégorie compared to 25 in 2012, 23 in 2011 and 25 in 2010. 4 of these climbs are in Corsica,", "1999 Tour de France first time since the 1926 Tour de France. Additionally, Mario Cipollini won 4 stages in a row, setting the post-World War II record for consecutive stage wins (breaking the record of three, set by Gino Bartali in 1948.) After the doping controversies in the 1998 Tour de France, the Tour organisation banned some riders from the race, including Richard Virenque, Laurent Roux and Philippe Gaumont, manager Manolo Saiz and the entire team. Virenque's team Polti then appealed at the UCI against this decision, and the UCI then forced the organisers of the Tour, Amaury Sport Organisation (ASO), to allow Virenque", "2005 Tour de France events. Óscar Pereiro was given the super-combativity award by the jury who chose him as the most attacking cyclist. 2005 Tour de France The 2005 Tour de France was the 92nd edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. It took place between 2–24 July, with 21 stages covering a distance . It has no overall winner—although American cyclist Lance Armstrong originally won the event, the United States Anti-Doping Agency announced in August 2012 that they had disqualified Armstrong from all his results since 1998, including his seven Tour de France wins from 1999–2005; the Union Cycliste", "1981 Tour de France 1981 Tour de France The 1981 Tour de France was the 68th edition of the Tour de France, taking place between 25 June and 19 July. The total race distance was 24 stages over . It was dominated by Bernard Hinault, who led the race from the sixth stage on, increasing his lead almost every stage, and winning the race with a margin of almost 15 minutes. Only Phil Anderson was able to stay close to him, until the seventeenth stage when he lost 17 minutes. The points classification was won by Freddy Maertens, who did so by winning five", "Mountains classification in the Tour de France mountains classification win. In 1969, Eddy Merckx won not only the general classification and the mountains classification, but also the points classification. The general classification and the mountain classification were won by the same rider ten times, by seven different cyclists: Mountains classification in the Tour de France The mountains classification is a secondary competition in the Tour de France, that started in 1933. It is given to the rider that gains the most points for reaching mountain summits first. The leader of the classification is named the King of the Mountains, and since 1975 wears the polka dot jersey", "1983 Tour de France 1983 Tour de France The 1983 Tour de France was the 70th edition of the Tour de France, run from 1 to 24 July, with 22 stages and a prologue covering a total distance of The race was won by French rider Laurent Fignon. Sean Kelly of Ireland won the points classification, and Lucien Van Impe of Belgium won the mountains classification. The Tour organisation wanted to globalize cycling by having cyclist from the Eastern Bloc in the Tour. Because they only rode as amateurs, the 1983 Tour was also opened for amateur teams. In the end, only the Colombian", "1921 Tour de France 1921 Tour de France The 1921 Tour de France was the 15th edition of the Tour de France, taking place 26 June to 24 July. The total distance was and the average speed of the riders was 24.720 km/h. The race was won by Belgian Leon Scieur. The Belgians dominated the entire race, partly due to the absence of the French Pélissier brothers, who were on bad terms with the Tour organisation. Scieur's victory was largely uncontested; Hector Heusghem came close after the sixth stage, but lost time later. The organisation tried to get the cyclists to attack more by", "1955 Tour de France 1955 Tour de France The 1955 Tour de France was the 42nd edition of the Tour de France, taking place from 7 to 30 July. It consisted of 22 stages over . The race was won by Louison Bobet, the last of his three consecutive wins. The 1955 Tour de France saw the introduction of the photo finish. As was the custom since the 1930 Tour de France, the 1955 Tour de France was contested by national and regional teams. Eight national teams were sent, with 10 cyclists each from France, Belgium, Spain, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Italy, Switzerland, and", "2006 Tour de France two years. In response to this, the UCI formally stripped him of his 2006 Tour de France title. Second place finisher Óscar Pereiro was officially declared the winner. The only previous Tour de France winner to be disqualified was 1904 Tour de France winner Maurice Garin. 2006 Tour de France The 2006 Tour de France was the 93rd edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. It took between 1 July to 23 July. It was won by Óscar Pereiro following the disqualification of apparent winner Floyd Landis. Due to United States Anti-Doping Agency announcing in August", "1921 Tour de France but would never win a stage again and never complete the race. 1921 Tour de France The 1921 Tour de France was the 15th edition of the Tour de France, taking place 26 June to 24 July. The total distance was and the average speed of the riders was 24.720 km/h. The race was won by Belgian Leon Scieur. The Belgians dominated the entire race, partly due to the absence of the French Pélissier brothers, who were on bad terms with the Tour organisation. Scieur's victory was largely uncontested; Hector Heusghem came close after the sixth stage, but lost time", "1963 Tour de France rule was removed for the next year. 1963 Tour de France The 1963 Tour de France was the 50th edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. It took place between 23 June and 14 July, with 21 stages covering a distance of . Stages 2 and 6 were both two part stages, the first half being a regular stage and the second half being a team or individual time trial. The Tour organisers were trying to break the dominance of Anquetil, who had won already three Tours, by reducing the time trials length to only ,", "1963 Tour de France 1963 Tour de France The 1963 Tour de France was the 50th edition of the Tour de France, one of cycling's Grand Tours. It took place between 23 June and 14 July, with 21 stages covering a distance of . Stages 2 and 6 were both two part stages, the first half being a regular stage and the second half being a team or individual time trial. The Tour organisers were trying to break the dominance of Anquetil, who had won already three Tours, by reducing the time trials length to only , so that the climbing capabilities would be", "1977 Tour de France Hennie Kuiper in 2nd and Lucien Van Impe, who also won another mountains classification. Due to the relentless pace set by the top tier riders only 53 riders were able to finish the 1977 Tour de France. Never since have so few riders finished a Tour de France and the previous time fewer riders finished was the 1950 Tour de France when 51 riders finished. In years before and after this Tour riders like Merckx, Hinault, Zoetemelk, Van Impe, Thévenet, Luis Ocana and Laurent Fignon set such a high pace during mountain stages that as many as half the riders", "1998 Tour de France 1998 Tour de France The 1998 Tour de France was the 85th edition of the Tour de France and took place between 11 July and 2 August. For the first time the tour started in Ireland. The 1998 edition of Tour de France was won by Marco Pantani, with Jan Ullrich, the defending champion, and American Bobby Julich finishing on the podium in second and third respectively. Erik Zabel won his third consecutive green jersey in the points classification. Christophe Rinero claimed the polka dot jersey as the winner of the mountains classification. Because the 1997 Tour had seen many" ]

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[ "People are having a conversation." ]

[ "A snake chases a rabbit on a boat.", "You have a telephone, right?", "Some people who call are just looking for people to talk to.", "Please go on, I have all the time to speak.", "A man does not go rock climbing because it is too strenuous for his fitness levels.", "Finkelstein doesn't consider the possible Zionist message in the book.", "It took a lot for him to be attentive, let alone watchful." ]

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[ "Through 2010, Federal non-Social Security surpluses are eliminated." ]

[ "Unfiled deficits will never emerge for Federal non-Social Security surpluses.", "A man dances to music in front of a car.", "The man is behind the counter running a cash register.", "The porcelain tells the tale of the Romance of the Three Kingdoms.", "Or if you want to play devil's advocate, you could argue that either stance is one that could be debated at length.", "The main shops are very busy but some others provide the same service.", "Someone is a deep-sea diver." ]

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[ "Something is being built." ]

[ "The man is unemployed.", "I never had an opinion when it comes to national health care coverage.", "I currently reside in Colorado Springs.", "The people are sitting at a a table.", "This news network missed a story because they were part of the story.", "Eight students are playing in a park.", "The Pact-makers" ]

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[ "A group of young girls sits on a bus with most looking out the window while one looks at the camera and smiles" ]

[ "The group of girls were watching tv", "A person is staring", "I have many cats, but these ones just look great", "Two women inside on a treadmill.", "It is in good condition.", "LSC won't receive additional information on the ability of grantees", "Verbatim quotations make up a third of this book." ]

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[ "I prefer to eat cheddar cheese fondue over Swiss cheese fondue." ]

[ "I hate cheddar cheese, but sharp cheddar is perfect for fondue.", "The kids are playing cards.", "Young boys are playing Wii in their living room.", "Five girls are wearing back packs.", "The man is naked and scared of the water.", "A young man is doing tricks on a skateboard", "It's impossible for me to start a garden in July." ]

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[ "People kicking a ball on a beach" ]

[ "Seven people sitting on the beach", "They were intellectually active.", "Some neighbors with varying amounts of feet interact.", "Two girls walk on grass.", "The man was sitting outdoors.", "A woman in jeans is walking.", "The person is looking at things" ]

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[ "There are restaurants along the waterfronts in both villages." ]

[ "All seafood has to be imported from hundreds of miles away.", "The child is playing with toy cars.", "Two young males are reading.", "An interpretation of the presences requirement that required H-2A workers to be present would be detrimental to their representation.", "He used free legal aid to successfully serve his exwife with adoption papers.", "A person is outside.", "a man an woman are sitting together." ]

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[ "Deva Stadium Deva Stadium The Deva Stadium (also currently known as the \"Swansway Chester Stadium\" due to sponsorship reasons) is an association football stadium in England (though the pitch is in Wales), that is the home of Chester F.C., the effective successor club to the liquidated Chester City F.C. The name \"Deva\" comes from the original Roman name for the fort \"Deva Victrix\", which became the city of Chester, in North West England. The Deva Stadium opened in 1992, two years after the closure of Chester City's Sealand Road stadium; in the intervening two seasons the club had played at Macclesfield Town's", "Deva Stadium the Deva Stadium, although the North Terrace was renamed the Harry McNally Terrace in December 2006 in honour of one of its most popular managers (who died two years earlier). In 2010, the main stand was renamed the Exacta Stand. Deva Stadium The Deva Stadium (also currently known as the \"Swansway Chester Stadium\" due to sponsorship reasons) is an association football stadium in England (though the pitch is in Wales), that is the home of Chester F.C., the effective successor club to the liquidated Chester City F.C. The name \"Deva\" comes from the original Roman name for the fort \"Deva", "Deva, Romania the Devín Castle, located at the confluence of the Danube and Great Morava, at the site of the former town of Devín.) It is also considered that the name comes from the ancient Dacian word \"dava\", meaning \"fortress\" (as in \"Pelendava\", \"Piroboridava\", or \"Zargidava\"). Other theories trace the name to a Roman Legion, the Legio II Augusta, transferred to Deva from Castrum Deva, now Chester (\"Deva Victrix\") in Britain. Additionally, it is possible the name Deva was derived from the reconstructed proto-Indo-European \"dhewa\" (\"settlement\"). On medieval maps \"Deva\" appears as: \"Dewan\" (first mention), \"Deva\", or later \"Diemrich\". Documentary evidence of", "Deva Victrix after the goddess of the River Dee; the Latin for 'goddess' is \"dea\" or \"diva\". There is an alternative source for the naming of the settlement which suggests that the Roman name for the fortress was adopted directly from the British name of the river. It is thought that the title 'victrix' in the name of the fortress was taken from the title of the Legio XX \"Valeria Victrix\" who were based at Deva; \"victrix\" is Latin for victorious. The name for the city of Chester derives from the Latin word \"castrum\" (plural: \"castra\"), meaning \"fort\" or \"army camp\": \"-chester\"", "Deva Victrix Deva Victrix Deva Victrix, or simply Deva, was a legionary fortress and town in the Roman province of city of Chester. The fortress was built by the Legio II \"Adiutrix\" in the AD 70s as the Roman army advanced north against the Brigantes, and rebuilt completely over the next few decades by the Legio XX \"Valeria Victrix\". In the early 3rd century the fortress was again rebuilt. The legion probably remained at the fortress until the late 4th or early 5th century, upon which it fell into disuse. A civilian settlement, or \"canabae\", grew around the fortress. Chester Roman Amphitheatre", "Deva Victrix centre of the British isles, being located geographically at nearly the same distance from the westernmost shores of Ireland, the easternmost lands of Britannia and the Channel. Regardless of the empire's plans for Deva, Londinium, the province's economic and trading centre, emerged as the capital of Britannia, reflecting a change in imperial policy from expansionism to consolidation. Deva Victrix Deva Victrix, or simply Deva, was a legionary fortress and town in the Roman province of city of Chester. The fortress was built by the Legio II \"Adiutrix\" in the AD 70s as the Roman army advanced north against the Brigantes,", "Place name origins only have little relation to the Roman names (e.g. Chester - 'Deva', Winchester - 'Venta Belgarum' etc.). Many English places derive part of their name from the river upon which they were built, but in the 16th century many English rivers were renamed with back-formations from towns on their banks. Cambridge, perhaps uniquely, illustrates both effects: originally \"Grontabricc\", a bridge on the Granta, the name became \"Cantebruge\" and then \"Cambrugge\", from which the river was renamed Cam. The vast majority of place names in Wales are Welsh by origin, containing elements such as Llan-, Aber-, Pen- etc. Along the south", "Deva Victrix south-west of the fortress is the largest known military amphitheatre in Britain. The civilian settlement remained after the Romans departed, eventually becoming the present-day city of Chester. There were peripheral settlements around Roman Deva, including Boughton, the source of the garrison's water supply, and Handbridge, the site of a sandstone quarry and the Minerva Shrine. The shrine is the only in situ, rock-cut Roman shrine in Britain. The fortress contained barracks, granaries, headquarters, military baths, and an unusual elliptical building which had it been finished may have been intended to act as the governor of Britain's headquarters. Several factors including", "Deva Victrix during the 5th and 6th centuries – approximately from 410 AD when Roman legions withdrew, to 597 AD when St. Augustine of Canterbury arrived – southern Britain preserved a sub-Roman society that was able to survive the attacks from the Anglo-Saxons and even use a vernacular Latin (called British Latin) for an active culture. There is even the possibility that this vernacular Latin lasted to the late 7th century in the area of Chester, where amphorae and archaeological remnants of a local Romano-British culture at Deva Victrix have been found. The Roman fortress of Deva was constructed from local sandstone,", "Deva Victrix until the end of Roman rule and influence in Britain. The elliptical building is one of several differences between the fortress at Chester and other Roman fortresses in the province. Deva was 20% larger, , than the fortresses of Eboracum (York) – later capital of Britannia Inferior – and Isca Augusta (Caerleon). Also, the stone curtain wall at Chester was constructed without mortar, using large sandstone blocks; this required greater skill and effort than the methods used to build the walls of Eboracum and Isca Augusta, and was usually reserved for the most important structures such as temples or city", "Deva Victrix excavations where possible; the Grosvenor Museum was opened in 1886 to allow the public to view the society's collection. The society continued to work in Chester, recording information on the fortress and its surrounding settlement, often as building works destroyed the sites. Between 1962 and 1999, about 50 excavations were carried out in and around the fortress, revealing new information about Deva Victrix. Between 2007 and 2009, excavations were carried out at the amphitheatre on behalf of Chester City Council and in association with English Heritage. A civilian settlement (\"canabae legionis\") was gradually established outside the walls of the fortress;", "Chester Chester Chester is a walled city in Cheshire, England, on the River Dee, close to the border with Wales. With a population of 118,200 in 2011, it is the most populous settlement of Cheshire West and Chester, which had a population of 332,200 in 2014. Chester was granted city status in 1541. Chester was founded as a \"castrum\" or Roman fort with the name \"Deva Victrix\" in the reign of the Emperor Vespasian in 79 AD. One of the main army camps in Roman Britain, Deva later became a major civilian settlement. In 689, King Æthelred of Mercia founded the", "Chester Comedians Sport Music Chester Chester is a walled city in Cheshire, England, on the River Dee, close to the border with Wales. With a population of 118,200 in 2011, it is the most populous settlement of Cheshire West and Chester, which had a population of 332,200 in 2014. Chester was granted city status in 1541. Chester was founded as a \"castrum\" or Roman fort with the name \"Deva Victrix\" in the reign of the Emperor Vespasian in 79 AD. One of the main army camps in Roman Britain, Deva later became a major civilian settlement. In 689, King Æthelred of" ]

[ "Deva, Romania Deva is considered the \"Gymnastics capital of Romania\" because the National gymnastics training center is located within the city. Many of the country's Olympic gymnasts have trained in Deva. Deva, Romania Deva (; Hungarian: \"Déva\", ; German: \"Diemrich\", \"Schlossberg\", \"Denburg\"; Latin: \"Sargetia\"; Turkish: \"Deve\", \"Devevar\") is a city in Romania, in the historical region of Transylvania, on the left bank of the Mureș River. It is the capital of Hunedoara County. Its name was first recorded in 1269 as castrum \"Dewa\". The origin of the name gave rise to controversy. Some thought that the name is of old Turkic origin", "Deva, Romania Deva, Romania Deva (; Hungarian: \"Déva\", ; German: \"Diemrich\", \"Schlossberg\", \"Denburg\"; Latin: \"Sargetia\"; Turkish: \"Deve\", \"Devevar\") is a city in Romania, in the historical region of Transylvania, on the left bank of the Mureș River. It is the capital of Hunedoara County. Its name was first recorded in 1269 as castrum \"Dewa\". The origin of the name gave rise to controversy. Some thought that the name is of old Turkic origin from the name Gyeücsa. Others assert that the name is probably of Slavic origin where \"Deva\" or \"Devín\" means \"girl\" or \"maiden\". (A similar case exists in Slovakian for", "Sarah Jezebel Deva Sarah Jezebel Deva Sarah Jane Ferridge (born 25 February 1977), better known by her stage name Sarah Jezebel Deva, is an English vocalist. She was the female soprano vocalist in Cradle of Filth for 14 years and also fronts her own band, Angtoria. In 2009, Deva started her self-titled solo project. The debut album \"A Sign of Sublime\" was released in February 2010. Her second album, called \"The Corruption of Mercy\", was released on 27 June 2011 under a new three album record deal with Listenable Records. Deva was raised in East Ham, London and has two half sisters and", "Deva, Gijón Deva, Gijón Deva is a parish of the municipality of Gijón, in Asturias, Spain. The toponym itself comes from an ancient pre-Roman/astur deity. Its population was 705 in 2012. Deva is a residential and rural area which borders the municipality of Villaviciosa in the east, and with the districts of Cabueñes in the north and Caldones in the south. The area is mainly made up of fields (occupied mainly by cows), belonging to adjacent farmhouses. There are also many chalets and houses, and a horseriding center. A small river passes through the area and it is common for cityfolk to", "Deva Victrix speculated on in a \"Timewatch\" investigation. Another factor pointing to Deva Victrix as a provincial capital is the presence of a port. From Deva, Ireland (Hibernia) was also accessible, a land which Agricola had plans to conquer; he even launched an expedition to Ireland, though where from is unclear. Also, the Flavian dynasty was expansionist, and Deva was closer to what would then have been the front, making administration quicker and easier. Furthermore, historian Vittorio Di Martino believes that Agricola could have chosen Deva Victrix as a possible future capital of Roman Britain because it was practically placed at the", "Sarah Jezebel Deva left the record company and joined forces with Dan Abela, a musician and producer. Together, they co-wrote \"The Corruption of Mercy\" after signing a three-album record deal with Listenable Records in March 2011. \"Purgation\" (2008) \"Virulent Rapture\" (2013) Sarah Jezebel Deva Sarah Jane Ferridge (born 25 February 1977), better known by her stage name Sarah Jezebel Deva, is an English vocalist. She was the female soprano vocalist in Cradle of Filth for 14 years and also fronts her own band, Angtoria. In 2009, Deva started her self-titled solo project. The debut album \"A Sign of Sublime\" was released in February", "Deva Victrix and \"-caster\" are common suffixes in the names of other English cities that began as Roman camps. In 88 AD, the Emperor Domitian ordered the Legio II \"Adiutrix\" to the lower Danube. The Legio XX \"Valeria Victrix\" was deployed to garrison Deva Victrix, abandoning the fort they had been building in Scotland, at Inchtuthil. On their arrival they began to rebuild Deva, first in timber and from the end of the 1st century in stone. The new stone fortress walls were thick at the base and thick at the top. Located at regular intervals, approximately apart, along the walls were", "Nirj Deva Commons, and in 1999 became the second so-born to be elected as a Conservative to the European Parliament which operates via a party list system. In November 2011 Deva became the European Conservatives and Reformists Group's candidate for President of the European Parliament, following three UN-related roles, representing the European Union, in the 2005 to 2006 period. Deva was born in Colombo, Sri Lanka, to a leading family of Rajasthani (Indian) descent, and is a Roman Catholic. He spent his Primary and secondary education at St. Joseph's College, which is a leading Catholic school in Colombo. He holds Sri Lankan", "Fortress of Deva Fortress of Deva The Fortress of Deva (, ) is a fortress located in the city of Deva, Hunedoara County, Romania, on top of a volcanic hill. The fortress is located atop a volcano in the Poiana Ruscă Mountain Range within the Western Carpathian Mountains of Romania. From the foot of the hill, the city of Deva spreads out, beginning with \"Magna Curia\" and the public park. Nearby are the lower funicular station, which tourists use to reach the fortress, and most of the buildings of the administrative institutions of the city: the Court House, the Prefecture, the County Hall,", "Deva Victrix heavy losses in Gaul before returning to Britain. Following attacks against barbarians in the early 3rd century under Septimius Severus, the fortress at Deva was again rebuilt, this time using an estimated of stone. Although both Gildas and Bede located the early 4th-century Roman martyrs, Julius and Aaron, in the \"City of the Legions\", generally identified as being Isca Augusta (Caerleon) rather than Deva. During the 4th century the size of the legion, and therefore of the garrison, may have diminished in line with the rest of the empire's forces. Most of the fortress' major buildings were still being maintained", "Deva (Hinduism) the cognates of \"Devi\" are Latin \"dea\" and Greek \"thea\". When capitalized, \"Devi\" or \"Mata\" refers to goddess as divine mother in Hinduism. \"Deva\" is also referred to as \"Devatā\", while \"Devi\" as \"Devika\". The word \"Deva\" is also a proper name or part of name in Indian culture, where it refers to \"one who wishes to excel, overcome\" or the \"seeker of, master of or a best among\". The Samhitas, which are the oldest layer of text in Vedas enumerate 33 devas, either 11 each for the three worlds, or as 12 Adityas, 11 Rudras, 8 Vasus and 2", "The Deva Spark The Deva Spark The Deva Spark is an adventure module for the 2nd edition of the \"Advanced Dungeons & Dragons\" fantasy role-playing game. \"The Deva Spark\" is a 32-page scenario for the Planescape setting. \"The Deva Spark\" was written by Bill Slavicsek and J.M. Salsbury, and published by TSR, Inc. Rick Swan reviewed \"The Deva Spark\" for \"Dragon\" magazine #218 (June 1995). He commented that: \"Nothing aggravates me more than an RPG adventure with a flabby climax; after slogging through a book's worth of fight scenes and dungeon crawls, I want to be dazzled. So bravo to \"The Deva Spark\"\".", "Deva Raya Deva Raya Deva Raya I (reigned 1406–1422 CE) was a king of the Vijayanagara Empire (of the Sangama Dynasty). After Harihara II died there was a dispute between his sons over the throne in which Deva Raya I eventually emerged victor. He was a very capable ruler noted for his military exploits and his support to irrigation works in his kingdom. He modernized the Vijayanagara army by improving the cavalry, employing Turkic archers, procuring horses from Arabia and Persia. Of Deva Raya I, the Italian traveler Nicolo Conti, who visited Vijayanagara in c.1420, described thus: \"In this city, there are", "The Deva Spark Swan concluded by saying: \"The final chapter is a knock-out, a sensational blend of surreal characters and obstacles, building to a climax of surprising impact. The rest of the trip's nothing to sneeze at either\". The Deva Spark The Deva Spark is an adventure module for the 2nd edition of the \"Advanced Dungeons & Dragons\" fantasy role-playing game. \"The Deva Spark\" is a 32-page scenario for the Planescape setting. \"The Deva Spark\" was written by Bill Slavicsek and J.M. Salsbury, and published by TSR, Inc. Rick Swan reviewed \"The Deva Spark\" for \"Dragon\" magazine #218 (June 1995). He commented that:", "Deva, Romania the city's existence first appeared in 1269 when Stephen V, King of Hungary and Duke of Transilvania, mentioned \"the royal castle of Deva\" in a privilege-grant for the Count Chyl of Kelling (). Under Voivod John Hunyadi, Deva became an important military and administrative centre. Partially destroyed by the Ottoman Turks in 1550, it was afterward rebuilt and the fortress extended. In 1621 Prince Gabriel Bethlen transformed and extended the Magna Curia Palace (also known as the Bethlen Castle) in Renaissance style. In 1711–1712, Deva was settled by a group of Roman Catholic Bulgarian merchant colonists, refugees from the unsuccessful", "Ramachandra Deva Ramachandra Deva Ramachandra Deva (Ramachandrayya Deva) was a Kannada poet, writer and playwright who wrote many dramas. He translated William Shakespeare's \"Hamlet\" and Macbeth to Kannada in the 1970s. Born in Mundugari village of Sullia taluk in 1949, Ramachandra Deva did his schooling in Kalmadka, Balila, Panja and Puttur and BA and MA from Mysore university. Bangalore university has awarded him Ph.D for his comparative analysis of Shakespeare translations. Worked as English lecturer in Milagres college Kalyanapura, Banumaiah college, Mysore and national college Bangalore. Served as librarian for the American library of congress. Went on to work as sub editor", "Deva dynasty (Saketa) Mitradeva as a Deva king, Hans T. Bakker provides the following list of Deva kings: Deva dynasty (Saketa) The Deva dynasty of Saketa, was a dynasty of kings who ruled in the area of the city of Ayodhya, Kosala, in India from the 2nd century BCE until the end of 1st century BCE. Five Deva kings are attested by their coins: Mula-deva, Vayu-deva, Vishakha-deva, Patha-deva, and Dhana-deva. Another king - Phalgudeva - is attested by the 1st century BCE Ayodhya inscription of his son Dhanadeva. After the decline of the Maurya empire, Saketa (modern Ayodhya) appears to have come under", "Deva dynasty (Saketa) the Deva kings rebelled against their Shunga overlords. However, several kings, whose names ended in -deva, ruled various parts of India, so this identification is not certain. Moreover, some manuscripts of \"Harshacharita\" mention the king's name as Muladeva. The Deva dynasty was replaced by the Datta dynasty at the end of the 1st century BCE, which itself was replaced by the Mitra dynasty in the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, which also ruled in Mathura. It is thought that the Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps ultimately replaced these local kings, until the advent of the Kushan Empire. Based on the identification of", "Deva, Romania and the academic centres of Timișoara and Cluj-Napoca have opened branches in the city. Deva is also the home of Romania's national women gymnastics training center called Colegiul National Sportiv \"Cetatea\" Deva . Here is a list of the high schools from Deva: Deva has a humid continental climate Deva is dominated by the Citadel Hill, a protected nature reserve because of its rare floral species and the presence of the horned adder. Perched on the top of the hill are the ruins of the Citadel built in the 13th century. Tourists can visit the Citadel by climbing the hill", "Deva Victrix which was quarried across the river to the south of the fortress. Traces of the quarry are visible in Handbridge. In the 2nd century, a shrine to the Roman goddess Minerva was carved in the quarry for protection, perhaps by the quarry workers. Despite heavy weathering, the figure can be seen holding a spear and a shield with an owl above the left shoulder to symbolise wisdom. There is also a carving of an altar where offerings were left. The only rock-cut Roman shrine still in situ in Britain, the Minerva shrine is a Grade I listed building. Deva Victrix", "Nirj Deva and British citizenship, and speaks Sinhalese and English. Deva was educated at Loughborough University, where he completed a degree in Aeronautical Engineering and was subsequently a Postgraduate Research Fellow in Economics. Deva stood as the Conservative Party candidate in Hammersmith at the 1987 general election but lost by 2,415 votes to sitting Labour MP Clive Soley. At the 1992 general election, Deva was elected to the House of Commons as MP for the London constituency of Brentford and Isleworth with a majority of 2,086. During his time in Parliament, Deva served as a Parliamentary Private Secretary (PPS) at the Scottish", "Deva (Buddhism) to fly through the air, and shining by their own light. Over time they began to eat solid foods, their bodies became coarser and their powers disappeared. There is also a humanistic definition of 'deva' [male] and 'devi' [female] ascribed to Gotama Buddha: a god is a moral person. This is comparable to another definition, i.e. that 'hell' is a name for painful emotions. Devas are invisible to the human eye. The presence of a deva can be detected by those humans who have opened the \"Divine eye\" (), (Pāli: dibbacakkhu), (Chinese: 天眼) an extrasensory power by which one can", "Fortress of Deva was rewarded for his victory by Ladislaus IV, King of Hungary. In his letter, Ladislaus IV mentioned the facts with the words: \"sub castro Dewa contra Cumanorum exercitur viriliter dimicavit\". At the end of the 13th century, the Deva Fortress was in the property of Ladislaus Kán, Voivode of Transylvania, who organized a court besides the military garrison. The Fortress of Deva is central to the Hungarian folk tale \"The Wife of Clement, the Mason.\" Fortress of Deva The Fortress of Deva (, ) is a fortress located in the city of Deva, Hunedoara County, Romania, on top of a", "Deva dynasty (Saketa) Deva dynasty (Saketa) The Deva dynasty of Saketa, was a dynasty of kings who ruled in the area of the city of Ayodhya, Kosala, in India from the 2nd century BCE until the end of 1st century BCE. Five Deva kings are attested by their coins: Mula-deva, Vayu-deva, Vishakha-deva, Patha-deva, and Dhana-deva. Another king - Phalgudeva - is attested by the 1st century BCE Ayodhya inscription of his son Dhanadeva. After the decline of the Maurya empire, Saketa (modern Ayodhya) appears to have come under the rule of the Shunga ruler Pushyamitra. One interpretation of Dhanadeva's inscription suggests that Pushyamitra", "Prabhu Deva he handles the dramatic scenes well too\" for his performance in \"ABCD\". Deva also portrayed a supporting role in Santosh Sivan's Malayalam historical drama film \"Urumi\" (2011), featuring in an ensemble cast including Prithviraj, Arya and Genelia D'Souza. The film opened to critical acclaim, while Deva was highly appreciated for his performance with a critic from The Hindu noting: Deva \"excels with his standout comic repartee\". Prabhu Deva married Ramlath, who changed her name to Latha. They had three children, but their eldest son died of cancer in 2008. In 2010, his wife filed a petition at the family court,", "Deva, Gijón come to Deva at the weekends to enjoy the fresh air and the many bars and \"merenderos\". The highest peak is \"Monte Deva\" (423 m). There is a small natural park surrounding the peak, where roe deer, wild boar and many species of bird can be found. There is also an astronomical observatory, and great views of the city of Gijon. The parish of Deva celebrates a traditional Fiesta every year in honour of their patron saint, San Salvador. Deva's vibrant community spirit is highlighted during these festivities, where elders and youths mingle, eating lamb and drinking cider. Deva, Gijón", "Lyndsay (name) Lyndsay (name) Lyndsay is a popular first name in many English-speaking countries, particularly Scotland. It can be either a feminine or a masculine name. It is a variation of many other types of spellings of the name Lyndsay, including the more well-known spelling Lindsay, as well as \"Linsey\", \"Lynsey\" and \"Lyndsy\". The old Roman name for the city of Lincoln was Lindum Colonia, a name which harked back to the older Celtic name of \"Lindon\" which meant \"the pool\". Thus the etymology of the name is inextricably linked with the city of Lincoln in the UK. It is widely thought", "Kapilendra Deva Kapilendra Deva Kapilendra Deva (Odia: କପିଲେନ୍ଦ୍ର ଦେବ) (r. 1434-1466 AD) was the founder of the Gajapati dynasty that ruled parts of eastern and southern India, including present-day Odisha as the center of his empire. He had staged a military coup against the preceding and the last Eastern Ganga dynasty ruler Bhanu Deva IV and overtook the throne as the king was weak and had lost territories to the south. His name is also written as Kapilendra Routray or Sri Sri Kapilendra Deva. In claiming descent from the S\"urya Vamsha\" (Sun dynasty) of the Mahabharata, he also took the title \"shri", "Deva House Deva House Deva House is a 1926 commercial building in Melbourne, Australia designed by Harry Norris, one of the most prolific architects in the city during the period from 1920 to 1930, and noted for his Art Deco buildings, incorporating both emerging Australian and American architectural styles. Deva House is a 10-storey building located at 327-9 Bourke Street, CBD. It was designed by Harry Norris in 1925 (some sources say 1924), and completed in 1926, for his client George (G.J.) Coles, founder of the Coles Group retail empire. Norris designed it during the same period, and in a similar style,", "Deva House of its original design. The interior of Deva House from the second floor up has been entirely gutted and rebuilt as a hotel, while both the ground floor facade and interior have been stripped out in their entirety and rebuilt in the contemporary high-street style and now house shops. The building is listed on the RAIA Victoria 20th Century Buildings Register. Deva House Deva House is a 1926 commercial building in Melbourne, Australia designed by Harry Norris, one of the most prolific architects in the city during the period from 1920 to 1930, and noted for his Art Deco buildings,", "Name of Quebec City as a nation within the country of Canada, and has no indication of sovereignty. Name of Quebec City The proper name of Quebec City is Québec (with an acute accent), in both official languages of Canada (Canadian English and Canadian French alike). This name is used by both the federal and provincial governments. The acute accent differentiates between the official English name of the city, Québec, and the constitutional English name of the Province of Quebec, spelled without any diacritics. In unofficial English texts, the accent is often dropped and Québec is informally referred to as \"Quebec City\". In French,", "Name of Quebec City Name of Quebec City The proper name of Quebec City is Québec (with an acute accent), in both official languages of Canada (Canadian English and Canadian French alike). This name is used by both the federal and provincial governments. The acute accent differentiates between the official English name of the city, Québec, and the constitutional English name of the Province of Quebec, spelled without any diacritics. In unofficial English texts, the accent is often dropped and Québec is informally referred to as \"Quebec City\". In French, names of geographical regions such as provinces and countries are typically preceded by articles", "Ramai Deva very handsome man with a miraculous physical strength. He offered his devotion to the deities Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesha, Surya and Durga and patronized them. He built the Patneswari temple for the goddess with the same name who was the presiding deity of the kingdom. He also build a Shiva temple known as Kosaleswara Mahadeva. The priests of these temples still enjoy the five small villages granted to their forefathers by Ramai Deva for carrying out their ritual duties. The villages are Deulgan, Kalangapali, Diadumer, Uchvali and Ghunghutipali. A descendant of Ramai Deva called Balarama Deva established the Chauhan rule at", "Narasingha Deva I long robe looked like a tail and hence the king came to be known as Langula Narasimha Deva who ruled for 27 years. Besides this accurate historical evidence in sync with the Konark sun temple's multiple stone panel depictions of the king , there is no other existing evidence that support any of the other interpretations about the term 'Langula' as the name of the Narasingha Deva I. Narasingha Deva I is glorified in multiple phrases and sections of literary works by some of the eminent poets of his time besides being eulogized in the inscriptions of Kendupatna, Asankhali, Kenduli,", "Deva, Romania Deva is situated in the central part of Hunedoara County, on the left bank of the middle course of the Mureș River at 187 m above sea level. The city administers four villages: Archia (\"Árki\"), Bârcea Mică (\"Kisbarcsa\"), Cristur (\"Csernakeresztúr\") and Sântuhalm (\"Szántóhalma\"). According to the last census, from 2011, there were 56,647 people living within the city of Deva, making it the 37th largest city in Romania. The ethnic makeup is as follows: Automotive, commerce, construction materials and power industries are important to Deva's economy. A private University of Ecology and Tourism was established in the city in 1990,", "Deva Victrix walls rather than town walls. The presence of unusual buildings at the heart of the fortress – accounting for the by which Deva was larger than other fortresses – has been taken as evidence that their construction was specifically ordered by the provincial governor. The governor (\"Legatus Augusti pro praetore\") when construction first started was Gnaeus Julius Agricola. Lead piping found in the elliptical building bears his name, the only evidence in Britain of a building under his direct control. These differences suggest that Deva may have been Agricola’s administrative headquarters – in effect the capital of Britannia. This was", "Ramai Deva the late nineteenth century. Besides these Prabodha Chandrika written in the fifteenth century by the Raja Vaijala Deva of Patna state who is a Chauhan descendant of Ramai Deva himself also corroborates facts about him. According to the details placed in all the contemporary literary accounts, Ramai Deva was born to one of the queens of Hutumbur Sing alias Hambir Dev or also associated with the name Vishala Dev. His father was the last line of Chauhan rulers directly descended from Prithiviraj Chauhan ruling in the Garh Sambhor region near Mainpuri in today’s Uttar Pradesh state. His pregnant queen named", "Deva Victrix card' shape – rectangular with rounded corners – and had four gates: north, east, south and west. It covered , making it the largest constructed in Britain during the 70s. An estimated of timber was used in the first phase of the fortress' construction; buildings outside but associated with the fortress, such as the harbour and the amphitheatre, would have required an additional . The fortress contained barracks, granaries (\"horrea\"), headquarters (\"principia\"), and baths (\"thermae\"). The barrack blocks each measured and were built using wattle and daub. The name Deva Victrix derives from 'goddess', and the Roman fortress was named", "Nirj Deva his constituents on the future of the EU (www.southeastsurvey.eu). Whilst an MP Deva served as a consultant for tobacco manufacturer Rothmans, builders Laing and power station equipment manufacturer KHD. Following the cash-for-questions affair Deva was amongst a number of MPs who were investigated by an official inquiry led by Gordon Downey. The inquiry found that Deva had no case to answer. Deva used an official European Parliament trip to Barbados in 2009 to promote Symphony Environmental Technologies, a company from which he received £33,000 a year for being its chairman. Deva lobbies extensively for the Sri Lankan government and founded", "Deva (Hinduism) originally an adjective meaning \"celestial\" or \"shining\", which is a (not synchronic Sanskrit) vrddhi derivative from the root \"*diw\" meaning \"to shine\", especially as the day-lit sky. The feminine form of \"*deiwos\" is \"*deiwih\", which descends into Indic languages as \"devi\", in that context meaning \"female deity\". Also deriving from \"*deiwos\", and thus cognates of \"deva\", are Lithuanian Dievas (Latvian Dievs, Prussian Deiwas), Germanic Tiwaz (seen in English \"\"Tue\"sday\") and the related Old Norse Tivar (gods), and Latin \"deus\" \"god\" and \"divus\" \"divine\", from which the English words \"divine\", \"deity\", French \"dieu\", Portuguese \"deus\", Spanish \"dios\" and Italian \"dio\", also", "Sri Deva Sri Deva Sri Deva was a king of Srivijaya Kingdom of Sailendra dynasty, who in 1028 CE sent an envoy to China. In the chronicle History of Song (\"Sòng Shǐ\"), his name was recorded as \"Shih-li Tieh-hua\", which may not to be his complete title. He ruled shortly after Srivijaya's various territories were attacked by King Rajendra I of the Chola dynasty in 1025 CE, in which King Sangramavijayottunggawarman of Srivijaya was defeated and captured by his opponent. Chola attack was not accompanied by the occupation of the Srivijaya territories. After the attack, Srivijaya's power in Sumatra seemed to be", "Achyuta Deva Raya 1540 Aliya Rama Raya imprisoned Achyuta Deva Raya in a coup. In 1542 Achyuta Deva Raya died, and was succeeded by his young son of Venkata I(Venkata Raya or Venkatadri Raya). But he was soon killed, and Sadasiva Raya became the new king. Aliya Rama Raya became the regent and let very little governance in the hands of Sadasiva Raya. The Tiruvengalanatha Temple was built at Vijayanagara during his reign. It has become popularly known by his name as Achyutaraya Temple, rather than by the name of the deity Lord Venkateshwara to whom the temple was dedicated. Achyuta Deva Raya", "Nirj Deva which he holds for life. He is a Fellow of Britain's Royal Society of Arts, President of the EU-India Chamber of Commerce, and a Patron of the International Monarchist League. Deva has backed many important education and health issues – he is a staunch supporter of the Autism Awareness Campaign UK and in Sri Lanka. In 2006 Deva tried to become a candidate for the post of Secretary-General of the United Nations. Deva claimed to have received the recommendation of Fijian Foreign Minister Kaliopate Tavola, a claim refuted by Fiji. He tried unsuccessfully to receive the endorsement of Sri Lankan", "CNS Cetate Deva of Liga I and Liga II former players and with the objective of promoting to Liga II. After a disastrous start Ciprian Pepenar was sacked and former Oțelul Galați player and coach Viorel Tănase was hired. Also in the last rounds of the first part Ousmane N'Doye signed with the club, which began to climb in the league table. Cetate Deva plays its home matches on the Cetate Stadium which also was used by Mureșul Deva, the stadium has a total capacity of 4.000 seats. CNS Cetate Deva CNS Cetate Deva is a Romanian professional football club from Deva, Hunedoara", "Balarama Deva was defeated by him. During Balarama Deva the new state was secured with eighteen forts also popularly known as Atharagarh and one of the main fort itself was the Bargarh fort which was initially built or restored by Balarama Deva as center of his power. There were also thirteen divisions in his new state. After the death of his brother Narasimha Deva and again the death of the new successor Hamira Deva in a short span of three years, Balarama Deva sent his son Hridayanarayana Deva to rule the parent state of Patna. However, the widowed queen and the ministers", "Chester Roman Amphitheatre which are themselves listed. The amphitheatre is the largest so far uncovered in Britain, and dates from the 1st century, when the Roman fort of Deva Victrix was founded. It is a peculiarly English myth that the amphitheatre would have been primarily for military training and drill; all the evidence recovered from excavation shows that it was used for cock fighting, bull baiting and combat sports, including classical boxing, wrestling and, probably most importantly, gladiatorial combat. The poet Oppian wrote that the Romans inherited the Greek passion for the cockfight, which was held \"on anniversaries . . . as a", "Narasingha Deva I of Bengal and may have even crossed into Bengal chasing the invaders on backfoot. He also built the Konark temple to commemorate his victories over the Muslims besides multiple temples as architectural marvels along with the largest fort complex of Eastern India at Raibania in Balasore. The Kendupatana plates of his grandson Narasingha Deva II mention that Sitadevi, the queen of Narasingha Deva I was the daughter of the Paramara king of Malwa. The term Langula has been confused for many abrupt derivations about the name of Narasingha Deva I as many interpreters have compared the word with the Odia", "Bhand Deva Temple Bhand Deva Temple The main Bhand Deva Temple is situated on the banks of a pond in the centre of the 4 km wide Ramgarh crater about 40 km from the city of Baran, Rajasthan, which was possibly created by a meteor. It is located near Ramgarh village, Mangrol, Baran district of Eastern Rajasthan. Coordinates: 25°20'0\"N 76°37'27\"E The main Shiva temple was constructed in the style of Khajuraho Group of Monuments and is known as ‘Little Khajuraho.’ Up a flight of more than 750 stairs are two related temples located in a cave on Ramgarh Hill and dedicated to the", "Deva (Dungeons & Dragons) Deva (Dungeons & Dragons) In the \"Dungeons & Dragons\" fantasy role-playing game, the deva is a type of angel. The astral deva, the monadic deva, and the movanic deva first appeared in \"Dragon\" #63 (July 1982), and were reprinted in the first edition \"Monster Manual II\" (1983). The astral deva, the monadic deva, and the movanic deva appeared in second edition under the \"aasimon\" heading in the \"Monstrous Compendium Volume Outer Planes Appendix\" (1991), and appeared for the Planescape setting in the first \"Planescape Monstrous Compendium Appendix\" (1994). The astral deva appeared in the third edition under the \"celestial\" heading", "Kapilendra Deva with the help of his minister Joginath Mahapatra after which only he initiated his aggressive military campaigns of the Southern and Deccan parts of India. From the documents of Gangadasa Bilasa Charitam it is known that Kapilendra Deva ordered Hamvira Deva to conquer Vijayanagar and Bahmani sultanate. Hamvira Deva successfully captured the Vijaynagar capital, Hampi and forced the weak ruler Malikarjuna Raya to pay yearly taxes. Hamvira Deva's commander Tamavupala conquered the southern states of Udayagiri (Nellore district) and Chandragiri in the year 1460 A.D.. The inscriptions of Srirangam temple near Trichinapalli dictate that Hamvira Deva captured as far as", "Coat of arms of Deva, Romania 790/27 septembrie 1999\") and became legal on 12 October 1999, when the government act was published in The Official Bulletin of Romania (\"Monitorul Oficial al României, Partea I, nr. 490/12 octombrie 1999\"). The description of the Coat of Arms of Deva became part of The City's Statute (\"statutul municipiului Deva\") that was sanctioned by The 197th Local Council Act from 29 May 2003. Coat of arms of Deva, Romania The Coat of Arms of Deva is, since 1999, the coat of arms used by The City Government of Deva, Romania (The Local Council of Deva, The Mayor of Deva). The", "Nomen (Roman name) Nomen (Roman name) The nomen gentilicium, or \"gentile name\", designated a Roman citizen as a member of a gens. A gens, which may be translated as \"race\", \"family\", or \"clan\", constituted an extended Roman family, all of whom shared the same nomen, and claimed descent from a common ancestor. Particularly in the early Republic, the gens functioned as a state within the state, observing its own sacred rites, and establishing private laws, which were binding on its members, although not on the community as a whole. Although the other peoples of Italy also possessed nomina, the distinction between Romans and", "Insula (Roman city) forum around which the most important public buildings would be sited. Insula (Roman city) An insula (Latin for \"island\") is a city block in an ancient Roman city plan, i.e. one that is surrounded by four streets. The term was also used for apartment buildings that took up an entire city block. A standard Roman city plan was based on a grid of orthogonal streets and was probably founded on the ancient Greek model of Hippodamus and was used when new cities were established, e.g. in Roman coloniae. The main streets of each city would be the Decumanus Maximus (east–west-oriented)", "Insula (Roman city) Insula (Roman city) An insula (Latin for \"island\") is a city block in an ancient Roman city plan, i.e. one that is surrounded by four streets. The term was also used for apartment buildings that took up an entire city block. A standard Roman city plan was based on a grid of orthogonal streets and was probably founded on the ancient Greek model of Hippodamus and was used when new cities were established, e.g. in Roman coloniae. The main streets of each city would be the Decumanus Maximus (east–west-oriented) and Cardo Maximus (north–south) which intersected at, or close to, the", "Pitambar Deva Goswami Pitambar Deva Goswami Pitambar Deva Goswami (10 June 1885 – 20 October 1962) was a spiritual leader and social reformer in the Indian state of Assam. At age six, he was accepted into the monastic order of the Garamur Satra. Goswami was schooled in Sanskrit by Nityanandadeva Bhagawati Vidyavagish in the satra. When he was 21, he was appointed Satradhikar (head priest) of the Garamur Satra after the death of Jogachandra Deva Satradhikar Goswami. In addition to studying Sanskrit grammar, literature, philosophy, religion and theology, Goswami taught himself English and modern Assamese literature. He learned Ayurveda, took lessons in vocal", "Coat of arms of Deva, Romania Coat of arms of Deva, Romania The Coat of Arms of Deva is, since 1999, the coat of arms used by The City Government of Deva, Romania (The Local Council of Deva, The Mayor of Deva). The \"Coat of Arms of Deva\", composed by the shield and the coronet (the mural crown), was modelled after the coat of arms in use during the interbelic period. The heraldic blazon of Deva's coat of arms is: Party per fess. The chief Gules, a rider mounted, vested in ancient costume, and sustaining a Dacian ensign, a snake with wolf head, all Or. The", "Purushottama Deva The Madala Panji temple records of Jagannath Temple at Puri state that Purushottama Deva made a donation of 2000 Kahanas of cowries to the temple which shows his devotion to lord Jagannath. Purushottama Deva Bira Pratapa Purushottama Deva (Odia: ବୀର ପ୍ରତାପ ପୁରୁଷୋତ୍ତମ ଦେବ) was an Odia Gajapati emperor of Odisha who ruled from 1467 to 1497 C.E. He was the second ruler from the Gajapati dynasty. His father Gajapati Kapilendra Deva Routaraya chose him as his heir to rule Odishan Empire at the banks of river Krishna where he breathed his last. This decision infuriated the elder brother Hamvira Deva", "Deva (Hinduism) devas. In Silapathikaram one of the five epics of Tamil by Ilango Adigal saying the offering for Four kind of devas. Deva (Hinduism) Deva (; Sanskrit: , ) means \"heavenly, divine, anything of excellence\", and is also one of the terms for a deity in Hinduism. Deva is a masculine term; the feminine equivalent is Devi. In the earliest Vedic literature, all supernatural beings are called Devas and Asuras. The concepts and legends evolve in ancient Indian literature, and by the late Vedic period, benevolent supernatural beings are referred to as \"Deva-Asuras\". In post-Vedic texts, such as the Puranas and", "Fortress of Deva the Finance Administration, the old police headquarters, the City Hall and two of the oldest schools in Deva: the \"Decebal National College\" and the \"Pedagogic Lyceum\". The first evidence of the medieval Deva Fortress dates back to the second half of the 13th century; in 1269, Stephen V, King of Hungary and Duke of Transylvania, mentioned \"the royal castle of Deva\" in a privilege-grant for the Count Chyl of Kelling (). The first records regarding a military operation involving the fortress dates from 1273. Under its walls, the Cumans were defeated by Peter I Csák, Palatine of Hungary (), who", "Sriranga Deva Raya Sriranga Deva Raya Sriranga Deva Raya (a.k.a. Sriranga I) (r. 1572–1586 CE) was the eldest son of Tirumala Deva Raya and a king of Vijayanagara empire based at Penukonda. He carried the restoration of the Vijayanagara empire, but his reign was marred with repeated attacks and loss of territories from his Muslim neighbours. In 1576, the Bijapur Sultan Ali Adil Shah I laid siege to his fort in Penukonda for three months, but at the end Sriranga Deva bought out the Adil Shah’s Hindu lieutenants which helped his commanders defeat the Sultan’s army at that time. Sriranga Deva Raya died", "Nirj Deva President Mahinda Rajapaksa. The British government also refused to support Deva. With so little support Deva didn't go forward as an official candidate. Since 2008 Deva has served as the President of the International Committee on Human Dignity for the Rome-based Dignitatis Humanae Institute, and is also the Vice-President of the European Parliament's Working Group on Human Dignity since its launch in 2009. Deva is married to Indra – a French-speaking Mauritian. Indra has worked as Deva's personal assistant since he was elected an MP in 1992. As of 2009 Indra was earning a salary of £30,000-£39,999 for working as", "Deva (Hinduism) Deva (Hinduism) Deva (; Sanskrit: , ) means \"heavenly, divine, anything of excellence\", and is also one of the terms for a deity in Hinduism. Deva is a masculine term; the feminine equivalent is Devi. In the earliest Vedic literature, all supernatural beings are called Devas and Asuras. The concepts and legends evolve in ancient Indian literature, and by the late Vedic period, benevolent supernatural beings are referred to as \"Deva-Asuras\". In post-Vedic texts, such as the Puranas and the Itihasas of Hinduism, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad. In some medieval Indian literature, \"Devas\" are", "Deva Mahal Deva Mahal Deva Mahal (pronounced 'diva') is a soul and R&B singer living in New York. Mahal is the daughter of US-American blues musician Taj Mahal. Deva joined father Taj Mahal in Michael Dorf's tribute to Aretha Franklin at New York's Carnegie Hall, March 6, 2017. They performed \"Chain of Fools\". Other artists that performed included Todd Rundgren and Sarah Dash. One year later, Mahal returned to Carnegie Hall for Dorf's next tribute night, \"The Music of Led Zeppelin\". She was joined by Dap-Kings guitarist Binky Griptite on \"Your Time Is Gonna Come\". Deva Mahal was born in Hawaii to", "Nomen (Roman name) the west. The last datable example of a \"nomen gentilicium\" belongs to a Julia Rogatiana, who died at Volubilis in AD 655; in the east nomina such as \"Flavius\" continued until the beginning of the eighth century; Flavius Basilius was Pagarch of Aphrodito in Egypt in 710. Nomen (Roman name) The nomen gentilicium, or \"gentile name\", designated a Roman citizen as a member of a gens. A gens, which may be translated as \"race\", \"family\", or \"clan\", constituted an extended Roman family, all of whom shared the same nomen, and claimed descent from a common ancestor. Particularly in the early", "Deva (Dungeons & Dragons) in the third edition \"Monster Manual\" (2000). \"Savage Species\" (2003) presented the astral deva celestial as both a race and a playable class. The monadic deva and the movanic deva appeared under the \"deva\" entry in the third edition \"Fiend Folio\" (2003). The astral deva appeared under the \"angel\" heading in the revised 3.5 edition \"Monster Manual\" (2003). The astral deva is a patron of planar travelers and powerful creatures undertaking good causes. The monadic deva is a stoic watcher of the Ethereal Plane and the Elemental Planes. The movanic deva is one of the celestial infantry serving the Positive", "Deva Bandhumasena Songsuradej died on 1 June 1973 at his home in Surin Province by the age of 80. Deva Bandhumasena Phraya Songsuradej () (12 August 1891 – 1 June 1973, common name Deva Bandhumasena) was a Thai military officer and member of Khana Ratsadon. As a cadet he studied military science in Imperial Germany, and was a leading member of the senior army officers responsible for the Siamese coup d'état of 1932. After the revolution of 1932 he has conflicts with Plaek Phibunsongkhram in many serious matters so all these conflicts became the allegations in the subsequent of Songsuradet rebellion. He", "Deva Bandhumasena Deva Bandhumasena Phraya Songsuradej () (12 August 1891 – 1 June 1973, common name Deva Bandhumasena) was a Thai military officer and member of Khana Ratsadon. As a cadet he studied military science in Imperial Germany, and was a leading member of the senior army officers responsible for the Siamese coup d'état of 1932. After the revolution of 1932 he has conflicts with Plaek Phibunsongkhram in many serious matters so all these conflicts became the allegations in the subsequent of Songsuradet rebellion. He was exiled to Indochina in January 1939 following a rift with the Prime Minister Plaek Phibunsongkhram. Phraya", "Deva Raya his rule. One of Deva Raya's queens Bhima Devi was a disciple of the Jain guru Abhinava Charukirti Panditacharya. She was a devotee of Shantinatha, 16th Jain \"tirthankara\" and built a temple at the Mangayi Basti in Shravanabelagola. The credit for making the capital city of the Vijayanagara Empire one of the biggest cities in the 15th century goes to Deva Raya I. He realized that the scarcity of water supply, both for drinking and for irrigation, was restricting the growth of the royal capital. In c.1410 he had a barrage constructed across the Tungabhadra river and commissioned a 24", "Prabhu Deva fun\", while others worried that their culture was being mocked. The music video was featured on \"The Colbert Report\" on 4 December 2008 and appeared on the heavy metal documentary \"Global Metal\". Deva established the production company Prabhu Deva Studios. Prabhu Deva Prabhu Deva (born 3 April 1973) is an Indian dance choreographer, film director, producer and actor, who has worked in Tamil, Telugu, Hindi, Malayalam and Kannada films. In a career spanning 25 years, he has performed and designed a wide range of dancing styles and has garnered two National Film Awards for Best Choreography. He is often referred", "Deva (composer) than 400 films. Deva was born to M. C. Chokkalingam and M. C. Krishnaveni. Even in his childhood, Deva was attracted to the world of music. Teaming up with Chandra Bose, he staged many musical programmes. He started learning classical music under Dhanraj and has completed a course in Western music at Trinity College of Music in London. His son Srikanth Deva is also a music director, as are his brothers, who have formed the duo Sabesh-Murali. His nephew Jai is an actor. Before coming to cinema, Deva worked for some time in the television field. In those days, Deva's", "Purushottama Deva that when, under divine guidance, Kapilendra Deva announced that he was naming Purushottama as heir apparent, the eighteen older sons in anger threw spears at Purushottama, all of which missed. Purrushotama Deva is also the lead character of the legend of Kanchi Kaveri Upakhyana (poem) written by the poet Purushottam Das in sixteenth century and later translated to Bengali by the Bengali poet Rangalal Bandyopadhyay. This legend is also popular among the Hindu devotees of the Jagannath worship tradition of Odisha. A jealous Hamvira Deva revolted against Purrushotama as he ascended the throne of the empire. Purrushotama had a militarily", "Deva dynasty an alliance with Ghiyas-ud-Din Balban in 1281. His brother Bikramaditya Deva later moved to the eastern side of the kingdom in 1294. This is the last recorded history of this dynasty. Deva dynasty Deva Dynasty (c. 12th – 13th centuries) was a Hindu dynasty which originated in the Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent; the dynasty ruled over eastern Bengal after the Sena dynasty. The capital of the dynasty was Bikrampur in present-day Munshiganj District of Bangladesh. This Hindu Vaishnava dynasty is different from an earlier Buddhist Dabnyawatti dynasty (c. 8th-9th centuries) of Samatata, whose capital was Danyawatti. Four rulers", "English name or hyphens, for example Henry Hepburne-Scott, with some families having as many as three or four words making up their surname, such as Charles Hepburn-Stuart-Forbes-Trefusis, 21st Baron Clinton and Alexander Charles Robert Vane-Tempest-Stewart, 9th Marquess of Londonderry. However, it is not unusual for compound surnames to be composed of separate words not linked by a hyphen, for example Iain Duncan Smith, a former leader of the Conservative Party, whose surname is \"Duncan Smith\". English name English names are names used in, or originating in, England. In England as elsewhere in the English-speaking world, a complete name usually consists of a", "Papal name Italian (the language of the Vatican), Papa Francisco in his native Spanish, and Pope Francis in English. The official style of the Catholic Pope in English is His Holiness Pope [papal name]. Holy Father is another honorific often used for popes. The full title, rarely used, of the Catholic Pope in English is: His Holiness [papal name], Bishop of Rome, Vicar of Jesus Christ, Successor of the Prince of the Apostles, Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church, Primate of Italy, Archbishop and Metropolitan of the Roman Province, Sovereign of the Vatican City State, Servant of the servants of God. The", "Deva (Dungeons & Dragons) Energy Plane, the Negative Energy Plane, and the Material Plane. The monadic deva and the movanic deva appeared under the \"celestial\" heading in the \"Tome of Horrors\" (2002) from Necromancer Games. The astral deva appeared under the \"angel\" entry in Paizo Publishing's book \"Pathfinder Roleplaying Game Bestiary\" (2009), on page 10. The monadic deva and the movanic deva appeared under the \"angel\" entry in \"Pathfinder Roleplaying Game Bestiary 2\" (2010), on page 27-28. Deva (Dungeons & Dragons) In the \"Dungeons & Dragons\" fantasy role-playing game, the deva is a type of angel. The astral deva, the monadic deva, and the", "Narasingha Deva I Mameluk authority. There is no record of any direct Muslim invasion of Odishan territory for at least the next hundred years which was due to the result of the aggressive military expeditions over Bengal by Narasingha Deva I during his rule. The Kakatiya and Odisha conflict was prominent from the times of Narasingha Deva's father Ananga Bhima Deva III. The major territorial disputes were for the areas adjoining the Godavari river. Ananga Bhima Deva III had captured the Vengi territories south of Godavari. Draksharama inscriptions of Kakatiya General Mallala Hemadi Reddy from the year 1237 A.D. show that they were", "Balarama Deva ancestral Chauhan state of Patna (Bolangir). Balarama Deva had also provided military assistance to the Gajapati king Ramachandra Deva of Khurda Kingdom and help to defend Khurda kingdom from the invading Muslim armies who either belonged to the Mughal Dynasty or the Golconda Sultanate. After consolidation of his authority over the regions of western Odisha and now parts of the state of Chattishgarh, Balarama Deva himself installed the idol of Goddess Samleswari as the head family deity which began the era of cultural rejuvenation in the region. After the death of the last hegemonic Gajapati Mukunda Deva in the Gohiratikri", "Balarama Deva region who tried to take over the regions of western Odisha. There are two different existing folklore which describes how Balarama Deva got to rule the northern part their ancestral kingdom around today's Sambalpur while his brother Narasimha Deva continued the rule from Patna. The first folklore speaks of Balarama Deva crossing the river Mayavati in the dark night to bring a nurse so that she could help his pregnant sister in law and the wife of Narasimha Deva who had gone to labor. His elder brother being very thankful gave him the northern part of his territory to rule.", "Felicity (given name) Felicity (given name) Felicity is an English feminine given name meaning \"happiness\". It is derived from the Latin word \"felicitas\" meaning \"luck, good fortune\". It is also used as a form of the Latin name Felicitas, taken from the name of the Ancient Roman goddess Fortuna. It was also the name of Saint Felicity of Rome, a 2nd-century saint venerated by the Roman Catholic Church. \"Felicia\", a related name, is a feminine form of the name \"Felix\", which is derived from an Ancient Roman cognomen meaning \"lucky,\" or \"successful.\" Felicity was the 236th most popular name for girls born in", "Nirj Deva one of Deva's assistants in the European Parliament. The couple have one son. Nirj Deva Niranjan Joseph De Silva Deva Aditya, (born 11 May 1948), commonly known as Nirj Deva, is a British politician. A member of the Conservative Party, he has been a Member of the European Parliament representing South East England since 1999. He was a Member of Parliament (MP) in the British House of Commons from 1992 to 1997, one full term, for the seat of Brentford and Isleworth. Deva was born in Sri Lanka into a politically active family and was raised in Britain. He was", "Nirj Deva Nirj Deva Niranjan Joseph De Silva Deva Aditya, (born 11 May 1948), commonly known as Nirj Deva, is a British politician. A member of the Conservative Party, he has been a Member of the European Parliament representing South East England since 1999. He was a Member of Parliament (MP) in the British House of Commons from 1992 to 1997, one full term, for the seat of Brentford and Isleworth. Deva was born in Sri Lanka into a politically active family and was raised in Britain. He was the fifth Asian-born person to be elected a Member of the House of", "Vishnu Deva including Chinni Prakash and Tharun Kumar. In 2000, he met and began working with choreographer Ganesh Acharya. In 2002, when Deva was working as an assistant choreographer on \"\", he happened to meet choreographer Prabhu Deva, who later asked him to assist in the film Lakshya song \"Main Aisa Kyon Hoon\". Later, Prabhu Deva offered him solo choreography for the Telugu film \"Nuvvostanante Nenoddantana.\" Deva is the brother of South Indian actress Nalini Ramarajan. He married Kamla Nair, the sister of Bollywood choreographer Ganesh Acharya, on 29 November 1998. The couple has one child, Aishwarya. Apsara Film & Television Producers", "English name English name English names are names used in, or originating in, England. In England as elsewhere in the English-speaking world, a complete name usually consists of a given name, commonly referred to as a first name or Christian name, and a (most commonly patrilineal) family name or surname, also referred to as a last name. There can be several given names, some of these being often referred to as a second name, or middle name(s). Most given names used in England do not have English etymology. Most traditional names are Latin or Romance, Christian or Biblical names/Hebrew (Daniel, David, John,", "Kapilendra Deva declined during the last line of Eastern Ganga dynasty rulers which provided enough opportunity for the rising powers in its neighborhood. When Kapilendra Deva took over the throne, hostile Muslim powers like the Sultan of Jaunpur (Mahmud Shah), Bahmani Sultanate and the young ruler of Bengal Samsuddin Ahmad Shah were continuously preparing to invade Odisha. Deva Raya II of Vijayanagara along with Reddys of Rajmahendri had advanced as far as the Simhanchalam territory in the south. Along with suppressing internal rebellions, Kapilendra Deva first defeated the Jaunpur forces with the help of his minister Gopinath Mahapatra and contained Bengal forces", "Deva Victrix the uniqueness of the elliptical building, the method of construction, and the unusual size of the fortress – 20% larger than other Roman fortresses in Britain – suggest that it may have been intended as the base for a potential invasion of Ireland, and perhaps eventually to become the capital of the unified British Isles under Rome. According to the 1st and 2nd century geographer Ptolemy, Deva was in the lands of the Cornovii. Their land bordered that of the Brigantes in the north and the Ordovices in the west and included parts of what is now Cheshire, Shropshire, and", "Lee (English given name) Lee (English given name) Lee is a given name derived from the English surname Lee (which is ultimately from a placename derived from Old English \"leah\" \"clearing; meadow\"). As the surname of Robert E. Lee (1807–1870), the name became popular in the American South after the Civil War, its popularity peaking in 1900 at rank 39 as a masculine name, and in 1955 at rank 182 as a feminine name. The name's popularity declined steadily in the second half of the 20th century, falling below rank 1000 by 1991 as a feminine name, and to 666 as of 2012 as", "Lee (English given name) advocacy: In sports: In religion: In crime: In business: In fictional characters: Some people spell their name with three Es instead of two: Lee (English given name) Lee is a given name derived from the English surname Lee (which is ultimately from a placename derived from Old English \"leah\" \"clearing; meadow\"). As the surname of Robert E. Lee (1807–1870), the name became popular in the American South after the Civil War, its popularity peaking in 1900 at rank 39 as a masculine name, and in 1955 at rank 182 as a feminine name. The name's popularity declined steadily in the" ]

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[ "Космические рейнджеры\nКосми́ческие ре́йнджеры — компьютерная игра в научно-фантастическом стиле, разработанная российской студией Elemental Games. Издана компанией 1С в 2002 году. На Западе игра была выпущена под названием Space Rangers. Игра принадлежит к жанру «эпических игр»[1] с элементами RPG, пошаговой стратегии, текстового квеста[2] и аркады." ]

