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[ "Amazon rainforest The Amazon rainforest ( Portuguese : Floresta Amazônica or Amazônia ; Selva Amazónica , Amazonía or usually Amazonia ; Forêt amazonienne Amazoneregenwoud ) , also known in English as Amazonia or the Amazon Jungle , is a moist broadleaf forest in the Amazon biome that covers most of the Amazon basin of South America . This basin encompasses 7,000,000 km2 , of which 5,500,000 km2 are covered by the rainforest . This region includes territory belonging to nine nations . The majority of the forest is contained within Brazil , with 60 % of the rainforest , followed by Peru with 13 % , Colombia with 10 % , and with minor amounts in Venezuela , Ecuador , Bolivia , Guyana , Suriname and French Guiana . States or departments in four nations contain `` Amazonas '' in their names . The Amazon represents over half of the planet 's remaining rainforests , and comprises the largest and most biodiverse tract of tropical rainforest in the world , with an estimated 390 billion individual trees divided into 16,000 species .", "Tropical rainforest Tropical rainforests occur in areas of tropical rainforest climate in which there is no dry season -- all months have an average precipitation of at least 60 mm -- and may also be referred to as lowland equatorial evergreen rainforest . True rainforests are typically found between 10 degrees north and south of the equator ( see map ) ; they are a sub-set of the tropical forest biome that occurs roughly within the 28 degree latitudes ( in the equatorial zone between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn ) . Within the World Wildlife Fund 's biome classification , tropical rainforests are a type of tropical moist broadleaf forest ( or tropical wet forest ) that also includes the more extensive tropical seasonal forests .", "Amazon basin The Amazon basin is the part of South America drained by the Amazon River and its tributaries . The Amazon drainage basin covers an area of about 7,500,000 km2 , or roughly 40 percent of the South American continent . It is located in the countries of Bolivia , Brazil , Colombia , Ecuador , Guyana , Peru , Suriname and Venezuela . Most of the basin is covered by the Amazon Rainforest , also known as Amazonia . With a 5500000 km2 area of dense tropical forest , this is the largest rainforest in the world .", "Deforestation Deforestation , clearance or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use . Examples of deforestation include conversion of forestland to farms , ranches , or urban use . The most concentrated deforestation occurs in tropical rainforests . About 30 % of Earth 's land surface is covered by forests . Deforestation occurs for multiple reasons : trees are cut down to be used for building or sold as fuel , ( sometimes in the form of charcoal or timber ) , while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock and plantation . The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to habitat , biodiversity loss and aridity . It has adverse impacts on biosequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Deforestation has also been used in war to deprive the enemy of vital resources and cover for its forces . Modern examples of this were the use of Agent Orange by the British military in Malaya during the Malayan Emergency and the United States military in Vietnam during the Vietnam War . As of 2005 , net deforestation rates have ceased to increase in countries with a per capita GDP of at least US$ 4,600 . Deforested regions typically incur significant adverse soil erosion and frequently degrade into wasteland . Disregard of ascribed value , lax forest management and deficient environmental laws are some of the factors that allow deforestation to occur on a large scale . In many countries , deforestation , both naturally occurring and human-induced , is an ongoing issue . Deforestation causes extinction , changes to climatic conditions , desertification , and displacement of populations as observed by current conditions and in the past through the fossil record . More than half of all plant and land animal species in the world live in tropical forests . Between 2000 and 2012 , 2.3 e6sqkm of forests around the world were cut down . As a result of deforestation , only 6.2 e6km2 remain of the original 16 e6km2 of forest that formerly covered the Earth ." ]

[ "Peruvian Amazon The Peruvian Amazon ( Amazonía del Perú ) is the area of the Amazon rainforest included within the country of Peru , from east of the Andes to the borders with Ecuador , Colombia , Brazil and Bolivia . This region comprises 60 % of the country and is marked by a large degree of biodiversity . Peru has the second-largest portion of the Amazon rainforest after the Brazilian Amazon .", "Ectoedemia tabulosa Ectoedemia tabulosa is a moth of the Nepticulidae family . It is found in the lowland Amazon rainforest in Ecuador . The wingspan is about 5.6 mm for males . Adults have been collected in January .", "Alto Maués Ecological Station Alto Maués Ecological Station ( Estação Ecológica Alto Maués ) is an ecological station , a fully protected area , in the state of Amazonas , Brazil . It contains about 6,656 km2 of Amazon rainforest .", "Tres Fronteras Tres Fronteras ( Três Fronteiras ) is the Spanish name for an area of the Amazon Rainforest in the Upper Amazon region of South America .", "Amazonian Amazonian may refer to : Amazonian build , a female body shape Amazonian ( Mars ) , a geologic system and time period on the planet Mars Amazon River , in South America Amazon basin , that river 's drainage basin Amazon rainforest , rainforest covering most of the Amazon Basin relating to the Amazons in Greek mythology Amazonian , an employee of the company Amazon.com Amazonian , a fictional species in the Futurama episode `` Amazon Women in the Mood ''", "Lake Rimachi Lake Rimachi ( Lago Rimachi in Spanish ) is a lake in northern Peru in the Amazon Rainforest of about 300 hectare of extension . It is located on the western banks of Pastaza River , being its main inflow source the Chapuli River , and its main outflow the Rimachi River . The lands around the lake were home to the Murato people , who are now extinct .", "Acalyptris amazonius Acalyptris amazonius is a moth of the Nepticulidae family . It is found in lowland Amazon rainforest in Ecuador . The wingspan is 3.4-3 .5 mm for males and about 3.7 mm for females . Adults have been collected in January .", "Northern Amazon Ecological Corridor The Northern Amazon Ecological Corridor ( Corredor Norte da Amazônia ) is a proposed ecological corridor connecting conservation units and indigenous territories in the north of the Amazon rainforest of Brazil .", "South Amazon Ecological Corridor The South Amazon Ecological Corridor ( Corredor Sul da Amazônia ) is a proposed ecological corridor connecting conservation units and indigenous territories in the southeast of the Amazon rainforest of Brazil .", "Cyclophora difficilis Cyclophora difficilis is a moth in the family Geometridae . It is found in the Amazon rainforest .", "Amazon Souls Amazon Souls is a 2013 British documentary film directed , produced and presented by Sarah Begum . The film examines the impact of modernity on the culture of the Huaorani tribe in the Ecuadorian Amazon Rainforest .", "List of plants of the Amazon rainforest This is a list of plants found in the wild in Amazon Rainforest vegetation of Brazil . The estimates from useful plants suggested that there are 800 plant species of economic or social value in this forest , according to Giacometti ( 1990 ) . Additions are currently being made to this list . Flora definition Flora is the scientific word for plant .", "Amazon Region Protected Areas Program The Amazon Region Protected Areas Program ( ARPA ; Programa Áreas Protegidas da Amazônia ) is a joint initiative sponsored by government and non-government agencies to expand protection of the Amazon rainforest in Brazil .", "Euglossa bidentata Euglossa bidentata is a Euglossine bee species found in the Amazon rainforest .", "Wilson Pinheiro Wilson Pinheiro ( died in 1980 ) was the president of the Brasiléia Rural Workers Union in the State of Acre in Brazil . He helped lead the fight against ranchers who were destroying the Amazon Rainforest . Pinheiro was committed to defense of the Amazon and was assassinated on July 21 , 1980 . He was a colleague of Chico Mendes , the President of the Xapuri Rural Workers Union , who similarly lost his life defending the Amazon .", "Amazon natural region Amazonía region in southern Colombia comprises the departments of Amazonas , Caquetá , Guainía , Guaviare , Putumayo and Vaupés , and covers an area of 403,000 km ² , 35 % of Colombia 's total territory . The region is mostly covered by tropical rainforest , or jungle , which is a part of the massive Amazon rainforest .", "Amazonia (disambiguation) Amazonia refers to the Amazon rainforest . It may also refer to :", "Paracles juruana Paracles juruana is a moth of the Arctiidae family . It is found in Amazon rainforest of Brazil .", "Fauna of Nicaragua The fauna of Nicaragua is characterized by a very high level of biodiversity . Much of Nicaragua 's wildlife lives in protected areas . There are currently 78 protected areas in Nicaragua , covering more than 22000 km2 , or about 17 % of its landmass . These protected areas encompass a wide variety of habitats , including rainforests , lakes , mountains , and volcanoes throughout the country . For example , Bosawás Biosphere Reserve in state of Jinotega ( border with Honduras ) , covers 7300 km2 , making it the second largest rainforest in the Americas after the Amazon Rainforest in Brazil .", "Tupi people The Tupi people were one of the most important indigenous peoples in Brazil . Scholars believe they first settled in the Amazon rainforest , but 2900 years ago they started to spread southward and gradually occupied the Atlantic coast .", "Ucayali moist forests The Napo moist forests ( NT0174 ) is an ecoregion in the western Amazon rainforest of Peru .", "Amazon Theatre The Amazon Theatre is an opera house located in Manaus , in the heart of the Amazon rainforest in Brazil . It is the location of the annual Festival Amazonas de Ópera ( Amazonas Opera Festival ) and the home of the Amazonas Philharmonic Orchestra which regularly rehearses and performs at the Amazon Theater along with choirs , musical concerts and other performances .", "Paracles laboulbeni Paracles laboulbeni is a moth of the Arctiidae family . It is found in Surinam and Amazon rainforest .", "Atalaya Province Atalaya is the largest of four provinces in the Ucayali Region , in the central Amazon rainforest of Peru .", "Dysoptus fasciatus Dysoptus fasciatus is a species of moth in the Arrhenophanidae family . It probably has a wide distribution in the lowland Amazon rainforest . Currently it has been collected only at the type locality in southern Venezuela and possibly in Peru . The length of the forewings is about 4.1 mm for males and about 9.1 for females . Adults are on wing in early February .", "Ananteris pydanieli Ananteris pydanieli is a species of scorpion from the Brazilian Amazon rainforest . It is a member of the Buthidae family .", "Hypsiboas nympha Hypsiboas nympha is a species of frog in the family Hylidae . It is endemic to the Amazon Rainforest .", "Sinchi Amazonic Institute of Scientific Research The Sinchi Amazonic Institute of Scientific Research ( Instituto Amazónico de Investigaciones Científicas ) is a non-profit research institute of the Government of Colombia charged with carrying out scientific investigations on matters relating to the Amazon Rainforest , the Amazon River and the Amazon Region of Colombia for its better understanding and protection . The word sinchi , is a word in Quechua that means `` strong '' or `` fierce '' .", "Napo moist forests The Napo moist forests ( NT0142 ) is an ecoregion in the western Amazon rainforest of Colombia , Ecuador and Peru .", "Cryptocellus becki Cryptocellus becki is an arachnid species in the genus Cryptocellus . It can be found in the Amazon rainforest .", "M. africana M. africana may refer to : Malcolmia africana , the African mustard , a plant species Mirafra africana , the rufous-naped lark , a bird species Mustela africana , the Amazon weasel or Tropical Weasel , a weasel species found in the Amazon Rainforest in Brazil", "Eastern Amazon climbing mouse The eastern Amazon climbing mouse , Rhipidomys emiliae , is a rodent species from South America . It is endemic to central Brazil , where it is found in the eastern fringe of the Amazon rainforest , as well as in gallery forest and tropical dry forest within the cerrado ecoregion . It is often found in areas under cultivation ." ]

[ "Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) is NASA climatological experiment from Earth orbit . The CERES are scientific satellite instruments , part of the NASA 's Earth Observing System ( EOS ) , designed to measure both solar-reflected and Earth-emitted radiation from the top of the atmosphere ( TOA ) to the Earth 's surface . Cloud properties are determined using simultaneous measurements by other EOS instruments such as the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) . Results from the CERES and other NASA missions , such as the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment ( ERBE ) , could lead to a better understanding of the role of clouds and the energy cycle in global climate change .", "Cloud In meteorology , a cloud is an aerosol comprising a visible mass of minute liquid droplets , frozen crystals , or particles suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of a planetary body . The droplets and crystals may be made of water or various chemicals . On Earth , clouds are formed as a result of saturation of the air when it is cooled to its dew point , or when it gains sufficient moisture ( usually in the form of water vapor ) from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the ambient temperature . They are seen in the Earth 's homosphere ( which includes the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere ) . Nephology is the science of clouds which is undertaken in the cloud physics branch of meteorology . There are two systems of naming clouds in their respective layers of the atmosphere ; Latin in the troposphere and mostly alpha-numeric above the troposphere . Cloud types in the troposphere , the atmospheric layer closest to Earth 's surface , have Latin names due to the universal adaptation of Luke Howard 's nomenclature . Formally proposed in 1802 , it became the basis of a modern international system that classifies clouds into five physical forms and three altitude levels ( formerly known as étages ) . These physical types , in approximate ascending order of convective activity , include stratiform sheets , cirriform wisps and patches , stratocumuliform layers ( mainly structured as rolls , ripples , and patches ) , cumuliform heaps , and very large cumulonimbiform heaps that often show complex structure . The physical forms are cross-classified by the altitude levels to produce ten basic genus-types , most of which can be divided into species , and subdivided into varieties . Two cirriform clouds that form higher up in the stratosphere and mesosphere have common names for their main types , but are sub-classified alpha-numerically . They are relatively uncommon and are mostly seen in the polar regions of Earth . Clouds have been observed in the atmospheres of other planets and moons in the Solar System and beyond . However , due to their different temperature characteristics , they are often composed of other substances such as methane , ammonia , and sulfuric acid as well as water . Homospheric types determined by cross-classification of forms and levels . '' Homospheric types include the ten tropospheric genera and two additional major types above the troposphere . The cumulus genus includes three variants as defined by vertical size .