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(but not sufficient) for stability to be independent of the speeds of adjustment (Metzler ).6 Morishima proved that they were equivalent for certain classes of complements. They are also sufficient conditions for convergence of any nonoscillating system, since Hicksian (perfect) stability implies the absence of positive real roots. They are, moreover, conditions that, if not satisfied, yield anomalous comparative statics results, and thus seem at least to be necessary conditions for useful applications of the correspondence principle, at least in the context of analysis of the Walrasian system. Thus, even though Hicks' method seems to lack theoretical justification,7 the Hicks stability conditions produced by that method have proved exceedingly useful. How can a wrong method yield useful results ? Leaving aside coincidence, the answer may lie in the two-way character of the correspondence principle. Samuelson had observed that not only can the investigation of the dynamic stability of a system yield fruitful theorems in statical analysis, but also known properties of a (comparative) statical system can be utilized to derive information concerning the dynamic properties of a system. When Hicks is specifying the signs of changes in excess demands when a given price is put above or below its equilibrium value, various subsets of other prices remaining constant, he is at the same time implying specific comparative statics results. Provided these results correspond to known properties of a statical system the conditions implied should be related to stability conditions if the reciprocal character of the correspondence principle is valid. Another reason why the Hicks method may appear more reasonable than Samuelson's original criticism of it suggests is that our knowledge of the precise laws governing dynamical systems is scanty. The empirical "output" according to the methodology of the correspondence principle is a set of comparative statics results, while the empirical "input" is (a) the nature of the dynamic processes, and (b) the assumption of stability. Acceptance of (b) is the essence of the correspondence principle, but how are we to determine (a)? Consider, for example, the following alternative expressions for dynamical systems: To each of these systems there will correspond a different set of stability conditions. System (1) is a version of that used by Samuelson to prove that the Hicks conditions are neither necessary nor sufficient for stability. Yet, as he himself noted, more complete generalizations such as (2) and (3) can be developed with different consequences for comparative statics. There is, therefore, an element of arbitrariness in the specification of dynamic systems in the absence of empirical information and there may on these grounds be a pragmatic justification for Hicks' method of developing " stability conditions " that are "timeless." The Samuelson criterion is completely general and is an appropriate methodological approach, but for purposes of yielding practical results generality often implies emptiness. The purpose of this chapter is to show that the Hicksian stability analysis is a useful contribution to the integration of statical and dynamical theory. First, we shall show that the perfect and imperfect stability conditions do correspond to the dynamic stability conditions of some dynamic processes, irrespective of the pattern of signs of the price-matrix. Second, we shall argue that, despite their usefulness in the form Hicks presented them, the perfect stability conditions are not completely general, since they do not yield the information obtained by extending his method to the commodity "adopted" as the standard commodity. Third, we shall show that generalized conditions can be obtained by interpreting his device of holding subsets of prices constant with respect to the standard commodity as an arbitrary method of forming various composite commodity groupings. Further, we shall show that dynamic systems that fail to satisfy the generalized conditions will be unstable at some speeds of a

sses, and (b) the assumption of stability. Acceptance of (b) is the essence of the correspondence principle, but how are we to determine (a)? Consider, for example, the following alternative expressions for dynamical systems: To each of these systems there will correspond a different set of stability conditions. System (1) is a version of that used by Samuelson to prove that the Hicks conditions are neither necessary nor sufficient for stability. Yet, as he himself noted, more complete generalizations such as (2) and (3) can be developed with different consequences for comparative statics. There is, therefore, an element of arbitrariness in the specification of dynamic systems in the absence of empirical information and there may on these grounds be a pragmatic justification for Hicks' method of developing " stability conditions " that are "timeless." The Samuelson criterion is completely general and is an appropriate methodological approach, but for purposes of yielding practical results generality often implies emptiness. The purpose of this chapter is to show that the Hicksian stability analysis is a useful contribution to the integration of statical and dynamical theory. First, we shall show that the perfect and imperfect stability conditions do correspond to the dynamic stability conditions of some dynamic processes, irrespective of the pattern of signs of the price-matrix. Second, we shall argue that, despite their usefulness in the form Hicks presented them, the perfect stability conditions are not completely general, since they do not yield the information obtained by extending his method to the commodity "adopted" as the standard commodity. Third, we shall show that generalized conditions can be obtained by interpreting his device of holding subsets of prices constant with respect to the standard commodity as an arbitrary method of forming various composite commodity groupings. Further, we shall show that dynamic systems that fail to satisfy the generalized conditions will be unstable at some speeds of adjustment when a different commodity is adopted as the standard commodity in the dynamic system. And finally, we shall discuss the usefulness of the generalized Hicks conditions in devising dynamical rules for the hyperstability of " policy systems."8 The illustrative examples are all taken from the theory of foreign exchange markets, but the results, of course, apply to any generalized system. Our first task is to show that the Hicks conditions do, in a sense, correspond to the conditions of convergence of some dynamic systems. Let us take as an example a problem in devaluation theory. We can describe a closed static equilibrium system of n + 1 currencies with prices (exchange rates) expressed in terms of currency 0, denoted by p1, . . . pn, as follows: where Bi is the balance of payments of the ith country. In equilibrium each Bi = 0, while near the equilibrium we can write the system (4) as follows: after expanding Bi in a Taylor series and omitting nonlinear terms. Now let us suppose that the exchange rate of one country, say the rth country, appreciates in proportion to its balance of payments surplus according to the law while all other exchange rates adjust instantaneously to equilibrium. The solution of the differential system (6) is and Deltarr is the cofactor (principal minor) of the element in its rth row and rth column. For the dynamic process implied in (7) to be stable it is necessary and sufficient that Delta / Deltarr < 0. But this condition is precisely (for the analogous problem in the Walrasian system) the Hicksian condition of imperfect stability for the rth currency; and when the method is applied to each currency (in succession, not simultaneously), we have the complete Hicksian conditions of imperfect stability: A similar analysis can help to show the usefulness of the Hicks conditions of perfect stability. Suppose that one exchange rate, say pi, is held constant (relative to the numéraire). This amounts to dropping the ith row and column from Delta, so that if the original experiment were

djustment when a different commodity is adopted as the standard commodity in the dynamic system. And finally, we shall discuss the usefulness of the generalized Hicks conditions in devising dynamical rules for the hyperstability of " policy systems."8 The illustrative examples are all taken from the theory of foreign exchange markets, but the results, of course, apply to any generalized system. Our first task is to show that the Hicks conditions do, in a sense, correspond to the conditions of convergence of some dynamic systems. Let us take as an example a problem in devaluation theory. We can describe a closed static equilibrium system of n + 1 currencies with prices (exchange rates) expressed in terms of currency 0, denoted by p1, . . . pn, as follows: where Bi is the balance of payments of the ith country. In equilibrium each Bi = 0, while near the equilibrium we can write the system (4) as follows: after expanding Bi in a Taylor series and omitting nonlinear terms. Now let us suppose that the exchange rate of one country, say the rth country, appreciates in proportion to its balance of payments surplus according to the law while all other exchange rates adjust instantaneously to equilibrium. The solution of the differential system (6) is and Deltarr is the cofactor (principal minor) of the element in its rth row and rth column. For the dynamic process implied in (7) to be stable it is necessary and sufficient that Delta / Deltarr < 0. But this condition is precisely (for the analogous problem in the Walrasian system) the Hicksian condition of imperfect stability for the rth currency; and when the method is applied to each currency (in succession, not simultaneously), we have the complete Hicksian conditions of imperfect stability: A similar analysis can help to show the usefulness of the Hicks conditions of perfect stability. Suppose that one exchange rate, say pi, is held constant (relative to the numéraire). This amounts to dropping the ith row and column from Delta, so that if the original experiment were repeated, this time with the ith exchange rate constant, we would get, instead of (7), and the stability condition Deltaii / Deltaii,rr< 0, which is one of the Hicksian conditions of perfect stability. Proceeding along these lines, holding one or another set of prices constant, we get the complete Hicks conditions of perfect stability. But does this dynamic process have any economic plausibility ? Are we not, as Samuelson argued, allowing "arbitrary modification of the dynamical equations of motion"? The answer is, in a sense, yes. But this can be the exact method needed in the theory of policy, where our purpose is to design stable dynamic systems. As an example, we might be interested in examining aspects of the stability of an exchange-rate system such as that recently advocated by sixteen distinguished academic economists -a sliding parity system (with widened exchange-rate margins).9 Is it not precisely a set of conditions such as the Hicks conditions that would be involved? We might ask, first, what would happen if, say, Britain (which we shall identify with country 1) adopted a sliding parity system while a subset of other countries (2, . . ., j) allowed their exchange rates to float, and the remaining countries, k, . . ., n, kept their rates pegged to, say, the U.S. dollar (the currency of country 0). Then, if we suppose that balances of payments of countries whose rates float adjust instantaneously while the pound adjusts slowly, the path of the pound over time would be for which knowledge of the Hicks conditions would be directly relevant. Thus the particular form of the dynamic system adopted -which countries are left out and which are left in- would depend on which of the Hicks conditions are satisfied. The Hicks method does, therefore, have a role to play in dynamic aspects of the theory of economic policy. The Hicks conditions, however, are not exactly what we need for the theory of economic policy, because, as we shall see, they are incomplete even in terms of Hicks' own method. In the experiments

repeated, this time with the ith exchange rate constant, we would get, instead of (7), and the stability condition Deltaii / Deltaii,rr< 0, which is one of the Hicksian conditions of perfect stability. Proceeding along these lines, holding one or another set of prices constant, we get the complete Hicks conditions of perfect stability. But does this dynamic process have any economic plausibility ? Are we not, as Samuelson argued, allowing "arbitrary modification of the dynamical equations of motion"? The answer is, in a sense, yes. But this can be the exact method needed in the theory of policy, where our purpose is to design stable dynamic systems. As an example, we might be interested in examining aspects of the stability of an exchange-rate system such as that recently advocated by sixteen distinguished academic economists -a sliding parity system (with widened exchange-rate margins).9 Is it not precisely a set of conditions such as the Hicks conditions that would be involved? We might ask, first, what would happen if, say, Britain (which we shall identify with country 1) adopted a sliding parity system while a subset of other countries (2, . . ., j) allowed their exchange rates to float, and the remaining countries, k, . . ., n, kept their rates pegged to, say, the U.S. dollar (the currency of country 0). Then, if we suppose that balances of payments of countries whose rates float adjust instantaneously while the pound adjusts slowly, the path of the pound over time would be for which knowledge of the Hicks conditions would be directly relevant. Thus the particular form of the dynamic system adopted -which countries are left out and which are left in- would depend on which of the Hicks conditions are satisfied. The Hicks method does, therefore, have a role to play in dynamic aspects of the theory of economic policy. The Hicks conditions, however, are not exactly what we need for the theory of economic policy, because, as we shall see, they are incomplete even in terms of Hicks' own method. In the experiments Hicks conducts to derive his stability conditions he accords the numéraire -the standard commodity- a special role. In this section we shall consider the precise deficiencies in the statical information provided by the Hicks conditions. This is best established by considering the comparative statics theorems implied by the Hicks conditions. Consider the equilibrium system where, again, the Bi's are balances of payments, the p's are exchange rates, and alpha is a parameter. Differentiation of (11) with respect to alpha yields and the solutions for the exchange-rate changes are Now consider an increase in demand for the currency of country i such that deltaBi / delta alpha > 0; while the excess demand for every other currency, at given exchange rates, is unchanged (deltaBj / delta alpha = 0 for i not= j). Then, instead of (13), we have simply By the Hicks conditions of imperfect stability Deltaii /Delta < 0, so deltaBi / delta alpha > 0 implies dpi / d alpha > 0. Thus an increase in demand for the currency of the ith country raises the price of that currency after adjustment of all other exchange rates has been allowed for. Similar implications follow from the conditions of perfect stability if we hold various subsets of other exchange rates constant relative to the numéraire. If, for example, the exchange rates of countries k, . . ., n are held constant, we get, instead of (14), the equation the inequality being an implication of one of the conditions of perfect stability. How can an increase in demand occur in a closed system ? Clearly only at the expense of other commodities (currencies) in the system. Cournot's law (or Walras' law in the context of the Walrasian system) ensures that where the summation, it should be emphasized, extends over all the commodities. The interpretation of (14) is therefore that an increase in demand for (say) pounds (the currency of country i) at the expense of dollars raises the dollar price of the pound. Now if other exchange rates are held constant relative to the dollar, the pro

Hicks conducts to derive his stability conditions he accords the numéraire -the standard commodity- a special role. In this section we shall consider the precise deficiencies in the statical information provided by the Hicks conditions. This is best established by considering the comparative statics theorems implied by the Hicks conditions. Consider the equilibrium system where, again, the Bi's are balances of payments, the p's are exchange rates, and alpha is a parameter. Differentiation of (11) with respect to alpha yields and the solutions for the exchange-rate changes are Now consider an increase in demand for the currency of country i such that deltaBi / delta alpha > 0; while the excess demand for every other currency, at given exchange rates, is unchanged (deltaBj / delta alpha = 0 for i not= j). Then, instead of (13), we have simply By the Hicks conditions of imperfect stability Deltaii /Delta < 0, so deltaBi / delta alpha > 0 implies dpi / d alpha > 0. Thus an increase in demand for the currency of the ith country raises the price of that currency after adjustment of all other exchange rates has been allowed for. Similar implications follow from the conditions of perfect stability if we hold various subsets of other exchange rates constant relative to the numéraire. If, for example, the exchange rates of countries k, . . ., n are held constant, we get, instead of (14), the equation the inequality being an implication of one of the conditions of perfect stability. How can an increase in demand occur in a closed system ? Clearly only at the expense of other commodities (currencies) in the system. Cournot's law (or Walras' law in the context of the Walrasian system) ensures that where the summation, it should be emphasized, extends over all the commodities. The interpretation of (14) is therefore that an increase in demand for (say) pounds (the currency of country i) at the expense of dollars raises the dollar price of the pound. Now if other exchange rates are held constant relative to the dollar, the proposition holds, if the Hicksian perfect stability conditions are satisfied, when the shift of demand is interpreted as being from the dollar and all currencies whose exchange rates are kept fixed to the dollar. Note, however, that the Hicks conditions do not give us the sign of so that we cannot specify, on the grounds of the Hicks conditions alone, whether a shift of demand from dollars to pounds raises or lowers the price of (say) the franc relative to the dollar. But now we are in a position to see the narrow form of the mathematical implications of the Hicks conditions. Consider a shift of demand from the franc (currency j) to the pound (currency i). Then deltaBs / delta alpha = 0 for s not= i, j, while deltaBi / delta alpha = - deltaBj / delta alpha >0 in view of (16); with no loss of generality we can make deltaBi / delta alpha = - deltaBj / delta alpha = 1. Substitution in (13) then gives the change in the dollar price of the pound and the franc: The Hicks conditions do not provide us with the sign of either (18) or (19), nor, by analogy to (17), should we expect them to. But, by analogy with (14), we should expect the difference to be unambiguous in sign for any system in which units are chosen so that each ps = 1, initially. When demand shifts from the franc to the pound, we should not expect to be able to predict the sign of the change in the dollar price of the pound or franc, but we should be able to determine, on the basis of the Hicks conditions, the sign of the change in the franc price of the pound, the expression given in (20). But the Hicks conditions are no help here, and this means that Hicks has not developed the mathematical implications of extending his method to the standard commodity. The same information problem applies, a fortiori, when various subsets of prices are held constant. An implication of the Hicks condition of perfect stability is that a shift of demand onto pounds raises the price of the pound even when various currencies remain pegged to the dollar; this amounts to treating

position holds, if the Hicksian perfect stability conditions are satisfied, when the shift of demand is interpreted as being from the dollar and all currencies whose exchange rates are kept fixed to the dollar. Note, however, that the Hicks conditions do not give us the sign of so that we cannot specify, on the grounds of the Hicks conditions alone, whether a shift of demand from dollars to pounds raises or lowers the price of (say) the franc relative to the dollar. But now we are in a position to see the narrow form of the mathematical implications of the Hicks conditions. Consider a shift of demand from the franc (currency j) to the pound (currency i). Then deltaBs / delta alpha = 0 for s not= i, j, while deltaBi / delta alpha = - deltaBj / delta alpha >0 in view of (16); with no loss of generality we can make deltaBi / delta alpha = - deltaBj / delta alpha = 1. Substitution in (13) then gives the change in the dollar price of the pound and the franc: The Hicks conditions do not provide us with the sign of either (18) or (19), nor, by analogy to (17), should we expect them to. But, by analogy with (14), we should expect the difference to be unambiguous in sign for any system in which units are chosen so that each ps = 1, initially. When demand shifts from the franc to the pound, we should not expect to be able to predict the sign of the change in the dollar price of the pound or franc, but we should be able to determine, on the basis of the Hicks conditions, the sign of the change in the franc price of the pound, the expression given in (20). But the Hicks conditions are no help here, and this means that Hicks has not developed the mathematical implications of extending his method to the standard commodity. The same information problem applies, a fortiori, when various subsets of prices are held constant. An implication of the Hicks condition of perfect stability is that a shift of demand onto pounds raises the price of the pound even when various currencies remain pegged to the dollar; this amounts to treating the dollar and the other currencies pegged to it as a composite currency. By analogy the price of the pound should rise when demand shifts from a currency other than the dollar, say, the franc, while other currencies (for example, the mark) are pegged to the franc. Thus consider a shift of demand, at constant exchange rates, among three currencies i, j and k, such that and every other deltaBr / delta alpha = 0. Then, from (13), we have Applying the restrictions that and setting we can deduce the change in price of the pound relative to the mark and franc. where A is the sum of the cofactors of the elements in the following matrix: The cofactor of, say, the element Deltajk can be related to the second cofactors of Delta by Jacobi's ratio theorem, so that A /Delta can be written entirely as the sum of second cofactors, and (24) can be rewritten The inequality sign should hold if an increase in demand for one country's currency occurs at the expense of any other country, one other currency price remaining constant relative to that country. But the mathematical information is not given to us by the Hicks conditions. The reason is that the mathematical implications of the Hicks method have not been developed with respect to the currency adopted as numéraire.l0 When we do extend Hicks' method to make it " symmetrical " with respect to the numéraire (appreciating, say, the pound relative to, say, the franc, allowing various subsets of other currency markets to adjust), we get, of course, a set of conditions that specifies the signs of terms like those in (20) and (25). Along with the Hicks conditions, which can be written [The next term requires that the ratio of the denominator of the second ratio and the sum of sixteen third minors be negative, and so on for successive ratios. The last term in the conditions of (27) specifies that the sum of the (n-l)th minors (n2 in number) be negative. But the (n-l)th minors are equivalent to the elements in the original determinant, so the last condition simply requires that the s

the dollar and the other currencies pegged to it as a composite currency. By analogy the price of the pound should rise when demand shifts from a currency other than the dollar, say, the franc, while other currencies (for example, the mark) are pegged to the franc. Thus consider a shift of demand, at constant exchange rates, among three currencies i, j and k, such that and every other deltaBr / delta alpha = 0. Then, from (13), we have Applying the restrictions that and setting we can deduce the change in price of the pound relative to the mark and franc. where A is the sum of the cofactors of the elements in the following matrix: The cofactor of, say, the element Deltajk can be related to the second cofactors of Delta by Jacobi's ratio theorem, so that A /Delta can be written entirely as the sum of second cofactors, and (24) can be rewritten The inequality sign should hold if an increase in demand for one country's currency occurs at the expense of any other country, one other currency price remaining constant relative to that country. But the mathematical information is not given to us by the Hicks conditions. The reason is that the mathematical implications of the Hicks method have not been developed with respect to the currency adopted as numéraire.l0 When we do extend Hicks' method to make it " symmetrical " with respect to the numéraire (appreciating, say, the pound relative to, say, the franc, allowing various subsets of other currency markets to adjust), we get, of course, a set of conditions that specifies the signs of terms like those in (20) and (25). Along with the Hicks conditions, which can be written [The next term requires that the ratio of the denominator of the second ratio and the sum of sixteen third minors be negative, and so on for successive ratios. The last term in the conditions of (27) specifies that the sum of the (n-l)th minors (n2 in number) be negative. But the (n-l)th minors are equivalent to the elements in the original determinant, so the last condition simply requires that the sum of all the elements in the original determinant Delta be negative.] This suggests an alternative-and simpler-way of developing the generalized conditions. Consider the augmented determinant formed by bordering Delta with its column and row sums, with a change of sign, so that Then the extended Hicks conditions can be stated simply as the requirement that principal minors of B arranged in successive order oscillate in sign, except for the (singular) determinant B itself.11 Because the elements in the augmented determinant B are interdependent the generalized conditions can be expressed entirely in terms of the elements of the "normalized" determinant Delta. The supplemental conditions are with the last condition reducing to the basic determinant Delta itself. These forms are equivalent to (30) and imply the signs of the ratios in (27). This representation has the intuitive appeal of starting with the matrix of all the currencies in the system.l2 Thus, instead of omitting the numéraire currency at the outset, we start with a nonnormalized system of n + 1 currencies, exchange rates being expressed in terms of an abstract unit of account (for example, IMF par values), and apply the Hicks conditions allowing each currency the role of numéraire in turn. The above conditions are more general than the Hicks conditions. Yet they still do not exhaust the information inherent in the Hicks methodology. The Hicks method of holding various subsets of prices constant with respect to one another can be regarded as a device for constructing "composite commodities"; in the present context of currencies, we shall describe them as "currency areas." Now if we apply the Hicks method to a system based on arbitrary arrangements of countries in the currency areas, we get a further generalization of the results obtained by Hicks. When, for example, the mark is pegged to the dollar (the numéraire), the dollar and mark constitute a currency area. But there is no reason to restrict the formation of currency areas in a unidirectional attac

um of all the elements in the original determinant Delta be negative.] This suggests an alternative-and simpler-way of developing the generalized conditions. Consider the augmented determinant formed by bordering Delta with its column and row sums, with a change of sign, so that Then the extended Hicks conditions can be stated simply as the requirement that principal minors of B arranged in successive order oscillate in sign, except for the (singular) determinant B itself.11 Because the elements in the augmented determinant B are interdependent the generalized conditions can be expressed entirely in terms of the elements of the "normalized" determinant Delta. The supplemental conditions are with the last condition reducing to the basic determinant Delta itself. These forms are equivalent to (30) and imply the signs of the ratios in (27). This representation has the intuitive appeal of starting with the matrix of all the currencies in the system.l2 Thus, instead of omitting the numéraire currency at the outset, we start with a nonnormalized system of n + 1 currencies, exchange rates being expressed in terms of an abstract unit of account (for example, IMF par values), and apply the Hicks conditions allowing each currency the role of numéraire in turn. The above conditions are more general than the Hicks conditions. Yet they still do not exhaust the information inherent in the Hicks methodology. The Hicks method of holding various subsets of prices constant with respect to one another can be regarded as a device for constructing "composite commodities"; in the present context of currencies, we shall describe them as "currency areas." Now if we apply the Hicks method to a system based on arbitrary arrangements of countries in the currency areas, we get a further generalization of the results obtained by Hicks. When, for example, the mark is pegged to the dollar (the numéraire), the dollar and mark constitute a currency area. But there is no reason to restrict the formation of currency areas in a unidirectional attachment to the dollar. A group of currencies could be "attached" to the pound or the franc or any other currency, in principle. More importantly, we can then allow entire currency areas to appreciate and require that the balance of payments of the areas worsen, while various subsets of other currencies in the currency areas remain unchanged.13 The remarkable fact is that the conditions resulting from making arbitrary currency alignments among the (nondollar) countries and applying the Hicks method to the resulting matrix incorporate the conditions just developed as a special case. Thus consider the denominator of the first term in (27), This term is the result of combining the ith and jth currencies together to form a currency area of those two countries. With no loss of generality we can write i = 1 and j = 2. Then if the first and second rows and columns are replaced by their combined rows and columns, we have as can be proved by straightforward expansion. Similarly, it can be shown that the denominator of the second term in (27) is the determinant formed by replacing the ith, jth, and kth rows and columns of Delta by the amalgamated row and column. When we now carry out Hicks' method for arbitrary arrangements of currency areas, extended over the whole range of currencies, we get a new set of conditions on the original (n x n) price matrix. These conditions can be expressed in a triangular arrangement of principal minors as follows: The conditions on the left side of the stability triangle are the conditions of perfect stability Hicks developed; they do not provide the information implicit in extending the analysis to the numéraire commodity. The conditions on the base of the triangle result from extending the Hicksian method to the numéraire; they ignore the experiments resulting from allowing currency areas to appreciate. Finally, the conditions on the right side of the triangle are the conditions applicable when various sets of prices are raised in the same proportion, other prices remaining constant. More ge

hment to the dollar. A group of currencies could be "attached" to the pound or the franc or any other currency, in principle. More importantly, we can then allow entire currency areas to appreciate and require that the balance of payments of the areas worsen, while various subsets of other currencies in the currency areas remain unchanged.13 The remarkable fact is that the conditions resulting from making arbitrary currency alignments among the (nondollar) countries and applying the Hicks method to the resulting matrix incorporate the conditions just developed as a special case. Thus consider the denominator of the first term in (27), This term is the result of combining the ith and jth currencies together to form a currency area of those two countries. With no loss of generality we can write i = 1 and j = 2. Then if the first and second rows and columns are replaced by their combined rows and columns, we have as can be proved by straightforward expansion. Similarly, it can be shown that the denominator of the second term in (27) is the determinant formed by replacing the ith, jth, and kth rows and columns of Delta by the amalgamated row and column. When we now carry out Hicks' method for arbitrary arrangements of currency areas, extended over the whole range of currencies, we get a new set of conditions on the original (n x n) price matrix. These conditions can be expressed in a triangular arrangement of principal minors as follows: The conditions on the left side of the stability triangle are the conditions of perfect stability Hicks developed; they do not provide the information implicit in extending the analysis to the numéraire commodity. The conditions on the base of the triangle result from extending the Hicksian method to the numéraire; they ignore the experiments resulting from allowing currency areas to appreciate. Finally, the conditions on the right side of the triangle are the conditions applicable when various sets of prices are raised in the same proportion, other prices remaining constant. More generally, the Hicks conditions on the left correspond to Hicksian adjustments when each currency (commodity) is treated in isolation; the adjacent conditions to their right are the Hicksian conditions when in the ith and ith goods move in the same proportion; and so on. The entire set of conditions are needed if the logic of Hicks' method is carried out to the bitter end.14 An important implication of the general conditions is that a system satisfying the Hicks conditions, but not the general conditions, will be stable or unstable depending on which currency is adopted as the key currency.15 Consider, for example, a world of three currencies, dollars (currency 0), pounds (currency 1), and francs (currency 2), and suppose that the balances of payments of the three countries are related to exchange rates according to the equations where the exchange rates are defined in, and the Bi are expressed in, an abstract unit of account (IMF par value units). (Equilibrium exchange rates are unity or any multiple of unity, as the system is homogenous of degree 0.) Let us consider a dynamic system in which the dollar is constant with respect to its par value so that the dollar becomes the effective numéraire. Let the par values of the pound and franc adjust in proportion to B1 and B2, respectively. We then have the following dynamic system: In this system, the Hicks conditions of perfect stability, narrowly interpreted, are satisfied (since b11 = -2 < 0, b22 = -1 < 0), and and the system is dynamically stable regardless of the (positive and finite) values of kl and k2 . Consider, however, a system in which the par value of the franc is fixed so that it becomes the "key currency " instead of the dollar. The dynamic system then becomes for which the Hicks conditions are not satisfied, It is dynamically stable or unstable according to whether k0 >< 4kl . This result could be predicted at once by applying the general conditions as given in the stability triangle (32). The sum of the coefficients in (34a) are positive, so the genera