[ "Байконур\nВ компьютерной игре Call of Duty: Black Ops в миссии «Особое задание» игрок проникает на космодром и сбивает ракету Союз-2, а также пытается убить генерала Драговича (главного антагониста игры) и его помощника Кравченко, но им удаётся сбежать. В компьютерной игре Command & Conquer: Generals террористы захватывают космодром и запускают ракету с биологическим оружием. В игре Frontlines: Fuel of War игроку придётся прорываться к стартовой площадке, чтобы остановить запуски ядерных ракет. В игре Destiny мы знакомимся с пустым и разбитым космодромом в первой миссии. Далее эта локация представляется социальной.", "Dune II\nНа платформах Commodore Amiga и Sega Mega Drive, а также на PC в Европе игра вышла под названием («Битва за Арракис»).", "Walking with Beasts: Operation Salvage\nWalking with Beasts: Operation Salvage (, в России издана под названием «Прогулки с чудовищами») — компьютерная игра в жанре стратегии, разработанная британской студией Absolute Studios и издана на персональные компьютеры под Windows. Игра вышла только в Европе в ноябре 2001 года. В России она получила название «Прогулки с чудовищами» и была издана компанией «Новый Диск» в декабре 2003 года, полностью на русском языке.", "UFO2Extraterrestrials: Battle for Mercury\nUFO2Extraterrestrials: Battle for Mercury (русск. UFO2Extraterrestrials: Битва за Меркурий) — продолжение компьютерной игры 2007 года (в России известной как UFO: Extraterrestrials. Последняя надежда). Изначально называлась UFO2Extraterrestrials: Shadows over Earth или «облака из Земли» (генерация планеты из вещества с выбрасываемыми смесями газа).", "Dominions II: The Ascension Wars\nDominions II: the Ascension Wars — пошаговая стратегическая 4X игра, созданная Джоаном Карлссоном и Кристофером Остерманом из Illwinter и выпущенная Shrapnel Games 13 ноября 2003 года.", "R2 Online\nR2: Reign of Revolution (, [ərtu: 'rān 'əv re-və-'lü-shən]) — фэнтезийная массовая многопользовательская ролевая онлайн-игра (MMORPG) для PC. Разработчик — южнокорейская компания WEBZEN. Полное название проекта — R2: Reign of Revolution. В России во время локализации компанией «Иннова» оно сократилось до R2 Online. Релиз в России состоялся 21 мая 2008 года.", "King’s Bounty. Легенда о рыцаре\nБлагодаря новому названию игра привлекла внимание зарубежной игровой прессы.\nПосле этого право на издание игры в Северной Америке приобрела Atari.\nСами разработчики заявили, что, предлагая в качестве одного из вариантов названия \"King’s Bounty\", не ожидали, что 1С удастся получить права на торговую марку.", "Cultures 2: The Gates of Asgard\n«Cultures 2: The Gates of Asgard» (в России была издана под именем «Cultures 2: Стань богом») — компьютерная игра в жанре стратегии классической экономической модели немецкой игровой школы, разработанная компанией Funatics Development в 2002 году для персонального компьютера. Вторая официальная часть серии Cultures ( в России переводилась пиратской компанией 7Волк Мультимедиа под названием «Нации: Поселение Викингов»).", "Космические рейнджеры\nЗа рубежом игру издали Micro Application и 1C (в Чехии, Болгарии, Венгрии, Польше и Франции)[12].", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nИгроку предстоит выступить в роли космического рейнджера, который может заниматься самой разной деятельностью, но в конечном счёте, преследует цель спасения Галактики от вторжения доминаторов.", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\n14 ноября 2008 года разработчиком и администратором сайта Алексеем Дубовым форум игры был закрыт на реконструкцию, на полгода. Форум был полностью удалён. 12 августа 2011 года форум возобновил работу.", "Mega Lo Mania\nMega Lo Mania (изм. Megalomania — Мания Величия) — стратегия в реальном времени разработанная Sensible Software. первоначально выпущена для платформы Amiga в 1991, и позднее портирована на прочие платформы. В северной Америке игра вышла под названием Tyrants: Fight Through Time.", "World Racing 2\nWorld Racing 2 (название русской версии — \"«World Racing 2. Предельные обороты»\") — компьютерная игра в жанре аркадного автомобильного симулятора, разработанная немецкой компанией Synetic GmbH. Международным издателем игры выступает Playlogic Entertainment; локализацией игры на русский язык и последующим изданием в России и странах СНГ занималась фирма «Акелла».", "Vanguard Bandits\nVanguard Bandits («Бандиты в авангарде», также известна как «Крестоносцы») — тактическая ролевая видеоигра, разработанная компанией Human Entertainment для платформы PlayStation. Выпущенная в Японии под названием , она в 2000 году была локализована в США издателем Working Designs. Первоначальным американским названием было \"Detonator Gauntlet\" (), но из-за сходства с уже имеющейся \"Gauntlet\" название пришлось изменить на \"Vanguard Bandits\". В качестве бонуса к игре прилагался диск с демо-версией игры \"\". Видеоигра сделана в средневековом антураже, но сражения ведутся на огромных роботах — \"«АТАКах»\" ().", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nВсе расы входят в единое Галактическое Содружество, у которого единое времяисчисление (человеческое) и единая валюта — галактический кредит. В связи со вторжением доминаторов конфликты и войны между расами запрещены, однако в игровом мире нередки случаи нападения космических пиратов на мирные корабли.", "Терминатор: Битва за будущее\nВторой сезон был выпущен 22 сентября 2009 года в Северной Америке под названием \"«Terminator — The Sarah Connor Chronicles: The Complete Second Season»\" на двух различных вариантах носителей — DVD или Blu-Ray, а также вышел 16 ноября 2009 в Великобритании.", "Космические рейнджеры\nЖурнал Game.exe — «Наш выбор» Журнал «Страна Игр» — «Золото: выбор редакции» Журнал «Лучшие Компьютерные Игры» — «Корона» Журнал «Домашний ПК» — «Выбор редакции» Сайт ag.ru — «Наш выбор» Журнал Computer Gaming World — «Выбор редакции»", "Neverwinter Nights 2\nNeverwinter Nights 2 — компьютерная ролевая игра, разработанная американской студией Obsidian Entertainment и выпущенная компанией Atari для Microsoft Windows в . Игра, основанная на настольной ролевой игре \"Dungeons & Dragons\", была призвана служить продолжением \"Neverwinter Nights\" (2002); действие \"Neverwinter Nights 2\" происходит в той же вымышленной вселенной Forgotten Realms, и игра использует адаптированные правила \"Dungeons & Dragons\" редакции 3.5. Игра работает на графическом движке Electron.", "Космические рейнджеры\nИгра получила множество положительных отзывов в прессе и впоследствии у игроков. Многие журналисты вначале предполагали, что игра относится к категории тех, что живут на жёстком диске не дольше одного вечера, однако, поиграв в неё немного, меняли своё мнение на диаметрально противоположное.", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nНезадолго до конца тридцать третьего столетия научную экспедицию людей атаковал неизвестный враг. Учёные Коалиции определили местонахождения командного центра врагов, куда вскоре были направлены все силы Содружества. Произошло сражение, в котором было уничтожено две трети военного флота Коалиции. Эта битва вошла в историю как «Гралгарская бойня». Планета с командным центром была уничтожена, несмотря на огромные потери. Но вскоре наступление доминаторов возобновилось, и тогда Галактический совет понял, что головных центров у противника может быть несколько. Понимая, что неповоротливая машина регулярной армии не сможет нанести поражение доминаторам, было решено возродить гибкую систему космических рейнджеров.", "The Last of Us: Left Behind\nThe Last of Us: Left Behind (букв. ), в России официально издаётся под названием «Одни из нас: Оставшиеся позади» — компьютерная игра в жанре action-adventure с элементами survival horror и стелс-экшена, разработанная студией Naughty Dog и изданная Sony Computer Entertainment, является сюжетным дополнением игры \"The Last of Us\". Игра была выпущена во всём мире для PlayStation 3 14 февраля 2014 года в качестве дополнительного загружаемого контента от The Last of Us; позже игра была включена в \"The Last of Us Remastered\", обновлённую версию игры, выпущенную для PlayStation 4 29 июля 2014 года, а также был выпущен автономный пакет расширения для обеих консолей 12 мая 2015 года.", "Alien vs Predator (Jaguar)\nAlien vs Predator () — видеоигра, разработанная компанией Rebellion и изданная Atari Corporation для игровой приставки Atari Jaguar в 1994 году. Игра основана на медиафраншизе \"Чужой против Хищника\" и позволяет играть за одного из трёх персонажей: Чужого, Хищника или рядового колониальной морской пехоты Лэнса Льюиса.", "Kingdom Hearts II\nИгра получила множество наград, включая Спутниковую награду, как «лучшая игра, основанная на уже существующей медиа-продукции». Вместе с \"Resident Evil 4\" японский журнал Famitsu объявил \"Kingdom Hearts II\" игрой 2005 года. В опросе читатели Famitsu определили \"Kingdom Hearts II\" как двадцать девятую игру в списке ста лучших игр всех времён, что на десять мест ниже первой \"Kingdom Hearts\". В списке «Выбор читателя» игр для PlayStation 2 по версии сайта IGN игра заняла первое место, в то время как журнал Eurogamer поставил её на 34-е место в списке пятидесяти лучших игр 2006 года. Журнал Electronic Gaming Monthly, посвящённый компьютерным играм, присудил \"Kingdom Hearts II\" награду «Лучшее продолжение», кроме того, игра попала в список пятидесяти лучших игр 2006 года журнала Game Informer. VideoGamer.com поставил \"Kingdom Hearts II\" на десятое место в списке десяти лучших компьютерных ролевых игр, а журналисты GamePro поставили эту игру на двадцать пятое место в списке лучших ролевых игр всех времён. \"Kingdom Hearts II\" получила почти идеальную оценку в 39/40 баллов в обзоре журнала Famitsu.", "Descent: FreeSpace\n«Descent: FreeSpace — The Great War» — космический симулятор от Volition, Inc. и Interplay. В Европе игра была издана под названием «Conflict: FreeSpace — The Great War».Существует проект - FSOpen с обновлённой графикой http://scp.indiegames.us/", "Resident Evil (игра)\nИзначально проект носил имя Biohazard. Когда первую часть игры в конце 1994 года собрались выпускать в Америке, сотрудник американского отделения Capcom Крис Крамер обратил внимание маркетологов на тот факт, что бренд Biohazard в США уже зарегистрирован. В 1993 году вышла одноимённая игра для DOS, а в Нью-Йорке выступала хардкорная панк-группа с тем же наименованием. В силу данных обстоятельств, необходимо было придумать новое название, поиск которого производился на конкурсной основе. Победителем оказался дизайнер американской студии Capcom Digital с вариантом Resident Evil. Разработчики решили, что прилагательное resident () созвучно с существительным «резиденция», а события игры целиком происходят в особняке. Крамер отозвался о данном названии, как о «ещё более дурацком, чем Biohazard» и голосовал против.", "Colin McRae Rally 2.0\nColin McRae Rally 2.0 (стилизовано под colin | mcrae | rally | 2.0) — видеоигра в жанре автосимулятор, разработанная и изданная Codemasters для PlayStation, Windows и Game Boy Advance. Является второй по счету игрой в серии Colin McRae Rally. Она была выпущена в Соединённых Штатах Америки 5 декабря 2000 года для PlayStation и 14 февраля 2001 года для Windows, в то время как в Европе релиз игры состоялся 15 декабря 2000 года и 15 января 2001 года для PlayStation и Windows соответственно. Игра не была выпущена в Японии.", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nНа данный момент (версия 1.8.1) в игре 76 микромодулей. Из них: 1-го уровня — 22; 2-го уровня — 29; 3-го уровня — 25.", "Shattered Horizon\nShattered Horizon (Russian: Разрушенный горизонт) — компьютерная игра, научно-фантастический многопользовательский шутер от первого лица, разработанный финской компанией Futuremark Games Studio. Shattered Horizon является первой коммерческой игрой данной компании. Первоначально игра называлась Codename Pwnage[1][2], однако во время выставки Games Convention 2008 стало известно, что разработчики сменили название игры на нынешнее[3]. Игра вышла 4 ноября 2009 года на ПК и распространяется через сервис цифровой дистрибуции Steam[2][4]. Кроме того, игра доступна в розничной продаже в таких странах, как Великобритания, Германия, Швейцария, Австрия, Франция и Россия. Распространением игры на дисках в вышеперечисленных странах занимаются компании PQube, Headup Games, Tradewest Games и Акелла.", "3D Realms\n1986 — Beyond the Titanic 1986 — Block Five 1986 — Diamond Digger (известна также как Raiders of the Forbidden Mine или Gold Miner) 1986 — Maze Machine 1986 — Maze Runner (или Rogue Runner) 1987 — Kroz series 1987 — Supernova 1988 — Night Bomber 1988 — The Thing 1988 — Trek Trivia 1988 — Word Whiz 1989 — Meteors (также известна как Asteroid Rescue) 1990 — Phrase Master 1991 — Arctic Adventure 1991 — Crystal Caves 1991 — Duke Nukem 1992 — Cosmo's Cosmic Adventure 1992 — Secret Agent 1993 — Bio Menace 1993 — Duke Nukem II 1993 — Major Stryker 1993 — Monster Bash 1995 — Realms of Chaos 1995 — Rise of the Triad 1996 — Stargunner", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nОт слабейших до сильнейших:Также на картах наземных битв присутствуют доминаторы-пехотинцы аналогичные роботам — игрокам.", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nКосми́ческие ре́йнджеры 2: Домина́торы — компьютерная игра, разработанная в России в 2004 году компанией Elemental Games, издаваемая в России и на территории стран СНГ и Балтии компанией 1С. Является продолжением игры Космические рейнджеры. На Западе игра была выпущена под названием \"Space Rangers 2: Rise of the Dominators\". Игра совмещает в себе элементы следующих жанров: RPG, пошаговой стратегии, текстового квеста, стратегии в реальном времени, экшен и аркады.", "King’s Bounty. Легенда о рыцаре\nРазработка «\"Легенды о Рыцаре\"» началась в 2004 году, во время бета-теста «Космических рейнджеров 2».\nТогда игра называлась просто «Легенда о рыцаре», английским названием было \"Battlelord\".", "PlayStation All-Stars Battle Royale\nPlayStation All-Stars: Battle Royale, в русской локализации известна как Звёзды PlayStation: Битва Сильнейших — компьютерная игра, в жанре файтинг, кроссовер между персонажами различных франшиз PlayStation. Игра была издана в 2012 году (в Японии — в следующем году), для консолей PlayStation 3 и PlayStation Vita. Критики посчитали игру вторичной, плохо сбалансированной и обладающей низкой реиграбельностью.", "Age of Empires (серия игр)\nРелиз \"Age of Empires II: The Age of Kings\" состоялся 30 сентября 1999 года. Игра работала на улучшенной версии движка Genie Engine и имела схожий игровой процесс с первой частью. События \"Age of Kings\" происходят в промежутке между Тёмными веками и эпохой Возрождения. На этот раз игроку был предоставлен выбор из 13 цивилизаций Европы, Азии и Среднего Востока.\n24 августа 2000 года Microsoft выпустила для игры дополнение \"The Conquerors\": были добавлены новые юниты и пять новых цивилизаций, включая две мезоамериканские — ацтеки и майя. \"The Age of Kings\" имела даже больший успех, чем первая часть, с рейтингом 92 % на Game Rankings и Metacritic. Microsoft отгрузила в магазины более двух миллионов копий — игра удостоилась похвалы и собрала множество наград.", "3D Realms\nThe Underground Empire of Kroz Dino Days Gateworld — Отменён из-за плохого качества игры; позже вышел от фирмы HomeBrew Software. Commander Keen: The Universe Is Toast Fantasy 3D Cybertank 3D — Использовала игровой движок Wolfenstein 3D. Tubes — Позже вышел от Software Creations. BoulderDash 5000 Nuclear Nightmare — игра для Windows 3.1. Angels Five The Second Sword — Разработан Cygnus Studios. Wards of Wandaal Doom — Как предполагалось, будет издан фирмой Apogee, но диалог с id Software (разработчик Doom) закончился тем, что Apogee больше не будет издавать новые игры от id. Megaloman Tom, Dick, and Harry Violent Vengeance — Также известен как Sango Fighter; релиз фирмы Panda Entertainment Descent — Финансовые проблемы. Monster Bash VGA Crazy Baby — Позже вышел в New Generation Software как Clif Danger. Fumes Crystal Carnage Pitfall! (ПК-версия) — Activision, разработчик оригинальной игры, обратились в Apogee, но последние не смогли получить контроль над творческими работами в той мере, как запрашивали. Ravager — Передан компании Inner Circle Creations, которая дала новое название Alien Rampage. Cyberboard Kid — Позже релиз состоялся от имени Reality Studios как Cyril Cyberpunk.", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nВнезапно, появляется новая угроза для Галактики — Доминаторы — форма кибержизни, наделённая собственным интеллектом. Они появились в результате слияния клисан с опасными боевыми роботами, наделёнными интеллектом и способными к регенерации. Коалиция отказалась от этих машин и уничтожила их. Но малоки отправили небольшую партию роботов на отдалённую планету, которую после этого захватывают клисаны. Малоки поняли свою ошибку и сбросили на планету атомную бомбу. Страшный взрыв уничтожил и роботов, и клисан. Но некоторые модули сохранили жизнеспособность. Изменённые радиацией, они соединились с клисанскими боевыми модулями, и появился новый вид небиологической жизни — Доминаторы. Существуют три вида Доминаторов (блазероиды, келлероиды и терроноиды), которые сражаются против сил Галактической Коалиции. Помимо этого Доминаторы воюют друг с другом из-за различных целей.", "Kingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance\n\"Kingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance\" была анонсирована на игровой выставке E3 в 2010 году под названием «Kingdom Hearts 3D» для Nintendo 3DS. Впервые полное название проекта было объявлено 18 января 2011 года на специальном мероприятии, организованном Square Enix; также был продемонстрирован первый трейлер. В июле 2011 года стала доступна демо-версия, где были показаны Пожиратели снов. 3 марта 2012 года была проведена презентация игры, приуроченная к десятилетию серии. В январе 2012 года стала известна точная дата выхода игры в Японии, кроме того, было объявлено, что игра выйдет и на Западе. Вскоре после выхода игры Square Enix заявила, что в игре обнаружен баг, который теоретически мог помешать прохождению. Чтобы решить эту проблему, представители издательства посоветовали игрокам связаться со службой поддержки, если возникнут трудности. Nintendo позже выпустила патч для игры, исправляющий эту проблему. В мае 2012 года в Японии демо-версия стала доступной для загрузки из Nintendo eShop", "Dominions 3: The Awakening\nDominions 3: The Awakening — пошаговая стратегическая компьютерная игра, разработанная компанией Illwinter и выпущенная издателем Shrapnel Games в году. Третья часть в серии \"Dominions\", следующая за \"\" и \"Dominions II: The Ascension Wars\".", "Космические рейнджеры\nИгра «Космические рейнджеры» получила множество наград как и в рядовых рецензиях, так и по итогам года.", "Война в небе — 1917\nКоманда разработчиков начинала под названием «Gennadich Team» и под этим именем известна выпуском таких популярных в мире поклонников авиасимуляторов приложений, как «IL-2 Server Commander», «IL-2SC» Web Stat «ADW» («Air Domination War»). После этого команда приняла решение выпустить собственный авиасимулятор под названием «Knights of the Sky». Сначала было решено выпустить игру на базе переписанного движка ИЛ-2, но уже в 2007 году команда приняла решение о разработке собственного движка, перешла вместе с проектом в компанию neoqb — нового игрока российского IT-рынка со специализацией в разработке игр и интернет-сервисов, и поменяла название проекта на «Rise of Flight». Осенью 2008 года проект был впервые представлен на крупнейшей выставке в России и СНГ «Игромир — 2008», там же был объявлен российский издатель игры — компания «Новый Диск». Релиз игры состоялся 7 мая 2009, и практически сразу после этого был объявлен издатель в Северной Америке — 777 studios.", "Космические рейнджеры\nИгроку предстоит выступить в роли одного из космических рейнджеров, которые могут заниматься самой разной деятельностью, но в конечном счёте преследуют цель спасения Галактики от вторжения клисан. Чёткого и заранее написанного сюжета в игре нет, но есть большое число квестов, генерируемых случайным образом и не привязанных к определённому месту или времени.", "Aliens versus Predator\nAliens versus Predator () — компьютерная игра, шутер от первого лица, разработанный компанией Rebellion Developments и выпущенный в продажу компанией Fox Interactive в 1999 году. Игра частично основана на сериях фильмов «Чужой» и «Хищник». Игра повествует о противостоянии трёх рас — человека (колониального морского пехотинца, USCM), Чужого и Хищника, каждому из которых соответствует кампания одиночного режима игры из шести уникальных миссий (у Чужого — пяти), связанные между собой видеороликами, и пяти дополнительных основанных на локациях другого персонажа. Запуск дополнительных уровней возможен после прохождения основной кампании соответствующего персонажа, и в количестве, зависящем от того, на каком уровне сложности она была пройдена.", "Космические рейнджеры\nВ следующих изданиях игра была отмечена специальными знаками отличия[20]:", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nВ игре выделяют следующие типы оборудования:", "Destiny.Games\nВ стремлении к глобальному обновлению, компания проходит процедуру полного ребрендинга, и теперь будет представлена на рынке как Destiny.Games. В сентябре 2017 года на территории России и стран СНГ была запущена браузерная игра Imperial Hero II. Проект был реализован Destiny.Games совместно с Imperia Online.", "Космические рейнджеры\nЖурнал Game.exe поместил материал об игре в центральную тему номера, которая называлась «Внимание! Трэш!!!». Автор статьи — Олег Хажинский — указывал на «одушевленность игры, по сравнению с другими вылизанными до блеска проектами» и считал, что аналогов «Космическим рейнджерам» «просто не существует»[16].", "Painkiller: Overdose\nPainkiller: Overdose (на российских прилавках — «Painkiller: Передозировка», или «Крещеный кровью: Передозировка») — второе дополнение к видеоигре «Painkiller: Kрещёный кровью» и первое самостоятельное дополнение, третья игра из одноимённой серии игр, разработанная чешской игровой студией «Mindware» и изданная компанией «DreamCatcher» (в настоящее время — дочернее подразделение компании «Nordic Games») для IBM PC-совместимых компьютеров (под управлением операционных систем семейства Microsoft Windows). Дополнение было выпущено 30 октября 2007 года. Официальным локализатором, региональным издателем и распространителем «PainKiller: Передозировка» на территории Российской Федерации и стран СНГ является «BestWay (GFI/Руссобит-М)».", "Космические рейнджеры\nИгра проходит в пошаговом режиме, за исключением сражений в чёрных дырах и гиперпространственных сгустках. Игровой процесс напоминает сражения Close Combat: игрок отдаёт приказ (прокладывает курс, наводит бортовое оружие, выбирает обломки для захвата), жмёт кнопку «конец хода», и некоторое время наблюдает за происходящим действием в режиме реального времени без возможности вмешаться. Корабль игрока путешествует в космосе между планетами и космическими станциями — в пределах одной системы — и по гиперпространству — для перемещения из одной системы в другую. Каждый ход в игре соответствует внутриигровому дню. До нажатия кнопки «конец хода» игрок может вступить в диалог с кораблями содружества или просканировать их (если они в пределах действия радара), провести переустановку оборудование из трюма в корабельный слот или выкинуть его в шлюз, активировать специальный артефакт. Все эти действия совершаются «вне времени» и не требуют затрачивать игровые ходы.", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nЧёткого и заранее написанного сюжета в игре нет, игрок сам выбирает как освободить Галактику от доминаторов.", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nПриземлившись на планету или космическую станцию, игрок получает возможность выбирать между различными вкладками, тем самым как бы перемещаясь из ангара в правительственный центр или магазин оборудования. Кроме того, он может закупать оборудование, получать задания, узнавать новости, пользоваться поисковым устройством, торговать трофеями и товарами, заправлять бак и т. п. Эти действия также не требуют затрат ходов. Однако, игрок может пропустить желаемое число ходов на планете или станции.", "Пираты Карибского моря (игра)\n«Пираты Карибского моря» () — компьютерная ролевая игра с открытым миром. Разработанная компанией «Акелла», эта игра в 2003 году была издана в России под названием «Пираты Карибского моря», а в Северной Америке и Европе — \"Pirates of the Caribbean\". Изначально планировалось, что предстоящая игра будет называться «Корсары II» (), представляя собой сиквел игры «», выпущенной в 2000 году, но позднее студия Disney Interactive выкупила этот проект для рекламы фильма «».", "D6\nК этому моменту большая часть лицензий WEG была разорвана, однако реорганизованная компания смогла получить у издательства комиксов DC Comics права на издание игры по их супергероической вселенной. Вышедшая в 1999 и поддерживаемая до 2001 года игры называлась DC Universe Roleplaying Game.", "Hotline Miami 2: Wrong Number\nHotline Miami 2: Wrong Number — компьютерная инди-игра в жанре 2D Top-Down action, разработанная Dennaton Games. Издателем является Devolver Digital. Действие игры происходит до и после событий первой части, но сюжет сфокусирован на событиях, произошедших после уничтожения Джекетом (главным героем первой части) русской мафии по поручениям, полученным из загадочных сообщений по телефону.", "Crusader Kings\nCrusader Kings (CK, в русской локализации — Крестоносцы) — компьютерная игра жанра глобальная стратегия. Выпущена в 2004 году. Продолжает серию игр, начатую Europa Universalis. Несмотря на сходство с EU, CK имеет ряд существенных отличий от других игр серии.Некоторые из этих идей реализованы в Europa Universalis 3 (свободный геймплей; случайно генерируемые, а не заранее предопределённые правители; советники).", "Interactive fiction\nВ игре «Космические рейнджеры» 1 и 2 части от компании Elemental Games часть геймплея реализована через выбор одного из вариантов ответов, отвечающих на повороты истории — так называемые квесты. Несмотря на то, что сюжеты многих квестов были почти открыто «позаимствованы» разработчиками из популярных научно-фантастических произведений, по отзывам ряда игроков это одна из самых захватывающих частей игры.", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nТакже существует много особого или специального оборудования, которое редко встречается при взрыве доминатора. Игрок не может установить специальное оборудование доминаторов на свой корабль, зато его можно продать за двойную стоимость на научных станциях.", "Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2\nCall of Duty: Modern Warfare 2, также известная ранее как Modern Warfare 2 — мультиплатформенная компьютерная игра, в жанре шутера от первого лица, разработанная американской компанией \"Infinity Ward\" и изданная \"Activision\". Игра является шестой в серии \"Call of Duty\". Проект официально анонсирован 11 февраля 2009 года. Выход игры состоялся 10 ноября 2009 года на \"PlayStation 3\", \"Xbox 360\" и \"PC\". В России весь тираж игры для консолей был задержан из-за ставшей скандально известной вырезанной миссии «Ни слова по-русски», и игра вышла только на персональном компьютере. 12 ноября 2009 года игра стала доступна для активации для купивших её через интернет-сервис цифровой дистрибуции \"Steam\".", "Tales of Eternia\nВ Северной Америке и Европе игра известна как Tales of Destiny II. Изначально многие посчитали, что это сделано во избежание нарушения авторских прав — название \"Eternia\" принадлежит компании Mattel (используется в серии игрушек \"\"). Однако разработчики утверждали, что это сделано только для лучшей узнаваемости бренда. Так или иначе, выбор такого названия впоследствии привёл к путанице после выхода прямого сиквела PlayStation 2 под названием \"Tales of Destiny 2\", события которого разворачиваются в том же вымышленном мире, что и \"Tales of Destiny\". \"Tales of Eternia\" не является прямым продолжением \"ToD\" — в ней появляется только ряд камео, которые есть во всех играх серии.", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nСаундтреки были написаны добровольцами вне студии, в стиле Psychodelic Trance, FullOn, New Age.", "Sonic Drift 2\nРелиз игры состоялся 17 марта 1995 года на территории Японии. Кроме того, в отличие от первой части, \"Sonic Drift 2\" была выпущена и на территории других стран. Так, в тот же день, 17 марта 1995 года состоялся выход проекта в Европе, где название было заменено на \"Sonic Drift Racing\", поскольку первая часть не была выпущена в этом регионе. В ноябре того же года состоялся релиз \"Sonic Drift 2\" на территории Северной Америки, причём, как и в европейских странах, в игре используется имя Эггман, однако в руководстве оно также указано как Роботник.", "Elemental Games\nПо словам Алексея Дубового, патч 2.1 для игры «Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы». Перезагрузка не планируется.", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nКроме того, игра оценивает действия игрока и в конце партии выдаёт его итоговый счёт, который зависит от установленной сложности, количества полученного опыта и затраченного игрового времени. Игрок может отослать свой результат на официальный сайт игры. После этого рекорд попадёт в таблицу результатов, с помощью которой можно сравнить свои достижения с другими игроками.В начале каждой игры игрок выбирает себе расу и внешний вид персонажа, его род деятельности, характер, имя и уровень сложности, а также две единицы улучшенных деталей оборудования. Уровень сложности в \"«Космических рейнджерах HD»\" можно настроить гораздо тоньше, чем в первой.", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nДействие игры происходит в космосе, в далёком будущем, в начале XXXIV века. Галактику населяют 5 разумных цивилизаций (особенность этих цивилизаций в том, что каждая из них по характеру является одной из форм характера человека, а Человечество в игре является не собирательным образом всех рас, а лишь дополнением набора характеров) :", "Starpoint Gemini 2\n\"Starpoint Gemini 2\" это космический 3D симулятор/RPG. Игровой мир это система Gemini, состоящая из множества близких звездных систем. Игрок управляет одним кораблем из около 70 возможных, контролируя отдельное космическое судно, а не флот, хотя ведомые корабли и офицеры судна для найма тоже присутствуют в игре. Игра включает как изначально созданные сюжетные миссии, так и полностью сгенерированные задания, зависящие от действий игрока.\nВ начале 2014 года, LGM Games стали официальными разработчиками технологии Oculus Rift. Их объявленный план это «выполнить все необходимые модификации в рендеринге и разрешении, чтобы игроки смогли испытать все предложенные возможности Oculus Rift».", "The Chaos Engine\nThe Chaos Engine — название игры для европейского рынка, разработанной британской компанией The Bitmap Brothers и опубликованная Renegade Software в 1993 году. Версия для Северной Америки вышла под названием Soldiers of Fortune. У игры есть сиквел под названием \"The Chaos Engine 2\", вышедший в 1996 году. На территории России версия для Mega Drive распространялась в картридж-бокс издании.", "Commander Keen (серия игр)\nВторая основная игра в серии была выпущена для MS-DOS 15 декабря 1991 года. Состоит из эпизодов 4 и 5: \"Secret of the Oracle\" и \"The Armageddon Machine\", стилизованное написание названия — \"Commander Keen in Goodbye, Galaxy!.\" Была разработана id Sofware и издана Apogee Software. Как и в первой трилогии эпизодов, \"Secret of the Oracle\" был выпущен бесплатно, а второй эпизод продавался Apogee Software. Игра использует обновлённую графическую составляющую по сравнению с \"Keen Dreams\" и первыми тремя эпизодами, а также имеет геймплейные изменения и нововведения.", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nОднозначно отнести «\"Космических рейнджеров\"» к какому-либо игровому жанру невозможно. Обычно игру пытаются классифицировать как RPG или пошаговую стратегию, но в действительности «\"Рейнджеры\"» — сочетание множества жанров, среди которых и стратегия, и RPG, и аркада, и текстовый квест, и космический симулятор с элементами торговли (здесь особенно заметно влияние классической \"Elite\"; см. также жанр космическая опера). Кроме того, во второй части появилась возможность поучаствовать в Стратегии в реальном времени и в action. В целом, \"«Рейнджеры»\" близки к играм наподобие \"Sid Meier's Pirates!\", в которых главный герой путешествует между разными локациями (в \"Pirates!\" это города, в «\"Космических рейнджерах\"» — звездные системы), выполняя задания, сражаясь с врагами, улучшая оборудование, покупая и продавая товары. Журнал ЛКИ причислил игру к жанру эпическая игра. Главная черта игр такого рода — свобода действий игрока.\nВ «\"Космических рейнджерах\"» проявляется ещё один важный принцип — мир вокруг героя живёт своей собственной жизнью, не зависящей от действий игрока. Другие рейнджеры, управляемые компьютером, так же, как и игрок, торгуют, сражаются с доминаторами, занимаются пиратством (или сами могут подвергнуться нападению пиратов), улучшают своё оборудование и так далее, лишь не могут брать задания у правительства. Этот принцип, пока что нечасто встречающийся в компьютерных играх, вероятно, является одной из причин успеха игры.\nОдной из особенностей сюжета игры является обилие юмора, зачастую пародийного (например, в текстовых квестах и заданиях — вирус Виндовс, бушевавший на Земле, документальный фильм о доминаторах «Терминатор 3: Восстание машин»).", "Dragon Quest II\nТак как первая часть выходила в Северной Америке под названием \"Dragon Warrior\", то во время локализации решили не менять эту устоявшуюся торговую марку и выпустили игру как Dragon Warrior II. Впоследствии было произведено множество переизданий, в том числе для консолей MSX, Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Game Boy, Game Boy Color а также для мобильных телефонов.", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nДоминаторы делятся на три серии (блазероиды, келлероиды и терроноиды) воюющие между собой. У каждой серии свои цели и для их достижения нужно уничтожить все расы Коалиции. Для победы над любой серией доминаторов необходимо уничтожить её главный центр.", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nПомимо игрока в космосе встречаются другие космические корабли. Их можно разделить на следующие группы:", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nОсновные события второй части игры разворачиваются спустя 250 лет после окончания войны с клисанами — в 3300 году. Человечество поддерживает отношения с четырьмя другими развитыми цивилизациями нашей галактики: малоками, пеленгами, фэянами и гаальцами. Продолжает развиваться Коалиция Разумных Рас (сокращённо — КРР).", "Contra\nВерсии для трёх основных регионов Konami выпустила под разными названиями: в Северной Америке — \"Contra\", в Японии — 魂斗羅, в Европе — \"Probotector\". Игра была сильно переработана, все уровни стали длиннее, изменились некоторые боссы в них, во втором и четвёртом уровнях (база 1 и база 2) был удалён лимит прохождения по времени, а последний пятый уровень был разделён на четыре обособленных уровня согласно их окружению (заснеженный лес, электростанция, ангар, логово пришельцев). Таким образом, в \"Contra\" для NES стало восемь уровней. Финальная заставка демонстрирует эвакуацию главных героев на вертолёте.", "Elemental Games\nВ сентябре 1999 года началась разработка пошаговой RPG Космические рейнджеры, но маленький коллектив разработчиков и отсутствие художника сильно тормозили работу. Со временем, к команде присоединились художник и ещё несколько человек. Разработчики создавали игру, находясь в разных городах, не получая никаких денег, так как у них не было издателя. В 2000 году была сделана одиннадцатая демоверсия. Начались поиски издателя. Первой откликнулась компания «Магнамедия», но предложенные условия не устроили разработчиков и они отказались от сотрудничества. Компания «Бука» вообще перестала отвечать на письма, когда речь зашла о деньгах. Игру решили доделывать, серьёзно обсуждалось предложение о переносе игры в реальное время — результатом этого было добавление гипербоёв. Денег в команде не хватало, и она выпустила офисно-игровой пакет «Панельки», в который входили различные базы данных, отображаемые на рабочем столе, очень удобный калькулятор и ряд небольших игр. После ещё одного ряда небольших доработок разработчики послали демоверсию в 1С. Издатель, долго обдумывая, ответил согласием. Произошло это 9 июля 2002 года. И после окончательной доработки 23 декабря 2002 года игра появилась в магазинах. С выходом игры в продажу к компании пришла известность, а игра обрела фанатов. Космические рейнджеры, хоть и были выполнены в 2D, но имели живой мир и сильный AI, а наличие аркадных гипербоёв и текстовых квестов ещё больше привлекало игроков. Игра завоевала большую популярность в России и других странах.\nПосле выхода КР разработчики занимались патчами, сайтом и форумом. Со стороны 1С предложений о разработке продолжения игры не поступало. Но когда игра обрела достаточно большое количество игроков, а продажи 1С возросли, компания связалась с разработчиками и подписала договор на издание КР2 и КР3. Сначала КР2 планировался как аддон к КР1, и дату его выхода запланировали на конец 2003 года. С появлением нового интерфейса команда позволила себе снять офис и нанять больше людей для создания игры. Разработчики придумали новый стратегический режим игры — «Роботы». Позже он был назван «Планетарные бои» или «ПБ».\nВ 2004 году «Elemental Games» выпустила игру «Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы». Позже, коллектив компании распался на Katauri Interactive и Elemental Games, причём в первую компанию ушли почти все разработчики. В Elemental Games остался Алексей Дубовой (dab), а к нему примкнули энтузиасты с форума ЕГ. Компания уже в новом составе продолжала выпускать патчи к игре, в которые входили множества нововведений и исправлений. Последней версией на данный момент является v 1.8.1.", "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (аркадная игра)\nПорт на NES вышел в декабре 1990 года в Северной Америке под названием Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles II: The Arcade Game, 14 ноября 1991 года в Европе под названием Teenage Mutant Hero Turtles II: The Arcade Game и 7 декабря 1990 года в Японии под названием Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. В Европе и Северной Америке порт значился как вторая часть в связи с тем, что на NES уже была выпущена игра под этим названием. В Японии первая часть выходила под другим названием.", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nСпециальные задания — это поручения, которые в большинстве случаев выдаются правительствами различных планет (хотя есть и исключения). Специальное задание на планете можно получить, только если правительство относится к игроку как минимум «хорошо». По выполнению квеста отношение правительства к игроку улучшается до степени «отлично», за провал репутация ухудшается до уровня «плохо». Чтобы снова улучшить отношения, нужно «пожертвовать» правительству определённую сумму. В награду за выполнение специального задания игрок обязательно получает деньги и опыт для улучшения навыков, а в дополнение к ним иногда может получить артефакт, оборудование или медаль. Любое задание можно как усложнить, так и упростить. В зависимости от этого изменится срок на выполнение задания — для заданий в космосе, а в Планетарном Бою можно усилить защиту роботов или уменьшить интервалы между возможными вызовами подкрепления . Изменяя сложность задания, игрок тем самым увеличивает или уменьшает награду . Для завершения спец задания иногда надо вернуться на планету-заказчик, если этого не требуется, то игрок в любой момент может прилететь на планету-заказчик и забрать награду. Задания делятся на следующие типы:", "Князь: Легенды Лесной страны\nИз-за особенностей маркетинговой политики в тех странах, где игра была издана, она получила и разное название. Так в Европе, она известна, как Konung: Legends of the North. В США же, напротив, подзаголовок стал основным названием и читается в единственном числе — Legend of the North: Konung. А на территории СНГ и стран Балтии она именуется Князь: Легенды Лесной страны.", "Star Control II\nВ 2002 году после того, как разработчики перевели исходный код под лицензию GPL, а остальное содержимое игры под лицензию Creative Commons by-nc-sa, стартовал проект портирования «Star Control II» на современные платформы, но под именем «The Ur-Quan Masters» (или «UQM», «Ур-Куанские повелители»). Название \"Star Control\" осталось за Accolade, поэтому было найдено другое.", "Космические рейнджеры\nОтправным моментом создания «Космических рейнджеров» послужила игра «Генерал», написанная Дмитрием Гусаровым, впоследствии — руководителем разработки Космических рейнджеров. Благодаря интернету ему удалось представить игру «Генерал» достаточно широкому кругу игроков, среди которых нашлось несколько энтузиастов, желающих делать игры. Так постепенно возникла студия New Game Software, впоследствии переименованная в Elemental Games. Многие идеи были почерпнуты из фильмов саги «Звёздные войны», а расы — из сериала «Вавилон-5». Кроме того, своё влияние оказали фильм «Кин-дза-дза» и произведения писателей-фантастов[6].", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nКак в космосе, так и на планетах (но не во время планетарных боёв) игроку всегда доступны три кнопки, открывающие внутреннее устройство его корабля, галактическую карту и глобальный рейтинг рейнджеров. Галактическая карта, кроме того, даёт возможность выбрать направление гиперпрыжка для перехода в другую систему. Для этого необходимо подлететь к границе системы и перейти в гиперпространство. В отличие от первой части игры, корабль перемещается мгновенно в указанную систему, минуя перелёт в гиперпространстве.", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nИгра проходит в походовом режиме, за исключением сражений в чёрных дырах и сражений на поверхности планеты. Игровой процесс напоминает сражения \"Close Combat\": игрок отдаёт приказ (прокладывает курс, наводит бортовое оружие, выбирает обломки для захвата), жмёт кнопку «конец хода», и некоторое время наблюдает за происходящим действием в режиме реального времени без возможности вмешаться. Корабль игрока путешествует в космосе между планетами и космическими станциями — в пределах одной системы — и по гиперпространству — для перемещения из одной системы в другую. Каждый ход в игре соответствует внутриигровому дню. До нажатия кнопки «конец хода», позволяющей совершить планируемый ход, игрок может вступить в диалог с кораблями содружества или просканировать их (если они в пределах действия радара), провести переустановку оборудования из трюма в корабельный слот или выкинуть его в шлюз, активировать специальный артефакт. Все эти действия совершаются «вне времени» и не требуют затрачивать игровые ходы.", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nКонцепция свободного выбора, отличительная особенность оригинала, не только сохранилась, но и получила в «Космических рейнджерах 2» своё логическое развитие. Игрок не ограничивается сюжетными рамками, ему предоставляется возможность повлиять на ход событий во всей Галактике. При этом игровой мир (размеры которого существенно увеличились по сравнению с первой частью) живёт и развивается по своим законам, в нём постоянно происходят какие-то события: захватываются и освобождаются системы, пираты грабят суда, на планетах случаются государственные перевороты, а ученые делают новые открытия.", "The Last Remnant\n— японская ролевая игра разработанная и выпущенная компанией Square Enix. Игра ориентирована на японскую и западную аудитории и была выпущена параллельно в Японии, Северной Америке и Европе, 20 ноября 2008 на Xbox 360. В марте следующего года игра была выпущена на Microsoft Windows, а 9 апреля получила интернациональный выпуск через цифровой магазин Steam. Планировалась также версия для PlayStation 3, но впоследствии разработчики отказались от портирования. Впервые о создании игры стало известно 10 мая 2007 года после пресс-конференции в Синдзюку. Первая играбельная демо-версия была продемонстрирована в сентябре 2008 года на выставке Tokyo Game Show. Действия игры проходят в вымышленном мире разделенном между городами-государствами населенными четырьмя разными расами и в прошлом которого были военные-конфликты за «Ремнанты», магические артефакты разных форм и размеров. Игрок принимает роль Раша Сайкса, молодого парня ищущего свою сестренку, которая была втянута в тайную войну. В игре присутствует уникальная боевая система в которой игрок управляет несколькими отрядами вместо индивидуального управления каждым персонажем.", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nПоследней версией игры является сборка (билд) 2.1.2266 от 05 сентября 2017 года.", "Космические рейнджеры\nГлавный редактор журнала «Лучшие Компьютерные Игры» — Андрей Ленский — назвал выход игры «Космические рейнджеры» праздником, который «затмевает праздники 23 февраля, 8 марта и 1 апреля»[14]. Журнал дал по игре подробное руководство. Игра вызвала сильный резонанс в журнале: по ней было опубликовано множество материалов, «Космические рейнджеры» стали дебютом журнала в цикле аналитических статей «Судьба хита». Редакция назвала игру лучшей игрой 2003 года, и отметила, что «кандидатов на номинацию было два: Grand Theft Auto: Vice City и „Космические рейнджеры“; но Grand Theft Auto: Vice City — это эволюция, а „Космические рейнджеры“ — революция.» Однако, встречалась в журнале и критика игры — в статье о ролевых системах различных игр, «Рейнджерам» поставили «3−» за реализацию ролевой системы в игре[15]. Кроме того в статье цикла «Судьба хита» были выдвинуты предложения по улучшению игры.", "Warhammer 40,000 Roleplay\nWarhammer 40,000 Roleplay — серия настольных ролевых игр, чьё действие разворачивается в фантастической вселенной «Warhammer 40,000». Первая игра, «Dark Heresy», посвящена деятельности агентов Инквизиции; героями второй, «Rogue Trader», являются межзвёздные торговцы и ксеносы; третья находится в разработке с рабочим названием «Deathwatch» и посвящена теме космического десанта. После решения «Games Workshop» закрыть компанию «Black Industries» и передать её права «Fantasy Flight Games» будущее серии находилось под сомнением, но «Fantasy Flight» выпустила «Rogue Trader» и объявила, что намерена выпустить «Deathwatch» в полном соответствии с первоначальными планами «Black Industries».", "The Lost Vikings 2\nРелиз состоялся весной 1997 года. Издание для SNES было выпущено под названием \"The Lost Vikings 2\", в то время как портированная версия для PlayStation, Saturn и ПК — \"Norse by Norsewest: The Return of the Lost Vikings\" (в Европе игра вышла под названием \"The Lost Vikings 2: Norse by Norsewest\"), которая отличалась от версии для SNES трёхмерной графикой (но всё так же с боковым сайд-скроллингом), улучшенным звуком, присутствием CGI-видеороликов и некоторыми изменениями в строении уровней. В этой версии также присутствует озвучивание персонажей актёрами: Эрика озвучил Роб Полсен, Балеога и Фанга — Джефф Беннетт, Олафа и Томатора — Джим Каммингс, а Скорча — Фрэнк Уэлкер.", "Aliens versus Predator 2\nAliens versus Predator 2 () — компьютерная игра, шутер от первого лица, разработанный компанией Monolith Productions и выпущенный в продажу компанией Sierra Entertainment в 2001 году. Игра является продолжением игры \"Aliens versus Predator\", которая была частично основана на сериях фильмов «Чужой» и «Хищник».", "Little Big Adventure\nВ Европе игру издала Electronic Arts, а в Северной Америке, Азии и Океании — Activision, под названием Relentless: Twinsen’s Adventure. Продажи первого релиза по всему свету превысили 400 тысяч копий. Первоначально игру выпустили на CD-ROM, позже появилась версия на дискетах. Версия на компакт-дисках содержала видеоролики, музыку CD-качества и речь, тогда как в версии на дискетах использовались музыкальные файлы в формате MIDI, а ролики были заменены статичными изображениями. Позднее игра была портирована на PlayStation и выпущена в Европе и Японии. Позднее был издан сиквел под названием \"Little Big Adventure 2\" (также известный как \"Twinsen’s Odyssey\").", "Aliens versus Predator versus The Terminator\nAliens versus Predator versus The Terminator () — комикс кроссовер о вымышленных персонажах из трех отдельных серий фильмов: \"Чужих\", \"Хищника\" , и \"Терминатора\". Ограниченная серия, опубликованная в 2000 году Dark Horse Comics. Серия состоит из четырёх выпусков. Работа была собрана как книжная обложка.", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nНекоторым изменениям игра подверглась в техническом плане. Улучшено главное меню, загрузочные экраны, фоны планет и космических баз, введена поддержка больших разрешений, в том числе широкоформатных, существенно доработан режим планетарных битв — теперь он поддерживает все основные технологии, являющиеся форматом де-факто для современных игр . Добавлены достижения (achievements).", "Kingdom Hearts II\n— компьютерная игра в жанре экшн-РПГ, разработанная и изданная Square Enix и Disney Interactive эксклюзивно на игровую приставку PlayStation 2. Она вышла 22 декабря в Японии, 28 марта в США, 28 сентября 2006 года в Австралии и 29 сентября 2006 года в Европе. Игра, созданная совместными усилиями Disney Interactive и Squaresoft, является продолжением \"Kingdom Hearts\"; в неё одновременно вошли персонажи серии \"Final Fantasy\" и миров Уолта Диснея. Так как первая часть серии была очень популярна, по её мотивам были написаны манга и ранобэ. В только в Японии вышло дополнение под названием \"Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix+\".", "Космические рейнджеры\nТакже игра была переиздана в версии 1.7.2 на DVD «Космические рейнджеры 2: Перезагрузка». В версии 1.7.2 немного улучшена физика кораблей. Патч до этой версии (патч 1.7.2 в виде отдельного файла) не был выпущен.", "Космические рейнджеры\n«Космические рейнджеры» заложили многие базовые принципы, использованные во второй части игры. Это иллюзия живого мира, сочетание множества жанров. Кроме того, сюжет и тексты в игре «Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы» отсылают игрока к первой части .", "Command &amp; Conquer (игра, 1995)\nПервоначально \"Command & Conquer\" планировалась к выходу для DOS весной 1995 года, но в итоге релиз игры состоялся 31 августа 1995 года. В 1997 году игра получила переиздание для ОС Windows 95, получившее название \"Command & Conquer Gold\"; в том же году игра была портирована на Macintosh. Версии игры для PlayStation и Saturn были выпущены в 1996 и 1997 годах соответственно; версия для Nintendo 64 вышла в конце июня 1999 года. На всех платформах (за исключением Nintendo 64) игра выпускалась двухдисковым изданием: на обоих дисках, помимо файлов установки, размещались файлы, относяшиеся к игровым кампаниям: GDI на первом диске и Братства Нод на втором соответственно.В 1996 году Westwood выпустила дополнение к игре, получившее подзаголовок \"The Covert Operations\" (). Оно включило в себя 15 миссий повышенной сложности (7 для GDI и восемь для Нод), десять новых мультиплеерных карт и семь дополнительных треков. В отличие от кампании оригинальной игры, миссии из дополнения возможно проходить в любом порядке. Дополнение также включает в себя секретную кампанию из 5 миссий, во время которых игрок борется с динозаврами.", "Aliens versus Predator 2: Primal Hunt\nAliens versus Predator 2: Primal Hunt () — дополнение к компьютерной игре «Aliens versus Predator 2», выпущенное Sierra Entertainment в 2002 году. Дополнение поставляется на отдельном компакт-диске, но для работы требует установленную оригинальную игру. 30 мая 2003 года было выпущено \"Золотое Издание\" (Aliens versus Predator 2: Gold Edition) на двух компакт-дисках, включающее в себя как и оригинальную игру, так и дополнение Primal Hunt. Версия для Mac OS X, как и в случае с оригинальной игрой, была разработана и выпущена .", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nСтандартное:", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nПосле войны малокские чиновники посчитали, что из-за чудовищного радиационного фона на поверхности планеты, там не могли выжить ни биологические клисаны, ни механические роботы. На самом деле из-за ужасных внешних условий роботы адаптировались к агрессивной среде, в том числе и ассимилировав клисанские части.", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nНад второй частью игры работало в офисе 10 человек, а удалённо — около 20: музыканты, художники, сценаристы и писатели квестов. Работы над другими проектами не велось.", "Космические рейнджеры 2: Доминаторы\nВ середине апреля 2012 года компанией СНК-Games было анонсировано очередное дополнение к «Космическим Рейнджерам 2». В отличие от фанатской версии «Революции», разработка данного дополнения финансировалась 1С и была засекречена до последнего момента (только за неделю до анонса на форумах стали появляться недвусмысленные намеки от руководителя СНК-Games). 17 июля 2012 года был завершен этап закрытого бета-тестирования. Дополнение вышло в Steam 15 марта 2013 года.", "Код доступа: РАЙ\nКомпания Играющие Кошки (Cats Who Play), основанная бывшими сотрудниками «MiST land», а также авторами игр «Код доступа: РАЙ» и «Власть закона», на базе своего официального сайта открыли портал вселенной всех трёх игр: «Реальность 4.13» (в игре «Код доступа: РАЙ» вселенная называется Реальность v.4.13. В таком же виде название вселенной написано на фирменных майках МиСТ ленда образца 2002 года. Время, описанное в игре Код доступа: РАЙ в Кодексе Реальности, 4.13 значится как «Крах Системы», а герои игры входят в список официальных «Лиц» Вселенной), на котором с 2015 г. стали доступны для бесплатного скачивания улучшенные ремастер версии игр «Код доступа: РАЙ» (ремастер, версия 1.8.0) и «Власть закона: Золотая коллекция» (ремастер, версия 1.64.0). Улучшения ремастер версий коснулись поддержки современных видеокарт, высоких разрешений (до 1920 на 1xxx) и операционных систем Windows 8.x и Windows 7 (в том числе 64 битных); ускорения загрузки и «скрытых перемещений», перерисованы текстуры, исправлены ошибки и пр.Игра заняла второе место в номинации «Лучшая тактика/wargame» (2002) журнала «Игромания», а также была названа им лучшей российской игрой 2002 года." ]

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[ "ألبرت ميكلسون\nولد البرت ابراهام مايكلسون في 19 ديسمبر 1852 بمدينة سترنلو ببولندا (بروسي المولد) - وتوفي في 9 مايو 1931 بمدينة باسادينا ، كاليفورنيا. وهو فيزيائي أمريكي شهير، عمل على قياس سرعة الضوء. كما اشتهر من خلال تجربة ميكلسون ومورلي للبحث عن الأثير، ولما لم يجدوه أحدث ذلك ضجة علمية كبيرة أدت إلى تطور النظرية النسبية لأينشتاين. في عام 1907 حصل علي جائزة نوبل للفيزياء، وهو أول أمريكي يحصل علي جائزة نوبل في العلوم." ]

[ "داليا السوداء\nتكهن بعض كتاب قصة الجريمة على وجود صلة بين جريمه قتل اليزابيث شورت وجرائم كليفلاند تورس، التي وقعت في كليفلاند بين 1934 و 1938.[17] كما هو الحال مع عدد كبير من عمليات القتل التي وقعت قبل وبعد قتل اليزابيث شورت. قام محققو شرطة لوس انجلوس في النظر إلى ملفات جرائم كليفلاند في عام 1947، وادركوا في النهايه انه لا يوجد علاقه بين الجريمتين. ومع ذلك، كان هناك ادله جديده تظهر تورط المشتبه به الأول في جريمه قتل كليفلاند، وهو جاك أندرسون ويلسون (ويعرف أيضا باسم أرنولد سميث)، الذي تم التحقيق معه من قبل المخبر جون في عام 1980، حيث اوشك ان يعتقل جاك بتهمه قتل اليزابيث ولكنه توفي في حادث حريق في 4 فبراير، 1982.[18]", "ويلسون بنتلي\nتوفي بنتلي بالالتهاب الرئوي في مزرعته في 23 كانون الأول سنة 1931، بعد أن مشى مسافة ستة أميال في طريق العودة إلى بيته أثناء عاصفة ثلجية، وقد نشرت ماك-جرو هيل كتابه \"بلورات الثلج\" قبل وفاته بفترة بسيطة، ولا يزال كتابه يُطبع حتى هذا اليوم.", "ألفريد تنيسون\nولد ألفريد تنيسون في 6 أغسطس 1809 وتوفي في 6 أكتوبر 1892 شاعر إنجليزي من أبرز شعراء القرن التاسع عشر، عين شاعراً للبلاط 1850 ومن أشهر أعماله قصيدة ((الذكرى)) وديوانه الشعري ((الأميرة)) نظم عدة قصائد في المناسبات مثل ((أناشيد الملك)) ويعد تنيسون أستاذا للشعر الغنائي كما يعد الشاعر الذي يمثل عصره.\nمن قصائد تينسون المميزة قصيدة (Ulysses) وهي قصيدة غنائية تحكي قصة ملك لا يحب وجوده في مملكته للحكم ويعتبر الأمر شيئا من اضاعة الوقت وهو يفكر بالسفر واستكشاف البحار والوصول إلى الجزر السعيدة .اوليسس ، الملك، يقدم ابنه تيليماج لخلافته لانه يعتبر ابنه جدير ومولع بإدارة شؤون المملكة .اليسس يكشف في حواره الداخلي ان عمله عبر البحار في السنوات الماضية قد اكسبه خبرة ومعرفة بالناس وجعله رمزا للاخرين .ولذلك فهو لا يريد أن يهدر باقي عمر ويصدأ ، ونما يريد أن يكون لامعا.والفكرة الرئيسة للقصيدة هو تحقيق الطموح.\nينتمي الشاعر للفترة الفيكتورية التي نشط فيها العلم على حساب الدين واخذت افكار المحدثين امثال دارون تتعارض مع الافكار القديمة الدينية .الفريد تنيسون حاول ان يجمع بين الاثنين العلم والدين ، يتسم أيضا بالتفكر _realism والشعور الاجتماعي ، ويوجد في قصائد الفريد كما في قصائد باقي الشعراء في العصر الفيكتوري ، يوجد الانقباضية والكابة أو ما يصطلح عليه(melancholy) وهي ناشئة من الشعور بعدم الجوى من الحياة في المجتمع والتي أصبحت من دون طعم (meaningless) ، وكذلك وعدم المساعدة من قبل الناس (helplessness) .\nويتميز هذا العصر أيضا بثلاث نقاط بارزة مثلت أهم الاحداث هي الثورة الصناعية ، وضهور الديمقراطية ، وظهور العلم وتاثيره على الدين .\nفالشاعر تنيسون يمثل كل جوانب العصر الفيكتوري .ومنها وصف الطبيعة ، فهو له القابلية على رصد وملاحظة الطبيعة ، والطبيعة بالنسبة له قاسية", "روبرت ب. أندرسون\nروبرت برنارد أندرسون (و. 1910 – 1989 م) هو سياسي، ومحام من الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية ولد في بورليسون، تكساس.\nشغل منصب وزير البحرية بين فبراير 1953 ومارس 1954. كما شغل منصب وزير الخزانة من 1957 حتى 1961، وكان أحد المقربين للرئيس دوايت آيزنهاور. تم شطبه من سجل المحاماة بعد اتهامه بتنفيذ عمليات مصرفية غير مشروعة والتهرب الضريبي، وذلك قبل عامين من وفاته من السرطان.", "روبرت جاكسون\nروبرت هوووت جاكسون (13 فبراير 1892 - 9 أكتوبر 1954) هو محامي وقاضي أمريكي وكان قاضيا معاونا في المحكمة العليا للولايات المتحدة. وكان قد عمل سابقا كمحام عام للولايات المتحدة، والنائب العام للولايات المتحدة، وهو الشخص الوحيد الذي شغل جميع هذه المناصب الثلاثة. وكان جاكسون أيضا بارزا في عمله كمدعي عام للولايات المتحدة في محاكمات نورمبرج لمجرمي الحرب النازيين في أعقاب الحرب العالمية الثانية.", "ألبرت هندرسون (ممثل)\nألبرت هندرسون هو ممثل أمريكي، ولد في 29 يناير 1915 بنيويورك في الولايات المتحدة، وتوفي في 17 يناير 2004 بلوس أنجلوس في الولايات المتحدة.", "بات روبرتسون\nجيسي جاكسون غلين بيك تييري ميسان", "روبرت روبنسون\nالسير روبرت روبنسون (بالإنجليزية: Robert Robinson) ـ (13 سبتمبر 1886 وتوفي في 8 فبراير 1975) هو عالم كيمياء عضوية بريطاني، حصل على جائزة نوبل في الكيمياء سنة 1947 لأبحاثه عن أصباغ الأنثوسيانين والقلويدات النباتية.", "إنفنسبل (ألبوم)\nهو آخر ألبوم إستديو للمغني الأمريكي مايكل جاكسون. وهو الألبوم السادس الذي أصدر من طرف شركة إبك ريكوردز والعاشر في مسيرته الفنية. أصدر يوم 30 من أكتوبر 2001. أغاني الألبوم تتطرق لمواضيع مثل الحب، الرومانسية، انتقاد الإعلام ومشاكل المجتمع.\nالألبوم حاز على المرتبة الأولى في إحدى عشر بلدا من بينها الولايات المتحدة (الأسبوع الأول باع 363,000 نسخة)، المملكة المتحدة، أستراليا، فرنسا وسويسرا، وحلّ في جداول أفضل عشرة في ستة بلدان أخرى.", "روبرت لويس ستيفنسون\nروبرت لويس بلفور ستيفنسون (13 نوفمبر 1850 - 3 ديسمبر 1894) روائيء وشاعر وكاتب مقالات وكاتب اسكتلندي وتخصص في أدب الرحلات. وقد لاقى ستيفنسون إعجابًا كبيرًا من الكثير من الكتاب، مثل خورخي لويس بورخيس وإيرنست هيمنجواي ورديارد كيبلينج وفلاديمير نابكوف وجى كاي تشسترتون.", "إليزابيث جاكوبسون\nإليزابيث نيكول ليز جاكوبسون ولدت في 26 مارس 1984 وتوفيت في 28 سبتمبر 2005، كانت ربان طائرة تعمل لصالح القوات الجوية الأمريكية وقد قُتلت في حرب العراق عام 2005. ", "مايكل جاكسون\nمايكل جوزيف جاكسون ؛ (29 أغسطس 1958 - 25 يونيو 2009) هو مغني وممثل وملحن وراقص ومنتج أغاني ومصمم رقصات ومخرج وكاتب كلمات ورجل أعمال وناشط حقوقي أمريكي لقب بملك البوب.", "آلبرت روسكين كوك\nالسير آلبرت روسكين كوك، طبيب إنجليزي (22 آذار 1870 - 23 نيسان 1951)، حائز على وسام القديس مايكل والقديس جورج. كان السير آلبرت مبشراً طبياً في أوغندا وقد أسس \"مستشفى مولاغو\" و\"مستشفى مينغو\" فيها. عمل مع زوجته \"كاثرين كوك\" (1863-1938) وأنشآ مدرسة للتدريب على الأمومة في أوغندا.\nولد آلبرت كوك في هامبستيد في لندن عام 1870. والداه هما الدكتور و.هـ. كوك وهارييت بيكرستيث كوك. تخرج من كلية الثالوث (كامبريدج) عام 1893 وحصل على شهادة ليسانس الآداب. كما حصل على بكالوريوس في الطب من مستشفى سانت بارثولوميو عام 1895، وأصبح طبيباً عام 1901.", "مايكل أنجلو أنطونيوني\nمايكل انجلو انطونيوني كافالييري دي غران كروتشي (29 سبتمبر 1912، فيرارا - 30 يوليو 2007، روما) كان مخرجا سينمائيا، كاتب سيناريو، مونتيرا، وكاتب قصة قصيرة إيطالي. اشتهر \"بثلاثية عن الحداثة ومساوئها\"[1] المغامرة (1960)، الليل (1961)، الخسوف (1962). قام أنطونيوني \"بإعادة تعريف مفهوم السرد السينمائي\" والطعن في النهج التقليدي نحو السرد، الواقعية، الدراما، ووجهة النظر للعالم بشكل عام.[2] في أفلامه إهمال للحدث لصالح التأمل، مع التركيز على الصورة والتصميم أكثر من الحبكة والشخصيات.[2]", "كريستيان ميكلسن\nبيتر كريستيان هشلب كشاو ميكلسين (بالنرويجية Peter Christian Hersleb Kjerschow Michelsen) ( 15 مارس 1857 - 29 يونيو 1925) سياسي وتاجر نرويجي، شغل منصب رئيس وزراء النرويج خلال الفترة ما بين 1905 و1907 ليكون بذلك أول رئيس وزراء للنرويج بعد انفصالها عن مملكة السويد، حيث لعب ميكلسن الذي كان أيضاً أحد أقطاب مجال الشحن، دوراً رئيسياً في الانفصال السلمي للنرويج عن السويد بتاريخ 7 يونيو عام 1905.", "روبرت أكلاند\nالبروفيسور روبرت أكلاند ـ (20 يونيو 1941 ـ 6 يناير 2016) هو جراح وأكاديمي بريطاني أمريكي من رواد جراحة التجميل والجراحة المجهرية الرأبية في كل من بريطانيا والولايات المتحدة الأمريكية.", "بات نيكسون\nبات نيكسون(ولدت مارس 1912 وتوفيت في يونيو 1993 )هي زوجة الرئيس الأمريكي ريتشارد نيكسون. وكانت السيدة الأولى في الولايات المتحدة من الفترة 1969 إلى 1974.", "جون ويلكس بوث\nجون ويلكس بوث (10 مايو 1838 - 26 أبريل 1865) كان ممثل متدرب أمريكي وهو الذي اغتال الرّئيس الأمريكيإبراهام لينكولن في مسرح فورد، في واشنطن العاصمة، في 14 أبريل 1865.", "مقياس ميكلسون للتداخل\nمقياس مايكلسون للتداخل (بالإنجليزية: Michelson interferometer) هو مقياس تداخل الموجات ابتكره الفيزيائي ألبرت ميكلسون . وقد شاع صيت هذا الجهاز بسبب تجربة ميكلسون ومورلي الشهيرة والتي بواسطتها أراد فحص ما يسمى \"أثير الضوء\" كوسط لانتقال الضوء. وفي مقياس التداخل لميكلسون تستغل ظاهرة تداخل الموجات وهي تحدث فقط عندما يكون الشعاعان الضوئيان متسقين في موجتهيما قيمكن رؤيتهما .", "روبرت بلوخ\nروبرت إلبرت بلوتش (من 05أبريل، 1917 إلى 23 سبتمبر، 1994) كان كاتب أمريكي مسهب، وخاصة في أدب الجريمة، أدب الرعب والخيال العلمي. ومن أشهر روايته \"سايكو\" والتي حولها للسينما المخرج ألفريد هيتشكوك في فيلمه الشهير سايكو.", "ألبرت بيرسون\nألبرت بيرسون (2 سبتمبر 1892 في المملكة المتحدة - 24 يناير 1975 في المملكة المتحدة) هو لاعب كرة قدم بريطاني (وحمل سابقاً جنسية المملكة المتحدة لبريطانيا العظمى وأيرلندا) في مركز الهجوم. لعب مع بورت فايل وستوكبورت كونتي ونادي روتشدیل ونادي سانت إيلي تاون ونادي ليفربول و.", "روبرت آدمسون\nروبرت أدامسون (1871 – 1935) صحفي أمريكي شغل عدة مناصب عامة. ولد في جورجيا، وبدأ كتابة مقالات لصحيفة جورجيا ماكون وهو لا يزال في فترة المراهقة. وفي سن العشرين عمل محررا لصحيفة أتلانتا كونستتيوشن. انتقل فيما بعد إلى مدينة نيويورك وعمل مراسلا لصحف نيويورك صن ونيويوك وورلد وبروكلين إيغل.", "ألفونسو لوبيز ميكلسين\nألفونسو لوبيز ميكلسين (و. 1913 – 2007 م) هو دبلوماسي، وبروفيسور (أستاذ جامعي)، ومحام من كولومبيا ولد في بوغوتا.\nوهو عضو في الحزب الليبرالي الكولومبي .", "روبرت ويلسون (عالم)\nروبرت ويلسون (و. ) هو كاتب، وروائي، وفيلسوف، و، وكاتب مسرحي، وعالم نفس، و، من الولايات المتحدة، ولد في بروكلين، وكان عضوًا في ديسكوردية، توفي في كابيتولا، سانتا كروز، كاليفورنيا، عن عمر يناهز 75 عاماً، بسبب متلازمة مابعد-شلل الأطفال.\nتعلم في .\nحصل على جوائز منها:", "ألبرت بولسن\nألبرت بولسن هو ممثل إكوادوري، ولد في 13 ديسمبر 1925 بغواياكيل في الإكوادور، وتوفي في 25 أبريل 2004 بلوس أنجلوس في الولايات المتحدة.", "ألبرت غيوروسو\nألبرت غيوروسو (و. 1915 – 2010 م) هو فيزيائي، وعالم من الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية . ولد في فاليجو، كاليفورنيا .\nشارك في مشروع مانهاتن .وكان عضواً في الأكاديمية الأمريكية للفنون والعلوم .\nتوفي في بيركيلي، كاليفورنيا ، عن عمر يناهز 95 عاماً.", "روبرت ماكفيرسون\nروبرت ماكفيرسون (بالإنجليزية :Robert MacPherson);(ولد 25 مايو 1944 في ليكوود، أوهايو) عالم ورياضياتي ومخترع أمريكي وأستاذ في جامعة برينستون وجامعة باريس وقد نال شهادة الدكتوراة مِن جامعة هارفارد وفي عام 2012 أصبح عضواً في الأكاديمية الوطنية الأمريكية للعلوم، اشتهر بِاختراعه لنظرية تقاطع التماثل في الطوبولوجيا التي قدمها في إحدى أطروحاته في جامعة براون وقد قدمها مع مارك غورسكي.", "ألبرت سيدني جونستون\nألبرت سيدني جونستون (و. 1803 – 1862 م) هو ضابط من الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية .\nويحمل رتبة عسكرية فريق أول .", "ألبرت ماكفيرسون\nألبرت ماكفيرسون (8 يوليو 1927 في المملكة المتحدة - 11 يناير 2015) هو لاعب كرة قدم بريطاني في مركز قلب الدفاع. لعب مع نادي بوري ونادي والسول و ونادي ستاليبريدج سيلتيك.", "ألبرت سميث\nألبرت سميث (و. 1793 – 1867 م) هو سياسي، ومحامي، من الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية، كان عضوًا في الحزب الديمقراطي الأمريكي، توفي في بوسطن، عن عمر يناهز 74 عاماً.", "ألبرت كان\nألبرت كان من أشهر المعماريين من مواليد 21 آذار 1869 في ألمانيا، وتوفي في 8 كانون الأول 1942 في ديترويت عاصمة ولاية ميشيغان - بالولايات المتحدة الأمريكية. يعرف أحيانا بمعماري ميشيغان.", "ألبرت ميكلسون\nتصنيف:أعضاء أجانب في الجمعية الملكية تصنيف:أعضاء هيئة تدريس جامعة شيكاغو تصنيف:أمريكيون حازوا جائزة نوبل تصنيف:أمريكيون من أصل يهودي ألماني تصنيف:تاريخ لوس أنجلوس، كاليفورنيا تصنيف:حائزون على جائزة نوبل في الفيزياء تصنيف:حائزون على جوائز الأكاديمية الوطنية للعلوم تصنيف:حائزون على وسام إليوت كريسون تصنيف:حائزون على وسام فرانكلين تصنيف:حائزون على وسام كوبلاي تصنيف:خريجو الأكاديمية البحرية الأمريكية تصنيف:خريجو جامعة هومبولدت في برلين تصنيف:ضباط بحرية الولايات المتحدة تصنيف:علماء أمريكيون في القرن 20 تصنيف:علماء أمريكيون يهود تصنيف:علماء الفيزياء البصرية تصنيف:علماء الفيزياء التجريبية تصنيف:فيزيائيو القرن 20 تصنيف:فيزيائيون أمريكيون تصنيف:فيزيائيون أمريكيون في القرن 20 تصنيف:فيزيائيون يهود تصنيف:لاأدريون أمريكيون تصنيف:لاأدريون يهود تصنيف:مخترعون يهود تصنيف:مواليد 1852 تصنيف:وفيات 1931 تصنيف:وفيات في باسادينا (كاليفورنيا) تصنيف:يهود حازوا جائزة نوبل", "روبرت ريتشاردسون\nولد روبرت ريتشاردسون في 26 يونيو 1937 في العاصمة واشنطن وتعلقت أبحاثه بدراسة خواص المادة عند درجات الحرارة المنخفضة جدا القريبة من درجة الصفر المطلق. وتوصل إلى اكتشافه الميوعة الفائقة للهيليوم-3الذي توصل إليه بالتعاون مع دافيد لي عام 1972 وأجريا أبحاثهما في معامل جامعة كورنيل.", "ألبرت سميث (مخرج)\nألبرت سميث (و. ) هو مخرج أفلام، ومنتج أفلام، وممثل، من المملكة المتحدة، توفي في هوليوود، عن عمر يناهز 84 عاماً.", "جاك ألبرتسون\nجاك ألبرتسون (مواليد 16 يونيو 1907 - الوفاة 25 نوفمبر 1981) هو ممثل أمريكي بدأ مسيرته الفنية عام 1938. كما أنه من الفائزين بجوائز الأوسكار وجائزة إيمي.", "ميلتون إريكسون\nميلتون هايلاند إريكسون (5 ديسمبر 1901 - 25 مارس 1980) طبيب نفسي وعالم نفس أمريكي، لعب دورًا مهمًا في تطوير التنويم الإيحائي السريري، قام بالعديد من الدراسات للعلاج بالتنويم الإيحائي والعلاج العائلي. أسس إريكسون الجمعية الأمريكية للتنويم الإيحائي السريري وهو زميل الاتحاد الأمريكي للأطباء النفسيين ورابطة علم النفس الأمريكية والجمعية الأمريكية لعلاج المرضى النفسيين.", "روبرت سيسيل\nادجار ألجيرنون روبرت جاسكوين هو سياسي ومحامي وديبلوماسي بريطاني ولد في 14 سبتمبر 1864 وتوفي في 24 نوفمبر 1958 . هو أحد مؤسسي عصبة الأمم ومن أشد مدافيعها مما جعله يتحصل على جائزة نوبل للسلام سنة 1937.", "ميكيلانجيلو\nقام ميكيلانجيلو في فترة من حياته بمحاولة تدمير كافة اللوحات التي قام برسمها ولم يبق من لوحاته إلا بضعة لوحات ومنها لوحة باسم \"دراسة لجذع الذكر\"، التي أكملها عام 1550 والتي بيعت في صالة مزادات كريستي بنحو أربعة ملايين دولار، وكانت هذه اللوحة واحدة من عدة رسومات قليلة للأعمال الأخيرة لميكيلانجيلو الذي توفي عام 1564، والتي تبدو أنها تمت بصلة إلى شخصية المسيح.[6] أثارت عملية تنظيف تمثال داوود الشهير، في الذكرى الخمسمئة لنحته، بالمياه المقطرة، جدلا واسعا، حيث وافق وزير الثقافة الإيطالي \"جوليانو أوروباني\" على تنظيفه رغم احتجاج العديد من الخبراء على طريقة التنظيف،[7] حيث رأى البعض أن تلك الطريقة في التنظيف ستلحق أضرارا بالرخام وسط مخاوف من أن تصبح منحوتة داوود أشبه بمنحوتة عادية من الجص،[8] وطرح الخبراء فكرة التنظيف الجاف الذي رفضه وزير الثقافة جوليانو أوروباني.", "مايكل جاكسون\nفي عام 1984 دخل جاكسون موسوعة جينيس كأكثر ألبوم مبيعاً بالتاريخ بما يقارب الـ 104 مليون نسخة \"آخر إحصائية رسمية في عام 2006\"، الألبوم أيضا الأول والوحيد الذي بدأ السنة بالمرتبة الأولى وأنهى السنة بالمرتبة الأولى، أيضاً في نفس العام جاكسون اُستُقبِل في البيت الأبيض لتبرعه بأغنية \" Beat It \" للحكومة الأمريكية في إطار محاربة القيادة تحت تأثير الكحول.", "وليام لينكولن بيكويل\nوليام لينكولن بيكويل (26 نوفمبر 1888 - 21 مايو 1969) كان الأمريكي الوحيد على متن سفية التحمل خلال 1914-1916 في المهمة الإمبراطورية عبر القطب المتجمد الجنوبي مع إرنست شاكلتون.\nتوجد جزيرة في القارة القطبية الجنوبية تدعى جزيرة بيكويل وقد سميت بإسمه تكريما له. \nتوفي في 21 مايو 1969 في الدوقات، ميشيغان. ودفن في مقبرة عمانوئيل اللوثرية الكنيسة في سكانديا، ميشيغان.", "مظهر وصحة مايكل جاكسون\nكان مايكل جاكسون (29 أغسطس 1958 - 25 يونيو 2009) موسيقي أمريكي أمضى أكثر من أربعين سنة أمام الأضواء،\nفي منتصف الثمانينات من القرن العشرين، أصبح واضحاً أن مظهر جاكسون بدأ بالتغير، إذ أصبح لون بشرته أفتح، كما تغير شكل أنفه، وخسر وزناً. كان سبب لون البشرة الأفتح بسبب البهاق والذئبة الحمامية المجموعية - حيث قام الأطباء بتشخيص جاكسون بالمرضين في 1986 - واستعماله مساحيق التجميل لمحاولته إخفاء البشرة المبيضة. كما تكهن الأطباء بأنه خضع لعملية تجميل الأنف.", "ألبرت غلاتين براون\nوهو سياسي أمريكي ينتمي إلى الحزب الديمقراطي ولد ألبرت غلاتين براون في 31 أيار من سنة 1813 في مقاطعة تشيستر بولاية كارولينا الجنوبية بدا ألبرت غلاتين براون حياته المهنية في عام 1833 بصفته محامي في ولاية مسيسيبي شغل براون منصب حاكم ولاية مسيسيبي ما بين عامي 1844 إلى عام 1848 شغل براون عضوا في مجلسي الكونغرس الأمريكي ممثلا عن ولاية مسيسيبي حيث كان عضوا في مجلس النواب مرتين المرة الأولى كانت ما بين عامي 1839 إلى عام 1841 والمرة الثانية كانت من عام 1847 إلى عام 1853 ثم أصبح بعد ذلك عضوا في مجلس الشيوخ ما بين عامي 1854 إلى عام 1861 وخدم كذلك في مجلس الشيوخ للولايات الكونفدرالية الأمريكية من عام 1862 إلى عام 1865 توفي ألبرت غلاتين براون في 12 حزيران من سنة 1880 في ولاية مسيسيبي.", "ألبرت فيكتور دوق كلارنس وأفوندال\nالأمير ألبرت فيكتور دوق كلارنس وأفوندال (اسمه الكامل:ألبرت فيكتور المسيحي إدوارد، 8 يناير 1864 - 14 يناير 1892) كان الابن البكر للألبرت إدوارد أمير ويلز (ولاحقا أصبح الملك إدوارد السابع) وحفيد الملكة فيكتوريا وكان الثاني في خط الخلافة على العرش البريطاني، ولكن لم يصبح ملك وتوفي قبل والده وجدته الملكة.\nولد الأمير ألبرت فيكتور على 8 يناير 1864، بيت فروغمور، وندسور، بيركشاير وكان الابن البكر للألبرت إدوارد أمير ويلز (ولاحقا أصبح الملك إدوارد السابع) وحفيد الملكة فيكتوريا وكان الثاني في خط الخلافة على العرش البريطاني، ولكن لم يصبح ملك وتوفي قبل والده وجدته الملكة.\nتوفي الأمير ألبرت فيكتور في 14 يناير 1892 في ساندرينجهام البيت، نورفولك عن عمر يناهز 28 سنة.", "مايكل جاكسون\nفي يوم 25 يونيو 2009 سقط مايكل جاكسون قبل وقت قصير من ظهر اليوم مغشياً عليه في قصره في حي هولمبي هيلز[7] في لوس أنجلوس، ليتم نقله فورا إلى مركز رونالد ريغان الطبي الجامعي بلوس أنجلوس (UCLA) بعد أن تلقى المسعفون في دائرة مكافحة الحريق في لوس أنجلوس مكالمة طوارئ من الرقم 911 في الساعة 12:22 مساء (19:22 التوقيت العالمي الموحد)، وصلوا بعدها خلال ثلاث دقائق حيث وجدوا طبيبه الخاص ينجز إنعاشا قلبيا رئويا له بعد أن تأكد لهم أن المغني قد توقف عن التنفس، وقد استمرت بعدها جهود الطاقم لإنعاشه طول طريقهم إلى المستشفى الجامعي مركز رونالد ريغان الطبي لجامعة كاليفورنيا والواقع على بعد بضعة كيلومترات عن القصر دون جدوى، ولأكثر من ساعة بعد وصولهم في الساعة 1:13 بعد الظهر (20:13 بالتوقيت العالمي الموحد). ليعلن الفريق الطبي أن مايكل فارق الحياة في الساعة 2:26 مساء (21:26 بالتوقيت العالمي الموحد) وقد تجاوز الخمسين عاماً[8]. وقد أعلنت وفاته رسميا إلى الصحافة الأمريكية بعد بضع دقائق من طرف شقيقه جيرمين جاكسون. دفن جثمان جاكسون في 3 سبتمبر 2009، في مقبرة فورست لون ميموريال بارك في غليندال بولاية كاليفورنيا.", "مايكل جاكسون\nفي عام 1986 قام جاكسون في بطولة الفيلم الثلاثي الأبعاد Captain EO الذي عرض في مدينة ديزني من عام 1986 إلى 1997، وكانت تكلفة الفيلم تتراوح بين 16 – 30 مليون دولار، أستمر الفيلم حوالي 16 دقيقة جلعت منه أحد أغلى الأفلام بالنسبة لمدته، وكان نجاحه التجاري كبيرا،[6] ولقد أثار جاكسون الجدل عندما أعلن نيته في شراء أسهم شركة ATV لتسجيل حقوق الملكية، والتي كانت تضم حقوق ملكية لأغاني فرقة البيتلز والفيس بريسلي بمبلغ 47 مليون دولار، ولقد سبب إثارة الجدل لأنه اشترى أسهم الشركة بعدما توصل صديقه بول ماكورتني للصفقة، وأعتبر بول خطوة جاكسون بأنها غير محسوبة ومفاجئة مما أغضبه، إلا أنه اعتبر نفسه هو المخطئ لأنه نصح جاكسون بامتلاك حقوق ملكية أغاني الفرق والمغنيين الآخرين، إلا أنه لم يتوقع أن يمتلك جاكسون أغاني البيتلز.", "البيتلز\nدخل البيتلز كتاب غينيس للأرقام القياسية من خلال المبيعات الأكثر حول العالم بعد سنوات طويله من توقفهم عن الغناء بليون و 600 مليون والتي جاوزت مبيعات ملك الروك إلفيس بريسلي وهذا يعود بفضل المدة الطويلة التي وجد فيها فريق البيتلز ليس إلا ، ولكن ملك البوب مايكل جاكسون تخطى البيتلز من حيث المبيعات وهو على قيد الحياة فهو أكثر مغني مبيعاً وهو على قيد الحياة بـ أكثر من 750 مليون سجل عالميا ومليار سجل بعد وفاته وله رقم قياسي في غينيس أيضا، لكن البيتلز في سنوات نشاطهم باعوا 600 مليون سجل فقط، كما أن أغنيتهم الشهيرة Yesterday تم انتخابها كأحد أفضل أغاني البوب في القرن العشرين، وهي أكثر أغنية تم غناؤها من قبل مئات نجوم الغناء حول العالم. وتم تصنيف أغنية Sgt. Peppers Lonely Hearts Club Band كأسرع أغنية مبيعاً في العالم عندما غناها نجم الفرقة بول مكارتني مع فرقة الـ U2 في حفلة Live Aid في اسكتلندا سنة 2005.", "ألبرت ميكلسون\nلائحة اليهود الحاصلين على جائزة نوبل.", "بيت إت (أغنية)\nتغلب عليه هي أغنية روك للفنان الأمريكي مايكل جاكسون، والتي أخذت من الألبوم ثريلر الذي صدر في عام 1982 .كتبها و لحنها مايكل جاكسون مع إنتاج مشترك مع كوينسي جونز، هي ثالث أغنية من الألبوم . في الأصل، كان يحلم جونز بأغنية روك 'n' roll بلهجة الموسيقى السوداء، في حين لا ينجذب جاكسون إلى هذا النوع the rock . إدي فان هالين، هي الفرقة الروك فان هالين، أعطت أغنية منفردة شهيرة بالغيتار، الذي كان لم تدفع في مواضع، \" أنا فعلت هذا كخدمة، هذا واجبي الطبيعي\".كلمات تغلب عليه beat it (التي تستخدم في الأغنية بمعنى \" اخرج! \" ) تتكلم عن الهزيمة والشجاعة، الفعل ليس دائما للضرب وأن هناك طرق أخرى غير العنف.\nفي أعقاب المبيعات الممتازة اغنيتين لأول لألبوم thriller The Girl Is Mine Billie Jean وخرجت في 14 فبراير 1983 وحصلت على نجاح كبير في جميع أنحاء العالم باعتبارها و هذا تجاريا حيث أصبحت واحدة من أكثر الأغاني تباع في كل العصور وفي الوقت نفسه Billie Jeanو Beat It أصبحت كلاهما من أعلى 5 مبيعات قياسية، وهو إنجاز نادرا ما يحصل عليه فنانين آخرين. Beat Itوضعت في قرص من البلاتين سنة 1989 . الفيديو الذي يصاحب هذه الأغنية تظهر وصول جاكسون إلى مكان عصابتين متحاربتين و منعهم من القتال من خلال قوة الرقص.\nBeat It كوفئت بجوائز مرات عديدة، من بينهم اثنان من جوائز جرامي Grammy Awards ، واثنين من جوائز الموسيقى الأمريكية American Music Awards و دخول إلى منتجي الموسيقى الفيديو فئة المشاهير .و كذلك استخدمت من قبل العديد من الفنانين ، واستخدمت أيضا لحملة مكافحة المخدرات . مايكل جاكسون حصل على جائزة من الرئيس رونالد ريغان في البيت الأبيض . Beat It هي واحدة من الأغاني الرئيسية جاكسون غناها في جميع الجولات التي قام بها.", "روبرت لويس ستيفنسون\nروبرت لويس بلفور ستيفنسون (13 نوفمبر 1850 - 3 ديسمبر 1894)روائي اسكتلندي يعتبر من أعظم الأدباء الإنجليز في أواخر القرن التاسع عشر..وهو رومنسي المذهب..وكان شاعرا..و كاتب رحلات..وكاتب مقالات..ومؤلف للعديد من روايات المغامرات المحبوبة لدى قراء الأدب في معظم أنحاء العالم.", "آرثر ديكسون\nآرثر ديكسون (5 أكتوبر 1879 في المملكة المتحدة - 1946) هو لاعب كرة قدم بريطاني (وحمل سابقاً جنسية المملكة المتحدة لبريطانيا العظمى وأيرلندا) في مركز الدفاع. لعب مع توتنهام هوتسبير ونادي بيرنلي و و ونادي برادفورد بارك أفنيو.", "ألبرت كولينز\nألبرت كولينز (16 يناير 1899 في المملكة المتحدة - 1 ديسمبر 1969 في المملكة المتحدة) هو لاعب كرة قدم بريطاني (وحمل سابقاً جنسية المملكة المتحدة لبريطانيا العظمى وأيرلندا) في مركز الدفاع. لعب مع نادي غيلينغهام ونادي ميلوول و.", "روبرت نيكولاس\nروبرت نيكولاس (و. 1787 – 1857 م) هو سياسي من الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية .\nتولى منصب عضو مجلس الشيوخ الأمريكي .وهو عضو في الحزب الديمقراطي الأمريكي .", "إدموند جاكوبسون\nتوفي في 7 يناير 1983 في مستشفى جامعة نورث ويسترن في شيكاغو، إلينوي", "أندرو جونسون (رئيس)\nأندرو جونسون (29 ديسمبر 1808 - 31 يوليو 1875) هو الرئيس السابع عشر للولايات المتحدة، وتولى المنصب من عام 1865 إلى 1869. أصبح جونسون الرئيس بما أنه كان نائب الرئيس في زمن اغتيال أبراهام لينكولن. كان جونسون ديمقراطيا ودخل الانتخابات مع لينكولن على بطاقة حزب الاتحاد الوطني، وتولى الرئاسة في مع نهاية الحرب الأهلية. فضل الرئيس الجديد أن تتم إعادة الولايات المنفصلة للاتحاد بسرعة. لكن خططه لم توفر الحماية للعبيد السابقين، ودخل في صراع مع الكونغرس الذي يسيطر عليه الجمهوريون، وبلغ هذا الصراع ذروته بسحب الثقة عنه من قبل مجلس النواب. وهو أول رئيس أميركي يتعرض لهذا الإجراء، وتمت تبرئته في مجلس الشيوخ بفارق صوت واحد.", "روبرت لويس ستيفنسون\nوقد حقق ستيفنسون بهذه الأعمال شهرة عريضة في إنجلترا وأمريكا ووفى يونيو 1888 أبحر في يخت استأجره هو وعائلته من سان فرانسيسكو إلى جزر جنوب المحيط الهادي, وقد استغرقت هذه الرحلة أربعة شهور زار خلالها ثلاثا وثلاثين جزيرة، وقد وصف بعض هذه الجزر كجزر الماكيز وهاواي وساموا في كتاب \"حاشية للتاريخ \" عام 1892، وكتاب \" البحار الجنوبية\"، ثم أصبحت جزيرة (ساموا) وطنه الدائم، منذ عام 1890 فمات فيها في ديسمبر عام 1894، ودفن جثمانه في قمة جبل \" فيا \" في هذه الجزيرة أيضا.", "مايكل فيليب أندرسون\nمايكل فيليب أندرسون (25 ديسمبر 1959 - 1 فبراير 2003) هو ضابط في القوات الجوية الأمريكية ورائد فضاء في وكالة ناسا وأحد الذين لقوا حتفهم في كارثة تفكك مكوك الفضاء كولومبيا بعد عودته للأرض.", "مارك آرونسون\nيعتبر آرونسون من أوائل الفلكيين الذين حاولوا تصوير المادة المظلمة باستخدام التصوير بالأشعة تحت الحمراء عند محاولاته تصوير الهالات تحت الحمراء من مادة مجهولة حول المجرات التي يمكن أن تكون المادة المظلمة.\nتوفي آرونسون في حادث في مساء يوم 30 أبريل 1987 أثناء تواجده في قبة تلسكوب مايول (4 متر) داخل المرصد الوطني كيت بيك، حيث تم سحقه من قبل الفتحة المؤدية إلى المنصة التي أغلقت عليه بواسطة سلم امتد من قبة تلسكوب الدوران. على الرغم أن المفتاح الموجود على الفتحة بقوم بإيقاف محرك تدوير القبة تلقائيًا إلا أن الطاقة المتبقية في المحرك سمحت له بضرب الفتحة الخارجية للقبة. تم تصحيح هذت الخلل بتشذيب السلم وإعادة تصميم الفتحة للتزحلق على الجانبين، بالتوازي مع جدار القبة.\nتم تكريم آرونسون في حياته حيث حصل علي:\nكما تم تكريم بعد وفاته:", "مايكل سترن هارت\nتوفي مايكل هارت في السادس من سبتمبر 2011 عن عمر ناهز الرابعة والستين (64) عاما.", "ريتشارد نيكسون\nعاش نيكسون في كاليفورنيا الـ 20 سنة الأخيرة من عمره بعد استقالته، وتوفي يوم 22 أبريل 1994 إثر نوبة قلبية شديدة وهو في الحادية والثمانين وأعلن يوم حداد وطني في أمريكا وأغلق الكونغرس والمحكمة العليا وبورصة نيويورك وتوقف توزيع البريد ونكست الأعلام إلى منتصف السارية في داخل أمريكا مخلفا وراءه سيرة لأول رئيس أمريكي يستقيل بطريقة مخزية.", "روبرت مايكل وايت\nروبرت مايكل وايت (مواليد 06 يوليو 1924 - الوفاة 17 مارس 2010)الأمريكي، هو طيار اختبار للطائرات العسكرية التجريبية، و لواء في القوات الجوية الأمريكية. خلال ستينات القرن العشرين قام وايت بكسر وتسجيل أرقام جددة للسرعة على متن الطائرة التجريبية من طراز نورث أمريكان إكس-15، كما أشرف على تصميم وتطوير العديد من الطائرات العسكرية الحديثة.", "مايكل جاكسون\nأعلنت (GOOGLE) و(جوجل ترند).. أنها سجلت أكبر رقم للبحث على محركها منذ بدايتها..ووصفت وفاة مايكل الغامضة بـ(البركان)...أيضا أعلنت أنه ما بين الساعة 14:40 و15:15 \"بتوقيت لوس أنجلوس\" في 25 يونيو، وجد بعض مستخدموا جوجل الإخبارية صعوبة في الوصول إلى نتائج بحث متصلة بمايكل جاكسون. وسجلت مؤسسة (Wikipedia)، ما يقارب من مليون زائر خلال الساعة على سيرة مايكل جاكسون في موقعها كما أن الكثير الكثير من المواقع المتخصصة في أخبار النجوم والمواقع الأجتماعية مثل (فيس بوك) أصيبت بالشلل الكامل بسبب الازدحام الشديد لمتابعة الأخبار... خصوصا (TMZ) والذي كان أول من أطلق الخبر.", "مايكل جاكسون\nفي عام 1996 شارك جاكسون مع أولاد اخيه \"فرقة 3T\" بإغنيتهم Why التي احتلت المرتبة الثانية بالمملكة المتحدة. بنفس العالم طلق جاكسون ليزا ماري بريلسي وتزوج من ممرضته ديبي رو خلال جولته الغنائية بأستراليا، ديبي حملت بأول اطفال جاكسون، برنس مايكل جوزيف جاكسون، الذي ولد في عام 1997, أيضاً في عام 1997 جاكسون ارسل ألبوم الريمكس Blood On The Dance Floor/HIStory In The MIX الالبوم باع 8 مليون نسخة مما جعله أكثر ألبوم ريمكس مبيعاً بالتاريخ واحتل المرتبة الأولى، أول إصدار من الالبوم كانت أغنية Blood On The Floor التي صدرت بالمملكة المتحدة ووصلت المرتبة الأولى الكليب تدور قصته في ملهى ليلي وكان من إخراج وكلمات وألحان جاكسون، جاكسون أيضاً اضاف الاغنية لجولته الغنائية، ثاني اصدار كانت أغنية Ghosts التي وصلت المرتبة الخامسة بالمملكة المتحدة، لكن لم تصدر بالولايات المتحدة، كليب الأغنية يعد أطول كليب، بطول 35 دقيقة. في عام 1998 وبعد إنتهاء الجولة الغنائية لجاكسون، ولدت زوجته ديبي رو بأبنته باريس كاثرين مايكل جاكسون.", "جون واطسون\nجون برودوس واطسون (John Broadus Watson) (التاسع من يناير 1878 ــ الخامس والعشرين من سبتمبر 1958) هو عالم نفس أمريكي أسس المدرسة النفسية المعروفة باسم السلوكية (Behaviorism)، أحدث واطسون تغييرًا في علم النفس خلال خطبته التي حملت عنوان، علم النفس كما يراه السلوكيون، والتي ألقاها في جامعة كولومبيا عام 1913،[1] ومن خلال منهجه السلوكي، قام واطسون بعمل بحثٍ على سلوك الحيوان وتربية الأطفال والدعاية والإعلان، بالإضافة إلى أنه قام بعمل التجربة المثيرة للجدل والمعروفة باسم تجربة \"ألبرت الصغير\" (Little Albert).", "بيل نيكلسون\nويليام إدوارد نيكلسون والمعروف بـ\"بيل نيكلسون\" لاعب ومدرب كرة قدم سابق ولد في 29 يناير 1919 وتوفى في 23 أكتوبر 2004 كرس حياته في خدمة نادي توتنهام هوتسبير بداية كلاعب ومن ثم إدارياً وبعد ذلك مدرباً قبل أن يصبح مستشاراً إلى أن ينتهي به المطاف كـ رئيس النادي الفخري .", "إليزابيث ماكسويل\nالدكتورة إليزابيث بيتي ماكسويل \n(من موليد 11 مارس 1921 - وتُوفيت 7 أغسطس 2013) هي باحثة فرنسية باحثة في الهولوكوست أنشأت مجلة هولوكوست لإجراء الدراسات على الإبادة الجماعية في عام 1987. تزوجت ماكسويل من الملياردير روبرت ماكسويل.", "مايكل إيمرسون\nمايكل إيمرسون (Michael Emerson) ممثل أمريكي من مواليد 7 سبتمبر 1954، حاصل على جائزة الإيمي 2001 لأفضل ممثل ضيف في مسلسل درامي عن دوره في مسلسل ذا براكتيس. شارك في المسلسل لوست (مسلسل أمريكي).بطل مسلسل بيرسون أوف انترست 2011", "مايكل جاكسون\nوأصيب موقع الصحيفة \"لوس أنجلوس تايمز\" بالشلل، لأنها كانت أول وسيلة إعلام تأكد وفاة جاكسون توقفت حركة \"الرسائل المباشرة\" لـ\"أمريكا أون لاين AOL\" على الموقع لمدة 40 دقيقة منذ إعلان الوفاة وصرحت في بيان رسمي (اليوم (الخميس) مثل لحظة تطور في تاريخ الإنترنت.. لم نشهد شيئاً كهذا البتة، لا في الحجم أو العمق.)", "روبرت ميدلتون\nروبرت ميدلتون هو ممثل أمريكي، ولد في 13 مايو 1911 بسينسيناتي في الولايات المتحدة، وتوفي في 14 يونيو 1977 في الولايات المتحدة بسبب قصور القلب.", "هيكتور ماكفرسون\nهيكتور ماكفرسون (و. 1888 – 1956 م) هو عالم فلك، وكاتب، وكاهن ولد في إدنبرة .\nتوفي في إدنبرة، عن عمر يناهز 68 عاماً.", "ميتوكندريون\nاكتشف العالم بيتر ميتشيل عام 1957 مادة الأوبيكينون 10 وعيّن وظيفتها خلال عملية التنفس، ونال جائزة نوبل عام 1978 على اكتشافه هذا. بعد ذلك لوحظ أن مرضي القلب الذين يعالجون بمادة ستاتين Statine يعانون عادة من الإرهاق بسبب قلة مساعد الإنزيم Q-10 (الأوبيكينون) في المتقدرات.", "مايكل ويلسون (كاتب)\nمايكل ويلسون (و. 1914 – 1978 م) هو كاتب سيناريو، من الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية، ولد في أوكلاهوما، توفي في لوس أنجلوس، عن عمر يناهز 64 عاماً، بسبب نوبة قلبية.", "جيلبرت أندرسون\nجيلبرت \"برونشو بيلي\" أندرسون (و. 1880 – 1971 م) هو ممثل، ومخرج سينمائي، وكاتب سيناريو، ومنتج أفلام، وممثل مسرحي، من الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية، ولد في ليتل روك، أركنساس، توفي عن عمر يناهز 91 عاماً.", "بيرت ويلكينسون\nبيرت ويلكينسون (2 أغسطس 1922 بسندرلاند في المملكة المتحدة - 9 يوليو 2011) هو لاعب كرة قدم بريطاني (وحمل سابقاً جنسية المملكة المتحدة لبريطانيا العظمى وأيرلندا) في مركز الظهير. لعب مع و ولينكولن سيتي أف سي و.", "ألبرت ويليامسون\nألبرت ويليامسون (1866 في المملكة المتحدة - 1951) هو لاعب كرة قدم بريطاني (وحمل سابقاً جنسية المملكة المتحدة لبريطانيا العظمى وأيرلندا) في مركز . لعب مع ديربي كاونتي ونوتس كاونتي ونوتينغهام فورست.", "بيل نيكلسون\nوصيف الدوري الإنجليزي الممتاز : 1952 , 1960 , 1963\nوصيف الدوري الأوروبي : 1974توفي بيل نيكلسون في 23 أكتوبر عام 2004 بعد صراع طويل مع المرض .", "ألبرت جاكسون\nألبرت جاكسون (و. ) هو عالم نبات بريطاني، توفي عن عمر يناهز 71 عاماً.", "ألبيرت اوبل\n\"ما بين Die Juraformation Englands\" ، \"Frankreichs und des südwestlichen Deutschlands\" \"1856-1858\". ذهب إلى متحف الحفريات في ميونيخ في 1858 وأصبح مساعد هناك. في عام 1860 أصبح أستاذا لعلم الحفريات في جامعة ميونيخ. ثم بعد ذلك بعام ، أصبح مدير مجموعة الباليونتولوجي. من بين أعماله الأخيرة ، يمكن القول إن أهمها كان متحف بالانتولوجيك ميتشيلونغن آدم دي كونيغليشن بايرشين شتاتيس (1862-1865). توفي في 23 ديسمبر 1865 عن عمر يناهز الرابعة والثلاثين. وسميت ريدل Dorsum أوبل على القمر باسمه ، كما هو جنس الجمبري الأحفوري Albertoppelia.", "مايك وليامسون\nنيوكاسل يونايتد", "ألبرت ويلسون\nألبرت ويلسون (و. 1902 – 1996 م) هو ، ومهندس المواقع، وعالم نبات، و، من الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية، توفي عن عمر يناهز 94 عاماً.", "روبرت جونسون\nكان روبرت ليروي جونسون (Robert Leroy Johnson) (المولود في 8 من مايو 1911م – 16 من أغسطس 1938م) موسيقارًا أمريكيًا ومغنيًا لموسيقى البلوز (blues). وتعرض تسجيلاته المميزة من 1936ـ37 عرض مزيج من الغناء، ومهارات الغيتار، وموهبة تأليف الأغاني المواهب التي أثرت في الأجيال اللاحقة من الموسيقيين. أدت حياة جونسون الغامضة والفقيرة وإلى وفاته في سن السابعة والعشرين (27 Club) كما أدت إلى نهوض المزيد من الأساطير، بما في ذلك أسطورة فاوست (Faust) بأنه باع روحه عند مفارق الطرق لتحقيق النجاح. لم يتمتع جونسون، كمؤد متجول يعزف في الغالب على زوايا الشوارع، في الحانات الريفية، والحفلات الراقصة ليلة السبت، سوى بنجاحٍ تجاريٍ قليلٍ ولم يذع صيته كثيرًا في حياته.", "روبرت ريتشاردسون\nتوفي في 19 فبراير 2013.", "روبرت مككمسون\nولد في دنفر، كولورادو. عمل في استوديو رومر غراي في كاليفورنيا، أنتج الاستوديو العديد من الكارتون لكن لم يتم توزيعها، لهذا انتقل إلى والت ديزني لسنتين قبل أن ينتقل إلى هارمن-آيزينغ برودكشنز. في ذلك الوقت تعرض لارتجاج مخي إثر حادث، صرح لاحقا أن ذلك زاد من تخيلاته ودفعه بالتالي للمزيد من الإنتاج، عمل بعدها لدى ليون شليسنجر كرسام، بعد أن باع شليسنجر شركته إلى وارنر براذرز، تمت ترقية مككمسون إلى مخرج عام 1945 ليحل مكان فرانك تاشلين، عندما غادر بوب كلامبيت عين مككمسون في وحدة كلامبيت السابقة وعين آرثر دايفس في وحدة مككمسون السابقة. أكمل مككمسون العمل مع فريز فريلينغ وتشاك جونز حتى إغلاق الاستوديو عام 1962. طيلة عمله في استوديو وارنر، قدم مككمسون العديد من شخصيات \"لووني تونز\" و\"ميري ميلوديز\"، منها شخصية فوغهورن ليغهورن، تاسماينيان ديفل، وسبيدي غونزالس، كما وأخرج العروض التي جمعت سيلفستر مع هيبتي هوبر.", "روبرت مككمسون\nروبرت \"بوب\" مككمسون, الأب ولد وتوفي (13 أكتوبر 1910- 29 سبتمبر 1977) كان رسام رسوم متحركة ومخرج كارتون أمريكي، أشهر ما قدمه كان \"لووني تونز\" و\"ميري ميلوديز\" لمصلحة وارنر براذرز.", "روبرت سميثسون\nروبرت سميثسون (و. ) هو ، وفنان، و، ومصور أمريكي، شارك في ، توفي في أماريلو، عن عمر يناهز 35 عاماً، بسبب حادث مرور.\nتعلم في رابطة طلاب الفن في نيويورك.", "كومفرت ادامز\nكومفرت أفيري ادامز (1 نوفمبر 1868 - 21 فبراير 1958) هومهندس كهربائي أمريكي، عندما كان طالبًا ساعد ألبرت ميكلسون في تجربة ميكلسون ومورلي في عام 1887 والتي كانت داعمًا في وقتٍ لاحق لنظرية النسبية الخاصة لألبرت أينشتاين في عام 1905.حصل ادامز على وسام إديسون ووسام لام.", "برت لانكستر\nبرتون ستيفان \"برت\" لانكستر (2 نوفمبر 1913 -20 أكتوبر 1994) ممثل أمريكي ترشح أربع مرات لجائزة الأوسكار وفاز بواحدة منها عن فيلم إلمر جانتري في عام 1962 كما فاز عن دوره بهذا الفيلم بجائزة الغولدن غلوب وفاز بجائزة بافتا عن دوره في فيلم رجل طيور ألكتراز، احتل لانكتسر المركز التاسع عشر ضمن قائمة معهد الفيلم الأمريكي 100 عام و100 ممثل، شارك طوال مسيرته السينمائية في بطولة عدة أفلام منها من هنا إلى الخلود وعودي يا ليتل شيبا والرائحة الحلوة للنجاح وطاولات منفصلة وذا كساندرا كروسينغ وحكم في نورمبرغ.", "دونالد ديفيدسن\nهربرت دونالد ديفيدسون (6 مارس 1917—30 أغسطس 2003) كان الفيلسوف الأميركي الذي شغل منصب أستاذ Slusser الفلسفة في جامعة كاليفورنيا، بيركلي 1981-2003 بعد أن شغل وظائف التدريس الموضوعية في جامعة ستانفورد، جامعة روكفلر، جامعة برنستون، وجامعة شيكاغو. عمله كان لها تأثير كبير في العديد من مجالات الفلسفة من 1960s فصاعدا، ولا سيما في فلسفة العقل، فلسفة اللغة، ونظرية العمل. على الرغم من نشر معظمها في شكل من المقالات القصيرة التي لا تعتمد بشكل صريح على أي نظرية عليا، ويلاحظ مع ذلك عمله لأساليب الطابع الموحد بقوة إلى نفسه، والأفكار هي التي مورست على عدد كبير من المشاكل لا علاقة لها على ما يبدو ولتوليف عمل عدد كبير من الفلاسفة الآخرين، بما في ذلك أرسطو، كانط، فيتجنشتاين، P. فرانك رامزي، ببخار الماء كواين، وG. M. E. Anscombe.\nمحتويات\nحياة", "كويت ألبرتسون\nكويت ألبرتسون مواليد 14 أكتوبر 1880 في بنسيلفانيا، الولايات المتحدة - الوفاة 13 ديسمبر 1953 في لوس أنجلوس، هو ممثل سينما صامتة أمريكي بدأ مسيرته الفنية سنة 1918. امتدت مسيرته الفنية لأكثر من 18 عاما. ظهر في أفلام مثل من أجل الحرية وقضية كارتر.", "روبرت أكلاند\nتوفي أكلاند يوم الأربعاء 6 يناير 2016.", "ضوء\nفي عام 1926 كرر الفيزيائي الأمريكي ألبرت ميكلسون طريقة فوكو باستخدام مرايا دوارة مطورة لقياس الزمن اللازم للضوء لاتمام رحلة ذهاب وعودة من ماونت ويلسون إلى ماونت سان انطونيو في كاليفورنيا. أسفرت القياسات الدقيقة عن سرعة للضوء تساوي 299,796,000 م/ث.[18] ونسبة الخطأ المحتمل في هذا الرقم أقل من أربعة كيلومترات لكل ثانية.", "جورج ألفرد كارلسون\nوهو سياسي أمريكي ينتمي إلى الحزب الجمهوري ولد جورج ألفرد كارلسون في 23 تشرين الأول -أكتوبر من سنة 1876 في ولاية أيوا الأمريكية تخرج كارلسون في عام 1902 من جامعة كولورادو شغل كارلسون منصب حاكم ولاية كولورادو الأمريكية ما بين عامي 1915 إلى عام 1917 توفي جورج ألفرد كارلسون في 6 كانون الأول - ديسمبر من سنة 1926 في مدينة دنفر بولاية كولورادو.", "ألبرت جونسون (لاعب كرة قدم)\nألبرت جونسون (7 سبتمبر 1923 في المملكة المتحدة - 1 ديسمبر 1989 بنورثامبتون في المملكة المتحدة) هو لاعب كرة قدم بريطاني (وحمل سابقاً جنسية المملكة المتحدة لبريطانيا العظمى وأيرلندا) في مركز الدفاع.", "روبرت ردفيلد\nتوفي سنة 1958.", "ألبرت سميث (صحفي)\nألبرت سميث (و. 1913 – 1970 م) هو صحفي، من الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية، توفي عن عمر يناهز 57 عاماً.", "فيرن ميكلسن\nفيرن ميكلسن مواليد 21 أكتوبر 1928 في بارلير - الوفاة 21 نوفمبر 2013، كان لاعب كرة سلة أمريكي تحول إلى التدريب بعد الاعتزال بدأ مسيرته الاحترافية في سنة 1949. بلغ طوله . اعتزل اللعب في 1959.", "بيتر ميكلسن\nبيتر ميكلسن، من مواليد 1 مايو 1960، حكم كرة قدم دنماركي دولي سابق.", "هنري ألين نيكولسون\nتوفي 19 يناير 1899.", "ألان مايكلسين\nألان مايكلسين (2 نوفمبر 1947 بكوبنهاغن في الدنمارك - 2 مارس 2016) هو مدرب كرة قدم ولاعب كرة قدم دانمركي في مركز الوسط. شارك مع ومنتخب الدنمارك تحت 21 سنة لكرة القدم ومنتخب الدنمارك لكرة القدم. أما مع النوادي، فقد لعب مع آينتراخت براونشفايغ ونادي بولدكلوبين 1903 ونادي كياسو ونادي نانت و و و.", "بيتر جاكسون (ملاكم)\nبيتر جاكسون مواليد 3 يوليو 1861 - الوفاة 13 يوليو 1901، كان ملاكم أسترالي سابق صنّف ضمن فئة الوزن الثقيل. في 1989 خسر أمام بطل العالم السابق جيمس جيفريز.", "ألبرت بيري\nألبرت بيري" ]