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Worst Case Scenario (song) `` Worst Case Scenario '' is the third single by the English indie band The Hoosiers from their 2007 # 1 album The Trick to Life . It has been admitted by lead man Irwin on the band 's website that it is one of the band 's favourite songs .", "Worst-Case Scenario series Worst-Case Scenario is the name of a series of merchandise based on a 1999 book written by Joshua Piven and David Borgenicht and published by Chronicle Books . The series first entry , The Worst-Case Scenario Survival Handbook , sold over 10 million copies worldwide and prompted a series of related books , games , calendars , and two television series . Later works have been published via Quirk Books and has been credited with giving the company enough funding to expand .", "Worst-case scenario (disambiguation) Worst-case scenario may refer to : Worst Case Scenario ( album ) , by dEUS `` Worst Case Scenario '' ( song ) , by The Hoosiers Worst Case Scenario ( Star Trek : Voyager ) Worst-Case Scenario series , series of books inspired by The Worst-Case Scenario Survival Handbook Worst Case Scenarios , a reality show aired on TBS in 2002 in the U.S. Worst Case Scenario ( film ) , a Dutch horror film Worst Case Scenario Records , a UK record label Worst-Case Scenario ( TV series ) , a survival show hosted by Bear Grylls aired on Discovery Channel in 2010", "Ceiling projector The ceiling projector or cloud searchlight is used to measure the height of the base of clouds ( called the ceiling ) above the ground . It is used in conjunction with an alidade , usually positioned 1000 ft ( 304.8 m ) away and wherever possible set at the same level . The projector is normally set at 90 ° , although 71 ° 31 ' may be used , in relation to the terrain . The projector consists of a 430 W incandescent bulb set in a weatherproof housing . Inside the housing are two mirrors ; the first , above the bulb , reflects the light downwards to the second mirror , that then reflects the light upwards to the cloud . Both mirrors are focused to produce a high intensity beam of light that renders a visible spot on the base of the cloud . The alidade is mounted on a post at a height of 5 ft ( 1.524 m ) from the ground . It consists of an arm with a pointer and open sight at one end and a rubber eyepiece at the other . The arm is mounted onto a curved scale that is marked both in meters and the coded cloud height ( feet ) . The observer looks through the eyepiece and sets the sight onto the spot projected on the cloud and reads the height from the attached scale . When the cloud is thin the beam of light may penetrate into the cloud . The observer should read the scale where the light first enters the cloud and not at the top . However , a remark may be made as to how far into the cloud the light was able to penetrate as this may be useful . In the case of fog or blizzard conditions the observer should read the scale where the beam disappears .", "The Best Worst-Case Scenario The Best Worst-Case Scenario is the first album released by Tooth & Nail Records alternative rock band Fair , which features notable musician and record producer Aaron Sprinkle . The album was released on June 6 , 2006 . In 2007 , the album artwork , designed by Invisible Creature was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Recording Packaging .", "Worst Case Scenario (film) Worst Case Scenario was a horror film to be directed by Dutch director Richard Raaphorst .", "Worst Case Scenario (Star Trek: Voyager) __ NOTOC __ `` Worst Case Scenario '' is the 67th series and 25th and penultimate episode of the third season of Star Trek : Voyager .", "Best, worst and average case In computer science , best , worst , and average cases of a given algorithm express what the resource usage is at least , at most and on average , respectively . Usually the resource being considered is running time , i.e. time complexity , but it could also be memory or other resource . In real-time computing , the worst-case execution time is often of particular concern since it is important to know how much time might be needed in the worst case to guarantee that the algorithm will always finish on time . Average performance and worst-case performance are the most used in algorithm analysis . Less widely found is best-case performance , but it does have uses : for example , where the best cases of individual tasks are known , they can be used to improve the accuracy of an overall worst-case analysis . Computer scientists use probabilistic analysis techniques , especially expected value , to determine expected running times . The terms are used in other contexts ; for example the worst - and best-case outcome of a planned-for epidemic , worst-case temperature to which an electronic circuit element is exposed , etc. . Where components of specified tolerance are used , devices must be designed to work properly with the worst-case combination of tolerances and external conditions .", "Smoothed analysis Smoothed analysis is a way of measuring the complexity of an algorithm . It gives a more realistic analysis of the practical performance of the algorithm , such as its running time , than using worst-case or average-case scenarios .", "Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research The Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research , IAI , is an intergovernmental organization supported by 19 countries in the Americas , dedicated to pursuing the principles of scientific excellence , international cooperation , and the full and open exchange of scientific information to increase the understanding of global change phenomena and their socio-economic implications . Recognizing the need to better understand the natural and social processes which drive large scale environmental change , the IAI encourages interactive exchanges between scientists and policy makers . The goal of the IAI is to augment the scientific capacity in the region and to provide information to policy makers in a useful and timely manner . Its primary objective is to encourage research beyond the scope of national programs , by advancing comparative and focused studies based on scientific issues important to the region as a whole .", "Petro-sexual politics Petro-sexual politics is a lens used to better understand the relationships between petroleum and gender violence and the role colonial powers possess . The underlying theme of petro-sexual politics is that gender violence is part of a larger political economy of violence . Petro-sexual politics can yield new methods of theorizing global politics , particularly as explained here for the Nigerian case of the `` natural resource curse '' .", "Discounted maximum loss Discounted maximum loss , also known as worst-case risk measure , is the present value of the worst-case scenario for a financial portfolio . In investment , in order to protect the value of an investment , one must consider all possible alternatives to the initial investment . How one does this comes down to personal preference ; however , the worst possible alternative is generally considered to be the benchmark against which all other options are measured . The present value of this worst possible outcome is the discounted maximum loss .", "World Values Survey The World Values Survey ( WVS ) is a global research project that explores people 's values and beliefs , how they change over time and what social and political impact they have . It is carried out by a worldwide network of social scientists who , since 1981 , have conducted representative national surveys in almost 100 countries . The WVS measures , monitors and analyzes : support for democracy , tolerance of foreigners and ethnic minorities , support for gender equality , the role of religion and changing levels of religiosity , the impact of globalization , attitudes toward the environment , work , family , politics , national identity , culture , diversity , insecurity , and subjective well-being . The findings provide information for policy makers seeking to build civil society and democratic institutions in developing countries . The work is also frequently used by governments around the world , scholars , students , journalists and international organizations and institutions such as the World Bank and the United Nations ( UNDP and UN-Habitat ) . Data from the World Values Survey have for example been used to better understand the motivations behind events such as the Arab Spring , the 2005 French civil unrest , the Rwandan genocide in 1994 and the Yugoslav wars and political upheaval in the 1990s . Romano Prodi , former Prime Minister of Italy and the tenth President of European Commission said about the WVS work : The growing globalization of the world makes it increasingly important to understand -LSB- ... -RSB- diversity . People with varying beliefs and values can live together and work together productively , but for this to happen it is crucial to understand and appreciate their distinctive worldviews .", "Worst Case Scenario (album) Worst Case Scenario is the debut studio album by Belgian rock band Deus released in 1994 . The cover art was designed by guitarist Rudy Trouvé . It contains the single `` Suds & Soda '' , which became an underground hit and a fans favorite . The album was first released in Belgium on the indie label Bang ! with a different track listing : `` Right as Rain '' and `` Great American Nude '' ( both tracks present on the Zea EP released in Belgium in 1993 ) are replaced by the song `` Let Go '' . It was then released in the UK and Europe through Island Records with the track listing as written below . The song `` W.C.S. ( First Draft ) '' contains a covered bit from Frank Zappa 's `` Little Umbrellas '' , from his 1969 album , Hot Rats.Worst Case Scenario received good reviews internationally despite the hard time that the British media had to categorize its music into a genre . They finally called it Art rock ( a definition which still bothers singer Tom Barman ) . Worst Case Scenario reached Gold in Belgium , selling 30,000 copies . By April 2008 , WCS '' had sold 270,000 copies worldwide .", "Surviving Disaster (TV series) Surviving Disaster was a simulation of real life disaster situations produced by Spike . Hosted by former Navy SEAL Cade Courtley , each episode retells situations in a worst-case scenario and what viewers can do to survive them . There have been ten episodes aired to date . The series was not picked up for a second season .", "Summer draft Summer draft is a naval term for the worst-case loaded draft a ship can have . This draft is corrected for the worst-case seasonal conditions ( summer in this case ) . During summer the water is warmer , and thus less dense and expands slightly : see Thermal expansion . This makes ships float deeper in the water . Summer draft is the opposite of Light ship condition .", "Timeline of heat engine technology This Timeline of heat engine technology describes how heat engines have been known since antiquity but have been made into increasingly useful devices since the 17th century as a better understanding of the processes involved was gained . They continue to be developed today . In engineering and thermodynamics , a heat engine performs the conversion of heat energy to mechanical work by exploiting the temperature gradient between a hot `` source '' and a cold `` sink '' . Heat is transferred to the sink from the source , and in this process some of the heat is converted into work . A heat pump is a heat engine run in reverse . Work is used to create a heat differential . The timeline includes devices classed as both engines and pumps , as well as identifying significant leaps in human understanding .", "Scenario paintball Scenario paintball is a type of paintball game in which players participate in a scenario , or story ; and may include historical re-enactments , futuristic or video game simulations . Games tend to last in the range of hours or days , and may include a large group of players . The largest paintball scenario games are the Skirmish Invasion of Normandy ( ION ) scenario & Oklahoma D-DAY , both of which attract upwards of 4,000 players annually . Scenario games are almost always objective-driven in regard to scoring . Each team must complete a series of missions to score points . These may be simple `` capture the flag at this location '' missions to elaborate missions involving props , multiple locations , interactive non-player characters and more . To further enhance the theme of a game , field locations may be named for important story locations , and props of various sorts are added to the game . These may be objects that players collect for points , or even vehicles that take part in the fighting , like paintball tanks . Players may don costumes specific to the theme , such as historic military uniforms or other costumes . Scenario events are usually planned far in advance , both by the event `` producers '' or fields , and by the players themselves . Players may form large , lasting networks of players and teams that play together year after year in a specific scenario . These organizations help plan game strategy and direct their groups on the field and offer a level of organization beyond the basic two-sided team play . Like all forms of paintball , scenario paintball has a very good per-capita safety record . Due to longer play times , heat-related injuries are one of the more common injuries in scenario paintball . Many players often carry 1 - to 3-liter water bladders , allowing players to drink water without removing their safety masks , to combat heat and dehydration .", "Decatastrophizing In cognitive therapy , decatastrophizing or decatastrophization is a cognitive restructuring technique to treat cognitive distortions , such as magnification and catastrophizing , commonly seen in psychological disorders like anxiety and psychosis . The technique consists of confronting the worst-case scenario of a feared event or object , using mental imagery to examine whether the effects of the event or object have been overestimated ( magnified or exaggerated ) and where the patient 's coping skills have been underestimated . The term was coined by Albert Ellis , and various versions of the technique have been developed , most notably by Aaron T. Beck . Decatastrophizing is also called the `` what if '' technique , because the worst-case scenario is confronted by asking : `` What if the feared event or object happened , what would occur then ? '' The following is an example : `` I could make an absolute fool of myself if I say the wrong thing . '' `` What if you say the wrong thing , what would happen then ? '' `` He might think I 'm weird . '' ...", "Design methods Design methods is a broad area that focuses on : Divergence -- Exploring possibilities and constraints of inherited situations by applying critical thinking through qualitative and quantitative research methods to create new understanding ( problem space ) toward better design solutions Transformation -- Redefining specifications of design solutions which can lead to better guidelines for traditional and contemporary design activities ( architecture , graphic , industrial , information , interaction , et al. ) and/or multidisciplinary response Convergence -- Prototyping possible scenarios for better design solutions that incrementally or significantly improve the originally inherited situation Sustainability -- Managing the process of exploring , redefining and prototyping of design solutions continually over time Articulation - the visual relationship between the parts and the whole . The role of design methods is to support design work , the aims of which can be varied , though they may include gaining key insights or unique essential truths resulting in more holistic solutions in order to achieve better experiences for users with products , services , environments and systems they rely upon . Insight , in this case , is clear and deep investigation of a situation through design methods , thereby grasping the inner nature of things intuitively .", "Graphical timeline from Big Bang to Heat Death This is the timeline of the Universe from Big Bang to Heat Death scenario . The different eras of the universe are shown . The heat death will occur in 10103 years , if protons decay . Usually the logarithmic scale is used for such timelines but it compresses the most interesting Stelliferous Era too much as this example shows . Therefore , a double-logarithmic scale s ( s * 100 in the graphics ) is used instead . The minimum of it is unfortunately only 1 , not 0 as needed , and the negative outputs for inputs smaller than 10 are useless . Therefore , the time from 0.1 to 10 years is collapsed to a single point 0 , but that does