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he second point to notice about (44) is that " Britain" should attach less weight to the balance of payments of other countries' currencies than to her own balance if currencies are all substitutes for one another; this follows because every ratio Deltaji / Deltaii < 1 for j not= 1.19
Leaving now the special case of the gross substitutes to return to the more general case represented by equations (42), we can find immediate implications of the Hicks conditions. First, if the Hicks conditions are satisfied, " normal" adjustments are implied in the sense that, ceteris paribus, a deficit in a country's balance of payments suggests depreciation and a surplus appreciation; this follows because every kii = Deltaii /Delta > 0 given the Hicks conditions of imperfect stability and alpha i< 0.
But more than this can be said. The following identities have to hold, from our definitions and Jacobi's ratio theorem:
the inequality following at once from the Hicks conditions of perfect stability. Proceeding to the last term we have
More generally, if the basic matrix [bij] is Hicksian, the matrix of the speeds required for hyperstability must satisfy the conditions that every principal minor be positive, that is,
Analogous conditions hold for the extended Hicks conditions if the system is to be hyperstable regardless of the currency used as the key currency. In this sense the Hicks conditions alone are sufficient to establish in a weak sense the correctness of exchange rate policies directed at correcting "own" balances of payments.
These developments conform to the conclusions of economic intuition indeed, they may be interpreted as bringing the mathematical treatment of the subject closer to the level of common sense. They nevertheless suggest that the Hicksian stability analysis is not lacking in significance for the integration of dynamical and statical theory.20, 2l
1 Adapted from: a forthcoming article in Essays in Honor of Sir John R. Hicks (N. Wolfe, ed.).
2 I am happy to acknowledge many helpful conversations on the sub |
we have
More generally, if the basic matrix [bij] is Hicksian, the matrix of the speeds required for hyperstability must satisfy the conditions that every principal minor be positive, that is,
Analogous conditions hold for the extended Hicks conditions if the system is to be hyperstable regardless of the currency used as the key currency. In this sense the Hicks conditions alone are sufficient to establish in a weak sense the correctness of exchange rate policies directed at correcting "own" balances of payments.
These developments conform to the conclusions of economic intuition indeed, they may be interpreted as bringing the mathematical treatment of the subject closer to the level of common sense. They nevertheless suggest that the Hicksian stability analysis is not lacking in significance for the integration of dynamical and statical theory.20, 2l
1 Adapted from: a forthcoming article in Essays in Honor of Sir John R. Hicks (N. Wolfe, ed.).
2 I am happy to acknowledge many helpful conversations on the subject matter of this chapter with J. C. Weldon of McGill University.
3 Strictly, the problem is not trivial even in the case of exchange of two commodities; first, because of complications associated with the possibility of time derivatives of various orders of price changes entering the excess demand (X) functions, in a system such as second, because of nonlinearities in the excess demand function; and, third, because market exchange of two commodities among many people may involve adjustments of quantities toward budget constraints, giving rise to the more complicated dynamics such as Marshall postulated in his foreign trade analysis.
4 Let Xi = Xi(p, . . ., pn) be the excess demand functions for commodities i = 1, . . ., n. By differentiation . Solving for the dpi we get , where Delta is the determinant of the system and Deltaji, its first cofactors. When all other prices adapt so that every dXj = 0 except dXi, we have the solutions dpi = (Deltaii /Delta) dXi; if various prices k, . . ., n, are held constan |
ject matter of this chapter with J. C. Weldon of McGill University.
3 Strictly, the problem is not trivial even in the case of exchange of two commodities; first, because of complications associated with the possibility of time derivatives of various orders of price changes entering the excess demand (X) functions, in a system such as second, because of nonlinearities in the excess demand function; and, third, because market exchange of two commodities among many people may involve adjustments of quantities toward budget constraints, giving rise to the more complicated dynamics such as Marshall postulated in his foreign trade analysis.
4 Let Xi = Xi(p, . . ., pn) be the excess demand functions for commodities i = 1, . . ., n. By differentiation . Solving for the dpi we get , where Delta is the determinant of the system and Deltaji, its first cofactors. When all other prices adapt so that every dXj = 0 except dXi, we have the solutions dpi = (Deltaii /Delta) dXi; if various prices k, . . ., n, are held constant with respect to the numéraire we get instead
Imperfect stability requires that Deltaii /Delta < 0 for i = 1, . . ., n, whereas perfect stability requires that Deltaii,kk, ... ,nn / Delta kk ... ,nn < 0 for any subset of commodities k, ...,n, excluding commodity i. The Hicksian perfect stability conditions are thus
the first condition being the condition of imperfect stability.
5 It is slightly ironic that Marshall in his 1879 manuscript on foreign trade utilized the link between dynamics processes and stability, but not explicitly the link between stability and comparative statics, whereas Hicks utilized the link between stability and comparative statics but not the link between dynamics and stability. Samuelson used both links in his integration of dynamics and statics.
6 Actually, Metzler's example (p. 285) that the Hicks conditions are not sufficient for stability to be independent of the speeds of adjustment contains a numerical error that mars his demonstration [the second cubic of his footnote 12 shou |
t with respect to the numéraire we get instead
Imperfect stability requires that Deltaii /Delta < 0 for i = 1, . . ., n, whereas perfect stability requires that Deltaii,kk, ... ,nn / Delta kk ... ,nn < 0 for any subset of commodities k, ...,n, excluding commodity i. The Hicksian perfect stability conditions are thus
the first condition being the condition of imperfect stability.
5 It is slightly ironic that Marshall in his 1879 manuscript on foreign trade utilized the link between dynamics processes and stability, but not explicitly the link between stability and comparative statics, whereas Hicks utilized the link between stability and comparative statics but not the link between dynamics and stability. Samuelson used both links in his integration of dynamics and statics.
6 Actually, Metzler's example (p. 285) that the Hicks conditions are not sufficient for stability to be independent of the speeds of adjustment contains a numerical error that mars his demonstration [the second cubic of his footnote 12 should read lambda3 + 4lambda2 + 3.4lambda + 13.2 = 0 instead of lambda3 + 4lambda2 + 2.6lambda + 13.2 = 0 and in the first (correct) cubic the Routh conditions are satisfied]. But a slight adjustment to his counterexample can nevertheless demonstrate his point. If, for example, speeds are chosen so that, in his terminology, kl = k3 = 1, giving the cubic lambda3 + (2 + k2)lambda2 + (1+ 1.2k2) lambda + 6.6k2 = 0, the Routh conditions will not be satisfied for values of k2 somewhat less than 1.
7 In this connection Samuelson writes (, p. 554): "In principle the Hicks procedure is clearly wrong, although in some empirical cases it may be useful to make the hypothesis that the equilibrium is stable even without the 'equilibrating action' of some variable which may be arbitrarily held constant." Samuelson provides an example in connection with the Keynesian system later in his paper.
8 See, for example, Mundell and the references there to the principle of effective market classification.
9 See page 111 for a list of |
ld read lambda3 + 4lambda2 + 3.4lambda + 13.2 = 0 instead of lambda3 + 4lambda2 + 2.6lambda + 13.2 = 0 and in the first (correct) cubic the Routh conditions are satisfied]. But a slight adjustment to his counterexample can nevertheless demonstrate his point. If, for example, speeds are chosen so that, in his terminology, kl = k3 = 1, giving the cubic lambda3 + (2 + k2)lambda2 + (1+ 1.2k2) lambda + 6.6k2 = 0, the Routh conditions will not be satisfied for values of k2 somewhat less than 1.
7 In this connection Samuelson writes (, p. 554): "In principle the Hicks procedure is clearly wrong, although in some empirical cases it may be useful to make the hypothesis that the equilibrium is stable even without the 'equilibrating action' of some variable which may be arbitrarily held constant." Samuelson provides an example in connection with the Keynesian system later in his paper.
8 See, for example, Mundell and the references there to the principle of effective market classification.
9 See page 111 for a list of economists who signed the petition.
10 This is perhaps apparent immediately, since the Hicks conditions can be expressed in terms of the commodity chosen as numéraire, the excess demand for which is never allowed to go to zero. On this point (but without apparent recognition of its implications) see Lange (, p. 92).
11 More compactly, we can state the conditions as requiring that every first minor of B be "Hicksian." Not all the conditions are independent, however, since B00 = B11 = Bnn in view of the characteristics of B.
12 One might think that Hicks really intended his conditions to extend over the entire range of excess demand coefficients (including the numéraire), this would be incorrect since the last (augmented) determinant is singular. Alternatively, it might be thought that Hicks intended the conditions to apply no matter what commodity were taken as numéraire. The latter interpretation seems to be fortified by a footnote which states ( p. 75): " [this] can be seen at once if we adopt the device of |
economists who signed the petition.
10 This is perhaps apparent immediately, since the Hicks conditions can be expressed in terms of the commodity chosen as numéraire, the excess demand for which is never allowed to go to zero. On this point (but without apparent recognition of its implications) see Lange (, p. 92).
11 More compactly, we can state the conditions as requiring that every first minor of B be "Hicksian." Not all the conditions are independent, however, since B00 = B11 = Bnn in view of the characteristics of B.
12 One might think that Hicks really intended his conditions to extend over the entire range of excess demand coefficients (including the numéraire), this would be incorrect since the last (augmented) determinant is singular. Alternatively, it might be thought that Hicks intended the conditions to apply no matter what commodity were taken as numéraire. The latter interpretation seems to be fortified by a footnote which states ( p. 75): " [this] can be seen at once if we adopt the device of treating X (momentarily) as the standard commodity, and therefore regarding the increased demand for X as an increased supply of the old standard commodity m ...." If this device were adopted to derive the Hicks conditions it would indeed result in conditions equivalent to the above stability conditions. Yet this interpretation would conflict, not only with all subsequent interpretations of the Hicks conditions by other writers on stability, but also with Hicks' own explicit statement in the Mathematical Appendix (p. 315), which specifies that the conditions must hold "for the market in every Xr (r = 1, 2, 3, . . ., n-1)"; that is, the market for the numéraire (the nth commodity) is omitted, In any case his discussion on pages 68-71 fails to make the point clear, while his third graph in Figure 16, which he asserts is stable, is actually totally stable only if the line along which there is zero excess demand for the standard commodity (not drawn in his figures) is inelastic referred to the abscissa. The discu |
treating X (momentarily) as the standard commodity, and therefore regarding the increased demand for X as an increased supply of the old standard commodity m ...." If this device were adopted to derive the Hicks conditions it would indeed result in conditions equivalent to the above stability conditions. Yet this interpretation would conflict, not only with all subsequent interpretations of the Hicks conditions by other writers on stability, but also with Hicks' own explicit statement in the Mathematical Appendix (p. 315), which specifies that the conditions must hold "for the market in every Xr (r = 1, 2, 3, . . ., n-1)"; that is, the market for the numéraire (the nth commodity) is omitted, In any case his discussion on pages 68-71 fails to make the point clear, while his third graph in Figure 16, which he asserts is stable, is actually totally stable only if the line along which there is zero excess demand for the standard commodity (not drawn in his figures) is inelastic referred to the abscissa. The discussion is not completely clear, however, and I am therefore inclined to interpret Hicks as actually intending to give full coverage to the numéraire but not completing the mathematical implications of doing so.
13 I have considered the problem of " optimum" currency areas in terms of its attributes for stabilization policy, optimum exploitation of the functions of money, and so on in Chapter 12; the present analysis suggests an additional criterion in terms of stability conditions.
14 Stability conditions should, in principle, be "invariants" in the sense that they are independent of the choice of units in which commodities are measured; this corresponds to Lange's "principle of invariance" (, p. 103). The above stability conditions are invariants only if, as is assumed in the case of the foreign exchange market analysis, the bij's are all measured in equivalent currency units.
In the general case, however, where prices respond to excess demands denominated in physical quantity units, the units in which bij( j |
ssion is not completely clear, however, and I am therefore inclined to interpret Hicks as actually intending to give full coverage to the numéraire but not completing the mathematical implications of doing so.
13 I have considered the problem of " optimum" currency areas in terms of its attributes for stabilization policy, optimum exploitation of the functions of money, and so on in Chapter 12; the present analysis suggests an additional criterion in terms of stability conditions.
14 Stability conditions should, in principle, be "invariants" in the sense that they are independent of the choice of units in which commodities are measured; this corresponds to Lange's "principle of invariance" (, p. 103). The above stability conditions are invariants only if, as is assumed in the case of the foreign exchange market analysis, the bij's are all measured in equivalent currency units.
In the general case, however, where prices respond to excess demands denominated in physical quantity units, the units in which bij( j = 1, . . ., n) is measured differ from the units in which bkj(j = 1, . . ., n) is measured. This means that invariant stability conditions require that each row of every stability determinant involving the sum of elements be multiplied by an arbitrary number reflecting units of measurement. Thus "unit-invariant" stability in the general case involves the sign of terms such as
For arbitrary values of ki and kj extended over the entire range of the (n+ 1) x (n+ 1)-B determinant, and given the homogeneity postulate, the general conditions then imply that all goods are gross substitutes.
15 From a historical point of view, it is somewhat amusing that although the Hicks conditions are not symmetrical with respect to the commodity chosen as numéraire, neither are the (normalized) dynamic systems used to refute the validity of the Hicks conditions as true dynamic stability conditions.
16 The proof in the general case follows by analogy to the proof of Metzler (, pp. 280-285) when his method is extended to include t |
= 1, . . ., n) is measured differ from the units in which bkj(j = 1, . . ., n) is measured. This means that invariant stability conditions require that each row of every stability determinant involving the sum of elements be multiplied by an arbitrary number reflecting units of measurement. Thus "unit-invariant" stability in the general case involves the sign of terms such as
For arbitrary values of ki and kj extended over the entire range of the (n+ 1) x (n+ 1)-B determinant, and given the homogeneity postulate, the general conditions then imply that all goods are gross substitutes.
15 From a historical point of view, it is somewhat amusing that although the Hicks conditions are not symmetrical with respect to the commodity chosen as numéraire, neither are the (normalized) dynamic systems used to refute the validity of the Hicks conditions as true dynamic stability conditions.
16 The proof in the general case follows by analogy to the proof of Metzler (, pp. 280-285) when his method is extended to include the augmented system.
17 I have applied this method to the problem of disentangling lags in expectational and cash balance adjustments .
18 More directly the matrix equationif k = B-1.
The usefulness of this result lies not so much in providing a policy maker with the rules of adjustment, since there is no problem if the basic matrix is known, and the rule gives insufficient information if the basic matrix is not known. The point is rather that pieces of information about the inverse may be sufficient to distract policy makers from mistakes, and that conditions like the Hicks conditions may be a sufficient guide to the relative importance to be attached to particular instruments.
19 I have discussed the implications of this condition in some detail .
20 Even the gap between the true dynamic stability and Hicksian stability may be bridged by integrating Hicksian stability conditions with the "Samuelson-Le Châtelier principle" (see, for example, Samuelson ) which can be expressed entirely in terms of the Hicksia |
he augmented system.
17 I have applied this method to the problem of disentangling lags in expectational and cash balance adjustments .
18 More directly the matrix equationif k = B-1.
The usefulness of this result lies not so much in providing a policy maker with the rules of adjustment, since there is no problem if the basic matrix is known, and the rule gives insufficient information if the basic matrix is not known. The point is rather that pieces of information about the inverse may be sufficient to distract policy makers from mistakes, and that conditions like the Hicks conditions may be a sufficient guide to the relative importance to be attached to particular instruments.
19 I have discussed the implications of this condition in some detail .
20 Even the gap between the true dynamic stability and Hicksian stability may be bridged by integrating Hicksian stability conditions with the "Samuelson-Le Châtelier principle" (see, for example, Samuelson ) which can be expressed entirely in terms of the Hicksian determinants. Hicksian stability and dynamic stability mesh together under appropriate conditions of gross substitutes, gross complements, and symmetry, a common link being sign symmetry; and sign symmetry of the inverse of the basic Hicksian matrix is sufficient for at least one of the Le Châtelier conditions to hold (DeltaDeltaii,jj - DeltaiiDeltajj < 0 if Deltaij and Deltaji, have the same sign).
21 A further implication of the Hicks conditions was called to my attention by Daniel McFadden, who had proved, in a paper presented at the 1963 Econometrica Society meetings in Boston, Massachusetts, that if the Hicks conditions of perfect stability are satisfied, a stable dynamic system of the form can always be found for a diagonal K matrix with positive diagonal coefficients; the result also holds in the global form. Prior to McFadden's result, and unknown to him, a local version of the theorem had been published; see Fisher and Fuller .
In the context of the currency problem discussed above, the theorem mea |
n determinants. Hicksian stability and dynamic stability mesh together under appropriate conditions of gross substitutes, gross complements, and symmetry, a common link being sign symmetry; and sign symmetry of the inverse of the basic Hicksian matrix is sufficient for at least one of the Le Châtelier conditions to hold (DeltaDeltaii,jj - DeltaiiDeltajj < 0 if Deltaij and Deltaji, have the same sign).