nerally, the Hicks conditions on the left correspond to Hicksian adjustments when each currency (commodity) is treated in isolation; the adjacent conditions to their right are the Hicksian conditions when in the ith and ith goods move in the same proportion; and so on. The entire set of conditions are needed if the logic of Hicks' method is carried out to the bitter end.14 An important implication of the general conditions is that a system satisfying the Hicks conditions, but not the general conditions, will be stable or unstable depending on which currency is adopted as the key currency.15 Consider, for example, a world of three currencies, dollars (currency 0), pounds (currency 1), and francs (currency 2), and suppose that the balances of payments of the three countries are related to exchange rates according to the equations where the exchange rates are defined in, and the Bi are expressed in, an abstract unit of account (IMF par value units). (Equilibrium exchange rates are unity or any multiple of unity, as the system is homogenous of degree 0.) Let us consider a dynamic system in which the dollar is constant with respect to its par value so that the dollar becomes the effective numéraire. Let the par values of the pound and franc adjust in proportion to B1 and B2, respectively. We then have the following dynamic system: In this system, the Hicks conditions of perfect stability, narrowly interpreted, are satisfied (since b11 = -2 < 0, b22 = -1 < 0), and and the system is dynamically stable regardless of the (positive and finite) values of kl and k2 . Consider, however, a system in which the par value of the franc is fixed so that it becomes the "key currency " instead of the dollar. The dynamic system then becomes for which the Hicks conditions are not satisfied, It is dynamically stable or unstable according to whether k0 >< 4kl . This result could be predicted at once by applying the general conditions as given in the stability triangle (32). The sum of the coefficients in (34a) are positive, so the general conditions are not satisfied. The general conditions are necessary conditions for a system to be stable regardless of the currency (commodity) chosen as key currency (standard commodity) and regardless of how quickly the various exchange rates adapt to disequilibrium. This proposition is perfectly general in the sense that it is valid in the n-currency case.16 I shall conclude this book by showing how the Hicks conditions, extended as above, can be useful in devising dynamic mechanisms that are "strongly stable." The problem could be approached from the direction of the correspondence principle, which, in a narrow version of it, suggests that we apply to comparative statics the conditions that the characteristic equation of the systems have negative real parts. The justification for this narrow version lies in the observation that the systems we know are not characterized by instability. But there is no reason, in principle, why stronger conditions could not be applied. We could, following Hicks (and Samuelson), require that the system be stable no matter which subsets of market variables are held constant. Alternatively, we could use conditions that the roots be real or complex according to whether we observe cycles in the system under investigation.17 If, for example, we observe an absence of cycles in the real world, we know at once that the Hicks conditions are sufficient conditions for dynamic stability. In the theory of policy (under incomplete information) the problem is often to choose among different dynamic systems, or different degrees of centralization of a given dynamic system; this is often expressed in terms of allocating, dynamically, instruments to targets (the problem of effective market classification), and we may want to construct strongly stable systems: first, because systems near the borderline of stability may become unstable if disturbed by outside shocks; second, because the cost of adjustment may be higher if the system, even though stable, oscillates in its approach to equilibrium; t

l conditions are not satisfied. The general conditions are necessary conditions for a system to be stable regardless of the currency (commodity) chosen as key currency (standard commodity) and regardless of how quickly the various exchange rates adapt to disequilibrium. This proposition is perfectly general in the sense that it is valid in the n-currency case.16 I shall conclude this book by showing how the Hicks conditions, extended as above, can be useful in devising dynamic mechanisms that are "strongly stable." The problem could be approached from the direction of the correspondence principle, which, in a narrow version of it, suggests that we apply to comparative statics the conditions that the characteristic equation of the systems have negative real parts. The justification for this narrow version lies in the observation that the systems we know are not characterized by instability. But there is no reason, in principle, why stronger conditions could not be applied. We could, following Hicks (and Samuelson), require that the system be stable no matter which subsets of market variables are held constant. Alternatively, we could use conditions that the roots be real or complex according to whether we observe cycles in the system under investigation.17 If, for example, we observe an absence of cycles in the real world, we know at once that the Hicks conditions are sufficient conditions for dynamic stability. In the theory of policy (under incomplete information) the problem is often to choose among different dynamic systems, or different degrees of centralization of a given dynamic system; this is often expressed in terms of allocating, dynamically, instruments to targets (the problem of effective market classification), and we may want to construct strongly stable systems: first, because systems near the borderline of stability may become unstable if disturbed by outside shocks; second, because the cost of adjustment may be higher if the system, even though stable, oscillates in its approach to equilibrium; third, because slight errors in manipulating rates of changes in instrumental variables (interest rates, exchange rates, and so on) may turn a weakly stable system into an unstable system; and, finally, because the time involved in approaching equilibrium may be less under strongly stable systems and rapid adjustment may be preferred to slow adjustment. We can consider, therefore, the problem of choosing a dynamic control mechanism with "hyperstable" properties, in the sense that variables rise or fall whenever they are out of equilibrium, and show how the Hicks conditions can be of some help in constructing such a system when the precise location of an equilibrium is not known. We take again as our example an international currency system. In a general hyperstable system it will be necessary to vary exchange rates, taking into account the balances of payments of each country. The problem is to find the weights each central bank should give their own balance of payments disequilibrium and that of the other countries. Let Bi represent, as before, the balance of payments of the ith country, dependent upon the n exchange rates, according to the equation that will make the system hyperstable. (The "speed" kij can be interpreted as the weight that country i has to give to the condition of the balance of payments of the jth country in adjusting its own exchange rate.) It is readily shown that the system (36) is hyperstable if the k's are chosen so that where alphai is a negative real constant and the Deltaji's are, as before, the cofactors of Delta. The condition (37) means that the hyperstable speeds are weighted elements of the inverse of the price matrix. To prove this proposition we need to prove that the dynamic system But, from the properties of any determinant, the typical term has a value of unity for k = i and a value of zero for k not= i. The system (39) therefore reduces to It is instructive to write out the hyperstable system (38) in detail to see clearly the implications of Hicksian perfect stability for dy

hird, because slight errors in manipulating rates of changes in instrumental variables (interest rates, exchange rates, and so on) may turn a weakly stable system into an unstable system; and, finally, because the time involved in approaching equilibrium may be less under strongly stable systems and rapid adjustment may be preferred to slow adjustment. We can consider, therefore, the problem of choosing a dynamic control mechanism with "hyperstable" properties, in the sense that variables rise or fall whenever they are out of equilibrium, and show how the Hicks conditions can be of some help in constructing such a system when the precise location of an equilibrium is not known. We take again as our example an international currency system. In a general hyperstable system it will be necessary to vary exchange rates, taking into account the balances of payments of each country. The problem is to find the weights each central bank should give their own balance of payments disequilibrium and that of the other countries. Let Bi represent, as before, the balance of payments of the ith country, dependent upon the n exchange rates, according to the equation that will make the system hyperstable. (The "speed" kij can be interpreted as the weight that country i has to give to the condition of the balance of payments of the jth country in adjusting its own exchange rate.) It is readily shown that the system (36) is hyperstable if the k's are chosen so that where alphai is a negative real constant and the Deltaji's are, as before, the cofactors of Delta. The condition (37) means that the hyperstable speeds are weighted elements of the inverse of the price matrix. To prove this proposition we need to prove that the dynamic system But, from the properties of any determinant, the typical term has a value of unity for k = i and a value of zero for k not= i. The system (39) therefore reduces to It is instructive to write out the hyperstable system (38) in detail to see clearly the implications of Hicksian perfect stability for dynamics: We shall also find it convenient to consider a reduced system in which we choose the alphai, the rate at which each pi is restored to equilibrium (with a negative sign), to be equal to the corresponding Hicksian conditions of imperfect stability as given in (9), that is, we equate Two observations can immediately be made about (44). First, if the elements of the inverse matrix all have the same sign, hyperstability implies that positive weights be assigned to each balance of payments. Thus, "Britain" should depreciate (appreciate) more rapidly the greater the deficits (surpluses) in the balance of payments of other countries, for any given deficit in her own balance (this implies corresponding changes in the U.S. balance). But from Mosak's theorem the elements in the inverse will all have the same sign if the original currency matrix [bij] is a gross substitute matrix provided [bij] is Hicksian; and it will be Hicksian provided the dollar is also (reciprocally) a substitute for all other currencies. The second point to notice about (44) is that " Britain" should attach less weight to the balance of payments of other countries' currencies than to her own balance if currencies are all substitutes for one another; this follows because every ratio Deltaji / Deltaii < 1 for j not= 1.19 Leaving now the special case of the gross substitutes to return to the more general case represented by equations (42), we can find immediate implications of the Hicks conditions. First, if the Hicks conditions are satisfied, " normal" adjustments are implied in the sense that, ceteris paribus, a deficit in a country's balance of payments suggests depreciation and a surplus appreciation; this follows because every kii = Deltaii /Delta > 0 given the Hicks conditions of imperfect stability and alpha i< 0. But more than this can be said. The following identities have to hold, from our definitions and Jacobi's ratio theorem: the inequality following at once from the Hicks conditions of perfect stability. Proceeding to the last term

namics: We shall also find it convenient to consider a reduced system in which we choose the alphai, the rate at which each pi is restored to equilibrium (with a negative sign), to be equal to the corresponding Hicksian conditions of imperfect stability as given in (9), that is, we equate Two observations can immediately be made about (44). First, if the elements of the inverse matrix all have the same sign, hyperstability implies that positive weights be assigned to each balance of payments. Thus, "Britain" should depreciate (appreciate) more rapidly the greater the deficits (surpluses) in the balance of payments of other countries, for any given deficit in her own balance (this implies corresponding changes in the U.S. balance). But from Mosak's theorem the elements in the inverse will all have the same sign if the original currency matrix [bij] is a gross substitute matrix provided [bij] is Hicksian; and it will be Hicksian provided the dollar is also (reciprocally) a substitute for all other currencies. The second point to notice about (44) is that " Britain" should attach less weight to the balance of payments of other countries' currencies than to her own balance if currencies are all substitutes for one another; this follows because every ratio Deltaji / Deltaii < 1 for j not= 1.19 Leaving now the special case of the gross substitutes to return to the more general case represented by equations (42), we can find immediate implications of the Hicks conditions. First, if the Hicks conditions are satisfied, " normal" adjustments are implied in the sense that, ceteris paribus, a deficit in a country's balance of payments suggests depreciation and a surplus appreciation; this follows because every kii = Deltaii /Delta > 0 given the Hicks conditions of imperfect stability and alpha i< 0. But more than this can be said. The following identities have to hold, from our definitions and Jacobi's ratio theorem: the inequality following at once from the Hicks conditions of perfect stability. Proceeding to the last term we have More generally, if the basic matrix [bij] is Hicksian, the matrix of the speeds required for hyperstability must satisfy the conditions that every principal minor be positive, that is, Analogous conditions hold for the extended Hicks conditions if the system is to be hyperstable regardless of the currency used as the key currency. In this sense the Hicks conditions alone are sufficient to establish in a weak sense the correctness of exchange rate policies directed at correcting "own" balances of payments. These developments conform to the conclusions of economic intuition indeed, they may be interpreted as bringing the mathematical treatment of the subject closer to the level of common sense. They nevertheless suggest that the Hicksian stability analysis is not lacking in significance for the integration of dynamical and statical theory.20, 2l 1 Adapted from: a forthcoming article in Essays in Honor of Sir John R. Hicks (N. Wolfe, ed.). 2 I am happy to acknowledge many helpful conversations on the subject matter of this chapter with J. C. Weldon of McGill University. 3 Strictly, the problem is not trivial even in the case of exchange of two commodities; first, because of complications associated with the possibility of time derivatives of various orders of price changes entering the excess demand (X) functions, in a system such as second, because of nonlinearities in the excess demand function; and, third, because market exchange of two commodities among many people may involve adjustments of quantities toward budget constraints, giving rise to the more complicated dynamics such as Marshall postulated in his foreign trade analysis. 4 Let Xi = Xi(p, . . ., pn) be the excess demand functions for commodities i = 1, . . ., n. By differentiation . Solving for the dpi we get , where Delta is the determinant of the system and Deltaji, its first cofactors. When all other prices adapt so that every dXj = 0 except dXi, we have the solutions dpi = (Deltaii /Delta) dXi; if various prices k, . . ., n, are held constan

we have More generally, if the basic matrix [bij] is Hicksian, the matrix of the speeds required for hyperstability must satisfy the conditions that every principal minor be positive, that is, Analogous conditions hold for the extended Hicks conditions if the system is to be hyperstable regardless of the currency used as the key currency. In this sense the Hicks conditions alone are sufficient to establish in a weak sense the correctness of exchange rate policies directed at correcting "own" balances of payments. These developments conform to the conclusions of economic intuition indeed, they may be interpreted as bringing the mathematical treatment of the subject closer to the level of common sense. They nevertheless suggest that the Hicksian stability analysis is not lacking in significance for the integration of dynamical and statical theory.20, 2l 1 Adapted from: a forthcoming article in Essays in Honor of Sir John R. Hicks (N. Wolfe, ed.). 2 I am happy to acknowledge many helpful conversations on the subject matter of this chapter with J. C. Weldon of McGill University. 3 Strictly, the problem is not trivial even in the case of exchange of two commodities; first, because of complications associated with the possibility of time derivatives of various orders of price changes entering the excess demand (X) functions, in a system such as second, because of nonlinearities in the excess demand function; and, third, because market exchange of two commodities among many people may involve adjustments of quantities toward budget constraints, giving rise to the more complicated dynamics such as Marshall postulated in his foreign trade analysis. 4 Let Xi = Xi(p, . . ., pn) be the excess demand functions for commodities i = 1, . . ., n. By differentiation . Solving for the dpi we get , where Delta is the determinant of the system and Deltaji, its first cofactors. When all other prices adapt so that every dXj = 0 except dXi, we have the solutions dpi = (Deltaii /Delta) dXi; if various prices k, . . ., n, are held constant with respect to the numéraire we get instead Imperfect stability requires that Deltaii /Delta < 0 for i = 1, . . ., n, whereas perfect stability requires that Deltaii,kk, ... ,nn / Delta kk ... ,nn < 0 for any subset of commodities k, ...,n, excluding commodity i. The Hicksian perfect stability conditions are thus the first condition being the condition of imperfect stability. 5 It is slightly ironic that Marshall in his 1879 manuscript on foreign trade utilized the link between dynamics processes and stability, but not explicitly the link between stability and comparative statics, whereas Hicks utilized the link between stability and comparative statics but not the link between dynamics and stability. Samuelson used both links in his integration of dynamics and statics. 6 Actually, Metzler's example (p. 285) that the Hicks conditions are not sufficient for stability to be independent of the speeds of adjustment contains a numerical error that mars his demonstration [the second cubic of his footnote 12 should read lambda3 + 4lambda2 + 3.4lambda + 13.2 = 0 instead of lambda3 + 4lambda2 + 2.6lambda + 13.2 = 0 and in the first (correct) cubic the Routh conditions are satisfied]. But a slight adjustment to his counterexample can nevertheless demonstrate his point. If, for example, speeds are chosen so that, in his terminology, kl = k3 = 1, giving the cubic lambda3 + (2 + k2)lambda2 + (1+ 1.2k2) lambda + 6.6k2 = 0, the Routh conditions will not be satisfied for values of k2 somewhat less than 1. 7 In this connection Samuelson writes (, p. 554): "In principle the Hicks procedure is clearly wrong, although in some empirical cases it may be useful to make the hypothesis that the equilibrium is stable even without the 'equilibrating action' of some variable which may be arbitrarily held constant." Samuelson provides an example in connection with the Keynesian system later in his paper. 8 See, for example, Mundell and the references there to the principle of effective market classification. 9 See page 111 for a list of

t with respect to the numéraire we get instead Imperfect stability requires that Deltaii /Delta < 0 for i = 1, . . ., n, whereas perfect stability requires that Deltaii,kk, ... ,nn / Delta kk ... ,nn < 0 for any subset of commodities k, ...,n, excluding commodity i. The Hicksian perfect stability conditions are thus the first condition being the condition of imperfect stability. 5 It is slightly ironic that Marshall in his 1879 manuscript on foreign trade utilized the link between dynamics processes and stability, but not explicitly the link between stability and comparative statics, whereas Hicks utilized the link between stability and comparative statics but not the link between dynamics and stability. Samuelson used both links in his integration of dynamics and statics. 6 Actually, Metzler's example (p. 285) that the Hicks conditions are not sufficient for stability to be independent of the speeds of adjustment contains a numerical error that mars his demonstration [the second cubic of his footnote 12 should read lambda3 + 4lambda2 + 3.4lambda + 13.2 = 0 instead of lambda3 + 4lambda2 + 2.6lambda + 13.2 = 0 and in the first (correct) cubic the Routh conditions are satisfied]. But a slight adjustment to his counterexample can nevertheless demonstrate his point. If, for example, speeds are chosen so that, in his terminology, kl = k3 = 1, giving the cubic lambda3 + (2 + k2)lambda2 + (1+ 1.2k2) lambda + 6.6k2 = 0, the Routh conditions will not be satisfied for values of k2 somewhat less than 1. 7 In this connection Samuelson writes (, p. 554): "In principle the Hicks procedure is clearly wrong, although in some empirical cases it may be useful to make the hypothesis that the equilibrium is stable even without the 'equilibrating action' of some variable which may be arbitrarily held constant." Samuelson provides an example in connection with the Keynesian system later in his paper. 8 See, for example, Mundell and the references there to the principle of effective market classification. 9 See page 111 for a list of economists who signed the petition. 10 This is perhaps apparent immediately, since the Hicks conditions can be expressed in terms of the commodity chosen as numéraire, the excess demand for which is never allowed to go to zero. On this point (but without apparent recognition of its implications) see Lange (, p. 92). 11 More compactly, we can state the conditions as requiring that every first minor of B be "Hicksian." Not all the conditions are independent, however, since B00 = B11 = Bnn in view of the characteristics of B. 12 One might think that Hicks really intended his conditions to extend over the entire range of excess demand coefficients (including the numéraire), this would be incorrect since the last (augmented) determinant is singular. Alternatively, it might be thought that Hicks intended the conditions to apply no matter what commodity were taken as numéraire. The latter interpretation seems to be fortified by a footnote which states ( p. 75): " [this] can be seen at once if we adopt the device of treating X (momentarily) as the standard commodity, and therefore regarding the increased demand for X as an increased supply of the old standard commodity m ...." If this device were adopted to derive the Hicks conditions it would indeed result in conditions equivalent to the above stability conditions. Yet this interpretation would conflict, not only with all subsequent interpretations of the Hicks conditions by other writers on stability, but also with Hicks' own explicit statement in the Mathematical Appendix (p. 315), which specifies that the conditions must hold "for the market in every Xr (r = 1, 2, 3, . . ., n-1)"; that is, the market for the numéraire (the nth commodity) is omitted, In any case his discussion on pages 68-71 fails to make the point clear, while his third graph in Figure 16, which he asserts is stable, is actually totally stable only if the line along which there is zero excess demand for the standard commodity (not drawn in his figures) is inelastic referred to the abscissa. The discu

economists who signed the petition. 10 This is perhaps apparent immediately, since the Hicks conditions can be expressed in terms of the commodity chosen as numéraire, the excess demand for which is never allowed to go to zero. On this point (but without apparent recognition of its implications) see Lange (, p. 92). 11 More compactly, we can state the conditions as requiring that every first minor of B be "Hicksian." Not all the conditions are independent, however, since B00 = B11 = Bnn in view of the characteristics of B. 12 One might think that Hicks really intended his conditions to extend over the entire range of excess demand coefficients (including the numéraire), this would be incorrect since the last (augmented) determinant is singular. Alternatively, it might be thought that Hicks intended the conditions to apply no matter what commodity were taken as numéraire. The latter interpretation seems to be fortified by a footnote which states ( p. 75): " [this] can be seen at once if we adopt the device of treating X (momentarily) as the standard commodity, and therefore regarding the increased demand for X as an increased supply of the old standard commodity m ...." If this device were adopted to derive the Hicks conditions it would indeed result in conditions equivalent to the above stability conditions. Yet this interpretation would conflict, not only with all subsequent interpretations of the Hicks conditions by other writers on stability, but also with Hicks' own explicit statement in the Mathematical Appendix (p. 315), which specifies that the conditions must hold "for the market in every Xr (r = 1, 2, 3, . . ., n-1)"; that is, the market for the numéraire (the nth commodity) is omitted, In any case his discussion on pages 68-71 fails to make the point clear, while his third graph in Figure 16, which he asserts is stable, is actually totally stable only if the line along which there is zero excess demand for the standard commodity (not drawn in his figures) is inelastic referred to the abscissa. The discussion is not completely clear, however, and I am therefore inclined to interpret Hicks as actually intending to give full coverage to the numéraire but not completing the mathematical implications of doing so. 13 I have considered the problem of " optimum" currency areas in terms of its attributes for stabilization policy, optimum exploitation of the functions of money, and so on in Chapter 12; the present analysis suggests an additional criterion in terms of stability conditions. 14 Stability conditions should, in principle, be "invariants" in the sense that they are independent of the choice of units in which commodities are measured; this corresponds to Lange's "principle of invariance" (, p. 103). The above stability conditions are invariants only if, as is assumed in the case of the foreign exchange market analysis, the bij's are all measured in equivalent currency units. In the general case, however, where prices respond to excess demands denominated in physical quantity units, the units in which bij( j = 1, . . ., n) is measured differ from the units in which bkj(j = 1, . . ., n) is measured. This means that invariant stability conditions require that each row of every stability determinant involving the sum of elements be multiplied by an arbitrary number reflecting units of measurement. Thus "unit-invariant" stability in the general case involves the sign of terms such as For arbitrary values of ki and kj extended over the entire range of the (n+ 1) x (n+ 1)-B determinant, and given the homogeneity postulate, the general conditions then imply that all goods are gross substitutes. 15 From a historical point of view, it is somewhat amusing that although the Hicks conditions are not symmetrical with respect to the commodity chosen as numéraire, neither are the (normalized) dynamic systems used to refute the validity of the Hicks conditions as true dynamic stability conditions. 16 The proof in the general case follows by analogy to the proof of Metzler (, pp. 280-285) when his method is extended to include t

ssion is not completely clear, however, and I am therefore inclined to interpret Hicks as actually intending to give full coverage to the numéraire but not completing the mathematical implications of doing so. 13 I have considered the problem of " optimum" currency areas in terms of its attributes for stabilization policy, optimum exploitation of the functions of money, and so on in Chapter 12; the present analysis suggests an additional criterion in terms of stability conditions. 14 Stability conditions should, in principle, be "invariants" in the sense that they are independent of the choice of units in which commodities are measured; this corresponds to Lange's "principle of invariance" (, p. 103). The above stability conditions are invariants only if, as is assumed in the case of the foreign exchange market analysis, the bij's are all measured in equivalent currency units. In the general case, however, where prices respond to excess demands denominated in physical quantity units, the units in which bij( j = 1, . . ., n) is measured differ from the units in which bkj(j = 1, . . ., n) is measured. This means that invariant stability conditions require that each row of every stability determinant involving the sum of elements be multiplied by an arbitrary number reflecting units of measurement. Thus "unit-invariant" stability in the general case involves the sign of terms such as For arbitrary values of ki and kj extended over the entire range of the (n+ 1) x (n+ 1)-B determinant, and given the homogeneity postulate, the general conditions then imply that all goods are gross substitutes. 15 From a historical point of view, it is somewhat amusing that although the Hicks conditions are not symmetrical with respect to the commodity chosen as numéraire, neither are the (normalized) dynamic systems used to refute the validity of the Hicks conditions as true dynamic stability conditions. 16 The proof in the general case follows by analogy to the proof of Metzler (, pp. 280-285) when his method is extended to include the augmented system. 17 I have applied this method to the problem of disentangling lags in expectational and cash balance adjustments . 18 More directly the matrix equationif k = B-1. The usefulness of this result lies not so much in providing a policy maker with the rules of adjustment, since there is no problem if the basic matrix is known, and the rule gives insufficient information if the basic matrix is not known. The point is rather that pieces of information about the inverse may be sufficient to distract policy makers from mistakes, and that conditions like the Hicks conditions may be a sufficient guide to the relative importance to be attached to particular instruments. 19 I have discussed the implications of this condition in some detail . 20 Even the gap between the true dynamic stability and Hicksian stability may be bridged by integrating Hicksian stability conditions with the "Samuelson-Le Châtelier principle" (see, for example, Samuelson ) which can be expressed entirely in terms of the Hicksian determinants. Hicksian stability and dynamic stability mesh together under appropriate conditions of gross substitutes, gross complements, and symmetry, a common link being sign symmetry; and sign symmetry of the inverse of the basic Hicksian matrix is sufficient for at least one of the Le Châtelier conditions to hold (DeltaDeltaii,jj - DeltaiiDeltajj < 0 if Deltaij and Deltaji, have the same sign). 21 A further implication of the Hicks conditions was called to my attention by Daniel McFadden, who had proved, in a paper presented at the 1963 Econometrica Society meetings in Boston, Massachusetts, that if the Hicks conditions of perfect stability are satisfied, a stable dynamic system of the form can always be found for a diagonal K matrix with positive diagonal coefficients; the result also holds in the global form. Prior to McFadden's result, and unknown to him, a local version of the theorem had been published; see Fisher and Fuller . In the context of the currency problem discussed above, the theorem mea

he augmented system. 17 I have applied this method to the problem of disentangling lags in expectational and cash balance adjustments . 18 More directly the matrix equationif k = B-1. The usefulness of this result lies not so much in providing a policy maker with the rules of adjustment, since there is no problem if the basic matrix is known, and the rule gives insufficient information if the basic matrix is not known. The point is rather that pieces of information about the inverse may be sufficient to distract policy makers from mistakes, and that conditions like the Hicks conditions may be a sufficient guide to the relative importance to be attached to particular instruments. 19 I have discussed the implications of this condition in some detail . 20 Even the gap between the true dynamic stability and Hicksian stability may be bridged by integrating Hicksian stability conditions with the "Samuelson-Le Châtelier principle" (see, for example, Samuelson ) which can be expressed entirely in terms of the Hicksian determinants. Hicksian stability and dynamic stability mesh together under appropriate conditions of gross substitutes, gross complements, and symmetry, a common link being sign symmetry; and sign symmetry of the inverse of the basic Hicksian matrix is sufficient for at least one of the Le Châtelier conditions to hold (DeltaDeltaii,jj - DeltaiiDeltajj < 0 if Deltaij and Deltaji, have the same sign). 21 A further implication of the Hicks conditions was called to my attention by Daniel McFadden, who had proved, in a paper presented at the 1963 Econometrica Society meetings in Boston, Massachusetts, that if the Hicks conditions of perfect stability are satisfied, a stable dynamic system of the form can always be found for a diagonal K matrix with positive diagonal coefficients; the result also holds in the global form. Prior to McFadden's result, and unknown to him, a local version of the theorem had been published; see Fisher and Fuller . In the context of the currency problem discussed above, the theorem means that if the Hicks conditions are satisfied, it is always possible to find a stable dynamic system in which exchange rates are adjusted to " own " balances of payments only. W. J. FELLNER et al., Maintaining and Restoring Balance in International Payments. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966. M. E. FISHER and A. T. FULLER, " On the Stabilization of Matrices and the Convergence of Linear Iterative Processes," Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., 54 (1958). J. R. HICKS, Value and Capital. 2nd ed. Fair Lawn, N.J.: Oxford University Press, 1946. O. LANGE, Price Flexibility and Full Employment. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1944, p. 92. L. A. METZLER, "Stability of Multiple Markets: The Hicks Conditions," Econometrica, 13, 277-292 (Oct. 1945). R. A. MUNDELL, "The Appropriate Use of Monetary and Fiscal Policy for Internal and External Stability," IMF Staff Papers, 9, 70-79 (March 1962). R. A. MUNDELL, "Growth, Stability and Inflationary Finance," Jour. Pol. Econ.. 73. 97-100 (April 1965). R. A. MUNDELL, "The Significance of the Homogeneity Postulate for the Laws of Comparative Statics," Econometrica, 33, 349-356 (April 1965). P. A. SAMUELSON, "The Stability of Equilibrium: Comparative Statics and Dynamics," Econometrica, 9, 97-120 (April 1941). P. A. SAMUELSON, " The Stability of Equilibrium: Linear and Non Linear Systems," Econometrica, 10, 1 (April 1942). P. A. SAMUELSON, " An Extension of the Le Châtelier Principle," Econometrica, 28, 368-379 (April 1960).

ns that if the Hicks conditions are satisfied, it is always possible to find a stable dynamic system in which exchange rates are adjusted to " own " balances of payments only. W. J. FELLNER et al., Maintaining and Restoring Balance in International Payments. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966. M. E. FISHER and A. T. FULLER, " On the Stabilization of Matrices and the Convergence of Linear Iterative Processes," Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., 54 (1958). J. R. HICKS, Value and Capital. 2nd ed. Fair Lawn, N.J.: Oxford University Press, 1946. O. LANGE, Price Flexibility and Full Employment. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1944, p. 92. L. A. METZLER, "Stability of Multiple Markets: The Hicks Conditions," Econometrica, 13, 277-292 (Oct. 1945). R. A. MUNDELL, "The Appropriate Use of Monetary and Fiscal Policy for Internal and External Stability," IMF Staff Papers, 9, 70-79 (March 1962). R. A. MUNDELL, "Growth, Stability and Inflationary Finance," Jour. Pol. Econ.. 73. 97-100 (April 1965). R. A. MUNDELL, "The Significance of the Homogeneity Postulate for the Laws of Comparative Statics," Econometrica, 33, 349-356 (April 1965). P. A. SAMUELSON, "The Stability of Equilibrium: Comparative Statics and Dynamics," Econometrica, 9, 97-120 (April 1941). P. A. SAMUELSON, " The Stability of Equilibrium: Linear and Non Linear Systems," Econometrica, 10, 1 (April 1942). P. A. SAMUELSON, " An Extension of the Le Châtelier Principle," Econometrica, 28, 368-379 (April 1960).