n't matter in this case because nothing special happens in the history of the universe during that time . The seconds in the timescale have been converted to years by using the Julian year .", "Heat lightning Heat lightning , sometimes known as silent lightning , is the name used for the faint flashes of lightning on the horizon or other clouds from distant thunderstorms that do not have accompanying sounds of thunder . This often occurs because of inter-cloud and intra-cloud lightning , where lightning charges travel from cloud-to-cloud or merely areas of differing electric potential within a single cloud , respectively . Because of this nature , heat lightning can often be seen from great distances , and thus can be an early warning sign that thunderstorms are approaching . The term could be considered a misnomer because it has nothing to do with the heat of the lightning itself . Heat lightning can also occur if cloud-to-ground lightning occurs very far away and the sound dissipates before it reaches the observer . At night , it is possible to see the flashes of lightning from very far distances , up to 100 miles , but the sound does not carry that far . In Florida , heat lightning is often seen over the water at night , the remnants of storms that formed during the day along a sea breeze front coming in from the opposite coast . Heat lightning also occurs where airborne matter muffles the thunder , such as heavy snow in winter storms ( thundersnow ) and dust and sand storms . In some instances , heavy falling snow has silenced thunder from cloud to ground lightning strikes as close as one to two miles ( 1.6 to 3.2 km ) from the observer and severe dust storms are even more effective in many cases . Heat lightning is not to be confused with electrically-induced luminosity actually generated at mesospheric altitudes above thunderstorm systems ( and likewise visible at exceedingly great ranges ) , a phenomenon known as `` sprites '' .", "CYK algorithm In computer science , the Cocke -- Younger -- Kasami algorithm ( alternatively called CYK , or CKY ) is a parsing algorithm for context-free grammars , named after its inventors , John Cocke , Daniel Younger and Tadao Kasami . It employs bottom-up parsing and dynamic programming . The standard version of CYK operates only on context-free grammars given in Chomsky normal form ( CNF ) . However any context-free grammar may be transformed to a CNF grammar expressing the same language . The importance of the CYK algorithm stems from its high efficiency in certain situations . Using Landau symbols , the worst case running time of CYK is Ο , where n is the length of the parsed string and | G | is the size of the CNF grammar G . This makes it one of the most efficient parsing algorithms in terms of worst-case asymptotic complexity , although other algorithms exist with better average running time in many practical scenarios .", "List of music considered the worst The list of music considered the worst consists of albums or songs that have been considered the worst music ever made by various combinations of music critics , television broadcasters ( such as MTV ) , radio stations , composers , and public polls . A piece of music needs to have been notable , popular , or memorable to be deemed the `` worst ever '' , or it would be unlikely to top all-time public polls a few years after it was released . As such , a piece usually needs to have had a high profile at the time of its release , such as an unexpected hit that was highly disliked outside of its fanbase . Scholarly accounts of the `` worst music ever '' are rare . Most polls or critical lists are light-hearted in nature , especially in pop music . Magazines reflect the preferences of their readers , and if polls are influenced by too small a group of readers or critics , they provide unreliable results . Most `` worst ever '' lists do not aim to take into account all music ever created , but are limited to certain time periods , styles of music , and geographical areas . Furthermore , individual tastes can vary widely , to the point where very little consensus on a worst song can be achieved ; the winning song in a CNN e-mail poll received less than 5 percent of the total votes cast . There are a handful of scholars who have done more in-depth analysis of music perceived to be bad , including Irwin Chusid , Barry Hansen ( better known by the stage name Dr. Demento ) and Darryl W. Bullock , author of the 2013 book The World 's Worst Records .", "2002 India heat wave More than 1,030 people were killed in the 2002 heatwave in south India . Most of the dead were poor and elderly and a majority of deaths occurred in the southern state of Andhra Pradesh . In districts that were impacted most , the heat was so severe that ponds and rivers evaporated and in those same districts birds had fallen from the sky and animals were collapsing from the intense heat . It is said by officials to be the worst heat wave in four years . The relief commissioner of Andhra Pradesh , Rosaiah , said that the maximum number of 172 deaths related to heat took place in the East Godavari district . There were also 166 deaths in Prakasam and 144 deaths in West Godavari . Unusually high temperatures were detected across India during April of the year 2002 . In addition , this heat wave over northern zones of India lasted from the middle of April to the third week in May , thus , causing these fatalities . On May 10 the highest temperature recorded in the region of Gannavaram ( Vijayawada ) was 49 degrees Celsius ( 120.2 degrees Fahrenheit ) . According to the BBC News , `` Heatwaves are defined as periods of abnormally high temperatures and usually occur between March and June in India . May is the country 's hottest month , with an average maximum temperature of 41C ( 104F ) in Delhi . Longer , more severe heatwaves are becoming increasingly frequent globally . Intense heat can cause cramps , exhaustion and heat stroke . Thousands of people have died across India during heatwaves in 2002 and 2003 . '' The heatwaves also affected the northern states of Punjab , Haryana , Orissa and 100 people suffered from heat-related sickness . 2010 Indian heatwave", "Addictive personality An addictive personality refers to a particular set of personality traits that make an individual predisposed to developing addictions . This hypothesis states that there are common elements among people with varying addictions that relates to personality traits . People who are substance dependent are characterized by : a physical or psychological dependency that negatively affects their quality of life . They are frequently connected with substance abuse ; however , people with addictive personalities are also highly at risk of becoming addicted to gambling , food , pornography , exercise , work , and codependency . Scientists have been better able to understand addictive personalities as researchers delve further into understanding the chemistry of addiction . Alan R. Lang of Florida State University , author of an addiction study prepared for the United States National Academy of Sciences , said , `` If we can better identify the personality factors , they can help us devise better treatment and can open up new strategies to intervene and break the patterns of addiction . ''", "Perfect Disaster Perfect Disaster was a one-hour American documentary television mini-series that premiered in 2006 on the Discovery Channel . The program depicted the worst-case scenario that major cities could expect in the near future if hit by extreme disaster . A large part of each episode was recounted the lives of citizens from each city , with the remainder of the program showing us real-world scientists discussing the very high probabilities of these disasters . The trademark tagline of the show was `` When the conditions are right , it will all go wrong . '' The series currently airs on the Science Channel .", "Water sky Water sky is a phenomenon that is closely related to ice blink . It forms in regions with large areas of ice and low-lying clouds and so is limited mostly to the extreme northern and southern sections of earth , in Antarctica and in the Arctic . When light hits the blue oceans or seas , some of it bounces back and enables the observer to physically see the water . However , some of the light also is reflected back up on to the bottoms of low-lying clouds and causes a dark spot to appear underneath some clouds . These clouds may be visible when the seas are not and can show alert and knowledgeable travelers the general direction of water . The dark clouds over open water have long been used by polar explorers and scientists to navigate in sea ice . For example , Arctic explorer Fridtjof Nansen and his assistant Hjalmar Johansen used the phenomenon to find lanes of water in their failed expedition to the North Pole as did Bernacchi and Sir Douglas Mawson in the Antarctica .", "Downhole safety valve A downhole safety valve refers to a component on an oil and gas well , which acts as a failsafe to prevent the uncontrolled release of reservoir fluids in the event of a worst-case-scenario surface disaster . It is almost always installed as a vital component on the completion .", "Flight interception trap The Flight Interception Trap or FIT is a widely used trapping system for flying insects . It is especially well-suited for collecting beetles , since these animals usually drop themselves after flying into an object , rather than flying upward ( in which case a Malaise trap is a better option ) . Flight Interception Traps are mainly used to collect flying species which are not likely to be attracted to bait or light .", "Cirrus spissatus cloud Cirrus spissatus clouds are the highest of the main cloud genera , and may sometimes even occur in the lower stratosphere . The characteristic features of cirrus clouds are fine threads or wisps of ice crystals , generally white , but appearing grey when dense and seen against the light . There is no precipitation at the ground . It also frequently exhibits optical phenomena . Cirrus spissatus is the dense cirrus that will partly or completely hide the sun ( or moon ) and which appears dark grey when seen against the light . Although it arises under various circumstances , it is particularly commonly found in the plumes or anvils of cumulonimbus clouds . Precipitation is likely within 15 to 25 hours if winds are steady from NE E to S , or sooner if winds SE to S . Other winds bring an overcast sky . A different variety of cirrus spissatus also forms from phenomena that have nothing to do with cumulonimbus blow-off or dissipating cumulonimbus cells -LSB- citation needed -RSB- . When dense cirrus is formed by means other than by cumulonimbus blow-off or dissipating cumulonimbus clouds , it will frequently be seen as many dense patches at different levels ( cirrus spissatus duplicatus ) , often mixed with thin cirrus filaments -LSB- citation needed -RSB- . Another variety , cirrus spissatus intortus , is sometimes described as looking like `` entangled sheaves '' of cirrus clouds . When viewed toward the sun , the denser patches often have gray bases .", "Ticking time bomb scenario The ticking time bomb scenario is a thought experiment that has been used in the ethics debate over whether torture can ever be justified . As a thought experiment , there is no need that the scenario be plausible ; it need only serve to highlight ethical considerations . The scenario can be formulated as follows : Suppose that a person with knowledge of an imminent terrorist attack , that will kill many people , is in the hands of the authorities and that he will disclose the information needed to prevent the attack only if he is tortured . Should he be tortured ? The scenario can be better understood through the arguments of those who respond to it ; the consequentialist argument is that nations , even those that legally disallow torture , can justify its use if they have a terrorist in custody who possesses critical knowledge , such as the location of a time bomb or a weapon of mass destruction that will soon explode and cause great loss of life . Opponents to the argument usually begin by exposing certain assumptions that tend to be hidden by initial presentations of the scenario and tend to obscure the true costs of permitting torture in `` real-life '' scenarios -- e.g. , the assumption that the person is in fact a terrorist , whereas in real life there usually remains uncertainty about whether the person is in fact a terrorist and that he has useful information -- and rely on legal , philosophical/moral , and empirical grounds to reaffirm the need for the absolute prohibition of torture . There is also uncertainty about the effectiveness of torture , and much opposition to torture is based on the fact it is not effective rather than any moral issue ." ]

[ "Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "Greenhouse gas A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "Anoxic event Oceanic anoxic events or anoxic events ( anoxia conditions ) refer to intervals in the Earth 's past where portions of oceans become depleted in oxygen ( O2 ) at depths over a large geographic area . During some of these events , euxinia , waters that contained hydrogen sulfide , developed . Although anoxic events have not happened for millions of years , the geological record shows that they happened many times in the past . Anoxic events coincided with several mass extinctions and may have contributed to them . These mass extinctions include some that geobiologists use as time markers in biostratigraphic dating . Many geologists believe oceanic anoxic events are strongly linked to slowing of ocean circulation , climatic warming , and elevated levels of greenhouse gases . Researchers have proposed enhanced volcanism ( the release of CO2 ) as the `` central external trigger for euxinia '' .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "The Greening of Planet Earth The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .", "Thermotropic crystal A liquid crystal ( LC ) is thermotropic if the order of its components is determined or changed by temperature . If temperature is too high , the rise in energy and therefore in motion of the components will induce a phase transition : the LC will become an isotropic liquid . If , on the contrary , temperature is too low to support a thermotropic phase , the LC will change to glass phase . There is therefore a range of temperatures at which we observe thermotropic LCs ; and most of these have several `` subphases '' ( nematic , smectic ... ) , which we may observe by modifying the temperature .", "Lime kiln A lime kiln is a kiln used for the calcination of limestone ( calcium carbonate ) to produce the form of lime called quicklime ( calcium oxide ) . The chemical equation for this reaction is CaCO3 + heat → CaO + CO2 This reaction takes place at 900 ° C ( 1650 ° F ; at which temperature the partial pressure of CO2 is 1 atmosphere ) , but a temperature around 1000 ° C ( 1800 ° F ; at which temperature the partial pressure of CO2 is 3.8 atmospheres ) is usually used to make the reaction proceed quickly . Excessive temperature is avoided because it produces unreactive , `` dead-burned '' lime . Slaked lime ( calcium hydroxide ) can be formed by mixing water with quicklime .", "James Hansen James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''", "Sunken Forests of New Hampshire The Sunken Forests of New Hampshire are two large areas of tree stumps submerged off New Hampshire 's coast . They sank below sea level after the ending of the Wisconsin Glaciation and subsequent rise in temperature ; isostatic rebound has not kept pace with the rise in sea level , and former coastal forests were overtaken by the Atlantic Ocean . The trees could not thrive , even when they were in the early stages of sinking , because they can not live in salt water for very long . All that is left of the forests are stumps .", "Carbonated drink Carbonated drinks are beverages that contain dissolved carbon dioxide . The dissolution of CO2 in a liquid , gives rise to fizz or effervescence . The process usually involves carbon dioxide under high pressure . When the pressure is removed , the carbon dioxide is released from the solution as small bubbles , which causes the solution to become effervescent , or fizzy . A common example is the dissolving of