21 A further implication of the Hicks conditions was called to my attention by Daniel McFadden, who had proved, in a paper presented at the 1963 Econometrica Society meetings in Boston, Massachusetts, that if the Hicks conditions of perfect stability are satisfied, a stable dynamic system of the form can always be found for a diagonal K matrix with positive diagonal coefficients; the result also holds in the global form. Prior to McFadden's result, and unknown to him, a local version of the theorem had been published; see Fisher and Fuller .
In the context of the currency problem discussed above, the theorem means that if the Hicks conditions are satisfied, it is always possible to find a stable dynamic system in which exchange rates are adjusted to " own " balances of payments only.
W. J. FELLNER et al., Maintaining and Restoring Balance in International Payments. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966.
M. E. FISHER and A. T. FULLER, " On the Stabilization of Matrices and the Convergence of Linear Iterative Processes," Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., 54 (1958).
J. R. HICKS, Value and Capital. 2nd ed. Fair Lawn, N.J.: Oxford University Press, 1946.
O. LANGE, Price Flexibility and Full Employment. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1944, p. 92.
L. A. METZLER, "Stability of Multiple Markets: The Hicks Conditions," Econometrica, 13, 277-292 (Oct. 1945).
R. A. MUNDELL, "The Appropriate Use of Monetary and Fiscal Policy for Internal and External Stability," IMF Staff Papers, 9, 70-79 (March 1962).
R. A. MUNDELL, "Growth, Stability and Inflationary Finance," Jour. Pol. Econ.. 73. 97-100 (April 1965).
R. |
ns that if the Hicks conditions are satisfied, it is always possible to find a stable dynamic system in which exchange rates are adjusted to " own " balances of payments only.
W. J. FELLNER et al., Maintaining and Restoring Balance in International Payments. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1966.
M. E. FISHER and A. T. FULLER, " On the Stabilization of Matrices and the Convergence of Linear Iterative Processes," Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., 54 (1958).
J. R. HICKS, Value and Capital. 2nd ed. Fair Lawn, N.J.: Oxford University Press, 1946.
O. LANGE, Price Flexibility and Full Employment. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1944, p. 92.
L. A. METZLER, "Stability of Multiple Markets: The Hicks Conditions," Econometrica, 13, 277-292 (Oct. 1945).
R. A. MUNDELL, "The Appropriate Use of Monetary and Fiscal Policy for Internal and External Stability," IMF Staff Papers, 9, 70-79 (March 1962).
R. A. MUNDELL, "Growth, Stability and Inflationary Finance," Jour. Pol. Econ.. 73. 97-100 (April 1965).
R. A. MUNDELL, "The Significance of the Homogeneity Postulate for the Laws of Comparative Statics," Econometrica, 33, 349-356 (April 1965).
P. A. SAMUELSON, "The Stability of Equilibrium: Comparative Statics and Dynamics," Econometrica, 9, 97-120 (April 1941).
P. A. SAMUELSON, " The Stability of Equilibrium: Linear and Non Linear Systems," Econometrica, 10, 1 (April 1942).
P. A. SAMUELSON, " An Extension of the Le Châtelier Principle," Econometrica, 28, 368-379 (April 1960). |
A. MUNDELL, "The Significance of the Homogeneity Postulate for the Laws of Comparative Statics," Econometrica, 33, 349-356 (April 1965).
P. A. SAMUELSON, "The Stability of Equilibrium: Comparative Statics and Dynamics," Econometrica, 9, 97-120 (April 1941).
P. A. SAMUELSON, " The Stability of Equilibrium: Linear and Non Linear Systems," Econometrica, 10, 1 (April 1942).
P. A. SAMUELSON, " An Extension of the Le Châtelier Principle," Econometrica, 28, 368-379 (April 1960). |
1. Lacking in light.
4. Foul with waste matter.
10. An international organization based in Geneva that monitors and enforces rules governing global trade.
13. Fiddler crabs.
14. Wool of the alpaca.
15. The sense organ for hearing and equilibrium.
16. Lighter consisting of a thin piece of wood or cardboard tipped with combustible chemical.
18. A former copper coin of Pakistan.
19. The elementary stages of any subject (usually plural).
20. The boarding that surrounds an ice hockey rink.
22. Small genus of dioecious tropical aquatic plants.
24. (Sumerian) Goddess personifying earth.
25. Any place of complete bliss and delight and peace.
26. Patterned by having color applied with sweeping strokes.
30. Dry red table wine from the Rioja region of northern Spain.
34. The shape of a bell.
36. Lacking or deprive of the sense of hearing wholly or in part.
37. A radioactive element of the actinide series.
38. The 10th letter of the Hebrew alphabet.
39. The blood group whose red cells carry both the A and B antigens.
41. A metric unit of volume or capacity equal to 10 liters.
42. One-thousandth of an equivalent.
44. (folklore) A corpse that rises at night to drink the blood of the living.
47. Large sweet juicy hybrid between tangerine and grapefruit having a thick wrinkled skin.
50. Obvious and dull.
54. Someone who copies the words or behavior of another.
56. Relating to or characteristic of or occurring in the air.
58. A Hindu prince or king in India.
59. Cubes of meat marinated and cooked on a skewer usually with vegetables.
60. A river in north central Switzerland that runs northeast into the Rhine.
63. Of or relating to or characteristic of Thailand of its people.
64. A complex red organic pigment containing iron and other atoms to which oxygen binds.
66. God of war and sky.
67. Type genus of the Alcidae comprising solely the razorbill.
68. A group of Plains Indians formerly living in what is now North and South Dakota and Nebraska and Kansas and Arkansas and Louisiana and Oklahoma and Texas.
69. An associate degree in |
A metric unit of volume or capacity equal to 10 liters.
42. One-thousandth of an equivalent.
44. (folklore) A corpse that rises at night to drink the blood of the living.
47. Large sweet juicy hybrid between tangerine and grapefruit having a thick wrinkled skin.
50. Obvious and dull.
54. Someone who copies the words or behavior of another.
56. Relating to or characteristic of or occurring in the air.
58. A Hindu prince or king in India.
59. Cubes of meat marinated and cooked on a skewer usually with vegetables.
60. A river in north central Switzerland that runs northeast into the Rhine.
63. Of or relating to or characteristic of Thailand of its people.
64. A complex red organic pigment containing iron and other atoms to which oxygen binds.
66. God of war and sky.
67. Type genus of the Alcidae comprising solely the razorbill.
68. A group of Plains Indians formerly living in what is now North and South Dakota and Nebraska and Kansas and Arkansas and Louisiana and Oklahoma and Texas.
69. An associate degree in applied science.
1. Slow to learn or understand.
2. The United Nations agency concerned with civil aviation.
3. A Chadic language spoken south of Lake Chad.
4. King of Saudi Arabia since 1982 (born in 1922).
5. A silvery ductile metallic element found primarily in bauxite.
6. A federal agency established to coordinate programs aimed at reducing pollution and protecting the environment.
7. Airtight sealed metal container for food or drink or paint etc..
8. (of complexion) Blemished by imperfections of the skin.
9. (South African) A camp defended by a circular formation of wagons.
10. Impairment resulting from long use.
11. A sock with a separation for the big toe.
12. Predatory black-and-white toothed whale with large dorsal fin.
17. Tender and brittle.
21. Rise or heave upward under the influence of a natural force, as on a wave.
23. A town in north central Oklahoma.
27. A cord that is drawn through eyelets or around hooks in order to draw together two edges (as of a shoe or garment).
28. 10 hao equal 1 dong. |
applied science.
1. Slow to learn or understand.
2. The United Nations agency concerned with civil aviation.
3. A Chadic language spoken south of Lake Chad.
4. King of Saudi Arabia since 1982 (born in 1922).
5. A silvery ductile metallic element found primarily in bauxite.
6. A federal agency established to coordinate programs aimed at reducing pollution and protecting the environment.
7. Airtight sealed metal container for food or drink or paint etc..
8. (of complexion) Blemished by imperfections of the skin.
9. (South African) A camp defended by a circular formation of wagons.
10. Impairment resulting from long use.
11. A sock with a separation for the big toe.
12. Predatory black-and-white toothed whale with large dorsal fin.
17. Tender and brittle.
21. Rise or heave upward under the influence of a natural force, as on a wave.
23. A town in north central Oklahoma.
27. A cord that is drawn through eyelets or around hooks in order to draw together two edges (as of a shoe or garment).
28. 10 hao equal 1 dong.
29. Tropical woody herb with showy yellow flowers and flat pods.
31. An unabridged dictionary constructed on historical principles.
32. Immense East Indian fruit resembling breadfruit of.
33. A federation of North American labor unions that merged with the Congress of Industrial Organizations in 1955.
35. A barrier constructed to contain the flow or water or to keep out the sea.
40. Top part of an apron.
43. The French-speaking capital of the province of Quebec.
45. Filled with fear or apprehension.
46. A river in north central Switzerland that runs northeast into the Rhine.
48. Pasture grass of plains of South America and western North America.
49. A state in midwestern United States.
51. Italian chemist noted for work on polymers (1903-1979).
52. A genus of Platalea.
53. (Greek mythology) King of Thebes who was unwittingly killed by his son Oedipus.
55. A deep prolonged sound (as of thunder or large bells).
57. The United Nations agency concerned with atomic energy.
61. (usually followed by `of') Released |
29. Tropical woody herb with showy yellow flowers and flat pods.
31. An unabridged dictionary constructed on historical principles.
32. Immense East Indian fruit resembling breadfruit of.
33. A federation of North American labor unions that merged with the Congress of Industrial Organizations in 1955.
35. A barrier constructed to contain the flow or water or to keep out the sea.
40. Top part of an apron.
43. The French-speaking capital of the province of Quebec.
45. Filled with fear or apprehension.
46. A river in north central Switzerland that runs northeast into the Rhine.
48. Pasture grass of plains of South America and western North America.
49. A state in midwestern United States.
51. Italian chemist noted for work on polymers (1903-1979).
52. A genus of Platalea.
53. (Greek mythology) King of Thebes who was unwittingly killed by his son Oedipus.
55. A deep prolonged sound (as of thunder or large bells).
57. The United Nations agency concerned with atomic energy.
61. (usually followed by `of') Released from something onerous (especially an obligation or duty).
62. The capital and largest city of Japan.
65. A crystalline metallic element not found in nature. |
from something onerous (especially an obligation or duty).
62. The capital and largest city of Japan.
65. A crystalline metallic element not found in nature. |
Don't treat C02 as a pollutant
From higher energy bills to lost jobs, the impact of carbon regulations will hurt us far more than CO2 itself ever could.
Grove City, Pa. — A few days before this year's Earth Day, America's ideological greens received a present they have been desiring for years: The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) – responding to a 2007 US Supreme Court ruling – officially designated carbon dioxide (CO2) as a pollutant. That spurred Democrats in Congress to push a major climate change bill. In the next 25 years, their massive cap-and-trade scheme would, according to a Heritage Foundation study, inflict gross domestic product losses of $9.4 trillion, raise an average family's energy bill by $1,241, and destroy some 1,145,000 jobs. Democrats want it passed by July 4.
Get ready for a veritable Pandora's box of complications.
A generation ago, it was considered great progress against pollution when catalytic converters were added to automobile engines to change poisonous carbon monoxide to benign carbon dioxide. Now, CO2 has been demoted.
The EPA's characterization of CO2 as a pollutant brings into question the natural order of things. By the EPA's logic, either God or Mother Nature (whichever creator you believe in) seriously goofed. After all, CO2 is the base of our food chain. "Pollutants" are supposed to be harmful to life, not helpful to it, aren't they?
Of course, it is true (although environmentalists often ignore it when trying to ban such useful chemicals as pesticides, insecticides, Alar, PCBs, and others) that "the dose makes the poison." Too much oxygen, for example, poses danger to human life. So what is the "right" concentration of CO2 in our atmosphere? There is no right answer to this question. The concentration of CO2 in Earth's atmosphere fluctuated greatly long before humans appeared on Earth, and that concentration has fluctuated since then, too.
The current concentration is approximately 385 parts per million. Some scientists maintain that 1,000 parts per million would provid |
nign carbon dioxide. Now, CO2 has been demoted.
The EPA's characterization of CO2 as a pollutant brings into question the natural order of things. By the EPA's logic, either God or Mother Nature (whichever creator you believe in) seriously goofed. After all, CO2 is the base of our food chain. "Pollutants" are supposed to be harmful to life, not helpful to it, aren't they?
Of course, it is true (although environmentalists often ignore it when trying to ban such useful chemicals as pesticides, insecticides, Alar, PCBs, and others) that "the dose makes the poison." Too much oxygen, for example, poses danger to human life. So what is the "right" concentration of CO2 in our atmosphere? There is no right answer to this question. The concentration of CO2 in Earth's atmosphere fluctuated greatly long before humans appeared on Earth, and that concentration has fluctuated since then, too.
The current concentration is approximately 385 parts per million. Some scientists maintain that 1,000 parts per million would provide an ideal atmosphere for plant life, accelerating plant growth and multiplying yields, thereby sustaining far more animal and human life than is currently possible. Whatever standard the EPA selects will be arbitrary.
"Forget about the plants," say the greens. "What we're trying to control is how warm Earth's atmosphere gets." To which I reply, "With all due respect, are you kidding me?"
As with a "right" concentration of CO2, what is the "right" average global temperature? For 7,000 of the past 10,000 years, Earth was cooler than it is now; mankind prospers more in warm climates than cold climates; and the Antarctic icecap was significantly larger during the warmer mid-Holocene period than it is today. Are you sure warmer is bad or wrong?
And how do you propose to regulate Earth's temperature when as much as three-quarters of the variability is due to variations in solar activity, with the remaining one-quarter due to changes in Earth's orbit, axis, and albedo (reflectivity)? This truly is "mission impossib |
e an ideal atmosphere for plant life, accelerating plant growth and multiplying yields, thereby sustaining far more animal and human life than is currently possible. Whatever standard the EPA selects will be arbitrary.
"Forget about the plants," say the greens. "What we're trying to control is how warm Earth's atmosphere gets." To which I reply, "With all due respect, are you kidding me?"
As with a "right" concentration of CO2, what is the "right" average global temperature? For 7,000 of the past 10,000 years, Earth was cooler than it is now; mankind prospers more in warm climates than cold climates; and the Antarctic icecap was significantly larger during the warmer mid-Holocene period than it is today. Are you sure warmer is bad or wrong?
And how do you propose to regulate Earth's temperature when as much as three-quarters of the variability is due to variations in solar activity, with the remaining one-quarter due to changes in Earth's orbit, axis, and albedo (reflectivity)? This truly is "mission impossible." Mankind can no more regulate Earth's temperature than it can the tides.
Even if the "greenhouse effect" were greater than it actually is, the EPA and Congress would be powerless to alter it for several reasons:
1. Human activity accounts for less than 4 percent of global CO2 emissions.
2. CO2 itself accounts for only 10 or 20 percent of the greenhouse effect. This discloses the capricious nature of the EPA's decision to classify CO2 as a pollutant, for if CO2 is a pollutant because it is a greenhouse gas, then the most common greenhouse gas of all – water vapor, which accounts for more than three-quarters of the atmosphere's greenhouse effect – should be regulated, too. The EPA isn't going after water vapor, of course, because then everyone would realize how absurd climate-control regulation really is.
3. Even if Americans were to eliminate their CO2 emissions completely, total human emissions of CO2 would still increase as billions of people around the world continue to develop economically.
Clearly, it |
le." Mankind can no more regulate Earth's temperature than it can the tides.
Even if the "greenhouse effect" were greater than it actually is, the EPA and Congress would be powerless to alter it for several reasons:
1. Human activity accounts for less than 4 percent of global CO2 emissions.
2. CO2 itself accounts for only 10 or 20 percent of the greenhouse effect. This discloses the capricious nature of the EPA's decision to classify CO2 as a pollutant, for if CO2 is a pollutant because it is a greenhouse gas, then the most common greenhouse gas of all – water vapor, which accounts for more than three-quarters of the atmosphere's greenhouse effect – should be regulated, too. The EPA isn't going after water vapor, of course, because then everyone would realize how absurd climate-control regulation really is.
3. Even if Americans were to eliminate their CO2 emissions completely, total human emissions of CO2 would still increase as billions of people around the world continue to develop economically.
Clearly, it is beyond the ken of mortals to answer the metaquestions about the right concentration of CO2, or the optimal global average temperature, or to control CO2 levels in the atmosphere. I feel sorry for the professionals at the EPA who are now expected to come up with answers for these unanswerable questions.
However, I do not feel sorry for the political appointees, like climate czar Carol Browner, because it looks as if they are about to get what they evidently want – the power to increase their power over Americans' lives and pocketbooks via CO2 emission regulations.