[ 9.328125 ]

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[ "Louise Glück Louise Elisabeth Glück (born April 22, 1943) is an American poet. She was appointed Poet Laureate Consultant in Poetry to the Library of Congress in 2003, after serving as a Special Bicentennial Consultant three years prior in 2000. She won the National Book Award for Poetry in 2014 for \"Faithful and Virtuous Night\".", "Paul Celan Paul Celan ( ; ] ; 23 November 1920 – c. 20 April 1970) was a Romanian-born German language poet and translator. He was born as Paul Antschel to a Jewish family in Cernăuți (German: Czernowitz), in the then Kingdom of Romania (now Chernivtsy, Ukraine), and adopted the pseudonym \"Paul Celan\". He became one of the major German-language poets of the post-World War II era." ]

[ "Louise Jobin Louise Jobin (born 29 September 1944) is a Canadian costume designer and art director who has worked in both film and television.", "Paul Livingston Paul James Livingston (born March 1956 in Sydney, NSW), popularly known as his alter ego Flacco, is an Australian comedian who has regularly appeared on many television shows, predominantly on ABC TV and Network Ten, including \"Good News Week\", \"The Sandman and Flacco Special\", \"The Big Gig\", \"DAAS Kapital\", \"The Money or the Gun\", \"The Fat\" and \"The Sideshow\". He also was on \"Triple J Breakfast\" from 1994 to 1997, \"Doom Runners\" (1997), and is on ABC Radio National. He has also acted on stage and in film. He was joint winner of the Sidney Myer Performing Arts Award in 1996 for outstanding achievement in the performing arts in Australia. Livingston also wrote the play \"Emma's Nose\" about the relationship of Sigmund Freud, Wilhelm Fliess and their patient Emma Eckstein.", "Louise Golbey Louise Golbey is a British singer, songwriter, and musician.", "Germaine Dulac Germaine Dulac (] ; born Charlotte Elisabeth Germaine Saisset-Schneider; 17 November 1882 – 20 July 1942) was a French filmmaker, film theorist, journalist and critic. She was born in Amiens and moved to Paris in early childhood. A few years after her marriage she embarked on a journalistic career in a feminist magazine, and later became interested in film. With the help of her husband and friend she founded a film company and directed a few commercial works before slowly moving into Impressionist and Surrealist territory. She is best known today for her Impressionist film, \"La Souriante Madame Beudet\" (\"The Smiling Madam Beudet\", 1922/23), and her Surrealist experiment, \"La Coquille et le Clergyman\" (\"The Seashell and the Clergyman\", 1928). Her career as filmmaker suffered after the introduction of sound film and she spent the last decade of her life working on newsreels for Pathé and Gaumont.", "Jack Gwynne Jack Gwynne (12 April 1895 – 7 December 1969) was an American illusionist, actor and creator of magic effects.", "Gerry Cowper Geraldine \"Gerry\" Cowper (born 23 June 1958) is an English actress who is best known for playing Rowan Morrison in the 1973 British Lion classic horror film, The Wicker Man and later as Rosie Miller in \"EastEnders\". In the mid-1980s she took the part of Clare France in \"After Henry\" on BBC radio and also appeared on television as Jim Hacker's daughter in \"Yes Minister\".", "Sharon Oreck Sharon Oreck (born April 10, 1955) is an American film, music video and commercial producer. She has Oscar and Grammy nominations in addition to other awards. She is credited with coining the term \"populence\". Oreck has been married to cinematographer Bill Pope since the 1980s. She was a cinema student at Los Angeles City College in Los Angeles.", "Louise Fresco Louise Ottilie Fresco (born 11 February 1952 in Meppel) is a Dutch scientist, director and writer.", "Paul Giger Paul Giger (born 1952 in Herisau, Switzerland), is a Swiss violinist and composer. He plays contemporary classical music, jazz, and free improvised music, and specializes in extended techniques.", "Louise Alexander Gallery Louise Alexander Gallery is a contemporary art gallery based in Porto Cervo, Italy. It was founded in 2007 by Frederic and Ayse Arnal. The gallery represents over fifteen artists including Barry X Ball, Enrique Martinez Celaya, Guy Bourdin, Marco Tirelli and Arik Levy.", "Sam Glucksberg Sam Glucksberg is a Canadian professor in the Psychology Department at Princeton University in New Jersey, known for his works on figurative language: metaphors, irony, sarcasm, and idioms. He is particularly known for manipulating the Candle Problem experiment which had participants figure out the best way to erect a candle on a wall. Along with performing experiments, Glucksberg has also written \"Understanding Figurative Language: From Metaphors to Idioms\", published by Oxford University Press in 2001.", "Louise De Hem Louise de Hem (1866–1922) was a Belgian painter. She grew up in Ypres, Belgium. Her talent was discovered by Théodore Ceriez (1831–1904), a painter who had married her sister Hélène. Since women were not yet admitted to the academies he educated her and already in 1885 her painting \"De Oesters\" (The Oysters) was exhibited at a salon in Spa. Jules Breton saw her work and encouraged her to go to Paris for further education.", "Charles Gleyre Marc Gabriel Charles Gleyre (2 May 1806 – 5 May 1874), was a Swiss artist, resident in France from an early age. He took over the studio of Paul Delaroche in 1843 and taught a number of younger artists who became prominent, including Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley, James Abbott McNeill Whistler, Auguste Toulmouche, and Louis-Frederic Schützenberger.", "Carol Bishop-Gwyn Carol Bishop-Gwyn is a Canadian writer and dance academic, best known as the author of \"The Pursuit of Perfection: A Life of Celia Franca\", a biography of Celia Franca published in 2011. The book was a shortlisted nominee for the Governor General's Award for English-language non-fiction at the 2012 Governor General's Awards, and for the 2013 Charles Taylor Prize.", "Françoise Mouly Françoise Mouly (] ; born 1955) is a Paris-born New York-based designer, editor, and publisher. She is best known as co-founder, co-editor, and publisher of the comics and graphics magazine \"Raw\" (1980–1991), as the publisher of Raw Books and Toon Books, and since 1993 as the art editor of \"The New Yorker\". Mouly is married to cartoonist Art Spiegelman, and is the mother of writer Nadja Spiegelman.", "Gene Hoglan Eugene \"Gene\" Victor Hoglan II (born August 31, 1967, in Dallas, Texas) is an American drummer, acclaimed for his creativity in drum arrangements, including use of abstract devices for percussion effects and his trademark lengthy double-kick drum rhythms. His highly technical playing is extremely accurate at very high and challenging tempos, earning him the nicknames \"The Atomic Clock\" and \"Human Drum Machine.\"", "Paul Greengard Paul Greengard (born December 11, 1925) is an American neuroscientist best known for his work on the molecular and cellular function of neurons. In 2000, Greengard, Arvid Carlsson and Eric Kandel were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system. He is currently Vincent Astor Professor at Rockefeller University, and serves on the Scientific Advisory Board of the Cure Alzheimer's Fund, as well as the Scientific Council of the Brain & Behavior Research Foundation. He is married to artist Ursula von Rydingsvard.", "Louise Blenman Louise Blenman has been an Appeals Court Judge of the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court since 2012. A native of Guyana, where she began her legal career, she was appointed to reside in and hear cases in Anguilla as a High Court Judge from 2003 to 2012. She also served for a time as the Solicitor General of Saint Lucia and a lecturer in law at the University of Guyana.", "Alison Geissler Alison Cornwall Geissler, née McDonald (13 April 1907 – 25 January 2011), was one of the foremost glass engravers in Scotland during the mid-twentieth century.", "Sandra Miesel Sandra Louise Miesel (born Sandra Louise Schwartz on November 25, 1941) is an American medievalist, writer and science fiction and fantasy fan. Her early work was science fiction and fantasy criticism, fields in which she has remained active. She is a literary analyst; has described herself as \"the world's greatest expert\" on Poul Anderson and Gordon R. Dickson, and has written front and back matter for many of Anderson's books." ]

[]

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[ "Yukon Yukon Yukon (; ; also commonly called the Yukon) is the smallest and westernmost of Canada's three federal territories (the other two are the Northwest Territories and Nunavut). It has the smallest population of any province or territory in Canada, with 35,874 people. Whitehorse is the territorial capital and Yukon's only city. Yukon was split from the Northwest Territories in 1898 and was originally named the Yukon Territory. The federal government's \"Yukon Act\", which received royal assent on March 27, 2002, established \"Yukon\" as the territory's official name, though \"Yukon Territory\" is also still popular in usage and Canada Post", "Demographics of Yukon of more than 100 persons are given.) Demographics of Yukon Yukon is the westernmost of Canada's three northern territories. Its capital is Whitehorse. People from Yukon are known as \"Yukoners\" (). Population of Yukon: 35,874 (2016) Percentage of Canadian population : 0.10% Population growth rate for 2007: +5.8% \"Source: Statistics Canada\" The 2006 Canadian census showed a population of 30,372.Of the 29,940 singular responses to the census question concerning 'mother tongue' the most commonly reported languages were: There were also about 40 single-language responses for Ukrainian; 30 each for Czech and the Scandinavian languages; and about 25 single-language responses each", "Demographics of Yukon Demographics of Yukon Yukon is the westernmost of Canada's three northern territories. Its capital is Whitehorse. People from Yukon are known as \"Yukoners\" (). Population of Yukon: 35,874 (2016) Percentage of Canadian population : 0.10% Population growth rate for 2007: +5.8% \"Source: Statistics Canada\" The 2006 Canadian census showed a population of 30,372.Of the 29,940 singular responses to the census question concerning 'mother tongue' the most commonly reported languages were: There were also about 40 single-language responses for Ukrainian; 30 each for Czech and the Scandinavian languages; and about 25 single-language responses each for Italian and Japanese. In addition, there", "Whitehorse, Yukon Whitehorse, Yukon Whitehorse () is the capital and only city of Yukon, and the largest city in northern Canada. It was incorporated in 1950 and is located at kilometre 1426 on the Alaska Highway in southern Yukon. Whitehorse's downtown and Riverdale areas occupy both shores of the Yukon River, which originates in British Columbia and meets the Bering Sea in Alaska. The city was named after the White Horse Rapids for their resemblance to the mane of a white horse, near Miles Canyon, before the river was dammed. Because of the city's location in the Whitehorse valley, the climate is", "Whitehorse, Yukon stayed in office until his death in 1999. Whitehorse, Yukon Whitehorse () is the capital and only city of Yukon, and the largest city in northern Canada. It was incorporated in 1950 and is located at kilometre 1426 on the Alaska Highway in southern Yukon. Whitehorse's downtown and Riverdale areas occupy both shores of the Yukon River, which originates in British Columbia and meets the Bering Sea in Alaska. The city was named after the White Horse Rapids for their resemblance to the mane of a white horse, near Miles Canyon, before the river was dammed. Because of the city's", "Yukon Brewing Company Ale category. In 2009 regulatory changes in the Yukon Territory where the brewery is based allowed for distilling. Yukon Brewing distilled and barreled what will become a single malt whiskey. The whiskey and other spirit products are to be sold under Yukon Brewings sister company Yukon Spirits. Yukon Gold is the best selling draft beer in the Yukon. Yukon Brewing Company Yukon Brewing is a trademark owned by the Chilkoot Brewing Co. Ltd brewery in Whitehorse, Yukon, Canada. When entering the American market, Chilkoot Brewing Company Ltd. faced trademark issues and decided to call itself the Cheechako Brewing Company. In", "Diocese of Yukon Algoma (1995-2008) resigned from the Anglican Church of Canada to continue as a bishop in the Anglican Network in Canada. The Dean of Yukon is also Rector of Christ Church Cathedral, Whitehorse Source: Christ Church Cathedral Diocese of Yukon The Anglican Diocese of Yukon is a diocese of the Ecclesiastical Province of British Columbia and Yukon of the Anglican Church of Canada. It comprises 14 congregations serving 24 communities in the Yukon and parts of northern British Columbia. The Diocese was formed in 1891 when the Diocese of Mackenzie River, at that time in the Ecclesiastical Province of Rupert's Land,", "Riverdale, Yukon mountains on three sides, with the Yukon River forming the fourth side. Riverdale, Yukon Riverdale is a neighbourhood within the city of Whitehorse, Yukon, Canada. The community is separated from Whitehorse City Centre by the Yukon River, and is linked to Whitehorse via Lewes Boulevard, a major thoroughfare in the community. The neighbourhood is home to the western end of the Grey Mountain and Viewpoint. Riverdale also has numerous low-rise apartments along Lewes Boulevard, which is relatively rare in Northern Canada. The neighbourhood is served by the electoral districts of Riverdale North and Riverdale South in the Yukon Legislative Assembly.", "Geography of Yukon the longest freshwater migration route of any salmon; Chinook salmon swim over 3,000 kilometres from its mouth in the Bering Sea to spawning grounds upstream of Whitehorse. There are also land-locked kokanee (sockeye salmon) and rainbow trout. chars are represented by lake trout present in most large Yukon lakes, as well as Dolly Varden, bull trout and Arctic char. The Arctic grayling is ubiquitous, while the lakes have various whitefish and inconnu. There are no reptiles in Yukon, but a few frogs. Environment Canada, Pacific and Yukon Region Ecozones and Ecoregions Yukon is sparsely populated, with about 30,000 inhabitants in", "Yukon Northwest Territories are the Liard River in the southeast and the Peel River and its tributaries in the northeast. Notable widespread tree species within Yukon are the black spruce and white spruce. Many trees are stunted because of the short growing season and severe climate. The capital, Whitehorse, is also the largest city, with about three-quarters of the population; the second largest is Dawson City (pop. 2,016), which was the capital until 1952. While the average winter temperature in the Yukon is mild by Canadian arctic standards, no other place in North America gets as cold as the Yukon during", "Riverdale, Yukon Riverdale, Yukon Riverdale is a neighbourhood within the city of Whitehorse, Yukon, Canada. The community is separated from Whitehorse City Centre by the Yukon River, and is linked to Whitehorse via Lewes Boulevard, a major thoroughfare in the community. The neighbourhood is home to the western end of the Grey Mountain and Viewpoint. Riverdale also has numerous low-rise apartments along Lewes Boulevard, which is relatively rare in Northern Canada. The neighbourhood is served by the electoral districts of Riverdale North and Riverdale South in the Yukon Legislative Assembly. Riverdale is relatively unique in Whitehorse because it is encircled by large", "Yukon Energy Yukon Energy Yukon Energy Corporation (YEC) () is a Canadian Crown corporation in Yukon that provides electrical power to Yukon. YEC is a subsidiary of Yukon Development Corporation that was established in 1987 to take over the Yukon assets of the Northern Canada Power Commission. The company's headquarters is in Whitehorse, Yukon. YEC generates virtually all of Yukon's electricity supply, and distributes power to a third of the locations outside of Whitehorse. Their largest customer (a wholesale buyer) is the Yukon Electrical Company (YECL), a private business that has been operating since 1901, which itself has some smaller hydro operations,", "Territorial Court of Yukon Territorial Court of Yukon The Territorial Court of Yukon () is a lower court in the court system of Yukon, a federal territory of Canada. The court sits permanently in Whitehorse but also provides services in 14 other communities including Dawson City and Watson Lake. According to the official website of the government of Yukon, the court deals with most criminal prosecutions in the territory under the Criminal Code and other federal statutes, as well as young offenders and offences under the laws of Yukon. It also handles bail hearings, first appearances, trials and sentencing, and has jurisdiction over both", "Yukon (electoral district) Yukon (electoral district) Yukon is the only federal electoral district in Yukon, Canada. It has been represented in the House of Commons of Canada from 1902 to 1949 and since 1953. The City of Whitehorse comprises an overwhelmingly large portion of the electorate and thus elections are fought on a comparatively small area. The district includes all of Yukon. The electoral district was created in 1901 with the obligation that Yukon send a Member of Parliament to the House of Commons by January 1, 1903. James Hamilton Ross, the third Commissioner of Yukon, was elected on December 2, 1902. The", "Yukon Energy in Alaska, British Columbia, Alberta or the Northwest Territories. In addition to the extreme expense of such transmission lines, they would also be subject to disruption from solar flares. Yukon Energy Yukon Energy Corporation (YEC) () is a Canadian Crown corporation in Yukon that provides electrical power to Yukon. YEC is a subsidiary of Yukon Development Corporation that was established in 1987 to take over the Yukon assets of the Northern Canada Power Commission. The company's headquarters is in Whitehorse, Yukon. YEC generates virtually all of Yukon's electricity supply, and distributes power to a third of the locations outside of", "History of Yukon looking for gold, it was made a separate territory in 1898, split off from the Northwest Territories. The second major event in the Yukon's history is the construction of the Alaska Highway during the Second World War, for the transportation of war supplies. Eventually Whitehorse became the largest city in the Yukon, and then the capital in 1953. Disputed evidence of the oldest remains of human inhabitation in North America have been found in the Yukon. A large number of apparently human-modified animal bones were discovered in the Old Crow area in the northern Yukon that have been dated to", "Scouting and Guiding in Yukon Scouting and Guiding in Yukon Scouting in Yukon dates back to 1913, serving thousands of young men and women. Yukon is administratively connected to British Columbia in the BC/Yukon Council of Scouts Canada. Among Yukon's varied Scouting groups are Scouts and Venturers. Girls from age 5 through 17 are served by the Yukon District of Girl Guides of Canada-Guides du Canada. Yukon District is part of the Aurora Adventures Area Council and Alberta Council. Through financial support from YRAC, Yukon District can provide administrative support to Guiders and girls through the Guide Office (102-302 Steele Street, Whitehorse, Y1A 2C5, 667-2455).", "Scouting and Guiding in Yukon Scouting and Guiding in Yukon Scouting in Yukon dates back to 1913, serving thousands of young men and women. Yukon is administratively connected to British Columbia in the BC/Yukon Council of Scouts Canada. Among Yukon's varied Scouting groups are Scouts and Venturers. Girls from age 5 through 17 are served by the Yukon District of Girl Guides of Canada-Guides du Canada. Yukon District is part of the Aurora Adventures Area Council and Alberta Council. Through financial support from YRAC, Yukon District can provide administrative support to Guiders and girls through the Guide Office (102-302 Steele Street, Whitehorse, Y1A 2C5, 667-2455).", "Northern Canada of Aboriginal inhabitants than any of Canada's provinces. There are also many more recent immigrants from around the world; of the territories, Yukon has the largest percentage of non-Aboriginal inhabitants, while Nunavut the smallest. The largest settlement in Northern Canada is the capital of Yukon, Whitehorse with 23,276 at the 2011 census. Second is Yellowknife, the capital of the Northwest Territories, which contains 19,234 inhabitants. Third is Iqaluit, the capital of Nunavut, with 6,699. For hundreds of years, this area had been considered the largest 'uncivilized' area in the world. However, within the last 20 years, specifically in the last", "Steamboats of the Yukon River (Whitehorse–Dawson City) and the Atlin Road, which were completed in the early 1950s. Only one former White Pass boat remains operational, the diesel-powered \"Yukon Rose\". One more is being considered for restoration, the gasoline-powered \"Loon\". The last steamboat in regular service on the Lower Yukon River was the \"Nenana\", in 1954. The last steamboat in regular service on the Upper Yukon River was \"Klondike\" (\"Klondike II\"), which made her last run on July 4, 1955. The last commercial steamboat to operate under its own power on the Yukon River was the \"Keno\", from Whitehorse to Dawson City on August 26–29,", "Yukon Territory Order of Polaris Yukon Territory Order of Polaris The Order of Polaris is awarded by the Government of Yukon in Canada for: The Order of Polaris was created by the Government of Yukon in 1973, to honour members of the Canada's Aviation Hall of Fame, especially those who flew over Yukon. The medal and scroll were presented by the Commissioner of Yukon (or designate) at a ceremony at the Transportation Hall of Fame in Whitehorse. The award is a simple, circular, silver medal. The obverse has a symbolic representation of the Polar star above and flanked by simulated aerial exhaust trails or stylized", "Yukon City, Old Crow and Frankfurt. Whitehorse International Airport is also the headquarters and primary hub for Air North, Yukon's Airline. Every Yukon community is served by an airport or community aerodrome. The communities of Dawson City and Old Crow have regular scheduled service through Air North. Air charter businesses exist primarily to serve the tourism and mining exploration industries. Yukon Yukon (; ; also commonly called the Yukon) is the smallest and westernmost of Canada's three federal territories (the other two are the Northwest Territories and Nunavut). It has the smallest population of any province or territory in Canada, with", "Steamboats of the Yukon River Route completed its railroad line between Skagway, Alaska and Whitehorse, Yukon. In 1901, the company entered the steamboat business to complete the service to points on the Yukon River. Beginning in 1901, the White Pass was almost the exclusive operator on the Upper Yukon River (Whitehorse–Dawson City). The service also included Tagish Lake and Atlin Lake, the headwaters of the Yukon River. In 1914, White Pass took over the Northern Navigation Co., which was the biggest operator on the lower Yukon River (Dawson City–Tanana–St. Michael), and the biggest operator on the Tanana/Chena Rivers (Tanana–Nenana–Fairbanks). The Northern Navigation Co. had been", "Elsa, Yukon of the houses and buildings have been dismantled. To this day, caretakers remain due to the historical significance of the town. Elsa, Yukon Elsa is a privately owned mining town based on silver, lead, and zinc in Yukon, Canada. It is located between the valley of the Stewart River to the south and the Mackenzie Mountains to the north. It is to the north of Whitehorse, and east of the Alaskan border. It is located at Mile 60.3 of the Silver Trail, Yukon Highway 11. In the 1950s, Elsa was the 2nd largest producer of silver in Canada and the", "Elsa, Yukon Elsa, Yukon Elsa is a privately owned mining town based on silver, lead, and zinc in Yukon, Canada. It is located between the valley of the Stewart River to the south and the Mackenzie Mountains to the north. It is to the north of Whitehorse, and east of the Alaskan border. It is located at Mile 60.3 of the Silver Trail, Yukon Highway 11. In the 1950s, Elsa was the 2nd largest producer of silver in Canada and the 4th largest in the world. Its population moved out following the closure of the United Keno Hill mine in 1989. Most", "Yukon Legislative Building the Lynn Building on Steele Street. In 1976, the legislature moved to its current location in the new territorial administration building which was opened on Tuesday, May 25th, by Jules Leger, the Governor-General of Canada. The building houses most of Yukon Government's departments and is the home of the Legislature Assembly. Both the Legislative Assembly and Executive Council sit in the same chamber. Yukon Legislative Building The Yukon Legislative Building is home to the Yukon Legislative Assembly. Located in Whitehorse, Yukon, the building is a three-storey white steel-clad structure. The complex is located next to the Yukon River and Rotary" ]

[ "Steamboats of the Yukon River on the upper Yukon River generally were registered in Canada and were operated by a subsidiary known as the British Yukon Navigation Co. White Pass boats which operated on the Lower Yukon River generally were registered in the U.S.A. and were operated by a subsidiary known as the American Yukon Navigation Co. Beginning in 1922, most of the White Pass business on the Lower Yukon River and on the Tanana/Chena Rivers was eliminated by competition from the Alaskan Engineering Commission or “U.S. Government Railroad” (which was reorganized as The Alaska Railroad in 1923). After the U.S. Government Railroad reached Nenana", "Legislature of Yukon Legislature of Yukon The Legislature of Yukon is the legislature of the territory of Yukon, Canada. The legislature is made of two elements: the Commissioner of Yukon, who represents the federal government of Canada, and the unicameral assembly Yukon Legislative Assembly. The legislature has existed since Yukon was formed out of part of the Northwest Territories in 1898. Like the Canadian federal government, Yukon uses a Westminster-style parliamentary government, in which members are sent to the Legislative Assembly after general elections and from there the party with the most seats chooses a Premier of Yukon and Executive Council of Yukon.", "Summer in the Yukon Summer in the Yukon Summer in the Yukon is a 1992 compilation album by Jane Siberry. It was released only in the United Kingdom. In Canada, the compilation \"A Collection 1984-1989\" was released instead. That album contains some of the same songs, but includes other songs not appearing on \"Summer in the Yukon\". Conversely, \"Summer in the Yukon\" includes tracks not appearing on the Canadian compilation, including two tracks from Siberry's 1981 self-titled debut and her most famous song, \"Calling All Angels\". That song, a duet with k.d. lang which was recorded for the soundtrack to Wim Wenders' \"Until the", "Legislature of Yukon The premier acts as Yukon's head of government. Being creatures of the federal government, Canadian territories do not have heads of state, but the role of the Commissioner is somewhat analogous to the role of a provincial lieutenant governor. Before the Legislative Assembly was created in 1978, the territory's legislative assembly was the Yukon Territorial Council. This council was unelected from 1898 until 1909. Legislature of Yukon The Legislature of Yukon is the legislature of the territory of Yukon, Canada. The legislature is made of two elements: the Commissioner of Yukon, who represents the federal government of Canada, and the", "Yukon of the first people and the earliest First Nations of the Yukon. The volcanic eruption of Mount Churchill in approximately 800 AD in what is now the U.S. state of Alaska blanketed southern Yukon with a layer of ash which can still be seen along the Klondike Highway, and which forms part of the oral tradition of First Nations peoples in Yukon and further south in Canada. Coastal and inland First Nations had extensive trading networks. European incursions into the area began early in the 19th century with the fur trade, followed by missionaries. By the 1870s and 1880s gold", "The Yukon Lumberjacks As a team they successfully defended the championship against teams such as Bravo and De Nucci, Gorilla Monsoon and S.D. Jones, Haystacks Calhoun and Tony Garea and Chief Jay Strongbow and Larry Zybszko, as their reign lasted 148 days. The Lumberjacks lost the championship to Tony Garea and Larry Zybszko on November 21, 1978. After losing a rematch the following day, Eric left the WWWF, ending the Yukon Lumberjacks. Lumberjack Pierre remained in the WWWF until early 1979, before he moved to Canada, briefly working as Igor Volkoff before retiring. The Yukon Lumberjacks The Yukon Lumberjacks was the name of", "The Grip of the Yukon has designs on her holdings and attributes. \"The Grip of the Yukon\" is now presumed lost. However, a 16mm print of the film may exist. The Grip of the Yukon The Grip of the Yukon is a 1928 American silent action/adventure Western film directed by Ernst Laemmle, the nephew of Universal Pictures founder Carl Laemmle. The film starred Francis X. Bushman and Neil Hamilton, and is based on a story by William MacLeod Raine, \"The Yukon Trail, A Tale of the North\". An old-time Alaskan miner dies and leaves his fortune and holdings to his daughter in the states. She", "Commissioner of Yukon from territorial council. The process, particularly since 1979, has devolved powers from the federal government to the territorial government, bringing authority which is normally reserved by the Articles of Confederation for provinces to the territory. \"See also: List of premiers of Yukon\" , seven former commissioners are alive, the oldest being Douglas Bell (1979–1986, born 1926). Commissioner of Yukon The Commissioner of Yukon () is the representative of the Government of Canada in the Canadian federal territory of Yukon. The commissioner is appointed by the federal government and, in contrast to the Governor General of Canada or the Lieutenant Governors", "The Law of the Yukon The Law of the Yukon The Law of the Yukon is a 1920 American silent drama film inspired by the poem, \"The Law of The Yukon\", by Robert W. Service. The film was directed by Charles Miller, and stars June Elvidge and Edward Earle. Portions of the movie were filmed at the Artic City studio in Port Henry, New York. As described in a film magazine, Morgan Kleath (Earle), a young newspaper man from San Francisco, arrives in the Yukon to start a paper. His welcome is an insult from Joe Duke (Velmar), a belligerent native, that results in the", "Unorganized Yukon had a population density of in 2011. Unorganized Yukon Unorganized Yukon, or Yukon, Unorganized, is the unorganized area covering the majority of Yukon, Canada. It represents 98% of Yukon's land mass, and is recognized as a census subdivision by Statistics Canada. In the 2011 Census, Statistics Canada originally reported that Unorganized Yukon had a population of 1,688 living in 748 of its 1,088 total dwellings, a 31.3% change from its 2006 population of 1,286. Statistics Canada subsequently amended the 2011 census results to a population of 1,495 living in 675 of its 1,012 total dwellings, a 16.3% change from 2006.", "Unorganized Yukon Unorganized Yukon Unorganized Yukon, or Yukon, Unorganized, is the unorganized area covering the majority of Yukon, Canada. It represents 98% of Yukon's land mass, and is recognized as a census subdivision by Statistics Canada. In the 2011 Census, Statistics Canada originally reported that Unorganized Yukon had a population of 1,688 living in 748 of its 1,088 total dwellings, a 31.3% change from its 2006 population of 1,286. Statistics Canada subsequently amended the 2011 census results to a population of 1,495 living in 675 of its 1,012 total dwellings, a 16.3% change from 2006. With a land area of , it", "The Grip of the Yukon The Grip of the Yukon The Grip of the Yukon is a 1928 American silent action/adventure Western film directed by Ernst Laemmle, the nephew of Universal Pictures founder Carl Laemmle. The film starred Francis X. Bushman and Neil Hamilton, and is based on a story by William MacLeod Raine, \"The Yukon Trail, A Tale of the North\". An old-time Alaskan miner dies and leaves his fortune and holdings to his daughter in the states. She comes north and is befriended by two old friends of her father. And she needs all the befriending they can provide as a true-blue villain", "Commissioner of Yukon Commissioner of Yukon The Commissioner of Yukon () is the representative of the Government of Canada in the Canadian federal territory of Yukon. The commissioner is appointed by the federal government and, in contrast to the Governor General of Canada or the Lieutenant Governors of the Canadian provinces, is not a viceroy and therefore not a direct representative of the Canadian monarch in the territory \"eo ipso\". The offices of Commissioner and Administrator were abolished in 1918. Office replaced by the \"Gold Commissioner\" who was responsible to the federal Minister of the Interior. The positions of Gold Commissioner and Comptroller", "Flag of Yukon Flag of Yukon The flag of Yukon, is a green, white, and blue tricolour with the coat of arms of Yukon at the centre above a wreath of fireweed, the territorial flower. An official flag for Yukon was created during the 1960s, a decade in which the national flag of Canada was chosen as well as several other provincial flags were created. The flag of Yukon was officially selected from a territory-wide design competition in 1967, with the winning design adopted on March 1, 1968. The flag of Yukon was officially adopted on March 1, 1968. The flag was chosen", "Flag of Yukon to 1.5 to 1. In flag terminology, the flag is a tricolour, meaning it has three colours, in approximately equal size. However, it may not be considered a true tricolour as it is defaced, containing the coat of arms of Yukon, where a true tricolour contains no additional symbols. Flag of Yukon The flag of Yukon, is a green, white, and blue tricolour with the coat of arms of Yukon at the centre above a wreath of fireweed, the territorial flower. An official flag for Yukon was created during the 1960s, a decade in which the national flag of Canada", "Geography of Yukon Tintina Trench bisects the Yukon from northwest to southeast and its edges have rich mineral deposits including the Klondike gold and the lead-zinc deposits near Faro. The volcanoes in Yukon are part of the circle of volcanoes around the Pacific Ocean known as the Pacific Ring of Fire. Yukon includes more than 100 separate volcanic centres that have been active during the Quaternary. The Fort Selkirk Volcanic Field in central Yukon is the northernmost Holocene volcanic field in Canada, including the young active cinder cone, Volcano Mountain. A volcanic field in south-central Yukon is called Alligator Lake volcanic complex. It", "Challenge of the Yukon the comic book featured photo covers of the TV series star in character as Sergeant Preston. Challenge of the Yukon Challenge of the Yukon is an American radio adventure series that began on Detroit's station WXYZ and is an example of a Northern genre story. The series was first heard on February 3, 1938. The title changed from \"Challenge of the Yukon\" to Sergeant Preston of the Yukon in September 1950, and remained under that name through the end of the series and into television. Following the success of \"The Lone Ranger\" and \"The Green Hornet\" on Detroit radio station", "Challenge of the Yukon Challenge of the Yukon Challenge of the Yukon is an American radio adventure series that began on Detroit's station WXYZ and is an example of a Northern genre story. The series was first heard on February 3, 1938. The title changed from \"Challenge of the Yukon\" to Sergeant Preston of the Yukon in September 1950, and remained under that name through the end of the series and into television. Following the success of \"The Lone Ranger\" and \"The Green Hornet\" on Detroit radio station WXYZ (now known as WXYT), the station owner, George W. Trendle, asked for a similar adventure", "Belle of the Yukon Belle of the Yukon Belle of the Yukon is a 1944 American film produced and directed by William A. Seiter, and starring Randolph Scott, Gypsy Rose Lee, and Dinah Shore. Based on a story by Houston Branch and set in the days of the great Canadian Gold Rush, the film is about a \"reformed\" con artist-turned-dance hall owner whose girlfriend, played by Gypsy Rose Lee, tries to keep him on the straight and narrow. In 1946, \"Belle of the Yukon\" received Academy Award nominations for Best Original Song and Best Music Scoring. In a Yukon town called Malemute, a saloon", "Yvon of the Yukon boat rams an iceberg. Yvon is cryogenically frozen in a block of ice for 300 years, until a sled dog owned by Inuk teenager Tommy Tukyuk, urinates on it and thaws him out. He settles in the town of Upyermukluk, Yukon (\"the hottest cold town in the Arctic, midway between Shivermetimbers and Frostbottom Falls\") and attempts to adjust to life in the Yukon alongside his unusual new neighbours. Yvon of the Yukon Yvon of the Yukon is a Canadian animated television series developed by Studio B Productions and Corus Entertainment in association with Alliance Atlantis Communications. It was produced with", "Summer in the Yukon End of the World\", had not yet been included on an album of new material by Siberry. It subsequently appeared on her 1993 album \"When I Was a Boy\", and later appeared on a second film soundtrack, \"Pay It Forward\". The version of \"The Life Is The Red Wagon\" is the single version, whereas \"A Collection 1984-1989\" features the more stripped-down album version. Summer in the Yukon Summer in the Yukon is a 1992 compilation album by Jane Siberry. It was released only in the United Kingdom. In Canada, the compilation \"A Collection 1984-1989\" was released instead. That album contains", "The Yukon Trail The Yukon Trail The Yukon Trail is a 1994 computer game from MECC based on \"The Oregon Trail\" series set during the Klondike Gold Rush of the late 19th century. Players start out in Seattle and must make decisions concerning supplies, a partner, and travel plans as they head to Alaska before boating down a river to Dawson City and staking a claim. The game features the famous author Jack London and old 19th century photographs that show what life was life back then. The game starts in Seattle in August 1897 (right before the actual Gold Rush). The player", "The Law of the Yukon Kleath, his unfaithful wife arrives from 'Frisco to reveal his freedom from blame and breathes her last with the end of her testimony, permitting the union of the lovers. The Law of the Yukon The Law of the Yukon is a 1920 American silent drama film inspired by the poem, \"The Law of The Yukon\", by Robert W. Service. The film was directed by Charles Miller, and stars June Elvidge and Edward Earle. Portions of the movie were filmed at the Artic City studio in Port Henry, New York. As described in a film magazine, Morgan Kleath (Earle), a young", "Steamboats of the Yukon River Steamboats of the Yukon River Steamboats on the Yukon River played a role in the development of Alaska and Yukon. Access to the interior of Alaska and Yukon was hindered by large mountains and distance, but the wide Yukon River provided a feasible route. The first steamers on the lower Yukon River were work boats for the Collins Overland Telegraph in 1866 or 1867, with a small steamer called \"Wilder\". The mouth of the Yukon River is far to the west at St. Michael and a journey from Seattle or San Francisco covered some . There were a series of", "Diocese of Yukon Diocese of Yukon The Anglican Diocese of Yukon is a diocese of the Ecclesiastical Province of British Columbia and Yukon of the Anglican Church of Canada. It comprises 14 congregations serving 24 communities in the Yukon and parts of northern British Columbia. The Diocese was formed in 1891 when the Diocese of Mackenzie River, at that time in the Ecclesiastical Province of Rupert's Land, was divided into two. Originally the Diocese of Selkirk, the name of the diocese was changed to Yukon in 1907. It was transferred to its present province in 1947. The diocesan bishop since 1995 has been", "Yvon of the Yukon Best Youth or Children's Program or Series and Greg Sullivan was awarded the Best Director award for a Youth or Children's Program. The show captured both awards again in 2004. In 2005, Dennis Heaton won a Writers Guild of Canada Award for his work on the episode \"The Trouble With Mammoths\". \"Yvon of the Yukon\" is about a French explorer, Yvon Ducharme, who embarks on a voyage to North America on behalf of \"King Louis\" (Louis XIV of France). He goes far off his intended course, into the frigid waters off Canada's northern coast, and is knocked overboard when his", "Geography of Yukon traded copper, furs and meat for coastal products such as eulachon oil. About 20% of the Yukon population is of aboriginal origin. There is no Inuit population in Yukon, although there was a population along the Arctic Ocean coast within historic times. The Inuit were decimated by disease and disappeared in the 19th century. In 1984, the Government of Canada included the Yukon North Slope within the Inuvialuit Settlement Region under the auspices of the Inuvialuit. The following table presents the population of most Yukon communities. Note that the Census data represents those people who lived within the community boundaries,", "Geography of Yukon a previous Yukon New Democratic Party government) and has indicated its intention of not creating additional protected areas or parks. The Gwichʼin people of Old Crow are dependent on the Porcupine caribou herd for food and clothing, as are others in the Yukon. The Porcupine caribou herd migrates to the coastal plain in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) in Alaska to give birth. That herd may be seriously threatened by oil-drilling in the ANWR. Geography of Yukon Yukon is in the northwestern corner of Canada and is bordered by Alaska and the Northwest Territories. The sparsely populated territory abounds", "Supreme Court of Yukon Supreme Court of Yukon The Supreme Court of Yukon (SCY) () is the court of general jurisdiction for the Canadian territory of Yukon. Civil and criminal cases are heard by the court, as well as appeals from the Yukon Territorial Court, the Yukon Small Claims Court and other quasi-judicial boards. Appeals from the court are made to the Court of Appeal of Yukon. The SCY consists of three resident judges, five judges from the Northwest Territories and Nunavut, and forty-two deputy judges appointed from across Canada. The rules of procedure for the SCY are based upon those of the Supreme", "Indigenous peoples of Yukon Indigenous peoples of Yukon The indigenous peoples of Yukon were the sole inhabitants of the Arctic coastal territories prior to arrival of Europeans. The indigenous people of Yukon are part of the Aboriginal people of Canada. Traditionally, the Yukon indigenous peoples are hunters and gatherers with close connections to the land, the rivers and the seasons. Their history is recorded and passed down generations in an oral tradition. European contact brought many changes to the indigenous people of Yukon including land loss and non-traditional governance and education. However, the Yukon indigenous peoples continue their connections with the land in seasonal", "Belle of the Yukon to Malemute to win Lettie back, helped by the arrival of his sister, Cherie, and their wealthy father, C.V. Atterbury, who vouches that Steve is unmarried and, as a gesture of good faith, places $100,000 in the bank. Honest John promises to actually be honest from now on. \"Belle of the Yukon\" was presented on \"Screen Guild Players\" February 12, 1945. The 30-minute adaptation starred Scott, Shore, Burns and Gail Patrick. Belle of the Yukon Belle of the Yukon is a 1944 American film produced and directed by William A. Seiter, and starring Randolph Scott, Gypsy Rose Lee, and Dinah", "Queen of the Yukon boat in order to make ends meet. However, greater problems soon enter Sadie's life as the Yukon Mining Company sends John Thorne to take the riverboat away from her, as well as to cheat all of her customers out of their claims. Meanwhile, Helen unexpectedly arrives on the riverboat with her boyfriend Bob. Bob takes a job with John and is unknowingly manipulated by him. To Sadie's disappointment, Helen appears to enjoy life on the riverboat. Sadie soon implores Ace Rincon to help her. Queen of the Yukon Queen Of The Yukon is a 1940 American western film. The film", "Yukon River Yukon River The Yukon River is a major watercourse of northwestern North America. The river's source is in British Columbia, Canada, from which it flows through the Canadian Yukon Territory (itself named after the river). The lower half of the river lies in the U.S. state of Alaska. The river is long and empties into the Bering Sea at the Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta. The average flow is 6,430 m³/s (227,000 ft³/s). The total drainage area is 832,700 km² (321,500 mi²), of which 323,800 km² (126,300 mi²) is in Canada. The total area is more than 25% larger than Texas or Alberta.", "Yukon Green Party and introducing a carbon tax in Yukon that would be offset by monthly refund payments to Yukoners. The party will elect a permanent leader at its annual general meeting in 2017. The party is in favour of: Yukon Green Party The Yukon Green Party is a territorial green political party in Yukon, Canada. It was inspired by the Green Party of Canada. Its interim leader is Frank de Jong, a school teacher in Faro, Yukon. Its first leader was Kristina Calhoun, a stay-at-home mother, who has lived in Yukon since 2006. The party began at a meeting in November 2010,", "Steamboats of the Yukon River 1960. It was an equipment run to move the boat for purposes of putting it on display at Dawson City. \"Keno\", the second \"Klondike\", and \"Nenana\" survive as museums. \"List of steamboats on the Yukon River\" Steamboats of the Yukon River Steamboats on the Yukon River played a role in the development of Alaska and Yukon. Access to the interior of Alaska and Yukon was hindered by large mountains and distance, but the wide Yukon River provided a feasible route. The first steamers on the lower Yukon River were work boats for the Collins Overland Telegraph in 1866 or 1867,", "Yukon (electoral district) riding was abolished in 1947, and the riding of Yukon—Mackenzie River was created including a portion of the Northwest Territories. In 1952, Yukon-Mackenzie River was abolished, and the riding of Yukon was recreated. This riding did not change as a result of the 2012 redistribution. Riding associations are the local branches of political parties: This riding has elected the following Members of Parliament: Yukon's current Member of Parliament is Larry Bagnell. He was elected in the 2015 election as the candidate of the Liberal Party of Canada. Yukon (electoral district) Yukon is the only federal electoral district in Yukon, Canada.", "Yvon of the Yukon Yvon of the Yukon Yvon of the Yukon is a Canadian animated television series developed by Studio B Productions and Corus Entertainment in association with Alliance Atlantis Communications. It was produced with the participation of the Canadian Television Fund and the Canadian Film or Video Production Tax Credit with the assistance of British Columbia Film and the Film Incentive BC grant from the province of British Columbia. Based in the fictional town of Upyermukluk, the show premiered on YTV on 9 September 1999, and last aired on 22 November 2005. \"Yvon of the Yukon\" won the 2002 Leo Award for", "North of the Yukon on the ice with Scrooge and Barko (the story was reprinted in this issue, as well). Rosa also referenced the events of \"North of the Yukon\" in Chapters 8 and 9 of his \"Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck\" anthalogy, but retconned the year of Scrooge taking up the loan to 1896. North of the Yukon North of the Yukon is a 24-page funny animal comic book adventure story featuring Scrooge McDuck and his nephews, Donald Duck and Huey, Dewey, & Louie. It was written and drawn by Carl Barks. This was his last story involving Scrooge's adventures in Alaska.", "Yukon Territory Order of Polaris citizen who is a current or former resident of Yukon is eligible for nomination. There have been 88 appointments (including Chancellors) to the Order of Merit since its inception. Yukon Territory Order of Polaris The Order of Polaris is awarded by the Government of Yukon in Canada for: The Order of Polaris was created by the Government of Yukon in 1973, to honour members of the Canada's Aviation Hall of Fame, especially those who flew over Yukon. The medal and scroll were presented by the Commissioner of Yukon (or designate) at a ceremony at the Transportation Hall of Fame in", "Yukon Green Party Yukon Green Party The Yukon Green Party is a territorial green political party in Yukon, Canada. It was inspired by the Green Party of Canada. Its interim leader is Frank de Jong, a school teacher in Faro, Yukon. Its first leader was Kristina Calhoun, a stay-at-home mother, who has lived in Yukon since 2006. The party began at a meeting in November 2010, and was registered in February 2011. Frank De Jong led the party as its interim leader in the 2016 general election. Its platform in that election included electoral reform, legalizing marijuana, ending public funding for Catholic schools,", "Yukon Party Yukon Party The Yukon Party () is a conservative political party in Yukon, Canada. It is the successor to the Yukon Progressive Conservative Party. With Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's Progressive Conservative federal government's decreasing popularity, the Yukon Progressive Conservatives decided to sever its relations with the federal Conservatives, and renamed itself the \"Yukon Party\" prior to the 1992 election. However, two Progressive Conservative MLAs, Bea Firth and Alan Nordling, quit the party in protest of the name change and formed the Independent Alliance Party. Nordling later returned to the party, and was defeated as a Yukon Party candidate in the", "Yukon, Oklahoma Yukon, Oklahoma Yukon is a city in Canadian County, Oklahoma, United States. It is part of the Oklahoma City Metropolitan Area. The population was 22,709 at the 2010 census. Founded in the 1890s, the town was named in reference to a gold rush in Yukon Territory, Canada, at the time. Historically, Yukon served as an urban center for area farmers and the site of a large milling operation. It is now considered primarily a bedroom community for people who work in Oklahoma City. Yukon was founded by A.N. Spencer in 1891, and was named for the Yukon River which flows", "Yukon River River fisheries concerning restoration, conservation, and coordinated management. Tribal organizations such as Association of Village Council Presidents (AVCP), Council of Athabascan Tribal Governments (CATG), and Tanana Chiefs Conference (TCC) work to sustain Yukon River salmon to promote healthy people, cultures, and communities. The Yukon River features as the setting for the 2015 National Geographic Channel series \"Yukon River Run\". Yukon River The Yukon River is a major watercourse of northwestern North America. The river's source is in British Columbia, Canada, from which it flows through the Canadian Yukon Territory (itself named after the river). The lower half of the river", "Yukon Party Darrell Pasloski was chosen after only one ballot. Yukon Party The Yukon Party () is a conservative political party in Yukon, Canada. It is the successor to the Yukon Progressive Conservative Party. With Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's Progressive Conservative federal government's decreasing popularity, the Yukon Progressive Conservatives decided to sever its relations with the federal Conservatives, and renamed itself the \"Yukon Party\" prior to the 1992 election. However, two Progressive Conservative MLAs, Bea Firth and Alan Nordling, quit the party in protest of the name change and formed the Independent Alliance Party. Nordling later returned to the party, and was", "Wolf Lake (Yukon) Wolf Lake (Yukon) Wolf Lake (also known as Gooch Aa) is located in Yukon, Canada near Teslin. The lake is surrounded by tundra and wooded lowlands and mountains. The lake is also commonly fished for its lake trout. In 1998 Parks Canada, the Teslin Tlingit Council, and the Teslin Renewable Resources Council held a discussion about a feasibility study for a national park in the area. Later in 1998 the Yukon government issued the Protected Areas Strategy including Wolf Lake as a protected area. The Yukon Bureau of Statistics took a survey in the area to find the views of", "Yukon Legislative Assembly Yukon Legislative Assembly The Yukon Legislative Assembly () is the legislative assembly for Yukon, Canada. The Yukon Legislative Assembly is the only legislature in Canada's three federal territories which is organized along political party lines. In Nunavut and the Northwest Territories, the legislative assemblies are instead elected on a non-partisan consensus government model. From 1900 to 1978, the elected legislative body in Yukon was the Yukon Territorial Council, a body which did not act as the primary government, but was a non-partisan advisory body to the Commissioner of the Yukon. Following the passage of the Yukon Elections Act in 1977,", "Challenge of the Yukon Comics published 29 issues of \"Sergeant Preston of the Yukon\". The first four issues appeared biannually, then quarterly, in the weekly catch-all series \"Four Color Comics\" (#344, 373, 397, 419), then assumed its own numbering with issue #5, most often as a quarterly but also bimonthly. All issues were written by Gaylord Du Bois (creator of \"Turok\") and illustrated by Alberto Giolitti (best known as the longtime illustrator of \"Turok\"). The Dell comic book covers were paintings portraying drama or action, featuring Yukon King and Sergeant Preston in exciting scenes. Once the \"Sergeant Preston of the Yukon\" television series premiered,", "Challenge of the Yukon Sergeant Preston's faithful steed was Rex, used primarily in the summer months, but generally Yukon King and his dog team were the key mode of transportation (as signaled by Preston's cry of \"On, King! On, you huskies!)\". In the early radio shows, the cry of \"On, you huskies!\" would alternate with \"On, you malamutes\" from show to show. In 1955, the same year the radio show ended, \"Sergeant Preston of the Yukon\" premiered as a television series. Richard Simmons starred as Sgt. Preston, and was supported by Yukon King and Rex, now played by real animals. The dog cast as", "Clarence River (Alaska–Yukon) Clarence in honor of Lord High Admiral Prince William, Duke of Clarence and St Andrews. Clarence Lagoon is the northwestern-most point of the Yukon Territory, and also of continental Canada. Clarence River (Alaska–Yukon) Clarence River is a long river that flows through Yukon, Canada and the U.S. state of Alaska into the Beaufort Sea. The Clarence River rises southwest of Mount Paige in Yukon, Canada, and flows northwest and northeast, crossing the border several times into the North Slope Borough of Alaska. It empties into Clarence Lagoon and finally the Beaufort Sea in the Arctic Ocean. The river was surveyed", "Yukon School of Visual Arts the Manufactured\". Yukon School of Visual Arts The Yukon School of Visual Arts (SOVA) is Canada's most northerly post-secondary fine arts school, and it receives its accreditation through the Applied Arts Division of Yukon College. SOVA is located within the traditional territory of the Tr'ondëk Hwëch'in First Nation in Dawson City, Yukon Territory, Canada. SOVA offers a Foundation Year Program, which is the equivalent of the first year of a Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA) degree. The school offers an experimental, integrated curriculum that is studio-based with liberal arts courses. Successful students continue their degrees at their choice of four", "Yukon School of Visual Arts Yukon School of Visual Arts The Yukon School of Visual Arts (SOVA) is Canada's most northerly post-secondary fine arts school, and it receives its accreditation through the Applied Arts Division of Yukon College. SOVA is located within the traditional territory of the Tr'ondëk Hwëch'in First Nation in Dawson City, Yukon Territory, Canada. SOVA offers a Foundation Year Program, which is the equivalent of the first year of a Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA) degree. The school offers an experimental, integrated curriculum that is studio-based with liberal arts courses. Successful students continue their degrees at their choice of four partnering art", "Queen of the Yukon Queen of the Yukon Queen Of The Yukon is a 1940 American western film. The film is an adaptation of Jack London's story. Filming took place in Big Bear Lake, California. Sadie Martin owns a riverboat that is frequently used by miners traveling to their claims. During their trip, the miners drink and gamble. Sadie's daughter, Helen, is unaware of her mother's work because her mother sends her to boarding school in order to live a lifestyle more attributed to the upper-class. Unfortunately for Sadie, she is facing difficulty maintaining the costly riverboat. She is soon forced to sell the", "Yukon Hotel the Dawson Historical Complex with other frontier buildings identified by the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada, including the adjacent St. Paul's Anglican Church, the Bank of British North America building, and the Carnegie Library. Yukon Hotel The Yukon Hotel is a National Historic Site of Canada and part of the Dawson Historical Complex. It is a log building with a three-storey false facade on First Avenue at the corner of Church Street in Dawson City, Yukon. The building was constructed during the Klondike Gold Rush in 1898 by J.E. Binet, who named it \"Binet Block\". A local entrepreneur,", "History of Yukon Selkirk was abandoned and not reestablished until 1889. Anglican and Roman Catholic missionaries followed in the wake of the fur trade. Of note is William Carpenter Bompas who became the first Anglican bishop of the Yukon. Catholic missionaries were mainly from the order of Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate, who still retain a presence in the Yukon today. In 1859, Robert Kennicott set off on an expedition to collect natural history specimens in what is now the Mackenzie River and Yukon River valleys and in the Arctic tundra beyond. Kenicott became popular with Hudson's Bay Company fur traders in the", "Yukon-Tanana Terrane Copper and Galore, of the Stikine terrane and Quesnel terrane extends into the Yukon-Tanana terrane in Yukon; the Minto mine is an example. Gold mineralization associated with post-amalgamation emplacement of Cretaceous and Tertiary plutonic rocks is widespread in the YTT. Yukon-Tanana Terrane The Yukon-Tanana Terrane (YTT) is a tectonic terrane that extends from central Alaska through central Yukon and into northern British Columbia, Canada and Southeast Alaska, USA. Extending over 2000 km, the YTT is the largest tectonostratigraphic terrane in the northern North American Cordillera. The Yukon-Tanana Upland is a physiographic province mostly underlain by rocks of the Yukon-Tanana terrane.", "Yukon River Basin Mayo discovered how plentiful the Yukon river and Yukon River basin was with minerals. Their mining ventures grew and spread until they reached the Stewart River, where they found gold, starting the Klondike Gold Rush. The Yukon River Basin is approximately in area and in length. This makes the Yukon River Basin the fourth largest basin in North America. It is located between the Rocky Mountains in the north and the Pacific Mountain system to the south. The Basin span across Canada in the Yukon Territory and Alaska. The Yukon Flats basin is south of the Yukon River Basin and", "Call of the Yukon Call of the Yukon Call of the Yukon is a 1938 American action/adventure film produced and released by Republic Pictures, directed by John T. Coyle and B. Reeves Eason and starring Richard Arlen and Beverly Roberts. The film features extensive Alaskan location shooting by Norman Dawn who shot several films there. The film is based on the 1926 novel \"Swift Lightning A Story Of Wildlife Adventure In The Frozen North\" by Northern genre writer James Oliver Curwood. The film's working titles were \"Thunder in Alaska\" and \"Swift Lightning\". Adventuring author Jean Williams is living in the wilds of Alaska alongside", "Yukon Land Claims delegation of other Yukon elders, including Roddy Blackjack of the Little Salmon/Carmacks First Nation, presented this text to Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau as the basis of the Yukon First Nations' claim to regain independence and self-governing authority. In the introduction, Smith writes about the Yukon Native Brotherhood seeking a settlement that is fair and just both for the Yukon First Nations and the Government of Canada. In the second part, Smith discusses the struggles of the Aboriginals of Canada in recent history since European colonization, which altered their lives. Smith highlighted the major events that altered the Aboriginals' way of", "Yukon Liberal Party Yukon Liberal Party The Yukon Liberal Party () is a political party in the territory of Yukon, Canada. Sandy Silver, MLA for Klondike, is the Leader of the Yukon Liberal Party and Premier of Yukon. After twenty years as a minor party, the Yukon Liberal Party won the 2000 general election and formed a government under Premier Pat Duncan. The government was plagued with defections, however, and was reduced to minority government status. Duncan called a snap election for November 2002 in the hope of regaining her government's majority. The party was almost completely wiped out, however, by the Yukon", "Yukon Liberal Party Party. Duncan won the Liberals' sole seat in the Yukon Party's landslide. The Liberal Party remained in opposition until the 2016 general election where the party went from third place in the legislature to majority government with its leader, Sandy Silver, becoming Premier. Yukon Liberal Party The Yukon Liberal Party () is a political party in the territory of Yukon, Canada. Sandy Silver, MLA for Klondike, is the Leader of the Yukon Liberal Party and Premier of Yukon. After twenty years as a minor party, the Yukon Liberal Party won the 2000 general election and formed a government under Premier", "The Yukon Trail border where they pay a toll to pass into the Yukon Territory. The North-West Mounted Police will not let them pass unless they have 1000 pounds of food per person. They are also required to pay a tax to bring goods into Canada. After the price for the tax is given, if the player does not have enough, the Mountie will simply take whatever money they have. Along the trail, numerous random events can occur. Random events include: someone being injured (the player decides to continue at a slower pace or to rest), theft of food, rockslides, crowds of people", "Call of the Yukon food. Hunter Gaston agrees to take Jean to Nenana, Alaska, along with his furs by dog sled. Jean, who despises Gaston as being more savage and blood thirsty than the four-legged predators, is followed by her loyal animals. The pair face attacks by wolves, an avalanche and being trapped on a river whose ice floes are melting. Call of the Yukon Call of the Yukon is a 1938 American action/adventure film produced and released by Republic Pictures, directed by John T. Coyle and B. Reeves Eason and starring Richard Arlen and Beverly Roberts. The film features extensive Alaskan location shooting", "History of Yukon 25,000–40,000 years ago by carbon dating. The central and northern Yukon were not glaciated, as they were part of Beringia. At about 800, a large volcanic eruption in Mount Churchill near the Alaska border blanketed the southern Yukon with ash. That layer of ash can still be seen along the Klondike Highway. Yukon First Nations stories speak of all the animals and fish dying as a result. Similar stories are told among the Athabaskan-speaking Navajo and Apache, leading to the conclusion by some anthropologists that the migration of Athabaskan peoples into what is now the southwestern United States could have", "History of Yukon Teslin River there lived continental Tlingit (Teslin) whose language together with Athabaskan languages is included into Na-Dene language family. Covered with snow Mount Saint Elias in the extreme southwest of Yukon was unsettled. European incursions into what later became the Yukon started in the first half of the 19th century with the fur trade. Hudson's Bay Company explorers and traders from Mackenzie River trading posts used two different routes to enter Yukon and created trading posts along the way. The northern route started in Fort McPherson, Northwest Territories along the Mackenzie River, crossed the mountains into the Bell and Porcupine", "The Call of the Wild: Dog of the Yukon the starring dog Buck. The breed used in this adaptation was not the one identified in the novel, but the look is similar. Jack London describes Buck as a huge, four-year-old half-Saint Bernard and half-Scottish shepherd dog. The Call of the Wild: Dog of the Yukon Call of the Wild: Dog of the Yukon is a 1996 movie. The screenplay by Graham Ludlow is based on Jack London's classic novel \"The Call of the Wild\" (1903), is narrated by Richard Dreyfuss, and stars Rutger Hauer. \"The Hollywood Reporter\" said it was, \"... a pleasant surprise. Much more faithful to Jack", "John Devries (Yukon politician) John Devries (Yukon politician) John Devries (born March 20, 1945) is a former political figure in the Yukon, Canada. He represented Watson Lake in the Yukon Legislative Assembly from 1989 to 1996 as a member of the Yukon Party. He was born in the Netherlands, the son of Wiebe Devries and Geeskje Lenos, came to Canada with his parents in 1947 and was educated in Ontario. In 1976, he married Henriette Gwendyke Dryer. He served in the Yukon cabinet as Minister of Economic Development, Mines, Small Business and Minister of Government Services from 1992 to 1994. Devries was Speaker for", "The Call of the Wild: Dog of the Yukon The Call of the Wild: Dog of the Yukon Call of the Wild: Dog of the Yukon is a 1996 movie. The screenplay by Graham Ludlow is based on Jack London's classic novel \"The Call of the Wild\" (1903), is narrated by Richard Dreyfuss, and stars Rutger Hauer. \"The Hollywood Reporter\" said it was, \"... a pleasant surprise. Much more faithful to Jack London's 1903 classic than the two Hollywood versions.\" The \"New York Post\" claimed Ludlow's adaptation was the \"best version yet of Jack London's classic story of survival.\" Three Leonberger dog 'actors' (one female, and two males) played", "Yukon River Basin Yukon River Basin The Yukon River Basin is located between the Yukon Territory in Canada and Alaska, with a small portion in British Columbia. This basin is made up of 13 other individual basins that drain into the Yukon River and other adjoining rivers and tributaries. The Yukon River Basin is in area and in length. Many different geological features make up the basin, including several types of terrain, shrubland, and rivers. In the mid to late 1800s, European explorers discovered its natural resources and began settling in the region. The Yukon River Basin remains a relatively intact ecosystem, known", "Carmacks, Yukon in Yukon which has the status of designated place in Canadian censuses. Carmacks has a 91.4% First Nations population the majority of which belong to the Little Salmon Carmacks First Nations. The local language of the LSCFN community is Northern Tuchone, which is carried on both by the elders and taught to all students at the local Tantalus Elementary/high School. Carmacks, Yukon Carmacks is a village in Yukon on the Yukon River along the Klondike Highway, and at the west end of the Robert Campbell Highway from Watson Lake. The population is 493 (Canada Census, 2016). It is the home", "Yukon-Tanana Terrane Yukon-Tanana Terrane The Yukon-Tanana Terrane (YTT) is a tectonic terrane that extends from central Alaska through central Yukon and into northern British Columbia, Canada and Southeast Alaska, USA. Extending over 2000 km, the YTT is the largest tectonostratigraphic terrane in the northern North American Cordillera. The Yukon-Tanana Upland is a physiographic province mostly underlain by rocks of the Yukon-Tanana terrane. Understanding and definition of the YTT is constantly progressing, the term \"Yukon Tanana composite terrane,\" or \"YTCT\" is used by some workers, reflecting the disparate depositional and tectonic histories being recognized in rock units within the YTT. Since 2010, some", "What Is the What What Is the What What Is the What: The Autobiography of Valentino Achak Deng is a 2006 novel written by Dave Eggers. It is based on the life of Valentino Achak Deng, a Sudanese child refugee who immigrated to the United States under the Lost Boys of Sudan program. It was a finalist for the National Book Award. As a boy, Achak is separated from his family during the Second Sudanese Civil War when the Arab militia, referred to as \"murahaleen\" (which is Arabic for the deported), wipes out his Dinka village, Marial Bai. During the assault, he loses sight", "Tagish, Yukon bridge built over the narrow water between Tagish Lake and Marsh Lake. A previous community known as Tagish was located about 3 km south of the current community, along Tagish Lake. The North-West Mounted Police maintained a post in that community during the Klondike Gold Rush. The area code for Yukon is 867. In it, Tagish is served by prefix 399. Tagish, Yukon Tagish is an unincorporated community in Yukon, Canada. It is east of Carcross, Yukon on the Tagish Road at the northern end of Tagish Lake. The greater Tagish area also includes the Tagish Estates, Tagish Beach and", "Yukon—Mackenzie River and Yukon ridings. It consisted of the Yukon Territory and the part of the District of Mackenzie in the Northwest Territories lying west of the 109th meridian west longitude. The remainder of the District of Mackenzie, as well as the Districts of Keewatin, Franklin and Ungava, had no representation until 1962. Yukon—Mackenzie River Yukon—Mackenzie River was a federal electoral district in Canada that was represented in the House of Commons of Canada from 1949 to 1953. It covered the Yukon Territory, and the southwestern part of the Northwest Territories. This riding was created in 1947, and was only used in", "Yukon Land Claims the elimination of taxation exemptions for Yukon First Nations people (effective January 1, 2001), a restriction of hunting rights of other aboriginal peoples on each First Nation's traditional territory, etc. Yukon Land Claims The Yukon Land Claims refer to the process of negotiating and settling aboriginal land claims agreements in Yukon, Canada between First Nations and the federal government. Based on historic occupancy and use, the First Nations claim basic rights to all the lands. Unlike other parts of Canada, Yukon First Nations did not conclude any treaties until the 1990s. Chief Jim Boss of the Ta'an Kwach'an had requested" ]

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[ "A Fishful of Dollars rings up the total, which was $10.77. Walt, Larry, and Igner empty Fry's bank account, and except for the anchovies, all of his 20th century artifacts are repossessed. They hope that doing this will force Fry to sell the anchovies to Mom. Mom visits Fry and attempts to buy the anchovies, but realizes that Fry had intended to eat the anchovies and stops interfering. Fry covers a pizza with the anchovies and shares them with the rest of the Planet Express employees. Everyone except Fry spits their pizza out in disgust. Fry claims that they are an acquired taste. When" ]