carbon dioxide in water , resulting in carbonated water . Carbon dioxide is only weakly soluble in water , therefore it separates into a gas when the pressure is released . Carbonated beverages are prepared by mixing flavored syrup with carbonated water , both chilled . Carbonation levels range up to 5 volumes of CO2 per liquid volume . Ginger ale , colas , and related drinks are carbonated with 3.5 volumes . Other drinks , often fruity ones , are carbonated less .", "Compensation point The ( light ) compensation point is the amount of light intensity on the light curve where the rate of photosynthesis exactly matches the rate of respiration . At this point , the uptake of CO2 through photosynthetic pathways is exactly matched to the respiratory release of carbon dioxide , and the uptake of O2 by respiration is exactly matched to the photosynthetic release of oxygen . In assimilation terms , at compensation point , the net carbon dioxide assimilation is zero . Leaves release CO2 by photorespiration and day respiration , but CO2 is also converted into carbohydrate by photosynthesis . Assimilation is therefore the difference in the rate of these processes . At a normal partial pressure of CO2 ( 0.343 hPa in 1980 ) , there is an irradiation at which the net assimilation of CO2 is zero . For instance , in the early morning and late evenings , the compensation point may be reached as photosynthetic activity decreases and respiration increases . Therefore , the partial pressure of CO2 at the compensation point , also known as gamma , is a function of irradiation . The irradiation dependence of the compensation point is explained by the RuBP ( ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate ) concentration . When the acceptor RuBP is in saturated concentration , gamma is independent of irradiation . However at low irradiation , only a small fraction of the sites on RuBP carboxylase-oxygenase enzyme ( Rubisco ) have the electron acceptor RuBP . This decreases the photosynthetic activity and therefore affects gamma . The intracellular concentration of CO2 affects the rates of photosynthesis and photo respiration . At higher carbon dioxide concentrations , the photosynthesis rate is higher , while at low CO2 concentrations , photo respiration is higher .", "Desulfobacter hydrogenophilus Desulfobacter hydrogenophilus is a strictly anaerobic sulfate-reducing bacterium . It was isolated and characterized in 1987 by Friedrich Widdel of the University of Konstanz ( Germany ) . Like most sulfate-reducing bacteria ( SRB ) , D. hydrogenophilus is capable of completely oxidizing organic compounds ( specifically acetate , pyruvate and ethanol ) to CO2 , and therefore plays a key role in biomineralization in anaerobic marine environments . However , unlike many SRB , D. hydrogenophilus is a facultative lithoautotroph , and can grow using H2 as an electron donor and CO2 as a carbon source . D. hydrogenophilus is also unique because it is psychrophilic ( and has been shown to grow at temperatures as low as 0 C ) . It is also diazotrophic , or capable of fixing nitrogen .", "Climate change in New York City Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .", "Incubator (culture) In biology , an incubator is a device used to grow and maintain microbiological cultures or cell cultures . The incubator maintains optimal temperature , humidity and other conditions such as the carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and oxygen content of the atmosphere inside . Incubators are essential for a lot of experimental work in cell biology , microbiology and molecular biology and are used to culture both bacterial as well as eukaryotic cells . Louis Pasteur used the small opening underneath his staircase as an incubator . Incubators are also used in the poultry industry to act as a substitute for hens . This often results in higher hatch rates due to the ability to control both temperature and humidity . Various brands of incubators are commercially available to breeders . The simplest incubators are insulated boxes with an adjustable heater , typically going up to 60 to 65 ° C ( 140 to 150 ° F ) , though some can go slightly higher ( generally to no more than 100 ° C ) . The most commonly used temperature both for bacteria such as the frequently used E. coli as well as for mammalian cells is approximately 37 ° C , as these organisms grow well under such conditions . For other organisms used in biological experiments , such as the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae , a growth temperature of 30 ° C is optimal . More elaborate incubators can also include the ability to lower the temperature ( via refrigeration ) , or the ability to control humidity or CO2 levels . This is important in the cultivation of mammalian cells , where the relative humidity is typically > 80 % to prevent evaporation and a slightly acidic pH is achieved by maintaining a CO2 level of 5 % .", "Nautilia profundicola Nautilia profundicola is a Gram-negative chemolithoautotrophic epsilonproteobacterium found around hydrothermal vents in the deep ocean . It was first discovered in 1999 on the East Pacific Rise at depth of 2500 m , on the surface of the polychaete worm Alvinella pompejana . Nautilia profundicola lives symbiotically on the dorsal hairs of A. pompejana but they may also form biofilms and live independently on the walls of hydrothermal vents . The ability of N. profundicola to survive in an anaerobic environment rich in sulfur , H2 and CO2 of varying temperature makes it a useful organism to study , as these are the conditions that are theorized to have prevailed around the time of the earliest life on earth .", "Temperature Rising Temperature Rising may refer to : Temperature Rising ( album ) , a 2006 album by Tata Young Temperature 's Rising , an album by Loverboy `` Temperature 's Rising '' ( song ) , a 1995 song by Mobb Deep from The Infamous Temperatures Rising , an American television situation comedy", "Grand unification epoch In physical cosmology , assuming that nature is described by a Grand unification theory , the grand unification epoch was the period in the evolution of the early universe following the Planck epoch , starting at about 10 − 43 seconds after the Big Bang , in which the temperature of the universe was comparable to the characteristic temperatures of grand unified theories . If the grand unification energy is taken to be 1015 GeV , this corresponds to temperatures higher than 1027 K . During this period , three of the four fundamental interactions -- electromagnetism , the strong interaction , and the weak interaction -- were unified as the electronuclear force . Gravity had separated from the electronuclear force at the end of the Planck era . During the grand unification epoch , physical characteristics such as mass , charge , flavour and colour charge were meaningless . The grand unification epoch ended at approximately 10 − 36 seconds after the Big Bang . At this point several key events took place . The strong force separated from the other fundamental forces . The temperature fell below the threshold at which X and Y bosons could be created , and the remaining X and Y bosons decayed . It is possible that some part of this decay process violated the conservation of baryon number and gave rise to a small excess of matter over antimatter ( see baryogenesis ) . This phase transition is also thought to have triggered the process of cosmic inflation that dominated the development of the universe during the following inflationary epoch .", "Maximum parcel level The maximum parcel level ( MPL ) is the highest level in the atmosphere that a moist convectively rising air parcel will reach after ascending from the level of free convection ( LFC ) through the free convective layer ( FCL ) and reaching the equilibrium level ( EL ) , near the tropopause . As the parcel rises through the FCL it expands adiabatically causing its temperature to drop , often below the temperature of its surroundings , and eventually lose buoyancy . Because of this , the EL is approximately the region where the distinct flat tops ( called anvils ) often observed on cumulonimbus clouds form . If the air parcel ascended quickly enough then it retains momentum after it has cooled and continues rising past the EL , ceasing at the MPL ( visually represented by the overshooting top , above the anvil ) .", "Absolute hot Absolute hot is a concept of temperature that postulates the existence of a highest attainable temperature of matter . The concept has been popularized by the television series Nova . In this presentation , absolute hot is assumed to be the high end of a temperature scale starting at absolute zero , which is the temperature at which entropy is minimal and classical thermal energy is zero . Contemporary models of physical cosmology postulate that the highest possible temperature is the Planck temperature , which has the value , or 142 quintillion kelvins ( 142 nonillion on the short scale ) . Above about , particle energies become so large that gravitational forces between them would become as strong as other fundamental forces according to current theories . There is no existing scientific theory for the behavior of matter at these energies . A quantum theory of gravity would be required . The models of the origin of the universe based on the Big Bang theory assume that the universe passed through this temperature about 10 − 42 seconds after the Big Bang as a result of enormous entropy expansion . Another theory of absolute hot is based on the Hagedorn temperature , where the thermal energies of the particles exceed the mass-energy of a hadron particle-antiparticle pair . Instead of temperature rising , at the Hagedorn temperature more and heavier particles are produced by pair production , thus preventing effective further heating , given that only hadrons are produced . However , further heating is possible ( with pressure ) if the matter undergoes a phase change into a quark -- gluon plasma . Therefore , this temperature is more akin to a boiling point rather than an insurmountable barrier . For hadrons , the Hagedorn temperature is 2 × 1012 K , which has been reached and exceeded in LHC and RHIC experiments . However , in string theory , a separate Hagedorn temperature can be defined , where strings similarly provide the extra degrees of freedom . However , it is so high ( 1030 K ) that no current or foreseeable experiment can reach it . Quantum physics formally assumes infinitely positive or negative temperatures in descriptions of spin system undergoing population inversion from the ground state to a higher energy state by excitation with electromagnetic radiation . The temperature function in these systems exhibits a singularity , meaning the temperature tends to positive infinity , before discontinuously switching to negative infinity . However , this applies only to specific degrees of freedom in the system , while others would have normal temperature dependency . If equipartitioning were possible , such formalisms ignore the fact that the spin system would be destroyed by the decomposition of ordinary matter before infinite temperature could be reached uniformly in the sample .", "Pyrenoid Pyrenoids are sub-cellular micro-compartments found in chloroplasts of many algae , and in a single group of land plants , the hornworts . Pyrenoids are associated with the operation of a carbon-concentrating mechanism ( CCM ) . Their main function is to act as centres of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) fixation , by generating and maintaining a CO2 rich environment around the photosynthetic enzyme ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase ( Rubisco ) . Pyrenoids therefore seem to have a role analogous to that of carboxysomes in cyanobacteria . Algae are restricted to aqueous environments , even in terrestrial habitats , and this has implications for their ability to access CO2 for photosynthesis . CO2 diffuses 10,000 times slower in water than in air , and is also slow to equilibrate . The result of this is that water , as a medium , is often easily depleted of CO2 and is slow to gain CO2 from the air . Finally , CO2 equilibrates with bicarbonate ( HCO3 − ) when dissolved in water , and does so on a pH-dependent basis . In sea water for example , the pH is such that dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) is mainly found in the form of HCO3 − . The net result of this is a low concentration of free CO2 that is barely sufficient for an algal Rubisco to run at a quarter of its maximum velocity , and thus , CO2 availability may sometimes represent a major limitation of algal photosynthesis .", "LOWERN LOWERN is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate . Latitude . Depending on how close or how far it is to the equator . Ocean currents . Certain ocean currents have different temperatures . Warm ocean currents warm the air above it , which warms the coast . Cold ocean currents cool the air above it , which cools the coast . This helps keep the coast a consistent temperature . Wind and Air masses . Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure . As it rises it cools and descends to the ground resulting in high air pressure . This cycle repeats which creates wind . These air masses absorb the climate of the air below it . Elevation . The higher up you are , the colder and drier it will be . When air rises it expands due to low air pressure which causes it to cool . Relief . The differences in the elevation in land . As air is forced to rise over a piece of land ( e.g. a mountain ) the temperature decreases and condensation increases . As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall . Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensations decreases , resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows . Nearness to Water . Water heats up and cools down slower than land does , having a moderating effect . On colder days , the water heats up the land , whereas on hotter days , the land is cooled down by the water . These areas also experience more precipitation . Category : Climatology", "Chromatic Spring Chromatic Spring is a hot spring in the Upper Geyser Basin of Yellowstone National Park in the United States . It is connected to the nearby Beauty Pool . When the water level in one of the two pools rises and overflows , the water level in the other decreases . These fluctuations in water level take place over periods ranging from a few weeks to several years . During this energy shift , the temperatures can change about 10 F-change . Its temperature ranges from 164 to .", "Global warming in Tuvalu Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .", "Beauty Pool Beauty Pool is a hot spring in the Upper Geyser Basin of Yellowstone National Park in the United States . It is connected to the nearby Chromatic Spring . When the water level in one of the two pools rises and overflows , the water level in the other decreases . These fluctuations in water level take place over periods ranging from a few weeks to several years . During this energy shift , the temperatures can change about 10 ° F. Its temperature ranges from 164 to", "Calcium reactor __ NOTOC __ In marine and reef aquariums , a calcium reactor creates a balance of alkalinity . An acidic solution is produced by injecting carbon dioxide into a chamber with salt water and calcium rich media . The carbon dioxide lowers the pH by producing a solution high in carbonic acid , and dissolves calcium . The effluent is returned to the reef aquarium where the calcium is consumed by organisms , primarily corals when building skeletons . A calcium reactor is an efficient method to supply calcium to a reef aquarium . Reactors may be used in elaborate freshwater and brackish aquariums where freshwater clams and other invertebrates need a constant supply of calcium . The reactor dissolves the calcium-laden media to provide bicarbonates HCO3 − ( alkalinity ) and calcium ( Ca + + ) ions at the sames rate as consumed during calcification . Effectively dissolving the media requires an acidic pH. Saltwater may have a pH of 7.8 or higher , so to reduce the pH carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) is used . The reaction formula is : CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 < -- -- > Ca2 + + 2HCO3 − Inside the reaction chamber , a calcium rich media ( aragonite ) , mainly CaCO3 , is forced into contact with water injected with carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in order to create carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) . This increases the solubility of the calcium carbonate . The reaction frees the calcium and carbonate , supplying the aquarium with water rich in Ca2 + and CO32 − , important for maintaining alkalinity and calcium levels . The bubble counter measures carbon dioxide . The flow rate of carbon dioxide is monitored so that the dissolved gas goes into the solution , with a minimum unconsumed . A needle valve or solenoid valve regulates the CO2 bubble rate . Valves with precise adjustment abilities improve bubble control . The feed pump controls the volume of water exchange . This is important because a high rate of water flow into the reactor reduces its efficiency , thus resulting in underproduction and a waste of CO2 . Some reactors siphon water into the input of the reactor 's re-circulation pump . A potential complication is the medium in the reactor becoming compacted , increasing back pressure onto the pump and reducing water into the reactor . Placing a gate or needle valve on the reactor 's outlet side will improve flow characteristics compared to control from the inlet side . A peristaltic pumps are effective operating against pressure , capable of supplying an adjustable and continuous flow over flow rates with minimal maintenance . The pH control is connected to a probe in the reactor and adjusts the rate at which the calcium media dissolves . This probe monitors the pH level in the calcium reactor . The pH range for the typical calcium reactor is 6.5 - 6.8 . When the pH rises above a certain level , a valve opens , allowing carbon dioxide to enter the reactor . The control closes the valve as the pH falls below this level . Some pH controllers have an interface for an air pump . This air pump is connected to an airstone in the sump or main tank . If the probe detects a low pH level , the pump activates . The bubbles raise the pH by dissipating the CO2 gas .", "IPCC First Assessment Report The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "Inconel 625 Inconel Alloy 625 ( UNS designation N06625 ) is a nickel-based superalloy that possesses high strength properties and resistance to elevated temperatures . It also demonstrates remarkable protection against corrosion and oxidation . Its ability to withstand high stress and a wide range of temperatures , both in and out of water , as well as being able to resist corrosion while being exposed to highly acidic environments makes it a fitting choice for nuclear and marine applications . Inconel 625 was developed in the 1960 's with the purpose of creating a material that could be used for steam-line piping . Some modifications were made to its original composition that have enabled it to be even more creep-resistant and weldable . Because of this , the uses of Inconel 625 have expanded into a wide range of industries such as the chemical processing industry , and for marine and nuclear applications to make pumps and valves and other high pressure equipment . Because of the metal 's high Niobium ( Nb ) levels as well as its proposed exposure to harsh environments and high temperatures , there was concern about the weldability of Inconel 625 . Studies were therefore conducted to test the metal 's weldability , tensile strength and creep resistance , and Inconel 625 was found to be an ideal choice for welding .", "Singosari Singosari is a district in Malang Regency , East Java , Indonesia . It is situated about 400 m above sea-level , and is therefore quite cool especially from June to August . Temperature hovers around 18 -- 20 degrees Celsius at night .", "Heat-based contraception An experimental male contraceptive method involves heating the testicles so that they can not produce sperm . Sperm are best produced at a temperature slightly below body temperature . The muscles around a male 's scrotum involuntarily tighten if the man 's body temperature drops , and they loosen , allowing the testes to hang , if the body temperature rises . This is the body 's way of keeping the sperm at an ideal temperature . Although research has not addressed methods of applying heat , sperm production can be disrupted with increased temperature . Some suggest exposure to high temperatures ( 116 ° F ) can affect fertility for months . Methods used include hot water applied to the scrotum , heat generated by ultrasound , and artificial cryptorchidism ( holding the testicles inside the abdomen ) using specialized briefs . One of the initial experiments resulted in partial infertility lasting more than four years . Initial experiments suggest it is effective and safe , though there have not been long-term studies to determine if it has any side effects on the body after reversal . The optimal heat level and time period of exposure are not known . One method under investigation is ultrasound , which involves the application of high-frequency sound waves to animal tissue , which in turn absorb the sound waves ' energy as heat . The possibility for ultrasound 's use for contraception is based on the idea that briefly heating the testes can halt sperm production , leading to temporary infertility for about six months . Additionally , ultrasound could affect cells ' absorption rates of ions , which itself could create an environment unfavorable to spermatogenesis . Its extremely localized effects on animal tissues make ultrasound an attractive candidate for research , but so far studies have only been performed on non-human animals , such as dogs .", "Microplasma A microplasma is a plasma of small dimensions , ranging from tens to thousands of micrometers . Microplasmas can be generated at a variety of temperatures and pressures , existing as either thermal or non-thermal plasmas . Non-thermal microplasmas that can maintain their state at standard temperatures and pressures are readily available and accessible to scientists as they can be easily sustained and manipulated under standard conditions . Therefore , they can be employed for commercial , industrial , and medical applications , giving rise to the evolving field of microplasmas .", "Hypercapnia Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .", "CERINA-Plan CERINA Plan is the abbreviation for `` CO2 Emissions and Renewable Investment Action Plan '' . It is a CO2 reduction concept developed by the German renewable energy institute IWR . The CERINA Plan proposes a technical investment approach linking a country 's CO2 emissions to its investment in renewable energy technology . Therefore , it is an alternative model to approaches like the Kyoto idea of mere cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . The model is meant to be flexible and to adapt to the special national circumstances of each country .", "Archaeoglobus profundus Archaeoglobus profundus is a sulphate-reducing archaea . Archaeoglobus can be found in high-temperature oil fields where it may contribute to oil field souring . A. profundus grows lithotrophically , and while it needs acetate and CO2 for biosynthesis it is heterotrophic .", "Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "Heat detector A heat detector is a fire alarm device designed to respond when the convected thermal energy of a fire increases the temperature of a heat sensitive element . The thermal mass and conductivity of the element regulate the rate flow of heat into the element . All heat detectors have this thermal lag . Heat detectors have two main classifications of operation , `` rate-of-rise '' and `` fixed temperature '' . The Heat detector is used to help in the reduction of damaged property . It is triggered when temperature increases .", "Polar High The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex . Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' . Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas ." ]

[ "Occam's razor Occam 's razor ( also Ockham 's razor ; Latin : lex parsimoniae `` law of parsimony '' ) is a problem-solving principle attributed to William of Ockham ( c. 1287 -- 1347 ) , who was an English Franciscan friar , scholastic philosopher , and theologian . His principle can be interpreted as stating Among competing hypotheses , the one with the fewest assumptions should be selected . In science , Occam 's razor is used as a heuristic guide in the development of theoretical models , rather than as a rigorous arbiter between candidate models . In the scientific method , Occam 's razor is not considered an irrefutable principle of logic or a scientific result ; the preference for simplicity in the scientific method is based on the falsifiability criterion . For each accepted explanation of a phenomenon , there may be an extremely large , perhaps even incomprehensible , number of possible and more complex alternatives , because one can always burden failing explanations with ad hoc hypotheses to prevent them from being falsified ; therefore , simpler theories are preferable to more complex ones because they are more testable .", "Population genetics Population genetics is a subfield of genetics that deals with genetic differences within and between populations , and is a part of evolutionary biology . Studies in this branch of biology examine such phenomena as adaptation , speciation , and population structure . Population genetics was a vital ingredient in the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis . Its primary founders were Sewall Wright , J. B. S. Haldane and Ronald Fisher , who also laid the foundations for the related discipline of quantitative genetics . Traditionally a highly mathematical discipline , modern population genetics encompasses theoretical , lab , and field work . Population genetic models are used both for statistical inference from DNA sequence data and for proof/disproof of concept . What sets population genetics apart today from newer , more phenotypic approaches to modelling evolution , such as evolutionary game theory and adaptive dynamics , is its emphasis on genetic phenomena as dominance , epistasis , and the degree to which genetic recombination breaks up linkage disequilibrium . This makes it appropriate for comparison to population genomics data ." ]

[ "Postma Postma is a surname of Frisian origin . In 2007 there were 12,395 people in the Netherlands with the surname , most concentrated in the province of Friesland . The form Postema ( 2,069 people ) is more common in the neighboring province of Groningen . The surname 's origin may be in `` posthumous '' ( a child born after the death of his father ) , occupational ( mailman , guard ) or toponymic ( from an outpost , etc. ) . People with the name include : Angela Postma ( born 1971 ) , Dutch freestyle swimmer Anni Friesinger-Postma ( born 1977 ) , German world-champion speed skater , married to Ids Postma Antoon Postma ( 1929 -- 2016 ) , Dutch anthropologist living among the Hanunó ' o tribe in the Philippines ( born 1951 ) , Dutch pathophysiologist Erik Postma ( 1953-2002 ) , Dutch mayor Gerriet Postma ( 1932 -- 2009 ) , Dutch painter Herman Postma ( 1933-2004 ) , American scientist and educator Ids Postma ( born 1973 ) , Dutch world-champion speed skater , married to Anni Friesinger ( 1895-1944 ) , Dutch Communist politician ( born 1983 ) , Dutch ice hockey player Mariska Kramer-Postma ( born 1974 ) , Dutch triathlete Martine Postma -RSB- ( born 1970 ) , Dutch founder of Repair Café ( 1868-1963 ) , Dutch West-Frisian poet Paul Postma ( born 1989 ) , Canadian ice hockey player Pieter-Jan Postma ( born 1982 ) , Dutch Olympic sailor Stefan Postma ( born 1976 ) , Dutch footballer Tineke Postma ( born 1978 ) , Dutch saxophonist Willy Postma ( born 1932 ) , Dutch track-and-field athlete Postema ( 1919 -- 2013 ) , Dutch author ( born 1932 ) , Dutch television reporter and presenter Pam Postema ( born 1954 ) , American baseball umpire", "Stefan Postma Stefan Postma ( born 6 October 1976 ) is a Dutch former footballer who played as a goalkeeper . He is currently a goalkeeping coach at his last club , AGOVV Apeldoorn .", "Gerriet Postma Gerriet Postma ( 30 October 1932 -- 27 February 2009 ) was a Dutch painter . Postma was born in Twijzelerheide , Friesland , the Netherlands . He was a vehement man who painted bold paintings , with explosions of paint and abstract knots of color , with a distant figurative strain running through it . His last large-scale work comprised four panels , painted on the four main sails of the traditional and historic cargo barge `` Klipper Anna '' . The painting is two-sided and is about 270 m2 in area . The 106-year-old ship was provided by its owners , Gijs en Inge van Hesteren from Harlingen , Friesland , the Netherlands . All summer long in 2004 , the painting could be seen everywhere around the Dutch Wadden Sea . By 2009 Postma had become the best-known Frisian painter . His work is on display in galleries of Paris , Brussels and Barcelona . Postma died in Groningen on 27 February 2009 .", "Tineke Postma Tineke Postma ( Heerenveen , August 31 , 1978 ) is a Dutch saxophonist .", "Antoon Postma Antoon Postma ( 28 March 1929 -- 22 October 2016 ) was a Dutch anthropologist who married into and lived among the Hanunuo , a Mangyan sub-tribe in southeastern Mindoro , Philippines . He is best known for being the first to decipher the Laguna Copperplate Inscription , and for documenting the Hanunó ' o script , paving the way for its preservation .", "Pieter-Jan Postma Pieter-Jan Postma ( born 10 January 1982 in Heerenveen ) is a sailor from the Netherlands , who represented his country for the first time at the Sailing at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Qingdao . There he took the 14th place in the Finn . Postma second Olympic appearance was during the 2012 Olympics in Weymouth . In this competition Postma took het 4th place , again in the Finn .", "Ids Postma Ids Hylke Postma ( born 28 December 1973 ) is a Dutch former speed skater . He is an Olympic gold medalist and former world champion . In 1993 Postma finished 2nd at the Speedskating World Championships for Juniors . In his first year as senior skater , he became Dutch Allround Champion , finished second behind Johann Olav Koss at the World Allround Championships , and came 4th in the European Championships , but nevertheless did not qualify for the Dutch Olympic team . In 1997 Postma won both the European Allround Championships and the World Allround Championships . His greatest success came in 1998 when he became World Allround Champion again , also setting a world record in the point-sum combination , and won two Olympic medals at the Olympic Games in Nagano . He won the 1,000 meters event and placed second at his specialty , the 1,500 meters , just behind Ådne Søndrål from Norway . Also in 1998 , he was the first skater who skated an official world record on the 1,500 meters below 1:50.00 : Postma did this in Berlin . Erben Wennemars had done the same the summer before , but that time was not ratified by the International Skating Union . Postma 's record did not last long , because a few hours later Kevin Overland skated to a new record in Calgary . Postma is also a three-time World Champion in the World Single Distance Championships . He won the 5,000 meters in 1996 and the 1,500 meters in 1999 and 2000 . In October 2004 Postma announced his retirement and nowadays he lives on his farm in Deersum . He married German speed skater Anni Friesinger on 11 August 2009 in Salzburg . The couple will not live together on the farm until renovations are complete . In August 2011 , she gave birth to a daughter . He previously had a relationship with Renske Vellinga , until she died in a car crash in 1994 .", "Angela Postma Angela Postma ( born August 6 , 1971 ) is a former freestyle swimmer from the Netherlands , who won the gold medal in the 50 m butterfly at the European Sprint Swimming Championships 1994 in Stavanger , Norway . At the same tournament the sprinter , coached by Henk Tempelman , also captured a silver medal ( 50 m freestyle ) and a bronze medal ( 4 × 50 m freestyle relay ) . Postma competed at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta , Georgia , where she finished in tenth position in the 50 m freestyle .", "Paul Postma Paul Edward Postma ( born February 22 , 1989 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman currently