1. Lacking in light. 4. Foul with waste matter. 10. An international organization based in Geneva that monitors and enforces rules governing global trade. 13. Fiddler crabs. 14. Wool of the alpaca. 15. The sense organ for hearing and equilibrium. 16. Lighter consisting of a thin piece of wood or cardboard tipped with combustible chemical. 18. A former copper coin of Pakistan. 19. The elementary stages of any subject (usually plural). 20. The boarding that surrounds an ice hockey rink. 22. Small genus of dioecious tropical aquatic plants. 24. (Sumerian) Goddess personifying earth. 25. Any place of complete bliss and delight and peace. 26. Patterned by having color applied with sweeping strokes. 30. Dry red table wine from the Rioja region of northern Spain. 34. The shape of a bell. 36. Lacking or deprive of the sense of hearing wholly or in part. 37. A radioactive element of the actinide series. 38. The 10th letter of the Hebrew alphabet. 39. The blood group whose red cells carry both the A and B antigens. 41. A metric unit of volume or capacity equal to 10 liters. 42. One-thousandth of an equivalent. 44. (folklore) A corpse that rises at night to drink the blood of the living. 47. Large sweet juicy hybrid between tangerine and grapefruit having a thick wrinkled skin. 50. Obvious and dull. 54. Someone who copies the words or behavior of another. 56. Relating to or characteristic of or occurring in the air. 58. A Hindu prince or king in India. 59. Cubes of meat marinated and cooked on a skewer usually with vegetables. 60. A river in north central Switzerland that runs northeast into the Rhine. 63. Of or relating to or characteristic of Thailand of its people. 64. A complex red organic pigment containing iron and other atoms to which oxygen binds. 66. God of war and sky. 67. Type genus of the Alcidae comprising solely the razorbill. 68. A group of Plains Indians formerly living in what is now North and South Dakota and Nebraska and Kansas and Arkansas and Louisiana and Oklahoma and Texas. 69. An associate degree in applied science. 1. Slow to learn or understand. 2. The United Nations agency concerned with civil aviation. 3. A Chadic language spoken south of Lake Chad. 4. King of Saudi Arabia since 1982 (born in 1922). 5. A silvery ductile metallic element found primarily in bauxite. 6. A federal agency established to coordinate programs aimed at reducing pollution and protecting the environment. 7. Airtight sealed metal container for food or drink or paint etc.. 8. (of complexion) Blemished by imperfections of the skin. 9. (South African) A camp defended by a circular formation of wagons. 10. Impairment resulting from long use. 11. A sock with a separation for the big toe. 12. Predatory black-and-white toothed whale with large dorsal fin. 17. Tender and brittle. 21. Rise or heave upward under the influence of a natural force, as on a wave. 23. A town in north central Oklahoma. 27. A cord that is drawn through eyelets or around hooks in order to draw together two edges (as of a shoe or garment). 28. 10 hao equal 1 dong. 29. Tropical woody herb with showy yellow flowers and flat pods. 31. An unabridged dictionary constructed on historical principles. 32. Immense East Indian fruit resembling breadfruit of. 33. A federation of North American labor unions that merged with the Congress of Industrial Organizations in 1955. 35. A barrier constructed to contain the flow or water or to keep out the sea. 40. Top part of an apron. 43. The French-speaking capital of the province of Quebec. 45. Filled with fear or apprehension. 46. A river in north central Switzerland that runs northeast into the Rhine. 48. Pasture grass of plains of South America and western North America. 49. A state in midwestern United States. 51. Italian chemist noted for work on polymers (1903-1979). 52. A genus of Platalea. 53. (Greek mythology) King of Thebes who was unwittingly killed by his son Oedipus. 55. A deep prolonged sound (as of thunder or large bells). 57. The United Nations agency concerned with atomic energy. 61. (usually followed by `of') Released

applied science. 1. Slow to learn or understand. 2. The United Nations agency concerned with civil aviation. 3. A Chadic language spoken south of Lake Chad. 4. King of Saudi Arabia since 1982 (born in 1922). 5. A silvery ductile metallic element found primarily in bauxite. 6. A federal agency established to coordinate programs aimed at reducing pollution and protecting the environment. 7. Airtight sealed metal container for food or drink or paint etc.. 8. (of complexion) Blemished by imperfections of the skin. 9. (South African) A camp defended by a circular formation of wagons. 10. Impairment resulting from long use. 11. A sock with a separation for the big toe. 12. Predatory black-and-white toothed whale with large dorsal fin. 17. Tender and brittle. 21. Rise or heave upward under the influence of a natural force, as on a wave. 23. A town in north central Oklahoma. 27. A cord that is drawn through eyelets or around hooks in order to draw together two edges (as of a shoe or garment). 28. 10 hao equal 1 dong. 29. Tropical woody herb with showy yellow flowers and flat pods. 31. An unabridged dictionary constructed on historical principles. 32. Immense East Indian fruit resembling breadfruit of. 33. A federation of North American labor unions that merged with the Congress of Industrial Organizations in 1955. 35. A barrier constructed to contain the flow or water or to keep out the sea. 40. Top part of an apron. 43. The French-speaking capital of the province of Quebec. 45. Filled with fear or apprehension. 46. A river in north central Switzerland that runs northeast into the Rhine. 48. Pasture grass of plains of South America and western North America. 49. A state in midwestern United States. 51. Italian chemist noted for work on polymers (1903-1979). 52. A genus of Platalea. 53. (Greek mythology) King of Thebes who was unwittingly killed by his son Oedipus. 55. A deep prolonged sound (as of thunder or large bells). 57. The United Nations agency concerned with atomic energy. 61. (usually followed by `of') Released from something onerous (especially an obligation or duty). 62. The capital and largest city of Japan. 65. A crystalline metallic element not found in nature.

from something onerous (especially an obligation or duty). 62. The capital and largest city of Japan. 65. A crystalline metallic element not found in nature.

Don't treat C02 as a pollutant From higher energy bills to lost jobs, the impact of carbon regulations will hurt us far more than CO2 itself ever could. Grove City, Pa. — A few days before this year's Earth Day, America's ideological greens received a present they have been desiring for years: The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) – responding to a 2007 US Supreme Court ruling – officially designated carbon dioxide (CO2) as a pollutant. That spurred Democrats in Congress to push a major climate change bill. In the next 25 years, their massive cap-and-trade scheme would, according to a Heritage Foundation study, inflict gross domestic product losses of $9.4 trillion, raise an average family's energy bill by $1,241, and destroy some 1,145,000 jobs. Democrats want it passed by July 4. Get ready for a veritable Pandora's box of complications. A generation ago, it was considered great progress against pollution when catalytic converters were added to automobile engines to change poisonous carbon monoxide to benign carbon dioxide. Now, CO2 has been demoted. The EPA's characterization of CO2 as a pollutant brings into question the natural order of things. By the EPA's logic, either God or Mother Nature (whichever creator you believe in) seriously goofed. After all, CO2 is the base of our food chain. "Pollutants" are supposed to be harmful to life, not helpful to it, aren't they? Of course, it is true (although environmentalists often ignore it when trying to ban such useful chemicals as pesticides, insecticides, Alar, PCBs, and others) that "the dose makes the poison." Too much oxygen, for example, poses danger to human life. So what is the "right" concentration of CO2 in our atmosphere? There is no right answer to this question. The concentration of CO2 in Earth's atmosphere fluctuated greatly long before humans appeared on Earth, and that concentration has fluctuated since then, too. The current concentration is approximately 385 parts per million. Some scientists maintain that 1,000 parts per million would provide an ideal atmosphere for plant life, accelerating plant growth and multiplying yields, thereby sustaining far more animal and human life than is currently possible. Whatever standard the EPA selects will be arbitrary. "Forget about the plants," say the greens. "What we're trying to control is how warm Earth's atmosphere gets." To which I reply, "With all due respect, are you kidding me?" As with a "right" concentration of CO2, what is the "right" average global temperature? For 7,000 of the past 10,000 years, Earth was cooler than it is now; mankind prospers more in warm climates than cold climates; and the Antarctic icecap was significantly larger during the warmer mid-Holocene period than it is today. Are you sure warmer is bad or wrong? And how do you propose to regulate Earth's temperature when as much as three-quarters of the variability is due to variations in solar activity, with the remaining one-quarter due to changes in Earth's orbit, axis, and albedo (reflectivity)? This truly is "mission impossible." Mankind can no more regulate Earth's temperature than it can the tides. Even if the "greenhouse effect" were greater than it actually is, the EPA and Congress would be powerless to alter it for several reasons: 1. Human activity accounts for less than 4 percent of global CO2 emissions. 2. CO2 itself accounts for only 10 or 20 percent of the greenhouse effect. This discloses the capricious nature of the EPA's decision to classify CO2 as a pollutant, for if CO2 is a pollutant because it is a greenhouse gas, then the most common greenhouse gas of all – water vapor, which accounts for more than three-quarters of the atmosphere's greenhouse effect – should be regulated, too. The EPA isn't going after water vapor, of course, because then everyone would realize how absurd climate-control regulation really is. 3. Even if Americans were to eliminate their CO2 emissions completely, total human emissions of CO2 would still increase as billions of people around the world continue to develop economically. Clearly, it

e an ideal atmosphere for plant life, accelerating plant growth and multiplying yields, thereby sustaining far more animal and human life than is currently possible. Whatever standard the EPA selects will be arbitrary. "Forget about the plants," say the greens. "What we're trying to control is how warm Earth's atmosphere gets." To which I reply, "With all due respect, are you kidding me?" As with a "right" concentration of CO2, what is the "right" average global temperature? For 7,000 of the past 10,000 years, Earth was cooler than it is now; mankind prospers more in warm climates than cold climates; and the Antarctic icecap was significantly larger during the warmer mid-Holocene period than it is today. Are you sure warmer is bad or wrong? And how do you propose to regulate Earth's temperature when as much as three-quarters of the variability is due to variations in solar activity, with the remaining one-quarter due to changes in Earth's orbit, axis, and albedo (reflectivity)? This truly is "mission impossible." Mankind can no more regulate Earth's temperature than it can the tides. Even if the "greenhouse effect" were greater than it actually is, the EPA and Congress would be powerless to alter it for several reasons: 1. Human activity accounts for less than 4 percent of global CO2 emissions. 2. CO2 itself accounts for only 10 or 20 percent of the greenhouse effect. This discloses the capricious nature of the EPA's decision to classify CO2 as a pollutant, for if CO2 is a pollutant because it is a greenhouse gas, then the most common greenhouse gas of all – water vapor, which accounts for more than three-quarters of the atmosphere's greenhouse effect – should be regulated, too. The EPA isn't going after water vapor, of course, because then everyone would realize how absurd climate-control regulation really is. 3. Even if Americans were to eliminate their CO2 emissions completely, total human emissions of CO2 would still increase as billions of people around the world continue to develop economically. Clearly, it is beyond the ken of mortals to answer the metaquestions about the right concentration of CO2, or the optimal global average temperature, or to control CO2 levels in the atmosphere. I feel sorry for the professionals at the EPA who are now expected to come up with answers for these unanswerable questions. However, I do not feel sorry for the political appointees, like climate czar Carol Browner, because it looks as if they are about to get what they evidently want – the power to increase their power over Americans' lives and pocketbooks via CO2 emission regulations. From higher energy bills to lost jobs, the impact of CO2 regulations will hurt us far more than CO2 itself ever could. Let's nail shut the lid on this Pandora's box before it swings wide open.

is beyond the ken of mortals to answer the metaquestions about the right concentration of CO2, or the optimal global average temperature, or to control CO2 levels in the atmosphere. I feel sorry for the professionals at the EPA who are now expected to come up with answers for these unanswerable questions. However, I do not feel sorry for the political appointees, like climate czar Carol Browner, because it looks as if they are about to get what they evidently want – the power to increase their power over Americans' lives and pocketbooks via CO2 emission regulations. From higher energy bills to lost jobs, the impact of CO2 regulations will hurt us far more than CO2 itself ever could. Let's nail shut the lid on this Pandora's box before it swings wide open.

Stream Water Quality Monitoring Programs A number of federal, state, regional and local governmental agencies monitors the quality of Minnesotaís streams and rivers including the USGS, PCA, DNR, the Metropolitan Council Environmental Services (MCES), and certain local units of government. In addition, a number of citizen groups engages in monitoring activities. Each agency designs its monitoring program to meet its specific needs. Federal Programs. The Water Resources Division of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) currently operates two nationwide stream water-quality monitoring networks, the Hydrologic Benchmark Network and the National Stream Accounting Network (NASQAN). Samples from stations in each program are sampled approximately four or five times during the year and analyzed for the parameters listed in Appendix C. A 20-year record of data exists for most sites. The USGS stores all water-quality data in their WATSTORE database available via STORET, the U.S. EPAís large water-quality database. Requests for small amounts of data from STORET (total costs under $25) may be obtained by contacting the EPA Region 5 Freedom of Information Officer. Data can also be obtained online or from the PCA. There are no fees for this service, except for unusually large data retrievals, and the wait time for most data requests is approximately two weeks. (Contacts for data requests are listed in Appendix B.) The nationwide Hydrologic Benchmark Network Program provides information on baseline water quality conditions. The network consists of a set of stations located in small, pristine drainage basins. Because point source pollution is not a problem in these areas, this program has been especially useful in describing the effects of non-point atmospheric deposition of pollutants on streams. Only one Hydrologic Benchmark Network station is located in Minnesota on the Kawishiwi River near Ely. Another station, located on the North Fork of the Whitewater River, closed in 1993. The National Stream Accounting Network (NASQAN) was established in 1973 to obtain information on the quality and quantity of water draining into the oceans, describe geographic variability in water quality, detect temporal trends, and provide a nationally consistent database. Most NASQAN stations are located at the mouths of rivers and tributaries. As a result, this programís stations are broadly representative of their basins, but they cannot provide specific, detailed data to characterize the basins. This has limited the ability of the program to analyze geographic patterns in water quality. In the early 1990s, this program experienced a significant reduction in size declining from ten NASQAN stations in Minnesota in 1993 to four in 1994. Existing stations are located on the Minnesota River at Jordan, the Mississippi River at Royalton and Nininger, and the St. Louis River at Scanlon. Figure 5.1 shows the locations of the NASQAN stations, the USGS Hydrological benchmark stations and other USGS water quality monitoring stations. Figure 5.1 Locations of NASQAN, USGS Hydrological Benchmark and other water quality monitoring stations. U.S. Geological Survey, 1993. To assess the quality of the nationís surface and ground water, the National Water-Quality Assessment Program (NAQWA) began in 1991. The program was designed to describe the status and identify trends in water quality and identify natural and anthropogenic factors affecting water quality. The scope of the program is large, covering approximately 60 to 70% of the water used by the entire U.S. population. This information will provide water managers and policy makers with a better understanding of the geographic differences water quality and concomitant causes. Two basins that lie partially within Minnesota are being studied as part of NAWQA: the Red River of the North Basin and the Mississippi Basin in the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area. The Red River of the North project began in 1991 and the Mississippi River project in 1994. Both projects were recently completed. USGS Water Resources Investigations

stablished in 1973 to obtain information on the quality and quantity of water draining into the oceans, describe geographic variability in water quality, detect temporal trends, and provide a nationally consistent database. Most NASQAN stations are located at the mouths of rivers and tributaries. As a result, this programís stations are broadly representative of their basins, but they cannot provide specific, detailed data to characterize the basins. This has limited the ability of the program to analyze geographic patterns in water quality. In the early 1990s, this program experienced a significant reduction in size declining from ten NASQAN stations in Minnesota in 1993 to four in 1994. Existing stations are located on the Minnesota River at Jordan, the Mississippi River at Royalton and Nininger, and the St. Louis River at Scanlon. Figure 5.1 shows the locations of the NASQAN stations, the USGS Hydrological benchmark stations and other USGS water quality monitoring stations. Figure 5.1 Locations of NASQAN, USGS Hydrological Benchmark and other water quality monitoring stations. U.S. Geological Survey, 1993. To assess the quality of the nationís surface and ground water, the National Water-Quality Assessment Program (NAQWA) began in 1991. The program was designed to describe the status and identify trends in water quality and identify natural and anthropogenic factors affecting water quality. The scope of the program is large, covering approximately 60 to 70% of the water used by the entire U.S. population. This information will provide water managers and policy makers with a better understanding of the geographic differences water quality and concomitant causes. Two basins that lie partially within Minnesota are being studied as part of NAWQA: the Red River of the North Basin and the Mississippi Basin in the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area. The Red River of the North project began in 1991 and the Mississippi River project in 1994. Both projects were recently completed. USGS Water Resources Investigations Reports contain information summarizing the water quality of the basin. (See reports 3 and 4 in this series of WRC River reports for further information on these studies.)

Reports contain information summarizing the water quality of the basin. (See reports 3 and 4 in this series of WRC River reports for further information on these studies.)

- What Is a Blue Screen Error? - Troubleshooting Common Blue Screen Error Messages - 0x000000ED and 0x0000007B - 0x0000007E and 0x0000008E - Using the Windows Debugger This article describes what Blue Screen errors are, why they occur, how to recognize them, and how to resolve some of the more common error messages. This article is specific to Microsoft Windows 7. Click below to change the operating system. Resolving stop (blue screen) errors in Windows 7 (Microsoft Content) When Windows encounters certain situations, it halts and the resulting diagnostic information is displayed in white text on a blue screen. The appearance of these errors is where the term "Blue Screen" or "Blue Screen of Death" has come from. Blue Screen errors occur when: - Windows detects an error it cannot recover from without losing data - Windows detects that critical OS data has become corrupted - Windows detects that hardware has failed in a non-recoverable fashion - The exact text displayed has changed over the years from a dense wall of information in Windows NT 4.0 to the comparatively sparse message employed by modern versions of Windows. These two errors have similar causes and the same troubleshooting steps apply to both of them. These stop codes always occur during the startup process. When you encounter one of these stop codes, the following has happened: - The system has completed the Power-On Self-Test (POST). - The system has loaded NTLDR and transferred control of the startup process to NTOSKRNL (the kernel). - NTOSKRNL is confused. Either it cannot find the rest of itself, or it cannot read the file system at the location it believes it is stored. When troubleshooting this error, your task is to find out why the Windows kernel is confused and fix the cause of the confusion. Things to check - The SATA controller configuration in the system BIOS If the SATA controller gets toggled from ATA to AHCI mode (or vice versa), then Windows will not be able to talk to the SATA controller because the different modes require different drivers. Try toggling the SATA controller mode in the BIOS. - RAID settings You may receive this error if you've been experimenting with the RAID controller settings. Try changing the RAID settings back to Autodetect (usually accurate). - Improperly or poorly seated cabling Try reseating the data cables that connect the drive and its controller at both ends. - Hard drive failure Run the built-in diagnostics on the hard drive. Remember: Code 7 signifies correctable data corruption, not disk failure. - File system corruption Launch the recovery console from the Windows installation disc and run chkdsk /f /r. - Improperly configured BOOT.INI (Windows Vista). If you have inadvertently erased or tinkered with the boot.ini file, you may receive stop code 0x7B during the startup process. Launch the recovery console from the Windows installation disc and run BOOTCFG /REBUILD This stop code indicates the NTFS file system driver encountered a situation it could not handle, and is almost always caused by 3 things: - Data corruption on the disk - Data corruption in memory - The system completely running out of memory (this typically only happens on heavily-loaded servers) Things to check - Reseat the memory and all drive data cables to eliminate data corruption issues stemming from poorly or improperly seated hardware. - Run a complete memory and hard drive diagnostic. The quick test will not be thorough enough here. You need to run the full system diagnostic. - If those diagnostics pass, run a full file system check from the Recovery Console (chkdsk /f /r) to detect and (potentially) fix any corrupted data. - If none of the above solves the issue, reinstall Windows. - If that does not fix the issue, replace the hard drive. These two errors indicate that a program running in the kernel encountered an unexpected condition it could not recover from. They have identical troubleshooting and resolution steps, and you will probably need to use the Windows Debugger to find out what caused the error. Things to check - If the Blue Sc

drivers. Try toggling the SATA controller mode in the BIOS. - RAID settings You may receive this error if you've been experimenting with the RAID controller settings. Try changing the RAID settings back to Autodetect (usually accurate). - Improperly or poorly seated cabling Try reseating the data cables that connect the drive and its controller at both ends. - Hard drive failure Run the built-in diagnostics on the hard drive. Remember: Code 7 signifies correctable data corruption, not disk failure. - File system corruption Launch the recovery console from the Windows installation disc and run chkdsk /f /r. - Improperly configured BOOT.INI (Windows Vista). If you have inadvertently erased or tinkered with the boot.ini file, you may receive stop code 0x7B during the startup process. Launch the recovery console from the Windows installation disc and run BOOTCFG /REBUILD This stop code indicates the NTFS file system driver encountered a situation it could not handle, and is almost always caused by 3 things: - Data corruption on the disk - Data corruption in memory - The system completely running out of memory (this typically only happens on heavily-loaded servers) Things to check - Reseat the memory and all drive data cables to eliminate data corruption issues stemming from poorly or improperly seated hardware. - Run a complete memory and hard drive diagnostic. The quick test will not be thorough enough here. You need to run the full system diagnostic. - If those diagnostics pass, run a full file system check from the Recovery Console (chkdsk /f /r) to detect and (potentially) fix any corrupted data. - If none of the above solves the issue, reinstall Windows. - If that does not fix the issue, replace the hard drive. These two errors indicate that a program running in the kernel encountered an unexpected condition it could not recover from. They have identical troubleshooting and resolution steps, and you will probably need to use the Windows Debugger to find out what caused the error. Things to check - If the Blue Screen message mentions a driver or library file, figure out what driver or application that file is part of and update or disable it. - Update the system BIOS to the latest available revision. - Uninstall any recently installed programs, and roll-back any recently installed drivers. - Run diagnostics on the computer's memory. This stop code means the system tried to access a nonexistent piece of memory, almost always due to: - A driver trying to access a page of memory that is not present - A system service (ex. virus scanner) failing in an exceptional way - Faulty or incorrectly seated memory - Corrupted data on the hard drive Use the Windows Debugger to pinpoint the exact cause of these errors. Things to check - If the Blue Screen error mentions a driver or library file, figure out what driver or program the file is a part of and either upgrade to the latest version or uninstall the driver or program. - If the error happens during the startup process, try booting to the Last Known Good Configuration. - If the error started appearing after a program or driver was installed, uninstall that program or driver. - Try running a full hard drive and memory diagnostic after reseating the memory and hard drive data cables. This stop code indicates a driver tried to access a certain area of memory when it should not have, meaning there is a flaw in the driver itself. The goal of your troubleshooting is to find that driver and either disable or replace it. Use the Windows Debugger to troubleshoot this error. Without the debugger, you are limited to uninstalling/updating/rolling back the driver that contains the driver file the Blue Screen mentions. This Blue Screen error indicates that a device driver-almost always a video card driver-is stuck waiting for something (usually a hardware operation) to happen. Most of you have probably seen nv4_disp.sys associated with this Blue Screen. Things to check: - Ensure the video drivers are updated to the latest Dell version. - The system BIOS is fully up-to-date. - If both the video

reen message mentions a driver or library file, figure out what driver or application that file is part of and update or disable it. - Update the system BIOS to the latest available revision. - Uninstall any recently installed programs, and roll-back any recently installed drivers. - Run diagnostics on the computer's memory. This stop code means the system tried to access a nonexistent piece of memory, almost always due to: - A driver trying to access a page of memory that is not present - A system service (ex. virus scanner) failing in an exceptional way - Faulty or incorrectly seated memory - Corrupted data on the hard drive Use the Windows Debugger to pinpoint the exact cause of these errors. Things to check - If the Blue Screen error mentions a driver or library file, figure out what driver or program the file is a part of and either upgrade to the latest version or uninstall the driver or program. - If the error happens during the startup process, try booting to the Last Known Good Configuration. - If the error started appearing after a program or driver was installed, uninstall that program or driver. - Try running a full hard drive and memory diagnostic after reseating the memory and hard drive data cables. This stop code indicates a driver tried to access a certain area of memory when it should not have, meaning there is a flaw in the driver itself. The goal of your troubleshooting is to find that driver and either disable or replace it. Use the Windows Debugger to troubleshoot this error. Without the debugger, you are limited to uninstalling/updating/rolling back the driver that contains the driver file the Blue Screen mentions. This Blue Screen error indicates that a device driver-almost always a video card driver-is stuck waiting for something (usually a hardware operation) to happen. Most of you have probably seen nv4_disp.sys associated with this Blue Screen. Things to check: - Ensure the video drivers are updated to the latest Dell version. - The system BIOS is fully up-to-date. - If both the video driver and the system BIOS are fully up-to-date, check with the manufacturer for recent driver updates. - As a last resort, try exchanging the video card. Reinstalling Windows is not likely to prevent this error from reoccurring. The Windows Debugger is one of the primary tools used by Microsoft software developers and support staff to analyze and resolve errors that result in memory dumps, and it's available for you. The Windows Debugger is a powerful tool with many useful applications, but for this article, we are only interested in its ability to analyze memory dump files generated by blue screen errors to determine the cause of the error. Before you can use the tool, keep in mind the following: - The Windows Debugger is not a native Windows tool. You must download and install the application (15 MB) from the Microsoft web site. Administrator access is required to install the tool. - The Debugger requires some minor customization before use. - The Debugger can take anywhere from 30 seconds to two minutes to fully analyze a memory dump. To use the tool, follow these steps: - Download and install the Windows Debugger from the Microsoft Web Site . If you use Google to search for "windows debugger," the first link returned will be the Windows Debugger home page. - Once installation completes click Start, click All Programs, click Debugging Tools for Windows, then click WinDbg to open the Windows Debugger. - Configure the symbol path used by the debugger to turn addresses in the memory dump file into meaningful location names: expand the File menu, select Symbol File Path, type "SRV*c:\debug_symbols*http://msdl.microsoft.com/download/symbols" in the dialog box then click OK. - Open a minidump file: expand the File menu, select Open Crash Dump, select the desired dump file and click Open. The system usually stores minidump files in either: C:\WINNT\Minidump\ or C:\Windows\Minidump\. The files will be named miniMMDDYY-NN.dmp, where MMis the month, DD is the day, and YY is the year in which the dump file was created.