[ "Little Caesars Little Caesars has since discarded the unwieldy packaging in favor of typical pizza boxes. In addition to pizza, they served hot dogs, chicken, shrimp, and fish. In 1998, Little Caesars filled what was then the largest pizza order, filling an order of 13,386 pizzas from the VF Corporation of Greensboro, North Carolina. Starting in 2004, the chain began offering \"Hot-N-Ready\", a large pepperoni pizza sold for $5. The concept was successful enough to become a permanent fixture of the chain, and Little Caesars' business model has shifted to focus more on carryout. Little Caesars was among the first to use", "James Leprino worked full-time with his father, but due to pressure from large grocery chains, his father's store closed in 1958, so he started Leprino Foods with $615, focusing on making cheese for pizza, sales of which were booming. Leprino is the chairman and CEO of Leprino Foods, the largest manufacturer of mozzarella cheese in the world. In October 2017, his net worth was estimated by \"Forbes\" at US$3.1 billion. He supplies major pizza chains including Pizza Hut, Domino's, Papa John's and Little Caesars, and controls up to 85% of the US pizza cheese market. Leprino is married with two children. He", "Costco large soda for AUD$1.99. In Canada, the price for a hot dog and soda with refills is C$1.50. In Mexico, the hot dog is made of 100% beef and includes a drink (with refills) for MXN$35. In the UK, the hot dog is also made from beef and customers also get a drink (with refills) for £1.50. Costco sold more than 137 million quarter-pound (113 g) hot dogs in its food courts in 2017. Cheese, pepperoni, veggie, or combo pizza is also available in most locations, and can usually be ordered to go, making Costco arguably the 14th largest pizza", "Bambolino's in some pizza conglomerate's computer so Big Brother knows that I'm a sausage and green peppers guy.\" In addition to individual slices, the Montrose Boulevard Bambolino's sold entire pizzas and partially baked pizza slices. In 1996 a single plain cheese pizza slice had a cost of $1.69, and a fully loaded double-wide slice such as the \"Double Big House -The Works,\" which had bell peppers, Canadian bacon, hamburger, Italian sausage, jalapeños, mozzarella, mushrooms, black olives, pepperoni, and red onions. In regards to the flavor, Hoffman said in 1996 that \"Bambolino's is surprisingly tasty pizza. I was expecting a lesser quality", "Pizza Land in 2010, who purchased the restaurant from DiPiazza's son. The store is now owned by Eddie Twdroos. Pizza Land is most famous for serving pizza, but they also offer other products such as buffalo wings, chicken fingers, hot dogs, cheeseburgers, cheesesteaks, french fries, wraps, mozzarella sticks, pasta, salads, and sandwiches. Pizza Land serves Coca-Cola beverage products. They come in either cans, bottles, or 2 liter bottles. Pizza Land Pizza Land is an American owned pizzeria located at 260 Belleville Turnpike in North Arlington, New Jersey, which featured in the opening credits of \"The Sopranos\". Additionally, in \"Law & Order\" episode", "Godfather's Pizza Cain and Ronald B. Gartlan, the company's executive vice president, led a group to purchase the Godfather's brand from Pillsbury, which they did by the beginning of 1990 in a leveraged buyout reported to be $100 million. It was reported to be the fifth largest pizza chain in the United States at the time, down from third place in 1985. About this time, many Godfather's locations were bought out by Pantera's Pizza using a similar recipe. Under Cain's leadership, Godfather's closed approximately 200 restaurants and eliminated several thousand jobs, and by doing so returned to profitability. Cain stepped down from", "Bertucci's mouth. \"USA Today\" listed Bertucci's as one of America's top 10 pizza restaurants in 1989; by then, its headquarters were in Woburn. In the 1990s Bertucci’s menu added soups, salads, and pasta dishes before expanding into Rhode Island and New Hampshire. Bertucci's became a publicly owned company in July 1991. The company offered 21 units for $13 per share. That year sales increased 30 percent to $37.4 million and net income increased by 90 percent to $3 million. Stock prices nearly doubled, selling for $24.75 per share. In 1992 delivery and take-out services were added; Bertucci’s grew from 26 to", "Totino's Chinese foods. After selling Chun King in 1966, he founded Jeno’s Inc. in 1968, where he developed Pizza Rolls, a type of egg roll filled with pizza ingredients. In 1985, Paulucci sold his Jeno's Pizza Rolls brand to Pillsbury for $135 million. The Jeno's line of pizza rolls was rebranded as Totino's in 1993. On November 1, 2007, Totino's and Jeno's brand pizza were recalled for E. coli contamination. Totino's products contain cheese substitutes made with hydrogenated oil. Totino's products have been criticized for their high amount of trans fat and sodium. In 2011, \"Consumer Reports\" rated Totino's as \"only", "Seafood pizza pizza after the pizza has been cooked. Another dish the restaurant serves is a seafood pizza that includes lobster cream sauce in its preparation. The world's most expensive pizza listed by \"Guinness World Records\" is a seafood pizza called the \"C6\" that is prepared at Steveston Pizza Co. restaurant in Steveston, British Columbia (in the Metro Vancouver area) which costs C$450. The pizza includes lobster, caviar, tiger prawns and smoked salmon. Each slice is worth C$45, because it is divided into 10 slices. It has to be pre-ordered one day in advance. The title for world's most expensive pizza was", "A Fishful of Dollars Planet Express crew takes a trip to the local shopping mall. Trying to buy the product he saw in his dreams, Fry realizes he is broke. At the same time, Bender is arrested for shoplifting. As the crew scrounges up bail money, Fry notices that the bank where he used to have an account has remained in business. He still has his ATM card and remembers his PIN code: the price of a cheese pizza and large soda at Panucci's Pizza, where he used to work. The account had contained 93 cents in 1999, but after accruing interest at 2.25%", "Cassano's Pizza King were relocated or renovated, and online ordering capability was added to the company's web site. Plans were also announced to offer frozen pizzas online. The company at this time had 500 employees, 32 company-owned locations, and 7 franchise locations. In early 2011, the chain announced plans to open another location in Piqua, Ohio. In late 2011, \"Pizza Today\" magazine ranked the company 81st in the U.S. by gross sales, at $26 million, not counting franchises. The magazine had ranked the company at #94 the previous year. Cassano's pizza dough is manufactured at a Kettering facility and flash-frozen before being shipped", "Bertucci's parent of Planet Hollywood, Earl Enterprises, for $20 million. While it began by offering only brick oven pizzas, in the 1990s Bertucci's began offering pasta dishes, panini, and foccacia sandwiches and various grilled dishes. Bertucci's Bertucci's is an American chain of restaurants offering pizza and Italian food. It also offers delivery (from some stores), take-out and private dining. Bertucci's was founded by Joey Crugnale in Davis Square, Somerville, Massachusetts, in 1981. The company expanded rapidly during the 1990s. Bertucci's locations are primarily found in the Northeast, but range as far south as Virginia. N.E. Restaurant Co. Inc. bought out Bertucci's", "Duluth, Minnesota from a friend, he started canning chow mein \"seasoned to [his] own Italian taste\", and selling it to retailers under the label Chun King. Chun King came to encompass an entire line of prepared Chinese food; at that time not available in grocery stores. In 1966, he sold his enterprise for $63 million. In 1968, Paulucci founded Jeno's Inc., a company that sold frozen pizzas and a variety of other \"Italian\" foods. The most notable of these was undoubtedly his own invention, the pizza roll, a snack food consisting of an Italian filling wrapped in an egg roll wrapper. He", "Rose Totino later expanded from take-out only to Totino’s Kitchen with table service. In 1962, they started Totino’s Finer Foods and began mass production of frozen pizzas. They built a plant in Fridley, Minnesota in 1971. Demand continued to grow, and they sold their company to Pillsbury in 1975 for about $22 million in Pillsbury stock. Totino's grandson Steve Elwell bought the restaurant in 1987 and moved Totino's Kitchen from its original location in August 2007 to a new location in Mounds View, Minnesota. The new location closed in 2011, ending a 60-year run. The Totinos were involved in Minnesota charities. Totino-Grace", "Kraft Foods Inc. over three years. President Sanjay Khosla said, \"South Africa is a priority market for us, where we focus on power brands like Cadbury chocolate.\" On March 1, 2010, Nestlé concluded the purchase of Kraft's North American frozen pizza business for $3.7 billion. Kraft left the door open to repurchase with a buyback option not before one year and not after three years for the original sale price of $3.7 billion. Although not likely if Kraft were to want to repurchase they would have to come up with cash only and no stocks. The sale included DiGiorno, Tombstone and Jack's brands", "Pizza Principle variable-fare cost MetroCard (also used on the buses at that point), the direct correlation between the cost of an off-the-street slice of cheese pizza and the cost of a subway token might not continue to hold. In 2005, and again in 2007, Haberman noted the price of a slice was again rising, and, citing the Pizza Connection, worried that the subway/bus fare might soon rise again. The fare did indeed rise to $2.25 in June 2009, and again in 2013 to $2.50. In 2014 Jared Lander, a professional statistician and Adjunct Professor at Columbia University, conducted a study of pizza", "Pizza . The world's most expensive pizza listed by \"Guinness World Records\" is a commercially available thin-crust pizza at Maze restaurant in London, United Kingdom, which costs . The pizza is wood fire-baked, and is topped with onion puree, white truffle paste, fontina cheese, baby mozzarella, pancetta, cep mushrooms, freshly picked wild mizuna lettuce, and fresh shavings of a rare Italian white truffle. There are several instances of more expensive pizzas, such as the \"Pizza Royale 007\" at Haggis restaurant in Glasgow, Scotland, which has caviar, lobster and is topped with 24-carat gold dust, and the caviar pizza made by Nino's", "California Pizza Kitchen Beverly Hills, California. The first menu, including the famous BBQ Chicken Pizza, was developed by Ed LaDou, then the pizza chef at Wolfgang Puck's Spago restaurant. CPK became an immediate success, and the company expanded throughout Southern California. By 1992, there were 26 CPKs. Flax and Rosenthal served as co-CEO and co-Chairmen of CPK from 1985 through to 1996, and then again from 2003 to 2011 In 1992, PepsiCo paid nearly $100 million for 67% of the chain, with Flax and Rosenfield each receiving $17.5 million. At the time this was thought to be more than CPK was worth, and", "Pizza Bellissima pizzeria in New York City, New York. However, these are not officially recognized by \"Guinness World Records\". Additionally, a pizza was made by the restaurateur Domenico Crolla that included toppings such as sunblush-tomato sauce, Scottish smoked salmon, medallions of venison, edible gold, lobster marinated in cognac, and champagne-soaked caviar. The pizza was auctioned for charity in 2007, raising . In 2017, the world pizza market was $128 billion and in the US it was $44 billion spread over 76,000 pizzerias. Overall, 13% of the U.S. population aged 2 years and over, consumed pizza on any given day. Some mass-produced", "Mister C's brothers went on to open several successful restaurants, as well. Ventures included a range of styles and price points, from the Palazzo Italiano at 84th and West Center, Lou Caniglia’s Steak House & Little Luigi’s Tower of Pizza at 88th and Maple, to \"The Top of The World\" at the Woodmen Tower and Piccolo Pete’s Restaurant on South 20th Street. In 1988 Mister C's was cited by an industry magazine as one of the USA's leading independent restaurants within its income bracket of $6 to $7 million in annual sales. The restaurant and its owners were widely regarded as important", "Pizza Pizza Pizza, and Pizza Nova. Two other major Canadian chains, Greco and Panago, which have a presence similar to Pizza Pizza in the Atlantic and Western Canada respectively, have entered the Ontario market. In Montreal, Quebec, its competitors are Mikes, Pizza Hut, and Double Pizza. On March 6, 2017, Pizza Pizza introduced dairy-free, vegan cheese to the menu. Pizza Pizza is known for the chain's phone number, XXX–1111. The company claims that its early adoption of the centralized single-number ordering system, and its subsequent use and heavy promotion of this rhyming phone number, helped the chain to expand through Ontario. A", "Pan pizza franchised into Pizza Hut in 1959 and added a thicker crust pan pizza. Other pizza companies also later included pan pizza. In 1989, Domino's Pizza introduced its deep dish or pan pizza. Its introduction followed market research showing that 40% of pizza customers preferred thick crusts. The new product launch cost approximately $25 million, of which $15 million was spent on new sheet metal pans with perforated bottoms. Pan pizza Pan pizza is a thin or thick pizza baked in a deep dish pan. The bottoms and sides of the crust become fried and crispy in the oil used to", "Jumbo slice only two varieties: cheese and pepperoni. Individual slices can measure more than in length, weigh approximately , and require folding to eat. Dough balls for jumbo slice pies can weigh more than . Prior to application, sauce is held in a large receptacle sometimes nicknamed a \"garbage can\", and the mozzarella-provolone cheese mix can arrive in shipments. A single jumbo slice may contain more than 1,000 kilocalories (4200 kJ), as confirmed in a study conducted by ABC Research Corp. on behalf of the \"Washington City Paper\". Koronet Pizza, located in the Morningside Heights neighborhood in New York City, began selling", "Pizza Factory investment of $65,000 to $75,000 to buy in, including a $20,000 franchise fee. The company charged a three-percent royalty fee, considered low in comparison to similar franchises. The company also charged a one-percent advertising fee. Each location made $25,000 to $100,000 per year. Each restaurant was designed to allow customers to watch as the food was being prepared. Each franchisee was encouraged to add local memorabilia and photos to their restaurant, as well as participate in community events and to support local sports teams. Joyce Willey said about the company's focus on local communities, \"It's a throwback to when neighbors", "Di Fara Pizza a plain slice of pizza from $4 to $5, becoming the first $5-a-slice pizza place in New York City. The nondescript restaurant is located on Avenue J next to a 99 cent store. The restaurant only has 15 seats, but the pizzeria is so popular that crowds sometimes form on the sidewalk outside, as the wait can be as long as one to two hours. In spite of its renown, Di Fara's has been closed in 2007 and in 2011 due to unsanitary conditions. In his 1998 book \"The Eclectic Gourmet Guide to Greater New York City\", Jim Leff called", "Kotipizza are operated by franchising. In 2018, Kotipizza operates only in Finland. Some restaurants offer delivery and accept orders by phone or via the internet. Most of the home-delivery restaurants utilise the home-delivery concept created in cooperation with the chain’s franchisees. Built-in warming delivery boxes in delivery vehicles keep pizzas at 60 degrees Celsius even for an hour. In 2016, 62 per cent of all ingredients used at Kotipizza restaurants came from Finland. For instance, the million kilograms of cheese used by the chain was acquired from 70 Valio dairy farms located in the area of Lapinlahti, Finland. In 2014, the", "Domino's Pizza 1989, with the debut of Domino's deep dish or pan pizza. Its introduction followed market research showing that 40% of pizza customers preferred thick crusts. The new product launch cost approximately $25 million, of which $15 million was spent on new sheet metal pans with perforated bottoms. Domino's started testing extra-large size pizzas in early 1993, starting with the 30-slice, yard-long \"The Dominator\". Domino's tapped into a market trend toward bite-size foods with spicy \"Buffalo Chicken Kickers\", as an alternative to Buffalo Wings, in August 2002. The breaded, baked, white-meat fillets, similar to chicken fingers, are packaged in a custom-designed", "Costco only available in Canada. There are, however, temporary menu items available exclusively in several countries, like the \"pizza al pastor\" in Mexico. The nutrition data for the Costco Food Court items is posted online. Due to slow sales, in 2009 the pretzel was replaced by the churro. In April 2013, Pepsi replaced all Coca-Cola fountain drinks at US locations because Coke had raised its prices; this helped keep the hot dog combo with soda at its original US$1.50 price. In select Costco food courts, Costco is selling cheeseburgers for a limited time to experiment sales. It will possibly be a", "Dave Brandon offering in 1992 at $11.34 per share. Fortune selected Valassis as one of the 100 best companies to work for in 1997, 1998, and 1999. Brandon became the chief executive officer of Domino’s Pizza in March 1999 after its founder Thomas Monaghan sold his shares of the pizza chain to Bain Capital in order to start Ave Maria University. Brandon led Domino’s to its initial public offering in 2004 at $14 per share, raising $337 million. Under Brandon’s direction, Domino’s introduced the first pizza tracker, and added desserts and sub sandwiches to its menu. To promote the new products, Brandon", "Marion's Piazza if he could buy dough for Marion’s. While Holp would not sell it, his wife showed Glass how to make the dough. Every 5 years, for one day only, Marion's Piazza sells their traditional menu items at the original 1965 price (e.g., a small cheese pizza for $0.80 and a large deluxe pizza for $2.50). One of the distinct characteristics of every Marion's Piazza location is the photos found on the walls. From 1966 to 1995, the Kenley Players would hold cast parties at Marion's after their summer theatre performances. Today, the walls are filled with black and white photographs", "Buca di Beppo Buca, Inc. sold their 11 Vinny T's of Boston restaurants to Bertucci's Corp. for $6.8 million. On June 7, 2006, three former Buca executives were charged with stealing more than US$200,000 from the company. On August 5, 2008, Planet Hollywood's parent company, Planet Hollywood International, Inc., agreed to purchase the Buca chain for US$28.5 million. Under terms of the deal, Buca became a wholly owned subsidiary of Planet Hollywood. In 2011, Buca moved its headquarters from Minneapolis to Orlando, Florida, home of its parent company, citing financial incentives. In 2012, Rick Tasman was named CEO & President. Buca di Beppo", "Nolan Bushnell During this time Bushnell was using large loans on his Pizza Time stock to fund Catalyst. By the end of 1983, Chuck E. Cheese was having serious financial problems. President and long-time friend Joe Keenan resigned that fall. Nolan tried to step back in, blaming the money problems on over-expansion, too much tweaking of the formula and saturation in local markets by the management team. He resigned in February 1984, when the Board of Directors rejected his proposed changes. Chuck E. Cheese's Pizza Time Theaters (now named after its famous mouse mascot) entered bankruptcy in the fall of 1984. ShowBiz", "Panago reusable insulated pizza bag. The bag is designed to keep pizza hot for customers who pick up their pizza. Customers can also choose dairy-free Daiya cheese as a topping. In May 2009, Panago was the recipient of 12 Frankie Awards presented by the Canadian Franchise Association. Gold awards were given for store design, brochures, packaging and a December 2008 promotion. Panago is partnered with advertising and design firm Mercer Creative. In November 2010, an independent study, conducted by J. D. Power and Associates found Panago Pizza ranked highest in the quick service category in the Vancouver market (Quick service was", "Pizza delivery a small percentage of stores owned or franchised by U.S. pizza companies Domino's and Papa John's were also charging delivery fees of 50 cents to $1.50, and some of Little Caesar's franchisees charged delivery fees. In 2005, Papa John's implemented delivery charges in the majority of its company-owned stores. In some countries, it is common to give the pizza deliverer an optional tip upon paying for the order. In Canada and the United States, tipping for pizza delivery is customary. Opinions on appropriate amounts vary widely. Employees are legally obligated to report tips to their employer for income tax purposes,", "Bella Italia In February 1993, BrightReasons purchased 43 Pizza Piazza and Prima Pasta restaurants from Rank Organisation for £20.25m, bringing their total number of restaurants to 165. In May 1994, BrightReasons started preparing for a stock market flotation, and the group was expected to be valued at between £70m-£100m. This was subsequently announced in September, however, in November 1994, the planned flotation was postponed. In November 1996, BrightReasons was put up for sale after suffering a particularly tough trading period in 1995. In December 2002, the Bella Pasta chain was rebranded as Bella Italia and the first fully branded restaurant opened in", "Pep Simek the spices needed to flavor the Tombstone pizzas. The new pizzas proved popular. Within three years, Simek began selling them throughout Medford at the rate of 2,000 pizza pies per day. Pep Simek and his brother sold the pizzas utilizing the advertising tagline, \"What do you want on your Tombstone?\" Simek served as CEO and chairman of the board of directors of Tombstone pizza until the business was sold to Kraft Foods in 1986. Tombstone was later acquired by Nestlé in 2010. Pep Simek opened a second pizzeria, Pep's Pizza, in Medford following Tombstone's sale to Kraft. Simek also pursued", "Pizza Pizza 73. As well, in October 2006, the company announced it would expand in the Quebec market, beginning with sponsorship of the Montreal Canadiens. The chain expanded to the British Columbia Lower Mainland in 2009, however all locations closed (Pizza 73 already had a location in Prince George in the B.C. Interior), and soon after added locations in Manitoba and Saskatchewan. The chain returned to Vancouver in 2018. Pizza Pizza opened its first store in Halifax, Nova Scotia in June 2010. Major southern Ontario competitors include Pizza Hut, Domino's Pizza, Little Caesars, Gino's Pizza, Mamma's Pizza, Pizzaiolo, 241 Pizza, Double Double", "Eagle Boys range. The chain also announced it would scale back its social media spend. In 2011, the chain released advertising \"Our large pizzas are bigger than theirs\" in another attempt to demonstrate their large pizza offered effectively an extra slice of pizza to their closest rival, Domino's. Domino's chief executive, in response, told media that \"value is not in the size of a pizza.\" Eagle Boys recorded a 20% jump in sales in the first week of the campaign compared to the previous week. The pizza chain also announced it would be supporting the Cerebral Palsy Alliance, with a plan to", "Frank Pepe Pizzeria Napoletana 2015 Pepe's released their plans to expand into the Boston market. On December 16, 2015 they opened their Chestnut Hill location. On April 17, 2017, Frank Pepe Pizzeria Napoletana opened their 9th location in Waterbury, CT. All of Pepe's locations feature the same menu. Since 1925, Pepe's has exclusively served Foxon Park bottled sodas from East Haven, Connecticut. The restaurant offers soda, beer, wine, and several varieties of pizzas and toppings. All Pepe's ovens are coal-fired and built in exactly the same manner from brick, based on the original. They measure by and cook pizzas in approximately 8 to 10", "Blaze Pizza listed among the menu. The company had also introduced online ordering to help minimize lines. Where permitted by local alcoholic beverages laws, some franchises also serve beer. Since 2014, the company hosts its annual Pi Day every March 14 (sometimes abbreviated as 3/14) in which all personal pizzas are sold at the discounted price of $3.14 plus tax. In August 2016, the company began to offer Agua Fresca soft drinks that are made in house with real fruit. In addition to the S'more Pies, Blaze began to offer chocolate chip cookies and brownies, both of which are cooked in the", "International Street \"The Gift House\"); T-shirts, sweatshirts, and hats were on sale at Camicie (Italian for \"shirts\"); and magic tricks could be bought at Maschera (Italian for \"mask\"). Calling it a \"teenager's delight\", a publication on the park remarked on the selling of \"the most outrageous candles in the world—hot dogs with relish, banana split ...\" Pizza was offered for $1 or less per slice, but the \"Toronto Star\" deemed the machine-stretched dough \"perhaps too cookie-like,\" in spite of ample cheese and spicy sauce. The grape sherbet included both grape juice and real Italian wine. By 1989, La Casa remained, but Camicie", "Giordano's Pizzeria major competitors in the Chicago-style deep dish field are Pizzeria Uno, Nancy's, Gino's East, Pizano's, and Lou Malnati's while its thin crust pizza competes primarily with Home Run Inn, Connie's, Aurelio's and Rosati's. Along with Uno and Gino's, Giordano's has been described as one of Chicago's \"main pizza triumvirate\". The stuffed pizza at Giordino's has a top and bottom crust with cheese stuffed in between and the option of additional toppings in the middle such as pepperoni, Italian sausage, and spinach, while sauce and parmesan are added on top of the crust. Giordano's pizza crust is made from dough high", "Frank Pepe Pizzeria Napoletana on September 6, 1969. Pepe's originated the New Haven-style thin-crust apizza (closely related to Neapolitan-style Italian pizza) which he baked in a coal-fired brick pizza oven. Originally, Frank Pepe only made two varieties of pizza: the \"tomato pie\" (tomatoes with grated pecorino romano cheese, garlic, oregano, and olive oil) and the other with the addition of anchovy. The piece of land which Pepe's restaurant sat on was owned by the Boccamiello family. They later made Frank Pepe leave so that they could start their own pizzeria at the establishment, which they renamed The Spot. Pepe moved his restaurant to its", "Bertucci's N.E. Restaurant Co. Inc. purchased Bertucci’s for $10.50 a share during the buyout. Crugnale has moved on to own two individual restaurants, Naked Fish in Waltham, Massachusetts, and Red Sauce (now closed). In 2001, N.E. Restaurant Co. Inc. sold its Chili's and On the Border restaurants to Brinker International, and changed its name to Bertucci's Corp. A $4 million advertising tagline \"Everybody Eats\" was developed in April 2002. In 2006, Italian chain Vinny T's rebranded as Buca di Beppo and withdrew from some markets. As part of their consolidation, they sold 11 Boston locations to Bertucci's Corp. In 2011, \"The", "Lombardi's Pizza the original did. It is unusual in not selling slices, highly popular throughout New York City. Only whole pies made to order are sold. In 2005, Lombardi's offered entire pizzas for 5 cents, their 1905 price, to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the first pizza sold at its original location. Lombardi's Pizza Lombardi's is a pizzeria located at 32 Spring Street on the corner of Mott Street in the Nolita neighborhood in the borough of Manhattan, New York City. Opened in 1905, it has been acknowledged by the Pizza Hall of Fame as the first pizzeria in the United States.", "Chicken Delight as the individual dinners, but gravy is added. The Pizza and Chicken combos consist of a pie and a range from 6-15 pieces of chicken, comes complete with fries and gravy as the sides. Chicken Delight serves Pepsi products. They come in either cans, 2 liter bottles, or smaller 591 ml bottles. When Chicken Delight was founded, franchisers typically used one of two different methods for collecting revenue. One was to collect 4% to 8% of gross sales, as is typically done now. The other method was to require their franchisees to buy all their equipment and packaging from the", "Goodfella's to death at the Naas factory. Northern Foods also makes pizzas under the San Marco brand, in addition to the Goodfella's brand, at its Longford site, Green Isle Foods (Longford) Ltd, at the junction of the N4 and N63, which opened in 2000, and bought by Green Isle in 2001. It has around 130 employees and produces around 800,000 pizzas a week. Goodfella's Goodfella's is an Irish well-known and popular brand of frozen pizzas. It had been the leading brand of frozen pizza in the UK until 2005 and is still the leading brand of frozen pizza in Ireland. The", "Elements (restaurant) elements has a seasonally-changing menu and serves an array of different cuisines ranging from chicken liver pâté to locally sourced grits to Laughing Bird shrimp. elements offers a variety of wines, with bottle prices ranging from $26 to $2,700. In 2009, elements was named best restaurant in New Jersey for its unique taste, imagination, and work ethic. \"Wine Spectator\" praised Anderson's spaghetti carbonara in 2010. In 2012, elements was voted both best brunch and best lunch in \"New Jersey Monthly\"s 29th Annual Jersey Choice Restaurant Poll and was ranked the 35th-best restaurant in the United States by OpinionatedAboutDining.com, as reported", "Stuffed crust pizza and patented stuffed crust pizza in 1987. Mongiello lost the case in 1999. DiGiorno also offers a cheese stuffed crust pizza beginning in 2001. Stuffed crust pizza Stuffed crust pizza is pizza with cheese and may include other toppings added into the crust. The stuffed crust pizza was popularized by Pizza Hut which debuted this style of pizza in 1995. Pizza Hut debuted stuffed crust pizza on March 26, 1995 and then engaged in a $45 million ad campaign promoting the pizza. Pizza Hut hired Donald Trump to advertise the pizza. Trump appeared in a 1995 commercial with Ivana Trump", "Mac n' Cheetos including New York state sales tax is $3.26. \"USA Today\"s Ted Berg was critical of the price choice, as he thought it would be 99¢ at Taco Bell. When the food item was brought back in October 2016 at Sheetz, it was priced at $2.99. Sheetz offers it available for pickup via the Sheetz Apps menu. However, it costs $3.49 in Altoona, Pennsylvania. In May 2017, the Mac n' Cheetos was priced $2.69 at Burger King. Burger King called its product a \"dangerously cheesy re-imagination\". In May 2017, a press release described them as \"cheesiest, most amplified version of mac", "Pizzeria Bianco Pizzeria Bianco Pizzeria Bianco is a pizza restaurant in downtown Phoenix, Arizona established in 1987 that has earned very positive reviews by notable food critics. Nationally recognized for its pizzas, the restaurant's small seating capacity can lead to wait times that sometimes surprise casual patrons. The restaurant features a wood-fired oven and homemade mozzarella cheese used in pizzas primarily fashioned by the owner himself. In 2013, the restaurant established a second location in the Biltmore Area of Phoenix. The restaurant was originally opened by Chris Bianco in 1987 in a grocery store which is now AJ's Euro-Market & Deli located", "BJ's Restaurants Motenko and Jerry Hennessy in 1991. By 1996, seven restaurants had opened between San Diego and Los Angeles. Originally known as Chicago Pizza, the company went public about 1996, raising $9.4 million. The company then bought 26 Pietro's Pizza restaurants in March 1996 in a $2.8 million deal in cash and assumed debt, but then sold off seven of the locations with plans to convert the remaining Pietro's to what was then BJ's Pizza. During the same year, the company opened a microbrewery at its Brea restaurant. Between 2010 and 2011, the National Retail Federation named it as one of", "Papa John's Pizza he moved into an adjoining space. Dipping sauce specifically for pizza was invented by Papa John's Pizza that same year, and has since become popular when eating pizza, especially the crust. The company went public in 1993. A year later it had 500 stores, and by 1997 it had opened 1,500 stores. In 2009, Schnatter reacquired the Camaro back after offering a reward of $250,000 for the car. \"PMQ Pizza Magazine\" said in December 2016 that the company was the third-largest take-out and pizza delivery restaurant chain in the United States. (According to PMQ, Little Caesars is the third-largest pizza", "Little Caesars first location was in a strip mall in Garden City, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit, and named \"Little Caesar's Pizza Treat\". The original store closed in October 2018. The company is famous for its advertising catchphrase, \"Pizza! Pizza!\" which was introduced in 1979. The phrase refers to two pizzas being offered for the comparable price of a single pizza from competitors. Originally, the pizzas were served in a single long package (a piece of corrugated cardboard in 2-by-1 proportions, with two square pizzas placed side by side, then slid into a form-fitting paper sleeve that was folded and stapled closed).", "Liberty Place Every condominium unit features a cappuccino machine, Italian-made Snaidero kitchen cabinetry, Miele appliances, and concierge service. The 37th floor contains a full spa and sauna, pool, and a gourmet restaurant called R2L which opened on January 21, 2010. The restaurant occupies and can seat almost 300. The condominiums range in price from US$800,000 for a 40th-floor single bedroom to more than US$15 millions for a penthouse. Because of low sales of the condos, the top portion of the building was to be converted into a boutique hotel in 2013. Due to low interest in the hotel, the top 10 floors", "Pizzeria Bianco Pizzeria Bianco was featured in Peter Reinhart's book \"American Pie: My Search for the Perfect Pizza\". Pizzeria Bianco Pizzeria Bianco is a pizza restaurant in downtown Phoenix, Arizona established in 1987 that has earned very positive reviews by notable food critics. Nationally recognized for its pizzas, the restaurant's small seating capacity can lead to wait times that sometimes surprise casual patrons. The restaurant features a wood-fired oven and homemade mozzarella cheese used in pizzas primarily fashioned by the owner himself. In 2013, the restaurant established a second location in the Biltmore Area of Phoenix. The restaurant was originally opened by", "Value menu and cheddar sandwiches, and turnovers. Burger King added a value menu in 1998 with items priced at 99¢ (USD), . In 2002 and 2006, BK revamped its value menu, adding and removing products at 99¢, and later increasing some prices to $1.39. Many of these items have since been discontinued, modified or relegated to a regional menu option. The Burger King Whopper was the very first 99 cent burger and it revolutionized the 99 cent menu in the fast food industry. After numerous attempts beginning in 1991, experimenting with a variety of menus and pricing strategies, McDonald's launched its first", "Papa Murphy's lower costs because they require less restaurant space and equipment. As a result, they are often able to undercut the national pizza giants. Papa Murphy's also offers salads, chocolate chip cookie dough, cheesy bread, cinnamon wheels, smores dessert pizzas, and soft drinks in various sizes. Papa Murphy’s ranked No. 5 on \"Forbes\" magazine’s list of the top 20 restaurant franchises to buy in 2011. Papa Murphy's Papa Murphy's, a business based in Vancouver, Washington, United States, is a take-and-bake pizza company. It began in 1995 as the merger of two take-and-bake pizza companies: Papa Aldo's Pizza (founded in 1981) and", "Nancy Silverton purchased La Brea Bakery for a price that was reported as ranging from $56 million to $68.5 million. Silverton earned more than $5 million in the sale, and invested with Bernard Madoff; her profits were lost in 2008 with the collapse of his pyramid scheme. In 2005, she and Peel separated, and Silverton left Campanile after their divorce in 2007. The restaurant closed in October 2012. In 2007, Silverton partnered with New York chef Mario Batali and his frequent collaborator Joseph Bastianich to open an Italian restaurant, Osteria Mozza. Reminiscent of the evolution of La Brea bakery, a pizzeria, Pizzeria", "Seafood pizza previously held by a C$178 pizza prepared with white truffle by Gordon Ramsay. As of September 2014, Guinness World Records still lists the Gordon Ramsay pizza on their website. There are several instances of more expensive pizzas, such as the US$4,200 “Pizza Royale 007\" at Haggis restaurant in Glasgow, Scotland, which has caviar, lobster and is topped with 24-carat gold leaf, and the US$1,000 caviar pizza made by Nino's Bellissima pizzeria in New York City, New York. However, these are not officially recognized by \"Guinness World Records\". Seafood pizza Seafood pizza is pizza prepared with seafood as a primary ingredient.", "Cassano's Pizza King company president without explanation. \"Pizza Marketplace\" later reported the Leasher had been forced out after Cassano Jr. learned Leasher had written a $90,000 company check to himself. In October 2000, following an investigation by the Kettering Police Department (at Cassano Jr.'s behest) and county prosecutors, Leasher pleaded guilty to two charges related to the embezzlement of $700,000 from the company. Determined to reaffirm the company in Dayton and turn Cassano's around, Cassano Jr. obtained assistance from Mark Heistand, a turnaround consultant at Financial Resource Associates Inc. (KY), and the Tri-State Association for Corporate Renewal (TACR), a nonprofit organization that offers", "Tom Monaghan but it is unclear what effect, if any, that had on the company's sales. In 1998, Monaghan reportedly sold his 93% of stock ownership of Domino's Pizza to Bain Capital, an investment firm based in Boston, for an estimated $1 billion. Domino's Pizza is an American restaurant chain and the international franchise pizza delivery corporation is headquartered at the Domino's Farms Office Park (the campus itself owned by Monaghan) in Ann Arbor Township, Michigan, United States, near Ann Arbor, Michigan. In December 2011, Monaghan embarked on his second quick service restaurant brand by starting Gyrene Burger Company. The military-themed burger", "Pizzeria Bianco of two appetizers, three salads, and six pizzas. Pizzeria Bianco uses a wood burning oven. Since opening, Chris Bianco has made nearly every pizza himself, sometimes making 250 a night. He and his staff make the mozzarella fresh each morning. Bianco's dough is made by hand, and ideally he lets it ferment for 18 hours. The herbs are from a garden beside the restaurant. The vegetables are from the local farmer’s market. In January 2010, Bianco announced that he was taking some time away from pizza making for health reasons (the wood oven and flour in the air was aggravating", "History of pizza from Naples, Italy in 1903 to introduce the Neapolitan Pizza. Vincent (Jimmy) Bruno (Giovanni's son) went on to open the first pizzeria in The Loop in Chicago at 421 S. Wabash Avenue, the Yacht Club. Gennaro Lombardi opened a grocery store in 1897 which was later established as the \"said\" first pizzeria in America in 1905 with New York's issuance of the mercantile license. An employee of his, Antonio Totonno Pero, began making pizza for the store to sell that same year. The price for a pizza was five cents, but since many people could not afford the cost of", "ShowBiz Pizza Place Chuck E. Cheese's Pizza Time Theatre characters. In addition, all ShowBiz Pizza locations in the U.S. were rebranded as Chuck E. Cheese's. This is effectively ending “ShowBiz Pizza”. By 1992, the conversion was complete, and ShowBiz Pizza Time became known as CEC Entertainment, Inc., in 1998 moving its stock from NASDAQ to NYSE. In February 2014, the company was purchased by Apollo Global Management for $1.3 billion. ShowBiz Pizza Place ShowBiz Pizza Place was an American restaurant pizza chain and family entertainment center founded in 1980 by Robert L. Brock and Creative Engineering. The brand emerged following a separation between", "Stuffed crust pizza Stuffed crust pizza Stuffed crust pizza is pizza with cheese and may include other toppings added into the crust. The stuffed crust pizza was popularized by Pizza Hut which debuted this style of pizza in 1995. Pizza Hut debuted stuffed crust pizza on March 26, 1995 and then engaged in a $45 million ad campaign promoting the pizza. Pizza Hut hired Donald Trump to advertise the pizza. Trump appeared in a 1995 commercial with Ivana Trump who he had divorced in 1992. Pizza Hut was sued by Brooklyn resident, Anthony Mongiello, for $1 billion after he claimed to have invented", "Prezzo (restaurant) chain in the 1960s and Italian restaurants Garfunkel's and Deep Pan Pizza, both now sold to Restaurant Group. In 2008 Jonathan hired cousins Adam Kaye and Samuel Kaye (sons of Philip Kaye) to join Prezzo plc's board of directors. Adam and Samuel founded Ask (restaurant) and Zizzi. Prezzo donates 25p of the profits raised from sales of their Tropicana Pizza to the children's charity Fight for Life. In 2011 the award-winning celebrity chef Aldo Zilli designed four pizzas which were added to the Prezzo menu under the name \"V.I.Pizzas\". Private equity firm TPG took over the Prezzo business in 2015", "Papa John's Pizza a one-off franchise fee of $25,000 per restaurant, then a royalty fee of 5% of net sales, plus a charge for advertising of 8% of net sales. The company requires franchisees to have net worth of at least $250,000, the approximate amount of investment needed. Corporate operations look over franchisees to ensure brand consistency. Papa John's International is a publicly traded company, with 25% of its shares owned by John Schnatter. In January 2002, Papa John's became the first national pizza chain to make online ordering available to all of its U.S. customers. Most other national chains later added online", "Jerry W. Levin initial capacity as head of corporate development, Levin completed hundreds of mergers, acquisitions and divestitures. Some of the transactions he led included Häagen-Dazs, Green Giant, Totino's Pizza, Steak and Ale, Chart House, and American Beauty Macaroni. Levin also became the chief executive officer of several operating units within Pillsbury, including Häagen-Dazs and the second largest restaurant group in the U.S. (comprising Burger King, Steak and Ale, Bennigan's, Chart House and Godfather's Pizza). From 1989 until 1991, Levin was the chief executive officer of The Coleman Company, Inc., or Coleman. During his tenure as their chief executive officer, he divested non-strategic", "Kraft Dinner Kraft cheddar and is manufactured in Mount Royal, Quebec. The product was originally marketed as Kraft Dinner with the slogan \"a meal for four in nine minutes for an everyday price of 19 cents.\" It was re-branded to \"Kraft Macaroni & Cheese\" in the United States and other countries, although the word \"Dinner\" still appears in small type on the U.S. version. In several markets it goes by different names; in the United Kingdom it is also marketed as \"Cheesey Pasta\". The product is heavily promoted toward children in the United States on television. When advertising to younger children, the", "Dan and Frank Carney to grow. Their first franchise opened in Topeka, Kansas in 1959. The Pizza Hut in Aggieville, Kansas was the first to have delivery, an innovation. By 1977, Pizza Hut had grown to 4,000 outlets and the brothers decided to sell the business to PepsiCo for over $300 million USD. Frank remained the president and a board member of Pizza Hut until 1980. Frank became a franchisee of Papa John's Pizza in 1994. By 2001, he owned 133 locations. Based in Houston, his company runs stores in Kansas, Arizona, Missouri, California, Texas and Hawaii, including several in his hometown of Wichita", "Broccoli Pizza & Pasta to customize their own meal. In UAE, Broccoli serves Pepsi products for its beverage. Broccoli Pizza and Pasta’s signature product is Original Italian Pizza. In 2015, Broccoli Pizza and Pasta introduced the Pesto Pasta which had annual sales of over $200,000. The company began selling their homemade juice at some UAE stores in 2015. The company had put years into researching the markets around the world with the aid of PICO International since it being on a concept stage in 2009. The company made available the opportunity to Franchise with a startup fee of $12,500 and with a total capital", "Mother's Cookies bought most of the franchises back over the next several years. Markham in turn sold the company to two employees, who operated it from 1983 to 1998. The company was sold to Specialty Foods in 1998, reportedly for $100 million. The transaction made Specialty Foods the third largest cookie maker in the United States after Keebler and Nabisco. The two companies then went through a succession of owners. Specialty Foods sold Mother's and Archway to an Italian firm, Parmalat Finanziaria in 2000 for $250 million. As of 2002 Mother's was baking 17.5 million cookies per day. Cookie sales began to", "Cassano's Pizza King new Cassano's unit to be closed on the same day. In 1989, Cassano Jr. and Greyhound executive Randy Leasher repurchased the company. Acting on \"bad advice\", the pair continued to have difficulty with the company. In 1995, the company had 43 restaurants, 13 franchises and 563 employees. Cassano's filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection that year. The company's wholesale dough business, which started in 1994, brought Cassano's $3 million in 1998, and Cassano's Pizza Express operations was launched in 1999, but overall business continued to decline, with only 29 restaurants remaining in January 1999. In May 2000, Leasher resigned as", "Marco's Pizza Pizza credits its franchisees as well as its fresh dough, three-cheese blend, and secret pizza sauce recipe, created by founder Pat Giammarco, for its strong growth. In 2016, Marco's Pizza was ranked at #10 on the \"Pizza Today\" list of the Top 100 Pizza Companies in the United States. The company was also named one of \"Marketing Quarterly’\"s Top 25 Pizza Chains and named by \"Franchising World\" as number eight on the magazine's list of Fast and Serious growth franchises. The business operates locations in Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota,", "DiGiorno in Canada in 1999, although Kraft had previously used the Delissio brand for other pizza products in the 1980s. In 2010, Kraft sold the DiGiorno and Delissio brands, along with the rest of its frozen pizza business, to Swiss-based food manufacturer Nestlé. The move helped to finance Kraft's bid for Cadbury, while also effectively ensuring that Nestlé would not submit a competing bid for the confectionery company. Since Nestlé acquired Kraft's frozen pizza business, the DiGiorno brand has expanded to include bonus appetizers in a box, including breadsticks, boneless chicken pieces called Wyngz, and Toll House cookies. In 2013, DiGiorno's", "Domino's Pizza specialty, and custom pizzas available in a variety of crust styles and toppings. In 2011, Domino's launched artisan-style pizzas. Additional entrees include pasta, bread bowls, and oven-baked sandwiches. The menu offers chicken and bread sides, as well as beverages and desserts. From its founding until the early 1990s, the menu at Domino's Pizza was kept simple relative to other fast food restaurants, to ensure efficiency of delivery. Historically, Domino's menu consisted solely of one style of pizza crust in two sizes (12-inch and 16-inch), 11 toppings, and Coca-Cola as the only soft drink option. The first menu expansion occurred in", "Joseph H. Vicari the law\" because the normal bidding process was suspended by the state of emergency. He said that the order to Lakehurst Pizza and Luigi's Restaurant, best known as Luigi's in Lakehurst, was made because it was the only eatery open at the time. (According to county officials, Luigi's was the only pizzeria up and running that had a history of doing business with the county.) The $25,000 bill was the largest food order issued by the county following the storm. A review by the \"Asbury Park Press\" found that at least two other pizzerias in Toms River, and much closer", "Pizza Patrón the United States and caused the chain's Dallas headquarters to receive complaints and death threats, even the Swad/Fiaschetti's household in Sunnyvale, Texas was threatened by the KKK for associating with latinos . It also created publicity for the chain, garnering media attention from several outlets including Fox News, \"The Colbert Report\", MSNBC, The Tonight Show and many more. After the first week of the promotion, one owner reported that customers had paid with about 15,000 Mexican pesos, equivalent to about US$1,400, at his two southern California locations, which accounted for roughly 20% of his profits. On May 3, 2007, the", "Rocky Rococo (pizza chain) 1988. Mosley died at his home in Madison on November 28, 2017, aged 70. , there were 40 Rocky Rococo locations, mostly in Wisconsin, and one each in Minnesota and Washington. The chain generates about $40 million in annual sales. The chain previously had locations in Florida, Colorado, Nebraska, Missouri, Michigan, Iowa, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky and Ohio. Rocky Rococo (pizza chain) Rocky Rococo Pizza and Pasta is a chain of North American restaurants that specializes in pan-style pizza sold by the slice. It was founded in Madison, Wisconsin in 1974 by a pair of college students who took the name", "DiGiorno DiGiorno DiGiorno and Delissio are a co-owned brand of frozen pizzas sold in the United States and Canada, respectively, and are currently subsidiaries of Nestlé. DiGiorno manufactures over 250,000 pizzas each day for consumers for national sale in the mainland United States. The DiGiorno product line originally offered pastas and sauces in 1991, and pizzas have been available internationally in the Canada & the U.S. since 1995. The brand's slogan is \"It's not delivery. It's DiGiorno/Delissio,\" which suggests that their frozen pizzas are of high enough quality that they might be mistaken for fresh pizzeria pizzas. DiGiorno rebranded to Delissio", "Jumbo slice \"jumbo slice\" was first used in Adams Morgan by Chris Chishti, owner of Pizza Mart, which has operated in the neighborhood since the 1990s. In 1999, Chishti started creating larger pies by combining standard pizza dough balls; his first \"jumbo slice\" was , and over time grew to , , and finally, . As the jumbo slice developed, Chisti upgraded to larger ovens and, once constrained by the maximum size commercially available, even experimented with oval pizzas. Jawed Khan, a former Chishti employee, opened Pizza Napoli in 1999, offering a pie at a time when Chishti was still at .", "Totino's fair for nutrition\" because of \"high total fat and trans fat and low fiber.\" Totino's Totino's and Jeno's are brands of frozen pizza products owned by General Mills. Rose Totino and her husband, Jim, founded a take-out pizzeria in Minneapolis, Minnesota, in 1951. They later expanded it to a full-service restaurant, which closed in 2011. They also founded a frozen-pizza manufacturing company. The Totinos eventually sold their frozen pizza business to the Pillsbury Company, where Rose Totino was named as vice-president. The Totino's brand was acquired by General Mills with its purchase of Pillsbury. Separately, Jeno Paulucci developed a series", "Pizza cheese tons; 110,000 short tons, 220,460,000 pounds) in Europe. It has been estimated that 30% of all pizza cheese used in the United States is Mozzarella cheese. As of 2000, demand for the product was growing in Europe by 8 percent per year. Mass-produced pizza cheese is used by the foodservice industry, quick service restaurants, and other industries and businesses. The world's largest manufacturer of pizza cheese, Leprino Foods Company, processes 600,000 tonnes (590,000 long tons; 660,000 short tons, 1,322,760,000 pounds) a year. Leprino Foods holds patents for some specialized Mozzarella production processes that enable the quick manufacture of the product.", "Pie Five build-your-own personal pizzas with unlimited toppings for one price. They offer four different crusts, including gluten-free, classic pan, crispy thin and traditional Italian, as well as hand-made salads and desserts. Many locations serve beer. The first Pie Five location opened on June 3, 2011 in Fort Worth, Texas. They continued their growth in the Dallas - Fort Worth market in 2012 and then in 2013, they opened their first franchise location out of state in Matthews, North Carolina as well as two additional franchise locations in Kansas. In 2014, they experienced rapid growth in Florida, Virginia, Tennessee, Missouri, and Maryland.", "Kotipizza Group a fund of private equity company Sentica, Sentica Buyout III, was the largest shareowner of the company, holding 61% of the company’s share capital. Other major shareowners of the company were pension insurance companies and investment funds. In the 2015 financial year, net sales grew 7.9% to EUR 56.4 million. The company closed down its unprofitable restaurants and founded the Mexican-style Chalupa chain. In February 2017, Sentica sold its holding in Kotipizza Group and Kotipizza announced that it had acquired Pizzataxi. In September 2017, the company launched its Kotipizza Go pizza slices concept. In November 2017, the Group acquired a", "Grapico business, it had three wholesale Grapico customers: Rochell's Grapico Bottling Works in Birmingham, Alabama and two bottling plants operating in Mississippi. Grapico concentrate was sold by Pan American to its wholesale customers for $7.50 per gallon and the finished bottled Grapico was by sold by Pan American and its three wholesale customers at 5 cents per 7-oz bottle. Pan American continued associating their artificial grape drink with real grape juice in advertisements in trade periodicals, display cards, newspapers, boys' caps for customers' use, and in its company stationery. Typically, advertising material displayed images of grape vineyards and bunches of grapes", "Tombstone (pizza) Tombstone at the time were allowed to keep their jobs, although Pep and Ron Simek stepped aside from their roles in the business. On January 5, 2010, Kraft Foods announced it was selling its frozen pizza division to Switzerland-based Nestlé Foods as part of a plan to use the proceeds to purchase Cadbury, a maker of dairy milk chocolate. In addition to Tombstone, this included other pizza brands including DiGiorno, Jacks and California Pizza Kitchen (frozen pizza). The Kraft frozen pizza division is now part of Nestlé D.S.D. (direct store delivery). \"What do you want on your Tombstone?\" was created", "Bertucci's Boston. He worked as a porter at the Sonesta Hotel in Cambridge. In 1974 he opened his first ice cream stand. In 1975, he refinanced his father's home and purchased Steve's Ice Cream from founder Steve Herrell for $80,000. Crugnale established 26 stores before selling the concept to Integrated Resources in 1983 for $4.5 million. The first 'Bertucci's Pizza and Bocce' was opened in 1981, two doors from Steve's Ice Cream in Davis Square. Bertucci’s was opened to eliminate the possibility of an ice cream competitor moving in. The name was found in a magazine during a flight to New", "Pizza Hut \"akin to fine dining\", though Pizza Hut was \"China's largest and most successful foreign casual-dining chain\". Pizza Hut experiments with new products, discontinuing less successful ones. In North America, Pizza Hut has notably sold: Pan pizza, baked in pan with a crispy edge; stuffed crust pizza, with the outermost edge wrapped around a cylinder of mozzarella cheese; \"hand-tossed\", more like traditional pizzeria crusts; “Thin 'N Crispy”, a thin, crisp dough which was Pizza Hut's original style; Dippin' Strips pizza, a pizza cut into small strips that can be dipped into a number of sauces; and its largest product, the Bigfoot", "Domino's Pizza Domino's Pizza Domino's Pizza, Inc., branded as Domino's, is an American pizza restaurant chain founded in 1960. The corporation is headquartered at the Domino's Farms Office Park in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and incorporated in Delaware. In February 2018, the chain became the largest pizza seller worldwide in terms of sales. On April 23, 1963, Tom Monaghan and his brother, James, took over the operation of DomiNick's, an existing location of a small pizza restaurant chain that had been owned by Dominick DiVarti, at 507 Cross Street (now 301 West Cross Street) in Ypsilanti, Michigan, near Eastern Michigan University. The deal", "Cipriani S.A. Cipriani loaned Pickering 10,000 lire (about $500 US [$7,839 in 2015 dollars]). Two years later, Pickering returned to the hotel bar, ordered a drink, and gave Cipriani 50,000 lire in return. \"Mr. Cipriani, thank you,\" he said, according to the Cipriani website. \"Here's the money. And to show you my appreciation, here's 40,000 more, enough to open a bar. We will call it Harry's Bar.\" Harry's Bar became a popular spot for celebrities like Ernest Hemingway and Humphrey Bogart. Mr. Cipriani created the Bellini cocktail there, and the food dish Carpaccio is also reputed to have originated there. Giuseppe's son", "Olive Garden popular, and the chain's per-store sales soon matched former sister company Red Lobster. The company eventually became the largest chain of Italian-themed full-service restaurants in the United States. General Mills spun off its restaurant holdings as Darden Restaurants (named for Red Lobster founder Bill Darden), a stand-alone company, in 1995. Olive Garden is Darden's most value-oriented chain with an average 2009 check per person of $15.00 (USD) versus over $90 (USD) at its sibling Capital Grille. Brad Blum, a former president of Olive Garden, said that sales in existing restaurants sharply decreased, with a 12% decline occurring at one point,", "California Pizza Kitchen PepsiCo pushed to expand faster. CPK opened 15 stores in 1993, and then 28 more in the following year. This rapid expansion plan was a disaster. PepsiCo had invested tens of millions of dollars and quickly slowed expansion, and moved to cut costs. PepsiCo executives had started cutting corners by replacing fresh ingredients with frozen vegetables and cheese (a change Flax and Rosenfield reversed later). In 1997, the private equity firm Bruckmann, Rosser, Sherrill & Company bought out PepsiCo’s two-thirds stake with the intention of taking CPK public in 2000, pushing for expansion to resume. Veteran restaurant executive Fred Hipp", "Bertucci's 36 stores. In 1994, it expanded to Atlanta, Georgia; Chicago; Orlando, Florida; and New Jersey. Bertucci’s had 63 stores by 1995. A $10.4 million wrongful death lawsuit against Bertucci's was filed in July 1995. Janet Walker, of Salem, New Hampshire, went into anaphylactic shock and then slipped into a coma after ingesting pesto sauce that contained nuts. The waitress, according to the lawsuit, failed to mention the nuts. A week later, Walker died. The case never went to trial. Joey Crugnale attempted to take the chain private again in 1998, but though the board approved his attempt, he was outbid.", "Big Mama's & Papa's Pizzeria celebrities. She then passed Pharrel's trademark hat around to gather contributions for a tip from the movie stars. Given the huge audience of the award ceremony, the going price of advertisement time, and the fact that the bit lasted approximately 3 minutes, Big Mama's received approximately $10 million in free publicity. Big Mama's & Papa's Pizzeria Big Mama's & Papa's Pizzeria is a pizza restaurant chain primarily located in Southern California. The chain is notable for its extremely large \"Giant Sicilian\" pizza, which is claimed to be the largest deliverable pizza in the world. Additionally, the chain gained notoriety when,", "History of KFC brand of chicken nuggets, called \"Kentucky Nuggets\" in 1985. In 1984, Reynolds dedicated $168 million for capital expansion at KFC. In July 1986, Reynolds sold KFC to PepsiCo for a book value of $850 million (around US$1.8 billion in 2013). At the time, PepsiCo had interests in soft drinks and snacks, and also owned the restaurant chains Pizza Hut and Taco Bell. Reynolds divested KFC in order to pay off debt related to its recent purchase of Nabisco and to concentrate on its tobacco and packaged food business. It was anticipated that PepsiCo would bring their merchandising expertise to the", "Zume Pizza giving the company a valuation of $2.25 billion. Zume Pizza Zume Pizza is an automated pizza delivery restaurant in Mountain View, California. It was founded in 2015 by Chairman and CEO Alex Garden, and by Julia Collins. The company uses robots for many stages of pizza production. Initially, humans shaped the pizza dough and added toppings; the pizzas are cooked en route in a van equipped with 56 GPS-equipped automated ovens, timed to be ready shortly before arrival at the address, and are then sliced by a self-cleaning robot cutter. The company has secured a patent on the cooking of", "Goodfella's Goodfella's Goodfella's is an Irish well-known and popular brand of frozen pizzas. It had been the leading brand of frozen pizza in the UK until 2005 and is still the leading brand of frozen pizza in Ireland. The UK frozen pizza market is worth around £400m. Green Isle, headquartered in Naas, created the brand in 1993. In the early 1990s, varieties of frozen food in the UK was fairly limited to fish fingers, beefburgers and frozen chips. Frozen food in the UK was largely provided by Birds Eye. Northern Foods bought Green Isle Foods of the Republic of Ireland in", "2 Sisters Food Group previous year. LTM EBITDA for the year was £161.2m In December 2013, the company was ranked as Britain's 4th Most Admired Company (food producers sector) in the \"Management Today\" Most Admired Company list, voted for by its industry peers. In January 2018, 2 Sisters reached agreement with Nomad Foods on the sale of its Goodfellas Pizza brand for £200m. November 2000 - sites at Scunthorpe and Flixton were acquired. These were significant acquisitions as it meant the group would move from a poultry meat cutting operation to a primary producer. September 2005 -the group purchased Haughley Park near Stowmarket, allowing" ]

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[ "పెనుమూడి (దుగ్గిరాల)\nపెనుమూలి, గుంటూరు జిల్లా, దుగ్గిరాల మండలానికి చెందిన గ్రామము. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన దుగ్గిరాల నుండి 3 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన తెనాలి నుండి 15 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 1038 ఇళ్లతో, 3199 జనాభాతో 1410 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 1560, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 1639. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 692 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 221. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 590268[1].పిన్ కోడ్: 522330. ఎస్.టి.డి.కోడ్ = 08644." ]