From higher energy bills to lost jobs, the impact of CO2 regulations will hurt us far more than CO2 itself ever could. Let's nail shut the lid on this Pandora's box before it swings wide open. |
is beyond the ken of mortals to answer the metaquestions about the right concentration of CO2, or the optimal global average temperature, or to control CO2 levels in the atmosphere. I feel sorry for the professionals at the EPA who are now expected to come up with answers for these unanswerable questions.
However, I do not feel sorry for the political appointees, like climate czar Carol Browner, because it looks as if they are about to get what they evidently want – the power to increase their power over Americans' lives and pocketbooks via CO2 emission regulations.
From higher energy bills to lost jobs, the impact of CO2 regulations will hurt us far more than CO2 itself ever could. Let's nail shut the lid on this Pandora's box before it swings wide open. |
Stream Water Quality Monitoring Programs
A number of federal, state, regional and local governmental agencies monitors the quality of Minnesotaís streams and rivers including the USGS, PCA, DNR, the Metropolitan Council Environmental Services (MCES), and certain local units of government. In addition, a number of citizen groups engages in monitoring activities. Each agency designs its monitoring program to meet its specific needs.
Federal Programs. The Water Resources Division of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) currently operates two nationwide stream water-quality monitoring networks, the Hydrologic Benchmark Network and the National Stream Accounting Network (NASQAN). Samples from stations in each program are sampled approximately four or five times during the year and analyzed for the parameters listed in Appendix C. A 20-year record of data exists for most sites. The USGS stores all water-quality data in their WATSTORE database available via STORET, the U.S. EPAís large water-quality database. Requests for small amounts of data from STORET (total costs under $25) may be obtained by contacting the EPA Region 5 Freedom of Information Officer. Data can also be obtained online or from the PCA. There are no fees for this service, except for unusually large data retrievals, and the wait time for most data requests is approximately two weeks. (Contacts for data requests are listed in Appendix B.)
The nationwide Hydrologic Benchmark Network Program provides information on baseline water quality conditions. The network consists of a set of stations located in small, pristine drainage basins. Because point source pollution is not a problem in these areas, this program has been especially useful in describing the effects of non-point atmospheric deposition of pollutants on streams. Only one Hydrologic Benchmark Network station is located in Minnesota on the Kawishiwi River near Ely. Another station, located on the North Fork of the Whitewater River, closed in 1993.
The National Stream Accounting Network (NASQAN) was e |
for small amounts of data from STORET (total costs under $25) may be obtained by contacting the EPA Region 5 Freedom of Information Officer. Data can also be obtained online or from the PCA. There are no fees for this service, except for unusually large data retrievals, and the wait time for most data requests is approximately two weeks. (Contacts for data requests are listed in Appendix B.)
The nationwide Hydrologic Benchmark Network Program provides information on baseline water quality conditions. The network consists of a set of stations located in small, pristine drainage basins. Because point source pollution is not a problem in these areas, this program has been especially useful in describing the effects of non-point atmospheric deposition of pollutants on streams. Only one Hydrologic Benchmark Network station is located in Minnesota on the Kawishiwi River near Ely. Another station, located on the North Fork of the Whitewater River, closed in 1993.
The National Stream Accounting Network (NASQAN) was established in 1973 to obtain information on the quality and quantity of water draining into the oceans, describe geographic variability in water quality, detect temporal trends, and provide a nationally consistent database. Most NASQAN stations are located at the mouths of rivers and tributaries. As a result, this programís stations are broadly representative of their basins, but they cannot provide specific, detailed data to characterize the basins. This has limited the ability of the program to analyze geographic patterns in water quality. In the early 1990s, this program experienced a significant reduction in size declining from ten NASQAN stations in Minnesota in 1993 to four in 1994. Existing stations are located on the Minnesota River at Jordan, the Mississippi River at Royalton and Nininger, and the St. Louis River at Scanlon. Figure 5.1 shows the locations of the NASQAN stations, the USGS Hydrological benchmark stations and other USGS water quality monitoring stations.
Figure 5.1 Locations of NASQAN, |
stablished in 1973 to obtain information on the quality and quantity of water draining into the oceans, describe geographic variability in water quality, detect temporal trends, and provide a nationally consistent database. Most NASQAN stations are located at the mouths of rivers and tributaries. As a result, this programís stations are broadly representative of their basins, but they cannot provide specific, detailed data to characterize the basins. This has limited the ability of the program to analyze geographic patterns in water quality. In the early 1990s, this program experienced a significant reduction in size declining from ten NASQAN stations in Minnesota in 1993 to four in 1994. Existing stations are located on the Minnesota River at Jordan, the Mississippi River at Royalton and Nininger, and the St. Louis River at Scanlon. Figure 5.1 shows the locations of the NASQAN stations, the USGS Hydrological benchmark stations and other USGS water quality monitoring stations.
Figure 5.1 Locations of NASQAN, USGS Hydrological Benchmark and other water quality monitoring stations. U.S. Geological Survey, 1993.
To assess the quality of the nationís surface and ground water, the National Water-Quality Assessment Program (NAQWA) began in 1991. The program was designed to describe the status and identify trends in water quality and identify natural and anthropogenic factors affecting water quality. The scope of the program is large, covering approximately 60 to 70% of the water used by the entire U.S. population. This information will provide water managers and policy makers with a better understanding of the geographic differences water quality and concomitant causes.
Two basins that lie partially within Minnesota are being studied as part of NAWQA: the Red River of the North Basin and the Mississippi Basin in the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area. The Red River of the North project began in 1991 and the Mississippi River project in 1994. Both projects were recently completed. USGS Water Resources Investigations |
USGS Hydrological Benchmark and other water quality monitoring stations. U.S. Geological Survey, 1993.
To assess the quality of the nationís surface and ground water, the National Water-Quality Assessment Program (NAQWA) began in 1991. The program was designed to describe the status and identify trends in water quality and identify natural and anthropogenic factors affecting water quality. The scope of the program is large, covering approximately 60 to 70% of the water used by the entire U.S. population. This information will provide water managers and policy makers with a better understanding of the geographic differences water quality and concomitant causes.
Two basins that lie partially within Minnesota are being studied as part of NAWQA: the Red River of the North Basin and the Mississippi Basin in the Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan area. The Red River of the North project began in 1991 and the Mississippi River project in 1994. Both projects were recently completed. USGS Water Resources Investigations Reports contain information summarizing the water quality of the basin. (See reports 3 and 4 in this series of WRC River reports for further information on these studies.) |
Reports contain information summarizing the water quality of the basin. (See reports 3 and 4 in this series of WRC River reports for further information on these studies.) |
- What Is a Blue Screen Error?
- Troubleshooting Common Blue Screen Error Messages
- 0x000000ED and 0x0000007B
- 0x0000007E and 0x0000008E
- Using the Windows Debugger
This article describes what Blue Screen errors are, why they occur, how to recognize them, and how to resolve some of the more common error messages.
This article is specific to Microsoft Windows 7.
Click below to change the operating system.
Resolving stop (blue screen) errors in Windows 7 (Microsoft Content)
When Windows encounters certain situations, it halts and the resulting diagnostic information is displayed in white text on a blue screen. The appearance of these errors is where the term "Blue Screen" or "Blue Screen of Death" has come from.
Blue Screen errors occur when:
- Windows detects an error it cannot recover from without losing data
- Windows detects that critical OS data has become corrupted
- Windows detects that hardware has failed in a non-recoverable fashion
- The exact text displayed has changed over the years from a dense wall of information in Windows NT 4.0 to the comparatively sparse message employed by modern versions of Windows.
These two errors have similar causes and the same troubleshooting steps apply to both of them. These stop codes always occur during the startup process. When you encounter one of these stop codes, the following has happened:
- The system has completed the Power-On Self-Test (POST).
- The system has loaded NTLDR and transferred control of the startup process to NTOSKRNL (the kernel).
- NTOSKRNL is confused. Either it cannot find the rest of itself, or it cannot read the file system at the location it believes it is stored.
When troubleshooting this error, your task is to find out why the Windows kernel is confused and fix the cause of the confusion.
Things to check
- The SATA controller configuration in the system BIOS If the SATA controller gets toggled from ATA to AHCI mode (or vice versa), then Windows will not be able to talk to the SATA controller because the different modes require different |
wall of information in Windows NT 4.0 to the comparatively sparse message employed by modern versions of Windows.
These two errors have similar causes and the same troubleshooting steps apply to both of them. These stop codes always occur during the startup process. When you encounter one of these stop codes, the following has happened:
- The system has completed the Power-On Self-Test (POST).
- The system has loaded NTLDR and transferred control of the startup process to NTOSKRNL (the kernel).
- NTOSKRNL is confused. Either it cannot find the rest of itself, or it cannot read the file system at the location it believes it is stored.
When troubleshooting this error, your task is to find out why the Windows kernel is confused and fix the cause of the confusion.
Things to check
- The SATA controller configuration in the system BIOS If the SATA controller gets toggled from ATA to AHCI mode (or vice versa), then Windows will not be able to talk to the SATA controller because the different modes require different drivers. Try toggling the SATA controller mode in the BIOS.
- RAID settings You may receive this error if you've been experimenting with the RAID controller settings. Try changing the RAID settings back to Autodetect (usually accurate).
- Improperly or poorly seated cabling Try reseating the data cables that connect the drive and its controller at both ends.
- Hard drive failure Run the built-in diagnostics on the hard drive. Remember: Code 7 signifies correctable data corruption, not disk failure.
- File system corruption Launch the recovery console from the Windows installation disc and run chkdsk /f /r.
- Improperly configured BOOT.INI (Windows Vista). If you have inadvertently erased or tinkered with the boot.ini file, you may receive stop code 0x7B during the startup process. Launch the recovery console from the Windows installation disc and run BOOTCFG /REBUILD
This stop code indicates the NTFS file system driver encountered a situation it could not handle, and is almost always caused by 3 things:
- Dat |
drivers. Try toggling the SATA controller mode in the BIOS.
- RAID settings You may receive this error if you've been experimenting with the RAID controller settings. Try changing the RAID settings back to Autodetect (usually accurate).
- Improperly or poorly seated cabling Try reseating the data cables that connect the drive and its controller at both ends.
- Hard drive failure Run the built-in diagnostics on the hard drive. Remember: Code 7 signifies correctable data corruption, not disk failure.
- File system corruption Launch the recovery console from the Windows installation disc and run chkdsk /f /r.
- Improperly configured BOOT.INI (Windows Vista). If you have inadvertently erased or tinkered with the boot.ini file, you may receive stop code 0x7B during the startup process. Launch the recovery console from the Windows installation disc and run BOOTCFG /REBUILD
This stop code indicates the NTFS file system driver encountered a situation it could not handle, and is almost always caused by 3 things:
- Data corruption on the disk
- Data corruption in memory
- The system completely running out of memory (this typically only happens on heavily-loaded servers)
Things to check
- Reseat the memory and all drive data cables to eliminate data corruption issues stemming from poorly or improperly seated hardware.
- Run a complete memory and hard drive diagnostic. The quick test will not be thorough enough here. You need to run the full system diagnostic.
- If those diagnostics pass, run a full file system check from the Recovery Console (chkdsk /f /r) to detect and (potentially) fix any corrupted data.
- If none of the above solves the issue, reinstall Windows.
- If that does not fix the issue, replace the hard drive.
These two errors indicate that a program running in the kernel encountered an unexpected condition it could not recover from. They have identical troubleshooting and resolution steps, and you will probably need to use the Windows Debugger to find out what caused the error.
Things to check
- If the Blue Sc |
a corruption on the disk
- Data corruption in memory
- The system completely running out of memory (this typically only happens on heavily-loaded servers)
Things to check
- Reseat the memory and all drive data cables to eliminate data corruption issues stemming from poorly or improperly seated hardware.
- Run a complete memory and hard drive diagnostic. The quick test will not be thorough enough here. You need to run the full system diagnostic.
- If those diagnostics pass, run a full file system check from the Recovery Console (chkdsk /f /r) to detect and (potentially) fix any corrupted data.
- If none of the above solves the issue, reinstall Windows.
- If that does not fix the issue, replace the hard drive.
These two errors indicate that a program running in the kernel encountered an unexpected condition it could not recover from. They have identical troubleshooting and resolution steps, and you will probably need to use the Windows Debugger to find out what caused the error.
Things to check
- If the Blue Screen message mentions a driver or library file, figure out what driver or application that file is part of and update or disable it.
- Update the system BIOS to the latest available revision.
- Uninstall any recently installed programs, and roll-back any recently installed drivers.
- Run diagnostics on the computer's memory.
This stop code means the system tried to access a nonexistent piece of memory, almost always due to:
- A driver trying to access a page of memory that is not present
- A system service (ex. virus scanner) failing in an exceptional way
- Faulty or incorrectly seated memory
- Corrupted data on the hard drive
Use the Windows Debugger to pinpoint the exact cause of these errors.
Things to check
- If the Blue Screen error mentions a driver or library file, figure out what driver or program the file is a part of and either upgrade to the latest version or uninstall the driver or program.
- If the error happens during the startup process, try booting to the Last Known Good Configuration.
- If th |
reen message mentions a driver or library file, figure out what driver or application that file is part of and update or disable it.
- Update the system BIOS to the latest available revision.
- Uninstall any recently installed programs, and roll-back any recently installed drivers.
- Run diagnostics on the computer's memory.
This stop code means the system tried to access a nonexistent piece of memory, almost always due to:
- A driver trying to access a page of memory that is not present
- A system service (ex. virus scanner) failing in an exceptional way
- Faulty or incorrectly seated memory
- Corrupted data on the hard drive
Use the Windows Debugger to pinpoint the exact cause of these errors.
Things to check
- If the Blue Screen error mentions a driver or library file, figure out what driver or program the file is a part of and either upgrade to the latest version or uninstall the driver or program.
- If the error happens during the startup process, try booting to the Last Known Good Configuration.
- If the error started appearing after a program or driver was installed, uninstall that program or driver.
- Try running a full hard drive and memory diagnostic after reseating the memory and hard drive data cables.
This stop code indicates a driver tried to access a certain area of memory when it should not have, meaning there is a flaw in the driver itself. The goal of your troubleshooting is to find that driver and either disable or replace it. Use the Windows Debugger to troubleshoot this error.
Without the debugger, you are limited to uninstalling/updating/rolling back the driver that contains the driver file the Blue Screen mentions.
This Blue Screen error indicates that a device driver-almost always a video card driver-is stuck waiting for something (usually a hardware operation) to happen. Most of you have probably seen nv4_disp.sys
associated with this Blue Screen.
Things to check:
- Ensure the video drivers are updated to the latest Dell version.
- The system BIOS is fully up-to-date.
- If both the video |
e error started appearing after a program or driver was installed, uninstall that program or driver.
- Try running a full hard drive and memory diagnostic after reseating the memory and hard drive data cables.
This stop code indicates a driver tried to access a certain area of memory when it should not have, meaning there is a flaw in the driver itself. The goal of your troubleshooting is to find that driver and either disable or replace it. Use the Windows Debugger to troubleshoot this error.
Without the debugger, you are limited to uninstalling/updating/rolling back the driver that contains the driver file the Blue Screen mentions.
This Blue Screen error indicates that a device driver-almost always a video card driver-is stuck waiting for something (usually a hardware operation) to happen. Most of you have probably seen nv4_disp.sys
associated with this Blue Screen.
Things to check:
- Ensure the video drivers are updated to the latest Dell version.
- The system BIOS is fully up-to-date.
- If both the video driver and the system BIOS are fully up-to-date, check with the manufacturer for recent driver updates.
- As a last resort, try exchanging the video card.
Reinstalling Windows is not likely to prevent this error from reoccurring.
The Windows Debugger is one of the primary tools used by Microsoft software developers and support staff to analyze and resolve errors that result in memory dumps, and it's available for you.
The Windows Debugger is a powerful tool with many useful applications, but for this article, we are only interested in its ability to analyze memory dump files generated by blue screen errors to determine the cause of the error.
Before you can use the tool, keep in mind the following:
- The Windows Debugger is not a native Windows tool. You must download and install the application (15 MB) from the Microsoft web site. Administrator access is required to install the tool.
- The Debugger requires some minor customization before use.
- The Debugger can take anywhere from 30 seconds to two minutes t |
driver and the system BIOS are fully up-to-date, check with the manufacturer for recent driver updates.
- As a last resort, try exchanging the video card.
Reinstalling Windows is not likely to prevent this error from reoccurring.
The Windows Debugger is one of the primary tools used by Microsoft software developers and support staff to analyze and resolve errors that result in memory dumps, and it's available for you.
The Windows Debugger is a powerful tool with many useful applications, but for this article, we are only interested in its ability to analyze memory dump files generated by blue screen errors to determine the cause of the error.