driver and the system BIOS are fully up-to-date, check with the manufacturer for recent driver updates. - As a last resort, try exchanging the video card. Reinstalling Windows is not likely to prevent this error from reoccurring. The Windows Debugger is one of the primary tools used by Microsoft software developers and support staff to analyze and resolve errors that result in memory dumps, and it's available for you. The Windows Debugger is a powerful tool with many useful applications, but for this article, we are only interested in its ability to analyze memory dump files generated by blue screen errors to determine the cause of the error. Before you can use the tool, keep in mind the following: - The Windows Debugger is not a native Windows tool. You must download and install the application (15 MB) from the Microsoft web site. Administrator access is required to install the tool. - The Debugger requires some minor customization before use. - The Debugger can take anywhere from 30 seconds to two minutes to fully analyze a memory dump. To use the tool, follow these steps: - Download and install the Windows Debugger from the Microsoft Web Site . If you use Google to search for "windows debugger," the first link returned will be the Windows Debugger home page. - Once installation completes click Start, click All Programs, click Debugging Tools for Windows, then click WinDbg to open the Windows Debugger. - Configure the symbol path used by the debugger to turn addresses in the memory dump file into meaningful location names: expand the File menu, select Symbol File Path, type "SRV*c:\debug_symbols*http://msdl.microsoft.com/download/symbols" in the dialog box then click OK. - Open a minidump file: expand the File menu, select Open Crash Dump, select the desired dump file and click Open. The system usually stores minidump files in either: C:\WINNT\Minidump\ or C:\Windows\Minidump\. The files will be named miniMMDDYY-NN.dmp, where MMis the month, DD is the day, and YY is the year in which the dump file was created. NN is the sequence the dump files were created in if multiple dumps were generated on the same day (the first crash dump on a given day will be numbered 01, the second 02, etc.). - The debugger will open the dump file and give a brief description of what caused the system to crash. (Figure 2) The first time you use the Debugger to open and dump file on a system, it will take a few minutes to download symbol information in the background before it returns any information. Figure 2: Windows Debugger Suggested command for the Debugger's command line Stop code from the blue screen (1000007F is the same as 0x7F) What Windows thinks caused the crash (atapi.sysin this example, you will sometimes see things like memory_corruption - When it returns this preliminary analysis, the Debugger tells you how to dig deeper. Type "!analyze -v" in the command line (kd>) field at the bottom of the window and press theEnter key to have the WinDbg perform a detailed analysis of the file. The results will be lengthy, and you may have to scroll vertically within the Debugger's window to locate all the pertinent information. Figure 3: Analyze the Results A detailed explanation of the stop code (in the example, you can see that the kernel encountered an EXCEPTION_DOUBLE_FAULT (8), or an error while trying to process an error) Figure 4: Further Analysis of the Results The bug check code (notice in the example it includes the number 8, indicating the double fault) The number of times the system has crashed with this exact error (typically 1) The bucket in which Windows has categorized the crash The stack trace at the time the system crashed, with the most recently called procedure on top (you can see in the example the system crashed while processing a request from the IDE controller) Figure 5: Additional Analysis The name of the module the system was in when it crashed. On an actual system, the module name is a link you can click to receive some useful information about the module, who created it, how old it is, etc

NN is the sequence the dump files were created in if multiple dumps were generated on the same day (the first crash dump on a given day will be numbered 01, the second 02, etc.). - The debugger will open the dump file and give a brief description of what caused the system to crash. (Figure 2) The first time you use the Debugger to open and dump file on a system, it will take a few minutes to download symbol information in the background before it returns any information. Figure 2: Windows Debugger Suggested command for the Debugger's command line Stop code from the blue screen (1000007F is the same as 0x7F) What Windows thinks caused the crash (atapi.sysin this example, you will sometimes see things like memory_corruption - When it returns this preliminary analysis, the Debugger tells you how to dig deeper. Type "!analyze -v" in the command line (kd>) field at the bottom of the window and press theEnter key to have the WinDbg perform a detailed analysis of the file. The results will be lengthy, and you may have to scroll vertically within the Debugger's window to locate all the pertinent information. Figure 3: Analyze the Results A detailed explanation of the stop code (in the example, you can see that the kernel encountered an EXCEPTION_DOUBLE_FAULT (8), or an error while trying to process an error) Figure 4: Further Analysis of the Results The bug check code (notice in the example it includes the number 8, indicating the double fault) The number of times the system has crashed with this exact error (typically 1) The bucket in which Windows has categorized the crash The stack trace at the time the system crashed, with the most recently called procedure on top (you can see in the example the system crashed while processing a request from the IDE controller) Figure 5: Additional Analysis The name of the module the system was in when it crashed. On an actual system, the module name is a link you can click to receive some useful information about the module, who created it, how old it is, etc

Q & A Library Living Without a Spleen? My son, 14, lost his spleen due to an accident. What can I do to keep him healthy? He has had the vaccines recommended and took penicillin for two years. He is now on a multivitamin. He plays golf but complains of being tired. Answer (Published 1/1/2008) The spleen, located in the upper left of the abdomen under the rib cage, is part of the immune system. Its functions include storing old, damaged blood particles and helping identify and destroy bacteria. Your son can live perfectly well without a spleen although he will be at higher than normal risk of contracting serious or even life-threatening infections. When the spleen is removed, patients need to be vaccinated against pneumococcal pneumonia, a bacterial infection of the lungs and other organs. Some doctors recommend vaccinations against other types of bacteria as well, and, in the case of children, may suggest long-term treatment with antibiotics to prevent bacterial infections of the bloodstream (sepsis). Long-term antibiotic use is usually not necessary in adults. The most important strategy you can use to safeguard your son’s health is to make sure that he gets medical attention for even minor illnesses such as sore throat or sinus infections. Sometimes, antibiotics may be needed here as well. The removal of his spleen is unlikely to be a factor in the fatigue your son is experiencing. Many teenagers complain constantly about being tired. Bear in mind that fatigue due to disease usually worsens as the day goes on while fatigue due to stress is often worse in the morning. If no underlying medical reason for his fatigue has been found, make sure that he is getting enough sleep (teens need about nine hours a night). Consider, too, whether your son might be depressed, also a leading cause of fatigue in adolescents and teens. If you suspect that he might be, ask his physician to recommend a psychologist or counselor. You also could try giving him Eleutherococcus (Siberian ginseng), which, taken regularly, can help people who are run down, weak, lack energy and resistance, or suffer from chronic illness. Look for Eleuthero products in herb and health-food stores, or combination products that include cordyceps and ashwagandha, two other herbs I recommend to address fatigue. They vary in concentration and potency, so follow the dosage recommendations of the manufacturer. Andrew Weil, M.D. Some Rights Reserved Creative Commons Copyright Notice A portion of the original material created by Weil Lifestyle on DrWeil.com (specifically, all question and answer-type articles in the Dr. Weil Q&A Library) is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License.

by Xiaohong Wei The Constitution of the United States of America, written well over 200 years ago, has been the foundation for building one of the great nations. It is the central instrument of American government and the supreme law of the land. For more than 200 years, it has guided the evolution of U.S. governmental institutions and has provided the basis for political stability, individual freedom, economic growth and social progress. However, the birth of the Constitution is not accidental, but has complicated economic and political backgrounds. The period after the Revolutionary War was characterized by economic depression and political crisis on the grounds that the Articles of Confederation just devised a loose association among the states, and set up a central government with very limited powers. The central government could not get the dominant position in the country’s political life while the individual states could do things in their own ways. In this chaotic situation, the central government was incapable of paying its debt, of regulating foreign and domestic commerce, of maintaining a steady value of the currency, and worst of all, incapable of keeping a strong military force to protect the country’s interests from foreign violations. As time went by, the old system became more and more adverse to the development of the young nation, and political reform seemed to be inevitable. The best solution was to draw up a new constitution in place of the Articles of Confederation. The Constitution was drawn up by 55 delegates of twelve states (all but Rhode Island) to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia during the summer of 1787 and ratified by the states in 1788. That distinguished gathering at Philadelphia’s Independence Hall brought together nearly all of the nation’s most prominent men, including George Washington, James Madison, Alexander Hamilton and Benjamin Franklin. Many were experienced in colonial and state government and others had records of service in the army and in the courts. As Thomas Jefferson wrote John Adams when he heard who had been appointed: “It is really an assembly of demigods.” Despite the consensus among the framers on the objectives of the Constitution, the controversy over the means by which those objectives could be achieved was lively. However, most of the issues were settled by the framers’ efforts and compromises, thus the finished Constitution has been referred to as a “bundle of compromises”. It was only through give-and-take that a successful conclusion was achieved. Such efforts and compromises in the Constitutional Convention of 1787 produced the most enduring written Constitution ever created by humankinds. The men who were at Philadelphia that hot summer hammered out a document defining distinct powers for the Congress of the United States, the president, and the federal courts. This division of authority is known as a system of checks and balances, and it ensures that none of the branches of government can dominate the others. The Constitution also establishes and limits the authority of the Federal Government over the states and emphasizes that power of the states will serve as a check on the power of the national government. Separation of Powers in the Central Government One important principle embodied in the U.S. Constitution is separation of powers. To prevent concentration of power, the U.S. Constitution divides the central government into three branches and creates a system of checks and balances. Each of the three governmental branches, legislative, executive and judicial, “checks” the powers of the other branches to make sure that the principal powers of the government are not concentrated in the hands of any single branch. The principle of separation of powers and the system of checks and balances perform essential functions and contribute to a stable political situation in the United States. 1. Theory of Separation of Powers The principle of separation of powers dates back as far as Aristotle’s time. Aristotle favored a mixed government composed of mon

homas Jefferson wrote John Adams when he heard who had been appointed: “It is really an assembly of demigods.” Despite the consensus among the framers on the objectives of the Constitution, the controversy over the means by which those objectives could be achieved was lively. However, most of the issues were settled by the framers’ efforts and compromises, thus the finished Constitution has been referred to as a “bundle of compromises”. It was only through give-and-take that a successful conclusion was achieved. Such efforts and compromises in the Constitutional Convention of 1787 produced the most enduring written Constitution ever created by humankinds. The men who were at Philadelphia that hot summer hammered out a document defining distinct powers for the Congress of the United States, the president, and the federal courts. This division of authority is known as a system of checks and balances, and it ensures that none of the branches of government can dominate the others. The Constitution also establishes and limits the authority of the Federal Government over the states and emphasizes that power of the states will serve as a check on the power of the national government. Separation of Powers in the Central Government One important principle embodied in the U.S. Constitution is separation of powers. To prevent concentration of power, the U.S. Constitution divides the central government into three branches and creates a system of checks and balances. Each of the three governmental branches, legislative, executive and judicial, “checks” the powers of the other branches to make sure that the principal powers of the government are not concentrated in the hands of any single branch. The principle of separation of powers and the system of checks and balances perform essential functions and contribute to a stable political situation in the United States. 1. Theory of Separation of Powers The principle of separation of powers dates back as far as Aristotle’s time. Aristotle favored a mixed government composed of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, seeing none as ideal, but a mix of the three useful by combining the best aspects of each. James Harrington, in his 1656 Oceana, brought these ideas up-to-date and proposed systems based on the separation of power. Many of the framers of the U.S. Constitution, such as Madison, studied history and political philosophy. They greatly appreciated the idea of separation of power on the grounds of their complex views of governmental power. Their experience with the Articles of Confederation taught them that the national government must have the power needed to achieve the purposes for which it was to be established. At the same time, they were worried about the concentration of power in one person’s hands. As John Adams wrote in his A Defense of the Constitution of Government of the United States of America (1787), “It is undoubtedly honorable in any man, who has acquired a great influence, unbounded confidence, and unlimited power, to resign it voluntarily; and odious to take advantage of such an opportunity to destroy a free government: but it would be madness in a legislator to frame his policy upon a supposition that such magnanimity would often appear. It is his business to contrive his plan in such a manner that such unlimited influence, confidence, and power, shall never be obtained by any man.” (Isaak 2004:100) Such worries compelled the framers to find a good way to establish a new government, thus separation of powers and a balanced government became a good choice. Two political theorists had great influence on the creation of the Constitution. John Locke, an important British political philosopher, had a large impact through his Second Treatise of Government (1690). Locke argued that sovereignty resides in individuals, not rulers. A political state, he theorized, emerged from a social contract among the people, who consent to government in order to preserve their lives, liberties, and property. In the words of the Declaration of Independence, which also drew heavily on Lock

archy, aristocracy, and democracy, seeing none as ideal, but a mix of the three useful by combining the best aspects of each. James Harrington, in his 1656 Oceana, brought these ideas up-to-date and proposed systems based on the separation of power. Many of the framers of the U.S. Constitution, such as Madison, studied history and political philosophy. They greatly appreciated the idea of separation of power on the grounds of their complex views of governmental power. Their experience with the Articles of Confederation taught them that the national government must have the power needed to achieve the purposes for which it was to be established. At the same time, they were worried about the concentration of power in one person’s hands. As John Adams wrote in his A Defense of the Constitution of Government of the United States of America (1787), “It is undoubtedly honorable in any man, who has acquired a great influence, unbounded confidence, and unlimited power, to resign it voluntarily; and odious to take advantage of such an opportunity to destroy a free government: but it would be madness in a legislator to frame his policy upon a supposition that such magnanimity would often appear. It is his business to contrive his plan in such a manner that such unlimited influence, confidence, and power, shall never be obtained by any man.” (Isaak 2004:100) Such worries compelled the framers to find a good way to establish a new government, thus separation of powers and a balanced government became a good choice. Two political theorists had great influence on the creation of the Constitution. John Locke, an important British political philosopher, had a large impact through his Second Treatise of Government (1690). Locke argued that sovereignty resides in individuals, not rulers. A political state, he theorized, emerged from a social contract among the people, who consent to government in order to preserve their lives, liberties, and property. In the words of the Declaration of Independence, which also drew heavily on Locke, governments derive “their just powers from the consent of the governed.” Locke also pioneered the idea of the separation of powers, and he separated the powers into an executive and a legislature. The French political philosopher Baron de Montesquieu, another major intellectual influence on the Constitution, further developed the concept of separation of powers in his treatise The Spirit of the Laws (1748), which was highly regarded by the framers of the U.S. Constitution. Montesquieu’s basic contention was that those entrusted with power tend to abuse it; therefore, if governmental power is fragmented, each power will operate as a check on the others. In its usual operational form, one branch of government (the legislative) is entrusted with making laws, a second (the executive) with executing them, and a third (the judiciary) with resolving disputes in accordance with the law. Based on the theory of Baron de Montesquieu and John Locke, the framers carefully spelled out the independence of the three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial. At the same time, however, they provided for a system in which some powers should be shared: Congress may pass laws, but the president can veto them; the president nominates certain public officials, but Congress must approve the appointments; and laws passed by Congress as well as executive actions are subject to judicial review. Thus the separation of powers is offset by what are called checks and balances. 2. Separation of Powers among Three Governmental Branches Separation of powers devised by the framers of the U.S. Constitution serves the goals: to prevent concentration of power and provide each branch with weapons to fight off encroachment by the other two branches. As James Madison argued in the Federalist Papers (No.51), “Ambition must be made to counteract ambition.” Clearly, the system of separated powers is not designed to maximize efficiency; it is designed to maximize freedom. In the Constitution of the United States, the Legislative, comp

e, governments derive “their just powers from the consent of the governed.” Locke also pioneered the idea of the separation of powers, and he separated the powers into an executive and a legislature. The French political philosopher Baron de Montesquieu, another major intellectual influence on the Constitution, further developed the concept of separation of powers in his treatise The Spirit of the Laws (1748), which was highly regarded by the framers of the U.S. Constitution. Montesquieu’s basic contention was that those entrusted with power tend to abuse it; therefore, if governmental power is fragmented, each power will operate as a check on the others. In its usual operational form, one branch of government (the legislative) is entrusted with making laws, a second (the executive) with executing them, and a third (the judiciary) with resolving disputes in accordance with the law. Based on the theory of Baron de Montesquieu and John Locke, the framers carefully spelled out the independence of the three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial. At the same time, however, they provided for a system in which some powers should be shared: Congress may pass laws, but the president can veto them; the president nominates certain public officials, but Congress must approve the appointments; and laws passed by Congress as well as executive actions are subject to judicial review. Thus the separation of powers is offset by what are called checks and balances. 2. Separation of Powers among Three Governmental Branches Separation of powers devised by the framers of the U.S. Constitution serves the goals: to prevent concentration of power and provide each branch with weapons to fight off encroachment by the other two branches. As James Madison argued in the Federalist Papers (No.51), “Ambition must be made to counteract ambition.” Clearly, the system of separated powers is not designed to maximize efficiency; it is designed to maximize freedom. In the Constitution of the United States, the Legislative, composed of the House and Senate, is set up in Article 1; the Executive, composed of the President, Vice-President, and the Departments, is set up in Article 2; the Judicial, composed of the federal courts and the Supreme Court, is set up in Article 3. Each of these branches has certain powers, and each of these powers is limited. The First Article of the U.S. Constitution says, “All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.” These words clearly define the most important power of Congress: to legislate for the United States. At the same time, the framers granted some specific powers to Congress. Congress has the power to impeach both executive officials and judges. The Senate tries all impeachments. Besides, Congress can override a Presidential veto. Congress may also influence the composition of the judicial branch. It may establish courts inferior to the Supreme Court and set their jurisdiction. Furthermore, Congress regulates the size of the courts. Judges are appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. The compensation of executive officials and judges is determined by Congress, but Congress may not increase or diminish the compensation of a President, or diminish the compensation of a judge, during his term in office. Congress determines its own members’ emoluments as well. In short, the main powers of the Legislature include: Legislating all federal laws; establishing all lower federal courts; being able to override a Presidential veto; being able to impeach the President as well as other executive officials. Executive power is vested in the President by the U.S. Constitution in Article 2. The principal responsibility of the President is to ensure that all laws are faithfully carried out. The President is the chief executive officer of the federal government. He is the leader of the executive branch and the commander in chief of the armed forces. He has the power to make treaties w

osed of the House and Senate, is set up in Article 1; the Executive, composed of the President, Vice-President, and the Departments, is set up in Article 2; the Judicial, composed of the federal courts and the Supreme Court, is set up in Article 3. Each of these branches has certain powers, and each of these powers is limited. The First Article of the U.S. Constitution says, “All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.” These words clearly define the most important power of Congress: to legislate for the United States. At the same time, the framers granted some specific powers to Congress. Congress has the power to impeach both executive officials and judges. The Senate tries all impeachments. Besides, Congress can override a Presidential veto. Congress may also influence the composition of the judicial branch. It may establish courts inferior to the Supreme Court and set their jurisdiction. Furthermore, Congress regulates the size of the courts. Judges are appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. The compensation of executive officials and judges is determined by Congress, but Congress may not increase or diminish the compensation of a President, or diminish the compensation of a judge, during his term in office. Congress determines its own members’ emoluments as well. In short, the main powers of the Legislature include: Legislating all federal laws; establishing all lower federal courts; being able to override a Presidential veto; being able to impeach the President as well as other executive officials. Executive power is vested in the President by the U.S. Constitution in Article 2. The principal responsibility of the President is to ensure that all laws are faithfully carried out. The President is the chief executive officer of the federal government. He is the leader of the executive branch and the commander in chief of the armed forces. He has the power to make treaties with other nations, with the advice and consent of two-thirds of the Senate. The President also appoints, with Senate consent, diplomatic representatives, Supreme Court judges, and many other officials. Except impeachment, he also has the power to issue pardons and reprieves. Such pardons are not subject to confirmation by either house of Congress, or even to acceptance by the recipient. Another important power granted to the President is veto power over all bills, but Congress, as noted above, may override any veto except for a pocket veto by a two-thirds majority in each house. When the two houses of Congress cannot agree on a date for adjournment, the President may settle the dispute. Either house or both houses may be called into emergency session by the President. The judicial power—the power to decide cases and controversies—is vested in the Supreme Court and inferior court established by Congress. The following are the powers of the Judiciary: the power to try federal cases and interpret the laws of the nation in those cases; the power to declare any law or executive act unconstitutional. The power granted to the courts to determine whether legislation is consistent with the Constitution is called judicial review. The concept of judicial review is not written into the Constitution, but was envisioned by many of the framers. The Supreme Court established a precedent for judicial review in Marbury v. Madison. The precedent established the principle that a court may strike down a law it deems unconstitutional. 3. Checks and Balances The framers of the U.S. Constitution saw checks and balances as essential for the security of liberty under the Constitution. They believed that by balancing the powers of the three governmental branches, the efforts in human nature toward tyranny could be checked and restrained. John Adams praised the balanced government as the “most stupendous fabric of human invention.” In his A Defense of the Constitution of Government of the United States of America (1787), he wrote, “In the m

ith other nations, with the advice and consent of two-thirds of the Senate. The President also appoints, with Senate consent, diplomatic representatives, Supreme Court judges, and many other officials. Except impeachment, he also has the power to issue pardons and reprieves. Such pardons are not subject to confirmation by either house of Congress, or even to acceptance by the recipient. Another important power granted to the President is veto power over all bills, but Congress, as noted above, may override any veto except for a pocket veto by a two-thirds majority in each house. When the two houses of Congress cannot agree on a date for adjournment, the President may settle the dispute. Either house or both houses may be called into emergency session by the President. The judicial power—the power to decide cases and controversies—is vested in the Supreme Court and inferior court established by Congress. The following are the powers of the Judiciary: the power to try federal cases and interpret the laws of the nation in those cases; the power to declare any law or executive act unconstitutional. The power granted to the courts to determine whether legislation is consistent with the Constitution is called judicial review. The concept of judicial review is not written into the Constitution, but was envisioned by many of the framers. The Supreme Court established a precedent for judicial review in Marbury v. Madison. The precedent established the principle that a court may strike down a law it deems unconstitutional. 3. Checks and Balances The framers of the U.S. Constitution saw checks and balances as essential for the security of liberty under the Constitution. They believed that by balancing the powers of the three governmental branches, the efforts in human nature toward tyranny could be checked and restrained. John Adams praised the balanced government as the “most stupendous fabric of human invention.” In his A Defense of the Constitution of Government of the United States of America (1787), he wrote, “In the mixed government we contend for, the ministers, at least of the executive power, are responsible for every instance of the exercise of it; and if they dispose of a single commission by corruption, they are responsible to a house of representatives, who may, by impeachment, make them responsible before a senate, where they may be accused, tried, condemned, and punished, by independent judges.” (Isaak 2004:103-104) So the system of checks and balances was established and became an important part of the U.S. Constitution. With checks and balances, each of the three branches of government can limit the powers of the others. This way, no one branch is too powerful. Each branch “checks” the powers of the other branches to make sure that the power is balanced between them. The major checks possessed by each branch are listed below. - Can check the president in these ways: - By refusing to pass a bill the president wants - By passing a law over the president’s veto - By using the impeachment powers to remove the president from office - By refusing to approve a presidential appointment (Senate only) - By refusing to ratify a treaty the president has signed (Senate only) - Can check the federal courts in these ways: - By changing the number and jurisdiction of the lower courts - By using the impeachment powers to remove a judge from office - By refusing to approve a person nominated to be a judge (Senate only) - Can check Congress by vetoing a bill it has passed - Can check the federal courts by nominating judges - Can check Congress by declaring a law unconstitutional - Can check the president by declaring actions by him or his subordinates to be unconstitutional or not authorized by law By distributing the essential powers of the government among three separate but interdependent branches, the Constitutional framers ensured that the principal powers of the government, legislative, executive and judicial, were not concentrated in the hands of any single branch. Allocating governmental authority among three separate branche

ixed government we contend for, the ministers, at least of the executive power, are responsible for every instance of the exercise of it; and if they dispose of a single commission by corruption, they are responsible to a house of representatives, who may, by impeachment, make them responsible before a senate, where they may be accused, tried, condemned, and punished, by independent judges.” (Isaak 2004:103-104) So the system of checks and balances was established and became an important part of the U.S. Constitution. With checks and balances, each of the three branches of government can limit the powers of the others. This way, no one branch is too powerful. Each branch “checks” the powers of the other branches to make sure that the power is balanced between them. The major checks possessed by each branch are listed below. - Can check the president in these ways: - By refusing to pass a bill the president wants - By passing a law over the president’s veto - By using the impeachment powers to remove the president from office - By refusing to approve a presidential appointment (Senate only) - By refusing to ratify a treaty the president has signed (Senate only) - Can check the federal courts in these ways: - By changing the number and jurisdiction of the lower courts - By using the impeachment powers to remove a judge from office - By refusing to approve a person nominated to be a judge (Senate only) - Can check Congress by vetoing a bill it has passed - Can check the federal courts by nominating judges - Can check Congress by declaring a law unconstitutional - Can check the president by declaring actions by him or his subordinates to be unconstitutional or not authorized by law By distributing the essential powers of the government among three separate but interdependent branches, the Constitutional framers ensured that the principal powers of the government, legislative, executive and judicial, were not concentrated in the hands of any single branch. Allocating governmental authority among three separate branches also prevented the formation of too strong a national government capable of overpowering the individual state governments. In order to modify the separation of powers, the framers created a best-known system—checks and balances. In this system, powers are shared among the three branches of government. At the same time, the powers of one branch can be challenged by another branch. As one of the basic doctrines in the U.S. Constitution, separation of powers and a system of checks and balances contribute to a stable political situation in the United States. Separating Powers between the Federal Government and the States As is mentioned above, the United States was in a chaotic state after the American Revolution. Under the Articles of Confederation, all of the thirteen states only had a kind of very loose connection. They were like thirteen independent countries, and could do things in their own ways. They had their own legal systems and constitutions, made their own economic, trade, tax and even monetary policies, and seldom accepted any orders from the central government. Localism made the state congresses set barriers to goods from other states, thus trade between states could not develop. At the same time, the central government did not have any important powers to control the individual states well. As time went by, the old system became more and more adverse to the stability and development of this young country. Many Americans viewed a number of grave problems as arising from the weakness of the Confederation. They thought the Confederation was so weak that it was in danger of falling apart under either foreign or internal pressures. They appealed for reforming the governmental structure and establishing a stronger central government. This government should have some positive powers so that it could make and carry out policies to safeguard state sovereignty against foreign violations and to protect the people’s interests. This idea was embodied in the U.S. Constitution: The powers of the national government

s also prevented the formation of too strong a national government capable of overpowering the individual state governments. In order to modify the separation of powers, the framers created a best-known system—checks and balances. In this system, powers are shared among the three branches of government. At the same time, the powers of one branch can be challenged by another branch. As one of the basic doctrines in the U.S. Constitution, separation of powers and a system of checks and balances contribute to a stable political situation in the United States. Separating Powers between the Federal Government and the States As is mentioned above, the United States was in a chaotic state after the American Revolution. Under the Articles of Confederation, all of the thirteen states only had a kind of very loose connection. They were like thirteen independent countries, and could do things in their own ways. They had their own legal systems and constitutions, made their own economic, trade, tax and even monetary policies, and seldom accepted any orders from the central government. Localism made the state congresses set barriers to goods from other states, thus trade between states could not develop. At the same time, the central government did not have any important powers to control the individual states well. As time went by, the old system became more and more adverse to the stability and development of this young country. Many Americans viewed a number of grave problems as arising from the weakness of the Confederation. They thought the Confederation was so weak that it was in danger of falling apart under either foreign or internal pressures. They appealed for reforming the governmental structure and establishing a stronger central government. This government should have some positive powers so that it could make and carry out policies to safeguard state sovereignty against foreign violations and to protect the people’s interests. This idea was embodied in the U.S. Constitution: The powers of the national government and the states were divided. The central government was specifically granted certain important powers while the power of the state governments was limited, and there were certain powers that they shared. All those powers granted to the Federal Government by the U.S. Constitution are enumerated principally as powers of Congress in Article I, Section 8. These powers can be classified as either economic or military. As is known to all, economic and military power are fundamental and essential to a government. Possessing such powers, the U.S. central government was capable of controlling the country well, thus keeping up a stable political situation and promoting the economic development. Economic powers delegated to the Federal Government include the authority to levy taxes, borrow money, regulate commerce, coin money, and establish bankruptcy laws. In Article I, Section 8, the Constitution writes, “The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United State; …to borrow money on the credit of the United States; to regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes; to establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; to coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures.” According to this stipulation, the Federal Government has gathered the most important economic power into its own hands: with the right to collect taxes directly, the Federal Government could pay its debt and provide funds for the nation’s common defense and general welfare; with the right to issue uniform currency and to determine the value of foreign currencies, the Federal Government could control the money supply and restrain inflation; with the right to regulate trade with foreign nations and among the states, the Federal Government became able to control th