playing for the Winnipeg Jets of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He was drafted 205th overall in the 2007 NHL Entry Draft by the Atlanta Thrashers . During his major junior career with the Swift Current Broncos and Calgary Hitmen of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) Postma won the WHL Plus-Minus Award and was a WHL East First Team All-Star in 2009 .", "Erik Postma Erik Postma ( 15 December 1953 , Rotterdam - 25 September 2002 , Middenbeemster ) was a Dutch politician of the Democrats 66 party . In 1992 he was elected as city manager ( gemeentesecretaris ) of Budel . After the municipal reorganization of North Brabant on January 1 , 1997 , Budel was incorporated along with the municipality Maarheeze in the new municipality Cranendonck , and Postma was made city manager . In April 1998 Postma was appointed mayor of the northern Dutch municipality of Beemster . During his mayoral term , he died suddenly of cardiac arrest in September 2002 . He was succeeded in his position by Harry Brinkman . Category :1953 births Category :2002 deaths Category : Democrats 66 politicians Category : Mayors of places in the Netherlands Category : People from Beemster Category : People from Rotterdam", "Friesinger Friesinger may refer to : People Janina Urszula Friesinger , née Korowicka , ( born 1954 ) , a former ice speed skater from Poland Anni Friesinger-Postma ( born 1977 , Bad Reichenhall ) , a German female speed skater , daughter of the above Companies Friesinger 's Candies , an Ohio based confectionery company Category : German-language surnames", "The Witch's Garden The Witch 's Garden is a children 's picture book written and illustrated by Lidia Postma . It was first published in the Netherlands in 1978 under the title De Heksentuin , and was distributed in the United States by McGraw-Hill the following year .", "Katrin Mattscherodt Katrin Mattscherodt ( born 26 October 1981 ) is a German long track speed skater who participates in international competitions . In the team pursuit final against Japan at the 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics , she was a replacement for Anni Friesinger-Postma in the final ( after Friesinger-Postma had problems finishing in the semifinal ) , and won a gold medal as part of the German team .", "Anni Friesinger-Postma Anna ( `` Anni '' ) Christine Friesinger-Postma ( born 11 January 1977 ) is a German former speed skater . Her father Georg Friesinger , of Germany , and mother Janina ( `` Jana '' ) Korowicka , of Poland , were both skaters ; Jana was on the Polish team at the 1976 Winter Olympics . Her brother Jan is also a speed skater . Her sister Agnes is a former speed skater . In July 2010 , Friesinger retired from her active sports career when she had to be treated for severe cartilage damage in her right knee joint . On 11 August 2009 Friesinger married former Dutch skater Ids Postma , her long-term boyfriend , at Schloss Mirabell . The celebration took place at Schloss Aigen . As of November 2013 , Friesinger lives in Salzburg , Austria , and is planning to move to the Netherlands to live with Postma on his farm in Dearsum . In August 2011 she gave birth to a daughter . In May 2014 , her second daughter was born .", "Cover Story (2011 film) Cover Story is an Hindi thriller film directed by Laurence Postma starring Anjum Nayar and Jackie Shroff . It is the second official remake of the acclaimed Dutch film Interview , directed by Theo Van Gogh in 2003 , the first being Interview by Steve Buscemi in 2007 .", "1998 World Allround Speed Skating Championships The 1998 World Allround Speed Skating Championships were held on 13 -- 15 March 1998 in the Thialf stadium in Heerenveen , Netherlands . Gunda Niemann-Stirnemann and Ids Postma were the world title holders from the previous year and successfully defended their titles . It was Niemann-Stirnemann 's seventh all-round world title .", "Willy Lust Wilhelmina Maria `` Willy '' Lust ( later Postma , born 19 June 1932 ) is a retired Dutch track-and-field athlete . She won a silver medal in the long jump at the 1950 European Athletics Championships . Two years later she competed at the 1952 Summer Olympics , in the 80 m hurdles , long jump and 4 × 100 m relay ; she finished in fifth place in the long jump and in sixth place in the relay . She was also successful in the pentathlon , holding national records and winning two national titles in 1950 and 1951 . In 1954 , together with her husband Jan Postma she immigrated to Australia and retired from competitions . She has a daughter , Ingrid Postma .", "Johnny Fourie Jan Carel Fourie ( 1937 -- 2007 ) was a South African Jazz guitarist born in Postmas in the Northern Cape province .", "Janina Korowicka Janina Urszula Korowicka ( born 14 April 1954 ) is a former Polish speed skater , who represented her native country at the 1976 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck , Austria . She is the mother of the German champion speed skater Anni Friesinger-Postma .", "Overjustification effect The overjustification effect occurs when an expected external incentive such as money or prizes decreases a person 's intrinsic motivation to perform a task . The overall effect of offering a reward for a previously unrewarded activity is a shift to extrinsic motivation and the undermining of pre-existing intrinsic motivation . Once rewards are no longer offered , interest in the activity is lost ; prior intrinsic motivation does not return , and extrinsic rewards must be continuously offered as motivation to sustain the activity .", "Computationally bounded adversary In information theory , the computationally bounded adversary problem is a different way of looking at the problem of sending data over a noisy channel . In previous models the best that could be done was ensuring correct decoding for up to d/2 errors , where d was the Hamming distance of the code . The problem with doing it this way is that it does not take into consideration the actual amount of computing power available to the adversary . Rather , it only concerns itself with how many bits of a given code word can change and still have the message decode properly . In the computationally bounded adversary model the channel -- the adversary -- is restricted to only being able to perform a reasonable amount of computation to decide which bits of the code word need to change . In other words , this model does not need to consider how many errors can possibly be handled , but only how many errors could possibly be introduced given a reasonable amount of computing power on the part of the adversary . Once the channel has been given this restriction it becomes possible to construct codes that are both faster to encode and decode compared to previous methods that can also handle a large number of errors .", "Tom Prinsen Tom Prinsen ( born September 11 , 1982 in Hengelo ) is a Dutch long track speedskater specialised in the longer distances . In 2003 he became Dutch neo junior champion . By beating Postma , Romme and Ritsma in a skateoff , he qualified himself for the World Championship of 2004 in Hamar , Norway . He ended in sixth place .", "Toy train A toy train is a toy that represents a train . It is distinguished from a model train by an emphasis on low cost and durability , rather than scale modeling . A toy train can be as simple as a pull toy that does not even run on track , or it might be operated by clockwork or a battery . By the way , many of today 's model trains might be signed as toy ones as well , providing they are not strictly scale ones in favor of a robustness appropriate for children or a reasonable manufacturing .", "Metaphysical necessity In philosophy , metaphysical necessity , sometimes called broad logical necessity , is one of many different kinds of necessity , which sits between logical necessity and nomological ( or physical ) necessity , in the sense that logical necessity entails metaphysical necessity , but not vice versa , and metaphysical necessity entails physical necessity , but not vice versa . A proposition is said to be necessary if it could not have failed to be the case . Nomological necessity is necessity according to the laws of physics and logical necessity is necessity according to the laws of logic , while metaphysical necessities are necessary in the sense that the world could not possibly have been otherwise . What facts are metaphysically necessary , and on what basis we might view certain facts as metaphysically but not logically necessary are subjects of substantial discussion in contemporary philosophy . The concept of a metaphysically necessary being plays an important role in certain arguments for the existence of God , especially the ontological argument , but metaphysical necessity is also one of the central concepts in late 20th century analytic philosophy . Metaphysical necessity has proved a controversial concept , and criticized by David Hume , Immanuel Kant , J. L. Mackie , and Richard Swinburne , among others . Metaphysical necessity is contrasted with other types of necessity . For example , the philosophers of religion John Hick and William L. Rowe distinguished the following three : factual necessity ( existential necessity ) : a factually necessary being is not causally dependent on any other being , while any other being is causally dependent on it . causal necessity ( subsumed by Hicks under the former type ) : a causally necessary being is such that it is logically impossible for it to be causally dependent on any other being , and it is logically impossible for any other being to be causally independent of it . logical necessity : a logically necessary being is a being whose non-existence is a logical impossibility , and which therefore exists either timeless or eternally in all possible worlds . While many theologians ( e.g. Anselm of Canterbury , René Descartes , and Gottfried Leibniz ) considered God as logically or metaphysically necessary being , Richard Swinburne argued for factual necessity , and Alvin Plantinga argues that God is a causally necessary being . Because a factually or causally necessary being does not exist by logical necessity , it does not exist in all logically possible worlds . Therefore , Swinburne used the term `` ultimate brute fact '' for the existence of God .", "Threshold model In mathematical or statistical modelling a threshold model is any model where a threshold value , or set of threshold values , is used to distinguish ranges of values where the behaviour predicted by the model varies in some important way . A particularly important instance arises in toxicology , where the model for the effect of a drug may be that there is zero effect for a dose below a critical or threshold value , while an effect of some significance exists above that value . Certain types of regression model may include threshold effects . Classic threshold models were developed by Schelling , Axelrod , and Granovetter to model collective behavior . Schelling attempted to model the dynamics of segregation motivated by individual interactions in America ( Schelling , 1971 ) by constructing two simulation models . Schelling demonstrated that `` there is no simple correspondence of individual incentive to collective results , '' and that the dynamics of movement influenced patterns of segregation . In doing so Schelling highlighted the significance of `` a general theory of ` tipping ''' . Mark Granovetter , following Schelling , proposed the threshold model ( Granovetter & Soong , 1983 , 1986 , 1988 ) , which assumes that individuals ' behavior depends on the number of other individuals already engaging in that behavior ( both Schelling and Granovetter classify their term of `` threshold '' as behavioral threshold . ) . He used the threshold model to explain the riot , residential segregation , and the spiral of silence . In the spirit of Granovetter 's threshold model , the `` threshold '' is `` the number or proportion of others who must make one decision before a given actor does so '' . It is necessary to emphasize the determinants of threshold . A threshold is different for individuals , and it may be influenced by many factors : social economic status , education , age , personality , etc. . Further , Granovetter relates `` threshold '' with utility one gets from participating collective behavior or not , using the utility function , each individual will calculate his cost and benefit from undertaking an action . And situation may change the cost and benefit of the behavior , so threshold is situation-specific . The distribution of the thresholds determines the outcome of the aggregate behavior ( for example , public opinion ) .", "Interview (2003 film) Interview is a 2003 Dutch drama film , directed by Theo van Gogh , starring Katja Schuurman and Pierre Bokma . The film is about a war correspondent having an interview with a soap opera actress . Katja Schuurman was nominated for a Golden Calf for Best Actress at the 2003 Netherlands Film Festival . Steve Buscemi 's remake of the same name premiered in 2007 . Laurence Postma 's Hindi remake Cover Story was released in August 2011 .", "1997 World Allround Speed Skating Championships The 1997 World Allround Speed Skating Championships were held on 14 -- 16 February 1997 in the M-Wave stadium in Nagano , Japan . Title defenders were the 1996 world champions Gunda Niemann-Stirnemann from Germany and Rintje Ritsma from the Netherlands . Gunda Niemann-Stirnemann from Germany and Ids Postma from the Netherlands became world champions .", "ATHEANA A Technique for Human Event Analysis ( ATHEANA ) is a technique used in the field of human reliability assessment ( HRA ) . The purpose of ATHEANA is to evaluate the probability of human error while performing a specific task . From such analyses , preventative measures can then be taken to reduce human errors within a system and therefore lead to improvements in the overall level of safety . There exist three primary reasons for conducting a HRA ; error identification , error quantification and error reduction . As there exist a number of techniques used for such purposes , they can be split into one of two classifications ; first generation techniques and second generation techniques . First generation techniques work on the basis of the simple dichotomy of ` fits/doesn ' t fit ' in the matching of the error situation in context with related error identification and quantification and second generation techniques are more theory based in their assessment and quantification of errors . ` HRA techniques have been utilised in a range of industries including healthcare , engineering , nuclear , transportation and business sector ; each technique has varying uses within different disciplines . ATHEANA is used following the occurrence of an incident . The various drivers of an incident and the possible outcomes are categorised into one of the following groupings : organisational influences ; performance shaping factors ; error mechanisms ; unsafe actions ; human failure event ; unacceptable outcome ( s ) . The resultant model may indicate solutions to improve reliability , however there are no numerical aspects involved in the methodology used to construct the model . Due to this characteristic , the technique is thus not considered to be suitable for use in certain fields such as comparative design work or sensitivity analysis . The methodology of ATHEANA is not predictive but does serve as a diagnostic modelling tool . Furthermore , its lack of Human Error Probability ( HEP ) as an output is a marked difference of the method compared to first generation HRA methodologies . The outcome provided by ATHEANA identifies various human actions within a system while also eliciting many contextual situations within this system , which influence whether the action will be carried out successfully or will lead to failure .", "Postmasburg Postmasburg is a town in the Northern Cape province of South Africa , located approximately 170 km east of Upington . Town 67 km north of Griquatown and 58 km west-south-west of Daniëlskuil . Originally a station of the London Missionary Society called Sibiling , it became a Griqua village with the name Blinkklip . It was proclaimed a town on 6 June 1892 and named after the Reverend Dirk Postma ( 1818-1890 ) , founder of the Reformed Church . The town achieved municipal status in 1936 . The South African