[ "ఉదుమూడి\nఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన పి.గన్నవరం నుండి 6 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన అమలాపురం నుండి 24 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 1873 ఇళ్లతో, 7145 జనాభాతో 787 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 3626, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 3519. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 2976 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 66. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 587781[2].పిన్ కోడ్: 533274.", "పెనుమల్ల\nపెనుమల్లలో సబ్ పోస్టాఫీసు సౌకర్యం ఉంది. పోస్టాఫీసు సౌకర్యం, పోస్ట్ అండ్ టెలిగ్రాఫ్ ఆఫీసు గ్రామానికి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి.\nలాండ్ లైన్ టెలిఫోన్, పబ్లిక్ ఫోన్ ఆఫీసు, మొబైల్ ఫోన్ మొదలైన సౌకర్యాలు ఉన్నాయి. ఇంటర్నెట్ కెఫె / సామాన్య సేవా కేంద్రం, ప్రైవేటు కొరియర్ గ్రామానికి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి.\nగ్రామానికి సమీప ప్రాంతాల నుండి ప్రభుత్వ రవాణా సంస్థ బస్సులు తిరుగుతున్నాయి. సమీప గ్రామాల నుండి ఆటో సౌకర్యం కూడా ఉంది. వ్యవసాయం కొరకు వాడేందుకు గ్రామంలో ట్రాక్టర్లున్నాయి.\nప్రైవేటు బస్సు సౌకర్యం, రైల్వే స్టేషన్ మొదలైనవి  గ్రామానికి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి.\nజిల్లా రహదారి గ్రామం గుండా పోతోంది. రాష్ట్ర రహదారి, ప్రధాన జిల్లా రహదారి గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. జాతీయ రహదారి గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉంది.", "కుమ్మమూరు\n2001 వ.సంవత్సరం జనాభా లెక్కల ప్రకారం గ్రామ జనాభా 1256. ఇందులో పురుషుల సంఖ్య 620, స్త్రీల సంఖ్య 636, గ్రామంలో నివాసగృహాలు 340 ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామ విస్తీర్ణం 408 హెక్టారులు.\n[1] ఈనాడు విజయవాడ/పెనమలూరు, 2013,అక్టోబరు-12; 1వపేజీ.\n[2] ఈనాడు అమరావతి/పామర్రు; 2016,ఫిబ్రవరి-29; 1వపేజీ. \n[3] ఈనాడు అమరావతి/పామర్రు; 2017,మార్చి-22; 2వపేజీ.", "ఎర్రమంచి\nఎర్రమంచి, అనంతపురం జిల్లా, పెనుకొండ మండలానికి చెందిన గ్రామము. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన పెనుకొండ నుండి 10 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన హిందూపురం నుండి 44 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 513 ఇళ్లతో, 2032 జనాభాతో 2206 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 1054, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 978. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 391 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 1. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 595429.పిన్ కోడ్: 515164.\nగ్రామంలో ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమిక పాఠశాలలు రెండు, ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమికోన్నత పాఠశాల ఒకటి ఉన్నాయి. బాలబడి, మాధ్యమిక పాఠశాల‌లు పెనుకొండలో ఉన్నాయి. సమీప జూనియర్ కళాశాల, ప్రభుత్వ ఆర్ట్స్ / సైన్స్ డిగ్రీ కళాశాల పెనుకొండలోను, ఇంజనీరింగ్ కళాశాల హిందూపురంలోనూ ఉన్నాయి. సమీప వైద్య కళాశాల అనంతపురంలోను, మేనేజిమెంటు కళాశాల, పాలీటెక్నిక్‌లు హిందూపురంలోనూ ఉన్నాయి. సమీప వృత్తి విద్యా శిక్షణ పాఠశాల పెనుకొండలోను, అనియత విద్యా కేంద్రం, దివ్యాంగుల ప్రత్యేక పాఠశాల‌లు అనంతపురంలోనూ ఉన్నాయి. \nఎర్రమంచిలో ఉన్న ఒక ప్రాథమిక ఆరోగ్య ఉప కేంద్రంలో డాక్టర్లు లేరు. ముగ్గురు పారామెడికల్ సిబ్బంది ఉన్నారు. సమీప సామాజిక ఆరోగ్య కేంద్రం, ప్రాథమిక ఆరోగ్య కేంద్రం గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. పశు వైద్యశాల, సంచార వైద్య శాల, కుటుంబ సంక్షేమ కేంద్రం గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. మాతా శిశు సంరక్షణ కేంద్రం, టి. బి వైద్యశాల గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ. కంటే ఎక్కువ దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. అలోపతి ఆసుపత్రి, ప్రత్యామ్నాయ ఔషధ ఆసుపత్రి, డిస్పెన్సరీ గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ. కంటే ఎక్కువ దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. \nగ్రామంలో కుళాయిల ద్వారా శుద్ధి చేయని నీరు సరఫరా అవుతోంది. గ్రామంలో ఏడాది పొడుగునా చేతిపంపుల ద్వారా నీరు అందుతుంది. \nబోరుబావుల ద్వారా కూడా ఏడాది పొడుగునా నీరు అందుతుంది. \nమురుగునీరు బహిరంగ కాలువల ద్వారా ప్రవహిస్తుంది. మురుగునీరు బహిరంగంగా, కచ్చా కాలువల ద్వారా ప్రవహిస్తుంది. మురుగునీటిని నేరుగా జలవనరుల్లోకి వదులుతున్నారు. గ్రామంలో సంపూర్ణ పారిశుధ్య పథకం అమలవుతోంది. సామాజిక మరుగుదొడ్డి సౌకర్యం లేదు. ఇంటింటికీ తిరిగి వ్యర్థాలను సేకరించే వ్యవస్థ లేదు. సామాజిక బయోగ్యాస్ ఉత్పాదక వ్యవస్థ లేదు. చెత్తను వీధుల పక్కనే పారబోస్తారు. \nపోస్టాఫీసు సౌకర్యం, సబ్ పోస్టాఫీసు సౌకర్యం గ్రామానికి 5 కి.మీ. లోపు దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. పోస్ట్ అండ్ టెలిగ్రాఫ్ ఆఫీసు గ్రామానికి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. లాండ్ లైన్ టెలిఫోన్, పబ్లిక్ ఫోన్ ఆఫీసు, మొబైల్ ఫోన్ మొదలైన సౌకర్యాలు ఉన్నాయి. ఇంటర్నెట్ కెఫె / సామాన్య సేవా కేంద్రం, ప్రైవేటు కొరియర్ గ్రామానికి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామానికి సమీప ప్రాంతాల నుండి ప్రభుత్వ రవాణా సంస్థ బస్సులు తిరుగుతున్నాయి. సమీప గ్రామాల నుండి ఆటో సౌకర్యం కూడా ఉంది. వ్యవసాయం కొరకు వాడేందుకు గ్రామంలో ట్రాక్టర్లున్నాయి. ప్రైవేటు బస్సు సౌకర్యం గ్రామానికి 5 కి.మీ. లోపు దూరంలో ఉంది. రైల్వే స్టేషన్ గ్రామానికి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. జాతీయ రహదారి, జిల్లా రహదారి గ్రామం గుండా పోతున్నాయి. రాష్ట్ర రహదారి గ్రామం నుండి 5 కి.మీ. లోపు దూరంలో ఉంది. ప్రధాన జిల్లా రహదారి గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. గ్రామంలో తారు రోడ్లు, కంకర రోడ్లు ఉన్నాయి. \nగ్రామంలో స్వయం సహాయక బృందం, పౌర సరఫరాల కేంద్రం ఉన్నాయి. ఏటీఎమ్, వాణిజ్య బ్యాంకు, సహకార బ్యాంకు, వ్యవసాయ పరపతి సంఘం గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. రోజువారీ మార్కెట్ గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. వారం వారం సంత, వ్యవసాయ మార్కెటింగ్ సొసైటీ గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. \nగ్రామంలో అంగన్ వాడీ కేంద్రం, ఇతర పోషకాహార కేంద్రాలు, ఆశా కార్యకర్త ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామంలో వార్తాపత్రిక పంపిణీ జరుగుతుంది. అసెంబ్లీ పోలింగ్ స్టేషన్, జనన మరణాల నమోదు కార్యాలయం ఉన్నాయి. సమీకృత బాలల అభివృద్ధి పథకం గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. సినిమా హాలు, గ్రంథాలయం, పబ్లిక్ రీడింగ్ రూం గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. ఆటల మైదానం గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉంది. \nగ్రామంలో గృహావసరాల నిమిత్తం విద్యుత్ సరఫరా వ్యవస్థ ఉంది. రోజుకు 7 గంటల పాటు వ్యవసాయానికి, 20 గంటల పాటు వాణిజ్య అవసరాల కోసం కూడా విద్యుత్ సరఫరా చేస్తున్నారు. \nఎర్రమంచిలో భూ వినియోగం కింది విధంగా ఉంది:\nఎర్రమంచిలో వ్యవసాయానికి నీటి సరఫరా కింది వనరుల ద్వారా జరుగుతోంది.\nఎర్రమంచిలో ఈ కింది వస్తువులు ఉత్పత్తి అవుతున్నాయి.\nవరి, వేరుశనగ, పొద్దుతిరుగుడు", "పెదపొల్ల\nపెదపొల్ల శ్రీకాకుళం జిల్లా, సీతంపేట మండలంలోని గ్రామం. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన సీతంపేట నుండి 6 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన ఆమదాలవలస నుండి 50 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 155 ఇళ్లతో, 807 జనాభాతో 148 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 409, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 398. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 7 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 711. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 579974.పిన్ కోడ్: 532460.గ్రామంలోఒక ప్రైవేటు వైద్య సౌకర్యం ఉంది. ఎమ్బీబీయెస్ కాకుండా ఇతర డిగ్రీలు చదివిన డాక్టరు ఒకరు ఉన్నారు.", "పెనుగొలను\nపెనుగొలను కృష్ణా జిల్లా, గంపలగూడెం మండలంలోని గ్రామం. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన గంపలగూడెం నుండి 10 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన తిరువూరు నుండి 28 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 1988 ఇళ్లతో, 7045 జనాభాతో 2342 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 3540, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 3505. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 1647 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 113. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 588948.పిన్ కోడ్: 521401.", "పామూరుపల్లి\nపామూరుపల్లి ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్ రాష్ట్రం, శ్రీ పొట్టి శ్రీరాములు నెల్లూరు జిల్లా, వరికుంటపాడు మండలంలోని గ్రామం. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన వరికుంటపాడు నుండి 25 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన కావలి నుండి 56 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 61 ఇళ్లతో, 241 జనాభాతో 673 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 119, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 122. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 0 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 2. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 591642.పిన్ కోడ్: 524232.\nగ్రామంలో ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమిక పాఠశాలలు రెండు ఉన్నాయి. ఒక ప్రభుత్వ అనియత విద్యా కేంద్రం ఉంది. సమీప బాలబడి, ప్రాథమిక పాఠశాల పామూరులోను, ప్రాథమికోన్నత పాఠశాల జడదేవిలోను, మాధ్యమిక పాఠశాల జడదేవిలోనూ ఉన్నాయి. సమీప జూనియర్ కళాశాల, ప్రభుత్వ ఆర్ట్స్ / సైన్స్ డిగ్రీ కళాశాల పామూరులోను, ఇంజనీరింగ్ కళాశాల ఉదయగిరిలోనూ ఉన్నాయి. సమీప వైద్య కళాశాల నెల్లూరులోను, మేనేజిమెంటు కళాశాల, పాలీటెక్నిక్‌లు కావలిలోనూ ఉన్నాయి. సమీప వృత్తి విద్యా శిక్షణ పాఠశాల, దివ్యాంగుల ప్రత్యేక పాఠశాల నెల్లూరు లో ఉన్నాయి. \nఒక సంచార వైద్య శాలలో డాక్టర్లు లేరు. ముగ్గురు పారామెడికల్ సిబ్బంది ఉన్నారు. సమీప ప్రాథమిక ఆరోగ్య ఉప కేంద్రం గ్రామం నుండి 5 కి.మీ. లోపు దూరంలో ఉంది. పశు వైద్యశాల గ్రామం నుండి 5 కి.మీ. లోపు దూరంలో ఉంది. సమీప సామాజిక ఆరోగ్య కేంద్రం, ప్రాథమిక ఆరోగ్య కేంద్రం, మాతా శిశు సంరక్షణ కేంద్రం, టి. బి వైద్యశాల గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ. కంటే ఎక్కువ దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. అలోపతి ఆసుపత్రి, ప్రత్యామ్నాయ ఔషధ ఆసుపత్రి, డిస్పెన్సరీ, కుటుంబ సంక్షేమ కేంద్రం గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ. కంటే ఎక్కువ దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. \nగ్రామంలో కుళాయిల ద్వారా రక్షిత మంచినీటి సరఫరా జరుగుతోంది. గ్రామంలో ఏడాది పొడుగునా చేతిపంపుల ద్వారా నీరు అందుతుంది. బోరుబావుల ద్వారా కూడా ఏడాది పొడుగునా నీరు అందుతుంది. \nగ్రామంలో మురుగునీటి పారుదల వ్యవస్థ లేదు. మురుగునీటిని శుద్ధి ప్లాంట్‌లోకి పంపిస్తున్నారు. గ్రామంలో సంపూర్ణ పారిశుధ్య పథకం అమలవుతోంది. సామాజిక మరుగుదొడ్డి సౌకర్యం లేదు. ఇంటింటికీ తిరిగి వ్యర్థాలను సేకరించే వ్యవస్థ లేదు. సామాజిక బయోగ్యాస్ ఉత్పాదక వ్యవస్థ లేదు. చెత్తను వీధుల పక్కనే పారబోస్తారు. \nసబ్ పోస్టాఫీసు సౌకర్యం గ్రామానికి 5 కి.మీ. లోపు దూరంలో ఉంది. పోస్టాఫీసు సౌకర్యం, పోస్ట్ అండ్ టెలిగ్రాఫ్ ఆఫీసు గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. లాండ్ లైన్ టెలిఫోన్, పబ్లిక్ ఫోన్ ఆఫీసు, మొబైల్ ఫోన్ మొదలైన సౌకర్యాలు ఉన్నాయి. ఇంటర్నెట్ కెఫె / సామాన్య సేవా కేంద్రం, ప్రైవేటు కొరియర్ గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. సమీప గ్రామాల నుండి ఆటో సౌకర్యం ఉంది. వ్యవసాయం కొరకు వాడేందుకు గ్రామంలో ట్రాక్టర్లున్నాయి. ప్రభుత్వ రవాణా సంస్థ బస్సు సౌకర్యం, ప్రైవేటు బస్సు సౌకర్యం మొదలైనవి గ్రామానికి 5 కి.మీ. లోపు దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. రైల్వే స్టేషన్ గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉంది. ప్రధాన జిల్లా రహదారి, జిల్లా రహదారి గ్రామం గుండా పోతున్నాయి. జాతీయ రహదారి, రాష్ట్ర రహదారి గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామంలో కంకర రోడ్లు ఉన్నాయి. \nగ్రామంలో స్వయం సహాయక బృందం, పౌర సరఫరాల కేంద్రం ఉన్నాయి. వాణిజ్య బ్యాంకు గ్రామం నుండి 5 కి.మీ. లోపు దూరంలో ఉంది. వారం వారం సంత గ్రామం నుండి 5 కి.మీ. లోపు దూరంలో ఉంది. ఏటీఎమ్, సహకార బ్యాంకు, వ్యవసాయ పరపతి సంఘం గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. రోజువారీ మార్కెట్, వ్యవసాయ మార్కెటింగ్ సొసైటీ గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. \nగ్రామంలో సమీకృత బాలల అభివృద్ధి పథకం, అంగన్ వాడీ కేంద్రం, ఇతర పోషకాహార కేంద్రాలు, ఆశా కార్యకర్త ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామంలో వార్తాపత్రిక పంపిణీ జరుగుతుంది. అసెంబ్లీ పోలింగ్ స్టేషన్, జనన మరణాల నమోదు కార్యాలయం ఉన్నాయి. ఆటల మైదానం గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉంది. సినిమా హాలు, గ్రంథాలయం, పబ్లిక్ రీడింగ్ రూం గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. \nగ్రామంలో గృహావసరాల నిమిత్తం విద్యుత్ సరఫరా వ్యవస్థ ఉంది. రోజుకు 7 గంటల పాటు వ్యవసాయానికి, 10 గంటల పాటు వాణిజ్య అవసరాల కోసం కూడా విద్యుత్ సరఫరా చేస్తున్నారు. \nపామూరుపల్లిలో భూ వినియోగం కింది విధంగా ఉంది:\nపామూరుపల్లిలో వ్యవసాయానికి నీటి సరఫరా కింది వనరుల ద్వారా జరుగుతోంది.\nపామూరుపల్లిలో ఈ కింది వస్తువులు ఉత్పత్తి అవుతున్నాయి.\nవరి, మినుము, పెసర", "పెన్నేపల్లె\nపెన్నేపల్లి ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్ రాష్ట్రం, శ్రీ పొట్టి శ్రీరాములు నెల్లూరు జిల్లా, పెళ్ళకూరు మండలంలోని గ్రామం. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన పెళ్ళకూరు నుండి 9 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన శ్రీకాళహస్తి నుండి 23 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 172 ఇళ్లతో, 656 జనాభాతో 460 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 328, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 328. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 462 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 0. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 592655.పిన్ కోడ్: 524126.\nగ్రామంలో ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమిక పాఠశాల ఒకటి ఉంది. సమీప బాలబడి, మాధ్యమిక పాఠశాల‌లు నాయుడుపేటలోను, ప్రాథమికోన్నత పాఠశాల తాల్వాయిపాడులోనూ ఉన్నాయి. సమీప జూనియర్ కళాశాల, ప్రభుత్వ ఆర్ట్స్ / సైన్స్ డిగ్రీ కళాశాల నాయుడుపేటలోను, ఇంజనీరింగ్ కళాశాల గూడూరులోనూ ఉన్నాయి. సమీప వైద్య కళాశాల తిరుపతిలోను, మేనేజిమెంటు కళాశాల, పాలీటెక్నిక్‌లు గూడూరులోనూ ఉన్నాయి. సమీప వృత్తి విద్యా శిక్షణ పాఠశాల, అనియత విద్యా కేంద్రం నాయుడుపేటలోను, దివ్యాంగుల ప్రత్యేక పాఠశాల తిరుపతి లోనూ ఉన్నాయి.", "పేరుసోమల\nపీరుసోమల కృష్ణదేవ రాయల వారు పాలించిన గ్రామం. పదహారవ శతాబ్దంలో పాలించబడింది. పెరుసొములలో నాలుగు వందల సంవత్సరాల క్రింద కట్టిన లక్ష్మీ నరసింహా స్వామి గది ఉంది. ఈ వూరికి మూడూ కిలోమీటర్ల దూరంలో జగన్నాథ స్వామి దేవాలయం ఉంది. ఇది కొంద మీద ఉంది.ఇంకా ఈ ఊరిలో కొత్త బస్తాండ్, పాత బస్తాండ్ అని ఉన్నాయి.పాత ఊరిలో మార్కెట్ ప్రతి ఆదివారం జరుగుతుంది. ఈ మార్కెట్‌లో ప్రక్కన ఊరి వాళ్ళు వస్తారు. ఒక సమయంలో ఇది ఒక రాజ్యంగ వుండెది.ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన సంజామల నుండి 18 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన నంద్యాల నుండి 75 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 1283 ఇళ్లతో, 5050 జనాభాతో 2598 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 2573, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 2477. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 1047 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 77. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 594575[2].పిన్ కోడ్: 518166.", "పెనుబర్తి గోపసముద్రం\nపెనుబర్తి గోపసముద్రం ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్ రాష్ట్రం, శ్రీ పొట్టి శ్రీరాములు నెల్లూరు జిల్లా, రాపూరు మండలంలోని గ్రామం. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన రాపూరు నుండి 28 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన నెల్లూరు నుండి 60 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 112 ఇళ్లతో, 422 జనాభాతో 319 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 225, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 197. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 0 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 158. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 592007.పిన్ కోడ్: 524414.", "మెనకూరు\nమెనకూరు ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్ రాష్ట్రం, శ్రీ పొట్టి శ్రీరాములు నెల్లూరు జిల్లా, నాయుడుపేట మండలంలోని గ్రామం. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన నాయుడుపేట నుండి 5 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన గూడూరు నుండి 38 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 656 ఇళ్లతో, 2412 జనాభాతో 1018 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 1244, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 1168. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 780 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 162. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 592632[1].పిన్ కోడ్: 524421.", "పెనుగోల్లు\nపెనుగోల్లు, విశాఖపట్నం జిల్లా, శృంగరాయవరం మండలానికి చెందిన గ్రామము.\nఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన ఎస్.రాయవరం నుండి 5 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన తుని నుండి 23 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 836 ఇళ్లతో, 3212 జనాభాతో 380 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 1557, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 1655. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 505 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 0. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 586479.పిన్ కోడ్: 531055.\nగ్రామంలో ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమిక పాఠశాలలు మూడు, ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమికోన్నత పాఠశాల ఒకటి ఉన్నాయి. బాలబడి దార్లపూడిలోను, మాధ్యమిక పాఠశాల ధర్మవరం అగ్రహారంలోనూ ఉన్నాయి.సమీప జూనియర్ కళాశాల ఎస్.రాయవరంలోను, ప్రభుత్వ ఆర్ట్స్ / సైన్స్ డిగ్రీ కళాశాల యలమంచిలిలోనూ ఉన్నాయి. సమీప వైద్య కళాశాల, మేనేజిమెంటు కళాశాల విశాఖపట్నంలోను, పాలీటెక్నిక్ నర్సీపట్నంలోనూ ఉన్నాయి. సమీప వృత్తి విద్యా శిక్షణ పాఠశాల చినగుమ్మలూరులోను, అనియత విద్యా కేంద్రం తునిలోను, దివ్యాంగుల ప్రత్యేక పాఠశాల విశాఖపట్నం లోనూ ఉన్నాయి. \nపెనుగొల్లులో ఉన్న ఒకప్రాథమిక ఆరోగ్య కేంద్రంలో ఒక డాక్టరు, ఇద్దరు పారామెడికల్ సిబ్బందీ ఉన్నారు. ఒక ప్రాథమిక ఆరోగ్య ఉప కేంద్రంలో డాక్టర్లు లేరు. ఒకరు పారామెడికల్ సిబ్బంది ఉన్నారు. సమీప సామాజిక ఆరోగ్య కేంద్రం, మాతా శిశు సంరక్షణ కేంద్రం, టి. బి వైద్యశాల గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ. కంటే ఎక్కువ దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. అలోపతి ఆసుపత్రి, ప్రత్యామ్నాయ ఔషధ ఆసుపత్రి, డిస్పెన్సరీ, పశు వైద్యశాల, సంచార వైద్య శాల, కుటుంబ సంక్షేమ కేంద్రం గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ. కంటే ఎక్కువ దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. \nగ్రామంలో6 ప్రైవేటు వైద్య సౌకర్యాలున్నాయి. ఎమ్బీబీయెస్ డాక్టర్లు ముగ్గురు, ఎమ్బీబీయెస్ కాకుండా ఇతర డిగ్రీ చదివిన డాక్టరు ఒకరు, డిగ్రీ లేని డాక్టర్లు ఇద్దరు ఉన్నారు. ఒక మందుల దుకాణం ఉంది.\nగ్రామంలో కుళాయిల ద్వారా రక్షిత మంచినీటి సరఫరా జరుగుతోంది. కుళాయిల ద్వారా శుద్ధి చేయని నీరు కూడా సరఫరా అవుతోంది. బావుల నీరు కూడా అందుబాటులో ఉంది. గ్రామంలో ఏడాది పొడుగునా చేతిపంపుల ద్వారా నీరు అందుతుంది. బోరుబావుల ద్వారా కూడా ఏడాది పొడుగునా నీరు అందుతుంది. \nకాలువ/వాగు/నది ద్వారా గ్రామానికి తాగునీరు లభిస్తుంది.\nగ్రామంలో భూగర్భ మురుగునీటి వ్యవస్థ ఉంది. మురుగునీరు బహిరంగ కాలువల ద్వారా కూడా ప్రవహిస్తుంది. మురుగునీటిని నేరుగా జలవనరుల్లోకి వదులుతున్నారు. గ్రామంలో సంపూర్ణ పారిశుధ్య పథకం అమలవుతోంది. సామాజిక మరుగుదొడ్డి సౌకర్యం లేదు. ఇంటింటికీ తిరిగి వ్యర్థాలను సేకరించే వ్యవస్థ లేదు. సామాజిక బయోగ్యాస్ ఉత్పాదక వ్యవస్థ లేదు. చెత్తను వీధుల పక్కనే పారబోస్తారు. \nపెనుగొల్లులో సబ్ పోస్టాఫీసు సౌకర్యం ఉంది. పోస్టాఫీసు సౌకర్యం, పోస్ట్ అండ్ టెలిగ్రాఫ్ ఆఫీసు గ్రామానికి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. \nలాండ్ లైన్ టెలిఫోన్, పబ్లిక్ ఫోన్ ఆఫీసు, మొబైల్ ఫోన్ మొదలైన సౌకర్యాలు ఉన్నాయి. ఇంటర్నెట్ కెఫె / సామాన్య సేవా కేంద్రం గ్రామానికి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. ప్రైవేటు కొరియర్ గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉంది. గ్రామానికి సమీప ప్రాంతాల నుండి ప్రభుత్వ రవాణా సంస్థ బస్సులుప్రైవేటు బస్సులు తిరుగుతున్నాయి. సమీప గ్రామాల నుండి ఆటో సౌకర్యం కూడా ఉంది. వ్యవసాయం కొరకు వాడేందుకు గ్రామంలో ట్రాక్టర్లున్నాయి. \nరైల్వే స్టేషన్ గ్రామానికి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. జాతీయ రహదారి, ప్రధాన జిల్లా రహదారి, జిల్లా రహదారి గ్రామం గుండా పోతున్నాయి. రాష్ట్ర రహదారి గ్రామం నుండి 5 కి.మీ. లోపు దూరంలో ఉంది. గ్రామంలో తారు రోడ్లు, కంకర రోడ్లు, మట్టిరోడ్లూ ఉన్నాయి. \nగ్రామంలో వాణిజ్య బ్యాంకు, సహకార బ్యాంకు, వ్యవసాయ పరపతి సంఘం ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామంలో స్వయం సహాయక బృందం, వారం వారం సంత ఉన్నాయి. \nఏటీఎమ్ గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉంది. పౌర సరఫరాల వ్యవస్థ దుకాణం, రోజువారీ మార్కెట్, వ్యవసాయ మార్కెటింగ్ సొసైటీ గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. \nగ్రామంలో సమీకృత బాలల అభివృద్ధి పథకం, అంగన్ వాడీ కేంద్రం, ఇతర పోషకాహార కేంద్రాలు, ఆశా కార్యకర్త ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామంలో వార్తాపత్రిక పంపిణీ జరుగుతుంది. అసెంబ్లీ పోలింగ్ స్టేషన్, జనన మరణాల నమోదు కార్యాలయం ఉన్నాయి. సినిమా హాలు, గ్రంథాలయం, పబ్లిక్ రీడింగ్ రూం గ్రామం నుండి 5 కి.మీ.లోపు దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. ఆటల మైదానం గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉంది. \nగ్రామంలో గృహావసరాల నిమిత్తం విద్యుత్ సరఫరా వ్యవస్థ ఉంది. రోజుకు 7 గంటల పాటు వ్యవసాయానికి, 18 గంటల పాటు వాణిజ్య అవసరాల కోసం కూడా విద్యుత్ సరఫరా చేస్తున్నారు. \nపెనుగొల్లులో భూ వినియోగం కింది విధంగా ఉంది:\nపెనుగొల్లులో వ్యవసాయానికి నీటి సరఫరా కింది వనరుల ద్వారా జరుగుతోంది.", "పెన్మిల్ల\nఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన ఉప్పునూతల నుండి 25 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన వనపర్తి నుండి 75 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 1003 ఇళ్లతో, 4201 జనాభాతో 3765 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 2082, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 2119. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 825 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 1002. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 575663.పిన్ కోడ్: 509376.", "పెనుమూడి (రేపల్లె)\nపెనుమూడి గుంటూరు జిల్లా రేపల్లె మండలం లోని గ్రామం. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన రేపల్లె నుండి 5 కి. మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 1044 ఇళ్లతో, 3534 జనాభాతో 553 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 1752, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 1782. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 793 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 126. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 590501.పిన్ కోడ్: 522265. ఎస్.టి.డి.కోడ్= 08648.", "పెనుమల్లి (పెడన మండలం)\nపెనుమల్లి, కృష్ణా జిల్లా, పెడన మండలానికి చెందిన గ్రామము. పిన్ కోడ్ నం. 521 369., ఎస్.టి.డి.కోడ్ = 08672.", "కనుమళ్ళ\n2001 వ .సంవత్సరం జనాభా లెక్కల ప్రకారం గ్రామ జనాభా 1,944. ఇందులో పురుషుల సంఖ్య 967, మహిళల సంఖ్య 977, గ్రామంలో నివాస గృహాలు 466 ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామ విస్తీర్ణం 996 హెక్టారులు.", "పెనుమూరు మండలం\nపెనుమూరు, ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్ రాష్ట్రములోని చిత్తూరు జిల్లాకు చెందిన ఒక మండలము..", "పెనుమాక\n'పెనుమాక గుంటూరు జిల్లా, తాడేపల్లి మండలానికి చెందిన కృష్ణా నదీతీరంలోని గ్రామము. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన తాడేపల్లి నుండి 6 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన మంగళగిరి నుండి 6 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 2154 ఇళ్లతో, 7918 జనాభాతో 884 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 3997, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 3921. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 2283 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 602. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 589975[1].పిన్ కోడ్: 522501, ఎస్.టి.డి.కోడ్ = 08645.", "పెనుమూడి (దుగ్గిరాల)\nవరి, పసుపు, మొక్కజొన్న", "పెదకందుకూరు\n2001 వ.సంవత్సరం జనాభా లెక్కల ప్రకారం గ్రామ జనాభా 2846. ఇందులో పురుషుల సంఖ్య 1487, మహిళల సంఖ్య 1359, గ్రామంలో నివాస గృహాలు 586 ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామ విస్తీర్ణం 2240 హెక్టారులు.\n[1] ఈనాడు ప్రకాశం; 2017,ఆగష్టు-25; 5వపేజీ.", "పెండేకల్\nపెండేకల్, కర్నూలు జిల్లా, కోసిగి మండలానికి చెందిన గ్రామము.\nఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన కోసిగి నుండి 2 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన ఆదోని నుండి 32 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 87 ఇళ్లతో, 481 జనాభాతో 576 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 251, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 230. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 4 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 0. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 593767.పిన్ కోడ్: 518313.", "పెనుమల్ల\nవరి", "పెరవలి\nపెరవలి పశ్చిమ గోదావరి జిల్లా, ఇదే పేరుతో ఉన్న మండలం యొక్క కేంద్రము. ఇది సమీప పట్టణమైన తణుకు నుండి 8 కి. మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 1594 ఇళ్లతో, 5744 జనాభాతో 634 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 2838, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 2906. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 1184 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 38. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 588534.పిన్ కోడ్: 534328.\nగ్రామంలో ఒక ప్రైవేటు బాలబడి ఉంది. ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమిక పాఠశాలలు రెండు, ప్రైవేటు ప్రాథమిక పాఠశాలలు మూడు, ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమికోన్నత పాఠశాల ఒకటి, ప్రైవేటు ప్రాథమికోన్నత పాఠశాల ఒకటి, ప్రభుత్వ మాధ్యమిక పాఠశాల ఒకటి, ప్రైవేటు మాధ్యమిక పాఠశాలలు రెండు ఉన్నాయి. ఒక ప్రభుత్వ అనియత విద్యా కేంద్రం ఉంది. సమీప జూనియర్ కళాశాల, ప్రభుత్వ ఆర్ట్స్ / సైన్స్ డిగ్రీ కళాశాల, ఇంజనీరింగ్ కళాశాల, మేనేజిమెంటు కళాశాల, పాలీటెక్నిక్‌లు , సమీప వృత్తి విద్యా శిక్షణ పాఠశాల తణుకు లోను, దివ్యాంగుల ప్రత్యేక పాఠశాల, సమీప వైద్య కళాశాల ఏలూరు లోను, ఉన్నాయి.\nపెరవలిలో ఉన్న ఒకప్రాథమిక ఆరోగ్య కేంద్రంలో ఇద్దరు డాక్టర్లు , ఆరుగురు పారామెడికల్ సిబ్బందీ ఉన్నారు. రెండు ప్రాథమిక ఆరోగ్య ఉప కేంద్రాల్లో డాక్టర్లు లేరు. ఇద్దరు పారామెడికల్ సిబ్బంది ఉన్నారు. ఒక సంచార వైద్య శాలలో డాక్టర్లు లేరు. ముగ్గురు పారామెడికల్ సిబ్బంది ఉన్నారు. \nసమీప సామాజిక ఆరోగ్య కేంద్రం, టి. బి వైద్యశాల గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. అలోపతి ఆసుపత్రి, డిస్పెన్సరీ, పశు వైద్యశాల, కుటుంబ సంక్షేమ కేంద్రం గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. మాతా శిశు సంరక్షణ కేంద్రం గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ. కంటే ఎక్కువ దూరంలో ఉంది. ప్రత్యామ్నాయ ఔషధ ఆసుపత్రి గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ. కంటే ఎక్కువ దూరంలో ఉంది. \nగ్రామంలో 4 ప్రైవేటు వైద్య సౌకర్యాలున్నాయి. ఒక ఎమ్బీబీయెస్ డాక్టరు, డిగ్రీ లేని డాక్టర్లు ముగ్గురు ఉన్నారు. మూడు మందుల దుకాణాలు ఉన్నాయి. \nగ్రామంలో కుళాయిల ద్వారా రక్షిత మంచినీటి సరఫరా జరుగుతోంది. గ్రామంలో ఏడాది పొడుగునా చేతిపంపుల ద్వారా నీరు అందుతుంది. \nమురుగునీరు బహిరంగ కాలువల ద్వారా ప్రవహిస్తుంది. మురుగునీరు బహిరంగంగా, కచ్చా కాలువల ద్వారా కూడా ప్రవహిస్తుంది. మురుగునీటిని నేరుగా జలవనరుల్లోకి వదులుతున్నారు. గ్రామంలో సంపూర్ణ పారిశుధ్య పథకం అమలవుతోంది. సామాజిక మరుగుదొడ్డి సౌకర్యం లేదు. ఇంటింటికీ తిరిగి వ్యర్థాలను సేకరించే వ్యవస్థ లేదు. సామాజిక బయోగ్యాస్ ఉత్పాదక వ్యవస్థ లేదు. చెత్తను వీధుల పక్కనే పారబోస్తారు. \nపెరవలిలో పోస్టాఫీసు సౌకర్యం ఉంది. సబ్ పోస్టాఫీసు సౌకర్యం గ్రామానికి 5 కి.మీ. లోపు దూరంలో ఉంది. పోస్ట్ అండ్ టెలిగ్రాఫ్ ఆఫీసు గ్రామానికి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. లాండ్ లైన్ టెలిఫోన్, పబ్లిక్ ఫోన్ ఆఫీసు, మొబైల్ ఫోన్, ప్రైవేటు కొరియర్ మొదలైన సౌకర్యాలు ఉన్నాయి. ఇంటర్నెట్ కెఫె / సామాన్య సేవా కేంద్రం గ్రామానికి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. గ్రామానికి సమీప ప్రాంతాల నుండి ప్రభుత్వ రవాణా సంస్థ బస్సులు తిరుగుతున్నాయి. సమీప గ్రామాల నుండి ఆటో సౌకర్యం కూడా ఉంది. ప్రైవేటు బస్సు సౌకర్యం, రైల్వే స్టేషన్, ట్రాక్టరు సౌకర్యం మొదలైనవి గ్రామానికి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. జాతీయ రహదారి, ప్రధాన జిల్లా రహదారి, జిల్లా రహదారి గ్రామం గుండా పోతున్నాయి. రాష్ట్ర రహదారి గ్రామం నుండి 5 కి.మీ. లోపు దూరంలో ఉంది. గ్రామంలో తారు రోడ్లు, కంకర రోడ్లు, మట్టిరోడ్లూ ఉన్నాయి. \nగ్రామంలో వాణిజ్య బ్యాంకు, సహకార బ్యాంకు ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామంలో స్వయం సహాయక బృందం, పౌర సరఫరాల కేంద్రం, వారం వారం సంత ఉన్నాయి. వ్యవసాయ పరపతి సంఘం గ్రామం నుండి 5 కి.మీ. లోపు దూరంలో ఉంది. ఏటీఎమ్ గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. \nవ్యవసాయ మార్కెటింగ్ సొసైటీ గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉంది. \nగ్రామంలో సమీకృత బాలల అభివృద్ధి పథకం, అంగన్ వాడీ కేంద్రం, ఇతర పోషకాహార కేంద్రాలు, ఆశా కార్యకర్త ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామంలో గ్రంథాలయం, పబ్లిక్ రీడింగ్ రూం ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామంలో వార్తాపత్రిక పంపిణీ జరుగుతుంది. అసెంబ్లీ పోలింగ్ స్టేషన్, జనన మరణాల నమోదు కార్యాలయం ఉన్నాయి. ఆటల మైదానం గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. సినిమా హాలు గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. \nగ్రామంలో గృహావసరాల నిమిత్తం విద్యుత్ సరఫరా వ్యవస్థ ఉంది. రోజుకు 7 గంటల పాటు వ్యవసాయానికి, 18 గంటల పాటు వాణిజ్య అవసరాల కోసం కూడా విద్యుత్ సరఫరా చేస్తున్నారు. \nపెరవలిలో భూ వినియోగం కింది విధంగా ఉంది:\nపెరవలిలో వ్యవసాయానికి నీటి సరఫరా కింది వనరుల ద్వారా జరుగుతోంది.\nపెరవలిలో ఈ కింది వస్తువులు ఉత్పత్తి అవుతున్నాయి.\nవరి, చెరకు, అరటి\nనార వస్తువులు\n2001 వ.సంవత్సరం జనాభా లెక్కల ప్రకారం గ్రామ జనాభా 5107. ఇందులో పురుషుల సంఖ్య 2541, మహిళల సంఖ్య 2566, గ్రామంలో నివాస గృహాలు 1143 ఉన్నాయి.", "పెనుబర్తి (పొందూరు)\nపెనుబర్తి శ్రీకాకుళం జిల్లా, పొందూరు మండలంలోని గ్రామం. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన పొందూరు నుండి 11 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన శ్రీకాకుళం నుండి 13 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 254 ఇళ్లతో, 813 జనాభాతో 176 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 400, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 413. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 86 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 0. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 581569.పిన్ కోడ్: 532484.\nగ్రామంలో ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమిక పాఠశాల ఒకటి ఉంది.", "పెళ్ళకూరు\nపెళ్ళకూరు ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్ రాష్ట్రం, శ్రీ పొట్టి శ్రీరాములు నెల్లూరు జిల్లా, చిట్టమూరు మండలంలోని గ్రామం. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన చిట్టమూరు నుండి 15 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన గూడూరు నుండి 35 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 325 ఇళ్లతో, 1050 జనాభాతో 564 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 525, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 525. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 513 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 163. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 592579.పిన్ కోడ్: 524413.\nగ్రామంలో ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమిక పాఠశాలలు మూడు, ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమికోన్నత పాఠశాల ఒకటి ఉన్నాయి. బాలబడి గుడాలిలోను, మాధ్యమిక పాఠశాల గునుపాడులోనూ ఉన్నాయి. సమీప జూనియర్ కళాశాల, ప్రభుత్వ ఆర్ట్స్ / సైన్స్ డిగ్రీ కళాశాల, ఇంజనీరింగ్ కళాశాల గుడాలిలో ఉన్నాయి. సమీప వైద్య కళాశాల నెల్లూరులోను, మేనేజిమెంటు కళాశాల, పాలీటెక్నిక్‌లు గూడూరులోనూ ఉన్నాయి. సమీప వృత్తి విద్యా శిక్షణ పాఠశాల వాకాడులోను, అనియత విద్యా కేంద్రం గూడూరులోను, దివ్యాంగుల ప్రత్యేక పాఠశాల నెల్లూరు లోనూ ఉన్నాయి. \nపెళ్ళకూరులో ఉన్న ఒక డిస్పెన్సరీలో ఒక డాక్టరు, ఇద్దరు పారామెడికల్ సిబ్బందీ ఉన్నారు. సమీప ప్రాథమిక ఆరోగ్య ఉప కేంద్రం గ్రామం నుండి 5 కి.మీ. లోపు దూరంలో ఉంది. పశు వైద్యశాల, సంచార వైద్య శాల గ్రామం నుండి 5 కి.మీ. లోపు దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. సమీప సామాజిక ఆరోగ్య కేంద్రం, ప్రాథమిక ఆరోగ్య కేంద్రం, మాతా శిశు సంరక్షణ కేంద్రం, టి. బి వైద్యశాల గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ. కంటే ఎక్కువ దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. అలోపతి ఆసుపత్రి, ప్రత్యామ్నాయ ఔషధ ఆసుపత్రి, కుటుంబ సంక్షేమ కేంద్రం గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ. కంటే ఎక్కువ దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. \nగ్రామంలోఒక ప్రైవేటు వైద్య సౌకర్యం ఉంది. డిగ్రీ లేని డాక్టరు ఒకరు ఉన్నారు. \nగ్రామంలో కుళాయిల ద్వారా రక్షిత మంచినీటి సరఫరా జరుగుతోంది. గ్రామంలో ఏడాది పొడుగునా చేతిపంపుల ద్వారా నీరు అందుతుంది. \nమురుగునీరు బహిరంగ కాలువల ద్వారా ప్రవహిస్తుంది. మురుగునీరు బహిరంగంగా, కచ్చా కాలువల ద్వారా ప్రవహిస్తుంది. మురుగునీటిని శుద్ధి ప్లాంట్‌లోకి పంపిస్తున్నారు. గ్రామంలో సంపూర్ణ పారిశుధ్య పథకం అమలవుతోంది. సామాజిక మరుగుదొడ్డి సౌకర్యం లేదు. ఇంటింటికీ తిరిగి వ్యర్థాలను సేకరించే వ్యవస్థ లేదు. సామాజిక బయోగ్యాస్ ఉత్పాదక వ్యవస్థ లేదు. చెత్తను వీధుల పక్కనే పారబోస్తారు.", "సంతమల్లి పెదమల్లి\nసంతమల్లి పెదమల్లి శ్రీకాకుళం జిల్లా, సీతంపేట మండలంలోని గ్రామం. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన సీతంపేట నుండి 13 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన ఆమదాలవలస నుండి 40 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 156 ఇళ్లతో, 1643 జనాభాతో 138 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 1401, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 242. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 12 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 1598. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 580049.పిన్ కోడ్: 532443.", "పెనుగోలు (జి)\nఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన వాజేడు నుండి 11 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన మణుగూరు నుండి 125 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 36 ఇళ్లతో, 153 జనాభాతో 95 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 73, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 80. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 0 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 153. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 578707.పిన్ కోడ్: 507136.", "పెదనెమిల\n2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 537 ఇళ్లతో, 2033 జనాభాతో 620 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 1038, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 995. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 680 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 308. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 576620.పిన్ కోడ్: 508221.", "పెనుమాక\n2001 వ.సంవత్సరం జనాభా లెక్కల ప్రకారం గ్రామ జనాభా 7,302.[3] ఇందులో పురుషుల సంఖ్య 3,622, స్త్రీల సంఖ్య 3,680, గ్రామంలో నివాస గృహాలు 1,864 ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామ విస్తీర్ణము 884 హెక్టారులు.", "పసువేముల\nపసువేముల, గుంటూరు జిల్లా, మాచెర్ల మండలానికి చెందిన గ్రామము. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన మాచర్ల నుండి 15 కి. మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 1229 ఇళ్లతో, 4763 జనాభాతో 3547 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 2420, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 2343. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 396 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 1501. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 589802[1].పిన్ కోడ్: 522426.", "పెనుమల్లి (పెడన మండలం)\n[1] ఈనాడు కృష్ణా; 2015,మే-29; 4వపేజీ.\n[2] ఈనాడు కృష్ణా; 2016,జనవరి-1; 5వపేజీ.", "పెనుమూడి (దుగ్గిరాల)\nగ్రామంలో గృహావసరాల నిమిత్తం విద్యుత్ సరఫరా వ్యవస్థ ఉంది. రోజుకు 7 గంటల పాటు వ్యవసాయానికి, 18 గంటల పాటు వాణిజ్య అవసరాల కోసం కూడా విద్యుత్ సరఫరా చేస్తున్నారు.", "పెనుమూడి (దుగ్గిరాల)\nపెనుమూడిలో ఉన్న ఒక ప్రాథమిక ఆరోగ్య ఉప కేంద్రంలో డాక్టర్లు లేరు. ఒకరు పారామెడికల్ సిబ్బంది ఉన్నారు. ప్రాథమిక ఆరోగ్య కేంద్రం గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. డిస్పెన్సరీ, పశు వైద్యశాల, సంచార వైద్య శాల గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. సమీప సామాజిక ఆరోగ్య కేంద్రం, మాతా శిశు సంరక్షణ కేంద్రం, టి. బి వైద్యశాల గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ. కంటే ఎక్కువ దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. అలోపతి ఆసుపత్రి, ప్రత్యామ్నాయ ఔషధ ఆసుపత్రి, కుటుంబ సంక్షేమ కేంద్రం గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ. కంటే ఎక్కువ దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి.", "పీసుమామిడి\nపీసుమామిడి, విశాఖపట్నం జిల్లా, హుకుంపేట మండలానికి చెందిన గ్రామము [1] ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన హుకుంపేట నుండి 30 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన అనకాపల్లి నుండి 125 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 9 ఇళ్లతో, 35 జనాభాతో 15 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 15, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 20. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 0 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 35. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 584579[2].పిన్ కోడ్: 531077.", "కట్టమూరు (పెద్దాపురం మండలం)\nకట్టమూరు, తూర్పు గోదావరి జిల్లా, పెద్దాపురం మండలానికి చెందిన గ్రామము. పిన్ కోడ్: 533437. \nఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన పెద్దాపురం నుండి 6 కి. మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 2694 ఇళ్లతో, 8980 జనాభాతో 951 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 4518, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 4462. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 1300 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 32. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 587342.పిన్ కోడ్: 533437.", "పొనుగోడు (అనుమసముద్రంపేట)\nపొనుగోడు ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్ రాష్ట్రం, శ్రీ పొట్టి శ్రీరాములు నెల్లూరు జిల్లా, అనుమసముద్రంపేట మండలంలోని గ్రామం. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన అనుమసముద్రంపేట నుండి 13 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన నెల్లూరు నుండి 57 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 312 ఇళ్లతో, 1141 జనాభాతో 1477 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 592, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 549. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 116 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 91. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 591835.పిన్ కోడ్: 524304.\nగ్రామంలో ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమిక పాఠశాలలు రెండు, ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమికోన్నత పాఠశాల ఒకటి ఉన్నాయి. బాలబడి ఆత్మకూరులోను, మాధ్యమిక పాఠశాల పేరారెడ్డిపల్లిలోనూ ఉన్నాయి. సమీప జూనియర్ కళాశాల, ప్రభుత్వ ఆర్ట్స్ / సైన్స్ డిగ్రీ కళాశాల ఆత్మకూరులోను, ఇంజనీరింగ్ కళాశాల వింజమూరులోనూ ఉన్నాయి. సమీప వైద్య కళాశాల, మేనేజిమెంటు కళాశాల, పాలీటెక్నిక్ నెల్లూరులో ఉన్నాయి. సమీప వృత్తి విద్యా శిక్షణ పాఠశాల ఆత్మకూరులోను, అనియత విద్యా కేంద్రం, దివ్యాంగుల ప్రత్యేక పాఠశాల‌లు నెల్లూరులోనూ ఉన్నాయి.", "పెనుమూడి (దుగ్గిరాల)\nదక్షణాన తెనాలి మండలం, ఉత్తరాన మంగళగిరి మండలం, తూర్పున కొల్లిపర మండలం, పశ్చిమాన పెదకాకాని మండలం.", "పెనుబల్లి (గ్రామీణ)\nఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన కొత్తగూడెం నుండి 5 కి. మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 379 ఇళ్లతో, 1210 జనాభాతో 1535 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 600, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 610. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 460 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 285. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 579382.పిన్ కోడ్: 507101.", "పెనుబల్లి (భద్రా)\nపెనుబల్లి ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్ రాష్ట్రం, తూర్పు గోదావరి జిల్లా, ఎటపాక మండలంలోని గ్రామం. ", "పెరుమాళ్లపల్లె\nపెరుమాళ్లపల్లె, చిత్తూరు జిల్లా, వెదురుకుప్పం మండలానికి చెందిన గ్రామము. \nపెరుమాళ్ళపల్లె చిత్తూరు జిల్లా, వెదురుకుప్పం మండలంలోని గ్రామం. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన వెదురుకుప్పం నుండి 3 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన తిరుపతి నుండి 33 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 205 ఇళ్లతో, 813 జనాభాతో 692 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 416, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 397. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 115 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 0. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 596214.పిన్ కోడ్: 517569.\nగ్రామంలో ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమిక పాఠశాల ఒకటి ఉంది. బాలబడి, ప్రాథమికోన్నత పాఠశాల, మాధ్యమిక పాఠశాల‌లు సమీప జూనియర్ కళాశాల , అనియత విద్యా కేంద్రం వెదురుకుప్పంలోను, ప్రభుత్వ ఆర్ట్స్/ సైన్స్ డిగ్రీ కళాశాల పాచికపాలెంలోనూ ఉన్నాయి. సమీప వైద్య కళాశాల, మేనేజిమెంటు కళాశాల, పాలీటెక్నిక్, సమీప వృత్తి విద్యా శిక్షణ పాఠశాలదివ్యాంగుల ప్రత్యేక పాఠశాల తిరుపతి లోనూ ఉన్నాయి.", "పస్పుల (పెంబి)\nపస్పుల తెలంగాణ రాష్ట్రం, నిర్మల్ జిల్లా, పెంబి మండలంలోని గ్రామం. \nఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన పెంబి నుండి 12 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన నిర్మల్ నుండి 40 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. \n2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 424 ఇళ్లతో, 2017 జనాభాతో 3275 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 1016, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 1001. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 16 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 1695. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 570427.పిన్ కోడ్: 504203.కొత్త జిల్లాల ఏర్పాటుకు ముందు, పస్పుల, ఆదిలాబాదు జిల్లా, ఖానాపూర్‌ మండలంలో భాగంగా ఉండేది.", "మోదుమూడి\n2001 వ.సంవత్సరం జనాభా లెక్కల ప్రకారం గ్రామ జనాభా 4498. ఇందులో పురుషుల సంఖ్య 2280, స్త్రీల సంఖ్య 2218, గ్రామంలో నివాస గృహాలు 1269 ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామ విస్తీర్ణం 1376 హెక్టారులు.\n[2] ఈనాడు కృష్ణా/అవనిగడ్డ; 2014;ఏప్రిల్-13; 2వపేజీ.\n[3] ఈనాడు కృష్ణా/అవనిగడ్డ; 2014, మే-28; 2వపేజీ.\n[4] ఈనాడు కృష్ణా/అవనిగడ్డ; 2014, జూన్-14; 1వపేజీ. \n[5] ఈనాడు కృష్ణా/అవనిగడ్డ; 2014 జూన్-25; 2వపేజీ.\n[6] ఈనాడు కృష్ణా/అవనిగడ్డ; 2014, ఆగష్టు-8; 3వపేజీ.\n[7] ఈనాడు కృష్ణా/అవనిగడ్డ; 2015, ఫిబ్రవరి-24,25&27.\n[8] ఈనాడు అమరావతి; 2015, నవంబరు-1; 43వపేజీ.\n[9] ఈనాడు అమరావతి; 2015, నవంబరు-7; 44వపేజీ.\n[10] ఈనాడు అమరావతి/అవనిగడ్డ; 2016, మే-15; 1వపేజీ.", "వేములపల్లి (ఘంటసాల)\nఈ గ్రామానికి చెందిన బూసి ప్రణీత అను విద్యార్థిని, 2017,ఏప్రిల్‌లో ప్రకటించిన ఇంటర్‌మీడియేట్ రెండవ సంవత్సరం పరీక్షా ఫలితాలలో, సి.ఇ.సి.విభాగంలో, 964 మార్కులతో ఉత్తమ రాంక్ సాధించింది. ఈమె తల్లిదండ్రులు కన్నమ్మ, శ్రీనివాసరావు, ఇద్దరూ వ్యవసాయ కూలీలే కావడం గమనార్హం. [5]2001 వ.సంవత్సరం జనాభా లెక్కల ప్రకారం గ్రామ జనాభా 1016. ఇందులో పురుషుల సంఖ్య 508, స్త్రీల సంఖ్య 508, గ్రామంలో నివాస గృహాలు 263 ఉన్నాయి.గ్రామ విస్తీర్ణం 248 హెక్టారులు.\n[2] ఈనాడు కృష్ణా/అవనిగడ్ద; 2013,జులై-19; 2వపేజీ. \n[3] ఈనాడు కృష్ణా/అవనిగడ్డ; 2014,ఆగస్టు-3; 3వపేజీ.\n[4] ఈనాడు కృష్ణా/అవనిగడ్డ; 2015,సెప్టెంబరు-19; 2వపేజీ.\n[5] ఈనాడు అమరావతి/అవనిగడ్డ; 2017,ఏప్రిల్-16; 1వపేజీ.", "పెనుగొలను\n2001 వ.సంవత్సరం జనాభా లెక్కల ప్రకారం గ్రామ జనాభా 6665. ఇందులో పురుషుల సంఖ్య 3401, స్త్రీల సంఖ్య 3264, గ్రామంలో నివాస గృహాలు 1584 ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామ విస్తీర్ణం 2342 హెక్టారులు.\n[2] ఈనాడు కృష్ణా; 2013, జూలై 15; 8వపేజీ.\n[3] ఈనాడు కృష్ణా/మైలవరం, 2013, అక్టోబరు-12; 2వపేజీ. \n[4] ఈనాడు కృష్ణా/మైలవరం; 2013, అక్టోబరు-13; 2వపేజీ. \n[5] ఈనాడు కృష్ణా/మైలవరం; 2014, మే-9; 1వపేజీ.\n[6] ఈనాడు కృష్ణా; 2016, మే-16, 16వపేజీ.\n[7] ఈనాడు అమరావతి/మైలవరం; 2017, జూన్-2; 2వపేజీ.", "పెదవుల్లగల్లు\n2001 వ .సంవత్సరం జనాభా లెక్కల ప్రకారం గ్రామ జనాభా 3,147.[2] ఇందులో పురుషుల సంఖ్య 1,598, స్త్రీల సంఖ్య 1,549, గ్రామంలో నివాస గృహాలు 745 ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామ విస్తీర్ణం 1,376 హెక్టారులు.", "పొన్నెకల్లు\n2001 వ.సంవత్సరం జనాభా లెక్కల ప్రకారం గ్రామ జనాభా 9,381.[3] ఇందులో పురుషుల సంఖ్య 4,588, స్త్రీల సంఖ్య 4793, గ్రామంలో నివాస గృహాలు 2,448 ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామ విస్తీర్ణము 1,546 హెక్టారులు.", "పెనుబల్లి\nగ్రామ జనాభా:2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 2337 ఇళ్లతో, 8915 జనాభాతో 1403 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 4401, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 4514. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 2024 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 1043. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 579582..పిన్ కోడ్: 507302.", "కానుమోలు\nకానుమోలు కృష్ణా జిల్లా, బాపులపాడు మండలంలోని గ్రామం. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన బాపులపాడు నుండి 4 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన గుడివాడ నుండి 20 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 2223 ఇళ్లతో, 8002 జనాభాతో 1117 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 3928, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 4074. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 2384 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 76. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 589090.పిన్ కోడ్: 521106, ఎస్.టి.డి కోడ్ = 08656.", "పెనుమర్రు (వేమూరు)\nఅబ్బన గూడవల్లి 2 కి.మీ, చావలి 3 కి.మీ, తాడిగిరిపాడు 3 కి.మీ, చినపులివర్రు 3 కి.మీ, రావికంపాడు 4 కి.మీ.", "పెనుమూడి (దుగ్గిరాల)\nగ్రామంలో ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమిక పాఠశాలలు నాలుగు ఉన్నాయి.", "పెనుమూడి (రేపల్లె)\nపెనుమూడిలో సబ్ పోస్టాఫీసు సౌకర్యం ఉంది. పోస్టాఫీసు సౌకర్యం, పోస్ట్ అండ్ టెలిగ్రాఫ్ ఆఫీసు గ్రామానికి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. లాండ్ లైన్ టెలిఫోన్, పబ్లిక్ ఫోన్ ఆఫీసు, మొబైల్ ఫోన్ మొదలైన సౌకర్యాలు ఉన్నాయి. ఇంటర్నెట్ కెఫె / సామాన్య సేవా కేంద్రం, ప్రైవేటు కొరియర్ గ్రామానికి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి.\nగ్రామానికి సమీప ప్రాంతాల నుండి ప్రభుత్వ రవాణా సంస్థ బస్సులు తిరుగుతున్నాయి. సమీప గ్రామాల నుండి ఆటో సౌకర్యం కూడా ఉంది. వ్యవసాయం కొరకు వాడేందుకు గ్రామంలో ట్రాక్టర్లున్నాయి. ప్రైవేటు బస్సు సౌకర్యం, రైల్వే స్టేషన్ మొదలైనవి గ్రామానికి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి.\nప్రధాన జిల్లా రహదారి, జిల్లా రహదారి గ్రామం గుండా పోతున్నాయి. జాతీయ రహదారి గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. రాష్ట్ర రహదారి గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉంది. గ్రామంలో తారు రోడ్లు, కంకర రోడ్లు, మట్టిరోడ్లూ ఉన్నాయి.", "పెనుమల్లి (ముదినేపల్లి)\nపెనుమల్లి, కృష్ణా జిల్లా, ముదినేపల్లి మండలానికి చెందిన గ్రామము", "పెండేకల్లు (తుగ్గలి)\nపెండేకల్లు, కర్నూలు జిల్లా, తుగ్గలి మండలానికి చెందిన గ్రామము.[1] ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన తుగ్గలి నుండి 25 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన డోన్ నుండి 15 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 1543 ఇళ్లతో, 7215 జనాభాతో 3485 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 3753, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 3462. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 2052 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 11. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 594447[2].పిన్ కోడ్: 518468.", "పెనుమూడి (రేపల్లె)\nగ్రామంలో అంగన్ వాడీ కేంద్రం, ఇతర పోషకాహార కేంద్రాలు, ఆశా కార్యకర్త ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామంలో వార్తాపత్రిక పంపిణీ జరుగుతుంది. అసెంబ్లీ పోలింగ్ స్టేషన్, జనన మరణాల నమోదు కార్యాలయం ఉన్నాయి. సమీకృత బాలల అభివృద్ధి పథకం, ఆటల మైదానం గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. సినిమా హాలు, గ్రంథాలయం, పబ్లిక్ రీడింగ్ రూం గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి.", "చెరుకుమూడి\nచెరుకుమూడి ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్ రాష్ట్రం, శ్రీ పొట్టి శ్రీరాములు నెల్లూరు జిల్లా, మనుబోలు మండలంలోని గ్రామం. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన మనుబోలు నుండి 17 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన గూడూరు నుండి 24 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 722 ఇళ్లతో, 2675 జనాభాతో 1859 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 1340, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 1335. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 1259 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 275. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 592192.పిన్ కోడ్: 524405.\nగ్రామంలో ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమిక పాఠశాలలు ఐదు, ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమికోన్నత పాఠశాలలు రెండు ఉన్నాయి. బాలబడి మనుబోలులోను, మాధ్యమిక పాఠశాల కసుమూరులోనూ ఉన్నాయి. సమీప జూనియర్ కళాశాల, ప్రభుత్వ ఆర్ట్స్ / సైన్స్ డిగ్రీ కళాశాల వెంకటాచలంలోను, ఇంజనీరింగ్ కళాశాల చవటపాలెంలోనూ ఉన్నాయి. సమీప వైద్య కళాశాల నెల్లూరులోను, మేనేజిమెంటు కళాశాల, పాలీటెక్నిక్‌లు గూడూరులోనూ ఉన్నాయి. సమీప వృత్తి విద్యా శిక్షణ పాఠశాల గూడూరులోను, అనియత విద్యా కేంద్రం, దివ్యాంగుల ప్రత్యేక పాఠశాల‌లు నెల్లూరులోనూ ఉన్నాయి. \nచెరుకుమూడిలో ఉన్న ఒక ప్రాథమిక ఆరోగ్య ఉప కేంద్రంలో డాక్టర్లు లేరు. ఒకరు పారామెడికల్ సిబ్బంది ఉన్నారు. ఒక సంచార వైద్య శాలలో డాక్టర్లు లేరు. ముగ్గురు పారామెడికల్ సిబ్బంది ఉన్నారు. పశు వైద్యశాల గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. సమీప సామాజిక ఆరోగ్య కేంద్రం, ప్రాథమిక ఆరోగ్య కేంద్రం, మాతా శిశు సంరక్షణ కేంద్రం, టి. బి వైద్యశాల గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ. కంటే ఎక్కువ దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. అలోపతి ఆసుపత్రి, ప్రత్యామ్నాయ ఔషధ ఆసుపత్రి, డిస్పెన్సరీ, కుటుంబ సంక్షేమ కేంద్రం గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ. కంటే ఎక్కువ దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. \nగ్రామంలో కుళాయిల ద్వారా రక్షిత మంచినీటి సరఫరా జరుగుతోంది. గ్రామంలో ఏడాది పొడుగునా చేతిపంపుల ద్వారా నీరు అందుతుంది. \nమురుగునీరు బహిరంగ కాలువల ద్వారా ప్రవహిస్తుంది. మురుగునీరు బహిరంగంగా, కచ్చా కాలువల ద్వారా ప్రవహిస్తుంది. మురుగునీటిని నేరుగా జలవనరుల్లోకి వదులుతున్నారు. గ్రామంలో సంపూర్ణ పారిశుధ్య పథకం అమలవుతోంది. సామాజిక మరుగుదొడ్డి సౌకర్యం లేదు. ఇంటింటికీ తిరిగి వ్యర్థాలను సేకరించే వ్యవస్థ లేదు. సామాజిక బయోగ్యాస్ ఉత్పాదక వ్యవస్థ లేదు. చెత్తను వీధుల పక్కనే పారబోస్తారు. \nచెరుకుమూడిలో సబ్ పోస్టాఫీసు సౌకర్యం ఉంది. పోస్టాఫీసు సౌకర్యం, పోస్ట్ అండ్ టెలిగ్రాఫ్ ఆఫీసు గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. లాండ్ లైన్ టెలిఫోన్, పబ్లిక్ ఫోన్ ఆఫీసు, మొబైల్ ఫోన్ మొదలైన సౌకర్యాలు ఉన్నాయి. ఇంటర్నెట్ కెఫె / సామాన్య సేవా కేంద్రం, ప్రైవేటు కొరియర్ గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామానికి సమీప ప్రాంతాల నుండి ప్రభుత్వ రవాణా సంస్థ బస్సులు తిరుగుతున్నాయి. సమీప గ్రామాల నుండి ఆటో సౌకర్యం కూడా ఉంది. వ్యవసాయం కొరకు వాడేందుకు గ్రామంలో ట్రాక్టర్లున్నాయి. ప్రైవేటు బస్సు సౌకర్యం, రైల్వే స్టేషన్ మొదలైనవి గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. జిల్లా రహదారి గ్రామం గుండా పోతోంది. ప్రధాన జిల్లా రహదారి గ్రామం నుండి 5 కి.మీ. లోపు దూరంలో ఉంది. జాతీయ రహదారి గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. రాష్ట్ర రహదారి గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉంది. గ్రామంలో తారు రోడ్లు, కంకర రోడ్లు ఉన్నాయి.", "నెమలి (గంపలగూడెం)\nఈ ఆలయంలో స్వామివారి వార్షిక బ్రహ్మోత్సవాలు, ప్రతి సంవత్సరం, ఫాల్గుణ మాసంలో, ఆరురోజులపాటు అత్యంత వైభవంగా నిర్వహించెదరు. ఈ కార్యక్రమానికి కృష్ణా, ఖమ్మం జిల్లాల నుడియేగాక, రాష్ట్రంలోని వివిధ ప్రాంతాలనుండి, లక్షలాది మంది భక్తులు తరలివచ్చెదరు. [4]\n2001 వ.సంవత్సరం జనాభా లెక్కల ప్రకారం గ్రామ జనాభా 2926. ఇందులో పురుషుల సంఖ్య 1565, స్త్రీల సంఖ్య 1361, గ్రామంలో నివాస గృహాలు 656 ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామ విస్తీర్ణం 851 హెక్టారులు.\n[2] ఈనాడు కృష్ణా; 2013,జులై-15; 8వపేజీ.\n[3] ఈనాడు కృష్ణా; 2014,ఫిబ్రవరి-23; 1వపేజీ.\n[4] ఈనాడు కృష్ణా; 2014,మార్చి-10; 11వపేజీ.\n[5] ఈనాడు కృష్ణా; 2015,నవంబరు-17; 10వపేజీ.", "యాకమూరు\nఈ ఆలయములో ప్రతి సంవత్సరం హనుమజ్జయంతి సందర్భంగా ఐదురోజులపాటు ఉత్సవాలను వైభవంగా నిర్వహించెదరు. [4]2001 వ.సంవత్సరం జనాభా లెక్కల ప్రకారం గ్రామ జనాభా 2164. ఇందులో పురుషుల సంఖ్య 1083, స్త్రీల సంఖ్య 1081, గ్రామంలో నివాస గృహాలు 560 ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామ విస్తీర్ణం 255 హెక్టారులు.", "పెనమకూరు\nఈ ఆలయ ప్రథమ వార్షికోత్సవం 2017,ఫిబ్రవరి-14వతేదీ మంగళవారంనాడు వైభవంగా నిర్వహించారు. ఈ సందర్భంగా సాయిబాబాకు ప్రత్యేకపూజలు అభిషేకాలు నిర్వహించారు. భక్తులకు అన్నసమారాధన నిర్వహించారు. [6]2001 వ.సంవత్సరం జనాభా లెక్కల ప్రకారం గ్రామ జనాభా 2440. ఇందులో పురుషుల సంఖ్య 1233, స్త్రీల సంఖ్య 1207, గ్రామంలో నివాస గృహాలు 674 ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామ విస్తీర్ణం 620 హెక్టారులు.\n[2] ఈనాడు కృష్ణా; 2013, డిసెంబరు-2; 7వపేజీ. \n[3] ది హిందు, ఆంగ్ల దినపత్రిక; 2014, ఆగస్టు-22; 3వపేజీ.\n[4] ఈనాడు అమరావతి/పామర్రు; 2016, ఫిబ్రవరి-27; 1వపేజీ. \n[5] ఈనాడు అమరావతి/పామర్రు; 2016, ఏప్రిల్-6; 1వపేజీ. \n[6] ఈనాడు అమరావతి/పామర్రు; 2017, ఫిబ్రవరి-15; 1వపేజీ.", "పెనుమూడి (దుగ్గిరాల)\nకాలువలు: 1161 హెక్టార్లు బావులు/బోరు బావులు: 152 హెక్టార్లు", "పెదచెర్లోపల్లి\nమురుగమ్మి 4 కి.మీ, ముద్దపాడు 4 కి.మీ, వేపగంపల్లి 5 కి.మీ, తలకొండపాడు 5 కి.మీ, పోతవరం 8 కి.మీ.\nఉత్తరాన కనిగిరి మండలం, తూర్పున వోలేటివారిపాలెం మండలం, పశ్చిమాన వెలిగండ్ల మండలం, దక్షణాన పామూరు మండలం.\nకనిగిరి 16.6 కి.మీ, వోలేటివారిపాలెం 22.1 కి.మీ, పామూరు 23.6 కి.మీ.2001 వ.సంవత్సరం జనాభా లెక్కల ప్రకారం గ్రామ జనాభా 4,187. ఇందులో పురుషుల సంఖ్య 2,148, స్త్రీల సంఖ్య 2,039, గ్రామంలో నివాస గృహాలు 883 ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామ విస్తీర్ణం 3,087 హెక్టారులు.", "పెనుమల్లం\nసమీప ప్రాథమిక ఆరోగ్య కేంద్రం, ప్రాథమిక ఆరోగ్య ఉప కేంద్రం గ్రామం నుండి 5 కి.మీ. లోపు దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. సంచార వైద్య శాల గ్రామం నుండి 5 కి.మీ. లోపు దూరంలో ఉంది. పశు వైద్యశాల గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. సమీప సామాజిక ఆరోగ్య కేంద్రం, మాతా శిశు సంరక్షణ కేంద్రం, టి. బి వైద్యశాల గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ. కంటే ఎక్కువ దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. అలోపతి ఆసుపత్రి, ప్రత్యామ్నాయ ఔషధ ఆసుపత్రి, డిస్పెన్సరీ, కుటుంబ సంక్షేమ కేంద్రం గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ. కంటే ఎక్కువ దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. \nగ్రామంలో కుళాయిల ద్వారా శుద్ధి చేయని నీరు సరఫరా అవుతోంది. గ్రామంలో ఏడాది పొడుగునా చేతిపంపుల ద్వారా నీరు అందుతుంది. బోరుబావుల ద్వారా కూడా ఏడాది పొడుగునా నీరు అందుతుంది. \nగ్రామంలో మురుగునీటి పారుదల వ్యవస్థ లేదు. మురుగునీటిని నేరుగా జలవనరుల్లోకి వదులుతున్నారు. గ్రామంలో సంపూర్ణ పారిశుధ్య పథకం అమలవుతోంది. సామాజిక మరుగుదొడ్డి సౌకర్యం లేదు. ఇంటింటికీ తిరిగి వ్యర్థాలను సేకరించే వ్యవస్థ లేదు. సామాజిక బయోగ్యాస్ ఉత్పాదక వ్యవస్థ లేదు. చెత్తను వీధుల పక్కనే పారబోస్తారు. \nపెనుమల్లంలో సబ్ పోస్టాఫీసు సౌకర్యం ఉంది. పోస్టాఫీసు సౌకర్యం, పోస్ట్ అండ్ టెలిగ్రాఫ్ ఆఫీసు గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. లాండ్ లైన్ టెలిఫోన్, పబ్లిక్ ఫోన్ ఆఫీసు, మొబైల్ ఫోన్ మొదలైన సౌకర్యాలు ఉన్నాయి. ఇంటర్నెట్ కెఫె / సామాన్య సేవా కేంద్రం, ప్రైవేటు కొరియర్ గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామానికి సమీప ప్రాంతాల నుండి ప్రభుత్వ రవాణా సంస్థ బస్సులు తిరుగుతున్నాయి. సమీప గ్రామాల నుండి ఆటో సౌకర్యం కూడా ఉంది. ట్రాక్టరు సౌకర్యం గ్రామానికి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. ప్రైవేటు బస్సు సౌకర్యం, రైల్వే స్టేషన్ మొదలైనవి గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. జాతీయ రహదారి, రాష్ట్ర రహదారి, ప్రధాన జిల్లా రహదారి, జిల్లా రహదారి గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామంలో తారు రోడ్లు, కంకర రోడ్లు ఉన్నాయి. \nగ్రామంలో స్వయం సహాయక బృందం, పౌర సరఫరాల కేంద్రం ఉన్నాయి. వాణిజ్య బ్యాంకు గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. ఏటీఎమ్, సహకార బ్యాంకు, వ్యవసాయ పరపతి సంఘం గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. రోజువారీ మార్కెట్, వారం వారం సంత, వ్యవసాయ మార్కెటింగ్ సొసైటీ గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. \nగ్రామంలో సమీకృత బాలల అభివృద్ధి పథకం, అంగన్ వాడీ కేంద్రం, ఇతర పోషకాహార కేంద్రాలు, ఆశా కార్యకర్త ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామంలో వార్తాపత్రిక పంపిణీ జరుగుతుంది. అసెంబ్లీ పోలింగ్ స్టేషన్, జనన మరణాల నమోదు కార్యాలయం ఉన్నాయి. ఆటల మైదానం గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. సినిమా హాలు, గ్రంథాలయం, పబ్లిక్ రీడింగ్ రూం గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. \nగ్రామంలో గృహావసరాల నిమిత్తం విద్యుత్ సరఫరా వ్యవస్థ ఉంది. రోజుకు 7 గంటల పాటు వ్యవసాయానికి, 18 గంటల పాటు వాణిజ్య అవసరాల కోసం కూడా విద్యుత్ సరఫరా చేస్తున్నారు. \nపెనుమల్లంలో భూ వినియోగం కింది విధంగా ఉంది:\nపెనుమల్లంలో వ్యవసాయానికి నీటి సరఫరా కింది వనరుల ద్వారా జరుగుతోంది.\nపెనుమల్లంలో ఈ కింది వస్తువులు ఉత్పత్తి అవుతున్నాయి.\nవరి, వేరుశనగ\n పెన్నగాదం 2 కి.మీ. చెల్లూరు 2 కి.మీ. గుడిమల్లం 3 కి.మీ. వికృతమాల 3 కి.మీ. ఎం.డి. పుత్తూరు 4 కి.మీ దూరములో ఉన్నాయి.\nఈ గ్రామానికి, మరియు మండలములోని ఇతర గ్రామాలకు రోడ్డు సౌకర్యమున్నది. ఆరీసి బస్సులు ఉన్నాయి. ఈ గ్రామానికి రేణిగుంట, ఏర్పేడు రైల్వే స్టేషనులు సమీపములో ఉన్నాయి.", "పెనగలూరు\nపెనగలూరు, ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్ రాష్ట్రములోని వైఎస్ఆర్ జిల్లా, పెనగలూరు మండలం లోని గ్రామం. ఇది ఈ మండలానికి కేంద్రం కూడా. పిన్. కోడ్ నం. 516 127., ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన పెంగలూరు నుండి 0 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన రాజంపేట నుండి 17 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 1148 ఇళ్లతో, 4615 జనాభాతో 812 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 2307, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 2308. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 990 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 200. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 593609.పిన్ కోడ్: 516127.", "గోనుమాకులపల్లె\nగోనుమాకులపల్లె అన్నది చిత్తూరు జిల్లాకు చెందిన వెంకటగిరి కోట మండలం లోని గ్రామం, ఇది 2011 జనగణన ప్రకారం 806 ఇళ్లతో మొత్తం 3673 జనాభాతో 987 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. సమీప పట్టణమైన పలమనేరు కు 40 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 1802, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 1871గా ఉంది. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 655 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 208. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 596778[1].", "పెరవలి (సింగనమల)\nపెరవలి అనంతపురం జిల్లా సింగనమల మండలం లోని గ్రామం. *ఈ గ్రామము. లో జన్మించిన ఆశావాది ప్రకాశరావు తెలుగు భాషలో చేసిన కృషికి గాను భారత రాష్ట్రపతి అభినందనను అందుకున్నాడు. బాలకవిగా, అష్థావధానిగా పేరు పొందాడు.ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన సింగనమల నుండి 8 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన అనంతపురం నుండి 27 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 516 ఇళ్లతో, 2048 జనాభాతో 1519 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 1046, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 1002. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 442 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 83. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 595017.పిన్ కోడ్: 515435.\nగ్రామంలో ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమిక పాఠశాలలు రెండు, ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమికోన్నత పాఠశాల ఒకటి , ప్రభుత్వ మాధ్యమిక పాఠశాల ఒకటి ఉన్నాయి. సమీప బాలబడి, సమీప జూనియర్ కళాశాల, సమీప వృత్తి విద్యా శిక్షణ పాఠశాల సింగనమలలోను, ప్రభుత్వ ఆర్ట్స్ / సైన్స్ డిగ్రీ కళాశాల, ఇంజనీరింగ్ కళాశాల‌లు, సమీప వైద్య కళాశాల, మేనేజిమెంటు కళాశాల, పాలీటెక్నిక్, అనియత విద్యా కేంద్రం, దివ్యాంగుల ప్రత్యేక పాఠశాల‌లు అనంతపురంలోనూ ఉన్నాయి.", "పెదమట్లపూడి\n2001 వ.సంవత్సరం జనాభా లెక్కల ప్రకారం గ్రామ జనాభా 5922.[2] ఇందులో పురుషుల సంఖ్య 2966, స్త్రీల సంఖ్య 2956, గ్రామంలో నివాస గృహాలు 1546 ఉన్నాయి.గ్రామ విస్తీర్ణం 1705 హెక్టారులు.", "పెనుమూడి (రేపల్లె)\nవరి, మినుము, మొక్కజొన్న", "కనుముక్కల (చెన్నే కొత్తపల్లె)\nఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన చెన్నేకొత్తపల్లె నుండి 19 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన ధర్మవరం నుండి 14 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 1617 ఇళ్లతో, 6257 జనాభాతో 3676 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 3193, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 3064. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 1023 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 29. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 595315.పిన్ కోడ్: 515651.\nగ్రామంలో ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమిక పాఠశాలలు 12, ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమికోన్నత పాఠశాలలు మూడు, ప్రభుత్వ మాధ్యమిక పాఠశాల ఒకటి ఉన్నాయి. సమీప బాలబడి ధర్మవరంలో ఉంది.సమీప జూనియర్ కళాశాల, ప్రభుత్వ ఆర్ట్స్ / సైన్స్ డిగ్రీ కళాశాల ధర్మవరంలోను, ఇంజనీరింగ్ కళాశాల అనంతపురంలోనూ ఉన్నాయి. సమీప వైద్య కళాశాల, మేనేజిమెంటు కళాశాల, పాలీటెక్నిక్ అనంతపురంలో ఉన్నాయి. సమీప వృత్తి విద్యా శిక్షణ పాఠశాల చెన్నేకొత్తపల్లెలోను, అనియత విద్యా కేంద్రం, దివ్యాంగుల ప్రత్యేక పాఠశాల‌లు అనంతపురంలోనూ ఉన్నాయి.", "పెనుమూడి (రేపల్లె)\n2013 జూలైలో ఈ గ్రామ పంచాయతీకి జరిగిన ఎన్నికలలో శ్రీమతి గుమ్మడి నాగవాణి, సర్పంచిగా ఎన్నికైనారు. [2]వ్యవసాయం, వ్యవసాయాధారిత వృత్తులు", "పెన్మిల్ల\nఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన ఉప్పునూతల నుండి 25 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన వనపర్తి నుండి 75 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది.", "పెనుమదం\nపెనుమదం, పశ్చిమ గోదావరి జిల్లా, పోడూరు మండలానికి చెందిన గ్రామము.[1]. గ్రామ చరిత్ర ప్రకారం ఒక కథనం ఉంది. జనమేజయ మహారాజు తన తండ్రికి ప్రాణ హాని కలిగించిన సర్పజాతిపై ఆగ్రహించి తాను తలపెట్టిన సర్పయాగం కోసం దేశమంతా ఏర్పాటైన యజ్ఞకుండలాల్లో అతిపెద్దదైన యజ్ఞకుండం ఇక్కడ ఈ ప్రాంతమున ఏర్పాటు చేసాడని, దాని వలన ఈ ప్రాంతానికి పెనుమేధం అని పేరు వచ్చినది అని అంటారు. కాలక్రమేణా అది పెనుమదంగా మారినదని అంటారు.", "పెదవుల్లగల్లు\nపెదవుల్లగల్లు ప్రకాశం జిల్లా, ముండ్లమూరు మండలంలోని గ్రామం. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన ముండ్లమూరు నుండి 8 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన వినుకొండ నుండి 30 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 911 ఇళ్లతో, 3590 జనాభాతో 1376 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 1855, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 1735. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 407 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 0. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 590796[1].పిన్ కోడ్: 523265.", "మనవలి\nమనవలి ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్ రాష్ట్రం, శ్రీ పొట్టి శ్రీరాములు నెల్లూరు జిల్లా, ఓజిలి మండలంలోని గ్రామం. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన ఓజిలి నుండి 25 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన గూడూరు నుండి 35 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 268 ఇళ్లతో, 875 జనాభాతో 752 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 437, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 438. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 403 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 0. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 592481[1].పిన్ కోడ్: 524421.", "పెనుమూడి (రేపల్లె)\nగ్రామంలో స్వయం సహాయక బృందం, పౌర సరఫరాల కేంద్రం ఉన్నాయి. వారం వారం సంత గ్రామం నుండి 5 కి.మీ. లోపు దూరంలో ఉంది. ఏటీఎమ్, వాణిజ్య బ్యాంకు, సహకార బ్యాంకు, వ్యవసాయ పరపతి సంఘం గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. రోజువారీ మార్కెట్, వ్యవసాయ మార్కెటింగ్ సొసైటీ గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి.", "చావలి (వేమూరు)\nచావలి, గుంటూరు జిల్లా, వేమూరు మండలానికి చెందిన గ్రామము. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన వేమూరు నుండి 6 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన తెనాలి నుండి 19 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 1830 ఇళ్లతో, 6524 జనాభాతో 1039 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 3293, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 3231. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 1156 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 218. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 590408[1].పిన్ కోడ్: 522261. ఎస్.టి.డి.కోడ్ = 08644. [2]", "పున్నోల్\n2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 1258 ఇళ్లతో, 4900 జనాభాతో 1089 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 2471, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 2429. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 1147 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 58. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 578305[2].పిన్ కోడ్: 506310.", "పెనగలూరు అగ్రహారం\nపెనగలూరు అగ్రహారం, వైఎస్ఆర్ జిల్లా, పెనగలూరు మండలానికి చెందిన గ్రామము \nఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన పెంగలూరు నుండి 2 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన రాజంపేట నుండి 19 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 162 ఇళ్లతో, 635 జనాభాతో 857 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 320, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 315. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 0 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 23. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 593607.పిన్ కోడ్: 516127.", "చావలి (వేమూరు)\nపెనుమర్రు 3 కి.మీ అబ్బన గూడవల్లి 3 కి.మీ పెరవలిపాలెం 5 కి.మీ రావికంపాడు 5 కి.మీ చంపాడు 5 కి.మీ", "ఆలమూరు (పాణ్యం మండలం)\nఆలమూరు, కర్నూలు జిల్లా, పాణ్యం మండలానికి చెందిన గ్రామము.. పిన్ కోడ్: 518 112.ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన పాణ్యం నుండి 10 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన నంద్యాల నుండి 24 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 960 ఇళ్లతో, 3958 జనాభాతో 2731 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 2002, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 1956. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 668 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 19. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 594257.పిన్ కోడ్: 518112.", "పెన్నపేరూరు\nపెన్నపేరూరు, వైఎస్ఆర్ జిల్లా, ఒంటిమిట్ట మండలానికి చెందిన గ్రామము \nఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన ఒంటిమిట్ట నుండి 6 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన కడప నుండి 31 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 774 ఇళ్లతో, 2753 జనాభాతో 1851 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 1407, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 1346. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 806 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 43. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 593372.పిన్ కోడ్: 516213.", "పెనుబల్లి\nపెనుబల్లి, తెలంగాణ రాష్ట్రములోని ఖమ్మం జిల్లాకు చెందిన ఒక మండలము... \nఇది సమీప పట్టణమైన కొత్తగూడెం నుండి 45 కి. మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది.", "పెనుబల్లి\nపెనుబల్లిలో పోస్టాఫీసు సౌకర్యం ఉంది. సబ్ పోస్టాఫీసు సౌకర్యం, పోస్ట్ అండ్ టెలిగ్రాఫ్ ఆఫీసు గ్రామానికి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. లాండ్ లైన్ టెలిఫోన్, పబ్లిక్ ఫోన్ ఆఫీసు, మొబైల్ ఫోన్, ఇంటర్నెట్ కెఫె / సామాన్య సేవా కేంద్రం, ప్రైవేటు కొరియర్ మొదలైన సౌకర్యాలు ఉన్నాయి.", "పెదగుల్లెలు\nపెదగుల్లెలు, విశాఖపట్నం జిల్లా, పెదబయలు మండలానికి చెందిన గ్రామము.[1] ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన పెదబయలు నుండి 27 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన అనకాపల్లి నుండి 170 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 77 ఇళ్లతో, 287 జనాభాతో 129 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 134, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 153. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 0 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 285. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 583716[2].పిన్ కోడ్: 531040.", "కానుమోలు\n2001 వ.సంవత్సరం జనాభా లెక్కల ప్రకారం గ్రామ జనాభా 8095. ఇందులో పురుషుల సంఖ్య 4057, స్త్రీల సంఖ్య 4038, గ్రామంలో నివాసగృహాలు 2051 ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామ విస్తీర్ణం 1117 హెక్టారులు.\n[3] ఈనాడు అమరావతి; 2015,జూన్-22; 5వపేజీ. \n[4] ఈనాడు అమరావతి; 2015,సెప్టెంబరు-1; 4వపేజీ.\n[5] ఈనాడు అమరావతి; 2016,ఫిబ్రవరి-21; 4వపేజీ.", "పెనుబల్లి (భద్రా)\n2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 97 ఇళ్లతో, 367 జనాభాతో 259 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 185, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 182. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 0 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 363. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 579050.పిన్ కోడ్: 507111.\nగ్రామంలో ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమిక పాఠశాల ఒకటి ఉంది.బాలబడి, ప్రాథమికోన్నత పాఠశాల, మాధ్యమిక పాఠశాల‌లు భద్రాచలంలో ఉన్నాయి. సమీప జూనియర్ కళాశాల, ప్రభుత్వ ఆర్ట్స్ / సైన్స్ డిగ్రీ కళాశాల, ఇంజనీరింగ్ కళాశాల భద్రాచలంలో ఉన్నాయి. సమీప వైద్య కళాశాల ఖమ్మంలోను, పాలీటెక్నిక్‌ ఎటపాకలోను, మేనేజిమెంటు కళాశాల పాల్వంచలోనూ ఉన్నాయి. సమీప వృత్తి విద్యా శిక్షణ పాఠశాల భద్రాచలంలోను, అనియత విద్యా కేంద్రం పాల్వంచలోను, దివ్యాంగుల ప్రత్యేక పాఠశాల ఖమ్మం లోనూ ఉన్నాయి.", "పెనుమర్రు (వేమూరు)\nపెనుమర్రు, గుంటూరు జిల్లా, వేమూరు మండలానికి చెందిన గ్రామము. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన వేమూరు నుండి 8 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన తెనాలి నుండి 20 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 499 ఇళ్లతో, 1579 జనాభాతో 744 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 779, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 800. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 1023 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 2. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 590411.పిన్ కోడ్: 522261. యస్.ట్.డీ కోడ్=08648.\nఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్ రాజధాని ప్రాంత అభివృద్ధి ప్రాధికార సంస్థ (సీఆర్‌డీఏ) పరిధిలోకి వస్తున్న మండలాలు, గ్రామాలను ప్రభుత్వం విడిగా గుర్తిస్తూ ఉత్తర్వులు జారీచేసింది. ప్రస్తుతం గుర్తించిన వాటిలోని చాలా గ్రామాలు వీజీటీఎం పరిధిలో ఉన్నాయి. గతంలో వీజీటీఎం పరిధిలో ఉన్న వాటితోపాటుగా ఇప్పుడు మరిన్ని కొన్ని గ్రామాలు చేరాయి. సీఆర్‌డీఏ పరిధిలోకి వచ్చే గుంటూరు, కృష్ణా జిల్లాల్లోని మండలాలు, గ్రామాలను గుర్తిస్తూ పురపాలక శాఖ ముఖ్య కార్యదర్శి ఉత్తర్వులు జారీ చేశారు.", "పెనుమంట్ర\nపెనుమంట్ర, ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్ రాష్ట్రములోని పశ్చిమ గోదావరి జిల్లాకు చెందిన ఒక మండలము మరియు గ్రామము.. పిన్ కోడ్: 534 124. మార్టేరు మరియు అత్తిలి ప్రధాన రహదారిపై ఉంది. ఈ గ్రామము మంచి అభివృద్ధి చెందిన గ్రామము.\nమొదట ఈ గ్రామము అనే పిలువ బడుతుండేది. ఈ గ్రామములో చాలా కాలం ముందు వరుసగా కొన్ని సంవత్సరాలు ప్రతి వేసవిలోనూ అగ్ని ప్రమాదాలు జరిగి గ్రామములో ఏదో ఒకవైపు చాలావరకు కాలిపోవుట జరుగుతుండేది. సమీప గ్రామములవారు పెద్దగా మండేమంటలను చూసి పెనుమంటలు మండుతున్నవి అనుకొనేవారు. అది పరిపాటిగా జరుగుతుండుటచే మెల్లగా ఆ ప్రాంతమును పెనుమంటగా వాడుకలో పెనుమంట్రగా పిలువడం మొదలెట్టారు.గ్రామము తణుకు తాలుకాలో ఉన్నాది.ఉన్న తణుకు లేదా పెనుగొండలకు వెళ్ళవలసి రావడంతో పలు ఇబ్బందులు పడేవారు. విద్యార్థుల ఇబ్బందులను గమనించి కొందరు విదేశాలలో స్థిరపడిన స్థానికులు మరియు ఊరి పెద్దలు కళాశాల నిర్మించాలని ఉత్సాహంగా విరాళాలు ఇవ్వడంతో ఆంధ్రా అసోషియేషన్ యు.కె కాలేజి శరవేగంతో నిర్మాణం జరిగిపోయింది. ఈ కళాశాల వలన మండల మరియు పరిసర గ్రామ విద్యార్థులకు దగ్గరలో విద్యనభ్యసించే అవకాశం కలిగినది. పదవతరగతి వరకూ సేవలందిస్తున్న శ్రీ రామయ్య అచ్యుతానంద ఉన్నత పాఠశాల చరిత్ర బహుప్రసిద్ధం. ప్రతి సంవత్సరం పదవతరగతిలో మొదటగా వచ్చిన విద్యార్థికి బంగారు పతకం ఇవ్వడం ఆనవాయితీగా వస్తున్నది.\nబోర్డుస్కూల్స్-ఊరిలో నాలుగు ప్రాథమిక పాఠశాలలు ఉన్నాయి.ఒకటి మంచినీటి చెరువు వెనుక, రెండవది సాంబయ్య చెరువు గట్టున, మూడవది రజక పేటలోనూ నాల్గవది వెలమపేటలోనూ ఉన్నాయి.\nఊరిలో ప్రజల వినోదం కోసం నిర్మింపబడిన శ్రీ వెంకటేశ్వరా థియేటర్ 1996 వ సంవత్సరంలో నష్టాలబాట పట్టడంతో మూసివేయబడింది. ప్రతి శనివారము సంత జరుగుతుంది.\n2001 వ.సంవత్సరం జనాభా లెక్కల ప్రకారం గ్రామ జనాభా 11,061. ఇందులో పురుషుల సంఖ్య 5491, మహిళల సంఖ్య 5570, గ్రామంలో నివాస గృహాలు 2820 ఉన్నాయి.పెనుమంట్ర పశ్చిమ గోదావరి జిల్లా, ఇదే పేరుతో ఉన్న మండలం యొక్క కేంద్రము. ఇది సమీప పట్టణమైన తణుకు నుండి 16 కి. మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 2900 ఇళ్లతో, 10658 జనాభాతో 1523 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 5247, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 5411. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 2204 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 39. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 588641.పిన్ కోడ్: 534124.", "పెనమకూరు\nఈ గ్రామము వుయ్యూరుకు ఏడు కీ.మీ. ల దూరములో ఉంటుంది. సుమారు 4000 జనాభా.", "అనమనమూరు\n2001 వ.సంవత్సరం జనాభా లెక్కల ప్రకారం గ్రామ జనాభా 1,058. ఇందులో పురుషుల సంఖ్య 533, మహిళల సంఖ్య 525, గ్రామంలో నివాస గృహాలు 269 ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామ విస్తీర్ణం 778 హెక్టారులు.", "పెనుమల్లం\nపెనుమల్లం, చిత్తూరు జిల్లా, ఏర్పేడు మండలానికి చెందిన గ్రామము. \nఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన ఏర్పేడు నుండి 30 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన తిరుపతి నుండి 20 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 537 ఇళ్లతో, 2061 జనాభాతో 963 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 1050, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 1011. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 302 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 339. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 595804.పిన్ కోడ్: 517 620.\nగ్రామంలో ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమిక పాఠశాలలు మూడు, ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమికోన్నత పాఠశాల ఒకటి ఉన్నాయి. బాలబడి వికృతమాలలోను, మాధ్యమిక పాఠశాల పాపానాయుడుపేటలోనూ ఉన్నాయి. సమీప జూనియర్ కళాశాల ఏర్పేడులోను, ప్రభుత్వ ఆర్ట్స్ / సైన్స్ డిగ్రీ కళాశాల, ఇంజనీరింగ్ కళాశాల‌లు, సమీప వైద్య కళాశాల, మేనేజిమెంటు కళాశాల, పాలీటెక్నిక్, సమీప అనియత విద్యా కేంద్రం ఏర్పేడులోను, వృత్తి విద్యా శిక్షణ పాఠశాల, దివ్యాంగుల ప్రత్యేక పాఠశాల‌లు తిరుపతి లోనూ ఉన్నాయి.", "పెనుమాకలంక\nపెనుమాకలంక కృష్ణా జిల్లా, మండవల్లి మండలంలోని గ్రామం. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన మండవల్లి నుండి 12 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన గుడివాడ నుండి 26 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 553 ఇళ్లతో, 1868 జనాభాతో 815 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 947, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 921. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 21 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 0. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 589303[1].పిన్ కోడ్: 521327.", "పెనుబాక (రాజాం)\nపెనుబాక శ్రీకాకుళం జిల్లా, రాజాం మండలంలోని గ్రామం. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన రాజాం నుండి 3 కి. మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 817 ఇళ్లతో, 3280 జనాభాతో 450 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 1616, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 1664. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 397 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 31. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 581324.పిన్ కోడ్: 532127.\nగ్రామంలో ఒక ప్రైవేటు బాలబడి ఉంది. ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమిక పాఠశాల ఒకటి, ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమికోన్నత పాఠశాల ఒకటి ఉంది.", "బొనమలి\nబొనమలి శ్రీకాకుళం జిల్లా, కంచిలి మండలంలోని గ్రామం. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన కంచిలి నుండి 4 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన ఇచ్ఛాపురం నుండి 22 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 97 ఇళ్లతో, 397 జనాభాతో 141 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 196, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 201. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 24 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 0. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 580428.పిన్ కోడ్: 532284.", "పెదమట్లపూడి\nపెదమట్లపూడి, గుంటూరు జిల్లా, నగరం మండలానికి చెందిన గ్రామము. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన నగరం నుండి 10 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన పొన్నూరు నుండి 22 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 1712 ఇళ్లతో, 5971 జనాభాతో 1705 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 2968, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 3003. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 444 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 22. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 590494[1].పిన్ కోడ్: 522314. ఎస్.ట్.డి.కోడ్ = 08648.", "బుడుమూరు\nబుడుమూరు శ్రీకాకుళం జిల్లా, లావేరు మండలంలోని గ్రామం. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన లావేరు నుండి 9 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన శ్రీకాకుళం నుండి 12 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 932 ఇళ్లతో, 3694 జనాభాతో 816 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 1858, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 1836. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 403 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 1. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 581611[1].పిన్ కోడ్: 532403.", "పెనుమాక\nసుమారు 8,000 జనాభా కలిగిన ఈ గ్రామము మేజరు పంచాయతీగా కొనసాగుతున్నది. 2013 జూలైలో ఈ గ్రామ పంచాయతీకి జరిగిన ఎన్నికలలో శ్రీ కళ్ళం పానకాలరెడ్డి సర్పంచిగా ఎన్నికైనారు. అనంతరం వీరు తాడేపల్లి మండల సర్పంచిల ఫోరం అధ్యక్ష్లుగా ఎన్నికైనారు. అ తరువాత వీరు గుంటూరు జిల్లా సర్పంచుల సంఘం, గౌరవ అధ్యక్షులుగా ఎన్నికైనారు. ఈ గ్రామ పంచాయతీ ఉపసర్పంచిగా శ్రీ జానీఖాన్ ఎన్నికైనారు. [4]", "పెనికేరు\nఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన ఆలమూరు నుండి 8 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన మండపేట నుండి 8 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 1097 ఇళ్లతో, 3635 జనాభాతో 410 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 1795, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 1840. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 453 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 37. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 587662.పిన్ కోడ్: 533232.", "పెనుమర్రు (యలమంచిలి)\nపెనుమర్రు, పశ్చిమ గోదావరి జిల్లా, యలమంచిలి మండలానికి చెందిన గ్రామము.. పిన్ కోడ్: 534 268. పెనుమర్రు గ్రామం గుండా నక్కల డ్రెయిన్ ప్రవహిస్తుంది. మేడపాడు, కట్టుపాలెం, రావిపాడు గుండా ప్రయాణ సౌకర్యములు ఉన్నాయి. పెనుమర్రు గ్రామములో బుల్లిరాజు సర్పంచ్‌గా చాలాకాలం పనిచేసి ఊరిని చాలా బాగా అభివృద్ధి చేసాడు. ఇక్కడి ప్రజల ప్రధానమైన జీవనాధారం వరి పంట.\n2001 వ.సంవత్సరం జనాభా లెక్కల ప్రకారం గ్రామ జనాభా 2074. ఇందులో పురుషుల సంఖ్య 1028, మహిళల సంఖ్య 1046, గ్రామంలో నివాస గృహాలు 539 ఉన్న పెనుమర్రు గ్రామ సర్ప్చ్ గా ఉమాదేవి గారు m.ptc కోటయ్యా గారు\nపెనుమర్రు గ్రామంలో వ్యాయధ్య కళాకారులు ఎక్కువాగా ఉంటారు పశ్చిమ గోదవారిలో జిల్లోల వ్యాయధ్య కళాకరులు ఎక్కువాగా ఉన్నగ్రామం ఒక పెనుమర్రు గ్రామం\nపెనుమర్రు గ్ర్రామంలో నాధస్వరం బృదాంలు మరయు తాసా వ్యాయధ్య కళాకరులు బుట్టాబొమ్మలు ఉన్నాయి.\nపెనుమర్రు గ్ర్రామం పాలకొల్లు నుండి దొడ్డీపట్ల వెలె మర్గమంలో మెడపాడు సెంటర్ తరువాతా ఒక పంటా కాలువా బ్రిడ్జి ఏడమా చెతి మార్గమంలో పెనుమర్రు రొడు ఉంటుంది పెనుమర్రులో చాల అదంమెయిన్ వాతావరనం\nపెనుమర్రు పశ్చిమ గోదావరి జిల్లా, యలమంచిలి మండలంలోని గ్రామం. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన యలమంచిలి నుండి 7 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన పాలకొల్లు నుండి 10 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 528 ఇళ్లతో, 1795 జనాభాతో 317 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 931, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 864. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 429 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 0. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 588794.పిన్ కోడ్: 534268.\nగ్రామంలో ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమిక పాఠశాలలు మూడు, ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమికోన్నత పాఠశాల ఒకటి ఉన్నాయి. బాలబడి, సమీప జూనియర్ కళాశాల, ప్రభుత్వ ఆర్ట్స్ / సైన్స్ డిగ్రీ కళాశాల, సమీప వృత్తి విద్యా శిక్షణ పాఠశాల , పాలకొల్లులోను, మాధ్యమిక పాఠశాల మేడపాడులోనూ ఉన్నాయి. ఇంజనీరింగ్ కళాశాల కలగంపూడి లోనూ ఉన్నాయి. పాలీటెక్నిక్‌ పోడూరు లోను, మేనేజిమెంటు కళాశాల నరసాపురం లోనూ ఉన్నాయి. అనియత విద్యా కేంద్రం యలమంచిలి లోను, దివ్యాంగుల ప్రత్యేక పాఠశాల, సమీప వైద్య కళాశాల, ఏలూరు లోనూ ఉన్నాయి.\nపెనుమర్రులో ఉన్న ఒక ప్రాథమిక ఆరోగ్య ఉప కేంద్రంలో డాక్టర్లు లేరు. ముగ్గురు పారామెడికల్ సిబ్బంది ఉన్నారు. ఒక సంచార వైద్య శాలలో డాక్టర్లు లేరు. ముగ్గురు పారామెడికల్ సిబ్బంది ఉన్నారు. సమీప ప్రాథమిక ఆరోగ్య కేంద్రం గ్రామం నుండి 5 కి.మీ. లోపు దూరంలో ఉంది. సమీప సామాజిక ఆరోగ్య కేంద్రం గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. డిస్పెన్సరీ, పశు వైద్యశాల, కుటుంబ సంక్షేమ కేంద్రం గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. మాతా శిశు సంరక్షణ కేంద్రం, టి. బి వైద్యశాల గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ. కంటే ఎక్కువ దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. అలోపతి ఆసుపత్రి, ప్రత్యామ్నాయ ఔషధ ఆసుపత్రి గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ. కంటే ఎక్కువ దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. \nగ్రామంలో 2 ప్రైవేటు వైద్య సౌకర్యాలున్నాయి. డిగ్రీ లేని డాక్టర్లు ముగ్గురు ఉన్నారు. \nగ్రామంలో కుళాయిల ద్వారా రక్షిత మంచినీటి సరఫరా జరుగుతోంది. బావుల నీరు కూడా అందుబాటులో ఉంది. చెరువు ద్వారా గ్రామానికి తాగునీరు లభిస్తుంది.\nగ్రామంలో మురుగునీటి పారుదల వ్యవస్థ లేదు. మురుగునీటిని నేరుగా జలవనరుల్లోకి వదులుతున్నారు. గ్రామంలో సంపూర్ణ పారిశుధ్య పథకం అమలవుతోంది. సామాజిక మరుగుదొడ్డి సౌకర్యం లేదు. ఇంటింటికీ తిరిగి వ్యర్థాలను సేకరించే వ్యవస్థ లేదు. సామాజిక బయోగ్యాస్ ఉత్పాదక వ్యవస్థ లేదు. చెత్తను వీధుల పక్కనే పారబోస్తారు. \nపోస్టాఫీసు సౌకర్యం, సబ్ పోస్టాఫీసు సౌకర్యం, పోస్ట్ అండ్ టెలిగ్రాఫ్ ఆఫీసు గ్రామానికి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. లాండ్ లైన్ టెలిఫోన్, పబ్లిక్ ఫోన్ ఆఫీసు, మొబైల్ ఫోన్ మొదలైన సౌకర్యాలు ఉన్నాయి. ఇంటర్నెట్ కెఫె / సామాన్య సేవా కేంద్రం, ప్రైవేటు కొరియర్ గ్రామానికి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామానికి సమీప ప్రాంతాల నుండి ప్రభుత్వ రవాణా సంస్థ బస్సులు తిరుగుతున్నాయి. సమీప గ్రామాల నుండి ఆటో సౌకర్యం కూడా ఉంది. వ్యవసాయం కొరకు వాడేందుకు గ్రామంలో ట్రాక్టర్లున్నాయి. ప్రైవేటు బస్సు సౌకర్యం, రైల్వే స్టేషన్ మొదలైనవి గ్రామానికి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. ప్రధాన జిల్లా రహదారి, జిల్లా రహదారి గ్రామం గుండా పోతున్నాయి. రాష్ట్ర రహదారి గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. జాతీయ రహదారి గ్రామం నుండి 10 కి.మీ.కి పైబడిన దూరంలో ఉంది. గ్రామంలో తారు రోడ్లు, కంకర రోడ్లు ఉన్నాయి. \nగ్రామంలో స్వయం సహాయక బృందం, పౌర సరఫరాల కేంద్రం, వారం వారం సంత ఉన్నాయి. వాణిజ్య బ్యాంకు, వ్యవసాయ పరపతి సంఘం గ్రామం నుండి 5 కి.మీ. లోపు దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. \nఏటీఎమ్, సహకార బ్యాంకు గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. రోజువారీ మార్కెట్, వ్యవసాయ మార్కెటింగ్ సొసైటీ గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. \nగ్రామంలో సమీకృత బాలల అభివృద్ధి పథకం, అంగన్ వాడీ కేంద్రం, ఇతర పోషకాహార కేంద్రాలు, ఆశా కార్యకర్త ఉన్నాయి. గ్రామంలో పబ్లిక్ రీడింగ్ రూం ఉంది. గ్రామంలో వార్తాపత్రిక పంపిణీ జరుగుతుంది. అసెంబ్లీ పోలింగ్ స్టేషన్, జనన మరణాల నమోదు కార్యాలయం ఉన్నాయి. ఆటల మైదానం గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. సినిమా హాలు, గ్రంథాలయం గ్రామం నుండి 5 నుండి 10 కి.మీ. దూరంలో ఉన్నాయి. \nగ్రామంలో గృహావసరాల నిమిత్తం విద్యుత్ సరఫరా వ్యవస్థ ఉంది. రోజుకు 7 గంటల పాటు వ్యవసాయానికి, 18 గంటల పాటు వాణిజ్య అవసరాల కోసం కూడా విద్యుత్ సరఫరా చేస్తున్నారు. \nపెనుమర్రులో భూ వినియోగం కింది విధంగా ఉంది:\nపెనుమర్రులో వ్యవసాయానికి నీటి సరఫరా కింది వనరుల ద్వారా జరుగుతోంది.\nపెనుమర్రులో ఈ కింది వస్తువులు ఉత్పత్తి అవుతున్నాయి.\nవరి, కొబ్బరి, చేపల పెంపకం\nవస్త్రాలు, లేసులు\nఊరిలో గల ముఖ్యమైన దేవాలయాలు -", "పెళ్లకూరు\nపెళ్ళకూరు ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్ రాష్ట్రం, శ్రీ పొట్టి శ్రీరాములు నెల్లూరు జిల్లాలో ఇదే పేరుతో ఉన్న మండలం యొక్క కేంద్రము. ఇది సమీప పట్టణమైన శ్రీకాళహస్తి నుండి 14 కి. మీ. దూరంలో ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 427 ఇళ్లతో, 1640 జనాభాతో 821 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 784, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 856. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 767 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 127. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 592662.పిన్ కోడ్: 524129.\nగ్రామంలో ఒక ప్రైవేటు బాలబడి ఉంది. ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమిక పాఠశాలలు రెండు, ప్రైవేటు ప్రాథమిక పాఠశాల ఒకటి , ప్రభుత్వ ప్రాథమికోన్నత పాఠశాల ఒకటి , ప్రభుత్వ మాధ్యమిక పాఠశాల ఒకటి ఉన్నాయి. సమీప జూనియర్ కళాశాల, ప్రభుత్వ ఆర్ట్స్ / సైన్స్ డిగ్రీ కళాశాల, ఇంజనీరింగ్ కళాశాల శ్రీకాళహస్తిలో ఉన్నాయి. సమీప వైద్య కళాశాల, మేనేజిమెంటు కళాశాల, పాలీటెక్నిక్ తిరుపతిలో ఉన్నాయి. సమీప వృత్తి విద్యా శిక్షణ పాఠశాల, అనియత విద్యా కేంద్రం నాయుడుపేటలోను, దివ్యాంగుల ప్రత్యేక పాఠశాల తిరుపతి లోనూ ఉన్నాయి.", "పెనుమదం\n2001 వ.సంవత్సరం జనాభా లెక్కల ప్రకారం గ్రామ జనాభా 8,860.[1] ఇందులో పురుషుల సంఖ్య 4,550, మహిళల సంఖ్య 4,310, గ్రామంలో నివాస గృహాలు 2,113 ఉన్నాయి. పెనుమదం పశ్చిమ గోదావరి జిల్లా, పోడూరు మండలంలోని గ్రామం. ఇది మండల కేంద్రమైన పోడూరు నుండి 7 కి. మీ. దూరం లోను, సమీప పట్టణమైన పాలకొల్లు నుండి 5 కి. మీ. దూరంలోనూ ఉంది. 2011 భారత జనగణన గణాంకాల ప్రకారం ఈ గ్రామం 2385 ఇళ్లతో, 8746 జనాభాతో 304 హెక్టార్లలో విస్తరించి ఉంది. గ్రామంలో మగవారి సంఖ్య 4475, ఆడవారి సంఖ్య 4271. షెడ్యూల్డ్ కులాల సంఖ్య 3121 కాగా షెడ్యూల్డ్ తెగల సంఖ్య 77. గ్రామం యొక్క జనగణన లొకేషన్ కోడ్ 588708[2].పిన్ కోడ్: 534267.", "పెనుమాక\nఈ గ్రామములో అన్ని మతముల ప్రజలు సోదర భావంతో నివసిస్తున్నరు. ఈ గ్రామములో వినాయకుడి గుడి, ఆంజనేయ స్వామి, దుర్గ, శివాలయము, వేణుగోపాలస్వామి ఆలయము, రెండు రామాలయములు, బ్రహ్మంగారి గుడి, గంగానమ్మ గుడి, నిర్మాణంలో ఉన్న షిర్డి సాయిబాబా గుడి మరియు మసీదులు మరియు మరికొన్ని చర్చిలు ఉన్నాయి. గురు పూర్ణిమను ఘనంగా నిర్వహిస్తారు. రాజా వాసిరెడ్డి వెంకటాద్రినాయుడుగారి కాలంలో ఇక్కడ ఒక శివాలయం నిర్మించారు. [10] శ్రీవైష్ణవ మహా దివ్య క్షేత్రం:- ఈ క్షేత్ర ఆవరణలో, 2014, ఆగస్టు-23, శ్రావణ శనివారం నాడు, శ్రీ కార్యసిద్ధి హనుమాన్ విగ్రహ ప్రతిష్ఠా మహోత్సవాన్ని, శ్రీ వైష్ణవ మహాదివ్యక్షేత్ర సేవా సంఘం ఆధ్వర్యంలో, భక్తిశ్రద్ధలతో, వైభవంగా నిర్వహించారు. ఈ కార్యక్రమానికి భక్తులు, గ్రామస్థులు, పెద్దయెత్తున తరలి వచ్చారు. [9] మంగళగిరి, విజయవాడ, అమరావతి, ఉండవల్లి గుహలు మొదలగు దర్శించ తగిన ప్రదేశాలు ఈ గ్రామమునకు అతి చేరువలో ఉనాయి." ]