and the states were divided. The central government was specifically granted certain important powers while the power of the state governments was limited, and there were certain powers that they shared. All those powers granted to the Federal Government by the U.S. Constitution are enumerated principally as powers of Congress in Article I, Section 8. These powers can be classified as either economic or military. As is known to all, economic and military power are fundamental and essential to a government. Possessing such powers, the U.S. central government was capable of controlling the country well, thus keeping up a stable political situation and promoting the economic development. Economic powers delegated to the Federal Government include the authority to levy taxes, borrow money, regulate commerce, coin money, and establish bankruptcy laws. In Article I, Section 8, the Constitution writes, “The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United State; …to borrow money on the credit of the United States; to regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes; to establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; to coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures.” According to this stipulation, the Federal Government has gathered the most important economic power into its own hands: with the right to collect taxes directly, the Federal Government could pay its debt and provide funds for the nation’s common defense and general welfare; with the right to issue uniform currency and to determine the value of foreign currencies, the Federal Government could control the money supply and restrain inflation; with the right to regulate trade with foreign nations and among the states, the Federal Government became able to control the economic situation of the country. The stipulation about commerce regulation won strongest support from big cities and centers of manufacturing industry and commerce, such as New York, Philadelphia and Boston, because they knew that the regulation of the central government would be quite helpful for the sale of their products. Alexander Hamilton, one of the most active representatives in the Constitutional Convention, pointed out that free trade in the whole nation was very profitable for any kind of business. For example, when the local market was weakened, the markets in other states and areas of the country would support the sale of the producers, thus their business could keep developing. Hamilton concluded that any farsighted businessman would see the power of the unity of the country, that they would find the unity of the whole nation would be much better than the separation of the thirteen states. Power to Declare War Certain military powers granted to the Federal Government involve declaring war, raising and supporting armies, regulating and maintaining navies, and calling forth the militia. In Article I, Section 8, the Constitution stipulates, “The Congress shall have power to declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water; to raise and support armies, …to provide and maintain a Navy; to make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces; to provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions; to provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia….” With these powers, the Federal Government can not only protect the land and provide guarantee for the development of the country, but also create conditions to invade other countries on the grounds that it has the power to declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal. The framers of the U.S. Constitution regarded the military power of the Federal Government as a tool to protect the domestic interests o

e economic situation of the country. The stipulation about commerce regulation won strongest support from big cities and centers of manufacturing industry and commerce, such as New York, Philadelphia and Boston, because they knew that the regulation of the central government would be quite helpful for the sale of their products. Alexander Hamilton, one of the most active representatives in the Constitutional Convention, pointed out that free trade in the whole nation was very profitable for any kind of business. For example, when the local market was weakened, the markets in other states and areas of the country would support the sale of the producers, thus their business could keep developing. Hamilton concluded that any farsighted businessman would see the power of the unity of the country, that they would find the unity of the whole nation would be much better than the separation of the thirteen states. Power to Declare War Certain military powers granted to the Federal Government involve declaring war, raising and supporting armies, regulating and maintaining navies, and calling forth the militia. In Article I, Section 8, the Constitution stipulates, “The Congress shall have power to declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water; to raise and support armies, …to provide and maintain a Navy; to make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces; to provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions; to provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia….” With these powers, the Federal Government can not only protect the land and provide guarantee for the development of the country, but also create conditions to invade other countries on the grounds that it has the power to declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal. The framers of the U.S. Constitution regarded the military power of the Federal Government as a tool to protect the domestic interests of their country from foreign invasion. John Jay, one of the three writers of “The Federalist Papers” and the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, even said that when a country wanted to gain something, it would engage itself in a war. Most representatives in the Constitutional Convention had realized that when the United States broke up, it would easily become a sacrifice to its neighboring and enemy states. They saw that other countries still threatened the security of the United States. The Great Britain was unwilling to secede from America and kept military bases in the Northwest boundary of the United States. At the same time, France blockaded some important river mouths so that it could monopolize the market, and Spain also tried to blockade the Mississippi River. The European powers did not want the United States to develop into a powerful nation, or to share their market, neither in the United States itself nor abroad. The framers of the U.S. Constitution fully realized that a strong navy and land force could become not only a tool to protect the interests of the United States, but also a tool to force other countries to open their markets. A strong army would definitely make the European countries respect their country. Apart from the foreign troubles, the leaders of the United States had also seen the serious influences of clashes between different classes. They believed that in time of trouble, a strong army would be decisive. Of course, they would not ignore the danger of such domestic rebellions as Shays’ Rebellion. When talking about the danger of rebellions, James Madison said, “I have noticed a kind of unhappy people scattered in some states. They degrade under the human standard when the political situation remains steady; but when the society is in chaos, they would provide their fellow people with a great force.” (Smith 1986:194) So the rulers of the country needed a strong army to suppress the revolt of these “unhappy people”, and to maintain a stable domestic political situation. The U.S.

f their country from foreign invasion. John Jay, one of the three writers of “The Federalist Papers” and the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, even said that when a country wanted to gain something, it would engage itself in a war. Most representatives in the Constitutional Convention had realized that when the United States broke up, it would easily become a sacrifice to its neighboring and enemy states. They saw that other countries still threatened the security of the United States. The Great Britain was unwilling to secede from America and kept military bases in the Northwest boundary of the United States. At the same time, France blockaded some important river mouths so that it could monopolize the market, and Spain also tried to blockade the Mississippi River. The European powers did not want the United States to develop into a powerful nation, or to share their market, neither in the United States itself nor abroad. The framers of the U.S. Constitution fully realized that a strong navy and land force could become not only a tool to protect the interests of the United States, but also a tool to force other countries to open their markets. A strong army would definitely make the European countries respect their country. Apart from the foreign troubles, the leaders of the United States had also seen the serious influences of clashes between different classes. They believed that in time of trouble, a strong army would be decisive. Of course, they would not ignore the danger of such domestic rebellions as Shays’ Rebellion. When talking about the danger of rebellions, James Madison said, “I have noticed a kind of unhappy people scattered in some states. They degrade under the human standard when the political situation remains steady; but when the society is in chaos, they would provide their fellow people with a great force.” (Smith 1986:194) So the rulers of the country needed a strong army to suppress the revolt of these “unhappy people”, and to maintain a stable domestic political situation. The U.S. Constitution grants so many specific powers to the Federal Government, at the same time, lists a rather large number of things that the Federal Government is not allowed to do. Evidently, the framers were afraid that too strong a central government would easily bring about autocracy. In order to restrict the authority of the central government, the framers wanted to make it clear in the Constitution that certain powers were emphatically denied to the Federal Government. Restrictions of the powers of the Federal Government are listed below: - No exercise of powers not delegated to it by the Constitution. - No payment from the Treasury except under appropriations made by law. - All duties and excises must be uniform throughout the United States. - No tax or duty to be laid on articles exported from any state. - No appointment of a senator or representative to any civil office which was created while he was a member of Congress or for which the amount of compensation was increased during that period. - No preferences to the ports of one state over another in regulation or tax collection. - No titles of nobility to be granted by the U.S. government, or permitted to be granted to government officials by foreign states. - No bill of attainder or ex post facto law to be passed. When the Constitution granted the Federal Government certain powers, the framers also considered reducing the power of the state governments, so that the central government could force the states to take unified steps if necessary. In Article I, Section 10, the Constitution stipulates, “No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment or debts….No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws…. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep tr

Constitution grants so many specific powers to the Federal Government, at the same time, lists a rather large number of things that the Federal Government is not allowed to do. Evidently, the framers were afraid that too strong a central government would easily bring about autocracy. In order to restrict the authority of the central government, the framers wanted to make it clear in the Constitution that certain powers were emphatically denied to the Federal Government. Restrictions of the powers of the Federal Government are listed below: - No exercise of powers not delegated to it by the Constitution. - No payment from the Treasury except under appropriations made by law. - All duties and excises must be uniform throughout the United States. - No tax or duty to be laid on articles exported from any state. - No appointment of a senator or representative to any civil office which was created while he was a member of Congress or for which the amount of compensation was increased during that period. - No preferences to the ports of one state over another in regulation or tax collection. - No titles of nobility to be granted by the U.S. government, or permitted to be granted to government officials by foreign states. - No bill of attainder or ex post facto law to be passed. When the Constitution granted the Federal Government certain powers, the framers also considered reducing the power of the state governments, so that the central government could force the states to take unified steps if necessary. In Article I, Section 10, the Constitution stipulates, “No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment or debts….No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws…. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war….” According to this clause, the states were deprived of the power to issue currency, to levy taxes freely, to keep troops in time of peace, to make a compact of agreement with another state of the U.S., or with a foreign state, and to engage in war. With the prohibition of the states from issuing currency, the United States could now avoid inflation and depreciation of currency caused by unregulated money supply. With the restriction of the states from levying taxes freely, the obstacles of the commerce were removed. Now the state congresses did not have the power to collect heavy taxes freely on goods from other states any more, thus the commerce in the United States began to thrive. With the prohibition of the states from keeping troops in time of peace and engaging in war, the territorial integrity of the United States could be guarded, and the Union could be maintained. As the power of the state governments was limited, people’s confidence in their central government was greatly strengthened. The society of the United States was being led onto a right path of development. Although the power is restricted, the states still possess some necessary powers and exercise important functions in the United States. The Tenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution indicates that the states possess those powers that are not given to the Federal Government or prohibited to the states. The Tenth Amendment stipulates, “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.” State powers then are called reserved powers. Reserved powers are interpreted as the right to establish schools and supervise education, regulate intrastate commerce, conduct elections, establish local government units, and borrow money. In addition, a broad and generally undefined “police power” enables the states t

oops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war….” According to this clause, the states were deprived of the power to issue currency, to levy taxes freely, to keep troops in time of peace, to make a compact of agreement with another state of the U.S., or with a foreign state, and to engage in war. With the prohibition of the states from issuing currency, the United States could now avoid inflation and depreciation of currency caused by unregulated money supply. With the restriction of the states from levying taxes freely, the obstacles of the commerce were removed. Now the state congresses did not have the power to collect heavy taxes freely on goods from other states any more, thus the commerce in the United States began to thrive. With the prohibition of the states from keeping troops in time of peace and engaging in war, the territorial integrity of the United States could be guarded, and the Union could be maintained. As the power of the state governments was limited, people’s confidence in their central government was greatly strengthened. The society of the United States was being led onto a right path of development. Although the power is restricted, the states still possess some necessary powers and exercise important functions in the United States. The Tenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution indicates that the states possess those powers that are not given to the Federal Government or prohibited to the states. The Tenth Amendment stipulates, “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.” State powers then are called reserved powers. Reserved powers are interpreted as the right to establish schools and supervise education, regulate intrastate commerce, conduct elections, establish local government units, and borrow money. In addition, a broad and generally undefined “police power” enables the states to take action to protect and promote the health, safety, morals, and general welfare of their inhabitants. All of these are functions that directly affect Americans every day and in every part of their lives. There are still some powers that both the national and state governments can exercise. They are called concurrent powers, which include the power to tax and borrow money, to take property for public purposes, to enact bankruptcy laws, and to establish laws and courts. Thus in the course of the U.S. Constitutional Legislation, a federal system was created by separating power between two levels of government, state and national. According to the Constitution, the Federal Government was granted certain powers, the states were given certain powers and there were certain powers that they shared. In order to overcome a series of domestic crises and keep a stable political situation, a strong central government was created. This central government was granted certain important powers while the power of the state governments was limited. The U.S. Constitution has remained in force because its framers successfully separated and balanced governmental powers to safeguard the interests of majority rule and minority rights, of liberty and equality, and of the central and state governments. For over two centuries it has provided the basis for development of the United States and a guarantee for the stability of the country. - Bishop, Donald M. (1985). Living Documents of American History [C]. Beijing: Press and Cultural Section U.S. Embassy. - Jay, John; Madison, James and Hamilton, Alexander (1979). THE FEDERALIST—A Comment On THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES [C]. New York: The Modern Library. - Locke, John (1690). Second Treatise of Government [M]. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. - Isaak, Robert (2004). American Political Thinking: Readings from the Origins to the 21st Century [C]. Beijing: Peking University Press. - Smith, James Morton(1986). Jefferson and Madison [M]. New York: Penguin Books USA In

o take action to protect and promote the health, safety, morals, and general welfare of their inhabitants. All of these are functions that directly affect Americans every day and in every part of their lives. There are still some powers that both the national and state governments can exercise. They are called concurrent powers, which include the power to tax and borrow money, to take property for public purposes, to enact bankruptcy laws, and to establish laws and courts. Thus in the course of the U.S. Constitutional Legislation, a federal system was created by separating power between two levels of government, state and national. According to the Constitution, the Federal Government was granted certain powers, the states were given certain powers and there were certain powers that they shared. In order to overcome a series of domestic crises and keep a stable political situation, a strong central government was created. This central government was granted certain important powers while the power of the state governments was limited. The U.S. Constitution has remained in force because its framers successfully separated and balanced governmental powers to safeguard the interests of majority rule and minority rights, of liberty and equality, and of the central and state governments. For over two centuries it has provided the basis for development of the United States and a guarantee for the stability of the country. - Bishop, Donald M. (1985). Living Documents of American History [C]. Beijing: Press and Cultural Section U.S. Embassy. - Jay, John; Madison, James and Hamilton, Alexander (1979). THE FEDERALIST—A Comment On THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES [C]. New York: The Modern Library. - Locke, John (1690). Second Treatise of Government [M]. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. - Isaak, Robert (2004). American Political Thinking: Readings from the Origins to the 21st Century [C]. Beijing: Peking University Press. - Smith, James Morton(1986). Jefferson and Madison [M]. New York: Penguin Books USA Inc.. About the Author Xiaohong Wei is a full-time staff member at Sichuan Agricultural University, China, where she teaches English. She holds a B.A in English Language and Literature（Sichuan International Studies University, China）, and a M.A degree in Foreign Linguistics and Applied Linguistics (Sichuan University, China). For more than ten years, she has been working as a teacher at Sichuan Agricultural University. Her research interests include intercultural studies, transfer theory, as well as culture teaching and learning. She has been in charge of and fulfilled 3 scientific research projects , and participated in 6 national and provincial research projects. She has published two book chapters and more than 20 articles at academic journals, especially of some renowned universities in China. Addressee: Xiaohong Wei Xinkang Road 46#, Yucheng District Department of Foreign Languages, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya’an, Sichuan, China Post code: 625014

c.. About the Author Xiaohong Wei is a full-time staff member at Sichuan Agricultural University, China, where she teaches English. She holds a B.A in English Language and Literature（Sichuan International Studies University, China）, and a M.A degree in Foreign Linguistics and Applied Linguistics (Sichuan University, China). For more than ten years, she has been working as a teacher at Sichuan Agricultural University. Her research interests include intercultural studies, transfer theory, as well as culture teaching and learning. She has been in charge of and fulfilled 3 scientific research projects , and participated in 6 national and provincial research projects. She has published two book chapters and more than 20 articles at academic journals, especially of some renowned universities in China. Addressee: Xiaohong Wei Xinkang Road 46#, Yucheng District Department of Foreign Languages, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya’an, Sichuan, China Post code: 625014

[an error occurred while processing this directive] The law, in its majestic equality, forbids the rich as well as the poor to sleep under bridges, to beg in the streets and steal bread. -Anatole FranceMulticultural education calls for all aspects of education to be continuously examined, critiqued, reconsidered, and transformed based on ideals of equity and social justice. This includes instructional technology and covers its content and delivery (or curriculum and pedagogy). That is, it is not enough to critically examine the individual resources--in this case, CD-ROMs, Web sites, or pieces of software--we use to ensure inclusivity. Instead, we must dig deeper and consider the medium itself and how it is being used differently in different contexts. What roles are various software titles, Web sites, and the computers that facilitate our use of them, playing in education? Are they contributing to education equity or supporting current systems of control and domination of those groups already historically privileged in the United States education system (such as White people, boys and men, first language English speakers, and able-bodied people)? The term "digital divide" has traditionally described inequalities in access to computers and the Internet between groups of people based on one or more social or cultural identifiers. Under this conceptualization, researchers tend to compare rates of access to these technologies across individuals or schools based on race, sex, disability status, and other identity dimensions. The "divide" refers to the difference in access rates among groups. The racial digital divide, for example, describes the difference in rates of access to computers and the Internet, at home and school, between those racial groups with high rates of access (White people and Asian and Asian-American people) and those with lower rates of access (Black people and Latina(o) people). Similarly, the sex- or gender digital divide refers to the gap in access rates between men and women. So, by the end of 2000, when women surpassed men to become a majority of the United States online population, many people also believed the sex digital divide had disappeared. If there were more women than men using the Internet, the logic went, equality had been achieved. Girls and women were equally likely to use computers and the Internet as boys and men. Still, though the fact that more girls and women were using the Internet is a meaningful step forward, a broader and deeper look at their position in relation to the increasingly techno-centric society and global economy, reveals that equality in access is considerably different from equity in opportunity. In fact, most of the sex and gender inequities in society and other media are replicated online. The ever-present and ever-growing Internet pornography industry, along with the threat of cyber-stalking and the relative ease with which potential sexual predators can attain personal information about women online, make the Internet a hostile--and potentially dangerous--environment for many girls and women. Equally hostile to women are academic and professional pursuits of mathematics, sciences, engineering, computer sciences--all traditionally male fields that are closely linked with computers and the Internet. Research shows how women and girls are systematically steered away from these fields beginning as early as elementary school through school culture, classroom climate, traditional gender roles, and other societal pressures. Additionally, video games, largely marketed for men and boys, often depict girls and women as damsels in distress or sideshow prostitutes. Even those games, such as Tomb Raider, that challenge these stereotypical roles by casting strong, independent, heroic female characters in lead roles dress these big-breasted women with impossibly-dimensioned bodies in tight, revealing clothes. Most video game makers are men and most video game consumers are boys and men. So, instead of critiquing this fact and considering why it is so, the producers bow to marke

2000, when women surpassed men to become a majority of the United States online population, many people also believed the sex digital divide had disappeared. If there were more women than men using the Internet, the logic went, equality had been achieved. Girls and women were equally likely to use computers and the Internet as boys and men. Still, though the fact that more girls and women were using the Internet is a meaningful step forward, a broader and deeper look at their position in relation to the increasingly techno-centric society and global economy, reveals that equality in access is considerably different from equity in opportunity. In fact, most of the sex and gender inequities in society and other media are replicated online. The ever-present and ever-growing Internet pornography industry, along with the threat of cyber-stalking and the relative ease with which potential sexual predators can attain personal information about women online, make the Internet a hostile--and potentially dangerous--environment for many girls and women. Equally hostile to women are academic and professional pursuits of mathematics, sciences, engineering, computer sciences--all traditionally male fields that are closely linked with computers and the Internet. Research shows how women and girls are systematically steered away from these fields beginning as early as elementary school through school culture, classroom climate, traditional gender roles, and other societal pressures. Additionally, video games, largely marketed for men and boys, often depict girls and women as damsels in distress or sideshow prostitutes. Even those games, such as Tomb Raider, that challenge these stereotypical roles by casting strong, independent, heroic female characters in lead roles dress these big-breasted women with impossibly-dimensioned bodies in tight, revealing clothes. Most video game makers are men and most video game consumers are boys and men. So, instead of critiquing this fact and considering why it is so, the producers bow to market pressures and recycle the industry sexism. Unfortunately, a majority of information technology professionals cite video games as their initial point of interest in the field. As a result of these and other socio-political, socio-historical, and socio-cultural dynamics, during the same year that women became over 50 percent of the online population, only 7 percent of all Bachelor's-level engineering degrees were conferred to women and only 20 percent of all information technology professionals were women. So, while equality in access rates reflects an important step forward, it does not, by any useful measurement, signify the end of the sex digital divide. In fact, the glaring inequities that remain despite equality in Internet access illustrate the urgency for a deeper, broader understanding of the digital divide and a deeper, broader approach for eliminating it. These remaining inequities, which mirror deeply entrenched and historically cycled inequities in professional, economic, and education opportunities for women in the U.S., together serve as a clear, powerful critique of the unidimensional approach most often employed for addressing the race and class digital divides: simply providing schools and communities with more computers and more, or faster, Internet access. Again, though this is a positive step forward, it fails to address social, cultural, and political factors that will be in place with or without more machinery. For example, research indicates that, while teachers in schools with a high percentage of White students and a low percentage of students on free or reduced lunch programs are more likely to use these technologies to engage students in creative and critical thinking activities, teachers in schools with a high percentage of Students of Color and a high percentage of students on free or reduced lunch tend to use computers and the Internet for a skills and drills approach to learning. Additionally, the growing online presence of African Americans and Latina(o)s is tempered by the growing

t pressures and recycle the industry sexism. Unfortunately, a majority of information technology professionals cite video games as their initial point of interest in the field. As a result of these and other socio-political, socio-historical, and socio-cultural dynamics, during the same year that women became over 50 percent of the online population, only 7 percent of all Bachelor's-level engineering degrees were conferred to women and only 20 percent of all information technology professionals were women. So, while equality in access rates reflects an important step forward, it does not, by any useful measurement, signify the end of the sex digital divide. In fact, the glaring inequities that remain despite equality in Internet access illustrate the urgency for a deeper, broader understanding of the digital divide and a deeper, broader approach for eliminating it. These remaining inequities, which mirror deeply entrenched and historically cycled inequities in professional, economic, and education opportunities for women in the U.S., together serve as a clear, powerful critique of the unidimensional approach most often employed for addressing the race and class digital divides: simply providing schools and communities with more computers and more, or faster, Internet access. Again, though this is a positive step forward, it fails to address social, cultural, and political factors that will be in place with or without more machinery. For example, research indicates that, while teachers in schools with a high percentage of White students and a low percentage of students on free or reduced lunch programs are more likely to use these technologies to engage students in creative and critical thinking activities, teachers in schools with a high percentage of Students of Color and a high percentage of students on free or reduced lunch tend to use computers and the Internet for a skills and drills approach to learning. Additionally, the growing online presence of African Americans and Latina(o)s is tempered by the growing number of white supremacy Web sites and a more intense sense of fear and vulnerability among these groups (along with Native Americans) related to the availability of personal information online. Ultimately, the traditional understanding of the digital divide as gaps in rates of physical access to computers and the Internet fails to capture the full picture of the divide, its stronghold, and its educational, social, cultural, and economic ramifications. Meanwhile, such a narrow conceptualization of the divide serves the interests of privileged groups who can continue to critique access rates instead of thinking critically and reflectively about their personal and collective roles in cycling and recycling old inequities in a new cyber-form. A new understanding of the digital divide is needed--one that provides adequate context and begins with a dedication to equity and social justice throughout education. Multicultural education--a field that enters every discussion about education with this dedication--offers an important, desperately needed framework for such an understanding. It is from that framework that I have crafted the following statement about understanding and eliminating the digital divide. A multicultural education approach to understanding and eliminating the digital divide: As information technology becomes more and more interwoven with all aspects of life and well-being in the United States, it becomes equally urgent to employ the complexities and critiques of multicultural education theory and practice to the problem of the digital divide. It is the next--the present--equity issue in schools and larger society with enormous social justice implications. This reframing of the digital divide can serve as a starting point for more active participation in digital divide research and action within the field of multicultural education. Additionally, this conceptual piece should challenge those currently studying or working to eliminate the divide in all contexts to broaden and deepen their understanding

number of white supremacy Web sites and a more intense sense of fear and vulnerability among these groups (along with Native Americans) related to the availability of personal information online. Ultimately, the traditional understanding of the digital divide as gaps in rates of physical access to computers and the Internet fails to capture the full picture of the divide, its stronghold, and its educational, social, cultural, and economic ramifications. Meanwhile, such a narrow conceptualization of the divide serves the interests of privileged groups who can continue to critique access rates instead of thinking critically and reflectively about their personal and collective roles in cycling and recycling old inequities in a new cyber-form. A new understanding of the digital divide is needed--one that provides adequate context and begins with a dedication to equity and social justice throughout education. Multicultural education--a field that enters every discussion about education with this dedication--offers an important, desperately needed framework for such an understanding. It is from that framework that I have crafted the following statement about understanding and eliminating the digital divide. A multicultural education approach to understanding and eliminating the digital divide: As information technology becomes more and more interwoven with all aspects of life and well-being in the United States, it becomes equally urgent to employ the complexities and critiques of multicultural education theory and practice to the problem of the digital divide. It is the next--the present--equity issue in schools and larger society with enormous social justice implications. This reframing of the digital divide can serve as a starting point for more active participation in digital divide research and action within the field of multicultural education. Additionally, this conceptual piece should challenge those currently studying or working to eliminate the divide in all contexts to broaden and deepen their understandings of equity. It is crucial to recognize that the effort to eliminate the divide, while a clearly identifiable problem unto itself, must be understood as one part--albeit an immensely important one--of a larger effort toward eliminating the continuing and intensifying inequity in every aspect of education and society. [an error occurred while processing this directive]

s of equity. It is crucial to recognize that the effort to eliminate the divide, while a clearly identifiable problem unto itself, must be understood as one part--albeit an immensely important one--of a larger effort toward eliminating the continuing and intensifying inequity in every aspect of education and society. [an error occurred while processing this directive]