Army 's Combat Training Centre is located nearby , at Lohatla", "1999 World Allround Speed Skating Championships The 1999 World Allround Speed Skating Championships was held on 6 -- 7 February 1999 in the Vikingskipet arena in Hamar , Norway . It was the first tournament with 24 participants . Title defenders were the 1998 world champions Gunda Niemann-Stirnemann from Germany and Ids Postma from the Netherlands . Gunda Niemann-Stirnemann from Germany and Rintje Ritsma from the Netherlands became world champions .", "Klaas Bruinsma (translator) Klaas Bruinsma ( born 1931 , Easterein ) is a West Frisian language translator of historical works from Dutch , Spanish and Greek , among others . He has translated the works Karel ende Elegast and Beatrijs . In 1993 he was awarded the Obe Postma prize for his translation from Greek of the tragedies of Sophocles . In 2005 he obtained this prize for the second time for his translation of Virgil 's Georgics and especially for his translations of the Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer . Until his retirement , Bruinsma was a lecturer of English and history at the Ichthus College in Drachten , amongst others .", "NER model The NER model is one of a number of methods for determining the accuracy of live subtitles in television broadcasts and events that are produced using speech recognition . The three letters stand for number , edition error and recognition error . It is an alternative to the WER model ( Word Error Rate ) used in several countries . The model contains a formula to determine the quality of live subtitles : a NER value of 100 indicates that the content was subtitled entirely correctly . This overall score is calculated as follows : Firstly , the number of edit and recognition errors is deducted from the total number of words in the live subtitles . This number is then divided by the total number of words in the live subtitles and finally multiplied by one hundred . . The acronyms stand for the following : N ( number ) = total number of words in the live subtitles E ( Edition error ) = edition error R ( Recognition error ) = recognition error This measurement process is already used for public television broadcasts in several European countries like Italy and Switzerland . Other countries and authorities like British Ofcom have already expressed an interest . By way of contrast , the WER model is static , since it simply measures the textual discrepancy between that which was written and spoken ." ]

[ "North Atlantic oscillation The North Atlantic Oscillation ( NAO ) is a weather phenomenon in the North Atlantic Ocean of fluctuations in the difference of atmospheric pressure at sea level ( SLP ) between the Icelandic low and the Azores high . Through fluctuations in the strength of the Icelandic low and the Azores high , it controls the strength and direction of westerly winds and location of storm tracks across the North Atlantic . It is part of the Arctic oscillation , and varies over time with no particular periodicity . The NAO was discovered through several studies in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Unlike the El Niño-Southern Oscillation phenomenon in the Pacific Ocean , the NAO is a largely atmospheric mode . It is one of the most important manifestations of climate fluctuations in the North Atlantic and surrounding humid climates . The North Atlantic Oscillation is closely related to the Arctic oscillation ( AO ) or Northern Annular Mode ( NAM ) , but should not be confused with the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) .", "2014–16 El Niño event The 2014 -- 16 El Niño was a warming of the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean that resulted in unusually warm waters developing between the coast of South America and the International Date Line . These unusually warm waters influenced the world 's weather in a number of ways , which in turn significantly affected various parts of the world . These included drought conditions in Venezuela , Australia and a number of Pacific islands while significant flooding was also recorded . During the event more tropical cyclones than normal occurred within the Pacific Ocean , while fewer than normal occurred in the Atlantic Ocean .", "Instrumental temperature record The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets ." ]

[ "Global temperature record The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.", "Global warming hiatus A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "Dōshite Kimi o Suki ni Natte Shimattandarō? , released on July 16 , 2008 , is Tōhōshinki 's 23rd Japanese single . Approximately two months prior to the official release of the song , a leak of the recording grossed many hits on the internet . On July 22 , 2008 , Tohoshinki became the first non-Japanese Asian artist to have three number one hits on the weekly Oricon singles chart , when their single `` Dōshite Kimi o Suki ni Natte Shimattandarō ? '' attained the number one position with weekly sales of 68,417 copies . After Tohoshinki 's invitation and performance in the prestigious Japanese year-end music festival , Kōhaku Uta Gassen , the group saw a surge in sales yet again in 2009 as well as interest in the music video on online streaming sites from Japanese viewers .", "Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "El Niño–Southern Oscillation El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .", "Global Historical Climatology Network The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .", "Climate change in the Arctic The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "Ame no Hi ni wa Ame no Naka o Kaze no Hi ni wa Kaze no Naka o `` Ame no Hi ni wa Ame no Naka o Kaze no Hi ni wa Kaze no Naka o '' ( 雨の日には 雨の中を 風の日には 風の中を , In the Rain When It 's Rainy , In the Wind When It 's Windy ) , is the twenty-eighth single and second collaboration single released by J-Pop singer Hitomi Shimatani . It is set to be released on June 25 , 2008 , and restricted to a CD-only format . It was released on the same day as a solo single from Hitomi , entitled Wake You Up/Ame no Hi ni wa Ame no Naka o Kaze no Hi ni wa Kaze no Naka o/Marvelous , which contains the tracks Wake You Up and Marvelous , which are not included on this single . However , it will not contain Amaoto , a b-side which will be included on this version of the single . This single will also contain bonus rap and duet versions of the title track , and the jacket artwork is said to be based on the book , Ame no Hi ni Wa .", "Jamrat El Ma Jamrat El Ma , `` embers of the sea '' in English , is the period of the year corresponding to 27 February according to the Berber calendar . It is known to be marked by the raise of the sea temperature .", "Devo Plus Devo Plus is a cross-party and non-party grouping which has been set up by Reform Scotland to promote the idea of the Scottish Parliament , as far as possible , raising the money it spends , and its objective is to see the creation of a system which allows for this to happen . In the plans set out by Reform Scotland the Scottish Parliament would take control of most taxes , with the exceptions of VAT and National Insurance , to raise the income necessary to meet the Scottish Parliament 's expenditure responsibilities . Westminster would continue to raise the money it spends in Scotland through VAT and NI . The group is led by former Lib Dem MSP Jeremy Purvis and chaired by Reform Scotland chairman Ben Thomson . Members of the group include Conservative MSP Alex Fergusson , Lib Dem MSP Tavish Scott and Labour MSP Duncan McNeil .", "El Niño El Niño -LSB- ɛl_ˈniːnjoʊ -RSB- ( -LSB- el ˈniɲo -RSB- ) is the warm phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation ( commonly called ENSO ) and is associated with a band of warm ocean water that develops in the central and east-central equatorial Pacific ( between approximately the International Date Line and 120 ° W ) , including off the Pacific coast of South America . El Niño Southern Oscillation refers to the cycle of warm and cold temperatures , as measured by sea surface temperature , SST , of the tropical central and eastern Pacific Ocean . El Niño is accompanied by high air pressure in the western Pacific and low air pressure in the eastern Pacific . The cool phase of ENSO is called `` La Niña '' with SST in the eastern Pacific below average and air pressures high in the eastern and low in western Pacific . The ENSO cycle , both El Niño and La Niña , cause global changes of both temperatures and rainfall . Developing countries that are dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are usually most affected . In American Spanish , the capitalized term `` El Niño '' refers to `` the little boy '' , so named because the pool of warm water in the Pacific near South America is often at its warmest around Christmas . The original name , `` El Niño de Navidad '' , traces its origin centuries back to Peruvian fisherman , who named the weather phenomenon in reference to the newborn Christ . `` La Niña '' , chosen as the ` opposite ' of El Niño , literally translates to `` the little girl '' .", "Climate of Adelaide Adelaide has a Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification Csa ) , with mild to cool winters with moderate rainfall and warm to hot , dry summers . Adelaide is the driest of the Australian capital cities and the past two decades have been far warmer than usual , with the past 8 years seeing an excess of 40 + degrees every summer . Alarmingly , the city has also recorded almost 10 consecutive years of below-average Spring rainfall , with 2014 on track to continuing this trend . A spike in heat waves , droughts and record-breaking high temperatures over the past decade has led to some concerns over the effects of global warming and Man-made climate change ( AGW ) on the city . Nine of the ten warmest years recorded in Adelaide have occurred since 2002 , with 2013 being the hottest year and summer 2015 -- 2016 being the fourth-hottest summer recorded .", "Omar Ahmed El Ghazaly Omar Ahmed El Ghazaly ( born 9 February 1984 in Cairo ) is an Egyptian discus thrower . He originally played handball , while his siblings were on the Egyptian national swimming team . In 1999 he was recruited by former African shot put champion Nagui Asaad , who was setting up a throwing school that also included hammer thrower Mohsen El Anany and shot putter Yasser Fathy . After having a try with the different implements , he settled for the discus and rapidly made his debut in the national team . In 2000 , aged 16 , he was selected for the Egyptian team for the World Junior Championships , where he finished in 17th . That year he also won the Arab Championships with a throw of 53.07 m . At the 2002 World Junior Championships , a poor result of 10th was due to a shoulder injury . In 2003 , his final year as a junior , he set a new junior world record of 65.88 . His personal best throw is 66.58 metres , achieved in June 2007 in Helsingborg . This is the current national record . In 2007 , he also became the first Egyptian athlete to reach the final of an event at the Athletics World Championships . His 2008 season did not go as well due to a series of injuries . In June 2009 , El Ghazaly gave a strong showing at a meeting in Sollentuna , Sweden , registering a number of throws over 65 metres and winning with 66.34 m . This was an African season 's best throw and highlighted him as a possible finalist for the 2009 World Championships in Athletics . He again reached the final , but could only achieve 9th place . His 2010 season was again marred by injury .", "Global weirding ", "Timeline of the 2016 Pacific hurricane season The 2016 Pacific hurricane season is an ongoing event in the annual cycle of tropical cyclone formation , in which tropical cyclones form in the eastern Pacific Ocean . The season officially started on May 15 in the eastern Pacific -- east of 140 ° W -- and on June 1 in the central Pacific -- between the International Date Line and 140 ° W -- and will last until November 30 . These dates typically cover the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the eastern Pacific basin . However the first storm , Pali , formed 5 months before the official start of the season on January 7 , which broke the record for having the earliest forming storm within the basin . So far , seven tropical depressions developed , six of which became tropical storms . Four of the tropical storms reached hurricane strength , with two achieving major hurricane intensity . With the formation of Estelle , the season has had record amount of named storms in July , with six . Four time zones are utilized in the basin : Central for storms east of 106 ° W , Mountain between 114.9 ° W and 106 ° W , Pacific between 140 ° W and 115 ° W , and Hawaii -- Aleutian for storms between the International Date Line and 140 ° W. However , for convenience , all information is listed by Coordinated Universal Time ( UTC ) first with the respective local time included in parentheses . This timeline includes information that was not operationally released , meaning that data from post-storm reviews by the National Hurricane Center is included . This timeline documents tropical cyclone formations , strengthening , weakening , landfalls , extratropical transitions , and dissipations during the season .", "Atlantic Equatorial mode The Atlantic Equatorial Mode or Atlantic Niño is a quasiperiodic interannual climate pattern of the equatorial Atlantic Ocean . It is the dominant mode of year-to-year variability that results in alternating warming and cooling episodes of sea surface temperatures accompanied by changes in atmospheric circulation . The term Atlantic Niño comes from its close similarity with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) that dominates the tropical Pacific basin . The Atlantic Niño is not the same as the Atlantic Meridional ( Interhemispheric ) Mode that consists of a north-south dipole and operates more on decadal timescales . The equatorial warming and cooling events associated with the Atlantic Niño are known to be strongly related to atmospheric climate anomalies , especially in African countries bordering the Gulf of Guinea . Therefore , understanding of the Atlantic Niño ( or lack thereof ) has important implications for climate prediction in those regions . Although the Atlantic Niño is an intrinsic mode to the equatorial Atlantic , there may be a tenuous causal relationship between ENSO and the Atlantic Niño in some circumstances .", "List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .", "1982–83 El Niño event The 1982 -- 83 El Niño event was one of the strongest El Niño events since records were kept . It led to widespread flooding across the southern United States , droughts in Indonesia and Australia , and lack of snow in northern areas of the United States . The estimated economic impact was over US$ 8 billion . This El Niño event also led to an abnormal amount of hurricanes in the Pacific Ocean during this time span ; the strongest hurricane up to 1983 hit Hawaii during this El Niño event . It led to declines of 77 % among Galápagos penguins and 49 % among flightless cormorants . In addition to these losses in penguins and cormorants , this El Niño event caused a quarter of adult native sea lions and fur seals on Peru 's coast to starve , while the entirety of both seals ' pup populations perished . In Ecuador heavy rainfall and flooding led to high fish and shrimp harvests , however the large amounts of standing water also allowed mosquito populations to thrive , leading to large outbreaks of malaria .", "Bed O' Roses Handicap The Bed O ' Roses Handicap is an American Thoroughbred horse race run at Belmont Park on Long Island in New York in the spring of the year . The Grade III event is for fillies and Mares four-year-olds and older , and is set at a distance of seven furlongs . Since 1997 , the Bed O ' Roses has offered a purse of $ 150,000 added . The race was named for Alfred G. Vanderbilt II 's Hall of Fame inductee , Bed O ' Roses , the American Champion Two-Year-Old Filly in 1949 and the American Champion Older Female Horse of 1952 . This race was first run at Jamaica Racetrack and continued there until 1959 , after which it moved to Aqueduct Racetrack , where it was run until 2010 . It was run in two divisions in 1964 and 1979 and its distance for its