Before you can use the tool, keep in mind the following:
- The Windows Debugger is not a native Windows tool. You must download and install the application (15 MB) from the Microsoft web site. Administrator access is required to install the tool.
- The Debugger requires some minor customization before use.
- The Debugger can take anywhere from 30 seconds to two minutes to fully analyze a memory dump.
To use the tool, follow these steps:
- Download and install the Windows Debugger from the Microsoft Web Site .
If you use Google to search for "windows debugger," the first link returned will be the Windows Debugger home page.
- Once installation completes click Start, click All Programs, click Debugging Tools for Windows, then click WinDbg to open the Windows Debugger.
- Configure the symbol path used by the debugger to turn addresses in the memory dump file into meaningful location names: expand the File menu, select Symbol File Path, type "SRV*c:\debug_symbols*http://msdl.microsoft.com/download/symbols" in the dialog box then click OK.
- Open a minidump file: expand the File menu, select Open Crash Dump, select the desired dump file and click Open.
The system usually stores minidump files in either: C:\WINNT\Minidump\ or C:\Windows\Minidump\. The files will be named miniMMDDYY-NN.dmp, where MMis the month, DD is the day, and YY is the year in which the dump file was created. |
o fully analyze a memory dump.
To use the tool, follow these steps:
- Download and install the Windows Debugger from the Microsoft Web Site .
If you use Google to search for "windows debugger," the first link returned will be the Windows Debugger home page.
- Once installation completes click Start, click All Programs, click Debugging Tools for Windows, then click WinDbg to open the Windows Debugger.
- Configure the symbol path used by the debugger to turn addresses in the memory dump file into meaningful location names: expand the File menu, select Symbol File Path, type "SRV*c:\debug_symbols*http://msdl.microsoft.com/download/symbols" in the dialog box then click OK.
- Open a minidump file: expand the File menu, select Open Crash Dump, select the desired dump file and click Open.
The system usually stores minidump files in either: C:\WINNT\Minidump\ or C:\Windows\Minidump\. The files will be named miniMMDDYY-NN.dmp, where MMis the month, DD is the day, and YY is the year in which the dump file was created. NN is the sequence the dump files were created in if multiple dumps were generated on the same day (the first crash dump on a given day will be numbered 01, the second 02, etc.).
- The debugger will open the dump file and give a brief description of what caused the system to crash. (Figure 2)
The first time you use the Debugger to open and dump file on a system, it will take a few minutes to download symbol information in the background before it returns any information.
Figure 2: Windows Debugger
Suggested command for the Debugger's command line
Stop code from the blue screen (1000007F is the same as 0x7F)
What Windows thinks caused the crash (atapi.sysin this example, you will sometimes see things like memory_corruption
- When it returns this preliminary analysis, the Debugger tells you how to dig deeper. Type "!analyze -v" in the command line (kd>) field at the bottom of the window and press theEnter key to have the WinDbg perform a detailed analysis of the file.
The results will be lengthy, and you may ha |
NN is the sequence the dump files were created in if multiple dumps were generated on the same day (the first crash dump on a given day will be numbered 01, the second 02, etc.).
- The debugger will open the dump file and give a brief description of what caused the system to crash. (Figure 2)
The first time you use the Debugger to open and dump file on a system, it will take a few minutes to download symbol information in the background before it returns any information.
Figure 2: Windows Debugger
Suggested command for the Debugger's command line
Stop code from the blue screen (1000007F is the same as 0x7F)
What Windows thinks caused the crash (atapi.sysin this example, you will sometimes see things like memory_corruption
- When it returns this preliminary analysis, the Debugger tells you how to dig deeper. Type "!analyze -v" in the command line (kd>) field at the bottom of the window and press theEnter key to have the WinDbg perform a detailed analysis of the file.
The results will be lengthy, and you may have to scroll vertically within the Debugger's window to locate all the pertinent information.
Figure 3: Analyze the Results
A detailed explanation of the stop code (in the example, you can see that the kernel encountered an EXCEPTION_DOUBLE_FAULT (8), or an error while trying to process an error)
Figure 4: Further Analysis of the Results
The bug check code (notice in the example it includes the number 8, indicating the double fault)
The number of times the system has crashed with this exact error (typically 1)
The bucket in which Windows has categorized the crash
The stack trace at the time the system crashed, with the most recently called procedure on top (you can see in the example the system crashed while processing a request from the IDE controller)
Figure 5: Additional Analysis
The name of the module the system was in when it crashed. On an actual system, the module name is a link you can click to receive some useful information about the module, who created it, how old it is, etc |
ve to scroll vertically within the Debugger's window to locate all the pertinent information.
Figure 3: Analyze the Results
A detailed explanation of the stop code (in the example, you can see that the kernel encountered an EXCEPTION_DOUBLE_FAULT (8), or an error while trying to process an error)
Figure 4: Further Analysis of the Results
The bug check code (notice in the example it includes the number 8, indicating the double fault)
The number of times the system has crashed with this exact error (typically 1)
The bucket in which Windows has categorized the crash
The stack trace at the time the system crashed, with the most recently called procedure on top (you can see in the example the system crashed while processing a request from the IDE controller)
Figure 5: Additional Analysis
The name of the module the system was in when it crashed. On an actual system, the module name is a link you can click to receive some useful information about the module, who created it, how old it is, etc |
Q & A Library
Living Without a Spleen?
My son, 14, lost his spleen due to an accident. What can I do to keep him healthy? He has had the vaccines recommended and took penicillin for two years. He is now on a multivitamin. He plays golf but complains of being tired.
Answer (Published 1/1/2008)
The spleen, located in the upper left of the abdomen under the rib cage, is part of the immune system. Its functions include storing old, damaged blood particles and helping identify and destroy bacteria.
Your son can live perfectly well without a spleen although he will be at higher than normal risk of contracting serious or even life-threatening infections. When the spleen is removed, patients need to be vaccinated against pneumococcal pneumonia, a bacterial infection of the lungs and other organs. Some doctors recommend vaccinations against other types of bacteria as well, and, in the case of children, may suggest long-term treatment with antibiotics to prevent bacterial infections of the bloodstream (sepsis). Long-term antibiotic use is usually not necessary in adults.
The most important strategy you can use to safeguard your son’s health is to make sure that he gets medical attention for even minor illnesses such as sore throat or sinus infections. Sometimes, antibiotics may be needed here as well.
The removal of his spleen is unlikely to be a factor in the fatigue your son is experiencing. Many teenagers complain constantly about being tired. Bear in mind that fatigue due to disease usually worsens as the day goes on while fatigue due to stress is often worse in the morning. If no underlying medical reason for his fatigue has been found, make sure that he is getting enough sleep (teens need about nine hours a night). Consider, too, whether your son might be depressed, also a leading cause of fatigue in adolescents and teens. If you suspect that he might be, ask his physician to recommend a psychologist or counselor.
You also could try giving him Eleutherococcus (Siberian ginseng), which, taken regularly, can help peopl |
rm antibiotic use is usually not necessary in adults.
The most important strategy you can use to safeguard your son’s health is to make sure that he gets medical attention for even minor illnesses such as sore throat or sinus infections. Sometimes, antibiotics may be needed here as well.
The removal of his spleen is unlikely to be a factor in the fatigue your son is experiencing. Many teenagers complain constantly about being tired. Bear in mind that fatigue due to disease usually worsens as the day goes on while fatigue due to stress is often worse in the morning. If no underlying medical reason for his fatigue has been found, make sure that he is getting enough sleep (teens need about nine hours a night). Consider, too, whether your son might be depressed, also a leading cause of fatigue in adolescents and teens. If you suspect that he might be, ask his physician to recommend a psychologist or counselor.
You also could try giving him Eleutherococcus (Siberian ginseng), which, taken regularly, can help people who are run down, weak, lack energy and resistance, or suffer from chronic illness. Look for Eleuthero products in herb and health-food stores, or combination products that include cordyceps and ashwagandha, two other herbs I recommend to address fatigue. They vary in concentration and potency, so follow the dosage recommendations of the manufacturer.
Andrew Weil, M.D.
Some Rights Reserved Creative Commons Copyright Notice
A portion of the original material created by Weil Lifestyle on DrWeil.com (specifically, all question and answer-type articles in the Dr. Weil Q&A Library) is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. |
e who are run down, weak, lack energy and resistance, or suffer from chronic illness. Look for Eleuthero products in herb and health-food stores, or combination products that include cordyceps and ashwagandha, two other herbs I recommend to address fatigue. They vary in concentration and potency, so follow the dosage recommendations of the manufacturer.
Andrew Weil, M.D.
Some Rights Reserved Creative Commons Copyright Notice
A portion of the original material created by Weil Lifestyle on DrWeil.com (specifically, all question and answer-type articles in the Dr. Weil Q&A Library) is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. |
by Xiaohong Wei
The Constitution of the United States of America, written well over 200 years ago, has been the foundation for building one of the great nations. It is the central instrument of American government and the supreme law of the land. For more than 200 years, it has guided the evolution of U.S. governmental institutions and has provided the basis for political stability, individual freedom, economic growth and social progress.
However, the birth of the Constitution is not accidental, but has complicated economic and political backgrounds. The period after the Revolutionary War was characterized by economic depression and political crisis on the grounds that the Articles of Confederation just devised a loose association among the states, and set up a central government with very limited powers. The central government could not get the dominant position in the country’s political life while the individual states could do things in their own ways. In this chaotic situation, the central government was incapable of paying its debt, of regulating foreign and domestic commerce, of maintaining a steady value of the currency, and worst of all, incapable of keeping a strong military force to protect the country’s interests from foreign violations. As time went by, the old system became more and more adverse to the development of the young nation, and political reform seemed to be inevitable. The best solution was to draw up a new constitution in place of the Articles of Confederation.
The Constitution was drawn up by 55 delegates of twelve states (all but Rhode Island) to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia during the summer of 1787 and ratified by the states in 1788. That distinguished gathering at Philadelphia’s Independence Hall brought together nearly all of the nation’s most prominent men, including George Washington, James Madison, Alexander Hamilton and Benjamin Franklin. Many were experienced in colonial and state government and others had records of service in the army and in the courts. As T |
incapable of paying its debt, of regulating foreign and domestic commerce, of maintaining a steady value of the currency, and worst of all, incapable of keeping a strong military force to protect the country’s interests from foreign violations. As time went by, the old system became more and more adverse to the development of the young nation, and political reform seemed to be inevitable. The best solution was to draw up a new constitution in place of the Articles of Confederation.
The Constitution was drawn up by 55 delegates of twelve states (all but Rhode Island) to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia during the summer of 1787 and ratified by the states in 1788. That distinguished gathering at Philadelphia’s Independence Hall brought together nearly all of the nation’s most prominent men, including George Washington, James Madison, Alexander Hamilton and Benjamin Franklin. Many were experienced in colonial and state government and others had records of service in the army and in the courts. As Thomas Jefferson wrote John Adams when he heard who had been appointed: “It is really an assembly of demigods.”
Despite the consensus among the framers on the objectives of the Constitution, the controversy over the means by which those objectives could be achieved was lively. However, most of the issues were settled by the framers’ efforts and compromises, thus the finished Constitution has been referred to as a “bundle of compromises”. It was only through give-and-take that a successful conclusion was achieved. Such efforts and compromises in the Constitutional Convention of 1787 produced the most enduring written Constitution ever created by humankinds. The men who were at Philadelphia that hot summer hammered out a document defining distinct powers for the Congress of the United States, the president, and the federal courts. This division of authority is known as a system of checks and balances, and it ensures that none of the branches of government can dominate the others. The Constitution also establishe |
homas Jefferson wrote John Adams when he heard who had been appointed: “It is really an assembly of demigods.”
Despite the consensus among the framers on the objectives of the Constitution, the controversy over the means by which those objectives could be achieved was lively. However, most of the issues were settled by the framers’ efforts and compromises, thus the finished Constitution has been referred to as a “bundle of compromises”. It was only through give-and-take that a successful conclusion was achieved. Such efforts and compromises in the Constitutional Convention of 1787 produced the most enduring written Constitution ever created by humankinds. The men who were at Philadelphia that hot summer hammered out a document defining distinct powers for the Congress of the United States, the president, and the federal courts. This division of authority is known as a system of checks and balances, and it ensures that none of the branches of government can dominate the others. The Constitution also establishes and limits the authority of the Federal Government over the states and emphasizes that power of the states will serve as a check on the power of the national government.
Separation of Powers in the Central Government
One important principle embodied in the U.S. Constitution is separation of powers. To prevent concentration of power, the U.S. Constitution divides the central government into three branches and creates a system of checks and balances. Each of the three governmental branches, legislative, executive and judicial, “checks” the powers of the other branches to make sure that the principal powers of the government are not concentrated in the hands of any single branch. The principle of separation of powers and the system of checks and balances perform essential functions and contribute to a stable political situation in the United States.
1. Theory of Separation of Powers
The principle of separation of powers dates back as far as Aristotle’s time. Aristotle favored a mixed government composed of mon |
s and limits the authority of the Federal Government over the states and emphasizes that power of the states will serve as a check on the power of the national government.
Separation of Powers in the Central Government
One important principle embodied in the U.S. Constitution is separation of powers. To prevent concentration of power, the U.S. Constitution divides the central government into three branches and creates a system of checks and balances. Each of the three governmental branches, legislative, executive and judicial, “checks” the powers of the other branches to make sure that the principal powers of the government are not concentrated in the hands of any single branch. The principle of separation of powers and the system of checks and balances perform essential functions and contribute to a stable political situation in the United States.
1. Theory of Separation of Powers
The principle of separation of powers dates back as far as Aristotle’s time. Aristotle favored a mixed government composed of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, seeing none as ideal, but a mix of the three useful by combining the best aspects of each. James Harrington, in his 1656 Oceana, brought these ideas up-to-date and proposed systems based on the separation of power.
Many of the framers of the U.S. Constitution, such as Madison, studied history and political philosophy. They greatly appreciated the idea of separation of power on the grounds of their complex views of governmental power. Their experience with the Articles of Confederation taught them that the national government must have the power needed to achieve the purposes for which it was to be established. At the same time, they were worried about the concentration of power in one person’s hands. As John Adams wrote in his A Defense of the Constitution of Government of the United States of America (1787), “It is undoubtedly honorable in any man, who has acquired a great influence, unbounded confidence, and unlimited power, to resign it voluntarily; and odious to take adv |
archy, aristocracy, and democracy, seeing none as ideal, but a mix of the three useful by combining the best aspects of each. James Harrington, in his 1656 Oceana, brought these ideas up-to-date and proposed systems based on the separation of power.
Many of the framers of the U.S. Constitution, such as Madison, studied history and political philosophy. They greatly appreciated the idea of separation of power on the grounds of their complex views of governmental power. Their experience with the Articles of Confederation taught them that the national government must have the power needed to achieve the purposes for which it was to be established. At the same time, they were worried about the concentration of power in one person’s hands. As John Adams wrote in his A Defense of the Constitution of Government of the United States of America (1787), “It is undoubtedly honorable in any man, who has acquired a great influence, unbounded confidence, and unlimited power, to resign it voluntarily; and odious to take advantage of such an opportunity to destroy a free government: but it would be madness in a legislator to frame his policy upon a supposition that such magnanimity would often appear. It is his business to contrive his plan in such a manner that such unlimited influence, confidence, and power, shall never be obtained by any man.” (Isaak 2004:100) Such worries compelled the framers to find a good way to establish a new government, thus separation of powers and a balanced government became a good choice.
Two political theorists had great influence on the creation of the Constitution. John Locke, an important British political philosopher, had a large impact through his Second Treatise of Government (1690). Locke argued that sovereignty resides in individuals, not rulers. A political state, he theorized, emerged from a social contract among the people, who consent to government in order to preserve their lives, liberties, and property. In the words of the Declaration of Independence, which also drew heavily on Lock |
antage of such an opportunity to destroy a free government: but it would be madness in a legislator to frame his policy upon a supposition that such magnanimity would often appear. It is his business to contrive his plan in such a manner that such unlimited influence, confidence, and power, shall never be obtained by any man.” (Isaak 2004:100) Such worries compelled the framers to find a good way to establish a new government, thus separation of powers and a balanced government became a good choice.
Two political theorists had great influence on the creation of the Constitution. John Locke, an important British political philosopher, had a large impact through his Second Treatise of Government (1690). Locke argued that sovereignty resides in individuals, not rulers. A political state, he theorized, emerged from a social contract among the people, who consent to government in order to preserve their lives, liberties, and property. In the words of the Declaration of Independence, which also drew heavily on Locke, governments derive “their just powers from the consent of the governed.” Locke also pioneered the idea of the separation of powers, and he separated the powers into an executive and a legislature. The French political philosopher Baron de Montesquieu, another major intellectual influence on the Constitution, further developed the concept of separation of powers in his treatise The Spirit of the Laws (1748), which was highly regarded by the framers of the U.S. Constitution. Montesquieu’s basic contention was that those entrusted with power tend to abuse it; therefore, if governmental power is fragmented, each power will operate as a check on the others. In its usual operational form, one branch of government (the legislative) is entrusted with making laws, a second (the executive) with executing them, and a third (the judiciary) with resolving disputes in accordance with the law.