[Part 5 shows how to protect critical code and resources using semaphores, spin locks, and other techniques. It also explains how to synchronize interdependent tasks. Part 7 shows how to analyze scheduling behavior, and how to ensure tasks meet their deadlines.] So far we've said that determinism was important for analysis of real-time systems. Now we're going to show you the analysis. In real-time systems, the process of verifying whether a schedule of task execution meets the imposed timing constraints is referred to as schedulability analysis. In the next three articles, we will review the two main categories of scheduling algorithms, static and dynamic. Then we will look at techniques to actually perform the analysis of systems to determine schedulability. Finally, we will describe some methods to minimize some of the common scheduling problems when using common scheduling algorithms. Scheduling Policies in Real-Time Systems There are several approaches to scheduling tasks in real-time systems. These fall into two general categories, fixed or static priority scheduling policies and dynamic priority scheduling policies. Many commercial RTOSs today support fixed-priority scheduling policies. Fixed-priority scheduling algorithms do not modify a job's priority while the task is running. The task itself is allowed to modify its own priority for reasons that will become apparent later. This approach requires very little support code in the scheduler to implement this functionality. The scheduler is fast and predictable with this approach. The scheduling is mostly done offline (before the system runs). This requires the DSP system designer to know the task set a-priori (ahead of time) and is not suitable for tasks that are created dynamically during run time. The priority of the task set must be determined beforehand and cannot change when the system runs unless the task itself changes its own priority. Dynamic scheduling algorithms allow a scheduler to modify a job's priority based on one of several scheduling algorithms or policies. This is a more complicated approach and requires more code in the scheduler to implement. This leads to more overhead in managing a task set in a DSP system because the scheduler must now spend more time dynamically sorting through the system task set and prioritizing tasks for execution based on the scheduling policy. This leads to nondeterminism, which is not favorable, especially for hard real-time systems. Dynamic scheduling algorithms are online scheduling algorithms. The scheduling policy is applied to the task set during the execution of the system. The active task set changes dynamically as the system runs. The priority of the tasks can also change dynamically. Static Scheduling Policies Examples of static scheduling policies are rate monotonic scheduling and deadline monotonic scheduling. Examples of dynamic scheduling policies are earliest deadline first and least slack scheduling. Rate monotonic scheduling is an optimal fixed-priority policy where the higher the frequency (1/period) of a task, the higher is its priority. This approach can be implemented in any operating system supporting the fixed-priority preemptive scheme, such as DSP/BIOS and VxWorks. Rate monotonic scheduling assumes that the deadline of a periodic task is the same as its period. Rate monotonic scheduling approaches are not new, being used by NASA, for example, on the Apollo space missions. Deadline monotonic scheduling is a generalization of the Rate-Monotonic scheduling policy. In this approach, the deadline of a task is a fixed (relative) point in time from the beginning of the period. The shorter this (fixed) deadline, the higher the priority. Dynamic Scheduling Policies Dynamic scheduling algorithms can be broken into two main classes of algorithms. The first is referred to as a "dynamic planning based approach." This approach is very useful for systems that must dynamically accept new tasks into the system; for example a wireless base station that must accept new calls into the system at a some dynamic rat

rithms or policies. This is a more complicated approach and requires more code in the scheduler to implement. This leads to more overhead in managing a task set in a DSP system because the scheduler must now spend more time dynamically sorting through the system task set and prioritizing tasks for execution based on the scheduling policy. This leads to nondeterminism, which is not favorable, especially for hard real-time systems. Dynamic scheduling algorithms are online scheduling algorithms. The scheduling policy is applied to the task set during the execution of the system. The active task set changes dynamically as the system runs. The priority of the tasks can also change dynamically. Static Scheduling Policies Examples of static scheduling policies are rate monotonic scheduling and deadline monotonic scheduling. Examples of dynamic scheduling policies are earliest deadline first and least slack scheduling. Rate monotonic scheduling is an optimal fixed-priority policy where the higher the frequency (1/period) of a task, the higher is its priority. This approach can be implemented in any operating system supporting the fixed-priority preemptive scheme, such as DSP/BIOS and VxWorks. Rate monotonic scheduling assumes that the deadline of a periodic task is the same as its period. Rate monotonic scheduling approaches are not new, being used by NASA, for example, on the Apollo space missions. Deadline monotonic scheduling is a generalization of the Rate-Monotonic scheduling policy. In this approach, the deadline of a task is a fixed (relative) point in time from the beginning of the period. The shorter this (fixed) deadline, the higher the priority. Dynamic Scheduling Policies Dynamic scheduling algorithms can be broken into two main classes of algorithms. The first is referred to as a "dynamic planning based approach." This approach is very useful for systems that must dynamically accept new tasks into the system; for example a wireless base station that must accept new calls into the system at a some dynamic rate. This approach combines some of the flexibility of a dynamic approach and some of the predictability of a more static approach. After a task arrives, but before its execution begins, a check is made to determine whether a schedule can be created that can handle the new task as well as the currently executing tasks. Another approach, called the dynamic best effort apprach, uses the task deadlines to set the priorities. With this approach, a task could be pre-empted at any time during its execution. So, until the deadline arrives or the task finishes execution, we do not have a guarantee that a timing constraint can be met. Examples of dynamic best effort algorithms are Earliest Deadline First and Least Slack scheduling. Earliest deadline first scheduling Earliest deadline first scheduling is a dynamic priority preemptive policy. With this approach, the deadline of a task instance is the absolute point in time by which the instance must complete. The task deadline is computed when the instance is created. The operating system scheduler picks the task with the earliest deadline to run. A task with an earlier deadline preempts a task with a later deadline. Least slack scheduling Least slack scheduling is also a dynamic priority preemptive policy. The slack of a task instance is the absolute deadline minus the remaining execution time for the instance to complete. The OS scheduler picks the task with the shortest slack to run first. A task with a smaller slack preempts a task with a larger slack. This approach maximizes the minimum lateness of tasks. Dynamic priority preemptive scheduling In a dynamic scheduling approach such as dynamic priority preemptive scheduling, the priority of a task can change from instance to instance or within the execution of an instance. In this approach a higher priority task preempts a lower priority task. Very few commercial RTOS support such policies because this approach leads to systems that are hard to analyze for real-time and determinism properties. Thus, the analysis in the fol

e. This approach combines some of the flexibility of a dynamic approach and some of the predictability of a more static approach. After a task arrives, but before its execution begins, a check is made to determine whether a schedule can be created that can handle the new task as well as the currently executing tasks. Another approach, called the dynamic best effort apprach, uses the task deadlines to set the priorities. With this approach, a task could be pre-empted at any time during its execution. So, until the deadline arrives or the task finishes execution, we do not have a guarantee that a timing constraint can be met. Examples of dynamic best effort algorithms are Earliest Deadline First and Least Slack scheduling. Earliest deadline first scheduling Earliest deadline first scheduling is a dynamic priority preemptive policy. With this approach, the deadline of a task instance is the absolute point in time by which the instance must complete. The task deadline is computed when the instance is created. The operating system scheduler picks the task with the earliest deadline to run. A task with an earlier deadline preempts a task with a later deadline. Least slack scheduling Least slack scheduling is also a dynamic priority preemptive policy. The slack of a task instance is the absolute deadline minus the remaining execution time for the instance to complete. The OS scheduler picks the task with the shortest slack to run first. A task with a smaller slack preempts a task with a larger slack. This approach maximizes the minimum lateness of tasks. Dynamic priority preemptive scheduling In a dynamic scheduling approach such as dynamic priority preemptive scheduling, the priority of a task can change from instance to instance or within the execution of an instance. In this approach a higher priority task preempts a lower priority task. Very few commercial RTOS support such policies because this approach leads to systems that are hard to analyze for real-time and determinism properties. Thus, the analysis in the following articles will focus instead on static scheduling policies. Part 7 shows how to analyze scheduling behavior, and how to ensure tasks meet their deadlines. Used with the permission of the publisher, Newnes/Elsevier, this series of eight articles is based on chapter eight of "DSP Software Development Techniques for Embedded and Real-Time Systems," by Robert Oshana.

lowing articles will focus instead on static scheduling policies. Part 7 shows how to analyze scheduling behavior, and how to ensure tasks meet their deadlines. Used with the permission of the publisher, Newnes/Elsevier, this series of eight articles is based on chapter eight of "DSP Software Development Techniques for Embedded and Real-Time Systems," by Robert Oshana.

Most people understand that we can become addicted to substances like alcohol or drugs. But they may not realize that we can also become addicted to behaviors. Physical dependence is the cornerstone to the compulsive use of drugs and alcohol. However, behavioral addictions can be just as devastating to the individual. Behavioral addictions are sometimes overlooked because the activities involved are enjoyed responsibly by many people. Gambling, eating, exercising, having sex, playing video games, and shopping are just a few examples of common, everyday activities that can and do become obsessive addictions for those who suffer from a behavioral addiction. Someone with a behavioral addiction engages in an activity in a way has negative consequences on their lives. Similar to a chemical addiction, behavioral addictions are engaged in compulsively, obsessively, and with the intent to change the way the person feels. An example of this may be a food addicted individual who eats even when they are not hungry as a way to alleviate anxiety. Someone addicted to gambling will not stop even after they have depleted all their resources, including the car, the house, and the kids’ college fund. Although it may be argued that many people say “overeat” and “lose money gambling” without being addicted, here’s the difference: Someone who is addicted is unable to stop the behavior despite the negative consequences. An addicted individual’s “willpower” is non-existent in regards to their addictive behavior. Even when health problems, financial problems, legal problems, and other problems arise, the person cannot stop the behavior. Just as with substance addiction, behavioral addiction can treated in a residential or outpatient setting that provides therapy, education, and support. Contact us today if you or your loved one are ready to reach out for help. We can start you on the road to recovery.

Search Engine Optimization – What Is SEO? The act of optimizing a webpage and/or website to perform well in the search engines defines Search Engine Optimization (SEO). Search engine placement practices and SEO strategies seek to improve the number and quality of visitors to a website from pages of organic search results. The position where your website ranks on search engines is essential to directing more qualified traffic. If search engines cannot locate your website, you miss out on opportunities to connect with people who are actively searching for your products and services. Regardless of your website goals, search engines are a key channel through which most traffic originates. SEO is offered as a single service or as a component of an overall website promotion strategy. Search engine optimization includes changing the markup of the site, web design, improving site architecture, and usability. SEO’s utilize a range of various search engine optimization strategies in order to increase the visibility of websites.

At some point in life, either through a personality test or just learning about the two types, you may have discovered if you lean more towards being “left-brained” or “right-brained”. Those who function more in the left side of their brain are logical, analytical, and think factually while those who function more on the right side of their brain are emotion centered and creative. Most people talk as if they are only one or the other and don’t see themselves taking on traits of the opposite side. Or people might say something like “my emotional side responded that way” or “my logical side thought through this”. The truth is, we function most fully and in a healthy state when both sides of our brain are integrated and working together. This would look like our left and right brain working together to make sense of our lives. When people show up for counseling with dis-integrated brains one of the first things we work through is letting their thoughts and feeling communicate with each other. This might look like someone who is highly emotional about their current situation bringing reason into the picture. We might think through things like “Why do you think that person acted that way?” “What are some behind the scenes reasons this may have happened?” Or “What is the probability that this situation will continue?” Adding reason and logic to the emotion helps bring perspective to the situation. It may also look like someone coming into session sharing all of the facts about a situation but still being confused about which decision to make next. They have analyzed all their options but nothing seems to stick out. Depending on if people are angry, sad, happy, etc. about their situation will call for a different response. When we know how we feel about a situation it gives us direction. Emotions and thoughts are both helpful to us and even more so if they are connected. Some things to consider: - Which side of your brain do you lean on most? - How might you work on integrating your brain? How could you help your right and left side to communicate?

Performed in French with Estonian and English subtitles. Spring Awakening is an adaptions of the play by the same title of the controversial German playwright Frank Wedekind. Frank Wedekind is one of the most daring dramatic spirits in Germany, who set out in quest of new truths. In Spring Awakening, his first major play, Frank Wedekind laid bare the shams of morality in reference to sexuality, especially attacking the ignorance surrounding the sex life of the child. He called his drama `the tragedy of childhood`, dedicating his work to parents and teachers. Even if Spring Awakening was written more than 100 years ago, for the Belgian director of the piece Armel Roussel, the core story of troubled teenage sexuality is as topical and intriguing as it was at the beginning of the last century. It is already the fourth time in his professional career that he has turned to Wedekind.

Fish figures a lot in the Mediterranean diet. People following the Mediterranean diet plan are recommended to eat fish at least twice a week. Fresh or water-packed tuna, trout, salmon, herring, and mackerel are good choices. While fish are highly recommended, especially grilled fish, it is better to avoid eating fried fish and deep fried fish. You can eat fish that is sautéed in a small amount of olive oil, though. There are a lot of healthy ways of preparing fish. Aside from good taste and the ease of preparation, one important consideration in cooking fish is how to make the most out of the nutritional benefits it gives to our body. When on the Mediterranean diet, it’s not always easy to get hold of fresh fish all the time. It is always best to have fresh fish as the Mediterranean diet usually calls for fresh ingredients for most of its Mediterranean diet recipes. Canned fish, on the other hand, is easier to find. This is where the issue on whether canned fish can give you the nutritional benefits that fresh fish provides. Canning is a very effective method of preserving fish. The processes in fish canning kills harmful bacteria and protects against the growth of various microorganisms. However, the high heat that is usually used when canning fish can rob you of vast amounts of nutrients that you enjoy consuming fresh fish. Many important vitamins and minerals are lost or are reduced in the canning process. Despite this, you can still benefit from the macronutrient nourishment and mineral supply you get from canned fish. Here is a look at the difference in nutrient contents between fresh fish and canned fish: Omega-3 Fatty Acids. Fish, especially those that are considered oily fish, are rich in omega-3 fatty acids than those in the white fish category. Some examples of oily fish are herring, trout, sardines, mackerel, and salmon. Omega-3 fatty acids are famous for helping prevent cardiovascular diseased, improve blood flow, prevent extreme blood clotting, lower the amounts of lipids in the bloodstream, and reduce the risks of arrhythmia. It also said to boost immune function, help increase fertility, fight degenerative diseases, promote healthy skin, and improve mental health. Consuming the proper amount of omega-3 can also make you less vulnerable to various autoimmune disorders and inflammatory diseases and you will be less likely to have Alzheimer’s disease, asthma, and emotional or mental disorders like depression. The amount of omega-3 found in canned fish is usually lower than that found in fresh fish. To get the most omega-3, look for canned fish from the oily fish category. Experts also agree that it is better to purchase canned fish packed in water rather than those packed in oil. This is because some of the natural fat found in tuna can mix with the oil and some of the omega-3 may come with the oil when you drain it from your canned tuna. Carotenoids. Carotenoids can be found in various food stuff and they are also found in fish. The amount of carotenoids in canned fish is usually lower as compared to fresh fish because some are lost during the canning process. However, some carotenoids can also get lost when you cook fresh fish. Carotenoids are antioxidants that protect cells from free radicals. They may also guard against certain types of cancer and fight heart disease by blocking the formation of LDL cholesterol. B Vitamins. A number of B vitamins can be found in fish and this includes vitamins B1, B3, and B6. The amount of B vitamins in fresh fish is higher than those found in canned fish. The canning process is also said to be responsible with the loss of certain of amounts of B vitamins in canned fish. Vitamin B1 or thiamine is needed to metabolize carbohydrate and for the release of energy from food. It is also said to help the nervous system and the heart to function well. Vitamin B3 or niacin needed for DNA repair and it helps boost energy. It is also said to help reverse the progression of atherosclerosis and lower cholesterol levels. Niacin is also said to be helpful for people who have diabetes be

ce the risks of arrhythmia. It also said to boost immune function, help increase fertility, fight degenerative diseases, promote healthy skin, and improve mental health. Consuming the proper amount of omega-3 can also make you less vulnerable to various autoimmune disorders and inflammatory diseases and you will be less likely to have Alzheimer’s disease, asthma, and emotional or mental disorders like depression. The amount of omega-3 found in canned fish is usually lower than that found in fresh fish. To get the most omega-3, look for canned fish from the oily fish category. Experts also agree that it is better to purchase canned fish packed in water rather than those packed in oil. This is because some of the natural fat found in tuna can mix with the oil and some of the omega-3 may come with the oil when you drain it from your canned tuna. Carotenoids. Carotenoids can be found in various food stuff and they are also found in fish. The amount of carotenoids in canned fish is usually lower as compared to fresh fish because some are lost during the canning process. However, some carotenoids can also get lost when you cook fresh fish. Carotenoids are antioxidants that protect cells from free radicals. They may also guard against certain types of cancer and fight heart disease by blocking the formation of LDL cholesterol. B Vitamins. A number of B vitamins can be found in fish and this includes vitamins B1, B3, and B6. The amount of B vitamins in fresh fish is higher than those found in canned fish. The canning process is also said to be responsible with the loss of certain of amounts of B vitamins in canned fish. Vitamin B1 or thiamine is needed to metabolize carbohydrate and for the release of energy from food. It is also said to help the nervous system and the heart to function well. Vitamin B3 or niacin needed for DNA repair and it helps boost energy. It is also said to help reverse the progression of atherosclerosis and lower cholesterol levels. Niacin is also said to be helpful for people who have diabetes because it helps the stimulation of insulin secretion. Vitamin B6 or pyridoxine is needed by the body to produce more than 60 enzymes needed by the immune system and other body systems to function well. It is also said to help prevent cancer, migraines, and kidney stones. Pyridoxine also has a diuretic effect by helping reduce water retention. It is also included in the treatment for arthritis and is said to help increase the body’s serotonin levels. Calcium. If other nutrients usually found in fish are lost during the canning process, calcium stands as an exception. Canned fish, especially canned salmon, is said to have higher calcium concentration than its fresh variety. There are studies suggesting that the amount of calcium found in canned fish is about 10 to 20 times higher than what is found in fresh fish. Since fish is canned with its bones that are rich in calcium, the heating process involved in canning softens the bones so calcium is easily ingested with the meat of the fish. Aside from playing a major role in bone and tooth health, calcium is also important to heart rhythm, blood clotting, muscle function, nerve transmission, and cell membrane function. A little known function of calcium is it being a natural tranquilizer and a key in aiding metabolism. Calcium works synergistically with vitamin D for it to be absorbed and used for various bodily functions. Aside from these, fish is also a good source of vitamins A, D, and K. Fish is also a good source of protein, magnesium, selenium, and potassium. The amount of these vitamins and minerals that can be found in fresh and canned fish may differ. However, it is important to remember that the loss of nutrients found in fresh fish is not brought about by canning alone. Nutrients are also lost in the process of cooking fresh fish, even if you cook your fresh fish the healthy way. Since the two-fold heating process involved in canning can result to a significant loss in nutrients, there are fish canning companies that do away with the pre-treatment process to

cause it helps the stimulation of insulin secretion. Vitamin B6 or pyridoxine is needed by the body to produce more than 60 enzymes needed by the immune system and other body systems to function well. It is also said to help prevent cancer, migraines, and kidney stones. Pyridoxine also has a diuretic effect by helping reduce water retention. It is also included in the treatment for arthritis and is said to help increase the body’s serotonin levels. Calcium. If other nutrients usually found in fish are lost during the canning process, calcium stands as an exception. Canned fish, especially canned salmon, is said to have higher calcium concentration than its fresh variety. There are studies suggesting that the amount of calcium found in canned fish is about 10 to 20 times higher than what is found in fresh fish. Since fish is canned with its bones that are rich in calcium, the heating process involved in canning softens the bones so calcium is easily ingested with the meat of the fish. Aside from playing a major role in bone and tooth health, calcium is also important to heart rhythm, blood clotting, muscle function, nerve transmission, and cell membrane function. A little known function of calcium is it being a natural tranquilizer and a key in aiding metabolism. Calcium works synergistically with vitamin D for it to be absorbed and used for various bodily functions. Aside from these, fish is also a good source of vitamins A, D, and K. Fish is also a good source of protein, magnesium, selenium, and potassium. The amount of these vitamins and minerals that can be found in fresh and canned fish may differ. However, it is important to remember that the loss of nutrients found in fresh fish is not brought about by canning alone. Nutrients are also lost in the process of cooking fresh fish, even if you cook your fresh fish the healthy way. Since the two-fold heating process involved in canning can result to a significant loss in nutrients, there are fish canning companies that do away with the pre-treatment process to lessen nutrient loss. These companies place the fish in its fresh and raw form into the can. It is said that lesser nutrient loss results when the cooking of the fish occurs in the sealed can. These companies that cook on in the can put emphasis on wild-caught fish and give focus on the environmental and health issues involved. Moreover, there are now methods to replace the lost nutrients so that people can enjoy enhanced nutritional benefits from canned fish. One of these methods is through fortifying canned fish with a number of vitamins and minerals that the human body need to function well. Though there are still differences in the overall taste and texture between fresh fish and canned fish, this depends entirely on the palate of a person. Besides, since fresh fish is not that readily available, canned fish is still your most convenient, practical, and satisfactory option. I hope you enjoyed today’s article – stay well,

lessen nutrient loss. These companies place the fish in its fresh and raw form into the can. It is said that lesser nutrient loss results when the cooking of the fish occurs in the sealed can. These companies that cook on in the can put emphasis on wild-caught fish and give focus on the environmental and health issues involved. Moreover, there are now methods to replace the lost nutrients so that people can enjoy enhanced nutritional benefits from canned fish. One of these methods is through fortifying canned fish with a number of vitamins and minerals that the human body need to function well. Though there are still differences in the overall taste and texture between fresh fish and canned fish, this depends entirely on the palate of a person. Besides, since fresh fish is not that readily available, canned fish is still your most convenient, practical, and satisfactory option. I hope you enjoyed today’s article – stay well,

How To Have Less Emf In Your Life Emf protection is especially crucial for hypersensitive individuals; however, everyone could benefit from having less emf in their lives. Scientists argue that an abundance of emf can damage the cells in your body and affect your central nervous system. High levels of emf radiation cause numerous symptoms throughout the body. Exposure to high emf levels can be limited by using emf meters, emf protective clothing, and other protective measures. Emf stands for electromagnetic fields. Electromagnetic fields occur when magnetic fields meet electric voltage – the higher the voltage and the greater the magnetic current, the higher the emf levels. Electromagnetic fields found in nature are responsible for guiding those who use compasses. However, human-made electromagnetic fields are increasing at an alarming rate. Sources of EMFs include microwaves, cellphones, wi-fi routers, computers, cell towers, the list goes on. We are exposed to many of these sources of radiation daily. You may be wondering how it is even possible to protect yourself from something that is always surrounding us – no need to worry. Keep reading to learn more about the effects of emf radiation and what you can do to have less emf present in your life. Emf Radiation and The Symptoms to Watch Out For There are two different kinds of emf exposure – low-level radiation and high-level radiation. Low-level radiation is caused by appliances and cell phones, while high-level radiation comes from ultraviolet rays and medical imaging machines. An important thing to keep in mind when trying to have less emf around you is to keep your distance! The further away you are from sources of emf radiation, the less intense the waves. As mentioned above, there are countless symptoms linked to high exposure levels of emf. These include: - Insomnia and other sleep disturbances - Headaches and migraines - Depression and depressive symptoms - Tiredness and physical and mental fatigue - Dysesthesia (a painful, itchy sensation) - Lack of concentration - Alterations in memory function - Anxious tendencies - Skin tingling - Changes in electrical activity in the brain It is possible that you need a large amount of exposure to begin to realize any of these symptoms. However, for those who are particularly sensitive or hypersensitive, the severity and onset of these symptoms can be much different. How to Protect Yourself There are many different ways available to protect yourself from high levels of electromagnetic fields. Some individuals choose to eliminate their risk to emf radiation as much as possible by moving to areas with little to no cellular or electrical towers and removing as many emf producing devices as possible from their daily lives. While this approach may offer peace of mind, it can be quite challenging to achieve. Two of the easiest and most accessible ways to accomplish this is by monitoring the emf levels that you are actively being exposed to and wearing emf protection clothing. These two precautions are the easiest and most effective because they are portable and allow you to go about your day as naturally as possible without too much interference. What to Know About The Best EMF Meters EMF readers are devices that let you know how much radiation you are being exposed to by measuring the amount of AC electromagnetic fields in a given area. While many effective models carry a smaller price tag, there are a few reasons why a more expensive meter could be worth the extra cash. The best emf meters are usually of a higher quality and last longer. They also tend to maintain their accuracy for a more extended period and offer more options regarding the measurement units. Most importantly, high-quality emf readers are more sensitive, meaning they will alert you at even the slightest hint of emf radiation. How EMF Protection Clothing Works For emf hypersensitive individuals, protective clothing against emf radiation may be necessary to live a productive and healthier life. Emf protection clothing works because it is constructed with anti-r

ncentration - Alterations in memory function - Anxious tendencies - Skin tingling - Changes in electrical activity in the brain It is possible that you need a large amount of exposure to begin to realize any of these symptoms. However, for those who are particularly sensitive or hypersensitive, the severity and onset of these symptoms can be much different. How to Protect Yourself There are many different ways available to protect yourself from high levels of electromagnetic fields. Some individuals choose to eliminate their risk to emf radiation as much as possible by moving to areas with little to no cellular or electrical towers and removing as many emf producing devices as possible from their daily lives. While this approach may offer peace of mind, it can be quite challenging to achieve. Two of the easiest and most accessible ways to accomplish this is by monitoring the emf levels that you are actively being exposed to and wearing emf protection clothing. These two precautions are the easiest and most effective because they are portable and allow you to go about your day as naturally as possible without too much interference. What to Know About The Best EMF Meters EMF readers are devices that let you know how much radiation you are being exposed to by measuring the amount of AC electromagnetic fields in a given area. While many effective models carry a smaller price tag, there are a few reasons why a more expensive meter could be worth the extra cash. The best emf meters are usually of a higher quality and last longer. They also tend to maintain their accuracy for a more extended period and offer more options regarding the measurement units. Most importantly, high-quality emf readers are more sensitive, meaning they will alert you at even the slightest hint of emf radiation. How EMF Protection Clothing Works For emf hypersensitive individuals, protective clothing against emf radiation may be necessary to live a productive and healthier life. Emf protection clothing works because it is constructed with anti-radiation fabric. The fabric protects you by absorbing or scattering the harmful protons as they pass through the clothing. Look for apparel that boasts silver, mylar, copper, and aluminum as the work well, are comfortable, and tend to be the most affordable. The Bottom Line Emf meters and emf protection clothing work well for keeping excessive radiation at bay; however, for those who are hypersensitive or particularly concerned about their exposure, you may need to consider changing your lifestyle. Limit your exposure to emf producing devices and appliances. Limit the time you spend using wi-fi in your home or eliminate wireless internet devices. Start small and determine what works best for you!

adiation fabric. The fabric protects you by absorbing or scattering the harmful protons as they pass through the clothing. Look for apparel that boasts silver, mylar, copper, and aluminum as the work well, are comfortable, and tend to be the most affordable. The Bottom Line Emf meters and emf protection clothing work well for keeping excessive radiation at bay; however, for those who are hypersensitive or particularly concerned about their exposure, you may need to consider changing your lifestyle. Limit your exposure to emf producing devices and appliances. Limit the time you spend using wi-fi in your home or eliminate wireless internet devices. Start small and determine what works best for you!

Every now and again there is a piece of good news regarding the survival of a particular species. Yesterday on the BBC news website was just such a story. It concerned the resurgence of barn owls (Tyto alba, Dansk: slørugle) in the Trossachs around Loch Lomond in Scotland. Watching barn owls silently quartering fields on a warm summers evening is a rare treat and getting rarer, so it was good to hear that in this area the numbers of field voles (Microtus agrestis) have rocketed by up to ten fold, which has led to a concommitant increase in the breeding success of the local barn owls. Paradoxically, the reason the vole population exploded was the long freezing winters we had last year and the year before, in which large numbers of barn owls perished, but the voles were able to avoid the worst of the cold and move around by tunnelling under the snow and thereby avoid detection by airborn predators. It was also interesting to read that the owls were maximising the benefit of the vole surplus by storing slaughtered prey in owl boxes, with up to 15 dead rodents in a single box. Hopefully vole numbers will continue to remain high and barn owl numbers can recover even further. If anyone has heard similar reports about barn owl numbers in other parts of the country please let me know.

We all know teachers aren’t exactly made of money, time, and, well… energy. Thankfully, these DIY (Do-It-Yourself) teacher hacks don’t require a whole lot of any of those! Here are a few tips to make your career a little bit easier. Teacher Hack #1: Dice I am always running out of dice, so I like to make my own! I go to Michael’s or Hobby Lobby and buy these wooden blocks and a Sharpie. Then I just write whatever facts on them that I desire! It’s nice because then I can make fractions for comparing, adding, ordering, and multiplying. I can also create dice with operations, dice for decimals, etc. Teacher Hack #2: Whiteboards Continuing on my “trying to save money” trend, I make inexpensive whiteboards. I buy white card stock, sheet protectors, washcloths (buy a pack at the dollar store!), and Expo markers. I slide a white card stock sheet inside the sheet protector. Then I cut up a washcloth into four small pieces for erasers. (I’ve heard dryer sheets work well too!) What’s nice about this idea is that when you work with students you can easily pull these teacher hacks out and slide in a worksheet to practice on. I can’t tell you how many times I have only had one copy left, and this was a lifesaver! Teacher Hack #3: Barrel of Monkeys Game I love to monkey around! No, really, I do. I used to love that Barrel of Monkeys game! Do you remember that? Or am I showing my age? I just can’t let kids today not experience such an amazing game! So, to make sure they enjoy something way more exciting than any electronic app, I created this cute game. Just print out your desired words or numbers and glue to their belly. Then students play the game as it’s intended but looking for a match. For instance, you can glue multiplication problems on its belly (5×7) and the answer (35) on a different monkey’s belly. Students then look for the match and pick it up with the arms of the monkey only. You can use various parts of speech and have students only hook all verbs. The ideas are limitless and fun — it’s like several teacher hacks rolled into one! Teacher Hack #4: Name Display Just for fun, I created a name display for my door that I found on Pinterest. I don’t remember where I saw it or who did it (if it was you, please let me know so I can give you proper credit!). Either way, I loved it and decided to create it myself—with just a bit of a tweak! I bought a small 8×8 canvas and painted it pink (you guessed it — my favorite color!). I bought scrapbook solid colors and hole-punched 1-inch circles. These were then glued on randomly. Then I bought scrapbooking stickers to add the lettering, owls, and border. After decorating it my way, I added some ribbon to hang it. While these teacher hacks may not be the fanciest around, they’re certainly cute, inexpensive, and they get the job done! They are always a hit in my classroom, and I have no doubt they will be in yours too.