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[ "Toiles de Mayenne est une marque déposée et une entreprise française située à Fontaine-Daniel sur la commune de Saint-Georges-Buttavent dans le département de la Mayenne.\n\nHistorique \n\nÀ l'origine, une filature et un atelier de tissage sont créés dans le village en 1806, et se développe sous l'influence de la Famille Denis.\n\nElle emploie en 1812 environ 760 ouvriers filateurs et tisserands à la main, jusqu'à aujourd'hui où l'entreprise compte environ 150 employés exerçant 75 métiers différents.\n\nLa nécessaire adaptation technique est restée la préoccupation de ses dirigeants, ingénieurs diplômés de l'École centrale des arts et manufactures pour la plupart : Gustave Denis, Paul Denis, Jean Denis et Bruno Denis.\n\nEn 1901, l'usine qui ne fabriquait que du tissu écru, se met à teindre le fil pour les chemises et les doublures de vêtements. Lorsqu'en 1911 elle s'oriente vers la teinturerie et les apprêts, elle emploie 350 personnes. L'usine est électrifiée en 1929. Après la Seconde guerre mondiale, un tissage est construit pour le tissu d'ameublement. En 1952, la marque Toiles de Mayenne est déposée. Un service de confection sur mesure et un service de vente par correspondance voient le jour. \n\nL'entreprise est depuis novembre 2018 dirigée par Jérôme Couasnon .\n\n1806 \nthumb|L'abbaye de Fontaine Daniel en 1806\n\nArrivée des pionniers du textile à Fontaine-Daniel\nLe 21 juillet 1806, deux entrepreneurs parisiens, Jean-Pierre Horem et Sophie Aimée Josèphe Lewille, veuve Biarez, font acquisition de l’abbaye cistercienne Notre-Dame de Fontaine-Daniel. La guerre fait rage en Europe et Napoléon Ier proclame à Berlin le blocus continental qui ne constitue pas pour autant un obstacle aux affaires.\n\nL'abbaye de Fontaine-Daniel a plusieurs atouts : ses bâtiments, ses terrains, l'étang qui par son apport en eau constitue une force motrice, et le savoir-faire régional en matière textile (3/4 de la population).\nInstallation d’une première filature et d’un premier tissage\nLa tradition indique que Béatrix de Gavre, épouse de Guy IX de Laval, Comte de Laval, fait venir du Comté de Flandre des ouvriers tisserands qu'elle fixa à Laval. Le titre de sire de Gavre était réservé selon la coutume familiale à l'héritier présomptif du chef de la Maison de Laval. Les ouvriers flamands enseignent le secret du blanchissage. Ce transfert de technologie serait l’origine du développement de la culture du lin et du textile en Mayenne. \n\nL'industrie de la toile de lin est probablement très ancienne, et faussement attribuée à cette tradition.\n\nEn 1806, lorsque Jean-Pierre Horem et la veuve Biarez prennent pied à Fontaine-Daniel, le secteur textile traditionnel est en crise. À la réouverture des fabriques de mouchoirs de Cholet, à la perte des marchés américains et à la disette des capitaux, s’ajoute la concurrence de la Belgique, incorporée à l’Empire français.\n\nC’est ce défi que relèvent les deux associés parisiens. La mise en production de Fontaine-Daniel est rapide. Un bâtiment, le Vieux manège, est construit pour accueillir la filature initiale. Le chenal de l'étang où est installée une roue hydraulique fournit la force motrice, relayée par des chevaux quand le débit est insuffisant.\n\n1814 \nthumb|Ourdissage\nQuarante ouvriers à la filature, 430 au tissage, 450 tisserands à façon et à domicile\nLe succès est freiné par les difficultés d’approvisionnement en coton qui résultent du blocus. Les efforts de Jean-Pierre Horem et de la veuve Biarez sont couronnés d’un succès qui déborde largement le cadre de Fontaine-Daniel puisqu’ils doivent recourir, dans plusieurs communes des arrondissements de Mayenne et de Laval, aux ouvriers à domicile, leur fournissant des métiers à tisser et créant des comptoirs où sont gérés les stocks de matières premières et les pièces finies. La statistique départementale de 1813 relève que l’entreprise emploie 40 ouvriers à la filature, 430 au tissage à Fontaine-Daniel, et 450 hors les murs.\n\nEn Mayenne, seule la manufacture de Fontaine-Daniel s’inscrit avec succès dans l’essor de l’industrie cotonnière, récompensée par la Société d'encouragement pour l'industrie nationale, qui offre des prix pour l’amélioration des procédés et des machines et par le Conservatoire national des arts et métiers, qui forme ses ingénieurs et ses techniciens.\n\nEn janvier 1814, Jean-Pierre Horem épouse Sensitive Armfield, d'origine anglaise, qui a créé en décembre 1813 la société Sensitive Armfield et Cie, filature de laine installée à Vire (Calvados).\n\nEn mai 1814, Jean-Pierre Horem et Sophie Biarez rompent amiablement leur association et cette dernière quitte Fontaine-Daniel.\n\nAu décès de Jean-Pierre Horem en 1828, sans postérité, Sensitive Armfield hérite de l'entreprise et en mène seule la direction.\n\n1832-1938 \nthumb|Vue de l'usine\nInstallation d’une machine à vapeur et d’un tissage mécanique\nSensitive Armfield fait appel à Martin Denis, marchand de vin en gros à Paris qui a épousé sa nièce Élisabeth Armfield en 1830, et à son frère Louis-Charlemagne, pour devenir directeurs, le de l'usine, le second du domaine. Ils rejoindront Fontaine-Daniel en 1832 et seront les premiers de la lignée Denis dans l'entreprise. \n\nLeur arrivée coïncide avec une très importante transformation de Fontaine-Daniel : l’installation d’une machine à vapeur de 20 chevaux, une des rares pompes à feu du département. De l’arrivée de la vapeur s'ensuit l’accroissement de la production de filés, à partir de 1832, créant alors, au niveau du tissage, un goulet d’étranglement, qui ne peut être résorbé que par la mécanisation. Un tissage mécanique est installé en 1838. \n\nVers 1840, l’établissement de Fontaine-Daniel est le plus important de la Mayenne, avec ses broches et ses 500 à 600 ouvriers.\n\nPremière école laïque, libre et obligatoire à Fontaine-Daniel\nEn 1833, Fontaine-Daniel a une école gratuite pour tous les élèves, garçons et filles, dont le maître est payé par la veuve Horem.\n\nLe bâtiment de l’école de Fontaine-Daniel est inauguré le 26 juillet 1835. Martin Denis assigne à l’école des objectifs élevés qui dépassent la simple instruction.\n\nSensitive Armfield et Martin Denis sont des précurseurs dans le département en matière de politique scolaire et sociale. Leur action est en France loin d’être exceptionnelle. Une partie des entrepreneurs pratique, au , le patronage, terme auquel se substituera, dans la deuxième moitié du siècle, celui de paternalisme.\n\n1860 \nUne grève d’une journée à Fontaine-Daniel pour une question de salaire\nEn août 1860, pour faire face à la concurrence anglaise et comprimer les prix, la veuve Horem, qui dirige à nouveau seule l’entreprise avant l’arrivée de Gustave Denis, fils de Martin, décide de réduire d’un dixième le salaire de ses 150 tisserands. \n\nMécontents, ces derniers, qui travaillent à la tâche et gagnent de 22 à 45 francs par quinzaine, selon les postes, décident, le 24 août, de se mettre en grève. C’est l’alarme. Le sous-préfet de Mayenne se rend aussitôt à Fontaine-Daniel, accompagné du procureur impérial et du capitaine de gendarmerie, et joue les médiateurs : . \n\nCette grève, même très brève, est l’indice des difficultés que traverse l’usine. Dans ce contexte de concurrence accrue, la sécession en Amérique des États confédérés en 1860, suivie de la guerre, en 1861, fait l’effet d’un coup de tonnerre. Elle détermine Madame Horem, alors âgée de 68 ans, à passer la main. Aucun mouvement de grève ne sera plus enregistré à Fontaine-Daniel, même en 1900, 1936, et 1968.\n\nGustave Denis, fils de Martin, est un candidat idéal à la succession. Ingénieur de l’École centrale des Arts et Manufactures, il a commencé sa carrière professionnelle à Amilly (Loiret), dans une filature de soie, jusqu'en 1858, date à laquelle il revient à Fontaine-Daniel. \n\nEn juillet 1860, il épouse, à Montmorency, Eugénie Reine Merle d’Aubigné, née à La Nouvelle-Orléans. Son père, Ami Merle d'Aubigné, y est affréteur et consul de Suisse. Il est issu d’une famille de calvinistes français (descendants du poète Agrippa d’Aubigné), réfugiée à Genève. \n\nEn 1862, Gustave Denis rachète avec sa femme l'entreprise textile à Sensitive Armfield et la dirige pendant près de cinquante ans. Il sera également maire de Saint-Georges-Buttavent, président du conseil général de la Mayenne pendant trente ans et sénateur.\n\n1894-1911 \nDe la première teinturerie à la fin de l’activité de filature\nEn 1894, la couleur arrive à l’usine : la première teinturerie est mise sur pied. L’usine est alors entièrement intégrée, mais pendant dix-sept années seulement, jusqu’à l’arrêt de la filature en 1911. C’est une décision essentielle dans l’histoire de l’entreprise de Fontaine-Daniel ; elle inaugure un mouvement de glissement vers l’aval dans la fabrication et la mise en œuvre des produits textiles.\n\n1925-1929 \nthumb|Anciennes chaudières de l'usine\nUn grand chantier pour une nouvelle chaufferie, de même que l’électrification de l’usine permettent notamment le développement des apprêts\nIl faut relever le défi de l’après-guerre et assurer la continuité de la maison. Paul et Georges Denis, fils de Gustave, cherchent les voies et les moyens d’améliorer la productivité et la rentabilité, en installant une nouvelle turbine hydraulique de 150 chevaux. La question de la force motrice est capitale, d’où la construction dirigée par Jean Denis fils de Paul, en 1929, d’une nouvelle chaufferie et l’installation d’une turbine à vapeur. Toute l’usine est électrifiée à partir de cette date. \n\nMais, après 1941, la rareté du charbon oblige à multiplier les sources d’approvisionnement (jusqu’à seize). Divers perfectionnements sont apportés dans la fabrication des tissus. À la fin des années vingt, apparaissent des laineuses qui rendent le tissu duveteux. Les orientations prises à l’aube du , notamment en matière de développement des apprêts et de la teinturerie, se confirment dans l’entre-deux-guerres, sous l’impulsion de Jean Denis. \n\nOn passe de la teinture en fil à la teinture en pièce, en fabriquant à l’usine même des machines à teindre au large, assez rudimentaires, mais qui permettent de teindre du tissu à doublure, en gris, le plus souvent, en noir ou encore en brun.\n\nParallèlement, un programme immobilier de construction de maisons individuelles à Fontaine-Daniel est lancé, il s’étalera jusqu’aux années 1960. Georges Denis, dès avant la Grande Guerre, s’était efforcé d’améliorer l’offre et la qualité des logements à Fontaine-Daniel. \n\nMais le véritable bâtisseur, c’est Jean Denis, centralien comme ses pères, qui lance, à partir de 1925, un programme immobilier. Avec l’aide d’un maçon chef d’une équipe de huit ouvriers, auxquels il faut ajouter deux menuisiers et un charpentier couvreur. Jean a plus que le goût de la construction, il en a la passion. Il aurait aimé – il l’a confié à son chauffeur Rémi Crétois- , être architecte des Monuments de France. Il fait le choix de maisons à deux logements de plain-pied, avec jardin et cuisine, en pierre, dans le style traditionnel de la région, avec un évident souci d’harmonie et d’esthétique. Son fils Bruno, centralien également, perpétuera cette approche pour ce qui furent les dernières maisons construites par l'entreprise. Trois maisons furent construites ensuite à l’initiative de particuliers.\n\n1939-1940 \nthumb|Les jardins du village aujourd'hui\nConstruction de la chapelle Saint-Michel\nLa construction d’une chapelle catholique dédiée à Saint-Michel renforce le pacte entre la Place et l’Abbaye. Pour assister à l’office, les habitants de Fontaine-Daniel n’avaient d’autre choix que d’aller à Saint-Georges-Buttavent ou, plus loin encore, à Mayenne. À l’initiative du curé de Saint-Georges, une pétition est lancée pour la construction d’un lieu de culte.\n\nC’est Jean Denis, protestant, inspiré par les idées esthétiques du philosophe Rudolf Steiner, qui en conçoit les plans et la sobre mais élégante décoration. Doté d’un goût artistique prononcé, il a dessiné au pastel les maquettes de ses lumineux vitraux. Cela lui vaut le surnom de Logeur du Bon Dieu. Les maçons de l’entreprise, notamment le chef d’équipe, Georges Seigneur (dont le fils deviendra le chef du service entretien de l’usine), et Jules Bigot (le père de Colette Bruneau), en posent la première pierre le 26 mai 1938 au bord de l’étang, sur un lopin qui appartient à l’usine. Elle est achevée le 19 novembre 1939 sur un roc (symbole biblique). Les cloches sont financées par les ouvriers qui donnent le fruit d’une journée de travail. Bel exemple d’œcuménisme même si, en mai 1947, après la célébration - dûment autorisée par l’évêque -, du mariage protestant de Corinne, la fille de Jean, un exorciste est dépêché pour chasser les démons de la chapelle.\n\nDéveloppement important des jardins ouvriers pour faire face au contexte de la guerre\nAu début de la Deuxième Guerre mondiale, une nouvelle surface de jardins ouvriers est créée. Ces jardins se situent dans la partie haute du village, entre la salle des fêtes (1966), l’étang et la forêt. Ils sont créés à l’attention des familles pour qu’elles supportent le rationnement mis en place par le régime de Vichy, ils sont pour cette raison surnommés les pétains. \n\nLes surfaces mises à disposition sans loyer sont évaluées en tenant compte du nombre de personnes composant chaque famille. Les cabanons de jardin noirs ont été élevées, à côté des pétains, avec le bois des caisses de bobines de fil de (la bobine) provenant du tissage et que les ouvriers ont pu récupérer. Pour le protéger des intempéries, le bois clair des planchettes était ensuite enduit de goudron.\n\n1945 \nthumb|Toits de l'usine\nPublication d’un livret écrit par Jean Denis, De la constitution d’une vie sociale harmonieuse\n\nC’est durant cette période où l’usine tourne au ralenti – quand elle tourne, car les arrêts de travail sont nombreux -, que Jean Denis fait imprimer à Laval, chez Barnéoud Frères et Cie, en mars 1945, un petit essai d’une trentaine de pages, intitulé De la Constitution d’une vie sociale harmonieuse. Articulé en deux parties, d’abord Les principes puis L’application. Les trois ordres et l’État, ce texte mérite d’être cité. Il traduit chez son auteur des préoccupations qui dépassent celles d’un banal chef d’entreprise. A la Libération, la question de nouvelles institutions pour la France se pose avec acuité. Jean Denis fait des propositions pour la future Constitution. Constatant, comme beaucoup de ses contemporains, que la guerre a détruit un édifice social périmé, il y voit l’occasion de construire un ordre social nouveau, alternative à l’idéologie du communisme conquérant, sorti grandi de la lutte contre le nazisme. Dénonçant le danger du collectivisme, y compris pour le prolétariat, car il assoira la prédominance économique, en rendant le pouvoir politique encore plus solidaire de l’économique et en substituant à un patronat contrôlable, un nouveau patronat incontrôlable et tout-puissant : l’État, Jean Denis cherche une troisième voie, tout en reconnaissant les apports de certaines réformes de 1936, comme les contrats collectifs obligatoires et les congés payés. Pour lui, l’expérience du Front populaire a échoué car elle n’a pas été pensée de façon globale. Il dessine donc une troisième voie, de nature contractuelle, entre le collectivisme, visage de la tyrannie de l’État et, le capitalisme, que sa rapacité condamne à une inexorable destruction. Jean Denis n’est pas partisan d’une liberté absolue en matière économique et il ne réfute pas la nécessité d’une économie dirigée, mais il rappelle que la lutte économique, la concurrence de maison à maison et de pays à pays est une bataille continuelle ; pénible mais indispensable au progrès et du reste inévitable. Adepte, comme Gustave Denis de l’empirisme, il développe une vision de la société dont la résonance est très saint-simonienne : . Dans ce texte, où il décrit sa vision d’un prolétariat heureux, il manifeste également des préoccupations écologiques, qui résonnent avec force soixante ans plus tard et qui traduisent une conception de l’homme pensé dans le cosmos : .\n\n1952 \nthumb|Marque Toiles de Mayenne\nCréation de la marque Toiles de Mayenne pour la vente aux particuliers de tissus d’ameublement\nLes mœurs commerciales des grossistes, qui déplaisent à Jean et Bertrand Denis, les incitent à choisir la voie de la vente par correspondance. Ainsi naît, le 5 septembre 1952, la marque Toiles de Mayenne. Toiles de Mayenne a la particularité d’être cliente et indépendante de la société de tissage, teinturerie et apprêt, B. et J. G. Denis et de ses 302 salariés. La marque est enregistrée à l’Institut national de la propriété industrielle, le 6 septembre 1955. \n\nLa vente directe d’étoffes Toiles de Mayenne se fait au métrage en direction d’une clientèle sachant coudre ou ayant une couturière attitrée, ce qui est très répandu à l’époque. La prudence reste de mise, mais les débuts de Toiles de Mayenne sont prometteurs. Les commandes atteignent rapidement par jour alors que la disposition initiale des services de coupe et d’expédition était prévue pour en traiter . Toiles de Mayenne devient premier client de B. et J.G. Denis et Cie. La fusion entre les deux sociétés est réalisée le 21 février 1967. Nonobstant, la direction alerte en 1954 les responsables politiques sur la menace que ferait courir aux industries textiles la fin du contingentement des importations ; mais le succès des tissus d’ameublement et de leur doublure en « envers blanc » permet de remettre en route dix métiers à grande laize. Cela compense, en partie, la faible demande des tissus de petite laize.\n\nDe nouveaux équipements en machines sont réalisés régulièrement entre 1956 et 1963 : nouveaux ourdissoirs, agrandissement de la teinturerie en fils (nouvelle chaudière, machine à blanchir en pièces, bobineuses), suppression des métiers automatiques à une navette (1963) au profit de douze nouveaux métiers sans navette Diedrich, mais aussi canetières automatiques et sanforiseuse. Ces investissements portent leurs fruits et dynamisent la production.\n\nGrandes activités théâtrales\nDans le même temps, « Madame Paul », la femme de Paul Denis, participe de façon très active à la politique de patronage : distribution de cadeaux de naissance (lits ou vêtements), soins infirmiers et animations variées, notamment au Cercle des filles où l’on joue et où l’on cause. « Madame Paul » est l’âme de la troupe théâtrale de Fontaine-Daniel. Colette et André Bruneau se souviennent de la direction exigeante de la patronne, dont le rêve secret avait été d’être actrice. Elle était particulièrement attentive à la diction et proposait aux ouvriers et employés, adultes ou enfants, les grands textes de la littérature française. De nombreuses pièces classiques seront jouées entre 1940 et 1957. Le ministre de l’Éducation nationale, Yvon Delbos, confère à « Madame Paul », le janvier 1949, les palmes académiques.\n\n1961 \nvignette|Confection.\nCréation de l’atelier de confection, qui deviendra après une quarantaine d’années l’atelier le plus important de l’entreprise, près de cinquante personnes en 2006.\n\nAu début, la production pour l’ameublement consiste à vendre du tissu au métrage. Néanmoins, à partir du printemps 1961, l’entreprise innove en proposant des articles de « blanc ». Draps, torchons, oreillers, traversins occupent en partie le temps de travail de la couturière, Henriette Crier, que Jean Denis a débauchée chez le confectionneur Coulange, à Mayenne. Son mari Raymond travaillait déjà comme tisserand à Fontaine-Daniel. Elle commence seule avec deux machines à coudre. C’est elle aussi, en 1962, qui inaugure la confection sur mesure de rideaux et couvre-lits : elle se forme elle-même en taillant chez elle des patrons pour trouver des solutions aux problèmes posés par les exigences de la clientèle comme les modèles de drapés ou de festons qu’elle n’avait jamais réalisés auparavant. Elle devient responsable d’un atelier qui regroupera trente puis cinquante coupeurs ou couturières.\n\nL'entreprise comptabilise alors les ventes dans un grand livre-journal d' de large sur de haut, avec une colonne par tissu et la comptable assise sur une chaise sur rails. Une semaine est nécessaire pour connaître les chiffres de vente. En 1966, Bruno Denis entreprend d'équiper l'entreprise d'un ordinateur à cartes Bull Gamma 55, avec une mémoire centrale de . Loué à partir de mars 1967, l'ordinateur permet de sortir les chiffres en deux jours.\n\nCette période faste est marquée par une cinquantaine de nouvelles embauches et par la création de nouveaux articles (satin brillant rayé). Succès oblige : Toiles de Mayenne s’installe, en 1967, à l’écart de l’Abbaye, dans un nouveau bâtiment construit à la périphérie du village, en bordure de Bois de Salair. On y adjoint un magasin d’exposition et de vente directe au public.\n\nDésormais l’entreprise marche sur deux jambes, l’habillement et l’ameublement, chacun rythmé par des cycles de trois ou quatre ans d’expansion et de ralentissement.\n\n1968 \nthumb|Le magasin Toiles de Mayenne de Fontaine-Daniel\nOuverture du premier magasin à l’enseigne Toiles de Mayenne\nLa première ouverture de magasin, après Fontaine-Daniel, est réalisée à Montfort-l’Amaury en 1968. C’est une révolution de velours, menée comme les précédentes, avec prudence, pour ne pas porter brutalement atteinte à la chalandise de la vente par correspondance. Cette boutique est rapidement transférée à Versailles et suivie de deux autres implantations à Paris, en 1972, rue Notre-Dame-des-Champs () et rue Lauriston (). \n\nLes implantations ultérieures à Nantes, Saint-Germain-en-Laye et Boulogne sont géographiquement significatives. Elles se font dans des quartiers où . Pour l’habillement, l’échantillonnage pouvait suffire ; pour la décoration et l’ameublement, le magasin a l’avantage de mettre en valeur les étoffes, en grandeur réelle. En 1990, la société possède treize magasins en France. En 1992, une vitrine est ouverte à Laval. En 2006, elle en possède autant, mais la plupart ont déménagé pour être plus visibles.\n\n1997 \nthumb|Rouleaux de tissu\nUne période périlleuse, marquée notamment par la baisse de production des tissus d’habillement dans un contexte de mondialisation accélérée du textile, se termine. Grâce à une nouvelle stratégie commerciale et à la réduction des cotisations sociales induites par la loi Robien, Toiles de Mayenne amorce un nouveau développement sur le secteur du tissu de décoration.\n\nLa conquête de la clientèle est nécessairement au cœur de la stratégie, parce qu’elle est le moteur de la production de l’usine. La vente par correspondance constituait, à ses débuts, une innovation remarquable. Les premiers magasins ont eu pour fonction de présenter les produits en grandeur réelle et de prendre les ordres des clients, dont certains familiers de la VPC. Ces vitrines ont eu à subir, dans les années 1980, la concurrence de grandes chaînes arrivant sur un marché de la décoration en forte croissance. L’atout de Toiles de Mayenne demeure la confection sur mesure des pièces d’ameublement et la diversification de la gamme des produits : tissus mais aussi sièges et objets de décoration. Dans les années 1995-2000, la vente au détail progresse constamment.\n\nLes magasins, les anciens comme les nouveaux s’adressent à des clientèles qui font évoluer la décoration de leurs intérieurs, au cours des différentes étapes de leur existence, dans une société moins figée qu’auparavant.\n\nCes succès commerciaux résultent des efforts d’adaptation aux tendances de la mode et aussi d’un type de relation à la clientèle. Dans les magasins Toiles de Mayenne, il n’y a pas de vendeuses chargées d’écouler de la marchandise mais des conseillères appliquées à décrypter les attentes des clients et à éclairer leur choix.\n\nL’informatique accompagne cette nouvelle dynamique. Depuis 1998, le système informatique, a été, en trois ans, totalement reconfiguré. Outre son utilité dans la gestion comptable et industrielle, il a permis le développement de la télétransmission à partir des points de vente, accélérant la réalisation des commandes. Les commandes de métrage, par exemple, peuvent être expédiées aux clients dès le lendemain, il fallait naguère au moins six jours. \n\nToute l’organisation de l’entreprise est repensée pour servir au mieux les clients. Ateliers et services ont leurs fonctions redéfinies ; ils sont parfois déménagés, exigeant des employés souplesse et adaptation. Nombreux sont les salariés qui acceptent de changer de poste ou de méthodes, contribuant grandement à la marche en avant.\n\n1999 \nthumb|Les immeubles collectifs de Fonaine-Daniel\n Début de la rénovation des appartements dans les immeubles collectifs, grands témoins de la vie ouvrière à Fontaine-Daniel entre 1840 et 1995. \nEn avril 1999 est créée une structure spécifique, la SARL « Fons Danielis », dont l’objectif est de rénover et de recomposer le village et d’éviter, ainsi, l’effritement et la dégradation du patrimoine qu’il représente. Grâce à un capital constitué par certains membres de la famille Denis et par quelques villageois et grâce à des crédits bancaires, « Fons Danielis » rachète à l’entreprise (qui a besoin de finances pour ses magasins), sept immeubles représentant cinquante-cinq appartements et les modernise petit à petit. Cette initiative repose sur un véritable pari : supposer que le charme et le calme du site convaincront des personnes à venir habiter dans des immeubles à la campagne, à une époque où le rêve de tous est de se faire construire ou de racheter une maison individuelle. \n\nAinsi, en ce lieu, le développement du village et celui de l’entreprise continuent d’aller de concert. Initiée par Martin Denis, la construction de logements ouvriers constituait, il y a moins de deux siècles, une démarche progressiste. Les constructions de ses successeurs l’ont pérennisée. Aujourd’hui, « Fons Danielis » en assure le relais. En proposant des appartements modernisés à des personnes venues de tous horizons, attirées par la singularité du lieu, cette initiative permet à Fontaine-Daniel de conserver son harmonie architecturale et naturelle.\n\n2006 \nLe 25 juin 2006, le bicentenaire de la naissance de l’activité textile à Fontaine-Daniel est célébré. Le livre Tissu topique, réalisé avec les Éditions Gallimard, retrace deux siècles d’une aventure humaine, industrielle, sociale et architecturale.\n\n2017 \nEn juin, l'entreprise est en cessation de paiement et l'ouverture d'une procédure en redressement judiciaire est prononcée le 5 juillet.\n\n2018 \nLe 21 juin, le Tribunal de commerce de Laval se prononce, parmi six offres présentées, pour l'offre de continuation de l'entreprise, et tous ses salariés conservent leur emploi.\n\nRéférences\n\nArticles connexes \n Famille Denis\n Fontaine-Daniel\n Histoire du textile en Mayenne\n\nBibliographie \n Collectif, Tissu topique, préface de Régis Debray, Gallimard, 2006.\n\nCatégorie:Entreprise du secteur du textile ayant son siège en France\nCatégorie:Entreprise labellisée au titre du patrimoine vivant dans la Mayenne" ]