Based on the theory of Baron de Montesquieu and John Locke, the framers carefully spelled out the independence of the three branc |
e, governments derive “their just powers from the consent of the governed.” Locke also pioneered the idea of the separation of powers, and he separated the powers into an executive and a legislature. The French political philosopher Baron de Montesquieu, another major intellectual influence on the Constitution, further developed the concept of separation of powers in his treatise The Spirit of the Laws (1748), which was highly regarded by the framers of the U.S. Constitution. Montesquieu’s basic contention was that those entrusted with power tend to abuse it; therefore, if governmental power is fragmented, each power will operate as a check on the others. In its usual operational form, one branch of government (the legislative) is entrusted with making laws, a second (the executive) with executing them, and a third (the judiciary) with resolving disputes in accordance with the law.
Based on the theory of Baron de Montesquieu and John Locke, the framers carefully spelled out the independence of the three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial. At the same time, however, they provided for a system in which some powers should be shared: Congress may pass laws, but the president can veto them; the president nominates certain public officials, but Congress must approve the appointments; and laws passed by Congress as well as executive actions are subject to judicial review. Thus the separation of powers is offset by what are called checks and balances.
2. Separation of Powers among Three Governmental Branches
Separation of powers devised by the framers of the U.S. Constitution serves the goals: to prevent concentration of power and provide each branch with weapons to fight off encroachment by the other two branches. As James Madison argued in the Federalist Papers (No.51), “Ambition must be made to counteract ambition.” Clearly, the system of separated powers is not designed to maximize efficiency; it is designed to maximize freedom. In the Constitution of the United States, the Legislative, comp |
hes of government: executive, legislative, and judicial. At the same time, however, they provided for a system in which some powers should be shared: Congress may pass laws, but the president can veto them; the president nominates certain public officials, but Congress must approve the appointments; and laws passed by Congress as well as executive actions are subject to judicial review. Thus the separation of powers is offset by what are called checks and balances.
2. Separation of Powers among Three Governmental Branches
Separation of powers devised by the framers of the U.S. Constitution serves the goals: to prevent concentration of power and provide each branch with weapons to fight off encroachment by the other two branches. As James Madison argued in the Federalist Papers (No.51), “Ambition must be made to counteract ambition.” Clearly, the system of separated powers is not designed to maximize efficiency; it is designed to maximize freedom. In the Constitution of the United States, the Legislative, composed of the House and Senate, is set up in Article 1; the Executive, composed of the President, Vice-President, and the Departments, is set up in Article 2; the Judicial, composed of the federal courts and the Supreme Court, is set up in Article 3. Each of these branches has certain powers, and each of these powers is limited.
The First Article of the U.S. Constitution says, “All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.” These words clearly define the most important power of Congress: to legislate for the United States. At the same time, the framers granted some specific powers to Congress. Congress has the power to impeach both executive officials and judges. The Senate tries all impeachments. Besides, Congress can override a Presidential veto. Congress may also influence the composition of the judicial branch. It may establish courts inferior to the Supreme Court and set their jurisdiction. Furthermore |
osed of the House and Senate, is set up in Article 1; the Executive, composed of the President, Vice-President, and the Departments, is set up in Article 2; the Judicial, composed of the federal courts and the Supreme Court, is set up in Article 3. Each of these branches has certain powers, and each of these powers is limited.
The First Article of the U.S. Constitution says, “All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.” These words clearly define the most important power of Congress: to legislate for the United States. At the same time, the framers granted some specific powers to Congress. Congress has the power to impeach both executive officials and judges. The Senate tries all impeachments. Besides, Congress can override a Presidential veto. Congress may also influence the composition of the judicial branch. It may establish courts inferior to the Supreme Court and set their jurisdiction. Furthermore, Congress regulates the size of the courts. Judges are appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. The compensation of executive officials and judges is determined by Congress, but Congress may not increase or diminish the compensation of a President, or diminish the compensation of a judge, during his term in office. Congress determines its own members’ emoluments as well. In short, the main powers of the Legislature include: Legislating all federal laws; establishing all lower federal courts; being able to override a Presidential veto; being able to impeach the President as well as other executive officials.
Executive power is vested in the President by the U.S. Constitution in Article 2. The principal responsibility of the President is to ensure that all laws are faithfully carried out. The President is the chief executive officer of the federal government. He is the leader of the executive branch and the commander in chief of the armed forces. He has the power to make treaties w |
, Congress regulates the size of the courts. Judges are appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate. The compensation of executive officials and judges is determined by Congress, but Congress may not increase or diminish the compensation of a President, or diminish the compensation of a judge, during his term in office. Congress determines its own members’ emoluments as well. In short, the main powers of the Legislature include: Legislating all federal laws; establishing all lower federal courts; being able to override a Presidential veto; being able to impeach the President as well as other executive officials.
Executive power is vested in the President by the U.S. Constitution in Article 2. The principal responsibility of the President is to ensure that all laws are faithfully carried out. The President is the chief executive officer of the federal government. He is the leader of the executive branch and the commander in chief of the armed forces. He has the power to make treaties with other nations, with the advice and consent of two-thirds of the Senate. The President also appoints, with Senate consent, diplomatic representatives, Supreme Court judges, and many other officials. Except impeachment, he also has the power to issue pardons and reprieves. Such pardons are not subject to confirmation by either house of Congress, or even to acceptance by the recipient. Another important power granted to the President is veto power over all bills, but Congress, as noted above, may override any veto except for a pocket veto by a two-thirds majority in each house. When the two houses of Congress cannot agree on a date for adjournment, the President may settle the dispute. Either house or both houses may be called into emergency session by the President.
The judicial power—the power to decide cases and controversies—is vested in the Supreme Court and inferior court established by Congress. The following are the powers of the Judiciary: the power to try federal cases and interpret the laws of the |
ith other nations, with the advice and consent of two-thirds of the Senate. The President also appoints, with Senate consent, diplomatic representatives, Supreme Court judges, and many other officials. Except impeachment, he also has the power to issue pardons and reprieves. Such pardons are not subject to confirmation by either house of Congress, or even to acceptance by the recipient. Another important power granted to the President is veto power over all bills, but Congress, as noted above, may override any veto except for a pocket veto by a two-thirds majority in each house. When the two houses of Congress cannot agree on a date for adjournment, the President may settle the dispute. Either house or both houses may be called into emergency session by the President.
The judicial power—the power to decide cases and controversies—is vested in the Supreme Court and inferior court established by Congress. The following are the powers of the Judiciary: the power to try federal cases and interpret the laws of the nation in those cases; the power to declare any law or executive act unconstitutional. The power granted to the courts to determine whether legislation is consistent with the Constitution is called judicial review. The concept of judicial review is not written into the Constitution, but was envisioned by many of the framers. The Supreme Court established a precedent for judicial review in Marbury v. Madison. The precedent established the principle that a court may strike down a law it deems unconstitutional.
3. Checks and Balances
The framers of the U.S. Constitution saw checks and balances as essential for the security of liberty under the Constitution. They believed that by balancing the powers of the three governmental branches, the efforts in human nature toward tyranny could be checked and restrained. John Adams praised the balanced government as the “most stupendous fabric of human invention.” In his A Defense of the Constitution of Government of the United States of America (1787), he wrote, “In the m |
nation in those cases; the power to declare any law or executive act unconstitutional. The power granted to the courts to determine whether legislation is consistent with the Constitution is called judicial review. The concept of judicial review is not written into the Constitution, but was envisioned by many of the framers. The Supreme Court established a precedent for judicial review in Marbury v. Madison. The precedent established the principle that a court may strike down a law it deems unconstitutional.
3. Checks and Balances
The framers of the U.S. Constitution saw checks and balances as essential for the security of liberty under the Constitution. They believed that by balancing the powers of the three governmental branches, the efforts in human nature toward tyranny could be checked and restrained. John Adams praised the balanced government as the “most stupendous fabric of human invention.” In his A Defense of the Constitution of Government of the United States of America (1787), he wrote, “In the mixed government we contend for, the ministers, at least of the executive power, are responsible for every instance of the exercise of it; and if they dispose of a single commission by corruption, they are responsible to a house of representatives, who may, by impeachment, make them responsible before a senate, where they may be accused, tried, condemned, and punished, by independent judges.” (Isaak 2004:103-104) So the system of checks and balances was established and became an important part of the U.S. Constitution. With checks and balances, each of the three branches of government can limit the powers of the others. This way, no one branch is too powerful. Each branch “checks” the powers of the other branches to make sure that the power is balanced between them. The major checks possessed by each branch are listed below.
- Can check the president in these ways:
- By refusing to pass a bill the president wants
- By passing a law over the president’s veto
- By using the impeachment powers to remove the presi |
ixed government we contend for, the ministers, at least of the executive power, are responsible for every instance of the exercise of it; and if they dispose of a single commission by corruption, they are responsible to a house of representatives, who may, by impeachment, make them responsible before a senate, where they may be accused, tried, condemned, and punished, by independent judges.” (Isaak 2004:103-104) So the system of checks and balances was established and became an important part of the U.S. Constitution. With checks and balances, each of the three branches of government can limit the powers of the others. This way, no one branch is too powerful. Each branch “checks” the powers of the other branches to make sure that the power is balanced between them. The major checks possessed by each branch are listed below.
- Can check the president in these ways:
- By refusing to pass a bill the president wants
- By passing a law over the president’s veto
- By using the impeachment powers to remove the president from office
- By refusing to approve a presidential appointment (Senate only)
- By refusing to ratify a treaty the president has signed (Senate only)
- Can check the federal courts in these ways:
- By changing the number and jurisdiction of the lower courts
- By using the impeachment powers to remove a judge from office
- By refusing to approve a person nominated to be a judge (Senate only)
- Can check Congress by vetoing a bill it has passed
- Can check the federal courts by nominating judges
- Can check Congress by declaring a law unconstitutional
- Can check the president by declaring actions by him or his subordinates to be unconstitutional or not authorized by law
By distributing the essential powers of the government among three separate but interdependent branches, the Constitutional framers ensured that the principal powers of the government, legislative, executive and judicial, were not concentrated in the hands of any single branch. Allocating governmental authority among three separate branche |
dent from office
- By refusing to approve a presidential appointment (Senate only)
- By refusing to ratify a treaty the president has signed (Senate only)
- Can check the federal courts in these ways:
- By changing the number and jurisdiction of the lower courts
- By using the impeachment powers to remove a judge from office
- By refusing to approve a person nominated to be a judge (Senate only)
- Can check Congress by vetoing a bill it has passed
- Can check the federal courts by nominating judges
- Can check Congress by declaring a law unconstitutional
- Can check the president by declaring actions by him or his subordinates to be unconstitutional or not authorized by law
By distributing the essential powers of the government among three separate but interdependent branches, the Constitutional framers ensured that the principal powers of the government, legislative, executive and judicial, were not concentrated in the hands of any single branch. Allocating governmental authority among three separate branches also prevented the formation of too strong a national government capable of overpowering the individual state governments. In order to modify the separation of powers, the framers created a best-known system—checks and balances. In this system, powers are shared among the three branches of government. At the same time, the powers of one branch can be challenged by another branch. As one of the basic doctrines in the U.S. Constitution, separation of powers and a system of checks and balances contribute to a stable political situation in the United States.
Separating Powers between the Federal Government and the States
As is mentioned above, the United States was in a chaotic state after the American Revolution. Under the Articles of Confederation, all of the thirteen states only had a kind of very loose connection. They were like thirteen independent countries, and could do things in their own ways. They had their own legal systems and constitutions, made their own economic, trade, tax and even monetary poli |
s also prevented the formation of too strong a national government capable of overpowering the individual state governments. In order to modify the separation of powers, the framers created a best-known system—checks and balances. In this system, powers are shared among the three branches of government. At the same time, the powers of one branch can be challenged by another branch. As one of the basic doctrines in the U.S. Constitution, separation of powers and a system of checks and balances contribute to a stable political situation in the United States.
Separating Powers between the Federal Government and the States
As is mentioned above, the United States was in a chaotic state after the American Revolution. Under the Articles of Confederation, all of the thirteen states only had a kind of very loose connection. They were like thirteen independent countries, and could do things in their own ways. They had their own legal systems and constitutions, made their own economic, trade, tax and even monetary policies, and seldom accepted any orders from the central government. Localism made the state congresses set barriers to goods from other states, thus trade between states could not develop. At the same time, the central government did not have any important powers to control the individual states well. As time went by, the old system became more and more adverse to the stability and development of this young country. Many Americans viewed a number of grave problems as arising from the weakness of the Confederation. They thought the Confederation was so weak that it was in danger of falling apart under either foreign or internal pressures. They appealed for reforming the governmental structure and establishing a stronger central government. This government should have some positive powers so that it could make and carry out policies to safeguard state sovereignty against foreign violations and to protect the people’s interests. This idea was embodied in the U.S. Constitution: The powers of the national government |
cies, and seldom accepted any orders from the central government. Localism made the state congresses set barriers to goods from other states, thus trade between states could not develop. At the same time, the central government did not have any important powers to control the individual states well. As time went by, the old system became more and more adverse to the stability and development of this young country. Many Americans viewed a number of grave problems as arising from the weakness of the Confederation. They thought the Confederation was so weak that it was in danger of falling apart under either foreign or internal pressures. They appealed for reforming the governmental structure and establishing a stronger central government. This government should have some positive powers so that it could make and carry out policies to safeguard state sovereignty against foreign violations and to protect the people’s interests. This idea was embodied in the U.S. Constitution: The powers of the national government and the states were divided. The central government was specifically granted certain important powers while the power of the state governments was limited, and there were certain powers that they shared.
All those powers granted to the Federal Government by the U.S. Constitution are enumerated principally as powers of Congress in Article I, Section 8. These powers can be classified as either economic or military. As is known to all, economic and military power are fundamental and essential to a government. Possessing such powers, the U.S. central government was capable of controlling the country well, thus keeping up a stable political situation and promoting the economic development.
Economic powers delegated to the Federal Government include the authority to levy taxes, borrow money, regulate commerce, coin money, and establish bankruptcy laws. In Article I, Section 8, the Constitution writes, “The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide |
and the states were divided. The central government was specifically granted certain important powers while the power of the state governments was limited, and there were certain powers that they shared.
All those powers granted to the Federal Government by the U.S. Constitution are enumerated principally as powers of Congress in Article I, Section 8. These powers can be classified as either economic or military. As is known to all, economic and military power are fundamental and essential to a government. Possessing such powers, the U.S. central government was capable of controlling the country well, thus keeping up a stable political situation and promoting the economic development.
Economic powers delegated to the Federal Government include the authority to levy taxes, borrow money, regulate commerce, coin money, and establish bankruptcy laws. In Article I, Section 8, the Constitution writes, “The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United State; …to borrow money on the credit of the United States; to regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes; to establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; to coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures.” According to this stipulation, the Federal Government has gathered the most important economic power into its own hands: with the right to collect taxes directly, the Federal Government could pay its debt and provide funds for the nation’s common defense and general welfare; with the right to issue uniform currency and to determine the value of foreign currencies, the Federal Government could control the money supply and restrain inflation; with the right to regulate trade with foreign nations and among the states, the Federal Government became able to control th |
for the common defense and general welfare of the United State; …to borrow money on the credit of the United States; to regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes; to establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; to coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures.” According to this stipulation, the Federal Government has gathered the most important economic power into its own hands: with the right to collect taxes directly, the Federal Government could pay its debt and provide funds for the nation’s common defense and general welfare; with the right to issue uniform currency and to determine the value of foreign currencies, the Federal Government could control the money supply and restrain inflation; with the right to regulate trade with foreign nations and among the states, the Federal Government became able to control the economic situation of the country. The stipulation about commerce regulation won strongest support from big cities and centers of manufacturing industry and commerce, such as New York, Philadelphia and Boston, because they knew that the regulation of the central government would be quite helpful for the sale of their products. Alexander Hamilton, one of the most active representatives in the Constitutional Convention, pointed out that free trade in the whole nation was very profitable for any kind of business. For example, when the local market was weakened, the markets in other states and areas of the country would support the sale of the producers, thus their business could keep developing. Hamilton concluded that any farsighted businessman would see the power of the unity of the country, that they would find the unity of the whole nation would be much better than the separation of the thirteen states.