Guidelines devotional blogger, Darlene Sala, tells a story about a family who was involved in a serious automobile accident. The severity of the wreck completely totaled the car. It was amazing there were no fatalities. In fact, not one family member suffered any long terms injuries or effects from the accident. What they did next was unusual, but ingenious. So thankful that they lived through this harrowing ordeal that they took the mangled wreckage of the car and formed it into an art collage on their family room wall. When visitors asked about the unusual piece, it provides them an opportunity to express their thankfulness for God’s providential protection. In today’s Bible reading we read of Joshua leading Israel across the Jordan River into Canaan, the land promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Forty years of wilderness wanderings characterized by grumbling, rebellion, disobedience, defection, and death had now come to an end. 603,548 men of war perished in the wilderness. Only Caleb and Joshua of their generation survived. Every man and woman over 20 had died. Babies born during that era are now approaching 40. Now they’ve arrived to claim their God-ordained destiny. Just like when Israel left Egypt and the Red Sea parted, so did the water of the Jordan River. As the people began marching through on dry land imagine the anticipation. The excitement. The exhilaration. It would be a day they would never forget. So, to memorialize the occasion, God commanded 12 men, one from every tribe, to pick up a stone from the river bed and carry them across to where they would lodge. Joshua then explained why. “This may be a sign among you when your children ask in time to come, saying, ‘What do these stones mean to you?’ Then you shall answer them that the waters of the Jordan were cut off before the ark of the covenant of the Lord; when it crossed over the Jordan, the waters of the Jordan were cut off. And these stones shall be for a memorial to the children of Israel forever” (Josh. 4:6-7). In a similar way, we do the same thing today. Memorials of Washington, Jefferson, and Lincoln in Washington, D.C. call attention to our nation’s founders and its great leaders. Over 160 monuments, memorials, and statues in our nation’s capital remind us of our history. Where we came from. Who we are. And how we arrived here. Individually, we frame pictures of our family, make scrapbooks of important events, and collect souvenirs on our travels to remind us. When people ask us about them, it offers an opportunity to tell a story or honor a loved one. After my Mom died, I kept the last Bible she used on my desk as a reminder of who she was, what she taught me, and my spiritual heritage. When we began traveling, I gave it to Norma Jean to use so we would constantly have it before our eyes. I have in my office a little pocket New Testament that belonged to my Dad. He always liked to carry a Bible with him. I also have a Bible that belonged to my brother, Bill, that I pried out of the wreckage of the car in which he died in 1975. These Bibles, not only remind me of them but speak to my spiritual heritage. When we traveled to the Bible lands, two years ago, we picked up 5 stones from the little brook in the valley of Elah where David defeated Goliath. What a powerful reminder! Jesus set up a memorial with which we remember Him each Sunday. Think of the simplicity of unleavened bread and grape juice. And how often we explain why we partake of these elements and what they mean to us. There are people, events, and occasions, we should never forget. We possess gifts given to us from churches and brethren through the years where we’ve worked that are a reminder of our ministry and the fellowship we enjoyed. For years, I’ve hung pictures of my office walls of preachers who have mentored, inspired, and encouraged me. I actually have a rock with a message inscribed on it that sits of my desks that my wife gave me years ago which brings a smile to my face. What are your spiritual rocks? Do you have something visually that your children can ask, “What do

e same thing today. Memorials of Washington, Jefferson, and Lincoln in Washington, D.C. call attention to our nation’s founders and its great leaders. Over 160 monuments, memorials, and statues in our nation’s capital remind us of our history. Where we came from. Who we are. And how we arrived here. Individually, we frame pictures of our family, make scrapbooks of important events, and collect souvenirs on our travels to remind us. When people ask us about them, it offers an opportunity to tell a story or honor a loved one. After my Mom died, I kept the last Bible she used on my desk as a reminder of who she was, what she taught me, and my spiritual heritage. When we began traveling, I gave it to Norma Jean to use so we would constantly have it before our eyes. I have in my office a little pocket New Testament that belonged to my Dad. He always liked to carry a Bible with him. I also have a Bible that belonged to my brother, Bill, that I pried out of the wreckage of the car in which he died in 1975. These Bibles, not only remind me of them but speak to my spiritual heritage. When we traveled to the Bible lands, two years ago, we picked up 5 stones from the little brook in the valley of Elah where David defeated Goliath. What a powerful reminder! Jesus set up a memorial with which we remember Him each Sunday. Think of the simplicity of unleavened bread and grape juice. And how often we explain why we partake of these elements and what they mean to us. There are people, events, and occasions, we should never forget. We possess gifts given to us from churches and brethren through the years where we’ve worked that are a reminder of our ministry and the fellowship we enjoyed. For years, I’ve hung pictures of my office walls of preachers who have mentored, inspired, and encouraged me. I actually have a rock with a message inscribed on it that sits of my desks that my wife gave me years ago which brings a smile to my face. What are your spiritual rocks? Do you have something visually that your children can ask, “What does this mean?” Something that you can remind them of God’s goodness. His protection. His providence. And His promises. Something that speaks to your spiritual heritage? Maybe you ought to slow down, reflect on your legacy and return to your “Jordan.” Get a “rock” that means something really important, so when future generations ask, “What do these stones mean?” You will have a story to tell. –Ken Weliever, The Preacherman

es this mean?” Something that you can remind them of God’s goodness. His protection. His providence. And His promises. Something that speaks to your spiritual heritage? Maybe you ought to slow down, reflect on your legacy and return to your “Jordan.” Get a “rock” that means something really important, so when future generations ask, “What do these stones mean?” You will have a story to tell. –Ken Weliever, The Preacherman

Roald Dahl was a spy, an ace fighter pilot, a chocolate historian and a medical inventor. He was also the author of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, Matilda, The BFG, and a treasury of original, evergreen, and beloved childrens books. He remains for many the worlds No. 1 storyteller. Sitting in a hut at the bottom of his garden, surrounded by odd bits and pieces such as a suitcase (used as a footrest), his own hipbone (which he’d had replaced) and a heavy ball of metal foil (made from years’ worth of chocolate wrappers), Roald Dahl wrote some of the world’s best-loved stories. From Charlie Bucket and Mr. Willy Wonka in Charlie and The Chocolate Factory, to Fantastic Mr Fox to Danny, Champion of the World and The Twits, Roald Dahl created many unforgettable characters in his children’s novels, that continue to delight readers old and new.

Let’s begin by defining a breast cancer screening. A screening means that there are no issues with your breast and its purpose is to rule out any unknown problems. Now here are some common FAQs on breast cancer screening. A monthly breast self-exam is another tool women have in conjunction with annual mammograms to find cancers early and improve survival rates. You use your hands and eyes to detect any changes in the look and feel of your breasts. Not a replacement for annual mammograms, it is still valuable to be familiar with the normal consistencies of your breast. When cancer is detected early, the chances of survival are much improved. Let us go through how to perform a monthly breast exam. Could getting your COVID-19 vaccine affect the results of your mammogram? Maybe. A common side effect of the COVID-19 vaccine is swollen lymph nodes under the arm on the same side as the vaccine injection. Here are a few things to know about lymph node swelling, the COVID-19 vaccine, and timing of your mammogram. If you are approaching 40 years old, it is time to have your first mammogram screening. Some women become anxious and worry about all sorts of unknowns. We are here to tell you that sometimes anticipating something is worse than the actual event. So take heart and learn what you should know before your first mammogram.

Improve your toddler’s fine motor skills with this DIY Robot. It’s a versatile fine motor activities box, that’s easy to make, and costs around $2. Moreover, for everyone between 12 and 36 months is a great pal to play with. To see what fine motor activities can you do with the DIY robot, click here. Like Dr. Montessori once said, “The hands are the instruments of man’s intelligence.” And those two perfect tools are what we want to train with our DIY robot. But first things first: What Are Fine Motor Skills? Here is one short, but clear fine motor skills definition: FMS are achieved when children learn to use their smaller muscles, like muscles in the hands, fingers, and wrists.Study.com However, I need always some time to realize definitions. So here are 15 good fine motor skills examples to get a better picture of what are fine motor skills exactly and how important they are: - Playing a musical instrument - Turning pages - Holding small items - Brushing your teeth, hair - Washing your hands with soap - Buttoning & zipping - Lacing shoes - Opening and closing bottles and containers with caps & lids - Opening and closing doors, locks etc. with keys Huh. Okay. Well, I think it’s pretty clear, that this is dexterity. And all these things are essential for everyone every day, if not every minute of our lives. We take them as given, not even as skills that we have developed a long long time ago. Thus, mastery of dexterity requires not only precision and coordination but also a great amount of concentration and practice. So here is where our DIY robot comes into action. With your toddler of course. DIY Robot from a small, used cardboard box, plastic bottlenecks and screws, a blackboard/ chalkboard sticker, magnetic pompons and crayons - 1 small cardboard box with opening or window (I used here one cardboard box from a 6 pack glasses from Ikea) - 3 bottlenecks with screws cut out from plastic bottles - Chalkboard sticker enough to cover the cardboard box - Optional: small magnetic board with 6 pom-poms - Small LED flashlight - Get your materials and tools together - Measure, cut and cover the cardboard box with the chalkboard sticker from all sides. - Place the cutout plastic bottlenecks where you want to have them and mark the spots to be cut out. I chose, for example, two bottlenecks for robot eyes and one bottleneck as a receiver. Later, those three bottlenecks transform at the same time to car wheels and a sirene of the car - Cut out the cardboard at the marked spots and push the bottlenecks through the cutouts. - Draw with a white crayon the robot's mouth and face, and with a black crayon the eyes on the plastic lids of the bottlenecks. He must look hungry! For the face design, I chose a car, because of our boy's obsession with cars . - Now draw on the sides white lines for the road. - For the backside, you have two options. Either you leave it empty, so your little one can draw shapes with chalk or crayons. - Or, you add a magnetic board for more fun toddler activities. I had a small metal board with 6 magnetic pompoms, that I stuck to the back of the DIY robot. Just cut out four lines of the chalkboard sticker and stick the metal board to the back. - That's it! - To turn it into a lamp, just put inside a small LED flashlight like this one. - If you want to change the eye color of the robot and respectively the lamp color, just use caps of other colors. OUR PLAY WITH THE DIY ROBOT Well, this is our robot Nr. 3. The first ones survived around 5-6 months before their cardboard shell gave up after several surgeries. Playing and practice with the robot is different depending on the age of the child. In the first days of its life, our 3rd robot was very hungry. Aiden fed him constantly throughout the day. Note, that this robot eats not only with its mouth but also with its eyes and antenna. Thus far, our robot ate so many cars, straws, pencils, crayons, pompons, cookies, and many other small objects, that every day, he needed surgery to get those out. One by one, with the precision of a surgeon, Aiden took all small objects

shlight - Get your materials and tools together - Measure, cut and cover the cardboard box with the chalkboard sticker from all sides. - Place the cutout plastic bottlenecks where you want to have them and mark the spots to be cut out. I chose, for example, two bottlenecks for robot eyes and one bottleneck as a receiver. Later, those three bottlenecks transform at the same time to car wheels and a sirene of the car - Cut out the cardboard at the marked spots and push the bottlenecks through the cutouts. - Draw with a white crayon the robot's mouth and face, and with a black crayon the eyes on the plastic lids of the bottlenecks. He must look hungry! For the face design, I chose a car, because of our boy's obsession with cars . - Now draw on the sides white lines for the road. - For the backside, you have two options. Either you leave it empty, so your little one can draw shapes with chalk or crayons. - Or, you add a magnetic board for more fun toddler activities. I had a small metal board with 6 magnetic pompoms, that I stuck to the back of the DIY robot. Just cut out four lines of the chalkboard sticker and stick the metal board to the back. - That's it! - To turn it into a lamp, just put inside a small LED flashlight like this one. - If you want to change the eye color of the robot and respectively the lamp color, just use caps of other colors. OUR PLAY WITH THE DIY ROBOT Well, this is our robot Nr. 3. The first ones survived around 5-6 months before their cardboard shell gave up after several surgeries. Playing and practice with the robot is different depending on the age of the child. In the first days of its life, our 3rd robot was very hungry. Aiden fed him constantly throughout the day. Note, that this robot eats not only with its mouth but also with its eyes and antenna. Thus far, our robot ate so many cars, straws, pencils, crayons, pompons, cookies, and many other small objects, that every day, he needed surgery to get those out. One by one, with the precision of a surgeon, Aiden took all small objects through its mouth or eyes. Additionally, besides feeding and drawing, the pompoms magnetic board is a highlight. Summarizing, our robot had some serious makeovers, ate a lot and turned from time to time into a lamp. As you can see, it is one really versatile fine motor activity box, that’s easy to make and costs nothing but 15 minutes of your time. WHAT FINE MOTOR ACTIVITIES CAN YOU DO WITH THE DIY ROBOT? What else besides drawing, screwing bottle caps, feeding the robot, can you do with this fine motor activity box. We share our favorite fine motor activities with our new environmental friendly pal.

through its mouth or eyes. Additionally, besides feeding and drawing, the pompoms magnetic board is a highlight. Summarizing, our robot had some serious makeovers, ate a lot and turned from time to time into a lamp. As you can see, it is one really versatile fine motor activity box, that’s easy to make and costs nothing but 15 minutes of your time. WHAT FINE MOTOR ACTIVITIES CAN YOU DO WITH THE DIY ROBOT? What else besides drawing, screwing bottle caps, feeding the robot, can you do with this fine motor activity box. We share our favorite fine motor activities with our new environmental friendly pal.

JANUARY 23 — Genesis 24; Matthew 23; Nehemiah 13; Acts 23 THE LANGUAGE IN Matthew 23 is frankly shocking. Jesus repeatedly pronounces his “woe” on the Pharisees and teachers of the law, labeling them “hypocrites,” calling them “blind guides” and “blind fools,” likening them to “whitewashed tombs that “look beautiful on the outside but on the inside are full of dead men’s bones and everything unclean.” They are “sons of hell,” a “brood of vipers.” What calls forth such intemperate language from the Lord Jesus? There are three primary characteristics in these people that arouse Jesus’ ire. The first is the loss of perspective that, with respect to the revelation of God, focuses on the minors and sacrifices the majors. They are ever so punctilious about tithing, even putting aside a tenth of the herbs grown in the garden, while somehow remaining unconcerned about the massive issues of “justice, mercy and faithfulness” (23:23). Jesus carefully says that he is not dismissing the relatively minor matters: his interlocutors should not neglect them, for these prescriptions were, after all, mandated by God. But to focus on them to the exclusion of the weightier matters is akin to straining out a gnat and swallowing a camel. Similarly, carefully crafted rules about when it is important to tell the truth and when and how one can get away with a lie (23:16-22) not only overlook that truth-telling is of fundamental importance, but implicitly deny that this entire universe is God’s, and all our promises and pledges are before him. The second is love for the outward forms of religion with very little experience of a transformed nature. To be greeted as a religious teacher, to be honored by the community, to be thought holy and religious, while inwardly seething with greed, self-indulgence, bitterness, rivalry, and hate is profoundly evil (23:5-12, 25-32). The third damning indictment is that because they have a major teaching role, these leaders spread their poison and contaminate others, whether by precept or example. Not only do they fail to enter the kingdom themselves, they effectively close it down to others (23:13-15). How many evangelical leaders spend most of their energy on peripheral, inci- dental matters, and far too little on the massive issues of justice, mercy, and faithfulness—in our homes, our churches, the workplace, in all our relationships, in the nation? How many are more concerned to be thought wise and holy than to be wise and holy? How many therefore end up damning their hearers by their own bad example and by their drifting away from the Gospel and its entailments? Our only hope is in this Jesus who, though he denounces this appalling guilt with such fierceness, weeps over the city (Matt. 23:37-39; Luke 19:41-44). This reading is from For the Love of God, vol 1 by D.A. Carson. You can download the entire book as a free PDF here: For the Love of God, Vol 1.Alternatively, you can pick up a hard copy at the church or at your favorite book retailer.

by Mark Hooten, the Garden Doc About the Author Mark Hooten has been fascinated by horticulture since childhood, with interests including tropical fruits, cacti, ethnobotany, entheogens, and variegates. Having been employed in both FL and CA by botanical gardens and specialist nurseries as horticulturist, manager, propagator, and consultant, he is happy to speak with fellow plant worshipers at TopTropicals Nursery. Mark is currently busy writing a volume on the complicated history of croton varieties. His passions are plants, cats, and art of painting. Zephyranthes pulchella is a true rare plant collector item. Common names include - Fairy Lily, Zephyr Lily, Magic Lily, Atamasco Lily, Rain Lily... These wonderful little lilies came as a gift from a botanist studying the native plant life of Southern Texas nearly 30 years ago. Originally grown from seeds collected for a doctoral thesis, near the town of Refugio (along the Southern Texas Gulf Coast, just north of Corpus Christi), this brilliant, fetching tiny lily really deserves to be more well known. The thin, grass-like leaves grow from small onion-like bulbs that produce an abundance of shockingly bright cadmium-yellow flowers which greatly resemble those of certain yellow Crocus, except on longer stems. If given a good amount of actual sunlight during the day (all day if fine), these will flower sporadically yet frequently from April thru September. They never want to have dry soil, and will go temporarily dormant (leafless) in the winter if they dry out....which they do in habitat. However, here in So. Florida, when kept nicely watered and fed, they keep their super glossy leaves year around and are very robust. Flowering for at-least 6 months out of the year, this is a most charming, rare species. There is one caveat which goes along with this incredible species... it can be wonderful, depending upon a growers situation... which is that this species is "apomictic". This means that they produce seeds which do not require cross pollination, and technically are clones of each mother plant! Also meaning that EVERY flower will likely produce a small, 3-lobed seedpod, which will open to reveal a number of flat, black, papery seeds. The seeds are technically "recalcitrant", meaning that they are alive for a very brief period, probably only a day or two. So if not planted in moist soil almost immediately upon ripening, the seeds will simply dry-up and die. Yet if they fall onto moist soil around them, they likely will germinate. However, if a person wanted to create an entire bed of them given the right climate, it could be done in a short amount of time. That would be rewarding and beautiful!

Now we have been detecting gravitational waves since 2015, however there may be nonetheless far more to be taught. The Matter-wave Laser Interferometric Gravitation Antenna will use ultracold atoms to identify ripples in space-time at decrease frequencies than ever earlier than 31 December 2022 A brand new form of gravitational wave hunter is ready to begin up in 2023, and it may additionally assist in the seek for dark matter. Gravitational waves are ripples in space-time created by occasions akin to black holes colliding. They had been first predicted by Albert Einstein in 1916 and first detected by the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) within the US in 2015, nearly a century later. Now, we’ve seen greater than 100 gravitational waves, advancing our understanding of black holes and neutron …

Once in a while, I run across a book that is so well-written and so riveting that I cannot put it down. I stayed up until nearly two in the morning to finish this book. Even though I knew the outcome of Gabriel’s uprising I recognize that this is historical fiction, but the events are thoroughly researched, and the author has included facsimiles of historical documents within the text. It, of course, is the story of the first well-organized slave rebellion in the US. The slaves, led by a blacksmith named Gabriel, modeled their revolt on the American revolution and the revolution in Haiti. They were trying to get their freedom and an equal voice. Even though they did not succeed, they did get the attention of many people in the US and thus the ultimate freedom of the slaves in America. I don’t often highly recommend books, but I honestly believe that this one should be required reading for all students of American history. I highly recommend it for the middle school and the high school library.

Flickering lights are a staple in horror stories and every ghost movie. “Whether it’s a movie cliche or in real life, there’s a reason why movies use flickering lights,” says one electrical professional. Flickering lights make us feel uncomfortable; even tense. “The real-life effects of light flicker can range from annoyance, distraction and discomfort, to headaches and even seizures,” he concluded. Invisible Flickering Lights Most homes are wired for alternating current (AC). AC can switch power back and forth, while DC (direct current) flows in one direction. DC lighting is sometimes called “low-voltage” lighting. The fact is, flickering lights occur in most artificial light sources. AC wiring is simply more energy efficient. In 2017, NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) established light-flicker guidelines. LED (light-emitting diode) bulbs have reduced light bulb flickers, but they can also flicker in a way we don’t see. This can impact productivity in offices and commercial businesses as well as negatively affect our health. When You See Lights Dim and Flicker Never ignore the dangers posed by dimming and/or flickering lights. They can cause shocks, electrocution, burns, or other injuries. When lights flicker, there might be sparking that could cause a catastrophic house fire. You’ll create an even bigger problem if you try to solve a flickering lights problem yourself. If there’s electrical damage resulting from a DIY (do-it-yourself) wiring fix, your insurance may not cover the expenses for loss and damages. If you have dimming or flickering lights, make note of: - Appearance – Is it barely noticeable or extremely annoying? - Consistency – Does it occur every time you plug in one particular appliance or happen occasionally with any appliance? - Frequency – Has it happened once or does it often occur? Here are 4 reasons your lights may dim or flicker: - Fluorescent bulbs – These will naturally flicker when “warming up.” - Loose bulbs – Flickering lights occur because of inconsistent electrical flow. This is a DIY fix. First, wait for the light bulb to cool, then check to ensure it’s tightly fitted into the socket. - Loose prongs – Sometimes the prongs are bent on an appliance’s plug-in. Unplug and try to straighten the prong(s). - Wrong bulb – If light fixture manufacturers recommend a particular type of light bulb, follow those recommendations. (Light flickers can also occur when the wrong bulb is used with a light-dimmer fixture.) Call your local Phoenix electrician if you see lights dim or flicker in your home or business. Causes can include: - Electrical panel problems – Your home’s circuit breaker is the most important safety device you have. If you suspect malfunctions, request service immediately. - Outdated/loose wiring – Seventy percent of home fires are caused by bad wiring. An electrical wiring inspection is a good idea, especially if you have an older home. - Overloaded circuit – If flickering happens often or lasts longer than a few seconds, it can be an electrical emergency. - Too-high voltage – If light bulbs don’t last as long as they should, that may be a clue your home’s voltage is too high or fluctuating. In addition to light dims and flickers, signs you have voltage issues can include: - Appliances keep tripping off. - Flickering/dimming continues after the appliance is turned off. - Flickering/dimming happens only when large appliances are turned on. - Light bulbs dim/flicker randomly. - Utility problem – If you’re not overusing electricity but several neighbors are, this can cause transformer problems. After your electric company restores service, you may need an electrical inspection to ensure no damage occurred at your end. Safety First: TIO Electric Our team of electrical professionals is dedicated to home and family safety for our Valley neighbors. If you experience dimming or flickering lights and are concerned that you may have a problem, we’re ready to answer your questions. Contact Turn It On Electric.

Printed circuit boards offer mechanical support for electronic components. They are held in place using conductive tracks or pads and wired, connecting them to form a complete circuit. The components are attached to a copper base held to the board by substrate layers that are non-conductors. PCBs are made differently based on their uses in applications such as the rigid or flexible PCB. Each type has distinct layers designed with high expertise to ensure they are correctly placed. We discuss the different forms of PCBs below. Different Forms of PCBs There are standard types of PCBs, but some companies provide customization sizes depending on your need. Whichever kind you choose, the layers are viewed using special tools like the Altium Gerber before they are ready for use. We categorize the PCBs based on the number of layers and rigidity. 1. Single-layer PCB Also known as single-sided, it has a straightforward manufacturing process, making it the most common type. It is made of copper, silkscreen, and solder mask materials. PCBs are known for their current transmission, which is facilitated by copper material. Copper is a good conductor of electricity hence a significant part of the board. During the design process, component marking is done, and silkscreen acts as the base. The solder mask prevents the PCB from oxidizing and stays in its original condition. Since the production cost of the single-layer PCB is low, manufacturers use it to produce objects like radios in bulk. 2. Double-layer PCB It is also referred to as a double-sided PCB, meaning it has three primary materials on either side: top and bottom. The materials are copper, solder mask, and silkscreen arranged in this order from the board outward. Wiring is done through the layers via a hole on the printed circuit board, but the electronic components are only connected to the copper layer. Some advantages of the double layer PCB are compact size and more flexibility than the single-layer PCB. 3. Multi-layer PCB This type of PCB has more than two layers meaning its material content is higher than the single and double-sided PCBs. During manufacturing, multiple layers with a similar function like conductive are placed on the board, matching those carrying out another function like insulation. The PCB has a complex design due to the multiple layers. It is used to develop large objects in complex applications like data storage, medicine, and GPS technology. 4. Flexible PCB Its number of layers varies depending on the type and consists of flexible material components. The materials, i.e., polyamide or polyester, allow it to bend and twist and take the base’s shape. Flexible PCBs are suitable for parts that require movement in different directions and come in handy in applications like electronics and automotive. 5. Rigid PCB The PCB also has multiple layers, but it cannot be twisted or bent. Its material contents make it firm and solid hence difficult to break and last for an extended period. A base is used during installation, and the PCB retains its shape. Rigid PCBs are ideal for computer parts, for example, the CPU. 6. Flex rigid PCB It’s an in-between of the rigid and flexible PCB. Its layers are both rigid and flexible, connected to form one board. Its mainly used in phones, cameras, and automobiles. The different forms of PCBs serve various purposes in applications. In most cases, the layers determine their use example, those with multiple layers are suitable for complex objects. Seek guidance from a design expert to know which type is perfect for your need and its advantages. Also, consider the production cost since it varies from one to another.