[ "Le BDM, Trésors de la bande dessinée est un catalogue de cotations encyclopédique recensant les albums de bande dessinée publiés en français. Créé en 1979 par Michel Béra, Michel Denniet Philippe Mellot, il publié par les éditions de l'Amateur et mis à jour tous les deux ans.\n\nJusqu'à sa vingtième édition, qui recensait albums, il se voulait exhaustif. À partir de la vingt-et-unième édition, le BDM 2017-2018, seuls les albums dont la cote est supérieure à la valeur d'achat, ou les séries comptant un tel album, sont recensés.\n\nConcept \nTrésors de la bande dessinée, désormais connu comme le BDM – de l'acronyme de ses auteurs : Béra, Denni, Mellot – était à l'origine un supplément de la revue Le Collectionneur de Bandes Dessinées. \n\nLe BDM publie des cotes à titre indicatif ; elles sont établies conjointement par les experts de l'UNECO (Union Internationale des Experts en Collections Spécialisées) et des collectionneurs et sont déterminées par l'observation du marché. La réactualisation des cotes, coquilles et oublis est régulièrement mise à jour et consultable sur le site BDzoom.\n\nLe BDM était à l’origine subdivisé en chapitres : « Albums », « La BD publicitaire », « Collection d'auteurs », « Silly Symphonies », « Périodiques », « Revues modernes », « Récits complets », « Petits formats », « Revues d’études », « Répertoire professionnel et adresses utiles », « Bibliographie », etc.\n\nLes publications sont classées par ordre alphabétique de séries ou d'unitaires, soulignés d’un bref commentaire, descriptif ou critique et sa cote éventuelle. Il recense la moindre réédition comme réimpression modifiée. L’intérêt et la complexité des albums de Tintin fait partie d'une section distincte en couleurs.\n\nPrincipaux collaborateurs : Isabelle Morzadec, Dominique Petitfaux, François san Millan, Gilles Ratier, Pierre Dehais et Gilles Fraysse.\n\nLes éditions \n « Les cotes » (CBD HS , 1979)\n (1980)\n (1981-1982)\n (1983-1984)\n (1985-1986)\n (1987-1988)\n (1989-1990)\n (1991-1992)\n (1993-1994)\n (1995-1996)\n (1997-1998)\n (1999-2000)\n (2001-2002)\n (2003-2004) (passage des cotes en euros)\n (2005-2006)\n (2007-2008)\n (2009-2010)\n (2011-2012)\n (2013-2014)\n (2015-2016)\n (2017-2018)\n\nChapitres ponctuels \nLa bande dessinée est un marché en croissance exponentielle, il est impossible de tout recenser sous la forme d’un seul volume, d’autant qu’environ 10.000 nouveaux albums, rééditions ou intégrales paraissent en 2 ans et sont incorporés dans chaque nouvelle édition. Pour cette raison, le BDM se concentre sur les albums et met en lumière, suivant l’actualité ou la demande, tel ou tel chapitre, pour lesquels les auteurs se sont entourés de spécialistes.\n\nédition (1983-1984)\n Les almanachs\n Les grandes collections\n Les fanzines\n\nédition (1985-1986)\n Les quotidiens ayant publié de la BD\n Les nouveaux récits complets\n Les planches originales\n Les fumetti pour adulte.\n\nédition (1987-1988)\n La BD en couverture\n La BD chinoise en langue française\n Le cinéma s'affiche en BD\n Étiquettes de vin et BD\n\nédition (1989-1990)\n Les sérigraphies\n Disques et BD\n Les films fixes\n\nédition (1991-1992)\n La BD chrétienne\n La Bibliophilie\n\nédition (1993-1994)\n Jeux et BD\n Verre et BD\n\nédition (1995-1996)\n Latex et BD\n Les automobiles au 1/ dans le BD, et autres engins mécaniques.\n\nédition (1997-1998)\n Caoutchouc et BD\n Timbres poste, oblitérations et télécartes\n Les véhicules de Michel Aroutcheff\n\nédition (1999-2000)\n Porte-clés et BD\n Les créations Leblon-Delienne\n\nédition (2001-2002)\n Les comix d'expression française\n\nédition (2003-2004)\n Héros et gadgets de Pif-Gadget.\n\nédition (2005-2006)\n Attakus, Leblon-Delienne, Michel Aroutcheff, Fariboles et la BD.\n\nédition (2007-2008)\n Les récits complets\n\nédition (2009-2010)\n Les Pixi\n Les petits formats\n La collection Patte de mouche\n\nédition (2011-2012)\n Pub et BD\n\nédition (2013-2014)\n\nédition (2015-2016)\n Tintin\n\nédition (2017-2018)\n La BD dans les ventes aux enchères\n Disques, Jeux, BD\n\nNotes et références\n\nLiens externes \n \n .\n\nCatégorie:Livre ayant trait à la bande dessinée\nCatégorie:Collection", "La méthode de développement rapide d'applications, dite méthode RAD (acronyme de l'anglais ), est la première méthode de développement de logiciels où le cycle de développement est en rupture fondamentale par rapport à celui des méthodes antérieures dites « en cascade ». Ce nouveau cycle qualifié d'itératif, d'incrémental et d'adaptatif, se retrouvera dans toutes les méthodes dites « agiles » publiées par la suite.\n\nHistorique \n\nLa méthode RAD se base sur les publications de Barry Boehm (modèle en spirale), Tom Gilb (cycle de vie évolutif), Scott Shultz (production en itérations rapides) ainsi que Brian Gallagher et Alex Balchin. La méthode RAD intègre aussi les techniques JRP (joint requirements planning) et JAD (joint application design / development / delivery). Les principes de JAD furent initiés par Dan Gielan, puis formalisés par Chuck Morris d'IBM en 1984 et vulgarisés sous forme de livres en 1989 par, entre autres, J. Wood et D. Silver.\n\nJames Martin formalisa la méthode RAD et la publia en .\n\nL’apport de la méthode RAD fut de formaliser techniquement le premier postulat « agile », à savoir que pour qu'une planification de projet puisse être raisonnablement prédictive, il fallait que certains aspects du pilotage soient fixes et que d’autres soient variables. Il proposa des techniques de priorisation pour gérer les deux principales variantes possibles de ces situations (délais fixe ou budget fixe). \n\nEn France, Jean-Pierre Vickoff à partir de 1994 puis avec le Processus RAD2 publié par le Gartner Group en 1999, ainsi que Jennifer Stapleton en Grande-Bretagne avec DSDM, introduisent des compléments tels que :\n\n la spécialisation des rôles ;\n l’instrumentation des communications ;\n l’organisation des divers types de réunions ;\n le groupe de facilitation et de rapport ;\n les « raccourcis méthodologiques » de modélisation ;\n l’architecture de réalisation (imbrication des itérations) ;\n la formalisation de processus légers de mise en œuvre.\n\nDes informations plus précises sur le RAD et les méthodes actuelles qui en sont dérivées se trouvent dans la version anglophone de Wikipédia.\n\nPrincipes de planification \nLa méthode RAD, après deux courtes phases de formalisation structurée de l'expression des besoins (CADRAGE) et de définition globale de l'architecture technique (DESIGN), inclut dans sa phase principale (CONSTRUCTION) la réalisation, la validation immédiate et les tests d'une application en mode itératif-incrémental-adaptatif. L'objectif de la méthode, qui implique activement l'utilisateur final dans un principe de « validation permanente », est d'obtenir un applicatif en adéquation avec les réels besoins.\n\nLa planification adaptative de la méthode RAD répondait, à l'origine, aux besoins de projets simples. Elle se limitait généralement à jouer sur un des trois côtés du fameux triangle de gestion de projet (qui restaient fixes dans les méthodes cascades), à savoir : durée, coût, périmètre. Le but étant de fixer au moins l'un des trois paramètres en fonction du besoin immédiat de l'utilisateur (valeur ajoutée). Cette planification était qualifiée d'opérationnelle et était modifiable par l'utilisateur en cours de projet. Un niveau supérieur de planification stratégique fut ajouté par la suite par Jean-Pierre Vickoff (processus RAD2 publié par le Gartner Group). La figure suivante en décrit les principes.\n\nStructure de la méthode\n\nLe RAD préconise la formation d'une équipe de développement particulière : le SWAT. Cette équipe est autonome, spécialement formée, concrètement motivée et outillée. Elle se compose essentiellement d'un profil unique de concepteurs-développeurs formés à des spécialités techniques complémentaires. Le rôle de chef de projet, n'est ni prohibé, ni obligatoire. Par contre, les décisions concernant l'organisation du projet sont consensuelles. L'équipe travaille avec les utilisateurs et, généralement avec un animateur, dans une salle dédiée, isolée, spécialement équipée dans le style war room, où les murs sont utilisés pour afficher un « radiateur d'information » (une forme de cockpit de gestion de projet).\n\nSur le plan des principes de mise en opération, la méthode RAD implique :\n\n Un cycle de développement sécurisant et court fondé sur un phasage simple : Cadrage, Design, Construction et l’absolu respect d’une dimension temporelle (90 jours optimum, 120 jours maximum) [Martin 1991] (figure : Le cycle RAD est en fait semi-itératif) ;\n\n Une architecture de communication engageant des groupes de travail de structure et de composition variables selon les besoins des phases et respectant un mode opératoire précis structuré en trois étapes : pré-session, session, post-session [Mucchielli 1987]. ;\n\n Des méthodes, techniques et outils permettant de définir et d’appliquer des choix portant sur quatre natures d'objectifs potentiellement contradictoires : budget, délais, qualité technique, qualité fonctionnelle et visibilité [Vickoff 1999] ;\n\n Une architecture de conception s’appuyant sur les techniques de l'objet et particulièrement sur celles qui permettent une conception «en vue de modifications» [McCarty 1997] ;\n\n Une architecture de réalisation qui impose, pour garantir la qualité technique, des normes minimales, des revues de projet, des jalons zéro-défaut et qui recommande, pour garantir la qualité fonctionnelle, le prototypage actif et les focus de visibilité [McConnell 1996].\n\nDescription globale des phases \n\nLa méthode RAD structure le cycle de vie du projet en 5 phases (dont 3 systématiques) :\n\n L’initialisation prépare l’organisation, puis détermine le périmètre et le plan de communication ;\n Le CADRAGE définit un espace d’objectifs, de solutions et de moyens ;\n Le DESIGN modélise la solution et valide sa cohérence systémique ;\n La CONSTRUCTION réalise en prototypage actif (validation permanente) ;\n La finalisation est réduite à un contrôle final de qualité en site pilote.\n\nInitialisation \n\nPréparation de l’organisation et communication.\n\nCette phase permet de définir le périmètre général du projet, de structurer le travail par thèmes, de sélectionner les acteurs pertinents et d’amorcer une dynamique de projet.\n\nCadrage \nAnalyse et expression des exigences.\n\nLa spécification des exigences est du ressort des utilisateurs. Ils expriment leurs besoins lors d’entretiens de groupe. Il est généralement prévu de 2 à 5 jours de sessions par commission (thème).\n\nDesign \nConception et modélisation.\n\nLes utilisateurs sont également impliqués dans cette étape. Ils participent à l’affinage et à la validation des modèles organisationnels : flux, traitements, données. Ils valident également le premier niveau de prototype présentant l’ergonomie et la cinématique générale de l’application. Il est prévu entre 4 et 8 jours de sessions par commission. Cette phase représente environ 23 % du projet. À partir de la phase de Design, la parallélisation du travail est possible.\n\nConstruction \nRéalisation, prototypage.\n\nDurant cette phase, l’équipe RAD (SWAT) doit construire l’application module par module. L’utilisateur participe toujours activement aux spécifications détaillées et à la validation des prototypes. Plusieurs sessions itératives sont nécessaires. Cette phase représente environ 50 % du projet. À partir de la phase de Construction, à la parallélisation du travail peut s’ajouter la sérialisation.\n\nFinalisation \nRecette et déploiement.\n\nDes recettes partielles ayant été obtenues à l’étape précédente, il s’agit dans cette phase d’officialiser une livraison globale et de transférer le système en exploitation et maintenance. Cette phase représente environ 12 % du projet.\n\nConstruction : Le principe itératif, incrémental et adaptatif\n\nNotes et références\n\nOutils RAD \n\nLa méthode RAD, sans être liée aux outils, recommande l'utilisation de logiciels de développement à interface graphique (CASE), qui permettent d'obtenir rapidement des prototypes. À ce sujet, il ne faut pas confondre la méthode RAD (d'où sont issues les approches Agiles actuelles), car celle-ci recherche la qualité applicative fonctionnelle et technique, avec la dénomination \"d'outils RAD\" (dont la production automatique de code est souvent qualifiée de « sale »).\n\n Outils RAD\n\nVoir aussi\n\nArticles connexes \n Méthode agile\n\nBibliographie française \n\n Piloter les projets informatiques de la nouvelle économie, Jean-Pierre Vickoff, Éditions d'Organisation, 2000. \n Réingenierie du développement : RAD, CMM, UML, Jean-Pierre Vickoff, Gartner Group, 1999 (ASIN : B000WSOH04, 1999, imprimerie IMB).\n Vite fait, bien fait. Le paradigme du futur immédiat, Jean-Pierre Vickoff, QI, 1998. \n RAD, le développement d'applications client-serveur, Jean-Pierre Vickoff, MGI, 1994, puis réédité 12-1996, Macmillan \n Le Développement rapide d’applications, M. Soberman, Hermès, 11-1996.\n RAD une méthode pour développer plus vite, Bernard Leblanc, Jean Hugues, Chantal Morley, 12/1997.\n\nBibliographie anglaise \n\n Rapid Application Development, James Martin, Macmillan, 1991 .\n JAD the Group Session, Approach to system design, C. Englewood, Prentice Hall, 1991.\n Joint Application Design, J. Wood, D. Silver, Édition John Wiley, 1989.\n\nLiens externes \n http://www.rad.fr/ Site historique francophone de la méthode RAD\n Processus RAD2 \n\nCatégorie:Développement logiciel\nCatégorie:Méthode agile", "Le Comité d'études est une structure de réflexion (on dirait aujourd'hui un « laboratoire d'idées » ou ) qui fut créée par la France en février 1917 afin de participer à l'élaboration de ses buts de guerre pendant la Première Guerre mondiale.\n\nIl fut constitué sous l'impulsion d'Aristide Briand, Président du Conseil et Ministre des affaires étrangères, par le député de Paris Charles Benoist et eut comme président l'historien Ernest Lavisse. Le géographe Paul Vidal de la Blache fut son premier vice-président, il fut remplacé à sa mort par Charles Benoist. Au cours de ces deux années et demi d'activité, le Comité d'études remit aux autorités françaises près de soixante mémoires traitant des futures frontières orientales de la France (Alsace, Lorraine, Sarre, Rive gauche du Rhin, Luxembourg), de ses alliés en Europe (Belgique, Tchécoslovaquie, Yougoslavie, Italie, Pologne, Roumanie, Grèce) et du Proche-Orient (Anatolie, Syrie, Arménie). Comme demandé par Briand, l'ensemble des rapports furent réalisés dans l'optique d'une victoire militaire de la France.\n\nDes universitaires, membres du Comité d'études \nAristide Briand donna à Benoist une entière latitude pour recruter les membres du Comité. Il appela à ses côtés des universitaires, parmi les plus éminents professeurs de la Sorbonne, de l'École Normale Supérieure ou du Collège de France.\n\nLes membres en 1917 \n\nSur les seize membres initiaux du Comité d'études, il y a dix historiens :\n\n Alphonse Aulard,\n Ernest Babelon,\n Émile Bourgeois,\n Arthur Chuquet,\n Ernest Denis,\n Camille Jullian,\n Ernest Lavisse,\n Christian Pfister,\n Charles Seignobos,\n Antonin Debidour (qui décéda avant la première séance. Il fut remplacé par Émile Haumant),\n\ntrois géographes : \n Paul Vidal de la Blache,\n Emmanuel de Martonne,\n Lucien Gallois,\n\net un économiste : Christian Schefer.\n\nLe Comité compta également deux autres personnalités, son créateur Charles Benoist, par ailleurs professeur à l'École libre des sciences politiques et un militaire, sans doute imposé par l'état major français, le général Robert Bourgeois, géographe et directeur du Service géographique de l'Armée.\n\nLes membres agrégés en 1918 et 1919\n\nDix-huit nouveaux membres s'agrégèrent au gré des besoins d'expertise spécifique : \n\ndeux économistes :\n Maurice Alfassa,\n Lucien Romier,\n\nsix historiens :\n Philippe Sagnac,\n Charles Diehl,\n Paul Masson,\n Jules-Eugène Pichon,\n ,\n Louis Hautecoeur,\n\ncinq géographes : \n Albert Demangeon,\n Maurice Fallex, \n Augustin Bernard,\n Jean Brunhes,\n Georges Chabot,\n\ncinq linguistes :\n Antoine Meillet,\n Paul Boyer,\n Henri Grappin,\n Paul Verrier,\n Hubert Pernot.\n\nFonctionnement du Comité d'études \nLe Comité d'études choisit ses thèmes d'analyse en fonction de la feuille de route du ministre (travailler sur les frontières françaises et européennes issues d'une guerre victorieuse), des urgences (les frontières de la France furent abordées avant celles des autres États européens), des connaissances et des appétences de chacun de ses membres.\n\nDu fait de la prédominance des historiens, les études de sciences historiques furent les plus nombreuses, suivies par celles de géographie (physique, mais surtout humaine, économique et géopolitique), d'économie et de stratégie. \n\nLes membres du Comité se partagèrent la réalisation des mémoires qui, une fois produits, furent pour la plupart étudiés et discutés lors des séances plénières de travail avant d'être publiés.\n\nPublications \n\nLa publication, réalisée par l'Imprimerie nationale, débuta en 1918 avec un premier tome consacré aux frontières du Nord et du Nord-Est de la France qui fut suivi en 1919 d'un second, consacré aux frontières européennes. La plupart des mémoires furent par ailleurs publiés sous la forme de tiré à part. L'ensemble des épreuves furent tirés à cinq cents exemplaires qui connurent une diffusion confidentielle, fortement restreinte par le Ministère des Affaires étrangères. Chacun des deux tomes fut accompagné d'un atlas grand format ex folio. Quelques mémoires supplémentaires ne furent pas publiés. Ces travaux furent également distribués Outre-Atlantique, et les réflexions du Comité d'études étaient connus notamment par les collègues géographes américains de De Martonne.\n\nUn rôle mineur dans l'élaboration des traités par la France \n\nMalgré l'importance de la tâche accomplie par le Comité d'études, ses travaux et conclusions furent peu reprises par les autorités françaises chargées de la négociation des traités consécutifs à l'armistice du . Parmi les principales raisons on peut noter :\n\n le fait que les positions souvent défendues par le Comité d'études étaient maximalistes au regard des nécessaires compromis que la délégation française à la Conférence de la paix eut à négocier. Concernant les frontières de la France, on peut citer la récupération de l'Alsace et de la Lorraine dans leurs frontières de 1814 (plus favorables que celles du traité de Vienne de 1815), la récupération de la Sarre par une quasi-annexion, l'occupation militaire de l'ensemble de la rive gauche du Rhin et de têtes de pont sur la rive droite, une certaine proximité avec les tenants de l'idée d'annexion du duché du Luxembourg ;\n\n le fait que nombre des membres de ce comité, créé par Briand, était proche de Raymond Poincaré, Président de la République. Cette proximité ne pouvait être vu que d'un mauvais œil par Georges Clemenceau, adversaire politique de ces deux derniers, Président du Conseil depuis la fin de l'année 1917 et qui fut chargé de la négociation du traité de Versailles avec l'Allemagne, du traité de Saint-Germain-en-Laye avec l'Autriche, du traité de Trianon avec la Hongrie et le traité de Neuilly avec la Bulgarie ;\n\n le fait que Clemenceau centralisa autour de lui et de son bras droit André Tardieu la négociation des traités, ce qui laissa peu de place à des structures ou des personnalités extérieures à ce cercle restreint et fermé.\n\nQuelques travaux du Comité d'études servirent toutefois à la délégation française. Dans son ouvrage retraçant l'action de la délégation française au cours de la Conférence de Paris, André Tardieu rendit hommage à Lucien Gallois et à son rapport sur le bassin houiller de la Sarre qui servit, dit-il, de base à l'élaboration des positions de la France. Par ailleurs, plusieurs des membres du Comité furent conviés à participer au comité consultatif de la délégation française qui réunit ces universitaires et des membres du Quai d'Orsay sous la direction d'André Tardieu.\n\nLe secrétariat du Comité d'études \n \nDès sa création, le Comité d'études se dota d'un secrétariat chargé de l'organisation des séances, du recollement des mémoires, de leur correction et de leur publication. Le géographe Emmanuel de Martonne en fut chargé et lui fut adjoint son collègue Albert Demangeon.\nÀ la fin de l'année 1918, André Tardieu profita des services de ce secrétariat afin de permettre à la délégation française de disposer d'une structure capable de répondre rapidement à des demandes d'analyses, de mémoires ou de cartes. Ce secrétariat fut alors installé dans des locaux proches du Quai d'Orsay et doté de moyens matériels et humains. De Martonne fit appel à de jeunes collègues agrégés afin de constituer son équipe : Jules Blache, Louis Hautecoeur, Georges Chabot. Le secrétariat du Comité acquis alors une certaine autonomie propre par rapport au Comité d'études, au plus grand bénéfice de la délégation française, mais aussi de la Conférence de la paix qui put y avoir recours.\n\nParticipation aux commissions de la Conférence de la paix \n\nParallèlement, Emmanuel de Martonne fut chargé par Tardieu de participer aux séances de commissions et de sous-commissions de la Conférence de la paix (commission des affaires roumaines et yougoslaves ainsi que sa sous commissions, commission des affaires polonaises ainsi que sa sous-commission, commissions réunies des affaires tchécoslovaques et des affaires polonaises Comité central des questions territoriales) en tant qu'expert et parfois en tant que représentant français. Dans les deux cas, sa mission était de convaincre du bien-fondé des positions françaises, en tant que géographe, spécialiste des régions concernées.\nSi de Martonne fit partie intégrante du dispositif français, d'autres membres du Comité d'études purent ponctuellement participer en tant qu'experts aux commissions de la Conférence de la paix. Il s'agit d'Ernest Denis et d'Emile Haumant concernant les frontières orientales de la Pologne.\n\nUn Comité occulté \n\nLe Comité d'études disparut longtemps de la mémoire collective, politique et savante du fait du faible usage qui fut fait de ses travaux, du résultat final des frontières, considérées comme mauvaises, mais aussi du fait de la disparition de ses archives propres. Cette activité de géographie appliquée était cependant relativement connue de la communauté des géographes d'Entre-deux-guerres, français (De Martonne n'en faisait pas mystère) comme européens (Cvijic, Romer) et américains (Bowman, Johnson) qui avaient participé à ses travaux ou avaient eu l'occasion d'en lire certains. En 1963, Lawrence Gelfand y fait directement allusion pour le comparer à son équivalent américaine, l’Inquiry. En 1972, Georges Chabot décrit ouvertement son travail au sein du Comité d'Études dans un volume d'hommages à Meynier. Il fut cependant largement redécouvert à partir du début des années 1990 et réellement analysés dans le détail au milieu de cette même décennie. On doit cette mise au jour à des historiens, tel Jacques Bariéty qui aborda la question dans ses séminaires à la Sorbonne et dans plusieurs articles. À cette même période, d'autres historiens travaillent sur ce Comité, tels Taline Ter Minassian et Olivier Buirette. La création, le fonctionnement et le rôle du Comité d'études ont fait l'objet d'une monographie publiée par Olivier Lowczyk, complétée la même année par la thèse de Nicolas Ginsburger, qui en publie les comptes-rendus de séances et l'étudie également à travers de nouvelles sources, notamment américaines. Les comptes-rendus des séances ont été édités en 2015 par la Société de géographie de Paris. Des géographes s'y intéressent également : Yves Lacoste y fait allusion dans son introduction de la réédition de La France de l'Est de Paul Vidal de la Blache, de même que Jean-Louis Tissier et Emmanuelle Boulineau, ou encore Denis Wolff pour l'action spécifique de Demangeon et Gaëlle Hallair pour De Martonne.\n\nPlans des travaux du Comité d'études\n\nLe premier tome, L’Alsace-Lorraine et la frontière du Nord-Est\n\nIntroduction ()\n I. La formation de l’Alsace-Lorraine, par E. Lavisse et Ch. Pfister ()\n\n II. Les variations de la Frontière du Nord et du Nord-Est depuis 1789, par L. Gallois ()\nPremière partie, La frontière d’alsace lorraine ()\n I. La frontière entre l’Alsace et le Palatinat, par C. Pfister ()\n II. La frontière de la Sarre, par P. Vidal de la Blache ()\n III. Le bassin houiller de Sarrebruck, étude économique et politique, par L. Gallois ()\n\nDeuxième Partie, La question du Luxembourg ()\n I. La condition politique du Grand-Duché de Luxembourg, par Babelon ()\n II. Industries métallurgiques du Luxembourg, par L. Gallois ()\n\nTroisième partie, Questions économiques ()\n I. La frontière économique du Nord-Est, par C. Schefer ()\n II. Le fer et la houille, par M. Alfassa ()\n III. les industries textiles par L. Romier ()\n IV. Les mines de potasse de la Haute-Alsace, par L. Gallois ()\n V. Conclusions économiques, par C. Schefer ()\n\nQuatrième partie, Le Rhin fleuve international ()\n I. Neutralité et liberté de navigation du Rhin, étude historique, par E. Bourgeois ()\n II. Conditions physiques et économiques de la navigation rhénane, par E. de Martonne ()\n III. L’utilisation du Rhin comme force motrice, par L. Gallois ()\n\nCinquième Partie, Questions stratégiques ()\n I. La frontière militaire du Nord et du Nord est par R. Bourgeois ()\n II. Le Rhin, frontière militaire, par le général Bourgeois ()\n\nSixième Partie, Les populations rhénanes ()\n I. Les populations rhénanes dans l’Antiquité, par C. Jullian ()\n II. Le sort des pays rhénans depuis les invasions barbares jusqu’à la Révolution, par Ch. Pfister ()\n III. L’esprit public dans les pays rhénans après 1815, par P. Sagnac ()\n IV. L’opinion publique dans les pays rhénans après 1815 par E. Denis ()\n V. La vie publique en Alsace-Lorraine depuis 1871 par le général Bourgeois et Ch. Pfister ()\n\nSéance de clôture ()\n\nLe second tome, Questions européennes \nPremière partie, La Belgique ()\n I. La frontière franco-belge, par L. Gallois ()\n II. La frontière orientale du Royaume de Belgique, par E. Bourgeois ()\n III. Le port d’Anvers, par A. Demangeon ()\n\nDeuxième partie, Le Slesvig ()\n La question du Slesvig, par M. Verrier ()\n\nTroisième partie, La Tchéco-Slovaquie ()\n I. Les frontières de l’État tchéco-slovaque par J.E. Pichon ()\n II. Les Allemands de Bohême et de Moravie, par J.E. Pichon ()\n\nQuatrième partie, Pologne et Russie ()\n I. Les frontières de l’État polonais, par M. Fallex ()\n II. Le recensement en Autriche-Hongrie, par J.E. Pichon ()\n III. La répartition des polonais d’après les élections des Assemblées représentatives (); La Silésie autrichienne et Galice, par J.E. Pichon () ; Pologne prussienne, par L. Eisenmann ()\n IV. La question juive sur le territoire de la Pologne historique, E. Denis. ()\n V. La propriété foncière sur le territoire de la Pologne historique, par H. Grappinp ()\n VI. Le problème de la Galicie orientale, par L. Hautecoeur ()\n VII. La question de Dantzig, par G. Chabot ()\n VIII. Pologne et Lithuanie, par A. Meillet ()\n IX. La nation lettone, par C. Seignobos ()\n X. Le problème ukrainien, par E. Haumant ()\n\nCinquième partie : Question adriatique, Yougo-slavie, Roumanie ()\n I. Les revendications italiennes, par Ch. Benoist ()\n II. La question adriatique au point de vue des Yougo-slaves, par E. Haumant ()\n III. Conditions physiques et économiques, par de Martonne ()\n IV. La question de Macédoine par E. Haumant ()\n V. le port de Salonique, par L. Gallois ()\n VI. Indépendance et limites possibles de l’Albanie, par J. Brunhes ()\n VII. la frontière septentrionale de l’État yougoslave, par E. Haumant ()\n VIII. La question du Banat, par E. de Martonne ()\n IX. La Transylvanie, E. de Martonne ()\n X. La Bessarabie, par E. de Martonne ()\n XI. La Dobroudja, par E. de Martonne ()\n XII. Liberté et neutralité de navigation du Danube, par E. Bourgeois ()\n\nSixième Partie – Turquie d’Europe et d’Asie ()\n I. Constantinople et la question des détroits, par C. Diehl ()\n II. Constantinople et les détroits, leur rôle économique, par P. Masson ()\n III. Formation territoriale d’un État international des détroits, par A. Demangeon ()\n IV. Smyrne et l’hellénisme en Asie Mineure, par P. Masson ()\n V. La question arménienne, par A. Meillet ()\n VI. Les populations de la Syrie, par A. Bernard ()\n\nNotes et références\n\nArticles connexes \n\n Conférence de Paris\n Traité de Versailles\n Traité de Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)\n Traité de Sèvres\n Traité de Trianon\n Traité de Neuilly\n\nCatégorie:1917 en France", "La révolte des chaperons blancs ou révolte des tisserands gantois éclate le à Gand, contre le comte de Flandre Louis de Maele. Elle atteint Bruges et Ypres puis se répand à travers toute la Flandre. Une trêve est signée avec le comte fin mais le conflit reprend en . Philippe van Artevelde prend la tête de la révolte en 1382. Finalement, le roi de France Charles VI écrase la révolte le à la bataille de Roosebeke, lors de laquelle Philippe van Artevelde est tué.\n\nContexte \nAu milieu du , en Flandre, où l'industrie est prodigieusement active, l'organisation de la société est en pleine mutation. En effet, la bourgeoisie est riche, les libertés communales sont délicates, un prolétariat de tisserands devient de plus en plus agité et toutes les classes flamandes supportent avec une impatience croissante le pouvoir féodal et vieilli que l'arrogant comte Louis de Maele personnifie. Gand, Bruges et Ypres sont les cités les plus prospères et les plus ardentes à se délivrer de sa tutelle emprisonnante.\n\nDéjà sous le règne du roi de France Philippe VI, une rébellion communale a failli réussir et faire de la Flandre une république marchande sur le modèle des grandes républiques maritimes de l'Italie. Jacob van Artevelde était le chef de ce soulèvement et seule sa mort, survenue en 1345, a amené une relative accalmie. Mais un nouvel accès fébrile se déclare en Flandre à la fin des années 1370 : une ligue que Louis de Maele a vainement essayé de dissoudre, celle des chaperons blancs, développe des idées subversives et multiplie les occasions de conflit avec le pouvoir seigneurial. Cette agitation flamande se trouve alors en conjonction avec un mouvement qui s'étend à toute l'Occident au cours du mais dont la majeure partie va se jouer en Flandre.\n\nLa révolte\n\nLe début du soulèvement gantois \nUn incident survenu en 1375 est à l'origine de la crise : l'autorisation donnée par le comte aux Brugeois d'ouvrir un canal destiné à relier la Lys au port de Bruges, détournant le trafic de la rivière et ce, au détriment des Gantois. La démocratie gantoise se dresse en armes. Ypres prend alors fait et cause pour les Gantois. Même Bruges, où les tisserands mettent soudainement la main sur le pouvoir en dépossédant le haut négoce et la noblesse bourgeoise, vient se ranger dans leur camp. Ces trois cités flamandes importantes s'unissent contre Louis de Maele. L'armée des métiers se soulève et se met en campagne. De gré ou de force, l'essentiel du comté rallie l'insurrection. \n\nLouis de Maele, pris de court, cède : il confirme toutes les franchises et consent à la constitution d'une commission de 26 membres (9 de Gand, 8 de Bruges et 9 d'Ypres) pour enquêter sur les abus dont le commun se plaint. Le comte pense ainsi gagner du temps et que les rivalités entre les trois villes feront imploser la révolte. Effectivement, le haut lignage reprend le contrôle de la situation à Bruges et le parti des tisserands doit s'incliner. Toutefois, à Gand, le mécontentement persiste et les ouvriers demeurent les maîtres de la ville, rompant avec la politique de conciliation. Entre-temps, le comte marche sur Ypres et la prend. Il fait exiler les meneurs dont Philippe van Artevelde. Puis il part mettre le siège devant Gand, seule à être de taille à tenir le comte en échec. La ville ne se contente pas de se défendre, mais attaque l'armée comtale. Les tensions s'accroissent et la lutte devient atroce, caractérisée notamment par le massacre de prisonniers. Deux fois levé, le blocus de Gand reprend une troisième fois.\n\nL'insurrection de Philippe van Artevelde \nLes Gantois mettent alors à leur tête le brasseur Philippe van Artevelde, qui s'essaie à renouveler les exploits de son père Jacob, le grand tribun du temps de Philippe VI. À la fois orateur et manœuvrier, il galvanise ses partisans. Avec une audace consternante, il marche sur l'armée comtale qui est appuyée des miliciens de Bruges et, grâce à un coup de surprise, remporte une victoire totale et éclatante. Pendant que le comte fuit vers Lille, les chaperons blancs deviennent les maîtres de Bruges et le font bien voir par le massacre de riches marchands hostiles aux ouvriers et le pillage de leurs demeures, rançon immédiate du prolétariat. Le château natal du comte est saccagé. Jamais la démocratie flamande ne s'est alors vue en si belle posture. \n\nDans sa détresse, Louis de Maele ne voit de recours qu'en son suzerain, le roi de France Charles VI, et tente d’appeler la papauté à sa rescousse. Toutes ces menaces accumulées n'effraient pas Philippe van Artevelde. Barrant l'isthme entre la Lys et la mer et coupant les ponts, le commandant des chaperons blancs prétend interdire au souverain et aux seigneurs l'accès du territoire où il plastronne en maître. Artevelde s'autoproclame « régent de Flandre » et utilise à sa table la vaisselle comtale dont il s'est emparé. Par ailleurs, il fonde de grands espoirs sur l'aide de l'Angleterre qui convoite le trône de France et l'héritage de la Bourgogne.\n\nL'intervention du roi de France et la fin de la rébellion \nEn , une compagnie de troupes au service du comte tente une première offensive, mais se trouve encerclée et massacrée. Ce succès met le comble à la confiance d'Artevelde et à l'enthousiasme des chaperons blancs. Le connétable Olivier de Clisson et le maréchal Louis de Sancerre sentent que la partie engagée est grave. Du côté flamand, les troupes sont commandées par le capitaine gantois Pierre Dubois, celui-là même qui a incité Artevelde à prendre la tête de la rébellion, mais celui-ci est blessé dès le début de l'attaque. En novembre, Artevelde attaque Audenarde, ville fidèle au comte pendant que les troupes franco-bourguignonnes visent Ypres. \n\nEnivré par ses victoires, Philippe van Artevelde choisit de prendre les devants en espérant remporter une nouvelle victoire afin que la république des métiers de Flandre soit fondée sur des bases indestructibles. Les deux armées se rencontrent lors de la bataille de Roosebeke, livrée entre Ypres et Courtrai. Deux conceptions radicalement différentes de l'état flamand se font alors face à Roosebeke et le sort de la société du s'y joue, mais Artevelde, qui a négligé de se garder sur les flancs, voit ses troupes entourées et les plus braves ne peuvent que se faire tuer sur place. Parmi les morts figure Artevelde. La Flandre reste ainsi à la merci des vainqueurs.\n\nConséquences \nSeul Gand résiste encore aux pressions accrues de Louis de Maele. Son capitaine, l'intraitable Pierre Dubois, ne veut entendre parler de paix que si la ville est placée sous la suzeraineté directe du roi de France, ce qui ne satisfait pas le comte de Flandre. Par ailleurs, Paris doit supporter le contrecoup de la défaite des chaperons blancs, car les Parisiens et les Flamands ont des intérêts liés. En Flandre, la répression du comte est sanglante, les supplices sont nombreux et la prévôté des marchands est finalement abolie.\n\nL'épopée des chaperons blancs \n\nNous donnons ici l'histoire de ces chaperons blancs parue dans la Revue de Bruxelles :\n\nSources \n Histoire de France, par Henri Martin publié par Furne, 1855\n\nNotes et références\n\nVoir aussi \n\nChaperons blancs\nCatégorie:Rébellion sous l'Ancien Régime\nCatégorie:1382", "En logique, le théorème de Herbrand, publié en 1930 par Jacques Herbrand, établit un lien entre la logique du premier ordre et la logique propositionnelle (qui peut-être vu comme la logique d'ordre zéro). La validité (ou prouvabilité) d’une formule du premier ordre se ramène à la validité (ou prouvabilité) d'un ensemble fini de formules propositionnelles.\n\nAlors qu'il est possible de déterminer algorithmiquement si une formule propositionnelle est démontrable ou pas, on sait — depuis les travaux de Gödel, Tarski, Church, Turing et autres — que la même question pour les formules du premier ordre est indécidable. Le théorème de Herbrand montre qu’elle est cependant semi-décidable : bien qu’il n’existe pas d’algorithme qui détermine si une formule donnée est prouvable ou pas, il existe une procédure qui résout partiellement la question en répondant « oui » si et seulement si la formule donnée est prouvable (pour certaines formules non prouvables, le calcul ne s'arrête pas).\n\nFormules prénexes et formules universelles\nUne formule du calcul des prédicats est prénexe si tous les quantificateurs qu'elle contient se trouvent au début de la formule. Toute formule admet une formule prénexe équivalente. Par exemple, la formule est équivalente successivement à , , et enfin (où , , , , désignent respectivement l'implication, la négation, la disjonction, le quantificateur existentiel et le quantificateur universel, et et sont des prédicats unaires).\n\nUne formule prénexe est universelle si elle ne possède que des quantificateurs universels (symbole ). Il est possible d'associer à une formule quelconque une formule universelle en appliquant une transformation appelée skolémisation. Elle consiste à introduire de nouveaux symboles de fonction pour chaque quantificateur existentiel (symbole ). Par exemple, la forme skolémisée de est . Intuitivement, si pour chaque , il existe tel qu'une propriété soit vérifiée, alors on peut introduire une fonction telle que, pour tout , est vérifiée. On montre que la formule initiale admet un modèle si et seulement si sa forme skolémisée en admet un. Autrement dit, la formule initiale est satisfiable si et seulement si sa forme skolémisée l'est. De même, la formule initiale est insatisfiable si et seulement si sa forme skolémisée l'est, et donc, par complétude, la négation de la formule initiale est prouvable si et seulement si la négation de sa forme skolémisée l'est.\n\nLe théorème de Herbrand\nSoit une formule universelle (ou un ensemble de telles formules), par exemple où est un prédicat, et soit une suite de termes. Considérons les trois propriétés suivantes.\n est cohérente, c’est‐à‐dire qu’on ne peut pas déduire une contradiction de l'hypothèse ; autrement dit, n'est pas prouvable dans un système de déduction du calcul des prédicats — telle la déduction naturelle par exemple —, ce qu'on note .\n est satisfiable, c’est‐à‐dire qu’il existe un modèle dans lequel est vraie, ce qu'on note .\n Pour tout entier , la formule est satisfiable, ce qu’on note où est cette proposition.\n\nLe théorème de complétude de Gödel énonce l'équivalence entre 1) et 2). Par ailleurs, 2) entraîne 3) car tout modèle qui vérifie 2) permet de déduire des modèles qui vérifient 3). Le théorème de Herbrand énonce que, réciproquement, 3) entraîne 2) lorsque les décrivent un domaine particulier, le domaine de Herbrand. On constate que, dans la formulation de 3), les quantificateurs ont disparu dans les formules à satisfaire, et que les formules à prouver sont alors de simples propositions du calcul propositionnel.\n\nDe manière duale, en posant et , on obtient l’équivalence des trois propriétés suivantes.\n est prouvable, c’est‐à‐dire qu’il existe une démonstration de dans un système de déduction du calcul propositionnel, ce qu'on note .\n est valide, c’est‐à‐dire que est vraie dans tout modèle, ce qu'on note .\n Il existe un entier pour lequel est valide, ce qu’on note .\n est alors un théorème.\n\nSi la formule du calcul des prédicats n'est pas satisfiable (c’est‐à‐dire si est un théorème), alors en vérifiant pour , puis , etc., on finira par trouver un entier tel que la formule propositionnelle ne soit pas satisfiable, et réciproquement. \n\nPar contre, si est satisfiable (si n'est pas un théorème), alors pour tout la proposition sera satisfiable et le processus de calcul ne se terminera pas, sauf dans le cas particulier où les termes sont en nombre fini.\n\nCela illustre le fait que l'ensemble des formules non satisfiables et l'ensemble des théorèmes sont récursivement énumérables, mais que le calcul des prédicats n'est pas décidable.\n\nExemples\nLe domaine de Herbrand du modèle est défini au moins par un élément constant (afin d'être non vide) et est constitué de tous les termes que l'on peut former à partir des constantes et des fonctions utilisées dans les formules considérées. On définit un modèle de Herbrand en attribuant la valeur vraie à certains prédicats définis sur ces termes.\n\nExemple 1 : On considère la formule , où est une constante. Le domaine de Herbrand est constitué du singleton . On forme alors la formule qui est fausse, donc est réfutable (sa négation est prouvable).\n\nExemple 2 : On considère la formule . Le domaine de Herbrand est . On forme alors qui est vraie dans un modèle où l'on donne la valeur vraie à , puis on forme qui est vraie dans un modèle où l'on donne la valeur vraie à . Ayant épuisé le domaine de Herbrand, le calcul se termine et est satisfiable dans le modèle précédemment défini.\n\nExemple 3 : On considère la formule . Le domaine de Herbrand est constitué de . On forme alors qui possède un modèle en attribuant la valeur vraie à mais fausse à . Puis, en prenant les deux premiers éléments du domaine et (), on forme qui ne peut posséder de modèle à cause de la conjonction fausse . Donc ne possède pas de modèle. F est réfutable et sa négation est prouvable.\n\nExemple 4 : On considère la formule dont on veut montrer qu'il s'agit d'un théorème. Après avoir renommé les variables et dans la deuxième partie de afin d'éviter d'avoir des variables liées de même nom, on obtient une forme prénexe équivalente à :\n\nLa formule prénexe équivalente à est :\n\ndont la forme skolémisée est :\n\nLa formation des formules en prenant pour le couple puis de en prenant conduit à qui est fausse dans tout modèle. est réfutable et est un théorème.\n\nExemple 5 : On considère la formule . Par un procédé comparable à l'exemple précédent, on obtient pour forme prénexe équivalente à :\n.\nLa formule prénexe équivalente à est :\n\ndont la forme skolémisée est :\n\nElle est satisfiable en donnant la valeur vraie à tout et fausse à tout , où et décrivent le domaine de Herbrand , et en donnant une valeur arbitraire aux autres prédicats. Cependant, le calcul successif des formules correspondantes , … ne se termine pas. est satisfiable et donc n'est pas un théorème, mais la démarche précédente ne permet pas de le montrer par un calcul en un nombre fini d'étapes.\n\nVoir aussi \n Élimination des quantificateurs\n\nHerbrand\nCatégorie:Théorie de la démonstration", "Michel Broué, né en 1946, est un mathématicien français. Militant politique, il s'engage d'abord au sein de l'extrême gauche trotskiste, puis à partir des années 1980, pour quelques années, au Parti socialiste.\n\nBiographie\n\nCarrière \nFils de Simone Charras, institutrice, et de Pierre Broué, historien, il est élevé par ses grands-parents et a passé son enfance à Privas.\n\nAprès une terminale au lycée de Montereau-Fault-Yonne (Seine-et-Marne) et des classes préparatoires au lycée Saint-Louis, il devient en 1966 élève de l'École normale supérieure de Saint-Cloud, d'où il sort en 1970 agrégé de mathématiques et docteur de troisième cycle (thèse sous la direction de Claude Chevalley et partiellement de Jean-Pierre Serre).\n\nChercheur au CNRS de 1970 à 1980, docteur d'État en 1975, il est nommé professeur à l'université Paris 7 en 1980, directeur du service de mathématiques de l'École normale supérieure de jeunes filles (Sèvres) en 1983, puis directeur du département de mathématiques et d'informatique de l'École normale supérieure de la rue d'Ulm en 1986, fonctions qu'il exerce jusqu'en 1993. Il y fonde le magistère de mathématiques pures et appliquées et d'informatique. Parallèlement, il est maître de conférences à l'École polytechnique (1985-1997). Nommé en 1993 membre senior de l'Institut universitaire de France, il rejoint son université d'origine, pour la quitter à nouveau en 1999 comme directeur de l'Institut Henri-Poincaré, , fonctions qu'il exerce jusqu'en . En , il réintègre l'Institut universitaire de France et l'université Paris Diderot.\n\nIl est l'invité de nombreuses universités étrangères : aux États-Unis à l'université de Chicago, à Yale, à Berkeley ( en 2008), à l'université du Minnesota ( en 1999), à l'université de Virginie ; en Australie à l'université de Sydney ; au Royaume-Uni à Cambridge ( de Caius College en 1997, de Churchill College en 2008), à Oxford et l'université de Birmingham ; en Allemagne à l'université d'Heidelberg ; au Danemark à l'université d'Aarhus ; en Chine à l'université de Pékin ; en Suisse à l'ETH Zurich et à l'EPFL.\n\nIl est orateur au Congrès international des mathématiciens à Berkeley en 1986, conférencier de la série « » (Harvard-MIT 2000), titulaire des (Chicago 2003), pour la remise du Prix Abel (Oslo 2008), au (Lancaster 2019). Il est prix de l'Académie des sciences en 1986, docteur honoris causa de l'université de Birmingham et de l'American Mathematical Society. Il est élu en 2014 Honorary Foreign Member de l'American Academy of Arts and Sciences.\n\nInfluencé par les travaux de Claude Chevalley et de Jean-Pierre Serre, il est spécialiste d'algèbre, et plus particulièrement de la théorie des groupes (groupes finis d'abord, puis groupes algébriques, , groupe de tresses) et de leurs représentations, auteur de nombreux articles dans les revues spécialisées, et de très nombreuses communications dans les conférences et séminaires internationaux. Il énonce en 1988 une conjecture qui a depuis stimulé et suscité de nombreuses recherches.\n\nOrganisateur de nombreuses rencontres internationales (MSRI Berkeley 1990 et 2008, Newton Institute Cambridge 1997, Mathematisches Forschungsinstitut Oberwolfach, Centre international de rencontres mathématiques Luminy), il est ou a été éditeur de plusieurs revues scientifiques internationales (Algebra Colloquium, Journal of Group Theory, Journal of Pure and Applied Algebra), et éditeur en chef du Journal of Algebra.\n\nTout au long de sa carrière, il a défendu la coopération scientifique internationale et s'est insurgé par voie de presse contre les entraves qui y sont périodiquement mises. Lors de la mise en place de la , il écrit une lettre ouverte au Premier ministre François Fillon à propos de l'expulsion de France d'un jeune scientifique biélorusse.\n\nIl a publié deux ouvrages consacrés à des cours de niveau Master (Mastère 2), synthèses de cours délivrés à Paris (École normale supérieure) et à Pékin (université de Pékin) : « Some Topics in Algebra », et « On Characters of Finite Groups ».\n\nIl collabore régulièrement à la vulgarisation et à la réflexion publique sur les mathématiques, par divers exposés grands public comme la série Un texte, un mathématicien à la BNF, ou le Festival du Mot), en participant à diverses émissions de radio ou de grand public radiodiffusées en donnant des conférences régulières dans les lycées, en tenant une chronique régulière dans le journal Les Échos (dont il démissionne en )).\n\nIl a eu comme élèves, entre autres, Serge Bouc et Marc Cabanes, tous deux chercheurs au CNRS, le chef d'entreprise David Bessis, les universitaires Raphaël Rouquier (professeur à Oxford, puis à UCLA) et Maria Chlouveraki.\n\nActivités politiques \nParallèlement à ses activités scientifiques, il a eu des activités politiques variées. Il est d'abord membre de l'Organisation communiste internationaliste (OCI) (trotskiste) où il est recruté par Lionel Jospin en 1971.\n\nDurant toutes ces années militantes trotskistes il se consacre essentiellement à la défense des droits de l'homme, une des activités importantes de l'OCI.\n\nDans la continuité du Comité Audin, c'est d'abord, dans le cadre du Comité des Mathématiciens, qu'il a fondé et animé avec Henri Cartan et Laurent Schwartz, dont le succès le plus spectaculaire fut la libération en 1976 du mathématicien ukrainien Léonide Pliouchtch à la suite d'une campagne internationale qui ébranla le lien entre le PCF et la direction soviétique. Le Comité des Mathématiciens a mené de nombreux autres combats et a aussi obtenu la libération de nombreux autres mathématiciens persécutés pour leur opinions politiques (dont Anatoly Shcharansky en URSS, Sion Assidon au Maroc, José Luis Massera en Uruguay).\n\nvignette|Réunion à la Mutualité en défense des prisonniers de la Charte 77. De gauche à droite : Yves Montand, Artur London, Michel Broué\n\nÀ la suite de l'arrestation de deux jeunes Français en Tchécoslovaquie en 1980 et des arrestations massives (dont celle de Václav Havel) opérées en conséquence dans les milieux dissidents, Michel Broué a mené une campagne très active en faveur des membres de la Charte 77 (voir photo ci-contre), en particulier en collaboration avec l'association AIDA fondée et animée par Ariane Mnouchkine. Après la prise du pouvoir en Pologne de Jaruzelski, il a également animé, entre autres en compagnie de Jacques Le Goff et Simone Signoret, des actions de solidarité avec les Polonais emprisonnés ou poursuivis.\n\nIl quitte l'Organisation communiste internationaliste en 1984, soit (contrairement à ce qui est souvent affirmé) deux ans avant les membres du secteur étudiant (mené par Jean-Christophe Cambadélis et Benjamin Stora) qui rejoignent le Parti socialiste en 1986. De 1986 à 1988, il participe activement à Convergences socialistes (scission de militants trotskistes qui ont rejoint le Parti socialiste (PS)) créé par ce groupe durant la même période, et devient membre du Parti socialiste. Dans ce cadre, il anime la mobilisation contre le projet de code de nationalité porté par le Premier ministre Jacques Chirac, dont le point culminant est un meeting qu'il préside dans la grande salle de la Mutualité.\n\nEn 1988, après le score important réalisé par Jean-Marie Le Pen au premier tour de l'élection présidentielle, il lance en compagnie de Jacques Le Goff et Laurent Schwartz un Appel intitulé La bête immonde qui réunit un grand nombre de signatures d'intellectuels. Cette initiative provoque sa rupture avec Convergences socialistes, et son éloignement du PS dont Jean-Christophe Cambadélis devient l'un des dirigeants. Puis en 1990, en compagnie de François Jacob, Jacques Le Goff, Madeleine Rebérioux, Laurent Schwartz, Pierre Vidal-Naquet, il appelle à la mobilisation contre les négationnistes dans l'université.\n\nEn 2001, il a fondé, en compagnie de ses amis le journaliste Edwy Plenel et l'historien Benjamin Stora, le Club Mémoire et Politique, qu'il a présidé jusqu'à sa dissolution en 2005.\nvignette|Réunion publique de Mémoire et Politique. De gauche à droite : Gérard Desportes, Henri Weber, Benjamin Stora, Michel Broué, Daniel Bensaid, Laurent Mauduit\n\nEn 2005, dans Le Monde, il a pris fermement position en faveur d'Edwy Plenel, accusé par Roland Dumas d'être un agent de la CIA lors du procès des écoutes de l'Élysée.\n\nIl a participé activement aux deux campagnes présidentielles menées par Lionel Jospin (1995 et 2002). En opposition constante et ouverte à la personnalité et aux méthodes de Claude Allègre depuis 1988, il a été chargé par Lionel Jospin, dans la campagne de 2002, des secteurs de la recherche et de l'université. Trois jours avant le , il a publié, en collaboration avec le metteur en scène Bernard Murat, un article dans Le Monde intitulé « À nos amis de gauche qui deviennent fous » attirant l'attention sur le danger imminent du vote pour Jean-Marie Le Pen. En 2007, il a mené campagne publique et active pour Ségolène Royal, dans les médias, et en prenant la parole lors du meeting de la candidate au gymnase Japy.\n\nIl a étroitement participé en 2008, en compagnie d'Edwy Plenel, à la fondation du site d'information Mediapart, dont il est le président de la Société des amis. Il tient un blog sur Mediapart.\n\nEn 2012, il signe une tribune intitulée « Pour une nouvelle république » appelant à voter pour le candidat François Hollande. Pendant la campagne présidentielle de 2017, il a vigoureusement pris position pour un vote au second tour en faveur d’Emmanuel Macron, dans un article publié par Mediapart faisant référence à son article de 2002 (« À nos amis de gauche qui deviennent fous, 2 »), et lors d’un interview vidéo.\n\nVie privée et famille \nIl est le père d'Isabelle Broué (née en 1968, cinéaste) et Caroline Broué (née en 1972, journaliste et productrice à France Culture), nées de son union avec Marie-Claude Cidère.\n\nPrix et distinctions \n Conférencier au Congrès international des mathématiciens de Berkeley en 1986.\n Prix de l'Académie des sciences en 1986.\n Élu membre senior de l'Institut universitaire de France en 1993.\n G.C. Stewart Fellow at Caius College, Cambridge (Royaume-Uni) en 1997.\n Conférencier du Summer Institute de lAmerican Mathematical Society en 1997.\n Ordway Professor à l'Université de Minneapolis en 1998.\n Conférencier de la série « Current Developments in Mathematics »(Harvard-MIT) en 2000.\n Conférencier de la série « Albert Lectures » à l'Université de Chicago en 2003.\n Docteur honoris causa de l'université de Birmingham en 2005.\n Chancelor Professor à l'université de Californie à Berkeley en 2008.\n Abel Lecturer à l'université d'Oslo pour la cérémonie de remise du prix Abel à John Griggs Thompson et Jacques Tits en 2008.\n Élu Fellow de la Société américaine de mathématiques en 2012.\n Élu membre honoraire étranger de l'Académie américaine des arts et des sciences en 2014.\n Conférencier plénier au British Mathematical Colloquium en 2019.\n\nNotes et références\n\nLiens externes \n \n \n Page professionnelle sur imj-prg.fr\n\nCatégorie:Mathématicien français du XXe siècle\nCatégorie:Mathématicien français du XXIe siècle\nCatégorie:Agrégé de mathématiques\nCatégorie:Élève du lycée Saint-Louis\nCatégorie:Élève de l'École normale supérieure de Saint-Cloud\nCatégorie:Docteur en mathématiques de l'université Paris-Diderot\nCatégorie:Professeur à l'université Paris VII (Diderot)\nCatégorie:Enseignant à l'École normale supérieure\nCatégorie:Enseignant à l'École polytechnique\nCatégorie:Docteur honoris causa de l'université de Birmingham\nCatégorie:Membre de l'Institut universitaire de France\nCatégorie:Membre de l'Académie américaine des arts et des sciences\nCatégorie:Membre de l'American Mathematical Society\nCatégorie:Naissance en octobre 1946\nCatégorie:Naissance dans le 20e arrondissement de Paris", "Le conseil départemental du Loiret est l'assemblée délibérante du département français du Loiret, collectivité territoriale décentralisée. Par extension et abus de langage, le conseil départemental désigne également la collectivité territoriale elle-même. Son siège se situe à Orléans.\n\nHistoire \n\nLes départements sont créés en 1790 sous la Révolution française. Le nouveau découpage administratif doit permettre à l’État de mettre fin au complexe maillage des diverses circonscriptions locales, d'éradiquer privilèges et franchises et d’exercer un pouvoir cohérent sur l’ensemble du territoire. La liberté de gestion laissée aux conseillers généraux d’alors est faible. D’abord nommés, puis élus au suffrage censitaire en 1833 sous la Monarchie de Juillet, au suffrage universel en 1848 sous la Deuxième République, les conseillers généraux sont des notables dans un département essentiellement agricole. Les présidents sont à nouveau nommés par le pouvoir central de 1852 à 1870 sous le Second Empire.\n\nLa loi du sur les conseils généraux modernise l'institution départementale en lui donnant le cadre institutionnel et les prérogatives qui prévaudront, en définitive, pendant plus d'un siècle jusqu'aux lois de décentralisation. Sept présidents sont élus au poste de président du conseil général sous la République, de Louis Jahan en 1870 à Marcel Donon en 1879.\n\nSous le régime de Vichy (1940-1944), les sessions des conseils généraux et des commissions départementales sont suspendues par la loi du . Les pouvoirs qui leur étaient dévolus sont exercés par le préfet qui est assisté d’une commission administrative composée de sept à neuf membres nommés par arrêtés du ministre secrétaire d’État à l’Intérieur.\n\nSix présidents élus occupent le poste de président du conseil général de 1945 à 1982, sous la tutelle du préfet : Pierre Dézarnaulds (1945-1956), Maurice Charpentier (1956-1958), Pierre Perroy (1958-1961), Claude Lemaitre-Basset (1961-1964), Pierre Pagot (1964-1979) et Kléber Malécot (1979-1995).\n\nLa loi du 2 mars 1982 harmonise les collectivités territoriales entre elles en énonçant dans son article : Cette mesure revêt une importance capitale car, désormais, si les organes délibérants sont élus, les organes exécutifs le sont aussi. Ce n’est plus le Préfet qui met en œuvre les politiques du Département, mais le Président du Conseil général. La collectivité devient pleinement responsable de ses actes, le contrôle du préfet s'exerce désormais a posteriori et non a priori. Le premier élu exerçant la fonction de président après les lois de décentralisation est Kléber Malécot. Éric Doligé lui succède en 1994.\n\nUne nouvelle réforme intervient en 2015. Le nombre de cantons est divisé par deux et le mode d'élection est le suffrage binominal mixte. Chaque canton est représenté par un homme et une femme, dénommés conseillers départementaux, permettant la constitution d'une assemblée départementale respectant exactement la parité hommes-femmes alors que le taux de représentation des femmes était auparavant de 31 % dans le Loiret (13 femmes pour 42 élus). Les compétences sont également redéfinies. Hugues Saury est élu président de cette nouvelle assemblée, désormais dénommée conseil départemental.\n\nOrgane délibérant : le conseil départemental\n\nComposition \nthumb|right|upright=1|Siège du conseil départemental à Orléans.\nChaque collectivité territoriale est dotée d’un organe délibérant et d’un organe exécutif. Le conseil départemental, dénommé « conseil général » antérieurement à 2015, est l'assemblée délibérante du département, élue au suffrage universel direct par les électeurs du département (article L3211-1 du CGCT). La loi du relative à l'élection des conseillers départementaux, des conseillers municipaux et des conseillers communautaires, et modifiant le calendrier électoral s'appliquant à compter des élections de mars 2015 a en effet changé la terminologie « conseil général » en « conseil départemental ». Ses élus, appelés « conseillers départementaux » (« conseillers généraux » avant mars 2015), ont pour mission d'élaborer et de voter les délibérations du conseil départemental qui engagent l'avenir du département dans de nombreux domaines.\n\nDe 1982 à 2015, le conseil général du Loiret comprend 41 conseillers généraux issus des 41 cantons du Loiret. À partir de 2015, l'assemblée départementale est composée de 42 membres issus des 21 nouveaux cantons.\n\nAu sein de l'assemblée départementale, existent des commissions internes : la commission permanente dispose d'un pouvoir de décision dans certaines matières en raison d'une délégation émanant de l'assemblée et les commissions consultatives thématiques dites « commissions intérieures » qui constituent un simple instrument d'information et d'aide à la prise de décision. La commission permanente est un organe délibérant qui statue sur les sujets que l'assemblée locale lui a délégués, réserve faite des compétences ayant trait au budget qui sont exclues du champ de la délégation (article L3211-2 du CGCT).\n\nMandature 2011-2015 \n\nLe président est Éric Doligé (UMP) depuis 1994. Les représentants sont regroupés au sein de trois groupes. Le groupe majoritaire est situé à droite sur l'échiquier politique français, il est composé de 19 membres de l'UMP, de quatre « divers droite », de trois « sans étiquette » et d'un MoDem. Deux groupes marqués à gauche sont situés dans l'opposition. Le groupe que forme les socialistes et les écologistes compte 11 membres tandis que le groupe communiste en compte trois.\n\nL'assemblée départementale élue à l'issue des élections de 2011 se compose de la manière suivante :\n\nLa commission permanente se compose d'un président, de douze vice-présidents et de treize membres. Par délégation du président, les vice-présidents s'occupent plus particulièrement d'un domaine spécifique. Ils mettent en œuvre les décisions prises par l'assemblée départementale et préparent les budgets nécessaires.\n\nCinq commissions, composées chacune d'un président, de plusieurs vice-présidents, d'un secrétaire et de plusieurs membres, sont spécialisées chacune autour des thématiques suivantes : « aménagement du territoire, action économique, transports, affaires scolaires et sportives » ; « environnement et construction » ; « affaires sociales et culturelles et jeunesse » ; « finances et patrimoine » ; « routes et infrastructures ».\n\nMandature 2015-2021\n\nComposition \n\nvignette|upright=1.4|Résultats des élections départementales dans le Loiret.\n\nCommission permanente \n\nPour la mandature 2015-2021, la commission permanente est composée de vingt-six membres, dont dix vice-présidents et d'autres conseillers départementaux, dont la députée Marianne Dubois, élue dans le canton de Pithiviers.\n\nObligatoirement paritaire, on y retrouve treize hommes et treize femmes. Parmi eux, quatre font partie de la gauche : Christophe Chaillou, Vanessa Baudat-Slimani, Michel Breffy et Hélène Lorme. Europe-Écologie-Les verts n'est pas représenté. \n\nLa Majorité départementale compte vingt-deux membres dont quatre élus centristes encartés à l'Union des démocrates et indépendants (UDI) : Marc Gaudet, premier vice-président, Alexandrine Leclerc (), Jean-Pierre Gabelle () et Nathalie Kerrien. L'un des 22 se revendique sans étiquette : Gérard Dupaty.\n\nCommissions intérieures \nSix commissions intérieures sont définies pour la mandature 2015-2021 :\n\nIndemnités du conseiller départemental \nLes conseillers départementaux ont droit à une indemnité dont le montant est encadré par la loi du 27 février 2002 relative à la démocratie de proximité – articles 81 et 99 - et par le décret du 7 juillet 2010. Les indemnités sont fixées par référence au montant du traitement correspondant à l'indice 1015 de la fonction publique et elles sont variables selon la taille du département. Pour le département du Loiret, dont la population est comprise entre et , l'indemnité maximale pour un élu sans fonction spécifique est, depuis le juillet 2010, de 60 % de l'indice 2015, soit 2 . Pour un membre de la Commission permanente, l'indemnité du conseiller est majorée de 10 % (article L.3123-17 du CGCT). Pour un vice-président ayant délégation de l'exécutif du conseil départemental elle est majorée de 40 % (article L.3123-17 du CGCT). Pour le président du onseil départemental, elle correspond à l'IB 1015 majoré de 45 % (article L.3123-17 du CGCT). Si un élu détient plusieurs mandats, le montant mensuel d'indemnité est plafonné à (une fois et demie le montant de l'indemnité parlementaire de base). En cas de dépassement, la différence est reversée à la collectivité concernée par la dernière élection.\n\nOrgane exécutif : le président, les vice-présidents et le bureau\n\nPrésident \n\nEn tant que chef de l'exécutif du département, le président du conseil départemental a des attributions essentielles :\n il prépare, propose et exécute le budget du département. Il ordonnance les dépenses et prescrit l'exécution des recettes (article L 3221-2 du CGCT) ;\n il veille à l'entrée en vigueur des délibérations de l'assemblée départementale en assurant leur publicité ainsi que leur transmission au préfet de département ;\n il gère le domaine du département (article L. 3221-4 du CGCT) ;\n il prépare, négocie et, après « autorisation » du conseil, signe les contrats ;\n il représente le département en justice : avec l'autorisation du conseil général, il intente les actions au nom de la collectivité, et sur avis conforme de la commission permanente, il défend à toute action intentée contre la collectivité (CGCT, article L. 3221-10 du CGCT).\n\nNeuf élus ont occupé le poste de président du conseil général puis départemental de 1945 à ce jour.\n\nVice-présidents \nEn 2015, dix conseillers départementaux ont été désignés vice-présidents : Marc Gaudet (), Viviane Jehannet (), Frédéric Néraud (), Pauline Martin (), Gérard Malbo (), Alexandrine Leclerc (), Christian Bourillon () ; Florence Galzin (), Jean-Pierre Gabelle () et Nadine Quaix ().\n\nCommunication\n\nBulletins d'information\n\nPlusieurs bulletins d'informations édités par le conseil général et destinés à relayer ses prises de décision et la vie du département se sont succédé ou coexistent.\n\nDès le , les rapports, décisions et procès-verbaux des séances du conseil général sont compilés et publiés.\n\nEntre février 1981 et février 1982, trois numéros de « 45, le Loiret : notre département » sont parus.\n\nEn 1982 paraît « Reflets de la vie départementale » présenté comme un bulletin de liaison du conseil général.\n\nDepuis septembre 1983 est édité le « bulletin officiel du département du Loiret ».\n\nLe magazine trimestriel « Reflets du Loiret » a informé le grand-public de 1984 à 2012. En 2012, \"Reflets du loiret\" est devenu \"Loiret mag\". Il comporte 32 pages d'actualités et de courts reportages. La loi du relative à la démocratie de proximité y réserve une page destinée à recueillir les articles des différents groupes politiques représentés au conseil général.\n\n« La Note d'information » est créée en 1991 ainsi que les publications relatant les « Réunions de la Commission permanente ».\n\nDepuis 1996 paraît « Le canard du Général », le journal interne du conseil général du Loiret.\n\n« Décision Loiret », la lettre du conseil général du Loiret paraît depuis février 1997.\n\nIdentité visuelle \n\nLe logotype actuel du conseil général du Loiret s'inspire du blason du Loiret, lui-même dérivé des armoiries du duché d'Orléans. L'ancien logotype du Loiret évoquait par un « L » décomposé en bandes orangées à jaune les différentes régions agricoles (Beauce, Gâtinais, etc.) et verte, les forêts (Sologne, d'Orléans, etc.) du département, reliées par un arc bleu symbolisant la Loire.\n\nNotes et références \n\n Notices bibliographiques sur le catalogue général de la Bibliothèque nationale de France :\n\nVoir aussi\n\nArticles connexes \n Conseil régional du Centre\n Assemblée des départements de France\n\nLien externe\n\nBibliographie \n \n .\n \n .\n \n .\n\nLoiret\nCatégorie:Politique dans le Loiret\nCatégorie:Fondation en 1800", "Lucien Tharradin, né le à Villafans (Haute-Saône) et mort le à Montbéliard (Doubs), est un homme politique français. Il est un des premiers à avoir forgé le socle de la réconciliation franco-allemande après la Seconde Guerre mondiale.\n\nBiographie \n\nLucien Tharradin naît dans une modeste famille comtoise, son père est garde de l'administration des Eaux et Forêts. Devenue veuve, sa mère, ayant une nombreuse famille à élever, occupe un poste de garde-barrière. Brillant élève, le jeune Lucien obtient une bourse qui lui permet de poursuivre ses études secondaires comme interne au collège de Lure. Il est reçu à ses baccalauréats de sciences et mathématiques et souhaite se destiner à l'enseignement.\n\nAu printemps 1924, il effectue son service militaire et intègre le peloton E.O.R de Saint-Cyr. Il est rendu à la vie civile avec le grade de sous-lieutenant. Il est nommé surveillant général du collège Cuvier de Montbéliard, puis en octobre 1938 puis sous-directeur de l’école d’apprentissage Peugeot. Il occupera ce poste jusqu'en 1948.\n\nCapitaine, il est mobilisé le . À la tête d'une compagnie de chasseurs de la division du général de Lattre de Tassigny. Il est fait prisonnier le . Il est incarcéré en Poméranie à l'Oflag II. Il y restera trois ans et sera libéré en , sur une demande des usines Peugeot.\n\nIl rejoint Organisation civile et militaire (OCM), où il reçoit l'ordre de monter un réseau de sabotage au profit de Buckmaster César, réseau anglais qui venait de parachuter de Londres le capitaine Harry Rée. Il entre dans la Résistance. Tharradin organise une zone de parachutage dans la région de Villersexel, d'où sa femme Georgette est originaire, et prend la tête du groupe de résistants qui sabotent les productions des usines Peugeot pour éviter de nouveaux bombardements meurtriers sur Montbéliard et sur Sochaux.\n\nIl est arrêté dans la nuit du . Il est tout d'abord interrogé à la prison de la Butte de Besançon, où il est détenu pendant 75 jours, puis transféré à Compiègne où il restera deux semaines. Enfin déporté à Buchenwald le , il sera libéré le par la 7e Armée américaine.\n\nGaulliste, il est élu maire de Montbéliard le , poste qu'il occupera pendant 10 ans. L’année suivante, le , il devient sénateur du Doubs. Il est réélu maire le et sénateur le . En 1951, il sera vice-président de la commission du travail et sera le rapporteur du projet de loi sur l'extension de la protection sociale au bénéfice des veuves et orphelins de guerre ainsi qu'aux grands invalides de guerre.\n\nAu service de sa ville pendant dix ans, il s'imposera un travail écrasant pour ne pas se laisser gagner par le souvenir des camps. Il entreprendra pour Montbéliard un vaste et ambitieux programme d'aménagement. Pour illustrer ses réalisations on peut citer : le quartier de la Chiffogne, les appartements du Mont-Christ, la construction d’écoles et du lycée Viette, l'agrandissement du lycée Cuvier, la construction du passage sous rails avenue d’Helvétie et la gare routière.\n\nIl est enterré au cimetière d'Athesans-Étroitefontaine.\n\nL'homme des jumelages franco-allemand \n\nPour ne pas laisser aux seuls dirigeants des états la responsabilité d'entretenir des liens entre les peuples, Lucien Tharradin souhaite en 1950 créer des comités de jumelage franco-allemands.\n\nPendant un congrès, qui rassemblait notamment des maires français et allemands à Stuttgart, Lucien Tharradin fit la connaissance du docteur Elmar Doch, bourgmestre de Ludwigsbourg, de l'estime et de la sympathie que se portèrent les deux hommes naquit une idée qui fit de la ville de Montbéliard la première ville française à jeter les bases d'un jumelage franco-allemand avec Ludwigsbourg dans le Bade-Wurtemberg. Officialisé en 1962, un an avant la signature du traité de coopération franco-allemand et cinq ans après le décès de Lucien Tharradin, ce jumelage garde une valeur de symbole.\n\nDistinctions \n\nLe sénateur-maire Lucien Tharradin, lieutenant-colonel de réserve était : chevalier de la Légion d'honneur, croix de guerre 1939-1945 avec étoile d'argent, titulaire de la médaille de la Résistance française, croix du combattant volontaire de la Résistance.\n\nLe roi George VI lui décernera les palmes britanniques.\n\nHommage \n\nUne place de Montbéliard et un pont de Ludwigsbourg portent son nom.\nLudwigsburg et Montbeliard instaurent en le Prix Lucien Tharradin pour valoriser l'engagement citoyen des jeunes pour la paix.\n\nSources \n\n Un ami de Montbéliard, 1958, 70 p.\n L'Est républicain, , p. 3, Xe anniversaire de la mort de Lucien Tharradin sénateur-maire de Montbéliard.\n La Croix, Villes jumelées, piliers de l’amitié franco-allemande, Malo Tresca, .\n\nNotes et références\n\nVoir aussi\n\nArticles connexes \n\n Liste des maires de Montbéliard\n Liste des sénateurs du Doubs\n Montbéliard\n\nLiens externes \n Lucien Tharradin créateur du premier jumelage\n \n Sa fiche sur le site du Sénat\n\nCatégorie:Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur\nCatégorie:Croix du combattant volontaire de la Résistance\nCatégorie:Décès à 53 ans\nCatégorie:Décès à Montbéliard\nCatégorie:Décès en septembre 1957\nCatégorie:Maire du Doubs\nCatégorie:Naissance en Haute-Saône\nCatégorie:Naissance en janvier 1904\nCatégorie:Personnalité du Rassemblement du peuple français\nCatégorie:Sénateur du Doubs\nCatégorie:Titulaire de la croix de guerre 1939-1945\nCatégorie:Titulaire de la médaille de la Résistance", "Julia Cagé, née le à Metz (Moselle), est une économiste française, spécialiste d'économie politique et d'histoire économique. Elle travaille en particulier sur l'économie des médias et le financement de la démocratie.\n\nBiographie\n\nFamille et formation \nAprès des classes préparatoires B/L au lycée Thiers à Marseille, Julia Cagé intègre en 2005, avec sa sœur jumelle, l’École normale supérieure. Elle obtient une licence d'économétrie à l'université Panthéon-Sorbonne en 2006 et un master « Analyse et politique économiques » à l'École d'économie de Paris en 2008.\n\nEn 2014, elle soutient une thèse d'économie à l'université Harvard, s'intitulant « Essays on the Political Economy of Information », sous la direction d'Alberto Alesina, Nathan Nunn et Andrei Shleifer. Elle obtient par la suite à l'EHESS un doctorat d'économie, après avoir soutenu la thèse « Essais en économie politique de l'information et de la taxation » rédigée sous la direction de l'économiste Daniel Cohen.\n\nJulia Cagé a une sœur jumelle, Agathe Cagé, ancienne directrice adjointe du cabinet de Najat Vallaud-Belkacem, secrétaire générale de la campagne présidentielle de Benoît Hamon, fondatrice du think tank Cartes sur tables, et présidente d'un cabinet de conseil.\n\nCarrière universitaire \nDepuis , Julia Cagé est assistant professor d'économie à Sciences Po Paris.\n\nElle est également chercheuse associée au Centre for Economic Policy Research (CEPR) et co-directrice de l'axe « Évaluation de la démocratie » du LIEPP.\n\nEn 2019, elle est nominée au prix du meilleur jeune économiste de France (Le Cercle des économistes - Le Monde).\n\nAutres activités \nJulia Cagé est membre du conseil d'administration de l'Agence France-Presse (AFP) depuis . Elle a également été membre de la Commission économique de la nation.\n\nElle a été chroniqueuse à Alternatives économiques et à France Culture, ainsi qu'à l'émission Le Monde d'après sur France 3.\n\nDébut , Julia Cagé est nommée présidente de la Société des lecteurs du Monde. Elle est la première femme de l'histoire de la SDL à être élue par le conseil d'administration pour occuper la fonction de présidente.\n\nVie privée \nElle est mariée depuis 2014 à l'économiste Thomas Piketty.\n\nPrises de positions \nLors de l'élection présidentielle française de 2012, Julia Cagé signe l'appel des économistes en soutien au candidat François Hollande en raison de « la pertinence des options [proposées], en particulier pour ce qui concerne la reprise de la croissance et de l'emploi ».\n\nEn , dans la perspective de l'élection présidentielle de 2017, Julia Cagé est l'un des onze initiateurs de l'appel « Notre primaire » pour une primaire à gauche.\n\nLe , elle cosigne une tribune de soutien à Benoît Hamon en vue de la primaire citoyenne de 2017, intitulée « pour un revenu universel crédible et audacieux ». \n\nAprès la victoire de Benoît Hamon à la primaire, elle devient responsable du pôle « économie » pour sa campagne présidentielle. Benoît Hamon lui confie une mission sur la mise en place du revenu universel d'existence (RUE). Son estimation est évaluée La Tribune.fr conteste le fondement de ce projet de réforme.\n\nTravaux sur les médias \nAu fil de ses ouvrages, Julia Cagé analyse le financement des médias.\n\nLe Prix de la démocratie \nDans cet ouvrage publié en , Julia Cagé prolonge sa réflexion sur les médias en interrogeant le poids des « intérêts privés » dans le financement de la vie politique et ses conséquences.\n\nSauver les médias \nDans ce livre publié en , et sous-titré Capitalisme, financement participatif et démocratie, elle propose notamment un nouveau modèle pour organiser les médias, la « société de média à but non lucratif » (ou « fondaction »), intermédiaire entre la fondation et la société par actions classique. L'objectif est de permettre un partage et un renouvellement démocratique du pouvoir et des financements. Les lecteurs, journalistes et autres verraient leur apport en capital reconnu par des droits de vote majorés, alors que ceux des plus gros actionnaires seraient minorés. Les médias bénéficieraient ainsi de la réduction fiscale ouverte aux dons, ce qui permettrait, selon Julia Cagé, de remplacer le système souvent opaque et inefficace d'aides à la presse par un soutien . Selon Éric Fottorino, ce modèle peut difficilement fonctionner pour des médias de grande taille, qui ne peuvent pas se passer de gros actionnaires de référence.\n\nCe livre s'appuie notamment sur une analyse de l'évolution historique des médias et de leur mode de gouvernance et de financements en Europe et aux États-Unis depuis le début du , ainsi que sur des travaux précédemment menés sur l'impact d'une concurrence parfois excessive entre supports médiatiques sur l'émiettement des rédactions, en prenant l'exemple de la presse quotidienne régionale en France depuis 1945.\n\nPublications \n 2010 : Microéconomie, Philippe Aghion, Julia Cagé, François Denis... [et al.], Paris, Pearson education \n 2012 : Repenser l'action publique, avec Ismaël Emelien, dir. de la publication, Paris, Fondation Jean-Jaurès \n 2015 : Sauver les médias : capitalisme, financement participatif et démocratie, Paris, Le Seuil, coll. « La République des idées » \n 2017 : L'Information à tout prix, avec Nicolas Hervé et Marie-Luce Viaud, Paris, Institut national de l'audiovisuel\n 2018 : Le Prix de la démocratie, Paris, Fayard\n\nNotes et références\n\nLiens externes \n \n \n .\n\nCatégorie:Économiste français du XXIe siècle\nCatégorie:Femme en économie\nCatégorie:Élève du lycée Thiers\nCatégorie:Élève de l'École normale supérieure\nCatégorie:Étudiant de l'université Paris I Panthéon Sorbonne\nCatégorie:Docteur en économie de l'École des hautes études en sciences sociales\nCatégorie:Docteur en économie de l'université Harvard\nCatégorie:Enseignant à l'Institut d'études politiques de Paris\nCatégorie:Naissance en février 1984\nCatégorie:Naissance à Metz", "Dijon-Auxonne-Dijon est une course cycliste disputée tous les ans au mois d'avril. Elle fait partie du calendrier de la Fédération française de cyclisme en catégorie élite nationale. Comme son nom l'indique, cette course a lieu chaque année entre Dijon et Auxonne. L'édition 2013 était la .\n\nClassique historique et réputée du calendrier national, cette compétition se tient depuis 1899, ce qui en fait la plus ancienne épreuve amateur encore organisée de nos jours en France. De 1940 à 1943, elle est interrompue en raison de la Seconde Guerre mondiale. L'édition 2020 est annulée en raison de la pandémie de Covid-19.\n\nPalmarès \n\n|-\n| 1899 \n| Pierre Nedey\n| Charlot\n| Chautard\n|- \n| 1900\n| Louis Sirugue\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1901 \n| Pommier\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1902\n| Pierre Nedey\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1903\n| Victor Lejeune\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1904\n| Victor Lejeune\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1905\n| Victor Lejeune\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1907\n| Mortellier\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1908\n| Louis Mugnier\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1909\n| Paul Langard\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1910-1920\n| colspan=3; align=center| ?\n|-\n| 1921\n| Arsène Pain\n| \n|\n|-\n| 1922\n| Louis Sansay\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1923\n| Lucien Juy\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1924\n| Édouard Persin\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1925\n| Léon Fichot\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1926\n| Arnoux\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1927\n| Léon Fichot\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1928\n| Gabriel Bompy\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1929\n| Roger Colinet\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1930\n| Georges Germain\n| Maurice Archambaud\n| Jean Colotte\n|-\n| 1931\n| Pierre Carayon\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1932\n| Raymond Bocquet\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1933\n| Raymond Bocquet\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1934\n| Raymond Bocquet\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1935\n| Léon Fichot\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1936\n| Julien Métral\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1937\n| Jean Paulin\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1938\n| Roger Chambrette\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1939\n| Georges Royer\n|\n|\n|-\n| \n| colspan=3; align=center| non disputé en raison de la Seconde Guerre mondiale\n|-\n| 1944\n| Paul Ernest\n|\n|\n|-\n| 1945\n| Pierre Rouget\n| Debief\n| Bonin\n|-\n| 1946\n| Henri Bernard\n| Jacky Gibassier\n| Roger Chambrette\n|-\n| 1947\n| Georges Dautel\n| Robert Auclerc\n| Michel Sanchez\n|-\n| 1948\n| Amelio Lavina\n| Jean Paulin\n| Lucien Charlot\n|-\n| 1949\n| Amelio Lavina\n| Jean Paulin\n| Adolphe Deledda\n|-\n| 1950\n| Henri Chaumet\n| Antonin Pittet\n| Lukaszewski\n|-\n| 1951\n| Georges Dautel\n| Guy Toitot\n| Jacques Parrot\n|-\n| 1952\n| René Navoret\n| René Ostertag\n| Raymond Carteret\n|-\n| 1953\n| René Ostertag\n| Yves Orgelot\n| Christian Carrière\n|-\n| 1954\n| René Navoret\n| Henri Gremeaux\n| Yves Orgelot\n|-\n| 1955\n| Raymond Carteret\n| Georges Dautel\n| Robert Queux\n|-\n| 1956\n| Christian Carrière\n| André Duval\n| Georges Dautel\n|-\n| 1957\n| Lionel Matthieu\n| René Urbain\n| Jean Poinsotte\n|-\n| 1958\n| Henri Guillier\n| René Urbain\n| Yvan Ramella\n|-\n| 1959\n| Jean-Pierre Tréguer\n| Michel Bonnin\n| Guy Toitot\n|-\n| 1960\n| Norman Scheil\n| Henri Guillier\n| Jean-Pierre Tréguer\n|-\n| 1961\n| Yvan Ramella\n| Georges Zellevègre\n| Michel Bonnin\n|-\n| 1962\n| Abel Le Dudal\n| Michel Bon\n| René Spada\n|-\n| 1963\n| Bernard Hergott\n| René Spada\n| Michel Mairet Jean-Louis Raviot\n|-\n| 1964\n| Bernard Sirot\n| Michel Mairet\n| Michel Laurent\n|-\n| 1965\n| René Grelin\n| Louis Nicolas\n| Jean-Pierre Puccianti\n|-\n| 1966\n| Michel Bon\n| René Grelin\n| Jean-Marie Buffet\n|-\n| 1967\n| Michel Mairet\n| Michel Bon\n| André Gollinucci\n|-\n| 1968\n| Michel Mairet\n| Gilles Fedoroff\n| Bernard Darmet\n|-\n| 1969\n| André Gollinucci\n| Michel Mairet\n| Jacques Baudoin\n|-\n| 1970\n| Bernard Janson\n| Jean-Pierre Boulard\n| Robert Fuhrel\n|-\n| 1971\n| Charles Genthon\n| Bernard Janson\n| André Biard\n|-\n| 1972\n| Serge Barle\n| Joseph Vercellini\n| Yves Bottazzi\n|-\n| 1973\n| Roger Pelletier\n| Serge Guillaume\n| Serge Barle\n|-\n| 1974\n| Patrick Busolini\n| Jean-Pierre Mayda\n| Roger Pelletier\n|-\n| 1975\n| Claude Chabanel\n| Pastore\n| Patrick Busolini\n|-\n| 1976\n| Joël Bernard\n| Christian Poissenot\n| Claude Chabanel\n|-\n| 1977\n| Patrice Capurosso\n| Michel Zuccarelli\n| Gérard Colinelli\n|-\n| 1978\n| Vincent Brucci\n| Dominique Rovet\n| Gérard Dessertenne\n|-\n| 1979\n| Claude Chabanel\n| Dominique Celle\n| Daniel Cultru\n|-\n| 1980\n| Alain Noars\n| Étienne Néant\n| Pascal Voisin\n|-\n| 1981\n| Robert Cabot\n| Régis Simon\n| Alain Noars\n|-\n| 1982\n| Malcolm Elliott\n| Richard Skowronski\n| Serge Cogne\n|-\n| 1983\n| William Bonnet\n| Hervé Deguyon\n| Nicolas Sciboz\n|-\n| 1984\n| Serge Farris\n| Franck Grondin\n| Vincent Brucci\n|-\n| 1985\n| Jean-Yves Bulliat\n| Alain Noars\n| Alain Philibert\n|-\n| \n| colspan=3; align=center| annulée en raison de la neige\n|-\n| 1987\n| Philippe Guitard\n| Daniel Guillon\n| Alain Noars\n|-\n| 1988\n| Jérôme Linais\n| John Dalby\n| Jean-Paul Garde\n|-\n| 1989\n| Bruno Promonet\n| Alain Noars\n| Michel Lonchamp\n|-\n| 1990\n| Hans Kindberg\n| Régis Simon\n| Raido Kodanipork\n|-\n| 1991\n| Ludovic Auger\n| Josef Grochala\n| Roul Fahlin\n|-\n| 1992\n| Nicolaj Bo Larsen\n| Ludovic Auger\n| Ian Gilkes\n|-\n| 1993\n| Ian Gilkes\n| Matt Postle\n| Jérôme Delbove\n|-\n| 1994\n| Pascal Giguet\n| Florent Rommel\n| Marc Thévenin\n|-\n| 1995\n| Sylvain Lavergne\n| Jérôme Simon \n| François Protin\n|-\n| 1996\n| Stéphane Bénetière\n| Patrice Bourgon\n| Éric Giletto\n|-\n| 1997\n| László Bodrogi\n| Eddy Lamoureux\n| Christophe Zolli\n|-\n| 1998\n| Stéphane Bénetière\n| François Leclère\n| Jérôme Gannat\n|-\n| 1999\n| Éric Drubay\n| Benoît Farama\n| Romain Fary\n|-\n| 2000\n| Romain Mar\n| Paul Wilkes\n| Julien Tollet\n|-\n| 2001\n| Sébastien Guérard\n| François Leclère\n| Romain Mary\n|-\n| 2002\n| Matthieu Sprick\n| Christophe Gauthier\n| Ludovic Collignon\n|-\n| 2003\n| Jérémie Dérangère\n| Stéphane Auroux\n| Klaus Mutschler\n|-\n| 2004\n| Alexandre Grux\n| Laurent Mangel\n| Martial Locatelli\n|-\n| 2005\n| Julien Guiborel\n| Benoît Geoffroy\n| Jérémie Dérangère\n|-\n| 2006\n| Fabien Bacquet\n| Jérémie Galland\n| François Lamiraud\n|-\n| 2007\n| Alexandr Pliuschin\n| Alexandre Grux\n| Jérémie Dérangère\n|-\n| 2008\n| Jérémie Dérangère\n| Thomas Girard\n| Laurent Bourgeois\n|-\n| 2009\n| Benoît Drujon\n| Morgan Kneisky\n| Jérémie Dérangère\n|-\n| 2010\n| Olivier Grammaire\n| Benoît Drujon\n| Romain Delalot\n|-\n| 2011\n| Émilien Viennet\n| Mathieu Teychenne\n| Mickaël Jeannin\n|-\n| 2012\n| Yannis Yssaad\n| Thomas Bouteille\n| Romain Fondard\n|-\n| 2013\n| Yohan Cauquil\n| Polychrónis Tzortzákis\n| Melvin Rullière\n|-\n| 2014\n| Benoît Drujon\n| Fabian Lienhard\n| Nicolas Lüthi\n|-\n| 2015\n| Julien Tomasi\n| Mathieu Fernandes\n| Mathieu Pellegrin\n|-\n| 2016\n| Jan-André Freuler\n| Matthieu Pellegrin\n| Melvin Rullière\n|-\n| 2017\n| Clément Carisey\n| Simon Guglielmi\n| Camille Chancrin\n|-\n| 2018\n| Aurélien Lionnet\n| Jordan Levasseur\n| Quentin Simon\n|-\n| 2019\n| Eric Voigt\n| Jaakko Hänninen\n| Léo Bouvier\n|-\n| \n| colspan=3; align=center| annulé\n|}\n\nNotes et références\n\nLiens externes \n \n \n\nCatégorie:Compétition cycliste dans la Côte-d'Or\nCatégorie:Compétition fondée en 1899\nCatégorie:Sport à Dijon\nCatégorie:Auxonne", "Édouard Martin, dit Martin de Strasbourg, né à Mulhouse le , mort à Paris le , est un avocat et homme politique français.\n\nBiographie\n\nDu barreau de Strasbourg à la Chambre des députés \n\nFils d'un pharmacien protestant mulhousien, Édouard Martin fit des études de droit à Strasbourg, où il s'installa et où il fut reçu avocat en 1827 et docteur en droit en 1829. De sensibilité libérale puis républicaine après 1830, il prit en 1835 la défense du cercle patriotique de Strasbourg, un club républicain dont il faisait partie, puis, en 1837, il plaida en faveur de M. de Querelles, un des coaccusés du colonel Vaudrey dans l'affaire de Strasbourg. Lors de sa plaidoirie, il n'hésita pas à déclarer : « Nous aussi, nous avons été réduits à nous écrier : système représentatif, système corrupteur ! Nous en cherchons depuis longtemps les causes. Est-ce le peuple qui est corrupteur? Non, la corruption vient d'en haut, la corruption vient du pouvoir lui-même ».\n\nDevenu une personnalité de la gauche alsacienne, il fut élu en 1837 à la Chambre des députés, où il reçut le surnom de « Martin de Strasbourg » afin de le distinguer de ses collègues homonymes (Jean-Louis Martin, député de l'Isère, et, surtout, Nicolas Martin, dit Martin du Nord).\n\nSiégeant parmi l'extrême-gauche aux côtés de François Arago, Jacques Laffitte et Dupont de l'Eure, Martin de Strasbourg prit parti pour la réforme électorale (abaissement du cens et intégration au corps électoral des « capacités », c'est-à-dire des hommes très éduqués mais ne remplissant pas les conditions du suffrage censitaire). Réélu en 1839, il est battu en 1842.\n\nPoursuivant à la Cour de cassation de Paris son activité de magistrat, il plaida de nombreux procès de presse et obtint, avec Crémieux, l'abolition définitive du serment more judaïco (1848).\n\nSous la Deuxième République \nAprès avoir pris part à la campagne des banquets qui précipita la chute de la Monarchie de Juillet, Martin de Strasbourg fit partie, le , des hommes du National qui établirent une liste des membres Gouvernement provisoire, corrigée quelques heures plus tard pour en retirer Odilon Barrot et y inclure les hommes de La Réforme (Ferdinand Flocon, Louis Blanc). Il fut ensuite chargé par le Gouvernement provisoire de présider une commission de réforme de l'organisation judiciaire.\n\nÉlu représentant du Bas-Rhin à l'Assemblée nationale constituante (), il siégea à gauche et vota pour l'abolition de la peine de mort, contre la proposition Rateau et contre l'interdiction des clubs. Le , il fut élu à la commission parlementaire de dix-huit membres chargée de préparer la nouvelle Constitution. Au sein de cette commission présidée par Cormenin, il proposa en vain de faire élire le président de la république par l'Assemblée et d'attribuer au président un droit de dissolution. Or, ce fut l'avis de Tocqueville, favorable à une stricte séparation des pouvoirs, qui l'emporta. Ainsi doté d'une légitimité démocratique équivalente à celle de l'Assemblée mais privé de tout moyen d'action légal à l'encontre de cette dernière, le président ne pouvait que se soumettre au pouvoir législatif ou - ce que Tocqueville et ses collègues n'avaient pas prévu - le renverser par un Coup d'État.\n\nAprès les Journées de Juin, Martin de Strasbourg rallia le général Cavaignac et fit partie de la majorité qui lui confia la direction du gouvernement après l'écrasement de l'émeute. Le , il vota pour l'amendement Grévy qui proposait de faire élire le président de la république par l'Assemblée et non par le peuple. Accusé de trahir le principe du suffrage universel au profit d'un candidat Cavaignac ayant plus de chances auprès de l'Assemblée qu'auprès du peuple, il argumenta son choix en faisant preuve d'une lucidité visionnaire : « Pourquoi ne puis-je pas consentir à la nomination du président par le pays ? Parce que nous n'aurons pas un président comme nous le voulons, mais un roi électif, plus qu'un roi ordinaire. Qu'arrivera-t-il si vous avez deux pouvoirs sortant de la même source, égaux en force ? Croyez-vous qu'il n'y aura pas un conflit, et au bout de ce conflit, la révolution et l'usurpation ? Eh bien ! Pour moi, je crois la chose dangereuse et je la repousse de toutes mes forces ». Cependant, un discours lyrique de Lamartine incita la majorité de ses collègues à repousser l'amendement Grévy.\n\nOpposé à la politique du président Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, il ne fut pas réélu à la Législative en 1849. Hostile au coup d'État du 2 décembre 1851 - qu'il avait prévu dès 1848 - et au rétablissement de l'Empire en 1852, il abandonna sa charge d'avocat au conseil d'État et à la Cour de cassation pour ne pas avoir à prêter serment à Napoléon III. Il termina par conséquent sa carrière comme avocat au barreau de Paris.\n\nNotes et références\n\nVoir aussi\n\nBibliographie \n Jean-Pierre Kintz, « Édouard Martin, dit Martin de Strasbourg », Nouveau dictionnaire de biographie alsacienne, vol. 25, .\n\nLiens externes \n\n \n\nCatégorie:Naissance à Mulhouse\nCatégorie:Député du Bas-Rhin\nCatégorie:Membre de l'Assemblée constituante de 1848\nCatégorie:Député de la Monarchie de Juillet\nCatégorie:Opposant au Second Empire\nCatégorie:Avocat français du XIXe siècle\nCatégorie:Naissance en juin 1801\nCatégorie:Décès en décembre 1858\nCatégorie:Républicain français du XIXe siècle\nCatégorie:Opposant à la Monarchie de Juillet\nCatégorie:Décès à Paris\nCatégorie:Décès à 57 ans", "Julien Anfruns est un dirigeant d'entreprise et haut fonctionnaire français.\n\nFormation et parcours professionnel \n\nDe 2002 à 2005, il est responsable des affaires économiques et financières au ministère de la Culture et de la Communication. En 2005, il est nommé directeur financier et juridique au Musée du Louvre, poste qu'il occupe jusqu'en 2008, où il participe notamment au développement stratégique du Louvre, en France et à l'étranger. \n\nDe 2008 à 2013, il occupe le poste de directeur général du Conseil international des musées. En , durant la Conférence générale de l'ICOM (organisée à l'issue de l’Exposition universelle de 2010 à Shanghai en Chine), il accueille Jacques Chirac et Alpha Oumar Konaré.\n\nEn 2013, il est nommé membre du Conseil d'État en tant que maître des requêtes en service extraordinaire. Il y est membre de la section de l'administration ainsi que de la neuvième sous-section de la section du contentieux. Il est directeur des Affaires publiques, de la communication et membre du comité de direction de Philip Morris France depuis .\n\nEngagements dans l’art et la culture \nDans le domaine culturel, Il contribue à plusieurs groupes de réflexion et de travail, notamment comme membre du Global Agenda Council du World Economic Forum (Davos) sur le rôle de l’art dans la société jusqu’en 2014. Il est aussi membre du comité national français de sélection du Label du Patrimoine Européen et il fait partie de plusieurs conseils d’administration dans le monde de la culture, notamment celui de la Société des amis du Musée Marmottan Monet à Paris ou encore celui de la fondation du Domaine et château de Penthes en Suisse (Genève).\n\nJulien Anfruns a été trustee du Forum européen du musée entre et (). Il participe aussi au rapprochement entre la culture et l’économie par sa participation aux discussions du Forum d'Avignon ou encore en tant que membre du Nouveau Club de Paris, qui soutient l’Économie de la connaissance. Il est également membre de l’Advisory Board de l’EDHEC Business School. Parallèlement, Julien Anfruns a été maître de conférences à l’Institut d’études politiques de Paris de 2002 à 2012.\n\nDe 2009 à 2013, Julien Anfruns est Président du Comité international du Bouclier bleu (ICBS).\n\nPublications et interventions\n\nOuvrages \n Le soft power, un atout exceptionnel pour la France, Le Cercle les Echos, 17/04/2018\n(co-auteur), Histoire d’une passion, Les Musées sont-ils les ambassadeurs de nos sociétés, Les Amis des musées du Luxembourg \nPatrimoine culturel et conflits armés, Encyclopédia Universalis, 2015\n \n Javec Didier Dumont et Dominique Latrilhe, Capital immatériel et Middle Market, DFCG, Deloitte, 2008\n\nInterventions \n Rencontres économiques d'Aix-en-Provence, \"Quelle place pour les entreprises dans la transformation de la société ?\", \n Conférence internationale IC11 sur le capital intellectuel, Paris, 28 et .\n Colloque sur le capital immatériel du New Club of Paris, conférence sur le patrimoine immatériel du patrimoine culturel en France, Montpellier, 5 et .\n\n Forum économique mondial à Davos du 23 au .\n Premier Congrès des Comités du nord de l’Alliance régionale de l’ICOM pour l’Amérique latine et les Caraïbes au Guatemala du 10 au .\n Forum d'Avignon - Culture, économie, média du 15 au .\n Sommet du Forum économique mondial à Dubaï du 12 et .\n Conférence annuelle de NEMO (réseau des organisations muséales européennes) à Dublin du 2 au .\n Séminaire consacré au patrimoine africain de l’espace sub-saharien francophone à Paris le .\n Colloque AVICOM (Comité international pour l’audiovisuel et les nouvelles technologies dans les musées) à Montréal du 9 au .\n Conférence The Best in Heritage à Dubrovnik en Croatie du 27 au .\n Conférence régionale d'ICOMOS-ICAHM en Grèce, à propos de la protection du patrimoine en temps de crise économique (23-)\n Conférence du Comité Droit des arts, des institutions culturelles et du patrimoine de l’IBA (Association internationale du barreau) à propos des nouveaux défis juridiques en matière d’art, au MAXXI (Rome, 17 et ).\n Conférence des musées de l'agriculture au Salon international de l'agriculture à Paris le .\n Conférence de l’Association Nationale des musées irlandais le .\n Participation au jury du concours Musées (em)portables à Paris en .\n Première conférence internationale d’ICBS à Séoul en .\n Conférence annuelle de l’IBA Association internationale du barreau à Dubaï en .\n The Best in Heritage Excellence Club au Salon EXPONATEC COLOGNE de .\n\nRéférences\n\nLiens externes \n \n\nCatégorie:Diplomate français\nCatégorie:Directeur français de musée\nCatégorie:Élève de l'École des hautes études commerciales du Nord\nCatégorie:Date de naissance non renseignée (XXe siècle)", "Jacques Gernet, né à Alger le et mort le à Vannes, est un sinologue français.\n\nSon ouvrage majeur est Le Monde chinois, publié en 1972 puis traduit dans de nombreuses langues. Il est aujourd'hui encore une référence pour qui s'intéresse à l'histoire de la Chine ancienne et moderne, donnant une vision complète et détaillée du néolithique à l'époque contemporaine.\n\nBiographie \nJacques Gernet est le fils de l'helléniste Louis Gernet.\n\nCarrière \nJacques Gernet obtient une licence de lettres classiques à l'université d'Alger en 1942. Ses études sont interrompues par la guerre : il est mobilisé entre 1942 et 1945. Il est ensuite diplômé de chinois à l'École nationale des langues orientales vivantes en 1947 et à l'École pratique des hautes études (EPHE) en 1948. Il a été l'élève de Paul Demiéville. Il devient membre de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient, avant d'être chercheur au CNRS et boursier du Yomiuri Shimbun au Japon.\n\nIl est docteur ès lettres en 1956. De 1955 à 1992, il est directeur d'études à l'EPHE, section, puis à l'École des hautes études en sciences sociales.Il enseigne parallèlement la langue et la civilisation chinoises à la Faculté des lettres de Paris (Sorbonne) en 1957, en tant que maître de conférences, puis accède au titre de professeur en 1959.\n\nEn 1960, il signe le Manifeste des 121, déclaration sur le « droit à l'insoumission » dans le contexte de la guerre d'Algérie.\n\nEn 1968, il fonde l'Unité d'enseignement et de recherche des Langues et civilisations de l'Asie de l'Est (université Paris-VII), qu'il dirige jusqu'en 1973.\n\nEnfin, il entre au Collège de France, titulaire de la chaire d'histoire sociale et intellectuelle de la Chine (1975-1992).\n\nLe , il est élu membre ordinaire de l'Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres. Il est officier de la Légion d'honneur, commandeur de l'Ordre des Palmes académiques.\n\nDistinctions \n\n Prix Giles de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (1957)\n Prix Saintour de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (1970)\n Prix Stanislas Julien de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (1972)\n Prix Broquette-Gonin de l'Académie française (1982)\n\nPublications\n\nOuvrages \n 1949 : Entretiens du maître de dhyâna Chen-houei du Ho-tsö (668-760), Hanoi, EFEO (PEFEO, 31), [réimpr. 1974].\n 1956 : Les Aspects économiques du bouddhisme dans la société chinoise du au , Saigon, EFEO (PEFEO, 39), [réimpr. 1977 ; trad. chinoise, 1987 et 1994 ; anglaise, revue et augmentée, 1995].\n 1959 : La Vie quotidienne en Chine à la veille de l'invasion mongole, Paris, Hachette, [réimpr. 1978, 1990 ; trad. anglaise, 1962 ; rééd. 1977 et années suivantes ; hongroise, 1980 ; chinoise, 1982 ; italienne, 1983 ; japonaise, 1990 ; nouvelle trad. chinoise, 1995].\n 1970 : Catalogue des manuscrits chinois de la Bibliothèque nationale, fonds Pelliot de Touen-houang, vol. 1, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale. Avec Wu Chi-yü.\n 1972 : Le Monde chinois, Paris, A. Colin, [réimpr. 1980, 1990 ; rééd. poche en 3 tomes chez Pocket, 2006 ; trad. italienne, 1978 ; allemande, 1979 ; anglaise, 1982, 1982, 1983, 1985 ; roumaine, 1985 ; coréenne, 1985 ; espagnole, 1991 ; trad. chinoises, 1990 et 1995 ; anglaise, revue et augmentée, 1996; trad. hongroise, 2001].\n 1982 : Chine et christianisme, action et réaction, Paris, Gallimard, [rééd. sous-titrée : La première confrontation, 1991 ; trad. allemande, 1984 ; italienne, 1984 ; anglaise, 1985 ; espagnole, 1989 ; chinoises, 1989 et 1991 ; japonaise, 1996].\n 1991 : Tang Zhen, Écrits d'un sage encore inconnu, Paris, Gallimard.\n 1994 : L'Intelligence de la Chine : le social et le mental, Paris, Gallimard.\n 2005 : La Raison des choses : Essai sur la philosophie de Wang Fuzhi (1619-1692), Paris, Gallimard.\n 2007 : Société et pensée chinoises aux (résumés des cours du Collège de France, 1975-1992), Paris, Fayard/Collège de France.\n\nArticles\n\nRéférences\n\nLiens externes \n \n \n \n\nCatégorie:Naissance en décembre 1921\nCatégorie:Naissance à Alger\nCatégorie:Étudiant de l'université d'Alger\nCatégorie:Élève de l'Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales\nCatégorie:Enseignant à l'École des hautes études en sciences sociales\nCatégorie:Professeur à l'université Paris VII (Diderot)\nCatégorie:Professeur au Collège de France\nCatégorie:Lauréat du prix Broquette-Gonin (littérature)\nCatégorie:Sinologue français\nCatégorie:Historien de la Chine français\nCatégorie:Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres\nCatégorie:Officier de la Légion d'honneur\nCatégorie:Commandeur des Palmes académiques\nCatégorie:Décès à 96 ans\nCatégorie:Décès à Vannes\nCatégorie:Décès en mars 2018", "Charles-Michel-Clément Quillevéré, dit Charles Laurent, est un journaliste et homme politique français né à La Haye le et mort à Fontainebleau le .\n\nBiographie \n\nCharles Laurent est le fils du baryton Pierre-Marie Quillevéré, dit Pierre Laurent, et de l'actrice Marie-Thérèse-Désirée Alliouz-Luguet, dite Marie Laurent.\n\nIl commence sa carrière dans le journalisme à La France, où Émile de Girardin lui confie les fonctions de secrétaire de rédaction. Lors de la crise du 16 mai 1877, il prend une part importante à la campagne de ce journal contre le gouvernement monarchiste du duc de Broglie, ce qui lui vaut, après la victoire des républicains, d'être décoré de l'Ordre national de la Légion d'honneur par décret du . Après la mort de Girardin, Laurent entre en désaccord politique avec la nouvelle direction de La France, où il faisait fonction de rédacteur en chef.\n\nEntre le et le début du mois de , Charles Laurent est le rédacteur en chef du Paris, journal politique quotidien, fondé grâce à l'appui financier des frères Veil-Picard, et dont la ligne éditoriale est favorable à Léon Gambetta et au parti de celui-ci, l'Union républicaine. En 1887, Laurent mène la vive campagne du Paris contre les agissements de Daniel Wilson, gendre du président de la République Jules Grévy.\n\nvignette|Caricature de Charles Laurent par Manuel Luque (1887).\n\nEngagé en politique, Charles Laurent est un républicain gambettiste, ce qui lui vaut d'être qualifié le plus souvent d'opportuniste, même s'il se rapproche des radicaux modérés de la Gauche radicale à la fin des années 1880. En 1888, il se déclare contre le boulangisme et participe à la réunion constitutive de la Société des droits de l'homme et du citoyen.\n\nCandidat à un mandat de conseiller municipal de Paris, il se présente en mai 1884 dans le quartier de Bonne-Nouvelle contre le sortant, le radical « autonomiste » Gustave Mesureur. Celui-ci est cependant réélu dès le premier tour, avec voix, contre à Laurent. L'année suivante, à l'occasion du premier tour des élections législatives de 1885, Laurent, candidat sur la liste opportuniste, obtient voix dans le département de la Seine. Quatre ans plus tard, lors des législatives de 1889, c'est en tant que « radical » (mais gouvernemental) que Laurent se présente aux suffrages des électeurs de la première circonscription du 9e arrondissement de Paris : il obtient voix au premier tour, arrivant en quatrième position derrière le « conservateur » (monarchiste) Georges Berry, l'opportuniste Émile Ferry et le boulangiste Octave Justice. Conformément aux engagements liant les candidats républicains, Laurent se désiste de bonne grâce en faveur de Ferry.\n\nLors des élections municipales d'avril-, Charles Laurent se présente dans le quartier du Faubourg-Montmartre, dont le conseiller sortant est le radical autonomiste Joseph Daumas. Déterminé à « tenir tête » aux radicaux-socialistes anti-gouvernementaux et aux boulangistes, il présente un programme strictement municipal comprenant notamment la protection du petit commerce contre les grands magasins, la reconstruction de l'Opéra-Comique, le prolongement de la rue Milton... Il arrive nettement en tête au premier tour avec voix, devant le boulangiste Louis Caussade (668), le sortant Daumas (590), le conservateur Jehan (496), l'avocat et candidat républicain modéré Aujay (359) ainsi que l'imprimeur et candidat républicain indépendant Thivet-Rapide (276). Entre les deux tours, Daumas se retire. Laurent l'emporte au second tour, avec suffrages, contre 933 à Caussade. Pendant son mandat, il est successivement membre de la puis de la commission du conseil.\n\nLe , quelques mois après son départ du Paris, Laurent lance un nouveau journal, Le Jour, tout en continuant à collaborer au Matin. En 1896, il est accusé de banqueroute simple et condamné à une amende de 25 francs à la suite de la faillite du Jour.\n\nLors des élections municipales d', Laurent est à nouveau en tête dès le premier tour, ayant obtenu voix, contre 832 à Thivet-Rapide, 588 à Jehan, 233 à Aujay, 216 à Bilange et 140 à Baze. Au second tour, Thivet-Rapide bénéficie d'un fort report de voix, qui le place à seulement six voix derrière Laurent, avec voix contre . Cet écart est même réduit à une seule voix après des rectifications prenant en compte de bulletins de vote annulés à tort. Or, on découvre que des employés de la mairie du n'habitant pas dans l'arrondissement ont été inscrits sur les listes électorales avec l'adresse de la mairie. Validée en première instance par le Conseil de préfecture de la Seine, l'élection est finalement annulée par le Conseil d’État le . Laurent quitte alors l'assemblée communale et ne se représente pas à l'élection partielle tenue en , qui aboutit à la victoire du candidat soutenu par son ancien comité, le boulanger Auguste Cornet.\n\nAprès la faillite du Jour, Laurent poursuit sa carrière de journaliste en tant que rédacteur en chef du Matin et du Français.\n\nCharles Laurent meurt à Fontainebleau le 26 . Incinéré, ses cendres sont déposées au columbarium du Père-Lachaise.\n\nRéférences\n\nBibliographie \nGustave Vapereau, Dictionnaire universel des contemporains, édition, Paris, Hachette, 1893, .\n\nLiens externes \nNotice biographique sur medias19.org (consultée le ).\n.\n\nCatégorie:Naissance en août 1849\nCatégorie:Décès en juillet 1928\nCatégorie:Naissance à La Haye\nCatégorie:Décès à Fontainebleau\nCatégorie:Journaliste français du XIXe siècle\nCatégorie:Républicain français du XIXe siècle\nCatégorie:Conseiller municipal de Paris\nCatégorie:Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur\nCatégorie:Personnalité incinérée\nCatégorie:Décès à 78 ans\nCatégorie:Personnalité inhumée au cimetière du Père-Lachaise (division 87)", "Claude Pennetier, né le , est un historien français.\n\nChercheur au CNRS, il est spécialiste de la socio-histoire du militantisme.\n\nBiographie\n\nAscendance, jeunesse \nFils de Marcel Pennetier (1914-1993) instituteur, licencié de philosophie, refondateur du courant syndical enseignant l'École émancipée à la Libération, Claude Pennetier, fut dans un premier temps militant du MRAP puis des comités d'action en 1968, alors qu'il était étudiant en histoire à la Sorbonne.\n\nRecherches \nLa carrière de Claude Pennetier a été consacrée à la recherche historique au sein du CNRS.\n\nAu début des années 1980, il devient l’associé de Jean Maitron à la direction du Dictionnaire biographique du mouvement ouvrier français, œuvre qu’il poursuit depuis le décès du créateur en 1987. Il a dirigé la collection « La Part des Hommes » aux Éditions de l'Atelier, qui Il a été responsable du pôle « Lien militant » et du programme « Prosopographie des militants » au Centre d’histoire sociale du de l'université Paris I.\n\nIl a travaillé sur le socialisme dans les milieux ruraux, sur la banlieue rouge et la sociobiographie du militantisme, notamment avec le politiste Bernard Pudal.\n\nTravaux éditoriaux \nAvec Jean-Pierre Besse, il a publié un ouvrage Juin 40, la négociation secrète et préparé un dictionnaire des fusillés de l'occupation qu'il poursuit, après la mort de celui-ci, avec Thomas Pouty.\n\nLe Dictionnaire biographique du mouvement ouvrier français, devenu Dictionnaire biographique, mouvement ouvrier, mouvement social a publié 71 volumes et productions, dont 53 volumes alphabétiques français. La période 1940-1968 compte 12 volumes. La publication s'est étalée entre 2006 et 2016. À partir du volume 9, Claude Pennetier a associé Paul Boulland à la direction. Parmi les dictionnaires thématiques, il a participé au livre Les anarchistes. Dictionnaire biographique du mouvement libertaire francophone (2014), et au Dictionnaire biographique des militant des industries électriques et gazières de la Libération aux années sous la direction de Paul Boulland.\n\nEngagements \nClaude Pennetier est adhérent de la fondation Copernic et de la Ligue des droits de l'Homme. Il s'est publiquement opposé à la loi de février 2005 défendant « le rôle positif » de la colonisation française.\n\nPublications \n L’histoire collective de Jean Maitron, La République des idées, , .\n Le souffle d', Pourquoi ont-ils cru au communisme ?, avec Bernard Pudal, Editions de l'Atelier, .\n Les Fusillés (1940-1944) : dictionnaire biographique des fusillés et exécutés par condamnation et comme otages et guillotinés en France pendant l'Occupation, codirection avec Jean-Pierre Besse, Thomas Pouty et Delphine Leneveu, Éditions de l'Atelier, 2015, 1952 p.\n Le Sujet communiste, avec Bernard Pudal, Presses universitaires de Rennes, 2014\n Le Mouvement ouvrier au miroir de la biographie. Matériaux pour l’histoire de notre temps, n°104-105, 2012, avec Bruno Groppo et Bernard Pudal\n Juin 40, la négociation secrète, avec Jean-Pierre Besse, Paris, Éditions de l'Atelier, 2006, 208 p.\n André Marty, l’homme, l’affaire, l’archive, avec Paul Boulland et Rossana Vaccaro, Paris, Codos édition, 2005, 189 p.\n Autobiographies, autocritiques, aveux dans le monde communiste, avec Bernard Pudal (sd), Paris, « Socio-histoire », Belin, 2002, 368 p.\n Marges et replis, frontières, cas limites dans la gauche française : l’apport des itinéraires militants, (sd), CHS, 2002, 78 p.\n Le Siècle des communismes, codirection avec Michel Dreyfus, Bruno Groppo, Claudio Ingerflom, Roland Lew, Bernard Pudal et Serge Wolikow, Paris, Éditions de l'Atelier, 2000, 542 p. (réédition de poche : Points Seuil, 2004, 790 p.).\n La Part des militants, avec Michel Dreyfus et Nathalie Viet-Depaule, Paris, Éditions de l'Atelier, 1996.\n Itinéraires orlysiens. Les militants de l’entre-deux-guerres, avec Nathalie Viet-Depaule, Paris, Éditions de l'Atelier, 1994, 139 p.\n L’Internationale des dictionnaires. Matériaux pour l’histoire de notre temps, , 1994, avec Michel Dreyfus et Nathalie Viet-Depaule\n Le Socialisme dans le Cher, 1851-1921, La Charité/Paris, Éditions Delayance/Maison des sciences de l'homme, 1982, 306 p.\n\nNotes\n\nVoir aussi\n\nArticle connexe \nDictionnaire biographique du mouvement ouvrier français\n\nLiens externes \n \n Le site du Centre d'histoire sociale du \n Le Maitron en ligne\n Hommage au Maitron, cet Atlantide de l'espérance\n\nCatégorie:Chercheur au CNRS\nCatégorie:Historien français du XXe siècle\nCatégorie:Historien du mouvement ouvrier\nCatégorie:Naissance en novembre 1947\nCatégorie:Lieu de naissance inconnu\nCatégorie:Historien de l'anarchisme", "L'histoire des idées est un domaine de recherche en histoire qui traite de l'expression, de la préservation et du changement des idées humaines au fil du temps. L'histoire des idées appartient à l'ensemble des disciplines historico-culturelles qui étudient les évolutions théoriques et métathéoriques des doctrines et des paradigmes, à l'intérieur ou au travers des différents secteurs épistémologiques ou culturels. C'est une discipline qui se rapproche de l'histoire intellectuelle. Elle se différencie de l'histoire des concepts en ce que cette dernière n'entend pas être séparée de l'histoire sociale, sur laquelle elle prend appui. Un historien des idées entend examiner l'influence des idées sur la vie contemporaine ainsi que sur le développement culturel et sociétal, et inversement, comment les flux sociaux, économiques, politiques, technologiques et religieux ont influencé l'émergence, la conception et le développement d'une idée. \n\nLes théoriciens les plus connus sont Arthur Lovejoy, Karl Mannheim, Quentin Skinner et Michel Foucault.\n\nDéfinition problématique\n\nDénomination \nLa recherche en histoire des idées, qui peut impliquer d'autres disciplines (histoire de la philosophie, histoire des sciences, histoire de la littérature...), tient une place connue et légitime dans les académies anglo-américaines et germaniques, depuis que le Suédois Johan Nordström a été nommé professeur dans cette nouvelle discipline, à l'Université d'Uppsala le . Aujourd'hui, plusieurs universités à travers le monde proposent des cours dans ce domaine, généralement dans le cadre du bachelier. Dans les milieux francophones, et de langue romane en général, l'histoire des idées a tendance à être subordonnée ou assimilée à l'histoire intellectuelle, et cela même si certains chercheurs s'en revendiquent, en particulier les historiens des idées politiques. De ce fait, la discipline occupe une place moins importante dans l'historiographie francophone actuelle. L’histoire des idées est ainsi en proie à de fortes variations nationales au point de vue du vocabulaire. History of Ideas, Storia della filosofia, Storia intellectuale, Geistgeschichte, et les variantes francophones, complémentaires ou non, histoire des idées, histoire de la culture, histoire intellectuelle, soulèvent de multiples interrogations quant au fond et aux applications de l’histoire des idées. Mais s'il n'y a jamais eu de reconnaissance académique de cette discipline sous l'appellation unitaire \"d'histoire des idées\", il y'a un débat permanent sur la capacité historienne à prendre en charge ces systèmes de pensées. En outre, quand un historien français faisait de l'histoire sociale, un historien britannique devait faire de l'histoire des idées à partir de travaux de l'élite savante locale. Cette opposition correspond à deux causes majeures : les divergences géographiques et les différentes appréhensions nationales de l'histoire. L'histoire des idées restitue des contextes nationaux de formations, de choix indépendants, d'héritages, de ruptures, d'inventions, que les différentes approches disciplinaires ont organisés selon leur méthodologie propre.\n\nHistoire des idées et histoire intellectuelle \nL'histoire intellectuelle et l'histoire des idées entretiennent des liens étroits. L'histoire intellectuelle a pour objectif d'étudier les penseurs et leurs idées. Il est question de saisir l'enjeu des idées et de les replacer dans le contexte historique, intellectuel et personnel des penseurs de l'époque. Cette conception de l'histoire intellectuelle implique l'existence d'une élite pensante qui fait l'objet d'analyses et de critiques de la part des destinataires. Néanmoins cette histoire élitaire ne peut englober les idées d'une société complète et hétéroclite, qui ne peut être réduite aux idées de ses intellectuels. Dès lors, l'histoire des idées vise à une perspective plus globale. Née dans Allemagne du XXème siècle, cette conception de l'histoire est davantage orientée philosophiquement qu'intellectuellement et s'inscrit dans le concept positiviste de l'époque. \n\nToutefois, si les milieux anglo-saxons leur ont a chacune octroyé leur indépendance, il n'en va pas de même pour la France et les pays francophones, où ces deux types d'histoire restent encore aujourd'hui assimilées l'une à l'autre.\n\nDes origines à l'historiographie contemporaine\n\nLes premiers pas \nLes termes « histoire des idées » sont employés pour la première fois par Giambattista Vico, au . Cet auteur pensait que les idées n’appartiennent pas seulement au domaine des spéculations philosophiques ou des analyses psychologiques, mais concernent aussi la recherche historienne. On retrouve le concept d'histoire des idées en Espagne également, notamment avec Marcelino Menéndez Pelayo qui, dans son ouvrage Historia de las Ideas Estéticas (1883), établit les bases d'une histoire des idées appliquée à l'histoire de l'art, mêlant philosophie et pratique. Mais l’Allemagne du est la première culture savante et philosophique d’Europe à avoir développé une forme de l’histoire des idées plus poussée. Arthur Oncken Lovejoy (1873-1962), professeur à Baltimore durant la première moitié du , est le fondateur américain de la discipline. \n\nPar ailleurs, l’Allemand Karl Mannheim dans son Ideologie und Utopie (1927), distinguait l'histoire des idées de l'histoire matérialiste de type marxiste, réactualisant ainsi l'opposition idéalisme/matérialisme et privilégiant le dernier terme de cette opposition. Représentant de l'historisme allemand, Mannheim accepte de concevoir une histoire des idées à condition que celles-ci soient envisagées dans leur contexte d'émergence socio-historique. Il parle alors non pas tant de relativisme, mais de « relationnisme », c'est-à-dire de la nécessité pour l'historien de mettre les idées en relation avec ce qui les rend possibles. \n\nDe son côté, Friedrich Meinecke (1862-1954) a développé l’histoire des idées comme une approche historico-scientifique de l’histoire intellectuelle traditionnelle. Dans le prolongement de cet historien allemand, ses disciples ont développé une approche plus sociale de l'histoire des idées. Ils répondaient en effet aux critiques liées au Linguistic Turn, dans les années 1980, selon lesquelles l'histoire des idées traditionnelle négligerait les discontinuités historiques, les contextes sociaux et les constituants linguistiques des « idées » générales. \n\nDans cette optique, l'histoire n'est pas comprise en termes de continuité, mais bien en fonction de changements, de transformations, de renouvellements ou de dévoiements suivant les données spatio-temporelles des objets étudiés. Mais Lovejoy, avec son histoire des idées, établit une problématique précise et abondante. Il est également le président de l'History of Ideas Club, et le fondateur avec Philip Wiener de la plus ancienne revue savante traitant de l’histoire des idées, le Journal of the History of Ideas. C’est dans son livre The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea, paru en 1936, qu’il développe la problématique et les objets de la discipline qu’il prétend fonder.\n\n=== L'approche de Lovejoy : le concept dUnit-Idea ===\nAvec Lovejoy, l’histoire des idées est une entreprise interdisciplinaire, qui prend en compte la philosophie, mais aussi la littérature, les beaux-arts, les sciences, les savoirs canoniques ou encore les croyances collectives. Autrement dit, Lovejoy veut étudier la totalité d’une culture, en synchronie et en diachronie, afin d’y étudier l’évolution d’une idée. Il existe deux thèmes dominants et distincts dans la pensée de Lovejoy : le premier de ces thèmes concerne le besoin d’études interdisciplinaires. Cette idée est liée à sa conviction que l’histoire des idées devrait être libre de traverser les frontières linguistiques, afin de développer des enquêtes coopératives qui permettront de développer la discipline. Le deuxième thème est à trouver dans le thème d'''Unit-Idea, ou le concept individuel. Ces idées unitaires fonctionnent comme des blocs constitutifs de l'histoire des idées : bien qu'elles soient relativement inchangées au fil du temps, les idées unitaires se recombinent selon de nouveaux modèles et s'expriment sous de nouvelles formes et à différentes époques historiques. Selon Lovejoy, l'historien des idées avait pour tâche d'identifier ces idées unitaires et de décrire leur émergence et leur récession historiques sous de nouvelles formes et combinaisons. L'utilisation des Unit-Ideas est destinée à extraire l'idée de base de tout travail et mouvement philosophique. De cette manière, il s'intéresse moins aux grands concepts doctrinaux qu'aux habitudes mentales inconscientes, hypothèses méthodologiques et d'autres principes plus explicites. \n\n Les réactions \nQuentin Skinner, historien des fondements de la pensée politique moderne, critique la méthodologie dUnit-Idea de Lovejoy, et affirme qu'une telle \"réification des doctrines\" a des conséquences négatives. Sa pensée politique se caractérise par l’importance de prendre en compte le contexte dans lequel un texte politique a été produit, de reconstituer les cadres cognitifs. Il applique cette théorie à l’histoire des idées, en expliquant que les idées du passé sont des pensées à comprendre dans chaque contexte historique respectif, qui est différent du nôtre. Dans son célèbre article \"Meaning and Understanding in the History of Ideas\", il dénonce vigoureusement les multiples anachronismes et \"bricolages historiques\" rencontrés fréquemment dans l'histoire traditionnelle anglo-saxone, et particulièrement l'histoire des idées. La méthodologie historique de Skinner est basée sur la théorie des actes de langage de John L. Austin. \n\nAndreas Dorschel, lui, critique l'approche restrictive de Skinner à l'égard des idées par le langage verbal et indique comment les idées peuvent se matérialiser dans des médias non linguistiques ou des genres tels que la musique et l'architecture. \n\nUn autre développement important dans l’étude des idées concerne la discipline universitaire de l’histoire intellectuelle. Peter Gordon explique que l'histoire intellectuelle, par opposition à l'histoire des idées mise en pratique par Lovejoy, étudie et traite les idées dans un contexte plus large, en n'hésitant pas à allier texte philosophique et contexte non-philosophique.\n\nEn France, il fallut attendre 1970 pour voir les comportements intellectuels s’infléchir et les interrogations autour de l’histoire des idées se multiplier. Néanmoins, il n’y a jamais eu de reconnaissance académique d’une discipline identifiable sous cette appellation unitaire. En revanche, on peut déjà considérer un débat autour de la capacité de l’historien à prendre en charge l’analyse des idées et leur compréhension. Le projet d'une histoire des idées « historicisées » sera poursuivi — dans une tout autre optique — par Michel Foucault, qui affirme, comme le rappelle Paul Veyne, que . Pour ces deux auteurs, l'historien des idées doit tenir compte du caractère multiple de la « vérité » à travers l'histoire. Les idées varient en fonction des cultures et, pour en rendre compte, il faut prendre acte des effets de rupture de l'histoire, des diverses manières de penser des acteurs et des variations sémantiques du langage qui ne permettent pas de concevoir une histoire des idées homogène et continue. En 1969, Foucault développe l’archéologie du savoir, une problématique censée s’opposer en tout point à l’histoire des idées. Il estime que certains historiens préfèrent écrire sur de longues périodes au lieu de creuser plus profondément dans une histoire plus spécifique et soutient qu'ils devraient baser leurs descriptions à partir de perspectives différentes. Sa méthode diffère de l’écriture historique traditionnelle en quatre points : \n\n elle cherche à définir l'histoire par des moyens philosophiques, c'est-à-dire qu’elle alimente son discours entre la pensée, la représentation et les thèmes ;\n la notion de discontinuité joue un grand rôle dans les différentes disciplines historiques ;\n elle ne cherche pas à saisir le moment de l'histoire où l'individu et le social s'inversent l'un l'autre ;\n elle ne cherche pas à établir une vérité de l’histoire, mais le discours qui y est contenu\n\nMichel Foucault déplore la rupture entre histoire sociale et histoire des idées. On ne peut selon lui considérer la manière dont les gens agissent sans la façon dont ils pensent, et inversement. Il fut le critique le plus efficace de cette histoire fondée sur l'analyse des œuvres intellectuelles, envisagée de façon interne et détournée des mécanismes de transmission et de communication de la société. Par ailleurs, il n'hésitait pas à brasser une quantité beaucoup plus large de textes, qui ne faisaient à l'origine pas partie des œuvres de prédilections des théoriciens de l'histoire des idées. Il remettait ainsi en cause l'aspect prétendument totalitaire et exhaustif de ses prédécesseurs. \n\nLes recommandations de ces deux penseurs prennent tout leur sens si le contexte structuraliste de l'époque, auquel les commentateurs s'attachaient volontiers, est envisagé ; tandis que l'épistémologie générale de l'époque choisissait d'inscrire les œuvres dans un contexte a-historique.\n\n L'histoire des idées : quel avenir ? \n\n Réalisations de l'histoire des idées \nCette historiographie déconstruit les idées abstraites telles que \"le grand créateur\" ou \"la société\" pour privilégier un examen précis du dire et du faire dans un contexte historique donné. Après les intuitions de Foucault, les recherches de l'espace de la création intellectuelle aboutissent à de multiples typologies, loin de se cantonner à une relation entre un auteur et un lecteur. Une triple médiation entre l'auteur et son époque est également invoquée : celle des institutions intermédiaires, éditeurs et librairies ; celle du champ, lieu de confrontation des positions intellectuelles ; et celle de l'archive, l'effet de confrontation avec la mémoire intellectuelle. L'histoire relevant de l'aspect \"institution\" concerne surtout l'histoire des éditeurs ; l'histoire de l'éducation, celle d'un savoir intellectuel structuré. C'est néanmoins au \"champ\" que les historiens se sont le plus intéressés. Il est en effet envisagé au sens large, comme lieu de confrontation entre les différents acteurs intellectuels et les réactions de la part d'acteurs extérieurs à l'élite pensante. Cette histoire des idées peut induire différents types de jugements : le sentiment que tous ces travaux étaient indispensables aux fondations de cette historiographie, mais aussi la perception d’un possible danger de fossilisation de l'histoire des idées. Certes, un pont a été lancé entre la micro-histoire sociale et l'histoire des idées mais de nombreux chercheurs restent désireux de suivre les protocoles de l'histoire des intellectuels. \n\n Limites et ouvertures de l'histoire des idées \nL'histoire des idées a pour principal problème d'être dénuée de chaire historique en milieu francophone, dans la mesure où elle se laisse recouvrir par l'histoire des intellectuels. Cette dernière s'est imposée scientifiquement à partir de programmes d'études de micro-histoire sociale, qui mobilisaient pratiques de communication et contenu idéologique et sociétaire. Le plus grand défi de cette histoire des idées est de rapporter ses œuvres intellectuelles au contexte historique et aux préoccupations et enjeux de l'époque. Les termes de \"mentalité\" ou \"façon de penser\" semblent un peu désuets avec le passage des grands sceptiques à l'égard d'une méthodologie de synthèse de l'esprit humain, parmi lesquels nous retrouvons Foucault. Néanmoins, nous pouvons plaider en faveur d'une histoire axée sur la civilisation, à laquelle Skinner peut être rattaché. Celle-ci s'annonce comme la synthèse entre deux types d'histoires : une histoire des idées attentive à la dimension langagière et inscrite dans une dimension culturelle liée aux notions de \"champ\", \"d'institution\" et \"d'archives\", et une histoire unissant conditions sociales et conditions morales. Un tel projet n'est possible que si on admet la possibilité que l'intelligence collective et ses promoteurs répondent à l'histoire, et que le contexte culturel reste un cadre non-contraignant de communication. Dans cet espace culturel, les productions intellectuelles ne sont plus massivement influencées par le contexte théorique de l'époque mais sont le fruit d'une dynamique propre, qui interroge le réel en construction \n\n Notes et références \n\n Annexes \n Bibliographie \n\nMarc Angenot, L’histoire des idées : problématique, objets, concepts, méthodes, enjeux, débats, Liège, presse universitaire de Liège, 2014.\n.\n.\n .\nSean Farrell Moran, « Intellectual History/History of ideas », dans The Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing, Londres, Routledge, vol. 1, 1999.\n.\n Anthony Grafton, « The History of Ideas. Precept and Practice, 1950-2000 and Beyond » dans Journal of the History of Ideas, , 2006, .\n .\nSteven L. Kaplan et Dominick LaCapra, Modern European intellectual history: reappraisals and new perspectives, Ithaca, Cornell university press, 1982.\n Donald R. Kelley, « Ideas, History of » dans , A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing, New-York & London, Garland, 1998.\n Dominick Lacapra, Rethinking intellectual history: texts, contexts, language, Ithaca-Londres, Cornell university press, 1983.\nMaurice Mandelbaum, « The history of ideas, intellectual history, and the history of philosophy», dans Robert M. Burns, Historiography: Critical Concepts in Historical Studies, Vol. III, Londres, Routledge, 2006.\nOlivier Nay, Histoire des idées politiques, Paris, Armand Colin, 2007.\n Samuel Moyn & Sartori A. (éd.), « Global Intellectual History » dans Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporraine, /3, 2017, .\n Daniel Roche, « Histoire des idées, histoire sociale : l'exemple français  », dans Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine, , 2012, .\nQuentin Skinner, La vérité et l’historien, EHESS, 2012.\n Philip Piener Wiener (éd.), Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas'', New York, Scribner, 1973.\n\nLiens externes \n \n \n\n \nCatégorie:Histoire thématique\nCatégorie:Historiographie", "Michel Deneken, né le à Strasbourg, est un prêtre catholique et théologien français, président de l’université de Strasbourg depuis le .\n\nBiographie \n\nMichel Deneken fait ses études secondaires au lycée Kléber et ses études de théologie et de germanistique à l’université des sciences humaines de Strasbourg. Il soutient sa thèse de théologie catholique en 1986. Il devient maître de conférences en 1989. Habilité à diriger des recherches en 1997, il est nommé professeur des universités en 2003.\n\nMichel Deneken est doyen de la Faculté de théologie catholique de Strasbourg de 2001 à 2009, mais aussi directeur du Service de l'action culturelle de l'Université Strasbourg II de 2002 à 2007. En 2008, l'Université Strasbourg II fusionne avec les universités I et III de la ville.\n\nEn 2013, il est élu président de l'ADUEIS (Association pour le développement des liens université-entreprises dans les industries de santé). \n\nVice-président de l'université de Strasbourg, il en devient le président en succédant à Alain Beretz le . Cette nomination est approuvée par l'association fédérative générale des étudiants de Strasbourg (Afges), majoritaire, pour qui sa qualité de prêtre «n'a jamais été un problème». Mais elle est contestée par le syndicat national de l'enseignement supérieur qui considère qu'il y a entorse au principe de laïcité. En , le tribunal administratif de Strasbourg rejette cette requête. En , le Conseil d'État confirme qu'un prêtre peut présider une université.\n\nEn , il provoque une polémique en proposant la mise en place d'une charte de communication à adopter par les enseignants et chercheurs dans leurs communications extérieures (\"procédure presse\"), une démarche classique pour une entreprise, mais qui offusque le milieu académique qui parle alors d'« entrave à la liberté d'expression ». En , un graffiti peint dans l'atrium de l'université est une menace de mort visant Michel Deneken, et lui reproche ses liens avec l'Église.\n\nPublications \nMichel Deneken rédige les articles « Ad intra-ad extra », « catholique », « devoir », « doctrine », «énergies», « immanence », « immortalité », « justification », « mystère », « orthodoxie », « propriété », « satisfaction », « tentation », « tolérance », « tradition » du Dictionnaire Encyclopédique du Moyen Âge Chrétien, sous la direction de M. Vuchez (Paris, éd du Cerf, 1997).\n\nFace à certains mystères de la religion catholique, il affirme : « Clairement, qu’est-ce que ça fait dans ma vie personnelle que Jésus soit ressuscité ? Il y a une vraie panne, aujourd’hui, des discours sur l’espérance, sur l’avenir et la beauté du monde qui atteint aussi l’Église. ».\n\n \n \n .\n \n \n .\n .\n \n « La foi pascale. Rendre compte de la résurrection de Jésus aujourd’hui », Paris, éd. du Cerf, 1997, 674p.; nouvelle édition, revue et corrigée, Paris, éd. du Cerf, 2002, 656 p. \n« Les implications œcuméniques dans l’enseignement de la théologie », La responsabilité du théologien. Mélanges offerts à Joseph Doré, Paris, Desclée de Brouwer, 2002.\n« Les apparitions du Ressuscité : de la théophanie à la christophanie », Fr. Dunand et Fr. Boespflug (éd.), Voir les dieux. Voir Dieu, Strasbourg, PUS, 2002, .\n« De l’amour retrouvé à l’amour signifié. Réponse à G. Hammann », M. Rose (éd.), Histoire et herméneutique. Mélanges offerts à Gottfried Hammann, Genève, Labor et Fides, 2002, .\n « Congratuaemur vehementer. La profession de foi de Léon I X», Joseph Doré (éd.), Le millénaire du pape Léon IX, Strasbourg, Éd. du Signe, 2003, .\n « Kardinal Yves Congar. Der Theologe der Ökumene des 20. Jahrhunderts in Frankreich », Chr. Möller (éd.), Wegbereiter der Ökumene im 20. Jahrhundert, Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2005, .\n Direction et édition de L’œuvre ultime. Actes des premières journées de l’Action culturelle de l’Université Marc-Bloch, Strasbourg, Université Marc-Bloch, 2005, 341 p.\n Johann Adam Möhler, Paris, éd. du Cerf, 2007, collection «initiation aux théologiens », 347 p.\n Direction et édition d’Art, culture, industrie. Actes des deuxièmes journées de l’Action culturelle de l’Université Marc-Bloch, Strasbourg, UMB, 2007, 203 p.\n (avec Élisabeth Parmentier), Catholiques et protestants, théologiens du Christ au , Paris, Mame-Desclée, 2009, collection «Jésus et Jésus-Christ» , 565 \n En collaboration avec Francis Messner, direction de l’ouvrage La théologie à l’université. Statut, programme et évolution, Genève, Labor et Fides, 2009.\n « Henri Le Saux : correspondance d’un passeur », in Ch. Maillard (dir.), Passeurs d’idées religieuses entre l’Inde et l’Europe, préface d’Ysé Tardan-Masquelier, Strasbourg, PUS, 2009, .\n En collaboration avec Élisabeth Parmentier, Pourquoi prêcher? Plaidoyer catholique et protestant pour la prédication, Genève, Labor et Fides, 2010, 272 p.\n Édition et postface des actes du colloque Jésus et Jésus Christ. I. De Jésus à Jésus Christ. I. Le Jésus de l’histoire, 18-, Université de Strasbourg, Paris, Mame-Desclée, 2010, 266 p. ; postface .\n « La révélation pascale du Dieu d’Israël : quelques remarques au sujet du Dieu de Jésus-Christ », in E. Bons & Th. Legrand,Le monothéisme biblique. Évolution, contextes et perspectives, Paris, éditions du Cerf, 2011, «Lectio divina» , .\n « Lire ensemble: à propos du concept de consensus différencié entre catholiques et luthériens », in Anne-Laure Zilling (dir.), Lire et interpréter. Les religions et leurs rapports aux textes fondateurs, Genève, Labor et Fides, 2013, .\n « Johann-Adam Möhler », in G.-M. Hoff, U.H.-J. Kôrstner, J. Schneider (éd.), Arbeitsbuch Theologiegeschichte. Diskurse. Akteure. Wissensformen, vol. II, Stuttgart, Kohlhammer, 2013.\n « Le discours de Benoît XVI au Konzerthausde Fribourg : la “démondanisation”, paradigme pour un catholicisme minoritaire », in Droit et religion en Europe. Études en l’honneur de Francis Messner, Strasbourg, PUS, 2014, .\n (direction avec Thierry Legrand et Anne-Laure Zwilling), Une certaine image de Dieu. Hommage à François Bœspflug, Strasbourg, Presses universitaires de Strasbourg, 2015, 290 p.\n\nRéférences\n\nVoir aussi\n\nArticles connexes \n Liste de théologiens chrétiens\n Théologie catholique\n\nLiens externes \n \n\nCatégorie:Naissance en août 1957\nCatégorie:Naissance à Strasbourg\nCatégorie:Théologien catholique français\nCatégorie:Professeur à l'université de Strasbourg\nCatégorie:Personnalité liée à Strasbourg\nCatégorie:Enseignant à la faculté de théologie catholique de Strasbourg\nCatégorie:Prêtre catholique français du XXIe siècle\nCatégorie:Personnalité du catholicisme alsacien\nCatégorie:Doyen de faculté\nCatégorie:Vice-président d'une université française\nCatégorie:Président de l'université de Strasbourg", "L'autarcie est un système économique d'un territoire géographiquement défini, d'une région ou d'un État habité par des acteurs économiques qui peuvent suffire à tous leurs besoins et vivre seulement de leurs propres ressources. L'entité économique réelle déclarée vivant en autarcie peut être une famille, un groupe humain, une communauté insulaire, un gouvernement isolé.\n\nL'autarcie intellectuelle, au sens d'une autonomie sous une forme immatérielle, préconise l'état de celui qui se suffit à lui-même et n'entretient pas d'échanges.\n\nAnnulation des flux d'échanges ? \nDes facteurs physiques d'isolement peuvent expliquer l'absence d'échange, par exemple dans une île non desservie. L'autarcie qui se rapproche ici de la survie de naufragés ou d'autochtones consiste à gérer ou à accumuler des réserves limitées de nourriture et de biens nécessaires.\n\nL'autarcie apparente est souvent le fruit d'une politique économique dite autarcique (par exemple par volonté d'indépendance de l'étranger), par définition contraire à une économie ouverte. En clair, plus la part des exportations est élevée dans le PIB, plus cette économie est ouverte (ouverture= Exportations sur PIB). Cette politique autarcique préconise l'autoproduction par un pays de la plus grande partie de ce qu'il a besoin de consommer, et la réduction des importations au strict minimum pour la plus grande partie de la population. Un pays vivant en autarcie s'efforce de fonctionner ainsi en économie fermée. Inversement, un pays qui ouvre son activité commerciale à l'étranger a une économie ouverte.\n\nL'autarcie a ainsi pour but principal de réduire le plus possible les dépenses à l'importation, et ainsi d'établir un équilibre économique à l'intérieur du pays. Par extension, l'autarcie désigne également un mode de vie dans lequel un groupe (foyer, base spatiale...) produit tout ce qu'il consomme, ou du moins l'essentiel, et ne recourt donc pas ou peu au commerce pour compléter ses besoins.\n\nHistoire d'un mythe \nPaul Veyne a étudié le mythe de l'autarcie du domaine romain, avec ses terres cultivables et ses réserves forestières. Ce mythe semble se justifier par une fonction de sécurité et d'assurance temporaire.\n\nHistoriquement, aucun État n'est parvenu à établir un système parfaitement autarcique. L'exception du Japon au , où le commerce officiel est réduit à un seul port sur l'île artificielle de Dejima créée dans la baie de Nagasaki à l'extrémité sud-ouest du pays ne peut être retenue car d'intenses trafics illégaux ont été entretenus par ses marins et pêcheurs. Cette politique autarcique doublée d'un contrôle du territoire et d'un code d'honneur de la guerre a eu toutefois un effet singulier : la réduction puis la quasi-disparition des armes à feu.\n\nLa plupart des sociétés complexes ne sont pas auto-suffisantes, et toutes entretiennent nécessairement des échanges avec leurs voisines proches et lointaines. L'exemple le plus frappant est le mur de Berlin dont on a pu faire croire qu'il constituait une barrière autarcique au minimum terrestre. Au-delà des passages contrôlés ou illégaux rendus de plus en plus risqués par l'équipement de surveillance, une multitude d'accords et de modus vivendi entre autorités sont intervenus pour résoudre les problèmes les plus triviaux, une fois les blocus drastiques de crise levés.\n\nLa connaissance des échanges marchands et des grandes routes souvent antiques permet de réduire les croyances autarciques que la culture gréco-latine semble avoir mythifiées. Le négoce du sel est le plus ancien et le plus fréquent des commerces. Enfin, très rares sont les pays qui disposent sur leur sol de la plupart des matières premières en quantités suffisantes pour subvenir à leurs propres besoins.\n\nMême l'économie de pays dits en situation d'autarcie par la fermeture politique de leurs frontières à l'extérieur pour les civils est qualifiée autrement : pour la Corée du Nord, le modèle est l'économie palatine, compte tenu d'échanges de subsistance avec la Chine.\n\nÉtymologie d'un néologisme \nLe terme autarcie est un néologisme gréco-romain, qui apparaît dans le dictionnaire de médecine Lavoisien en 1793. Autarcie vient de l'adaptation du grec autarkeïa, de autos, soi-même et arkein, c'est-à-dire protéger, secourir, se suffire. Le mot français est employé par un groupe de sociétés savantes françaises, animées en particulier par le chimiste et minéralogiste Antoine Lavoisier.\n\nLes savants français réfléchissent généreusement à l'avenir économique du grand Royaume de France bien qu'ils se trouvent de plus en plus placés en retrait par rapport à l'action désordonnée d'une Assemblée constituante, puis déstabilisés par les actes d'une République devenue folle. Le néologisme a d'abord le sens d'euphorie, de frugalité et de sobriété qui apporte le bonheur. Il s'applique ironiquement autant à l'effort nécessaire à demander à un pays au bord du gouffre qu'à la situation chaque jour de plus en plus précaire et menacée par les déferlements de haines politiques des dignes savants français.\n\nLe mot ressort de l'anonymat à partir des années 1830 et évolue. Sous la plume des économistes, il s'écrit sous une forme pseudo-savante autarchie en 1896 pour le distinguer de l'autarcie. Le premier terme des économistes mentionne un pays ou un groupe qui n'a pas besoin d'importation ou d'apports externes pour subsister, donc reste en économie fermée. Le second terme plus populaire désigne ce bien-être résultant de la sobriété dans laquelle une personne ou une famille se suffit à elle-même. Mais il reprend lentement sa même forme savante primitive par l'effet des mouvements régionalistes de la Belle Époque ou pacifiques de l'entre-deux-guerres, imprégnés de mythes paysans et écologiques. Le Larousse mensuel illustré de 1938 écrit à nouveau autarcie. L'adjectif autarcique l'emporte aussi sur autarchique, encore prépondérant dans les écrits des années 1920.\n\nExemples\n\nBiosphère 2 \nPour anticiper sur les besoins des colonies spatiales, une expérience d'autarcie a été tentée : une serre en autarcie, simulant les paysages terrestres : Biosphère 2.\n\nEarthship \n\nLes Earthship sont des maisons auto-suffisante qui produisent l'énergie, l'eau et parfois même la nourriture dont les habitants ont besoin.\n\nNotes et références\n\nArticles connexes \n\n Autosuffisance\n Balance commerciale\n Économie de guerre\n Économie des régimes fascistes\n Histoire économique de l'Italie sous le régime fasciste\n Bataille du blé\n Bataille de la lire\n\nCatégorie:Économie internationale\nCatégorie:Macroéconomie", "Le système éducatif aux États-Unis est décentralisé, la plupart des décisions sur le fonctionnement des écoles, les programmes et sur le financement étant prises par des instances locales : les school boards. Les programmes scolaires (curricula) sont en général établis par chaque État des États-Unis. Le gouvernement fédéral, via le département de l'Éducation des États-Unis, intervient surtout dans le financement de l’éducation. Les écoles privées élaborent leur programme librement et, dans le système public, seulement sur 50 établissent une liste de manuels recommandés. Dans la majorité des États, la liberté de choix est totale. Les assemblées législatives de chaque État fédéré établissent un socle minimum commun de connaissances dans les programmes.\n\nLes cours sont dispensés en anglais dans les , en espagnol dans le territoire non incorporé de Porto Rico. Il n'y a pas de langue constitutionnellement officielle aux États-Unis, mais 32 des fédérés ont adopté l'anglais comme langue officielle. Le hawaïen est une deuxième langue officielle dans l'État de Hawaï, et quelque 20 langues amérindiennes ont été officialisées dans l'État d'Alaska. L'espagnol est aussi une langue officielle dans le territoire de Porto Rico, et le chamorro dans le territoire de Guam ; le français est une langue « à facilités » dans plusieurs paroisses de la Louisiane. Chaque school district, ou circonscription scolaire, a le choix de sa langue d'enseignement, mais l'anglais est le choix dans les , y compris à Hawaï et en Louisiane. Les Porto-Ricains ont choisi l'espagnol, la langue d'instruction dans ses écoles et à l'université de Porto Rico. \n\nQuelque 90 % des élèves américains sont scolarisés dans le public.\n\nLes États-Unis sont l'un des pays avec le plus grand taux d'investissement dans l'éducation. Il représentent 28 % du budget mondial total de l’éducation en 2007.\n\nHistorique \nvignette|200px|Université de Virginie, fondée par Thomas Jefferson.\nBien que le roi Frédéric II de Prusse ait décrété en 1763 l'école obligatoire pour tous les enfants jusqu'à l'âge de treize ans, une mesure encore rejetée par de nombreux pays européens près d'un siècle plus tard, certains estiment que « Les États-Unis ont été le premier pays à créer des écoles publiques et gratuites ouvertes à tous ». Les premières réformes sont menées dès la fin du sous l’impulsion de Thomas Jefferson : afin d'établir un régime républicain, celui-ci croit aux vertus de la raison et de l’éducation. Il envisage de généraliser l’enseignement primaire en Virginie : à la fin des années 1770, il souhaite ouvrir les écoles primaires à tous les enfants libres, garçons et filles. Il imagine un enseignement secondaire gratuit pour les pauvres. Mais ces propositions ne sont pas retenues à cause de leur coût jugé trop élevé pour l'État. En 1819, Jefferson organise et dessine les plans de l'université de Virginie et en devient le recteur : fait nouveau pour l’époque, il décide que l’université n’enseignera pas la théologie. Dès 1832, l'État de New York instaure l'école élémentaire gratuite et obligatoire.\n\nL'enseignement féminin se développe dès le à travers les séminaires pour filles. Le Hartford Female Seminary, fondé à Hartford (Connecticut) en 1823 par Catharine Beecher, est le premier établissement d'enseignement supérieur féminin aux États-Unis. Par la suite, celle-ci crée plusieurs établissements destinés à former des institutrices pour la Frontière de l'Ouest.\n\nAu milieu du , des réformes sont entreprises dans le Massachusetts par Horace Mann, membre du Conseil d’éducation du Massachusetts, qui rêve d’imposer le système scolaire prussien. Il milite en particulier en faveur d’un allongement de la scolarité obligatoire et d'une meilleure rémunération des professeurs.\n\nEntre 1890 et 1920 sont menées plusieurs réformes qualifiées de « progressistes ». La présidence de Theodore Roosevelt (1901-1909) fut déterminante ; c’est encore à cette époque que la pédagogie est renouvelée grâce aux travaux du philosophe John Dewey, dont l'influence est encore notable aujourd'hui. Ce dernier insiste sur la place essentielle de l’école dans la formation d’une société démocratique.\n\nDès 1944, l'État fédéral met en place le G.I. Bill qui permet à deux millions de soldats démobilisés de faire des études universitaires et de se réadapter à la vie civile.\n\nÀ partir des années 1950, le système scolaire américain subit d’importantes transformations : grâce aux efforts de l'avocat noir Thurgood Marshall et du NAACP, la ségrégation scolaire est déclarée inconstitutionnelle par la Cour suprême des États-Unis en 1954 (arrêt Brown v. Board of Education). Le busing (transport scolaire des élèves, dans les fameux autobus scolaires jaunes) devait permettre la mixité sociale et raciale en amenant les enfants des quartiers noirs dans les écoles des quartiers blancs. Cependant, dans les États du Sud, la déségrégation se fait dans la violence. En 1957, plusieurs étudiants noirs doivent être escortés pour aller en cours à l'école de Little Rock.\n\nDans les années 1960, les campus universitaires, dont le plus contestataire est celui de Berkeley, manifestent contre l’engagement des États-Unis dans la guerre du Viêt Nam. Les étudiants réclament en outre des changements sociaux profonds. La politique de l'Affirmative Action (discrimination positive), lancée par le président Lyndon Johnson doit permettre aux Noirs d'intégrer plus facilement les universités américaines. La diversité ethnique devient donc un critère de sélection à l'entrée des facultés. Une grande part de cette lutte contre les inégalités scolaires est laissée aux initiatives privées à l'exemple du programme A Better Chance qui offre, dès 1963, des bourses (scholarships) aux enfants les plus pauvres.\n \nLes années 1970 représentent une époque de réformes de l'école aux États-Unis : en premier lieu, le Congrès américain impose la mixité dans tous les établissements publics en 1972. Deux ans plus tard, une loi, le , oblige les écoles à fournir un enseignement bilingue pour les enfants ne maîtrisant pas l’anglais.\n\nChronologie \n\nListe des fondations\nvignette|gauche|200px|Université de Princeton\n 1636 : Harvard College\n 1693 : Collège de William et Mary (Virginie)\n 1701-1707 : Université Yale\n 1746 : Université du New Jersey, ancien nom de l’université de Princeton (1896)\n 1754 : Université du Roi, New York, ancien nom de l'université Columbia\n 1755 : École de Philadelphie\n 1764 : Brown, ancien nom du collège du Rhode Island\n 1766 : Université de la Reine, New Jersey\n\nCaractéristiques générales\n\nClasses \n\n Pre-School, Nursery School ou Head Start (équivalent à l'école maternelle)\n 3-5 ans.\n Elementary School ou Grade School (équivalent de l'école primaire)\nKindergarten (jardin d'enfant) : 5-6 ans.\n 1st Grade : 6-7 ans.\n 2nd Grade : 7-8 ans.\n 3rd Grade : 8-9 ans.\n 4th Grade : 9-10 ans.\n 5th Grade : 10-11 ans.\n Middle School ou Junior High School. \n\n 6th Grade : 11-12 ans (parfois, cette classe est assurée par les Elementary Schools).\n 7th Grade : 12-13 ans.\n 8th Grade : 13-14 ans.\n High School\n\n 9th Grade (dite Freshman year) : 14-15 ans (souvent, cette classe est assurée par les Junior High Schools mais presque jamais par les Middle Schools).\n 10th Grade (dite Sophomore year) : 15-16 ans.\n 11th Grade (dite Junior year) : 16-17 ans.\n 12th Grade (dite Senior year) : 17-18 ans.\n\n Community College, Junior College ou Technical College\nLower Division (division inférieure), cycle de 2 ans débouchant sur un diplôme d’Associate of Arts (A.A.).\n Upper Division (division supérieure), cycle de 2 ans débouchant sur une formation technique supérieure, par exemple un Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech.).\n College ou University\nUndergraduate (premier cycle universitaire) \n Cycle de 4 ans débouchant sur un Bachelor, par exemple un Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), un Bachelor of Science (B.S.) ou un Bachelor of Fine Arts (B.F.A.).\n Graduate (deuxième et troisième cycles universitaires)\n Cycle de 2 ans débouchant sur un Master, par exemple un Master of Arts (M.A.), un Master of Science (M.S.), un Master of Business Administration (M.B.A.), un Master of Education (M.Ed.), un Master of Fine Arts (M.F.A.), un Master of Library and Information Science, etc.\n Cycle de 2 à 7 ans débouchant sur un doctorat, pour devenir par exemple (Ph.D.), , , ou (droit).\n\nUn système décentralisé \nLe système scolaire américain est fortement décentralisé, ce qui signifie qu'il relève essentiellement des États fédérés et non du gouvernement fédéral central. Les décisions concernant les programmes, les manuels, la répartition et le montant des dépenses pour l’enseignement sont principalement du ressort de chaque État, ce qui a pour conséquence de fortes disparités, mais aussi une grande souplesse. Les États fédérés sont jaloux de leurs prérogatives en matière d’éducation, ce qui peut provoquer des conflits avec le gouvernement fédéral et un frein aux réformes.\n\nIl existe au niveau fédéral un département exécutif, équivalent d'un ministère de l’éducation (en anglais : U.S. Department of Education), chargé d'organiser le cadre général du système scolaire avec à sa tête un secrétaire à l'Éducation, nommé par le président américain avec validation du Sénat (comme pour tous les secrétaires à la tête d'un département exécutif). Chaque État fédéré dispose aussi d’un département de l’éducation, secondé par un conseil d’éducation d’État (Board of Education). Les États prennent en charge 45 % des dépenses des établissements publics. Ils composent la carte scolaire (School districts au nombre de ). Au niveau local, les conseils d’éducation (School boards) s’occupent des programmes scolaires, du budget, du personnel scolaire et administratif. Il existe environ avec charte (charter schools) aux États-Unis, qui échappent au contrôle des autorités locales.\n\nLa décentralisation du système scolaire américain provoque des inégalités de financement : chaque année, les États-Unis consacrent 7 % du produit national brut (PNB) à l’éducation. Les recettes proviennent des impôts locaux et d’une enveloppe fédérale globale (aide aux élèves les plus défavorisés, éducation et soins de santé). Les aides fédérales sont proportionnelles à la richesse des États. Par exemple, le Mississippi reçoit beaucoup plus d’argent que le New Hampshire. Les écarts sont importants entre les États dynamiques et ceux qui ont plus de difficultés. En outre, les inégalités sont également importantes entre les municipalités d’un même État, voire entre les quartiers.\n\nL'absence de centralisation et les différences éducatives ont pour avantage de favoriser les expérimentations et l'inventivité. Elles ont rendu possible entre autres les charters schools, écoles privées à gestion privée et à fonds public, avec de bons résultats dans les quartiers pauvres. Cependant ces résultats doivent être regardés avec nuance : en effet, les écoles sont libres d'accueillir ou non des élèves et elles ont tendance à trier uniquement les bons éléments. De plus, organismes privés, elles sont suspectées de faire d’énormes bénéfices : jusqu'à plus de 50% des fonds publics versés.\n\nDiscrimination positive \nvignette|Université de Californie, entrée du campus de Berkeley\nDepuis les années 1970, des mesures de discrimination positive ont été mises en place pour favoriser l'entrée des minorités ethniques dans les universités et favoriser la mixité sociale.\n\nNéanmoins, la discrimination positive a été remise en cause dès la fin des années 1970. En 1978, la Cour suprême américaine condamne les quotas de la faculté de médecine de l'université de Californie par l'arrêt Blake. La loi Affirmative Action de Ronald Reagan impose un quota de professeurs issus des minorités. En 1996, un référendum d'initiative populaire en Californie met fin à laffirmative action dans les universités publiques de cet État (proposition 209), puis en Floride (2000), dans l'État de Washington, au Michigan et au Nebraska. Entre le milieu des années 1990 et 2003, la discrimination positive a été supprimée dans les universités du Texas, du Mississippi et de la Louisiane. Le , la Cour suprême a interdit la discrimination positive à l'entrée des écoles publiques américaines, à cinq voix contre quatre. La Cour arrête que . Désormais, le critère ethnique n'est qu'un élément positif parmi d'autres lors de l'examen des dossiers d'entrée dans les universités américaines.\n\nDaniel Sabbagh, spécialiste de l'''affirmative action et directeur de recherche au CERI, considère que les politiques de discrimination positives américaines sont efficaces à court terme et permettent aux étudiants issus des minorités ethniques d'être plus nombreux dans les universités. Avec la croissance démographique des groupes minoritaires, les différences raciales ou ethniques s'effacent. Par conséquent, de nombreux experts estiment que les inégalités se réduiront et que les programmes de discrimination positive deviendront superflus.\n\n Investissements \nLes États-Unis, où vivent seulement 4 % de la population mondiale âgée de 5 à , représentent 28 % du budget mondial total de l’éducation en 2007. Ce pays dépense presque autant que l’ensemble des gouvernements des six régions suivantes du monde : les États arabes, l’Europe centrale et orientale, l’Asie centrale, l’Amérique latine et les Caraïbes, l’Asie du Sud et de l’Ouest et l’Afrique subsaharienne.\n\n Enseignement primaire et secondaire \n Programmes scolaires \n\nLes programmes ne sont pas les mêmes d'un État à l'autre. On peut consulter (en anglais) les programmes de l'école primaire en l'éducation à l'environnement et l'éducation physique (200 minutes au moins tous les 10 jours d'école ; 400 minutes dans le secondaire). Le programme commence par les objectifs d'apprentissage exprimés en termes de comportements attendus sur lesquels se réfèrent les évaluations des performances scolaires exprimées. Le contenu, les outils, les activités et les voies d'apprentissage sont organisés, de façon variable, pour atteindre ces objectifs d'apprentissage. Cette variation va jusqu'à l'extrême de l'apprentissage individualisé « à la carte » pour chaque élève avec l'aide du Centre multimédia des technologies de l'éducation (educational technology), qui conçoit et produit des ensembles d'apprentissage complets dans différents types et secteurs de formation. Les programmes scolaires, l’insertion des minorités (notamment depuis l de 1972) et l’initiation à la citoyenneté. En Californie, le Native American Day ( de septembre) est l'occasion de rendre hommage aux Amérindiens de l'État ; les enseignants sont ainsi invités à parler de la culture amérindienne dans les écoles. Depuis 2004, les cours d'histoire amérindienne sont obligatoires dans les écoles élémentaires du Maine.\n\nL’enseignement met l’accent sur l’apprentissage des nouvelles technologies, parfois sur la protection de la nature : le Code de l'éducation de Californie insiste pour que les élèves soient sensibilisés aux problèmes de l'environnement à tous les niveaux de leur scolarité.\n\n Enquêtes sur les enseignants \nLes enseignants suspects de sympathies communistes peuvent faire l'objet d’enquêtes du Département de l'Éducation.\n\n Religion à l'école \n\n« L’institution scolaire publique est laïque », dans le sens où les enseignants ne doivent pas faire de prosélytisme. Depuis 1952 (arrêt Engel versus Vitale), la prière est interdite à l'école. La Constitution des États-Unis, et plus particulièrement l’Establishment Clause du Premier amendement de la Constitution des États-Unis dispose qu’il n’existe pas de religion officielle aux États-Unis.\n\n Les différentes écoles \n\nLa majorité des élèves américains est scolarisée dans des établissements publics. Les écoles privées sont dans la plupart des cas gérées par des organisations religieuses. Une minorité d’enfants est élevée en dehors du cadre scolaire (Home Schooling) par leurs parents ou grâce aux écoles virtuelles, sur Internet. Il existe enfin de plus en plus de same sex schools (écoles pour filles - écoles pour garçons) depuis que l’administration Bush est revenue sur la loi sur la mixité.\n\n Performances et politiques éducatives \nvignette|Bus scolaire en Louisiane.\n\n Les réformes \nAu début des années 1980, l’enseignement primaire et secondaire souffrait de graves défauts : le niveau des élèves était plutôt mauvais et la violence faisait partie du quotidien. Les inégalités liées au statut social et à l’origine étaient très marquées. On accusait fréquemment le corps professoral de ces mauvais résultats. C’est le rapport (Pays en danger, 1983) qui fait prendre conscience des échecs du système scolaire américain. Des réformes ont été entreprises pour pallier ces difficultés, au niveau local, comme au niveau fédéral : \n fondation des Centres de l’Enfance\n institution d’un niveau de connaissances et de savoir-faire minimal avec examens annuels\n réduction de la taille des établissements\n privatisation des écoles publiques\n organisation de sommets de l’éducation dans les années 1990, réunissant les gouverneurs des États\n programme E-Rate, pour le développement de l’informatique et les NTIC.\n\nvignette|George W. Bush signant la loi « », 8 janvier 2002, Hamilton, Ohio.\n\nLe Gun-Free Schools Act (loi sur la violence armée dans les écoles) de 1994 fait de la « tolérance zéro » une politique fédérale et obligatoire. À la suite de cette loi, de nombreuses écoles suivent la tendance, en prononçant des exclusions automatiques pour possession de stupéfiants ou pour différents comportements jugés non acceptables. Après le massacre de Columbine en 1999 (13 morts et 24 blessés), l'enjeu sécuritaire revient sur le devant de la scène. Cette politique commence progressivement à être remise en cause, en 2011, en raison des très nombreuses exclusions scolaires prononcées pour des motifs parfois futiles ou peu importants (un joueur de hockey exclu pour avoir porté un couteau-suisse visant à réparer sa crosse ; un élève de six ans exclu pour avoir craché des billes de plastique sur ses camarades, etc.).\n\nEn 2002, l’administration Bush fait passer la loi « aucun enfant laissé-pour-compte » (No Child Left Behind) qui met l’accent sur l’acquisition de compétence en mathématiques et en lecture. Il s'agit d'augmenter la marge d’intervention du gouvernement fédéral. La loi propose de tester le niveau des établissements et de laisser plus de liberté aux parents afin de choisir une école pour leurs enfants. Une école qui obtient de mauvais résultats peut disposer d’aides financières pour appliquer des « services scolaires supplémentaires », autrement dit des cours de soutien. Les résultats de cette politique sont discutés : certains affirment que les discriminations ont régressé et le niveau de lecture s’est amélioré. D'autres ne notent aucun changement positif.\n\n Statistiques \n\n En 1960, 46 millions d'Américains étaient scolarisés ; en 2000, ils étaient 68 millions. En 1967, la moitié des adultes avaient fait des études secondaires ; le chiffre est passé à 61 % en 2000. \n Effectifs selon le Département américain de l'Éducation, à l'automne 2008 :\n 49,8 millions d'élèves dans les écoles publiques primaires et secondaires ; \n 6,2 millions d'élèves dans les écoles privées primaires et secondaires ; \n 3,3 millions d'enseignants dans les écoles publiques, 500 000 environ dans les écoles privées ; \n 14 200 districts scolaires publics pour un total de 97 000 écoles publiques ; \n 35 000 écoles privées ; \n Environ 18,3 millions d'étudiants en collège ou en université ; \n Dans les collèges il y a 12,7 % d'étudiants noirs et 10,8 % d'étudiants hispaniques.\n D'après le rapport annuel de l'OCDE, le pays occupe :\n le des pays de l'OCDE pour l'accès à l'enseignement supérieur.\n le des pays de l'OCDE pour le taux de population entre 25 et 34 ans étant parvenue à une formation secondaire.\n le des pays de l'OCDE pour le taux d'obtention d'un diplôme d'enseignement supérieur en trois à six ans.\n le des pays de l'OCDE pour le taux d'obtention d'un diplôme de l'enseignement secondaire dans la population en âge type de l'obtenir : 73 % d'une génération obtient le diplôme de fin d'études de la High School.\n Selon un rapport de lEducational Policy Institute (EPI), le pays consacre 17,2 % du PIB à l'enseignement supérieur.\n Les enquêtes PISA classent les USA à un niveau assez faible, autour de la selon les champs disciplinaires, et même particulièrement faible en Mathématiques (), loin derrière la plupart des pays européens et de nombreux pays émergents. \n\n Enseignement supérieur \n\nD'après le sociologue Rick Fantasia, jusqu'à la Seconde guerre mondiale, les universités américaines (autant dire en fonction du réseau de relations sociales). Une fois admis, ces fils de famille au « sang bleu » menaient une existence universitaire paisible dans un climat de vénération institutionnelle. Ils établissaient avec leurs pairs des liens solides appelés à durer toute leur vie, du Rotary Club aux conseils d’administration, en passant par les terrains de golf (c’est ce qu’on appelle encore le « old boy network », ou « réseau des garçons d’âge mûr »). » Après la Seconde Guerre mondiale, l'accès à l'université commence à se démocratiser. Le nombre d'établissements publics augmente et leurs frais de scolarité sont relativement peu élevés. Les effectifs étudiants connaissent une progression spectaculaire. Le système universitaire est progressivement redevenu largement élitiste. En 2003, seuls 3 % des étudiants des 146 universités considérées comme les plus compétitives venaient d'un milieux social modeste.vignette|Sterling Memorial Library, Yale\n\nSi l'enseignement secondaire souffre de nombreuses carences, l'enseignement supérieur est l'un des meilleurs du monde. À nuancer cependant : la plupart des avancées importantes venant d'étudiants étrangers déjà formés dans le supérieur dans leurs pays d'origine. Il forme des cadres efficaces et a tissé de nombreux liens avec le monde des entreprises. Les universités américaines bénéficient de moyens financiers considérables : par exemple, le capital de Harvard est de de dollars. Dans un pays fédéral, comme les États-Unis, le système universitaire est décentralisé et les établissements d'enseignement supérieur jouissent d'une grande autonomie qui leur permet aussi une grande souplesse.\n\nLes frais d'inscription dans une toute petite université publique américaine s'élevaient en 2008-2009 en moyenne à dollars par an ; dans une université privée la moyenne se chiffrait à dollars. Le coût total d'une année universitaire aux États-Unis s'élève donc, selon l'université choisie et le coût de la vie dans sa localité, à un minimum de environ au total, jusqu'à , ou plus. Peu de familles peuvent financer totalement les études de leurs enfants : on a donc recours aux bourses, aux emprunts et au travail étudiant. Environ étudiants étrangers fréquentent les universités américaines et un certain nombre reste aux États-Unis après l'obtention de leur diplôme. L'économie du pays profite du brain drain (exode de cerveaux), surtout de ressortissants de pays en voie de développement. Par contre, les bourses au mérite pour de grandes performances sont nombreuses et confortables selon les différents cycles universitaires.\nvignette|gauche|Le campus de l'Université James Madison, Harrisonburg, Virginie\nEn 1998, 35 % des Américains avaient un diplôme d'études supérieures contre 11 % en 1970. L'État fédéral et les universités dépensent 260 milliards de dollars pour l'enseignement supérieur en 2000, ce qui représente 2,6 % du PIB. Enfin, les universités américaines accueillent étudiants étrangers en 2006, dont 60 % d'asiatiques. De plus, certaines personnes retournent à l’université après l’âge de 30 ans. Les minorités progressent : elles représentaient 16 % des étudiants américains en 1976 et 35 % en 1995.\n\nEn dépit de l'augmentation du pourcentage d'Américains obtenant un diplôme d'études supérieures, on observe dans les années 2000 une augmentation dix fois plus rapide des frais universitaires que le revenu médian ce qui est analysé comme une perspective négative pour la classe moyenne et qui explique en partie le surendettement des jeunes diplômés (à hauteur au total de milliards de dollars en 2019), un surendettement d'autant plus dangereux qu'il coïncide avec une dévalorisation des titres universitaires.\n\n Les universités : chaque État de l'Union a, en principe, plusieurs universités privées ainsi que plusieurs universités publiques : un ensemble plus prestigieux dit « université de... » (par exemple University of Arizona) dont le siège est souvent très sélectif, un système parallèle et moins prestigieux, « université d'État de... » (par exemple Arizona State University) et des Community Colleges qui dispensent des cours universitaires de première/deuxième année ainsi que des cours professionnels, techniques et de la formation continue. Les exceptions concernent de rares États comme celui de New York et la Pennsylvanie (dont les « universités de... » sont privées et les universités dites « État de... » forment un seul ensemble public) et l'Ohio (où le principe « État de... » est le plus sélectif). Les territoires américains d'outre-mer comme Guam, les Îles Vierges américaines et Porto Rico ont, eux aussi, leurs universités publiques. Les établissements de Porto Rico fonctionnent pour la plupart en espagnol (avec certains programmes disponibles aussi en anglais). Dans les cinquante États, à Guam et aux Îles Vierges, la langue d'enseignement est l'anglais.\n Organisation : le conseil d’administration dispose d’un droit de regard sur les programmes, les disciplines enseignées et le budget. Le gouvernement fédéral alloue des fonds pour la recherche et le développement.\n Effectifs : les plus grandes universités ont plus de étudiants.\n Les collèges : ce sont les établissements qui dispensent un enseignement de premier cycle.\n Université d’État, universités privées : ces dernières sont financées par les États, les entreprises, les dons et les fondations. Certaines dépendent d’institutions religieuses, d’autres sont liées à des associations.\n Il existe des frais d’inscription à l’entrée dans l’université. Ceux-ci varient en fonction de l'État (pour les universités publiques) ou le prestige de l’établissement (pour les universités privées).\n Enseignants : les salaires ne sont pas les mêmes d’une université à l’autre. Ils sont recrutés et remerciés par le Conseil d’éducation de l’État.\n\nLes universités prestigieuses considèrent la filiation du candidat parmi leurs critères de sélection. En 2011, une recherche menée sur trente établissement a conclu que « à qualifications égales, les enfants d’anciens élèves avaient des chances d’admission supérieures de 45 % à celles des candidats non héritiers. Autrement dit, un étudiant qui aurait 40 % de chances d’être admis sur la base de ses mérites et de son profil (résultats au test d’aptitude scolaire, qualités sportives, genre, etc.) voit celles-ci grimper à 85 % en cas d’hérédité favorable ».\n\nCes critères de sélection héréditaire sont en vigueur dans les trois quarts des cent universités américaines les mieux cotées, ainsi que dans les cent meilleures écoles d’arts libéraux des États-Unis. Solidement établi aux États-Unis, ce droit de succession universitaire est « pratiquement inconnu partout ailleurs », observe le journaliste Daniel Golden, qui le considère comme « presque exclusivement américain ».\n\nSelon les avocats John Brittain et Eric Bloom, les étudiants appartenant aux minorités (Noirs, Hispaniques, Amérindiens) représentent 12,5 % des candidatures aux universités sélectives, mais seulement 6,7 % des candidatures retenues, au bénéfice de ceux qui peuvent faire valoir leur filiation. Avoir effectué ses études dans ces établissements constitue un avantage majeur sur la marché du travail. Ainsi, à qualifications égales, ces diplômés perçoivent un salaire supérieur de 45 % en moyenne à celui de leurs pairs sortis d’établissements moins renommés. Plus de 50 % des grands patrons et 40 % des responsables gouvernementaux ont fait leurs études dans l’une des douze universités les plus cotées.\n\n Notes et références \nNotes\n\nRéférences\n\n Voir aussi \n\n Bibliographie \n Marie-Paule Massiani-Fayolle, Vie politique et société américaines, Paris, Presses universitaires de France, collection Que sais-je ?, 1999, \n André Kaspi, François Durpaire, Hélène Harter, Adrien Lherm, La Civilisation américaine, Paris, Presses universitaires de France, collection quadrige, 2004, \n (Collectif), « Enseignement primaire et secondaire aux États-Unis », dans Revue française des études américaines, n°74, \n Frédéric Martel, De la culture en Amérique'', Paris, Gallimard, 2006,\n\nArticles connexes \n\n Liste des universités aux États-Unis\n Enseignement secondaire aux États-Unis\n Liste des titres de professeur en Amérique du Nord\n Éducation aux États-Unis par État\n Éducation aux États-Unis par ville\n Pédagogues américains\n Lycées français aux États-Unis\n\nLiens externes \n Education Week : hebdomadaire sur l’actualité de l’éducation aux États-Unis.\n Regards sur l'enseignement supérieur et l'action culturelle des États-unis : l'autonomie au service de la diversité : Rapport d'information du Sénat français, \n « Why Bilingual Education? ERIC Digest », par Stephen Krashen\n\nEtats-Unis\n \nCatégorie:Culture aux États-Unis", ", né le , est un mécanicien théoricien français, il est directeur de recherche au CNRS. Il est membre de l'Académie des sciences.\n\nBiographie \nIl a fait ses classes préparatoires à Grenoble (Maths Sup) puis à Louis-Le Grand (Maths Spé), pour rejoindre l’École Normale Supérieure (1973) pour devenir agrégé de Mathématiques en 1975, et Docteur d’État en 1982. \n\nDe1983 à 1988 il est Professeur à l'université de Montpellier. Puis Directeur de recherche au CNRS, laboratoire de Mécanique et d'acoustique de Marseille dont il a été directeur de 1993 à 1999. De 2000 à 2001 il est Professeur invité au Clarke Millikan du California Institute of Technology.\n\nPierre Suquet est un spécialiste des milieux continus et du comportement des matériaux solides. Ses principaux travaux concernent les structures élastoplastiques, l'homogénéisation de composites non linéaires et la simulation numérique en mécanique des matériaux.\n\nTravaux scientifiques\n\nExistence et régularité de solutions en élasto-plasticité \nEn 1978, Pierre Suquet introduit l'espace des champs de vecteurs à déformation bornée et en établit certaines propriétés (existence de traces internes et externes sur toute surface, injection compacte...). Il montre que le problème d'évolution pour un corps élastique parfaitement plastique admet une solution en vitesse (de déplacement) dans cet espace sous une condition de charge sûre. Il montre qu'il peut y avoir une infinité de solutions, régulières ou non régulières.\n\nHomogénéisation de milieux dissipatifs \nLe cadre des milieux standards généralisés, dû à Halphen et Nguyen Quoc Son, permet une écriture facile des lois de comportement macroscopique. En 1982, Pierre Suquet établit des résultats d'homogénéisation pour des milieux caractérisés par 2 potentiels (énergie libre et potentiels de dissipation) et montre en particulier que la structure standard généralisée est préservée par changement d'échelles lorsque les variations de géométrie sont négligées. Il remarque que l'homogénéisation de composites viscoélastiques à mémoire courte peut conduire à l'apparition d'effets de mémoire longue (un effet déjà noté par J. & E. Sanchez-Palencia en 1978). Plus récemment des propriétés de ces mémoires longues ont été établies en lien avec les moments d'ordre 1 et 2 des champs locaux.\n\nHomogénéisation et charges limites \nEn 1983, Pierre Suquet donne une première borne supérieure du domaine de résistance d'un milieu hétérogène par résolution d'un problème d'analyse limite sur une cellule de base. Ce résultat est amélioré par Bouchitte et Suquet qui montrent que le problème d'analyse homogénéisé se décompose en deux sous problèmes, l'un purement volumique pour lequel le domaine de résistance est celui donné par l'analyse limite d'une cellule de base, le second, surfacique pour lequel un problème d'homogénéisation de surface (et non sur cellule unitaire) doit être résolu.\n\nBornes pour les composites non linéaires \nEn 1993, Pierre Suquet propose une série de bornes pour des composites à phases non linéaires, par une méthode différente de celles disponibles à l'époque (Willis, 1988, Ponte Castañeda, 1991), puis montre en 1995 que la méthode variationnelle de Ponte Castañeda (1991) est une méthode sécante utilisant le second moment par phase des champs locaux.\n\nMéthode numérique pour des milieux hétérogènes basées sur la FFT. \nEn 1994, H. Moulinec et P. Suquet introduisent une méthode numérique utilisant massivement la transformée de Fourier rapide (FFT) n'utilisant qu'une image pixelisée de la microstructure d'étude (sans maillage). En introduisant un milieu de référence homogène, l'hétérogénéité du milieu est transformée en une contrainte de polarisation. L'opérateur de Green du milieu de référence, connu explicitement dans l'espace de Fourier, peut être utilisé pour mettre à jour itérativement le champ de polarisation. Plusieurs améliorations et accélérations ont été apportées à cette méthode qui est maintenant utilisée internationalement dans des codes dédiés.\n\nHomogénéisation et réduction de modèles. \nÀ partir de 2003, J.C.Michel et P.Suquet développent une méthode de réduction du nombre de variables internes des lois de comportement homogénéisées. Ce modèle de Nonuniform Transformation Field Analysis (NTFA) utilise la structuration des champs de déformation plastique microscopiques. Une base de modes est construite dans un premier temps par la méthode \"snapshot POD\" le long de trajets d'apprentissage. Puis les équations cinétiques réduites pour les composantes des champs sur ces modes sont construites en approchant les potentiels effectifs par des techniques dérivées de l'homogénéisation non linéaire.\n\nOuvrages\n\nÉdition d’ouvrages \n 1991 Blanc R., Raous M., Suquet P. (eds.) : Mécanique, Modélisation Numérique et Dynamique des Matériaux, Actes des rencontres scientifiques du cinquantenaire du LMA. 415 pages.\n 1994 Buttazzo G., Bouchitte G., Suquet P. (eds.) : Calculus of Variations, Homogenization and Continuum Mechanics, Series in Advances in Mathematics for Applied Sciences (vol 18). World Scientific, Singapore, . 296 pages.\n 1997 Suquet P. (ed.) : Continuum Micromechanics, CISM Lecture Notes N0 377. Springer-Verlag. Wien. 347 pages.\n 2000 Ponte Castañeda P., Suquet P. (eds) : The J.R. Willis 60th Anniversary Volume, J. Mech. Phys. Solids 48, 6/7, 200\n\nParticipation à des ouvrages de synthèse \n 1986 Suquet P. : \"A few mathematical aspects of incremental Plasticity\". Notes du Cours au Centre International de Mathématiques Pures et Appliquées. In Applications des Mathématiques à la Mécanique. Ed. M. Djaoua. Ed. ENIT.\n 1987 Suquet P. : \"Elements of Homogenization for Inelastic Solid Mechanics\". Cours au Centre International des Sciences Mécaniques. Udine. 1985. In E. Sanchez-Palencia, A. Zaoui (eds), Homogenization Techniques for Composite Media. Lecture Notes in Physics N0272. Springer- Verlag. Berlin. 1987. p.193-278.\n 1988 Suquet P. : \"Discontinuities and Plasticity\". Notes du cours du Centre International des Sciences Mécaniques. Udine. Italie. 1987. In Non Smooth Mechanics and Applications. Ed. J.J. Moreau, P.D. Panagiotopoulos. Cours CISM N0 302. Springer-Verlag. Wien. 1988. 279-340.\n 1991 Bouchitte G., Suquet P. : \"Homogenization, Plasticity and Yield design\", in G. Dal Maso and G.F. Dell’Antonio (eds) Composite Media and Homogenization Theory, Birkhaüser, Boston, 1991, pp 107-133.\n 1994 Bouchitte G., Suquet P. : \"Equi-coercivity of variational problems. The role of recession functions\". Séminaire au Collège de France. . In H. Brézis, J.L. Lions (eds.) Non-linear partial differential equations and their applications. College de France Seminar XII. Longman, Harlow, 1994, 31-54.\n 1997 a. Suquet P. : \"Effective properties of nonlinear composites\". in Suquet P. (ed.) Continuum Micromechanics. CISM Lecture Notes N0 377. Springer-Verlag. Wien. 1997. pp 197-264.\n 1997 b. Suquet P., Moulinec H. : \"Numerical simulation of the effective properties of a class of cell materials\". in K.M. Golden, G.R. Grimmett, R.D. James, G.W. Milton, P.N. Sen (eds.) Mathematics of multiscale materials. IMA Lecture Notes 99. Springer-Verlag, New-York, 1997, 277-287.\n 2000 a. Michel J.C., Galvanetto U., Suquet P. : \"Constitutive relations involving internal variables based on a micromechanical analysis\", in R. Drouot, G.A. Maugin, F. Sidoroff (eds) Continuum Thermodynamics : The Art and Science of Modeling Material Behaviour, Klüwer Acad. Pub., 2000.\n 2000 b. Garajeu M., Suquet P : \"Micromechanical models for anisotropic damage in creeping materials. In A. Ben Allal (ed.) Continuous Damage and Fracture, Elsevier, 2000, pp. 117– 127.\n 2001 a. Michel J.C., Moulinec H., Suquet P. : \"Composites à microstructure périodique\". In M. Bornert, T. Bretheau et P. Gilormini (eds) Homogénéisation en Mécanique des Matériaux, Hermes Science Publications, 2001, tome 1, chap. 3, pp. 57–94.\n 2001 b. Bornert M., Suquet P. : \"Propriétés non linéaires des composites : approches par les potentiels.\" In M. Bornert, T. Bretheau et P. Gilormini (eds) Homogénéisation en Mécanique des Matériaux, Hermes Science Publications, 2001, tome 2, chap. 2, pp. 45–90.\n 2001 c. Chaboche J.L., Suquet P., Besson J. : \"Endommagement et changement d’échelle\". In M. Bornert, T. Bretheau et P. Gilormini (eds) Homogénéisation en Mécanique des Matériaux, Hermes Science Publications, 2001, tome 2, chap. 3, pp. 91–146.\n 2001 d. Suquet P. : \"Nonlinear composites : Secant methods and variational bounds\". In J. Lemaître (ed.) Handbook of Materials Behavior Models. Academic Press, 2001, pp. 968-98\n\nDiffusion de la connaissance \n 1988 Suquet P. : \"Les milieux périodiques\". in La Mécanique en 1988. Courrier du CNRS. 1988. 63.\n 1989 Sanchez-Palencia E., Suquet P. : \"Des matériaux plus simples grâce à l’ homogénéisation\". La Recherche, 214, 1989, XXIV-XXVI.\n 1990 Suquet P. : \"L’homogénéisation et la Mécanique des Matériaux\". La Gazette de Mécamat. .\n 1992 Guillemain P., Suquet P. :\"Ondelettes et Dynamique des Structures\". Science et Défense. .\n\nHonneurs et distinctions \n Prix Henri de Parville de l'Académie des sciences (1982).\n Prix Jean Mandel de l'École des mines (1988).\n Médaille d'argent du CNRS (1991).\n Prix Ampère de l'Académie des sciences (2000).\n Midwest Mechanics Distinguished Lecturer (2001).\n Académie des sciences : Élu correspondant le , puis membre le (Section : Sciences mécaniques et informatiques).\n Koiter Medals of ASME (2006).\n Distinguished International Scholar. University of Pennsylvania (2009).\n Chevalier des palmes Académiques (2010 )\n James K. Knowles Lecture and Caltech Solid Mechanics Symposium (2014).\n\nRéférences\n\nLiens externes \n \n \n\nCatégorie:Élève de l'École normale supérieure\nCatégorie:Informaticien français\nCatégorie:Directeur de recherche au CNRS\nCatégorie:Membre de l'Académie des sciences (France)\nCatégorie:Lauréat de la médaille d'argent du CNRS" ]