Power to Declare War
Certain military powers granted to the Federal Government involve declaring war, ra |
e economic situation of the country. The stipulation about commerce regulation won strongest support from big cities and centers of manufacturing industry and commerce, such as New York, Philadelphia and Boston, because they knew that the regulation of the central government would be quite helpful for the sale of their products. Alexander Hamilton, one of the most active representatives in the Constitutional Convention, pointed out that free trade in the whole nation was very profitable for any kind of business. For example, when the local market was weakened, the markets in other states and areas of the country would support the sale of the producers, thus their business could keep developing. Hamilton concluded that any farsighted businessman would see the power of the unity of the country, that they would find the unity of the whole nation would be much better than the separation of the thirteen states.
Power to Declare War
Certain military powers granted to the Federal Government involve declaring war, raising and supporting armies, regulating and maintaining navies, and calling forth the militia. In Article I, Section 8, the Constitution stipulates, “The Congress shall have power to declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water; to raise and support armies, …to provide and maintain a Navy; to make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces; to provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions; to provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia….” With these powers, the Federal Government can not only protect the land and provide guarantee for the development of the country, but also create conditions to invade other countries on the grounds that it has the power to declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal. The framers of the U.S. Constitution regarded the military power of the Federal Government as a tool to protect the domestic interests o |
ising and supporting armies, regulating and maintaining navies, and calling forth the militia. In Article I, Section 8, the Constitution stipulates, “The Congress shall have power to declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water; to raise and support armies, …to provide and maintain a Navy; to make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces; to provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions; to provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia….” With these powers, the Federal Government can not only protect the land and provide guarantee for the development of the country, but also create conditions to invade other countries on the grounds that it has the power to declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal. The framers of the U.S. Constitution regarded the military power of the Federal Government as a tool to protect the domestic interests of their country from foreign invasion. John Jay, one of the three writers of “The Federalist Papers” and the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, even said that when a country wanted to gain something, it would engage itself in a war. Most representatives in the Constitutional Convention had realized that when the United States broke up, it would easily become a sacrifice to its neighboring and enemy states. They saw that other countries still threatened the security of the United States. The Great Britain was unwilling to secede from America and kept military bases in the Northwest boundary of the United States. At the same time, France blockaded some important river mouths so that it could monopolize the market, and Spain also tried to blockade the Mississippi River. The European powers did not want the United States to develop into a powerful nation, or to share their market, neither in the United States itself nor abroad. The framers of the U.S. Constitution fully realized that a strong navy and land |
f their country from foreign invasion. John Jay, one of the three writers of “The Federalist Papers” and the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, even said that when a country wanted to gain something, it would engage itself in a war. Most representatives in the Constitutional Convention had realized that when the United States broke up, it would easily become a sacrifice to its neighboring and enemy states. They saw that other countries still threatened the security of the United States. The Great Britain was unwilling to secede from America and kept military bases in the Northwest boundary of the United States. At the same time, France blockaded some important river mouths so that it could monopolize the market, and Spain also tried to blockade the Mississippi River. The European powers did not want the United States to develop into a powerful nation, or to share their market, neither in the United States itself nor abroad. The framers of the U.S. Constitution fully realized that a strong navy and land force could become not only a tool to protect the interests of the United States, but also a tool to force other countries to open their markets. A strong army would definitely make the European countries respect their country.
Apart from the foreign troubles, the leaders of the United States had also seen the serious influences of clashes between different classes. They believed that in time of trouble, a strong army would be decisive. Of course, they would not ignore the danger of such domestic rebellions as Shays’ Rebellion. When talking about the danger of rebellions, James Madison said, “I have noticed a kind of unhappy people scattered in some states. They degrade under the human standard when the political situation remains steady; but when the society is in chaos, they would provide their fellow people with a great force.” (Smith 1986:194) So the rulers of the country needed a strong army to suppress the revolt of these “unhappy people”, and to maintain a stable domestic political situation.
The U.S. |
force could become not only a tool to protect the interests of the United States, but also a tool to force other countries to open their markets. A strong army would definitely make the European countries respect their country.
Apart from the foreign troubles, the leaders of the United States had also seen the serious influences of clashes between different classes. They believed that in time of trouble, a strong army would be decisive. Of course, they would not ignore the danger of such domestic rebellions as Shays’ Rebellion. When talking about the danger of rebellions, James Madison said, “I have noticed a kind of unhappy people scattered in some states. They degrade under the human standard when the political situation remains steady; but when the society is in chaos, they would provide their fellow people with a great force.” (Smith 1986:194) So the rulers of the country needed a strong army to suppress the revolt of these “unhappy people”, and to maintain a stable domestic political situation.
The U.S. Constitution grants so many specific powers to the Federal Government, at the same time, lists a rather large number of things that the Federal Government is not allowed to do. Evidently, the framers were afraid that too strong a central government would easily bring about autocracy. In order to restrict the authority of the central government, the framers wanted to make it clear in the Constitution that certain powers were emphatically denied to the Federal Government. Restrictions of the powers of the Federal Government are listed below:
- No exercise of powers not delegated to it by the Constitution.
- No payment from the Treasury except under appropriations made by law.
- All duties and excises must be uniform throughout the United States.
- No tax or duty to be laid on articles exported from any state.
- No appointment of a senator or representative to any civil office which was created while he was a member of Congress or for which the amount of compensation was increased during that period.
- No prefe |
Constitution grants so many specific powers to the Federal Government, at the same time, lists a rather large number of things that the Federal Government is not allowed to do. Evidently, the framers were afraid that too strong a central government would easily bring about autocracy. In order to restrict the authority of the central government, the framers wanted to make it clear in the Constitution that certain powers were emphatically denied to the Federal Government. Restrictions of the powers of the Federal Government are listed below:
- No exercise of powers not delegated to it by the Constitution.
- No payment from the Treasury except under appropriations made by law.
- All duties and excises must be uniform throughout the United States.
- No tax or duty to be laid on articles exported from any state.
- No appointment of a senator or representative to any civil office which was created while he was a member of Congress or for which the amount of compensation was increased during that period.
- No preferences to the ports of one state over another in regulation or tax collection.
- No titles of nobility to be granted by the U.S. government, or permitted to be granted to government officials by foreign states.
- No bill of attainder or ex post facto law to be passed.
When the Constitution granted the Federal Government certain powers, the framers also considered reducing the power of the state governments, so that the central government could force the states to take unified steps if necessary. In Article I, Section 10, the Constitution stipulates, “No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment or debts….No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws…. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep tr |
rences to the ports of one state over another in regulation or tax collection.
- No titles of nobility to be granted by the U.S. government, or permitted to be granted to government officials by foreign states.
- No bill of attainder or ex post facto law to be passed.
When the Constitution granted the Federal Government certain powers, the framers also considered reducing the power of the state governments, so that the central government could force the states to take unified steps if necessary. In Article I, Section 10, the Constitution stipulates, “No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make any thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment or debts….No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws…. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war….” According to this clause, the states were deprived of the power to issue currency, to levy taxes freely, to keep troops in time of peace, to make a compact of agreement with another state of the U.S., or with a foreign state, and to engage in war. With the prohibition of the states from issuing currency, the United States could now avoid inflation and depreciation of currency caused by unregulated money supply. With the restriction of the states from levying taxes freely, the obstacles of the commerce were removed. Now the state congresses did not have the power to collect heavy taxes freely on goods from other states any more, thus the commerce in the United States began to thrive. With the prohibition of the states from keeping troops in time of peace and engaging in war, the territorial integrity of the United States could be guarded, and the Union could be maintained |
oops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war….” According to this clause, the states were deprived of the power to issue currency, to levy taxes freely, to keep troops in time of peace, to make a compact of agreement with another state of the U.S., or with a foreign state, and to engage in war. With the prohibition of the states from issuing currency, the United States could now avoid inflation and depreciation of currency caused by unregulated money supply. With the restriction of the states from levying taxes freely, the obstacles of the commerce were removed. Now the state congresses did not have the power to collect heavy taxes freely on goods from other states any more, thus the commerce in the United States began to thrive. With the prohibition of the states from keeping troops in time of peace and engaging in war, the territorial integrity of the United States could be guarded, and the Union could be maintained. As the power of the state governments was limited, people’s confidence in their central government was greatly strengthened. The society of the United States was being led onto a right path of development.
Although the power is restricted, the states still possess some necessary powers and exercise important functions in the United States. The Tenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution indicates that the states possess those powers that are not given to the Federal Government or prohibited to the states. The Tenth Amendment stipulates, “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.” State powers then are called reserved powers. Reserved powers are interpreted as the right to establish schools and supervise education, regulate intrastate commerce, conduct elections, establish local government units, and borrow money. In addition, a broad and generally undefined “police power” enables the states t |
. As the power of the state governments was limited, people’s confidence in their central government was greatly strengthened. The society of the United States was being led onto a right path of development.
Although the power is restricted, the states still possess some necessary powers and exercise important functions in the United States. The Tenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution indicates that the states possess those powers that are not given to the Federal Government or prohibited to the states. The Tenth Amendment stipulates, “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.” State powers then are called reserved powers. Reserved powers are interpreted as the right to establish schools and supervise education, regulate intrastate commerce, conduct elections, establish local government units, and borrow money. In addition, a broad and generally undefined “police power” enables the states to take action to protect and promote the health, safety, morals, and general welfare of their inhabitants. All of these are functions that directly affect Americans every day and in every part of their lives.
There are still some powers that both the national and state governments can exercise. They are called concurrent powers, which include the power to tax and borrow money, to take property for public purposes, to enact bankruptcy laws, and to establish laws and courts.
Thus in the course of the U.S. Constitutional Legislation, a federal system was created by separating power between two levels of government, state and national. According to the Constitution, the Federal Government was granted certain powers, the states were given certain powers and there were certain powers that they shared. In order to overcome a series of domestic crises and keep a stable political situation, a strong central government was created. This central government was granted certain important powers while the power of the stat |
o take action to protect and promote the health, safety, morals, and general welfare of their inhabitants. All of these are functions that directly affect Americans every day and in every part of their lives.
There are still some powers that both the national and state governments can exercise. They are called concurrent powers, which include the power to tax and borrow money, to take property for public purposes, to enact bankruptcy laws, and to establish laws and courts.
Thus in the course of the U.S. Constitutional Legislation, a federal system was created by separating power between two levels of government, state and national. According to the Constitution, the Federal Government was granted certain powers, the states were given certain powers and there were certain powers that they shared. In order to overcome a series of domestic crises and keep a stable political situation, a strong central government was created. This central government was granted certain important powers while the power of the state governments was limited.
The U.S. Constitution has remained in force because its framers successfully separated and balanced governmental powers to safeguard the interests of majority rule and minority rights, of liberty and equality, and of the central and state governments. For over two centuries it has provided the basis for development of the United States and a guarantee for the stability of the country.
- Bishop, Donald M. (1985). Living Documents of American History [C]. Beijing: Press and Cultural Section U.S. Embassy.
- Jay, John; Madison, James and Hamilton, Alexander (1979). THE FEDERALIST—A Comment On THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES [C]. New York: The Modern Library.
- Locke, John (1690). Second Treatise of Government [M]. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.
- Isaak, Robert (2004). American Political Thinking: Readings from the Origins to the 21st Century [C]. Beijing: Peking University Press.
- Smith, James Morton(1986). Jefferson and Madison [M]. New York: Penguin Books USA In |
e governments was limited.
The U.S. Constitution has remained in force because its framers successfully separated and balanced governmental powers to safeguard the interests of majority rule and minority rights, of liberty and equality, and of the central and state governments. For over two centuries it has provided the basis for development of the United States and a guarantee for the stability of the country.
- Bishop, Donald M. (1985). Living Documents of American History [C]. Beijing: Press and Cultural Section U.S. Embassy.
- Jay, John; Madison, James and Hamilton, Alexander (1979). THE FEDERALIST—A Comment On THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES [C]. New York: The Modern Library.
- Locke, John (1690). Second Treatise of Government [M]. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.
- Isaak, Robert (2004). American Political Thinking: Readings from the Origins to the 21st Century [C]. Beijing: Peking University Press.
- Smith, James Morton(1986). Jefferson and Madison [M]. New York: Penguin Books USA Inc..
About the Author
Xiaohong Wei is a full-time staff member at Sichuan Agricultural University, China, where she teaches English. She holds a B.A in English Language and Literature（Sichuan International Studies University, China）, and a M.A degree in Foreign Linguistics and Applied Linguistics (Sichuan University, China). For more than ten years, she has been working as a teacher at Sichuan Agricultural University. Her research interests include intercultural studies, transfer theory, as well as culture teaching and learning. She has been in charge of and fulfilled 3 scientific research projects , and participated in 6 national and provincial research projects. She has published two book chapters and more than 20 articles at academic journals, especially of some renowned universities in China.
Addressee: Xiaohong Wei
Xinkang Road 46#, Yucheng District
Department of Foreign Languages,
Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya’an, Sichuan, China
Post code: 625014 |
c..
About the Author
Xiaohong Wei is a full-time staff member at Sichuan Agricultural University, China, where she teaches English. She holds a B.A in English Language and Literature（Sichuan International Studies University, China）, and a M.A degree in Foreign Linguistics and Applied Linguistics (Sichuan University, China). For more than ten years, she has been working as a teacher at Sichuan Agricultural University. Her research interests include intercultural studies, transfer theory, as well as culture teaching and learning. She has been in charge of and fulfilled 3 scientific research projects , and participated in 6 national and provincial research projects. She has published two book chapters and more than 20 articles at academic journals, especially of some renowned universities in China.
Addressee: Xiaohong Wei
Xinkang Road 46#, Yucheng District
Department of Foreign Languages,
Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya’an, Sichuan, China
Post code: 625014 |
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The law, in its majestic equality, forbids the rich as well as the poor to sleep under bridges, to beg in the streets and steal bread. -Anatole FranceMulticultural education calls for all aspects of education to be continuously examined, critiqued, reconsidered, and transformed based on ideals of equity and social justice. This includes instructional technology and covers its content and delivery (or curriculum and pedagogy). That is, it is not enough to critically examine the individual resources--in this case, CD-ROMs, Web sites, or pieces of software--we use to ensure inclusivity. Instead, we must dig deeper and consider the medium itself and how it is being used differently in different contexts. What roles are various software titles, Web sites, and the computers that facilitate our use of them, playing in education? Are they contributing to education equity or supporting current systems of control and domination of those groups already historically privileged in the United States education system (such as White people, boys and men, first language English speakers, and able-bodied people)?
The term "digital divide" has traditionally described inequalities in access to computers and the Internet between groups of people based on one or more social or cultural identifiers. Under this conceptualization, researchers tend to compare rates of access to these technologies across individuals or schools based on race, sex, disability status, and other identity dimensions. The "divide" refers to the difference in access rates among groups. The racial digital divide, for example, describes the difference in rates of access to computers and the Internet, at home and school, between those racial groups with high rates of access (White people and Asian and Asian-American people) and those with lower rates of access (Black people and Latina(o) people). Similarly, the sex- or gender digital divide refers to the gap in access rates between men and women.
So, by the end of |
vileged in the United States education system (such as White people, boys and men, first language English speakers, and able-bodied people)?
The term "digital divide" has traditionally described inequalities in access to computers and the Internet between groups of people based on one or more social or cultural identifiers. Under this conceptualization, researchers tend to compare rates of access to these technologies across individuals or schools based on race, sex, disability status, and other identity dimensions. The "divide" refers to the difference in access rates among groups. The racial digital divide, for example, describes the difference in rates of access to computers and the Internet, at home and school, between those racial groups with high rates of access (White people and Asian and Asian-American people) and those with lower rates of access (Black people and Latina(o) people). Similarly, the sex- or gender digital divide refers to the gap in access rates between men and women.
So, by the end of 2000, when women surpassed men to become a majority of the United States online population, many people also believed the sex digital divide had disappeared. If there were more women than men using the Internet, the logic went, equality had been achieved. Girls and women were equally likely to use computers and the Internet as boys and men.
Still, though the fact that more girls and women were using the Internet is a meaningful step forward, a broader and deeper look at their position in relation to the increasingly techno-centric society and global economy, reveals that equality in access is considerably different from equity in opportunity. In fact, most of the sex and gender inequities in society and other media are replicated online. The ever-present and ever-growing Internet pornography industry, along with the threat of cyber-stalking and the relative ease with which potential sexual predators can attain personal information about women online, make the Internet a hostile--and potentially dangerous--env |
2000, when women surpassed men to become a majority of the United States online population, many people also believed the sex digital divide had disappeared. If there were more women than men using the Internet, the logic went, equality had been achieved. Girls and women were equally likely to use computers and the Internet as boys and men.