I often have conversations with people who are enthused about using gamification, or games, in learning. But just as often, they’re a little hazy on exactly how they can do this. People use the term ‘gamifying’ something to mean anything from adding points to creating a full-blown simulation game. The terminology can be confusing but I think it masks a simpler underlying principle. Games-based learning, in its broadest sense, is about looking at games and saying, ‘hey, when people play games, they engage really well and they learn–can we use that power to make learning better?’ When you put it like that, in very practical terms, there are four ways to do it. At the ‘slighter’, less obviously games-based end, you can take the principles and workings of games and build them into everyday learning, without actually playing a game. Or you can use an existing game, if you think it fits with the learning objectives. Or you can adapt one so that it does. Lastly, you could design a bespoke learning game. Use the principles of games to enhance learning Games are made up of all kinds of small elements. Obvious ones like points and levels and less obvious ones like choices and caretaking. If you take any of these individual ideas and design them into a learning activity that’s not itself a game, many people would call that gamification. The language app, Duolingo uses achievements, points and lives to motivate people to work through learning new words and grammar. Another way to design principles from games into learning experiences is to make learning activity-based. You could say this is just a kind of gamification – it’s taking something from games and using it outside games. But it’s possibly the core thing that makes games engaging – you’re playing them, you’re doing things. So, designing learning experiences where the learner does things rather than listens or watches is a great way to harness the power of games. The Transform Deck is a deck of cards I designed to inspire people to create more activity-based learning experiences. Yu-Kai Chou’s Octalysis Framework is full of ideas about what could be adapted for use outside games. Andrzej Marczewski’s gamification elements is another set of ideas. Using game principles is the lightest-touch of the four ways: you’re not actually playing a game. Find an existing game that fits your learning needs You could just use an existing game, if you want your learners to actually play rather than just experience the principles. But you need to find the right one. It could be a commercial game not designed specifically for learning. Like Escape the Boom, a simple game you play online and via mobile. Using limited information – one player can see the bomb, the other players the bomb-disposal manual – it explores communication barriers and teamwork. Or you could use a game designed for learning. Evivve is another online and mobile game where players work together to harvest resources from a sci-fi landscape, to save Earth from disaster. They need to communicate well, make a plan, divide responsibilities and overcome obstacles. It’s great for learning about teamwork, leadership, communication, delegation, and a bunch of other topics. There are plenty of other games out there that might be suitable for your learning objectives but the downside is that you won’t always be able to find one for every situation. Adapt a game so that it fits your learning needs Adapting an existing game is a way to broaden the range of games that might work for you. The board game Codenames is all about giving clues to link two or more words together. The original game uses pretty random words. But you can easily adapt it, especially in the online version, by switching out the default words for words that focus on your topic. The game then becomes a fun way to revise and review a topic: it forces players to think very carefully about the words, what they mean and their connection to each other. Or you can create even more involved adaptations. Splendor is another award-winning board game, about building up a store

experiences. Yu-Kai Chou’s Octalysis Framework is full of ideas about what could be adapted for use outside games. Andrzej Marczewski’s gamification elements is another set of ideas. Using game principles is the lightest-touch of the four ways: you’re not actually playing a game. Find an existing game that fits your learning needs You could just use an existing game, if you want your learners to actually play rather than just experience the principles. But you need to find the right one. It could be a commercial game not designed specifically for learning. Like Escape the Boom, a simple game you play online and via mobile. Using limited information – one player can see the bomb, the other players the bomb-disposal manual – it explores communication barriers and teamwork. Or you could use a game designed for learning. Evivve is another online and mobile game where players work together to harvest resources from a sci-fi landscape, to save Earth from disaster. They need to communicate well, make a plan, divide responsibilities and overcome obstacles. It’s great for learning about teamwork, leadership, communication, delegation, and a bunch of other topics. There are plenty of other games out there that might be suitable for your learning objectives but the downside is that you won’t always be able to find one for every situation. Adapt a game so that it fits your learning needs Adapting an existing game is a way to broaden the range of games that might work for you. The board game Codenames is all about giving clues to link two or more words together. The original game uses pretty random words. But you can easily adapt it, especially in the online version, by switching out the default words for words that focus on your topic. The game then becomes a fun way to revise and review a topic: it forces players to think very carefully about the words, what they mean and their connection to each other. Or you can create even more involved adaptations. Splendor is another award-winning board game, about building up a store of gemstones, which you use to purchase even more valuable ones. Corrado de Sanctis of the Agile Games Factory has adapted this basic idea to focus on Agile concepts – so by implementing smaller Agile practices, you build towards being able to introduce more in-depth ones. The game, The Agile Mind, works in a similar way to Splendor but uses Agile in place of gemstones. This can be a more advanced and complex process than the earlier options but at the simple end, adapting a game can just be about briefing and debriefing it differently, or replacing words and images with more relevant ones. Create a bespoke learning game from scratch The most advanced option is to create a learning game from scratch. That way, you can focus it exactly on your learning objectives. This takes a lot of time and know-how, though. It can be a tricky problem to work out the best combination of game goals, rules and obstacles to get your players practising and exploring the skills you want. With Sarah Le-Fevre of Ludogogy, I designed a learning game called The Gift Horse. We wanted to explore how to inspire people about their personal development. The game we came up with uses a real-life animal as an inspiration. If you chose a tiger, you might ask: how would a tiger solve the issue I’m facing? This is a simple explanation – there’s more to it than that but it gets across the basic idea. Designing a game is also a longer process than the other options. The process of playtesting and balancing the game so that unexpected effects don’t get in the way can be lengthy and many iterations of design-playtest-redesign can be needed to get a game that’s really engaging and hits the learning objectives. Which of the above do you use, or could you use? I’d love to hear your ideas about how to use these four options. Is this something you’ve done? Or can you think of a way you’d like to use one of these? Let me know. Or, if you’d like to talk about how I could help you to implement one of the four, book in a chat.

of gemstones, which you use to purchase even more valuable ones. Corrado de Sanctis of the Agile Games Factory has adapted this basic idea to focus on Agile concepts – so by implementing smaller Agile practices, you build towards being able to introduce more in-depth ones. The game, The Agile Mind, works in a similar way to Splendor but uses Agile in place of gemstones. This can be a more advanced and complex process than the earlier options but at the simple end, adapting a game can just be about briefing and debriefing it differently, or replacing words and images with more relevant ones. Create a bespoke learning game from scratch The most advanced option is to create a learning game from scratch. That way, you can focus it exactly on your learning objectives. This takes a lot of time and know-how, though. It can be a tricky problem to work out the best combination of game goals, rules and obstacles to get your players practising and exploring the skills you want. With Sarah Le-Fevre of Ludogogy, I designed a learning game called The Gift Horse. We wanted to explore how to inspire people about their personal development. The game we came up with uses a real-life animal as an inspiration. If you chose a tiger, you might ask: how would a tiger solve the issue I’m facing? This is a simple explanation – there’s more to it than that but it gets across the basic idea. Designing a game is also a longer process than the other options. The process of playtesting and balancing the game so that unexpected effects don’t get in the way can be lengthy and many iterations of design-playtest-redesign can be needed to get a game that’s really engaging and hits the learning objectives. Which of the above do you use, or could you use? I’d love to hear your ideas about how to use these four options. Is this something you’ve done? Or can you think of a way you’d like to use one of these? Let me know. Or, if you’d like to talk about how I could help you to implement one of the four, book in a chat.

To Wonder is to; think, connect, perceive, guess, enquire, respond, guide, answer, reflect, acknowledge, desire, see, be amazed, admire, be curious, ponder, be in awe, discover, make meaning, solve problems and learn. You get the idea! As a nature pedagog, I was afforded the opportunity to work with some dedicated Early Childhood Educators in childcare centres, reflecting on a nature pedagogy. The outdoor environment is as much the third teacher as the indoors and will often be perceived as simply fresh air and gross motor play. It is so much more than that! It is the ultimate in Loose Parts/Intelligent materials that are brought to the outdoor space or discovered. Sometimes a simple provocation will spark the most magical conversation or witness the most profound engagement with wonder! Wonder is a dandelion seed head ready to blow away, a sunflower begging to be investigated, a piece of bark ladened with insects or a crack in the sidewalk bursting with natures garden. The wonder of nature is the greatest down low, where the grown-up misses and the small child discovers! Do we take these precious moments and make time to wonder and grow? Do we document how the learning is happening? Do we wonder what the child is wondering? As elementary school educators ready themselves to receive their students they build environments, create activities, guide thinking, and link student learning to all aspects of the curriculum. The curriculum becomes the driving force behind facilitation and the expectations of program. Educators are held accountable for facilitating learning and have been guided in practice on best delivery for students. This is their training. Though I wonder…… Should we reflect on our own preconceived ideas of learning and wonder? How could self-determined learning connect to the curriculum? Could we, should we wonder what the child is thinking, what language they might use to communicate their knowledge and how they might extend their own learning? Do we see what the child sees…….. and wonder? Do we make enough time for wonder? Shouldn’t we? Do we employ the pedagogy of listening, (C.Rinaldi)? What do you wonder about? Gail Molenaar- BA, RECE Wander,Be Wild and Always Wonder Self-Regulation Consultant and Nature Practitioner

It can take years to master the welding profession. Only constant practice can guarantee you a new level of skill. You can do it by using simple, time-tested tips. Below are a few ideas, especially for beginners, to make their welding training more quick and simple. Change the Puddle The welding puddle forms as a result of melting of welded products and filler materials (electrodes). During the welding process, the welding arc moves along the joined parts, constantly forming a welding puddle. Accordingly, the shape and dimensions of the welding bath determine the shape and size of welds. Therefore, it determines the performance characteristics of the resulting welded joints. Pay Attention To The Good Storage Of Tools The basis of TIG welding is the purity of rods and the surface material to create a solid weld. It is a common way of storing filler rods in PVC coated pipes. Sometimes colored covers can also help to distinguish which type of electrode is located when the pipes are moving. Define the Right Travel Speed The travel speed is set depending on the current, electrode diameter, melting speed, seam type, and other factors. If the welding speed is too high, the welded rollers are narrow, with a small convexity, with large flakes. Contrariwise, if the speed of the electrode is too slow, the welded roller is too convex, the seam is uneven in shape, with an influx of edges. Calibrate Amperage And Electrode Size It is better to start learning to weld with an electrode of a diameter of 2.5 – 3mm. These are the most common electrodes in the “domestic” environment. Thinner electrodes are used to weld very thin metal. In this case, it is better to use semi-automatic welders with gas blowing off the welding place. The industries rarely use electrodes of 4 – 5 mm. And for welding, they require a powerful power grid which is not always available in the countryside. Optimize Your Workspace It is generally known that welding is a physically demanding job. That’s why it is so important to organize the workspace properly to avoid injury. First of all, it is necessary to find a stable and convenient working position in which you can stay for a while. It is also possible to use hills to bring your work up to your level so that you can easily access it. Sharp movements can cause muscles strain, so it is important to take breaks during work and not to overexert yourself.

#MeToo: A Visual Dialogue, with works by six artists: Jane Deschner, Angie Froke, John Garre, Traci Isaly, Tandy Riddle and Cathryn Reitler. Over a decade ago, Tarana Burke created the “Me Too” movement to raise awareness of the pervasiveness of sexual abuse and assault in society. The movement was popularized by actress Alyssa Milano in the fall of 2017 when she encouraged women to tweet it to “give people a sense of the magnitude of the problem.” Since then, the hashtag has spread virally and the phrase has been posted online millions of times, often with an accompanying personal story of sexual harassment or assault. In this exhibit voices will be heard through images. What began as a relatively straight-forward movement in which newly empowered women were outing men, #MeToo has come to involve all genders as it looks at the prevalence of the abuse of power in the context of gender, class and race. To what extent can our voices come together and work toward a collective truth and toward a holistic approach to health in community? The hope is to create an exchange of telling and listening that is helpful in the move toward awareness, change, healing and prevention.

Where We Are Now Suddenly it appears that water is the topic of study by numerous governmental bodies here in Napa. That would seem to imply that people want water security. We certainly agree with that premise. When you look at it, no other factor will have such a profound influence on what our lives look like in the coming years. Yes, climate change is important, and it is especially so on how it will influence our water supplies. Let’s Take a Look at the Studies Underway In 2014 the Sustainable Groundwater Management Act became law. The legislative intent is to provide for sustainable management of groundwater basins, enhance local management of groundwater, and establish minimum standards for sustainable groundwater management. The Department of Water Resources (DWR) has asked Napa County to come up with a plan for water sustainability in the Napa subbasin, which has the highest priority. In late December 2019, the Board of Supervisors declared themselves the Napa County Groundwater Sustainability Agency (GWSA) and just this past week selected 25 members of the community to sit on a groundwater advisory committee. This committee has two years to develop a plan to ensure the sustainability of our groundwater supplies. In Addition, A Task Force Formed In September 2019 a group of water managers from the county and the municipalities also formed a task force to prepare for and respond to drought. This collaborative planning group will develop the following: Drought Contingency Plans: How will we recognize the next drought in the early stages? How will drought affect us? How can we protect ourselves from the next drought? Drought Resiliency Projects: Drought Resiliency is defined as the capacity of a region to cope with and respond to drought. The US Bureau of Reclamation provides grant assistance for drought resiliency projects identified in a DCP. The area that they will study is larger than the study area of the GWSA as it will encompass the following critical sources and users: • The Napa River watershed which drains into the northern edge of San Pablo Bay and includes an area of 430 square miles • Urban and residential areas, extensive vineyards and agriculture, and diverse environmental habitats • Water users in the area rely on a mixture of water supplies that include local surface water, imported surface water, groundwater, and recycled water. Let’s Focus on That Last Paragraph that Describes From Where We Get our Water If you live in the municipalities your water comes from reservoirs (surface water) and from the State via the North Bay Aqueduct (imported surface water). In fact, more than half of Napa City’s water comes from the state. If you live in rural Napa County your water likely comes from a well (groundwater). Agriculture uses groundwater and some surface water from the Napa River. The county has reserved the groundwater for agriculture as stated in the General Plan Goal CON-Reg 11: “Prioritize the use of available groundwater for agricultural and rural residential uses rather than for urbanized areas and ensure that land-use decisions recognize the long-term availability and value of water resources in Napa County.” The Problems and The Big Questions The big issue is how much water will be available for use by residences, industrial, agricultural, and environmental uses in the coming years? The state has issued numerous reports on water security i.e., “Safeguarding California Implementation Action Plans 2016” to ensure that people and communities are able to withstand the impacts of climate disruption: • Loss of snow-pack storage may reduce the reliability of surface water supplies and result in greater demand on other sources of supply”. • “As climate change reduces water supplies and increases water demands (as a result of higher temperatures), additional stresses are being placed on the Delta and other estuaries along the California coastline.” • “Each local water agency will have to contend with impacts to their local watershed, as well as upstream and downstream watersheds that influence local wat

h drains into the northern edge of San Pablo Bay and includes an area of 430 square miles • Urban and residential areas, extensive vineyards and agriculture, and diverse environmental habitats • Water users in the area rely on a mixture of water supplies that include local surface water, imported surface water, groundwater, and recycled water. Let’s Focus on That Last Paragraph that Describes From Where We Get our Water If you live in the municipalities your water comes from reservoirs (surface water) and from the State via the North Bay Aqueduct (imported surface water). In fact, more than half of Napa City’s water comes from the state. If you live in rural Napa County your water likely comes from a well (groundwater). Agriculture uses groundwater and some surface water from the Napa River. The county has reserved the groundwater for agriculture as stated in the General Plan Goal CON-Reg 11: “Prioritize the use of available groundwater for agricultural and rural residential uses rather than for urbanized areas and ensure that land-use decisions recognize the long-term availability and value of water resources in Napa County.” The Problems and The Big Questions The big issue is how much water will be available for use by residences, industrial, agricultural, and environmental uses in the coming years? The state has issued numerous reports on water security i.e., “Safeguarding California Implementation Action Plans 2016” to ensure that people and communities are able to withstand the impacts of climate disruption: • Loss of snow-pack storage may reduce the reliability of surface water supplies and result in greater demand on other sources of supply”. • “As climate change reduces water supplies and increases water demands (as a result of higher temperatures), additional stresses are being placed on the Delta and other estuaries along the California coastline.” • “Each local water agency will have to contend with impacts to their local watershed, as well as upstream and downstream watersheds that influence local water supply or water quality constraints.” With 80% of Napa residents living in the cities, what is the master plan to supply them with water when the state water project is no longer able to deliver and the reservoirs are compromised by drought and/or polluting runoff? The Problem We Collectively Must Solve How much water from all sources will be available and who gets to have it? We can study this to death; we can hire consultant engineering firms and pay them to develop numerous scenarios but we think we all truly know that the earth is warming, fire dangers are increasing, the weather is changing dramatically and therefore we ought to focus on planning for the worst-case. In 2017 Napa Vision 2050 stated in a letter to the DWR that if all users of water in Napa County were to need to rely solely upon the groundwater we would be in an unsustainable situation. We still believe this to be the case. Going Forward: A Clear, Consolidated Approach vs a Fractured System Within the past month, LAFCO (our Local Agency Formation Commission*) issued a most comprehensive report, “Napa Countywide Water and Wastewater Municipal Services Review” (May 18, 2020). The report thoroughly covers the history and operation of the many water service providers with recommendations regarding their administration and operation. It is of great significance that this report introduced the concept of a county water agency and/or a county water district. Benefits to forming such a county water district include: • Efficient use of the County’s water resources • Enhanced water resource management • Solidarity amongst Napa water purveyors with greater leveraging power • Greater scrutiny of all utility providers • Enhanced technical and operational support for local providers • Elimination of redundancies and duplication of efforts amongst the smaller systems • Improved economies of scale.

er supply or water quality constraints.” With 80% of Napa residents living in the cities, what is the master plan to supply them with water when the state water project is no longer able to deliver and the reservoirs are compromised by drought and/or polluting runoff? The Problem We Collectively Must Solve How much water from all sources will be available and who gets to have it? We can study this to death; we can hire consultant engineering firms and pay them to develop numerous scenarios but we think we all truly know that the earth is warming, fire dangers are increasing, the weather is changing dramatically and therefore we ought to focus on planning for the worst-case. In 2017 Napa Vision 2050 stated in a letter to the DWR that if all users of water in Napa County were to need to rely solely upon the groundwater we would be in an unsustainable situation. We still believe this to be the case. Going Forward: A Clear, Consolidated Approach vs a Fractured System Within the past month, LAFCO (our Local Agency Formation Commission*) issued a most comprehensive report, “Napa Countywide Water and Wastewater Municipal Services Review” (May 18, 2020). The report thoroughly covers the history and operation of the many water service providers with recommendations regarding their administration and operation. It is of great significance that this report introduced the concept of a county water agency and/or a county water district. Benefits to forming such a county water district include: • Efficient use of the County’s water resources • Enhanced water resource management • Solidarity amongst Napa water purveyors with greater leveraging power • Greater scrutiny of all utility providers • Enhanced technical and operational support for local providers • Elimination of redundancies and duplication of efforts amongst the smaller systems • Improved economies of scale.

Data scientific disciplines and business analysis both focus on gathering and examining data. Nevertheless , there are particular differences among these two areas. Traditionally, both disciplines have got focused on fixing problems. But the advent of Big Info has changed the way both disciplines operate. Employing both info science and business evaluation, an organization can easily improve it is features and streamline its surgical procedures. Data can be used for a various purposes, such as optimizing customer care, marketing stations, and supply chains. Data can also be intended for predictive building. Machine learning algorithms could actually help create marketing plans and sales expansion plans. The between data science and business analysis is that business analysts work more from a business perspective, when data researchers look at the tendencies that drive business. While the two are required to produce critical decisions in a business, they change in the way they will approach their particular duties. Data scientists are more likely to be mathematicians https://datatechtonics.com/2021/07/05/generated-post-2 and statisticians. The specialized knowledge is used to remove insights by massive info dumps. Then they use these types of to develop methods. This allows those to transform tender data in to meaningful silos. Ultimately, they decide how to work with the ideas to drive alter. Business Experts, on the other hand, use applications and tools. They may have strong communication abilities, organizational expertise, and a technical degree. And they need to have extensive practice in algorithms and coding. For instance , a business analyst should know using Python, NumPy, and Sci-kit-learn.

Who was Walter Elias Disney (Walt Disney)? Information about Walt Disney life, biography, works, movies and cinema career. Walt Disney; (1901-1966), American motion picture animator and producer, who created the world-famous cartoon character Mickey Mouse. Walter Flias Disney was born in Chicago, 111., on Dec. 5, 1901. He began producing advertising films in Kansas City, Mo., in 1919, and then turned to animation, but with only limited success. He moved to Hollywood, Calif., where he and his brother Roy became partners. Their first two films featuring Mickey Mouse were silent, and the partners were unable to get them released commercially, but when Disney added a sound track to Steamboat Willie (1928), Mickey Mouse and Walt Disney became internationally famous. Winner of a record 30 Academy Awards, Disney made not only cartoon shorts, such as the Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck, and Silly Symphony series, but also animated feature films, beginning with Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) and including Pinocchio (1938), Fantasia (1940), Dumbo (1941), and Bambi (1942). When the cost of making animated features became prohibitive, he began to make such “true-life adventures” as Seal Island (1948), Beaver Valley (1950), Nature’s Half Acre (1951), and The Living Desert (1953). Later, he made live-action family films, including Davy Crockett (1955) and Mary Poppins (1965). Disney introduced a new method for synchronizing sound with animation and was the first to use the three-color process (in Fun and Fancy Free, 1932). He produced the first fea-ture-length animated picture (Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs) and the first television series in color (Walt Disney’s Wonderful World of Color, beginning 1961). Disney also launched Disneyland, a gigantic and lavish amusement park in Anaheim, Calif., in 1955. He died in Los Angeles on Dec. 15, 1966. DISNEYLAND, is an elaborate amusement park for adults and children in Anaheim, Calif. It was built by film producer Walt Disney and associates and opened on July 15, 1955. At the entrance is Main Street, U. S. A., modeled after an American town of the 1890’s. The four main amusement areas are Adventureland, Frontierland, Fantasyland, and Tomorrowland. A hotel, restaurants, and a parking lot are provided for the several million visitors that Disneyland attracts each year. Construction was begun in 1967 by Walt Disney Productions on an East Coast counterpart of Disneyland. Located near Orlando, Fla., the new amusement complex opened in 1971 as Walt Disney World.

Written by Ahmad Naily, Marketing Executive WHAT IS ACNE? Acne is a skin condition that occurs when your hair follicles become plugged with oil and dead skin cells. It often causes whiteheads, blackheads or pimples, and usually appears on the face, forehead, chest, upper back and shoulders. Acne is most common among teenagers, though it affects people of all ages. Effective treatments are available, but acne can be persistent. The pimples and bumps heal slowly, and when one begins to go away, others seem to crop up. WHAT ARE SYMPTOMS OF ACNE? The symptoms of acne are: - Persistent, recurrent red spots or swelling on the skin, generally known as pimples; the swelling may become inflamed and fill with pus. They typically appear on the face, chest, shoulders, neck, or upper portion of the back. - Dark spots with open pores at the centre (blackheads) - Tiny white bumps under the skin that have no obvious opening (whiteheads) - Red swellings or lumps (known as papules) that are visibly filled with pus - Nodules or lumps under the skin that are inflamed, fluid-filled, and often tender; these nodules may become as large as an inch across. WHAT CAUSE ACNE? Acne occurs when the pores of your skin become blocked with oil, dead skin, or bacteria. Each pore of your skin is the opening to a follicle. The follicle is made up of a hair and a sebaceous (oil) gland. The oil gland releases sebum (oil), which travels up the hair, out of the pore, and onto your skin. The sebum keeps your skin lubricated and soft. One or more problems in this lubrication process can cause acne. It can occur when: - too much oil is produced by your follicles - dead skin cells accumulate in your pores - bacteria build up in your pores These problems contribute to the development of pimples. A pimple appears when bacteria grows in a clogged pore and the oil is unable to escape. 4 STEP SKIN CARE ROUTINE FOR ACNE Step 1: Cleanse Gently but Well Using only your fingertips or a soft washcloth, thoroughly cleanse your face, including your jawline, neck, and in front of and behind the ears. Make sure you’re using the right cleanser for your skin. Pick one that contains either salicylic acid or benzoyl peroxide. If you’re currently using prescription acne medications, you’ll need a gentle, non-medicated cleanser instead. If you wear face makeup, or if your skin gets extra dirty or sweaty during the day (like if you play on a sports team or after you work out) do a double wash at night: cleanse, rinse well, and repeat. Step 2: Use Toner or Astringent Depending on the ingredients they contain, astringents or toners can help remove excess oil, tone, and hydrate, or help fight blackheads and blemishes. Apply toner to a cotton ball or pad and gently smooth over the face and neck to help remove any leftover makeup, cleanser residue, and oil. Astringents are designed to remove excess oil from the skin so, obviously, they are best for oily skin types. Also, pay attention to the alcohol content in the product because alcohol can be drying and irritating, especially for sensitive skin types. Alcohol-free products are the best choices if your skin is dry, or irritated by acne treatments. Step 3: Apply Your Acne Treatment Medications After your toner has dried completely, or after you’ve washed and thoroughly dried your face, smooth on your acne treatment creams as directed. This could be a medication prescribed by your doctor, or an over-the-counter acne gel or cream. Let the medication absorb or dry completely before proceeding to the next step. Need help choosing an acne treatment medication? Give your dermatologist or family physician a call. Step 4: Apply an Oil-Free Moisturizeror Gel Acne medications can dry out skin, leaving it thirsty for moisture. To reduce dry and peeling skin, apply a light moisturizer twice daily. Your moisturizer doesn’t have to leave you feeling slick and greasy. Moisturizing gels and lotions are generally lighter than creams. Either way, choose one that is labelled oil-free and noncomedogenic. Treating acne requires patience and perseverance. Any o

in front of and behind the ears. Make sure you’re using the right cleanser for your skin. Pick one that contains either salicylic acid or benzoyl peroxide. If you’re currently using prescription acne medications, you’ll need a gentle, non-medicated cleanser instead. If you wear face makeup, or if your skin gets extra dirty or sweaty during the day (like if you play on a sports team or after you work out) do a double wash at night: cleanse, rinse well, and repeat. Step 2: Use Toner or Astringent Depending on the ingredients they contain, astringents or toners can help remove excess oil, tone, and hydrate, or help fight blackheads and blemishes. Apply toner to a cotton ball or pad and gently smooth over the face and neck to help remove any leftover makeup, cleanser residue, and oil. Astringents are designed to remove excess oil from the skin so, obviously, they are best for oily skin types. Also, pay attention to the alcohol content in the product because alcohol can be drying and irritating, especially for sensitive skin types. Alcohol-free products are the best choices if your skin is dry, or irritated by acne treatments. Step 3: Apply Your Acne Treatment Medications After your toner has dried completely, or after you’ve washed and thoroughly dried your face, smooth on your acne treatment creams as directed. This could be a medication prescribed by your doctor, or an over-the-counter acne gel or cream. Let the medication absorb or dry completely before proceeding to the next step. Need help choosing an acne treatment medication? Give your dermatologist or family physician a call. Step 4: Apply an Oil-Free Moisturizeror Gel Acne medications can dry out skin, leaving it thirsty for moisture. To reduce dry and peeling skin, apply a light moisturizer twice daily. Your moisturizer doesn’t have to leave you feeling slick and greasy. Moisturizing gels and lotions are generally lighter than creams. Either way, choose one that is labelled oil-free and noncomedogenic. Treating acne requires patience and perseverance. Any of the treatments listed above may take two or three months to start working. Unless there are side effects such as excessive dryness or allergy, it is important to give each regimen or drug enough time to work before giving up on it and moving on to other methods. Using modern methods, doctors can help clear up the skin of just about everyone. - what is acne; https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/acne/symptoms-causes/syc-20368047 - what are the symptoms of acne; WebMD Medical Reference; Reviewed by; Debra Jaliman; MD on May 17, 2019; https://www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/acne/understanding-acne-symptoms - what cause acne; https://www.healthline.com/health/skin/acne - 4 step skin care routine for acne; by Angela Palmer; updated on November 27, 2018 https://www.verywellhealth.com/how-to-create-the-perfect-skin-care-routine-15658

f the treatments listed above may take two or three months to start working. Unless there are side effects such as excessive dryness or allergy, it is important to give each regimen or drug enough time to work before giving up on it and moving on to other methods. Using modern methods, doctors can help clear up the skin of just about everyone. - what is acne; https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/acne/symptoms-causes/syc-20368047 - what are the symptoms of acne; WebMD Medical Reference; Reviewed by; Debra Jaliman; MD on May 17, 2019; https://www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/acne/understanding-acne-symptoms - what cause acne; https://www.healthline.com/health/skin/acne - 4 step skin care routine for acne; by Angela Palmer; updated on November 27, 2018 https://www.verywellhealth.com/how-to-create-the-perfect-skin-care-routine-15658

Sunglasses are so cool! Back to school, summer, or five senses are a great time to talk about sunglasses and how they protect our eyes! Take it a step further and incorporate them into your learning centers with this set of Sunglasses Addition Puzzles! Your students are going to love these. Sunglasses addition puzzles covers the numbers 1-20 with two pieces for each puzzle. It is recommended that you print the puzzles on cardstock and laminate so you can truly make this an interactive center and also so it can last for years to come. Using addition puzzles like these in your classroom is a fun way to include the summer or vision theme in learning. Using Sunglasses Addition Puzzles Students will pick a puzzle of their choice and then find the corresponding pieces for that puzzle. This student is working on the number 10. They will then look for the correct numbers that add up to the number on the sunglasses. Incorporate number writing practice by having your students trace of the numbers as well. Once they have completed the two parts of the puzzle, they can then select another puzzle to complete. Download Your Sunglasses Addition Puzzles Below! Can you not find a resource that you would LOVE to have for your classroom? Contact me and I would be happy to make it for you. Click the picture below to download. You will immediately be redirected to the freebie printable math worksheets. Use these in any classroom or simply as fun review for your kids during spring or summer. If you choose to laminate as suggested above, they are easy to store and use over and over again! I hope that you and your students enjoy Sunglasses Addition Puzzles! If you enjoy my freebies and want the opportunity get them all (without having to sign up individually), then I would invite you to check out my Endless Freebie Bundle! Purchase on A Dab of Glue Will Do