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[ "Following the death of Pope Pius XII on 9 October 1958, Roncalli watched the live funeral on his last full day in Venice on 11 October. His journal was specifically concerned with the funeral and the abused state of the late pontiff's corpse. Roncalli left Venice for the conclave in Rome well aware that he was papabile,[b] and after eleven ballots, was elected to succeed the late Pius XII, so it came as no surprise to him, though he had arrived at the Vatican with a return train ticket to Venice.[citation needed]" ]

[ "Shared doctrines would include beliefs about one God; the virgin birth; miracles; atonement for sins through the death, burial, and bodily resurrection of Jesus; the Trinity; the need for salvation (through belief in Jesus Christ as the son of God, his death and resurrection, and confession of Christ as Lord); grace; the Kingdom of God; last things (eschatology) (Jesus Christ will return personally and visibly in glory to the earth, the dead will be raised, and Christ will judge everyone in righteousness); and evangelism and missions. Some historically significant Baptist doctrinal documents include the 1689 London Baptist Confession of Faith, 1742 Philadelphia Baptist Confession, the 1833 New Hampshire Baptist Confession of Faith, the Southern Baptist Convention's Baptist Faith and Message, and written church covenants which some individual Baptist churches adopt as a statement of their faith and beliefs.", "Kathmandu valley is described as \"an enormous treasure house of art and sculptures\", which are made of wood, stone, metal, and terracotta, and found in profusion in temples, shrines, stupas, gompas, chaityasm and palaces. The art objects are also seen in street corners, lanes, private courtyards and in open ground. Most art is in the form of icons of gods and goddesses. Kathmandu valley has had this art treasure for a very long time, but received worldwide recognition only after the country opened to the outside world in 1950.", "Eisenhower retired to the place where he and Mamie had spent much of their post-war time, a working farm adjacent to the battlefield at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, only 70 miles from his ancestral home in Elizabethville, Dauphin County, Pennsylvania. In 1967 the Eisenhowers donated the farm to the National Park Service. In retirement, the former president did not completely retreat from political life; he spoke at the 1964 Republican National Convention and appeared with Barry Goldwater in a Republican campaign commercial from Gettysburg. However, his endorsement came somewhat reluctantly because Goldwater had attacked the former president as \"a dime-store New Dealer\".", "Street vendors play their trade from stalls in the tianguis as well as at non-officially controlled concentrations around metro stations and hospitals; at plazas comerciales, where vendors of a certain \"theme\" (e.g. stationery) are housed; originally these were organized to accommodate vendors formerly selling on the street; or simply from improvised stalls on a city sidewalk. In addition, food and goods are sold from people walking with baskets, pushing carts, from bicycles or the backs of trucks, or simply from a tarp or cloth laid on the ground.", "Some of the second-generation renewables, such as wind power, have high potential and have already realised relatively low production costs. Global wind power installations increased by 35,800 MW in 2010, bringing total installed capacity up to 194,400 MW, a 22.5% increase on the 158,700 MW installed at the end of 2009. The increase for 2010 represents investments totalling €47.3 billion (US$65 billion) and for the first time more than half of all new wind power was added outside of the traditional markets of Europe and North America, mainly driven, by the continuing boom in China which accounted for nearly half of all of the installations at 16,500 MW. China now has 42,300 MW of wind power installed. Wind power accounts for approximately 19% of electricity generated in Denmark, 9% in Spain and Portugal, and 6% in Germany and the Republic of Ireland. In Australian state of South Australia wind power, championed by Premier Mike Rann (2002–2011), now comprises 26% of the state's electricity generation, edging out coal fired power. At the end of 2011 South Australia, with 7.2% of Australia's population, had 54%of the nation's installed wind power capacity. Wind power's share of worldwide electricity usage at the end of 2014 was 3.1%. These are some of the largest wind farms in the world:", "On September 10, 1987, after a lecture from hardliner Yegor Ligachev at the Politburo for allowing these two unsanctioned demonstrations in Moscow, Boris Yeltsin wrote a letter of resignation to Gorbachev, who had been holidaying on the Black Sea. Gorbachev was stunned – no one had ever voluntarily resigned from the Politburo. At the October 27, 1987, plenary meeting of the Central Committee, Yeltsin, frustrated that Gorbachev had not addressed any of the issues outlined in his resignation letter, criticized the slow pace of reform, servility to the general secretary, and opposition from Ligachev that had led to his (Yeltsin's) resignation. No one had ever addressed the Party leader so brazenly in front of the Central Committee since Leon Trotsky in the 1920s. In his reply, Gorbachev accused Yeltsin of \"political immaturity\" and \"absolute irresponsibility.\" No one backed Yeltsin.", "In electric power distribution, capacitors are used for power factor correction. Such capacitors often come as three capacitors connected as a three phase load. Usually, the values of these capacitors are given not in farads but rather as a reactive power in volt-amperes reactive (var). The purpose is to counteract inductive loading from devices like electric motors and transmission lines to make the load appear to be mostly resistive. Individual motor or lamp loads may have capacitors for power factor correction, or larger sets of capacitors (usually with automatic switching devices) may be installed at a load center within a building or in a large utility substation." ]

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[ "Lazare Richtenberger Lazare Richtenberger (1792 – 3 December 1853) was a German-born Belgian banker of Jewish descent. He was closely connected to the court of Leopold I of Belgium and later was awarded the Order of Leopold.", "Leopold I of Belgium Leopold I (French: \"Léopold I\" , German and Dutch: \"Leopold I\" ; 16 December 1790 in Coburg – 10 December 1865 in Laeken) was a German prince who became the first King of the Belgians following Belgian independence in 1830. He reigned between July 1831 and December 1865." ]

[ "Archduke Joseph August of Austria Archduke Joseph August Viktor Klemens Maria of Austria, Prince of Hungary and Bohemia (9 August 1872 – 6 July 1962) was for a short period head of state of Hungary. He was a member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, the eldest son of Archduke Joseph Karl of Austria (1833–1905) and his wife Princess Clotilde of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (1846–1927). Joseph August's grandfather had been Palatine Joseph of Hungary (1776–1847), Palatine and Viceroy of Hungary, a younger son of Emperor Leopold II.", "Prince William of Baden (1829–1897) Prince Louis \"William\" Augustus of Baden (German: \"Ludwig Wilhelm August Prinz von Baden\" ; 18 December 1829 – 27 April 1897) was a Prussian general and politician. He was the father of Prince Maximilian of Baden, the last Minister President of the Kingdom of Prussia and last Chancellor of the German Empire. Wilhelm was a Prince of Baden, and a member of the House of Zähringen.", "Princess Louise of Belgium Princess Louise of Belgium (18 February 1858 in Brussels – 1 March 1924 in Wiesbaden) was the eldest daughter of Leopold II and his wife, Marie Henriette of Austria. Louise was named after her paternal grandmother, the Belgian queen Louise of Orleans, and her mother.", "Georges André Kohn Georges André Kohn (April 23, 1932 – April 20, 1945) was a distant relative of the Rothschild banking family of England. His father Armand Edouard Kohn (1894–1962) was the manager of the Rothschild Hospital in Paris, and his mother Suzanne Jenny (née Netre; 1895–1945) was a first cousin of Bertrand Léopold Goldschmidt, son-in-law of Lionel Nathan de Rothschild. Georges André's father was Jewish but he, his mother and his elder brother and sisters were practicing Roman Catholics.", "Louis Nathaniel de Rothschild Louis Nathaniel de Rothschild (German: \"Ludwig Nathaniel Freiherr von Rothschild\" ) was an Austrian baron from the famous Rothschild family. He was born in Vienna on 5 March 1882 and died of heart failure while swimming in Montego Bay, Jamaica on 15 January 1955.", "Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine (French: Charles Alexandre Emanuel de Lorraine; German: Karl Alexander von Lothringen und Bar; 12 December 1712 in Lunéville – 4 July 1780 in Tervuren) was a Lorraine-born Austrian general and soldier, field marshal of the Imperial Army, and governor of the Austrian Netherlands.", "William, Prince of Orange William, Prince of Orange (Willem Nicolaas Alexander Frederik Karel Hendrik; 4 September 1840 – 11 June 1879), was heir apparent to the Dutch throne as the eldest son of King William III from 17 March 1849 until his death.", "Prince Konrad of Bavaria Prince Konrad of Bavaria (German: \"Konrad Luitpold Franz Joseph Maria Prinz von Bayern\" ; 22 November 1883 – 6 September 1969) was a member of the Bavarian Royal House of Wittelsbach.", "Leopold Quarter The Leopold Quarter (French: \"Quartier Léopold\" , Dutch:    ) is a quarter of Brussels, Belgium. Today the term is sometimes confused with European Quarter, as the area has come to be dominated by the institutions of the European Union and organisations dealing with them, although the two terms are not in fact the same, with the Leopold Quarter being a smaller more specific area. The Leopold Quarter was traditionally the area immediately south of the inner ring road, between the Porte de Namur and Porte de Louvain. Today it lies roughly between the ring road and Leopold Park, and Rue Joseph II/Jozef II Straat and Rue du Trone/Troonstraat. The district was created in 1837, named after King Leopold I, and covers the areas of the municipalities of the City of Brussels, Etterbeek, Ixelles and Saint-Josse-ten-Noode. The area was initially designed and built soon after Belgian independence in the 1830s and 40s and was a prestigious residential area for the elite of the new Belgian capital. It remained the most prestigious residential address in the capital until the early 20th century when many of its former residents began to relocate to Brussels' newly developing suburbs. Starting at that time, but accelerating rapidly only after the 1950s it became more and more a business/institutional area and is today dominated by facilities of the European Union.", "Édouard Alphonse James de Rothschild Édouard Alphonse James de Rothschild (24 February 1868 – 30 June 1949), also known as Baron Édouard de Rothschild was an aristocrat, French financier and a member of the prominent Rothschild banking family of France.", "Prince Henry of Prussia (1900–1904) Prince Heinrich of Prussia, (German: \"Heinrich Viktor Ludwig Friedrich\" ; 9 January 1900 – 26 February 1904), was the haemophiliac third son and youngest child of Prince Henry of Prussia and Princess Irene of Hesse and by Rhine, and thus a grandson of Frederick III, German Emperor on his father's side and a great-grandson of Queen Victoria through both his mother and father. He died aged four.", "Prince Laurent of Belgium Prince Laurent of Belgium (French: \"Laurent Benoît Baudouin Marie de Belgique\", Dutch: \"Laurens Benedikt Boudewijn Maria van België\"; born 19 October 1963) is the second son of King Albert II and Queen Paola, and younger brother of King Philippe.", "Royal Question The Royal Question (French: \"Question royale\" , Dutch: \"Koningskwestie\" ) was a major political crisis in Belgium that lasted from 1945 to 1951, coming to a head between March and August 1950. The \"Question\" at stake surrounded whether King Leopold III could resume his royal powers and duties as King of the Belgians amid allegations that his actions during World War II had gone contrary to the provisions of the Belgian Constitution. It was eventually resolved by the abdication of Leopold in favour of his son, Baudouin, in 1951.", "Archduke Géza of Austria Archduke Géza of Austria (given names: \"Géza Ladislaus Euseb Gerhard Rafael Albert Maria\"; born 14 November 1940, in Budapest), in Austria and Hungary only known by law as Géza Habsburg-Lothringen, is the son of Archduke Joseph Francis of Austria (1895–1957) and his wife Princess Anna of Saxony (1903–1976) thus he is a grandson of King Frederick Augustus III of Saxony and great-great grandson (on his father's mother's side) of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria and his wife Elisabeth of Bavaria (Sissi). Géza is a Fabergé expert and has published many books and articles on the jewellers Peter Carl Fabergé and Victor Mayer. He is the curator of several major international Fabergé exhibitions.", "Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau (3 July 1676 – 7 April 1747) was a German prince of the House of Ascania and ruler of the principality of Anhalt-Dessau from 1693 to 1747. He was also a \"Generalfeldmarschall\" in the Prussian army. Nicknamed \"the Old Dessauer\" (German: \"der alte Dessauer\"), he possessed good abilities as a field commander, but was mainly remembered as a talented drillmaster who modernized the Prussian infantry.", "Jonas von Königswarter Jonas Marcus von Königswarter (10 August 1807 – 23 December 1871) was a German Jewish banker and railway entrepreneur. He was a member of the Königswarter family.", "Nathaniel Meyer von Rothschild Nathaniel Meyer von Rothschild (26 October 1836 – 16 June 1905) was a member of the Rothschild banking family of Austria, known as art collector and patron.", "Prince Franz-Josef of Bavaria Prince Franz-Josef of Bavaria (German: \"Franz-Josef Michael Maria Ignatius Prinz von Bayern\" ) (born 21 September 1957) is a member of the Bavarian Royal House of Wittelsbach and a member of the Roman Catholic Order of Saint Benedict.", "Maurice Holzmann Sir Maurice Holzmann, KCB, KCVO, ISO (born 1835; died 1 April 1909) was a German-born member of the British royal household who served Edward VII (as Prince of Wales and King) for 45 years. He was also a keen mountaineer actively involved with the Alpine Club.", "Leo Schuster Leopold Schuster (1791 – 27 February 1871) was a German-born British cotton trader turned merchant banker, best known as the Chairman of the London and Brighton Railway and then the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway, and part of the consortia which bought The Crystal Palace." ]

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[ "University of Cumbria The University of Cumbria is a public university in Cumbria. Its headquarters are in Carlisle. Other major campuses are at Lancaster, Ambleside, and London. It was established in 2007, following the merger of St Martin's College, the Cumbria Institute of the Arts and the Cumbrian campuses of the University of Central Lancashire. Its roots extend back to the \"Society for the Encouragement of Fine Arts\" established in 1822 and Charlotte Mason teacher training college in the 1890s.", "St Martin's College St Martin's College was a British Higher Education College with campuses in Lancaster, Ambleside and Carlisle, as well as sites in Whitehaven, Barrow and London. It provided undergraduate and postgraduate courses in the arts, humanities, business studies, teacher training, health and social care. In 2006 the College was granted the power to award its own degrees (prior to this they were accredited by Lancaster University). On 1 August 2007, the College merged with other institutions to form the University of Cumbria." ]

[ "United States Army War College The United States Army War College (USAWC) is a U.S. Army educational institution in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, on the 500-acre (2 km²) campus of the historic Carlisle Barracks. It provides graduate-level instruction to senior military officers and civilians to prepare them for senior leadership assignments and responsibilities. Each year, a number of Army colonels and lieutenant colonels are considered by a board for admission. Approximately 800 students attend at any one time, half in a two-year-long distance learning program, and the other half in an on-campus, full-time resident program lasting ten months. Upon completion, the college grants its graduates a master's degree in Strategic Studies.", "University College, Durham University College, informally known as Castle, is a college of the University of Durham in England. Centred on Durham Castle on Palace Green, it was founded in 1832 and is the oldest of Durham's colleges. As a constituent college of Durham University, it is listed as a higher education institution under section 216 of the Education Reform Act 1988. Almost all academic activities, such as research and tutoring, occur at a university level.", "Sparsholt College Sparsholt College is a Further Education (FE) and Higher Education (HE) college located at Sparsholt near Winchester, Hampshire, in the south of England. The college provides courses from sixth form to degree level and recently merged with Cricklade College, Andover.", "The Sheffield College The Sheffield College is a further education (FE) college in Sheffield, England. It was formed by the merger of six FE colleges in 1993. Its campuses are City campus (in the city centre, formerly Castle College), Hillsborough campus (which replaced Loxley College in Stannington, and Parson Cross College in 2005), Olive Grove campus and Peaks campus in Mosborough. The current Chief Executive is Paul Corcoran.", "Northumbria University Northumbria University, officially the University of Northumbria at Newcastle, is a university located in Newcastle upon Tyne in the North East of England. A former polytechnic, it was established as one of the new universities in 1992. It is a member of the University Alliance and the second university of Newcastle.", "Warrnambool Institute of Advanced Education Warrnambool Institute of Advanced Education was a college of advanced education in Warrnambool, Victoria, Australia. It operated for twenty years, from 1970-1990. It offered undergraduate and postgraduate programs in aquaculture, arts, business, nursing, municipal engineering, appiled science and teaching. In 1990, as a result of the Dawkins higher education reforms, the Institute merged with Deakin University and became its Warrnambool campus.", "University of Wales, Lampeter University of Wales, Lampeter (Welsh: \"Prifysgol Cymru, Llanbedr Pont Steffan\" ) was a university in Lampeter, Wales. Founded in 1822, and given its royal charter in 1828, it was the oldest degree awarding institution in Wales, with degree awarding powers since 1852, and the third oldest university institution in England and Wales after the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. In 2010 it merged with Trinity University College (under its 1828 charter) to create the University of Wales Trinity Saint David.", "Crawley College Central Sussex College, renamed as Crawley College after a merger with Chichester College, is a college of further education in West Sussex. It has campuses across West Sussex and offers courses ranging from Sixth form and Adult education to undergraduate courses through partnerships with universities.", "Newcastle College Newcastle College is a Further Education and Higher Education college in Newcastle upon Tyne, England. The college has a complex history, being an amalgamation of various colleges and training providers. The college is a part of a larger corporation called NCG (formerly the Newcastle College Group).", "Oxford University Medical School Oxford University Medical School is the medical school of the University of Oxford. It is a component of the Medical Sciences Division, and teaching is carried out in its various constituent departments. The Oxford Medical School is traditional in its teaching and is therefore split into Pre-Clinical and Clinical phases of the course, with Pre-Clinical (Years 1-3) students being based in the University Science Area in Oxford City Centre, and Clinical students (Years 4-6) being based at the John Radcliffe Hospital, in Headington, Oxford.", "Leeds Business School Leeds Business School is one of 13 Schools within Leeds Beckett University, located in Leeds, West Yorkshire, England. Leeds Business School is divided into six subject groups, which deliver a range of undergraduate, postgraduate, professional and short courses in Accounting & Finance, Business Strategy Operations & Enterprise, Economics Analytics and International Business, Leadership Governance & People Management, Marketing, and PR & Journalism. Leeds Business School is located in the Rose Bowl in heart of Leeds city centre.", "Kingston upon Hull College of Education Kingston upon Hull College of Education was founded in 1913 as the \"Hull Municipal Training College\". The first principal was Miss Helen Todd. The college had numerous name changes until September 1976 when it merged with the Hull College of Higher Education, which ultimately formed part of the University of Lincoln. The stimulus for the formation of the college was in response to a shortage of certified teachers in the city's schools. The college-trained teachers and educationalists for the city and beyond followed an ethos which was primarily set by Cyril Bibby, principal between 1959 and 1977.", "Vaughan College Vaughan College was founded in 1862 to provide education for under-educated men in the centre of Leicester. Founded by Revd David Vaughan, it rapidly became a facility for broader adult education and self-improvement for men and women of the town. After 45 years using two town centre schools, in 1908 it moved into its own premises on Great Central Street. Merging with University College Leicester in 1929, it offered more undergraduate level adult education, including many part-time certificate courses and later a degree course. In 1962, with the demolition of its building, a new purpose-built college building was opened, integrated with Jewry Wall Museum and an archaeological site on St Nicholas Circle. In 2013 the university announced plans to close the city centre site, and move the teaching to its main campus, a move which lasted until 2016 when plans were announced for shutting the department altogether.", "St Peter's College, Oxford St Peter's College is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford and is located in New Inn Hall Street, Oxford, United Kingdom. It occupies the site of two of the university's oldest inns, both of which were founded in the 13th century. The modern college was founded as St Peter's Hall in 1929 by Francis James Chavasse, Bishop of Liverpool, and achieved full collegiate status in 1961, becoming St Peter's College. In 1979, it began to admit women.", "Finnmark University College Finnmark University College (Norwegian: \"Høgskolen i Finnmark\" or HiF) was a university college with three campuses throughout Finnmark, Norway. In August 2013 Finnmark University College and the University of Tromso merged to form what is now called the \"University of Tromso - Norway's Arctic University\". The Faculty of Education and Liberal Arts and the Faculty of Business and Social Work is located in the town of Alta in Alta Municipality, while the Faculty of Nursing is located in the town of Hammerfest in Hammerfest Municipality. The Barents International School, part of the business school, was located in the town of Kirkenes in Sør-Varanger Municipality. The university college was established on 1 August 1994, and had approximately 2,000 students and 240 employees.", "Glasgow Caledonian University Glasgow Caledonian University (informally GCU or Caledonian) is a public university in Glasgow, Scotland. It was formed in 1993 by the merger of The Queen's College, Glasgow (founded in 1875) and Glasgow Polytechnic (founded in 1971). As of 2015 it is one of Scotland's largest universities with nearly 20,000 students. It is regularly ranked among the UK's top 10 modern universities.", "Iceland College of Education Iceland College of Education was a normal college in Iceland. It merged with the University of Iceland in July 2008 and is now called the School of Education. Enrollment was around 2300 students with more than half of them being distance learning students. The university offered B.A., B.Ed. and B.S degree programmes as well as M.Ed. and doctorate degrees.", "University of Dundee The University of Dundee (abbreviated as Dund. for post-nominals) is a public research university based in the city and Royal burgh of Dundee on the east coast of the central Lowlands of Scotland. Founded in 1881 the institution was, for most of its early existence, a constituent college of the University of St Andrews alongside United College and St Mary's College located in the town of St Andrews itself. Following significant expansion, the University of Dundee became an independent body in 1967 whilst retaining much of its ancient heritage and governance structure. Since its independence, the university has grown to become an internationally recognised centre for research.", "New College of the Humanities New College of the Humanities (NCH) (legally Tertiary Education Services Ltd) is an independent, primarily undergraduate college in London, England, UK, founded by the philosopher A. C. Grayling, who became its first Master.", "Yeovil College Yeovil College is a tertiary institution and further education college based in Yeovil, Somerset, England. Its main campus is on Mudford Road, Yeovil, but the College also operates the North Dorset Skills Centre in Shaftesbury and the Construction Skills Centre, Lufton, Yeovil, not far from the Yeovil Town Football Club stadium. In conjunction with the universities of Bournemouth, the West of England (UWE) and Gloucestershire, the College also provides Higher Education, degree-level and professional courses at the University Centre Yeovil (UCY) on Preston Road, Yeovil." ]

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[ "Gordon Wiles Gordon Wiles (October 10, 1904 – October 17, 1950) was an American art director and film director. He won an Academy Award for Best Art Direction for the film \"Transatlantic\". He was born in St. Louis, Missouri. His father, Albert Wiles, was a doctor in Jerseyville, Illinois.", "Stephen Herek Stephen Robert Herek (born November 10, 1958) is an American film director." ]

[ "Gordon Cree Gordon Charles Cree BMus FGMS (born 14 July 1977, Irvine, North Ayrshire) is a Scottish entertainer, singer, pianist, organist, arranger, orchestrator, conductor and composer.", "Russell Gilbert Russell Gilbert (born 17 October 1959), is an Australian comedian and actor from Footscray, Victoria, best known for his radio and television appearances, on programs such as The Comedy Company, Hey Hey, It's Saturday and Thank God You're Here, he is also a live stage and film actor", "Mike Lesk Michael E. (Mike) Lesk is a computer scientist.", "Dan Gordon (screenwriter) Dan Gordon is an Israeli-American writer, playwright, and reserve duty captain in the Israel Defense Forces.", "Billi Gordon Billi Gordon (born Wilbert Anthony Gordon Jr. on September 2, 1954 in Dowagiac, Michigan), is an author, television writer, neuroscientist and formerly an actor and model,", "Steve Wilkos Steven John \"Steve\" Wilkos ( ; born March 9, 1964) is an American television personality, a veteran of the United States Marine Corps and a former law enforcement officer with the Chicago Police Department. He has been hosting \"The Steve Wilkos Show\" since 2007, and was director of security on \"The Jerry Springer Show\" from 1994 to 2007. He had previously substituted for Springer as host on several occasions before being given his own talk show.", "Gordon Giltrap Gordon Giltrap (born 6 April 1948 in Brenchley, Kent) is an English acoustic and electric guitarist and composer. His musical styles cross several genres, including folk, blues, folk rock, pop, classical and rock.", "Michael Wilbon Michael Ray Wilbon ( ; born November 19, 1958) is an ESPN commentator and former sportswriter and columnist for \"The Washington Post\". He is an analyst for ESPN and has co-hosted \"Pardon the Interruption\" on ESPN with former \"Post\" writer Tony Kornheiser since 2001.", "Brad Wilk Bradley J. \"Brad\" Wilk (born September 5, 1968) is a musician, actor, and activist from the United States. He is best known as the drummer of the rock bands Rage Against the Machine (1991–2000; 2007–11), Audioslave (2001–07), and Prophets of Rage (2016-Present).", "Stewart Clegg Stewart Clegg (born 1947, Bradford) is a British-born Australian sociologist and organizational theorist and Professor at University of Technology, Sydney (UTS), where he is also Research Director of CMOS (Centre for Management and Organisation Studies).", "Morris S. Novik Morris S. Novik (1903 - 1996), an early pioneer in radio, is credited with being one of the first people to understand the potential that radio had for public service and education, especially with regard to the emerging labor movement throughout the U.S. in the early part of the 20th century.", "Gordon Warner Dr. Gordon Warner is an authority on the Japanese art of kendo.", "Damian Keyes Damian Keyes (born in Swansea, Wales) is the founding director of The Brighton Institute of Modern Music.", "Gordon Anderson (author) Gordon L. Anderson is an American philosopher publishing executive and the author of \"Philosophy of the United States\" and Secretary General of Professors World Peace Academy. He is a graduate of Claremont Graduate University, where he earned a doctorate in philosophy of religion in 1986.", "Yorick Wilks Yorick Wilks FBCS (born 27 October 1939) is a British Computer Scientist who is Professor of Artificial Intelligence (Emeritus) at the University of Sheffield, a Senior Research Fellow at the Oxford Internet Institute, and a Senior Scientist at the Florida Institute for Human and Machine Cognition. He is a member of the Epiphany Philosophers.", "Steve Gower Major General Stephen Newman \"Steve\" Gower (born 10 June 1940) is a retired Australian Army officer and former director of the Australian War Memorial (AWM). During his time in the Army he saw combat as an artillery forward observer during the Vietnam War in 1966 and 1967. He is also the author of the books \"Guns of the Regiment\" (1981) and \"Options for an Australian Defence Technological Strategy\" (1982).", "Thomas Wiles Thomas Wiles (19 June 1861 – 18 May 1951), was a British Liberal Party politician.", "Gordon Roe William Gordon Roe (5 January 1932 – 19 July 1999) was an English divine and the Suffragan Bishop of Huntingdon from 1980 until 1997.", "Gordon Donaldson Gordon Donaldson, (1913–1993) was a 20th-century Scottish historian.", "Raymond Garlick Raymond Garlick (21 September 1926 – 19 March 2011) was an Anglo-Welsh poet. He was also the first editor of the \"The Anglo-Welsh Review\", a lecturer, critic, and non-violent campaigner for the use of the Welsh language." ]

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[ "The man has an animal." ]

[ "The man is asleep.", "Man is looking into a telescope.", "A man is driving down the street.", "All French citizens must have French heritage because of racial laws.", "She appeared before a judge but not under oath.", "There was no arrangements beforehand.", "If they don't want to take care of kids then they shouldn't have a family." ]

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[ "Men share a meal." ]

[ "Women cook together.", "They ignored New Orleans.", "Once renowned for it's white wine, Thasos now attracts most of it's tourism through it's beaches.", "people on snowboards", "Chinese arts and crafts are in Central.", "Jon stole the falcon pistols.", "Tuppence, my union!" ]

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[ "Stationed, at this time and location, Jesus falls down once more." ]

[ "Jesus was never fallen once.", "A man in overalls is bending over.", "A tatoo artist is working on a man's stomach.", "A dog and cat are eating together.", "two men playing catch", "PEOPL;E WERE ON GRASS", "Clothes swaying in the wind on a bed." ]

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