Still, though the fact that more girls and women were using the Internet is a meaningful step forward, a broader and deeper look at their position in relation to the increasingly techno-centric society and global economy, reveals that equality in access is considerably different from equity in opportunity. In fact, most of the sex and gender inequities in society and other media are replicated online. The ever-present and ever-growing Internet pornography industry, along with the threat of cyber-stalking and the relative ease with which potential sexual predators can attain personal information about women online, make the Internet a hostile--and potentially dangerous--environment for many girls and women. Equally hostile to women are academic and professional pursuits of mathematics, sciences, engineering, computer sciences--all traditionally male fields that are closely linked with computers and the Internet. Research shows how women and girls are systematically steered away from these fields beginning as early as elementary school through school culture, classroom climate, traditional gender roles, and other societal pressures. Additionally, video games, largely marketed for men and boys, often depict girls and women as damsels in distress or sideshow prostitutes. Even those games, such as Tomb Raider, that challenge these stereotypical roles by casting strong, independent, heroic female characters in lead roles dress these big-breasted women with impossibly-dimensioned bodies in tight, revealing clothes. Most video game makers are men and most video game consumers are boys and men. So, instead of critiquing this fact and considering why it is so, the producers bow to marke |
ironment for many girls and women. Equally hostile to women are academic and professional pursuits of mathematics, sciences, engineering, computer sciences--all traditionally male fields that are closely linked with computers and the Internet. Research shows how women and girls are systematically steered away from these fields beginning as early as elementary school through school culture, classroom climate, traditional gender roles, and other societal pressures. Additionally, video games, largely marketed for men and boys, often depict girls and women as damsels in distress or sideshow prostitutes. Even those games, such as Tomb Raider, that challenge these stereotypical roles by casting strong, independent, heroic female characters in lead roles dress these big-breasted women with impossibly-dimensioned bodies in tight, revealing clothes. Most video game makers are men and most video game consumers are boys and men. So, instead of critiquing this fact and considering why it is so, the producers bow to market pressures and recycle the industry sexism. Unfortunately, a majority of information technology professionals cite video games as their initial point of interest in the field.
As a result of these and other socio-political, socio-historical, and socio-cultural dynamics, during the same year that women became over 50 percent of the online population, only 7 percent of all Bachelor's-level engineering degrees were conferred to women and only 20 percent of all information technology professionals were women. So, while equality in access rates reflects an important step forward, it does not, by any useful measurement, signify the end of the sex digital divide. In fact, the glaring inequities that remain despite equality in Internet access illustrate the urgency for a deeper, broader understanding of the digital divide and a deeper, broader approach for eliminating it.
These remaining inequities, which mirror deeply entrenched and historically cycled inequities in professional, economic, and education opportuniti |
t pressures and recycle the industry sexism. Unfortunately, a majority of information technology professionals cite video games as their initial point of interest in the field.
As a result of these and other socio-political, socio-historical, and socio-cultural dynamics, during the same year that women became over 50 percent of the online population, only 7 percent of all Bachelor's-level engineering degrees were conferred to women and only 20 percent of all information technology professionals were women. So, while equality in access rates reflects an important step forward, it does not, by any useful measurement, signify the end of the sex digital divide. In fact, the glaring inequities that remain despite equality in Internet access illustrate the urgency for a deeper, broader understanding of the digital divide and a deeper, broader approach for eliminating it.
These remaining inequities, which mirror deeply entrenched and historically cycled inequities in professional, economic, and education opportunities for women in the U.S., together serve as a clear, powerful critique of the unidimensional approach most often employed for addressing the race and class digital divides: simply providing schools and communities with more computers and more, or faster, Internet access. Again, though this is a positive step forward, it fails to address social, cultural, and political factors that will be in place with or without more machinery. For example, research indicates that, while teachers in schools with a high percentage of White students and a low percentage of students on free or reduced lunch programs are more likely to use these technologies to engage students in creative and critical thinking activities, teachers in schools with a high percentage of Students of Color and a high percentage of students on free or reduced lunch tend to use computers and the Internet for a skills and drills approach to learning. Additionally, the growing online presence of African Americans and Latina(o)s is tempered by the growing |
es for women in the U.S., together serve as a clear, powerful critique of the unidimensional approach most often employed for addressing the race and class digital divides: simply providing schools and communities with more computers and more, or faster, Internet access. Again, though this is a positive step forward, it fails to address social, cultural, and political factors that will be in place with or without more machinery. For example, research indicates that, while teachers in schools with a high percentage of White students and a low percentage of students on free or reduced lunch programs are more likely to use these technologies to engage students in creative and critical thinking activities, teachers in schools with a high percentage of Students of Color and a high percentage of students on free or reduced lunch tend to use computers and the Internet for a skills and drills approach to learning. Additionally, the growing online presence of African Americans and Latina(o)s is tempered by the growing number of white supremacy Web sites and a more intense sense of fear and vulnerability among these groups (along with Native Americans) related to the availability of personal information online.
Ultimately, the traditional understanding of the digital divide as gaps in rates of physical access to computers and the Internet fails to capture the full picture of the divide, its stronghold, and its educational, social, cultural, and economic ramifications. Meanwhile, such a narrow conceptualization of the divide serves the interests of privileged groups who can continue to critique access rates instead of thinking critically and reflectively about their personal and collective roles in cycling and recycling old inequities in a new cyber-form.
A new understanding of the digital divide is needed--one that provides adequate context and begins with a dedication to equity and social justice throughout education. Multicultural education--a field that enters every discussion about education with this dedication--offer |
number of white supremacy Web sites and a more intense sense of fear and vulnerability among these groups (along with Native Americans) related to the availability of personal information online.
Ultimately, the traditional understanding of the digital divide as gaps in rates of physical access to computers and the Internet fails to capture the full picture of the divide, its stronghold, and its educational, social, cultural, and economic ramifications. Meanwhile, such a narrow conceptualization of the divide serves the interests of privileged groups who can continue to critique access rates instead of thinking critically and reflectively about their personal and collective roles in cycling and recycling old inequities in a new cyber-form.
A new understanding of the digital divide is needed--one that provides adequate context and begins with a dedication to equity and social justice throughout education. Multicultural education--a field that enters every discussion about education with this dedication--offers an important, desperately needed framework for such an understanding. It is from that framework that I have crafted the following statement about understanding and eliminating the digital divide.
A multicultural education approach to understanding and eliminating the digital divide:
As information technology becomes more and more interwoven with all aspects of life and well-being in the United States, it becomes equally urgent to employ the complexities and critiques of multicultural education theory and practice to the problem of the digital divide. It is the next--the present--equity issue in schools and larger society with enormous social justice implications. This reframing of the digital divide can serve as a starting point for more active participation in digital divide research and action within the field of multicultural education.
Additionally, this conceptual piece should challenge those currently studying or working to eliminate the divide in all contexts to broaden and deepen their understanding |
s an important, desperately needed framework for such an understanding. It is from that framework that I have crafted the following statement about understanding and eliminating the digital divide.
A multicultural education approach to understanding and eliminating the digital divide:
As information technology becomes more and more interwoven with all aspects of life and well-being in the United States, it becomes equally urgent to employ the complexities and critiques of multicultural education theory and practice to the problem of the digital divide. It is the next--the present--equity issue in schools and larger society with enormous social justice implications. This reframing of the digital divide can serve as a starting point for more active participation in digital divide research and action within the field of multicultural education.
Additionally, this conceptual piece should challenge those currently studying or working to eliminate the divide in all contexts to broaden and deepen their understandings of equity. It is crucial to recognize that the effort to eliminate the divide, while a clearly identifiable problem unto itself, must be understood as one part--albeit an immensely important one--of a larger effort toward eliminating the continuing and intensifying inequity in every aspect of education and society.
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s of equity. It is crucial to recognize that the effort to eliminate the divide, while a clearly identifiable problem unto itself, must be understood as one part--albeit an immensely important one--of a larger effort toward eliminating the continuing and intensifying inequity in every aspect of education and society.
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[Part 5 shows how to protect critical code and resources using semaphores, spin locks, and other techniques. It also explains how to synchronize interdependent tasks. Part 7 shows how to analyze scheduling behavior, and how to ensure tasks meet their deadlines.]
So far we've said that determinism was important for analysis of real-time systems. Now we're going to show you the analysis. In real-time systems, the process of verifying whether a schedule of task execution meets the imposed timing constraints is referred to as schedulability analysis. In the next three articles, we will review the two main categories of scheduling algorithms, static and dynamic. Then we will look at techniques to actually perform the analysis of systems to determine schedulability. Finally, we will describe some methods to minimize some of the common scheduling problems when using common scheduling algorithms.
Scheduling Policies in Real-Time Systems
There are several approaches to scheduling tasks in real-time systems. These fall into two general categories, fixed or static priority scheduling policies and dynamic priority scheduling policies.
Many commercial RTOSs today support fixed-priority scheduling policies. Fixed-priority scheduling algorithms do not modify a job's priority while the task is running. The task itself is allowed to modify its own priority for reasons that will become apparent later. This approach requires very little support code in the scheduler to implement this functionality. The scheduler is fast and predictable with this approach. The scheduling is mostly done offline (before the system runs). This requires the DSP system designer to know the task set a-priori (ahead of time) and is not suitable for tasks that are created dynamically during run time. The priority of the task set must be determined beforehand and cannot change when the system runs unless the task itself changes its own priority.
Dynamic scheduling algorithms allow a scheduler to modify a job's priority based on one of several scheduling algo |
into two general categories, fixed or static priority scheduling policies and dynamic priority scheduling policies.
Many commercial RTOSs today support fixed-priority scheduling policies. Fixed-priority scheduling algorithms do not modify a job's priority while the task is running. The task itself is allowed to modify its own priority for reasons that will become apparent later. This approach requires very little support code in the scheduler to implement this functionality. The scheduler is fast and predictable with this approach. The scheduling is mostly done offline (before the system runs). This requires the DSP system designer to know the task set a-priori (ahead of time) and is not suitable for tasks that are created dynamically during run time. The priority of the task set must be determined beforehand and cannot change when the system runs unless the task itself changes its own priority.
Dynamic scheduling algorithms allow a scheduler to modify a job's priority based on one of several scheduling algorithms or policies. This is a more complicated approach and requires more code in the scheduler to implement. This leads to more overhead in managing a task set in a DSP system because the scheduler must now spend more time dynamically sorting through the system task set and prioritizing tasks for execution based on the scheduling policy. This leads to nondeterminism, which is not favorable, especially for hard real-time systems. Dynamic scheduling algorithms are online scheduling algorithms. The scheduling policy is applied to the task set during the execution of the system. The active task set changes dynamically as the system runs. The priority of the tasks can also change dynamically.
Static Scheduling Policies
Examples of static scheduling policies are rate monotonic scheduling and deadline monotonic scheduling. Examples of dynamic scheduling policies are earliest deadline first and least slack scheduling.
Rate monotonic scheduling is an optimal fixed-priority policy where the higher the frequency (1/per |
rithms or policies. This is a more complicated approach and requires more code in the scheduler to implement. This leads to more overhead in managing a task set in a DSP system because the scheduler must now spend more time dynamically sorting through the system task set and prioritizing tasks for execution based on the scheduling policy. This leads to nondeterminism, which is not favorable, especially for hard real-time systems. Dynamic scheduling algorithms are online scheduling algorithms. The scheduling policy is applied to the task set during the execution of the system. The active task set changes dynamically as the system runs. The priority of the tasks can also change dynamically.
Static Scheduling Policies
Examples of static scheduling policies are rate monotonic scheduling and deadline monotonic scheduling. Examples of dynamic scheduling policies are earliest deadline first and least slack scheduling.
Rate monotonic scheduling is an optimal fixed-priority policy where the higher the frequency (1/period) of a task, the higher is its priority. This approach can be implemented in any operating system supporting the fixed-priority preemptive scheme, such as DSP/BIOS and VxWorks. Rate monotonic scheduling assumes that the deadline of a periodic task is the same as its period. Rate monotonic scheduling approaches are not new, being used by NASA, for example, on the Apollo space missions.
Deadline monotonic scheduling is a generalization of the Rate-Monotonic scheduling policy. In this approach, the deadline of a task is a fixed (relative) point in time from the beginning of the period. The shorter this (fixed) deadline, the higher the priority.
Dynamic Scheduling Policies
Dynamic scheduling algorithms can be broken into two main classes of algorithms. The first is referred to as a "dynamic planning based approach." This approach is very useful for systems that must dynamically accept new tasks into the system; for example a wireless base station that must accept new calls into the system at a some dynamic rat |
iod) of a task, the higher is its priority. This approach can be implemented in any operating system supporting the fixed-priority preemptive scheme, such as DSP/BIOS and VxWorks. Rate monotonic scheduling assumes that the deadline of a periodic task is the same as its period. Rate monotonic scheduling approaches are not new, being used by NASA, for example, on the Apollo space missions.
Deadline monotonic scheduling is a generalization of the Rate-Monotonic scheduling policy. In this approach, the deadline of a task is a fixed (relative) point in time from the beginning of the period. The shorter this (fixed) deadline, the higher the priority.
Dynamic Scheduling Policies
Dynamic scheduling algorithms can be broken into two main classes of algorithms. The first is referred to as a "dynamic planning based approach." This approach is very useful for systems that must dynamically accept new tasks into the system; for example a wireless base station that must accept new calls into the system at a some dynamic rate. This approach combines some of the flexibility of a dynamic approach and some of the predictability of a more static approach. After a task arrives, but before its execution begins, a check is made to determine whether a schedule can be created that can handle the new task as well as the currently executing tasks. Another approach, called the dynamic best effort apprach, uses the task deadlines to set the priorities. With this approach, a task could be pre-empted at any time during its execution. So, until the deadline arrives or the task finishes execution, we do not have a guarantee that a timing constraint can be met. Examples of dynamic best effort algorithms are Earliest Deadline First and Least Slack scheduling.
Earliest deadline first scheduling
Earliest deadline first scheduling is a dynamic priority preemptive policy. With this approach, the deadline of a task instance is the absolute point in time by which the instance must complete. The task deadline is computed when the instance is created. The |
e. This approach combines some of the flexibility of a dynamic approach and some of the predictability of a more static approach. After a task arrives, but before its execution begins, a check is made to determine whether a schedule can be created that can handle the new task as well as the currently executing tasks. Another approach, called the dynamic best effort apprach, uses the task deadlines to set the priorities. With this approach, a task could be pre-empted at any time during its execution. So, until the deadline arrives or the task finishes execution, we do not have a guarantee that a timing constraint can be met. Examples of dynamic best effort algorithms are Earliest Deadline First and Least Slack scheduling.
Earliest deadline first scheduling
Earliest deadline first scheduling is a dynamic priority preemptive policy. With this approach, the deadline of a task instance is the absolute point in time by which the instance must complete. The task deadline is computed when the instance is created. The operating system scheduler picks the task with the earliest deadline to run. A task with an earlier deadline preempts a task with a later deadline.
Least slack scheduling
Least slack scheduling is also a dynamic priority preemptive policy. The slack of a task instance is the absolute deadline minus the remaining execution time for the instance to complete. The OS scheduler picks the task with the shortest slack to run first. A task with a smaller slack preempts a task with a larger slack. This approach maximizes the minimum lateness of tasks.
Dynamic priority preemptive scheduling
In a dynamic scheduling approach such as dynamic priority preemptive scheduling, the priority of a task can change from instance to instance or within the execution of an instance. In this approach a higher priority task preempts a lower priority task. Very few commercial RTOS support such policies because this approach leads to systems that are hard to analyze for real-time and determinism properties. Thus, the analysis in the fol |
operating system scheduler picks the task with the earliest deadline to run. A task with an earlier deadline preempts a task with a later deadline.
Least slack scheduling
Least slack scheduling is also a dynamic priority preemptive policy. The slack of a task instance is the absolute deadline minus the remaining execution time for the instance to complete. The OS scheduler picks the task with the shortest slack to run first. A task with a smaller slack preempts a task with a larger slack. This approach maximizes the minimum lateness of tasks.
Dynamic priority preemptive scheduling
In a dynamic scheduling approach such as dynamic priority preemptive scheduling, the priority of a task can change from instance to instance or within the execution of an instance. In this approach a higher priority task preempts a lower priority task. Very few commercial RTOS support such policies because this approach leads to systems that are hard to analyze for real-time and determinism properties. Thus, the analysis in the following articles will focus instead on static scheduling policies.
Part 7 shows how to analyze scheduling behavior, and how to ensure tasks meet their deadlines.
Used with the permission of the publisher, Newnes/Elsevier, this series of eight articles is based on chapter eight of "DSP Software Development Techniques for Embedded and Real-Time Systems," by Robert Oshana. |
lowing articles will focus instead on static scheduling policies.
Part 7 shows how to analyze scheduling behavior, and how to ensure tasks meet their deadlines.
Used with the permission of the publisher, Newnes/Elsevier, this series of eight articles is based on chapter eight of "DSP Software Development Techniques for Embedded and Real-Time Systems," by Robert Oshana. |
Most people understand that we can become addicted to substances like alcohol or drugs. But they may not realize that we can also become addicted to behaviors.
Physical dependence is the cornerstone to the compulsive use of drugs and alcohol. However, behavioral addictions can be just as devastating to the individual. Behavioral addictions are sometimes overlooked because the activities involved are enjoyed responsibly by many people. Gambling, eating, exercising, having sex, playing video games, and shopping are just a few examples of common, everyday activities that can and do become obsessive addictions for those who suffer from a behavioral addiction.
Someone with a behavioral addiction engages in an activity in a way has negative consequences on their lives.
Similar to a chemical addiction, behavioral addictions are engaged in compulsively, obsessively, and with the intent to change the way the person feels. An example of this may be a food addicted individual who eats even when they are not hungry as a way to alleviate anxiety. Someone addicted to gambling will not stop even after they have depleted all their resources, including the car, the house, and the kids’ college fund. Although it may be argued that many people say “overeat” and “lose money gambling” without being addicted, here’s the difference: Someone who is addicted is unable to stop the behavior despite the negative consequences.
An addicted individual’s “willpower” is non-existent in regards to their addictive behavior. Even when health problems, financial problems, legal problems, and other problems arise, the person cannot stop the behavior. Just as with substance addiction, behavioral addiction can treated in a residential or outpatient setting that provides therapy, education, and support.
Contact us today if you or your loved one are ready to reach out for help. We can start you on the road to recovery. |
Search Engine Optimization – What Is SEO?
The act of optimizing a webpage and/or website to perform well in the search engines defines Search Engine Optimization (SEO). Search engine placement practices and SEO strategies seek to improve the number and quality of visitors to a website from pages of organic search results. The position where your website ranks on search engines is essential to directing more qualified traffic.
If search engines cannot locate your website, you miss out on opportunities to connect with people who are actively searching for your products and services. Regardless of your website goals, search engines are a key channel through which most traffic originates.
SEO is offered as a single service or as a component of an overall website promotion strategy. Search engine optimization includes changing the markup of the site, web design, improving site architecture, and usability. SEO’s utilize a range of various search engine optimization strategies in order to increase the visibility of websites. |
At some point in life, either through a personality test or just learning about the two types, you may have discovered if you lean more towards being “left-brained” or “right-brained”. Those who function more in the left side of their brain are logical, analytical, and think factually while those who function more on the right side of their brain are emotion centered and creative.
Most people talk as if they are only one or the other and don’t see themselves taking on traits of the opposite side. Or people might say something like “my emotional side responded that way” or “my logical side thought through this”. The truth is, we function most fully and in a healthy state when both sides of our brain are integrated and working together. This would look like our left and right brain working together to make sense of our lives.
When people show up for counseling with dis-integrated brains one of the first things we work through is letting their thoughts and feeling communicate with each other. This might look like someone who is highly emotional about their current situation bringing reason into the picture. We might think through things like “Why do you think that person acted that way?” “What are some behind the scenes reasons this may have happened?” Or “What is the probability that this situation will continue?” Adding reason and logic to the emotion helps bring perspective to the situation. It may also look like someone coming into session sharing all of the facts about a situation but still being confused about which decision to make next. They have analyzed all their options but nothing seems to stick out. Depending on if people are angry, sad, happy, etc. about their situation will call for a different response. When we know how we feel about a situation it gives us direction. Emotions and thoughts are both helpful to us and even more so if they are connected.
Some things to consider:
- Which side of your brain do you lean on most?
- How might you work on integrating your brain? How could you help your right |
e someone who is highly emotional about their current situation bringing reason into the picture. We might think through things like “Why do you think that person acted that way?” “What are some behind the scenes reasons this may have happened?” Or “What is the probability that this situation will continue?” Adding reason and logic to the emotion helps bring perspective to the situation. It may also look like someone coming into session sharing all of the facts about a situation but still being confused about which decision to make next. They have analyzed all their options but nothing seems to stick out. Depending on if people are angry, sad, happy, etc. about their situation will call for a different response. When we know how we feel about a situation it gives us direction. Emotions and thoughts are both helpful to us and even more so if they are connected.
Some things to consider:
- Which side of your brain do you lean on most?
- How might you work on integrating your brain? How could you help your right and left side to communicate? |
and left side to communicate? |
Performed in French with Estonian and English subtitles.
Spring Awakening is an adaptions of the play by the same title of the controversial German playwright Frank Wedekind. Frank Wedekind is one of the most daring dramatic spirits in Germany, who set out in quest of new truths. In Spring Awakening, his first major play, Frank Wedekind laid bare the shams of morality in reference to sexuality, especially attacking the ignorance surrounding the sex life of the child. He called his drama `the tragedy of childhood`, dedicating his work to parents and teachers. Even if Spring Awakening was written more than 100 years ago, for the Belgian director of the piece Armel Roussel, the core story of troubled teenage sexuality is as topical and intriguing as it was at the beginning of the last century. It is already the fourth time in his professional career that he has turned to Wedekind. |
Fish figures a lot in the Mediterranean diet. People following the Mediterranean diet plan are recommended to eat fish at least twice a week. Fresh or water-packed tuna, trout, salmon, herring, and mackerel are good choices. While fish are highly recommended, especially grilled fish, it is better to avoid eating fried fish and deep fried fish. You can eat fish that is sautéed in a small amount of olive oil, though.
There are a lot of healthy ways of preparing fish. Aside from good taste and the ease of preparation, one important consideration in cooking fish is how to make the most out of the nutritional benefits it gives to our body.
When on the Mediterranean diet, it’s not always easy to get hold of fresh fish all the time. It is always best to have fresh fish as the Mediterranean diet usually calls for fresh ingredients for most of its Mediterranean diet recipes. Canned fish, on the other hand, is easier to find. This is where the issue on whether canned fish can give you the nutritional benefits that fresh fish provides.
Canning is a very effective method of preserving fish. The processes in fish canning kills harmful bacteria and protects against the growth of various microorganisms. However, the high heat that is usually used when canning fish can rob you of vast amounts of nutrients that you enjoy consuming fresh fish. Many important vitamins and minerals are lost or are reduced in the canning process. Despite this, you can still benefit from the macronutrient nourishment and mineral supply you get from canned fish.
Here is a look at the difference in nutrient contents between fresh fish and canned fish:
Omega-3 Fatty Acids. Fish, especially those that are considered oily fish, are rich in omega-3 fatty acids than those in the white fish category. Some examples of oily fish are herring, trout, sardines, mackerel, and salmon.
Omega-3 fatty acids are famous for helping prevent cardiovascular diseased, improve blood flow, prevent extreme blood clotting, lower the amounts of lipids in the bloodstream, and redu |
h fish provides.
Canning is a very effective method of preserving fish. The processes in fish canning kills harmful bacteria and protects against the growth of various microorganisms. However, the high heat that is usually used when canning fish can rob you of vast amounts of nutrients that you enjoy consuming fresh fish. Many important vitamins and minerals are lost or are reduced in the canning process. Despite this, you can still benefit from the macronutrient nourishment and mineral supply you get from canned fish.
Here is a look at the difference in nutrient contents between fresh fish and canned fish:
Omega-3 Fatty Acids. Fish, especially those that are considered oily fish, are rich in omega-3 fatty acids than those in the white fish category. Some examples of oily fish are herring, trout, sardines, mackerel, and salmon.
Omega-3 fatty acids are famous for helping prevent cardiovascular diseased, improve blood flow, prevent extreme blood clotting, lower the amounts of lipids in the bloodstream, and reduce the risks of arrhythmia. It also said to boost immune function, help increase fertility, fight degenerative diseases, promote healthy skin, and improve mental health. Consuming the proper amount of omega-3 can also make you less vulnerable to various autoimmune disorders and inflammatory diseases and you will be less likely to have Alzheimer’s disease, asthma, and emotional or mental disorders like depression.
The amount of omega-3 found in canned fish is usually lower than that found in fresh fish. To get the most omega-3, look for canned fish from the oily fish category. Experts also agree that it is better to purchase canned fish packed in water rather than those packed in oil. This is because some of the natural fat found in tuna can mix with the oil and some of the omega-3 may come with the oil when you drain it from your canned tuna.
Carotenoids. Carotenoids can be found in various food stuff and they are also found in fish. The amount of carotenoids in canned fish is usually lower as compared to fre |
ce the risks of arrhythmia. It also said to boost immune function, help increase fertility, fight degenerative diseases, promote healthy skin, and improve mental health. Consuming the proper amount of omega-3 can also make you less vulnerable to various autoimmune disorders and inflammatory diseases and you will be less likely to have Alzheimer’s disease, asthma, and emotional or mental disorders like depression.
The amount of omega-3 found in canned fish is usually lower than that found in fresh fish. To get the most omega-3, look for canned fish from the oily fish category. Experts also agree that it is better to purchase canned fish packed in water rather than those packed in oil. This is because some of the natural fat found in tuna can mix with the oil and some of the omega-3 may come with the oil when you drain it from your canned tuna.
Carotenoids. Carotenoids can be found in various food stuff and they are also found in fish. The amount of carotenoids in canned fish is usually lower as compared to fresh fish because some are lost during the canning process. However, some carotenoids can also get lost when you cook fresh fish.
Carotenoids are antioxidants that protect cells from free radicals. They may also guard against certain types of cancer and fight heart disease by blocking the formation of LDL cholesterol.
B Vitamins. A number of B vitamins can be found in fish and this includes vitamins B1, B3, and B6. The amount of B vitamins in fresh fish is higher than those found in canned fish. The canning process is also said to be responsible with the loss of certain of amounts of B vitamins in canned fish.
Vitamin B1 or thiamine is needed to metabolize carbohydrate and for the release of energy from food. It is also said to help the nervous system and the heart to function well. Vitamin B3 or niacin needed for DNA repair and it helps boost energy. It is also said to help reverse the progression of atherosclerosis and lower cholesterol levels. Niacin is also said to be helpful for people who have diabetes be |
sh fish because some are lost during the canning process. However, some carotenoids can also get lost when you cook fresh fish.
Carotenoids are antioxidants that protect cells from free radicals. They may also guard against certain types of cancer and fight heart disease by blocking the formation of LDL cholesterol.
B Vitamins. A number of B vitamins can be found in fish and this includes vitamins B1, B3, and B6. The amount of B vitamins in fresh fish is higher than those found in canned fish. The canning process is also said to be responsible with the loss of certain of amounts of B vitamins in canned fish.
Vitamin B1 or thiamine is needed to metabolize carbohydrate and for the release of energy from food. It is also said to help the nervous system and the heart to function well. Vitamin B3 or niacin needed for DNA repair and it helps boost energy. It is also said to help reverse the progression of atherosclerosis and lower cholesterol levels. Niacin is also said to be helpful for people who have diabetes because it helps the stimulation of insulin secretion.
Vitamin B6 or pyridoxine is needed by the body to produce more than 60 enzymes needed by the immune system and other body systems to function well. It is also said to help prevent cancer, migraines, and kidney stones. Pyridoxine also has a diuretic effect by helping reduce water retention. It is also included in the treatment for arthritis and is said to help increase the body’s serotonin levels.
Calcium. If other nutrients usually found in fish are lost during the canning process, calcium stands as an exception. Canned fish, especially canned salmon, is said to have higher calcium concentration than its fresh variety. There are studies suggesting that the amount of calcium found in canned fish is about 10 to 20 times higher than what is found in fresh fish. Since fish is canned with its bones that are rich in calcium, the heating process involved in canning softens the bones so calcium is easily ingested with the meat of the fish.
Aside from playing a majo |
cause it helps the stimulation of insulin secretion.
Vitamin B6 or pyridoxine is needed by the body to produce more than 60 enzymes needed by the immune system and other body systems to function well. It is also said to help prevent cancer, migraines, and kidney stones. Pyridoxine also has a diuretic effect by helping reduce water retention. It is also included in the treatment for arthritis and is said to help increase the body’s serotonin levels.
Calcium. If other nutrients usually found in fish are lost during the canning process, calcium stands as an exception. Canned fish, especially canned salmon, is said to have higher calcium concentration than its fresh variety. There are studies suggesting that the amount of calcium found in canned fish is about 10 to 20 times higher than what is found in fresh fish. Since fish is canned with its bones that are rich in calcium, the heating process involved in canning softens the bones so calcium is easily ingested with the meat of the fish.
Aside from playing a major role in bone and tooth health, calcium is also important to heart rhythm, blood clotting, muscle function, nerve transmission, and cell membrane function. A little known function of calcium is it being a natural tranquilizer and a key in aiding metabolism. Calcium works synergistically with vitamin D for it to be absorbed and used for various bodily functions.
Aside from these, fish is also a good source of vitamins A, D, and K. Fish is also a good source of protein, magnesium, selenium, and potassium. The amount of these vitamins and minerals that can be found in fresh and canned fish may differ. However, it is important to remember that the loss of nutrients found in fresh fish is not brought about by canning alone. Nutrients are also lost in the process of cooking fresh fish, even if you cook your fresh fish the healthy way.
Since the two-fold heating process involved in canning can result to a significant loss in nutrients, there are fish canning companies that do away with the pre-treatment process to |
r role in bone and tooth health, calcium is also important to heart rhythm, blood clotting, muscle function, nerve transmission, and cell membrane function. A little known function of calcium is it being a natural tranquilizer and a key in aiding metabolism. Calcium works synergistically with vitamin D for it to be absorbed and used for various bodily functions.
Aside from these, fish is also a good source of vitamins A, D, and K. Fish is also a good source of protein, magnesium, selenium, and potassium. The amount of these vitamins and minerals that can be found in fresh and canned fish may differ. However, it is important to remember that the loss of nutrients found in fresh fish is not brought about by canning alone. Nutrients are also lost in the process of cooking fresh fish, even if you cook your fresh fish the healthy way.
Since the two-fold heating process involved in canning can result to a significant loss in nutrients, there are fish canning companies that do away with the pre-treatment process to lessen nutrient loss. These companies place the fish in its fresh and raw form into the can. It is said that lesser nutrient loss results when the cooking of the fish occurs in the sealed can. These companies that cook on in the can put emphasis on wild-caught fish and give focus on the environmental and health issues involved.
Moreover, there are now methods to replace the lost nutrients so that people can enjoy enhanced nutritional benefits from canned fish. One of these methods is through fortifying canned fish with a number of vitamins and minerals that the human body need to function well. Though there are still differences in the overall taste and texture between fresh fish and canned fish, this depends entirely on the palate of a person. Besides, since fresh fish is not that readily available, canned fish is still your most convenient, practical, and satisfactory option.
I hope you enjoyed today’s article – stay well, |
lessen nutrient loss. These companies place the fish in its fresh and raw form into the can. It is said that lesser nutrient loss results when the cooking of the fish occurs in the sealed can. These companies that cook on in the can put emphasis on wild-caught fish and give focus on the environmental and health issues involved.
Moreover, there are now methods to replace the lost nutrients so that people can enjoy enhanced nutritional benefits from canned fish. One of these methods is through fortifying canned fish with a number of vitamins and minerals that the human body need to function well. Though there are still differences in the overall taste and texture between fresh fish and canned fish, this depends entirely on the palate of a person. Besides, since fresh fish is not that readily available, canned fish is still your most convenient, practical, and satisfactory option.
I hope you enjoyed today’s article – stay well, |
How To Have Less Emf In Your Life
Emf protection is especially crucial for hypersensitive individuals; however, everyone could benefit from having less emf in their lives.
Scientists argue that an abundance of emf can damage the cells in your body and affect your central nervous system. High levels of emf radiation cause numerous symptoms throughout the body.
Exposure to high emf levels can be limited by using emf meters, emf protective clothing, and other protective measures.
Emf stands for electromagnetic fields. Electromagnetic fields occur when magnetic fields meet electric voltage – the higher the voltage and the greater the magnetic current, the higher the emf levels. Electromagnetic fields found in nature are responsible for guiding those who use compasses. However, human-made electromagnetic fields are increasing at an alarming rate.
Sources of EMFs include microwaves, cellphones, wi-fi routers, computers, cell towers, the list goes on. We are exposed to many of these sources of radiation daily. You may be wondering how it is even possible to protect yourself from something that is always surrounding us – no need to worry.
Keep reading to learn more about the effects of emf radiation and what you can do to have less emf present in your life.
Emf Radiation and The Symptoms to Watch Out For
There are two different kinds of emf exposure – low-level radiation and high-level radiation. Low-level radiation is caused by appliances and cell phones, while high-level radiation comes from ultraviolet rays and medical imaging machines. An important thing to keep in mind when trying to have less emf around you is to keep your distance! The further away you are from sources of emf radiation, the less intense the waves.
As mentioned above, there are countless symptoms linked to high exposure levels of emf. These include:
- Insomnia and other sleep disturbances
- Headaches and migraines
- Depression and depressive symptoms
- Tiredness and physical and mental fatigue
- Dysesthesia (a painful, itchy sensation)
- Lack of co |