first three years was a mile and a sixteenth and then again in 1977 and 1978 . It was contested at one mile from 1960 through 2005 with the exception of 1984 when it was set at a mile and seventy yards .", "2016 California wildfires The 2016 California wildfires were a series of wildfires that burned across the state of California during 2016 . A total of 6,986 fires had burned 565,070 acres , according to the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection . Climatologists had predicted an extreme version of El Niño known as Super El Niño to occur during the winter of 2015 -- 16 . Although the Pacific Ocean 's warming water had been expected to bring strong storms to parts of the southwestern United States , actual precipitation totals generally underperformed those expectations . Early in 2016 , The National Interagency Fire Center predicted that conditions from May through at least August would put much of the western United States in above-normal wildfire danger .", "Microwave digestion Microwave digestion is a common technique used by elemental scientists to dissolve heavy metals in the presence of organic molecules prior to analysis by inductively coupled plasma , atomic absorption , or atomic emission measurements . This technique is usually accomplished by exposing a sample to a strong acid in a closed vessel and raising the pressure and temperature through microwave irradiation . This increase in temperature and pressure of the low pH sample medium increases both the speed of thermal decomposition of the sample and the solubility of heavy metals in solution . Once these heavy metals are in solution , it is possible to quantify the sample through elemental techniques .", "La Niña La Niña ( -LSB- lɑːˈniːnjə -RSB- , -LSB- la ˈniɲa -RSB- ) is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon that is the counterpart of El Niño as part of the broader El Niño -- Southern Oscillation climate pattern . The name La Niña originates from Spanish , meaning `` the little girl '' , analogous to El Niño meaning `` the little boy '' . It has also in the past been called anti-El Niño , and El Viejo ( meaning `` the old man '' ) . During a period of La Niña , the sea surface temperature across the equatorial Eastern Central Pacific Ocean will be lower than normal by 3 to 5 ° C . In the United States , an appearance of La Niña persists for at least five months . It has extensive effects on the weather in North America , even affecting the Atlantic Hurricane Season .", "MS Viking Valiant Pride of Le Havre was the name of ferry for P&O Ferries that sailed between Portsmouth and Le Havre from 1989 to 1994 . From launch until 1994 , she was known as the Viking Valiant for Townsend Thoresen and P&O . In 1994 she was renamed Pride of Cherbourg2 for P&O and continued under this name until she was sold to El Salam Maritime in 2002 . El Salam Maritime renamed her Pride of Al Salam 1 for El Salam Maritime . In 2004 she was renamed Nador and chartered to Comanav , she was again renamed Mogador for Comanav in 2005 , sailing under this name until being scrapped in 2010 .", "2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .", "1992 hurricane season ", "Climate oscillation A climate oscillation or climate cycle is any recurring cyclical oscillation within global or regional climate , and is a type of climate pattern . These fluctuations in atmospheric temperature , sea surface temperature , precipitation or other parameters can be quasi-periodic , often occurring on inter-annual , multi-annual , decadal , multidecadal , century-wide , millennial or longer timescales . They are not perfectly periodic and a Fourier analysis of the data does not give a sharp spectrum . A prominent example is the El Niño Southern Oscillation , involving sea surface temperatures along a stretch of the equatorial Central and East Pacific Ocean and the western coast of tropical South America , but which affects climate worldwide . Records of past climate conditions are recovered through geological examination of proxies , found in glacier ice , sea bed sediment , tree ring studies or otherwise .", "Målilla Målilla is a locality situated in Hultsfred Municipality , Kalmar County , Sweden with 1,524 inhabitants in 2010 . It is more commonly known as the temperature capital of Sweden due to the frequent records , both high and low , being set there . A Swedish record high temperature of +38 ° C ( 100.4 ° F ) was set on June 29 , 1947 . This record is shared with Ultuna in Uppland . The lowest temperature recorded is − 33.8 ° C , one of the lowest ever recorded in southern Sweden . Being famous for the extremes in temperature , visitors are welcomed by a 15 metre high thermometer in the middle of the town 's only roundabout . Shortly after its inauguration in December 2000 , it was hit by a car and the bulb had to be replaced . Målilla is further famous for motorcycle speedway . Almost since the birth of the sport the local team has been amongst the best in Sweden . Dackarna Målilla , the original name of the team has lately changed names due to sponsorship deals . Luxo Stars and Team Svelux were two passing names until the original name once again was reinstated . The other two things which has put Målilla on the Swedish map is their bandy team Målilla Bandy which has had quite big success during the years and adventurer and mountaineer Janne Corax who is the only Swedish alpinist with first ascents in the Himalayas on the CV . The legendary pop band The Beach Boys founders , the Wilson and Love families , have their roots in Målilla .", "Suki ni Naru Sono Shunkan o: Kokuhaku Jikkō Iinkai Suki ni Naru Sono Shunkan o : Kokuhaku Jikkō Iinkai is an 2016 Japanese animated youth romance film directed by Tetsuya Yanagisawa , written by and produced by Qualia Animation . The film is based on Vocaloid songs from Kokuhaku Jikkō Iinkai ~ Renai Series ~ by HoneyWorks . It is the second film based on Kokuhaku Jikkō Iinkai ~ Renai Series ~ songs , following Zutto Mae Kara Suki Deshita . It was released in Japan by Aniplex on 17 December 2016 .", "Global Relief Model ", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "Global warming in Turkey ", "Effects of global warming on South Asia " ]

[ "Polar bear The polar bear ( ursus #Latin maritimus #Latin ) is a carnivorous bear whose native range lies largely within the Arctic Circle , encompassing the Arctic Ocean , its surrounding seas and surrounding land masses . It is a large bear , approximately the same size as the omnivorous Kodiak bear ( Ursus arctos middendorffi ) . A boar ( adult male ) weighs around 350 -- , while a sow ( adult female ) is about half that size . Although it is the sister species of the brown bear , it has evolved to occupy a narrower ecological niche , with many body characteristics adapted for cold temperatures , for moving across snow , ice and open water , and for hunting seals , which make up most of its diet . Although most polar bears are born on land , they spend most of their time on the sea ice . Their scientific name means `` maritime bear '' and derives from this fact . Polar bears hunt their preferred food of seals from the edge of sea ice , often living off fat reserves when no sea ice is present . Because of their dependence on the sea ice , polar bears are classified as marine mammals ; an alternative basis for classification as marine mammals is that they depend on the ocean as their main food source . Because of expected habitat loss caused by climate change , the polar bear is classified as a vulnerable species , and at least three of the nineteen polar bear subpopulations are currently in decline . For decades , large-scale hunting raised international concern for the future of the species , but populations rebounded after controls and quotas began to take effect . For thousands of years , the polar bear has been a key figure in the material , spiritual , and cultural life of circumpolar peoples , and polar bears remain important in their cultures ." ]

[ "Polar ice cap A polar ice cap or polar cap is a high-latitude region of a planet , dwarf planet , or natural satellite that is covered in ice . There are no requirements with respect to size or composition for a body of ice to be termed a polar ice cap , nor any geological requirement for it to be over land ; only that it must be a body of solid phase matter in the polar region . This causes the term `` polar ice cap '' to be something of a misnomer , as the term ice cap itself is applied more narrowly to bodies that are over land , and cover less than 50,000 km ² : larger bodies are referred to as ice sheets . The composition of the ice will vary . For example , Earth 's polar caps are mainly water ice , whereas Mars 's polar ice caps are a mixture of solid carbon dioxide and water ice . Polar ice caps form because high-latitude regions receive less energy in the form of solar radiation from the Sun than equatorial regions , resulting in lower surface temperatures . Earth 's polar caps have changed dramatically over the last 12,000 years . Seasonal variations of the ice caps takes place due to varied solar energy absorption as the planet or moon revolves around the Sun . Additionally , in geologic time scales , the ice caps may grow or shrink due to climate variation .", "Ursid hybrid An ursid hybrid is an animal with parents from two different species or subspecies of the Ursidae ( bear ) family . Species and subspecies of bear known to have produced offspring with another bear species or subspecies include brown bears , black bears , grizzly bears and polar bears , all of which are members of the Ursus genus . Bears not included in Ursus , such as the giant panda , are probably unable to produce hybrids . Note all of the confirmed hybrids listed here have been in captivity ( except grizzly/polar bear ) , but there have been hybrids in the wild . A recent study found genetic evidence of multiple instances and species combinations where genetic material has passed the species boundary in bears ( a process called introgression by geneticists ) . Specifically , species with evidence of past intermingling were ( 1 ) brown bear and American black bear , ( 2 ) brown bear and polar bear , ( 3 ) American black bear and Asian black bear , ( 4 ) bears currently distributed in Asia ( sloth bear , sun bear and Asian black bear ) . Overall , this study shows that evolution in the bear family ( Ursidae ) has not been strictly bifurcation , but instead showed complex evolutionary relationships .", "Minimalist shoe Minimalist shoes are shoes intended to closely approximate barefoot running conditions . They have reduced cushioning , thin soles , and are of lighter weight than other running shoes , allowing for more sensory contact for the foot on the ground while simultaneously providing the feet with some protection from ground hazards and conditions ( such as pebbles and dirt ) . Research shows that wearing a minimlist shoe can help improve foot strength and arch function .", "Anorexia nervosa Anorexia nervosa , often referred to simply as anorexia , is an eating disorder characterized by a low weight , fear of gaining weight , a strong desire to be thin , and food restriction . Many people with anorexia see themselves as overweight even though they are in fact underweight . If asked they usually deny they have a problem with low weight . Often they weigh themselves frequently , eat only small amounts , and only eat certain foods . Some will exercise excessively , force themselves to vomit , or use laxatives to produce weight loss . Complications may include osteoporosis , infertility and heart damage , among others . Women will often stop having menstrual periods . The cause is not known . There appear to be some genetic components with identical twins more often affected than non-identical twins . Cultural factors also appear to play a role with societies that value thinness having higher rates of disease . Additionally , it occurs more commonly among those involved in activities that value thinness such as high-level athletics , modelling , and dancing . Anorexia often begins following a major life-change or stress-inducing event . The diagnosis requires a significantly low weight . The severity of disease is based on body mass index ( BMI ) in adults with mild disease having a BMI of greater than 17 , moderate a BMI of 16 to 17 , severe a BMI of 15 to 16 , and extreme a BMI less than 15 . In children a BMI for age percentile of less than the 5th percentile is often used . Treatment of anorexia involves restoring a healthy weight , treating the underlying psychological problems , and addressing behaviors that promote the problem . While medications do not help with weight gain , they may be used to help with associated anxiety or depression . A number of types of therapy may be useful including an approach where parents assume responsibility for feeding their child , known as Maudsley family therapy and cognitive behavioral therapy . Sometimes people require admission to hospital to restore weight . Evidence for benefit from nasogastric tube feeding , however , is unclear . Some people will just have a single episode and recover while others may have many episodes over years . Many complications improve or resolve with regaining of weight . Globally , anorexia is estimated to affect 2.9 million people as of 2015 . It is estimated to occur in 0.9 % to 4.3 % of women and 0.2 % to 0.3 % of men in Western countries at some point in their life . About 0.4 % of young females are affected in a given year and it is estimated to occur ten times less commonly in males . Rates in most of the developing world are unclear . Often it begins during the teen years or young adulthood . While anorexia became more commonly diagnosed during the 20th century it is unclear if this was due to an increase in its frequency or simply better diagnosis . In 2013 it directly resulted in about 600 deaths globally , up from 400 deaths in 1990 . Eating disorders also increase a person 's risk of death from a wide range of other causes , including suicide . About 5 % of people with anorexia die from complications over a ten-year period , a nearly 6 times increased risk . The term anorexia nervosa was first used in 1873 by William Gull to describe this condition .", "Unprotected cruiser An unprotected cruiser was a type of naval warship in use during the late Victorian or pre-dreadnought era ( about 1880 to 1905 ) . The name was meant to distinguish these ships from `` protected cruisers '' which had become accepted in the 1880s . A protected cruiser did not have side armor on its hull like a battleship or `` armored cruiser '' but had only a curved armored deck built inside the ship -- like an internal turtle shell -- which prevented enemy fire penetrating through the ship down into the most critical areas such as machinery , boilers , or ammunition storage . An unprotected cruiser of course lacked even this level of internal protection . The definitions had some gray areas because individual ships could be built with a protective deck that did not cover more than a small area of the ship , or was so thin as to be of little value ( the same was true of the side armor on some armored cruisers ) . An unprotected cruiser was generally cheaper and less effective than a protected cruiser , while a protected cruiser was generally cheaper and less effective than an armored cruiser ( with some exceptions in each case ) .", "Pole shift hypothesis The cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis suggests that there have been geologically rapid shifts in the relative positions of the modern-day geographic locations of the poles and the axis of rotation of the Earth , creating calamities such as floods and tectonic events . There is evidence of precession and changes in axial tilt , but this change is on much longer time-scales and does not involve relative motion of the spin axis with respect to the planet . However , in what is known as true polar wander , the solid Earth can rotate with respect to a fixed spin axis . Research shows that during the last 200 million years a total true polar wander of some 30 ° has occurred , but that no super-rapid shifts in the Earth 's pole were found during this period . A characteristic rate of true polar wander is 1 ° or less per million years . Between approximately 790 and 810 million years ago , when the supercontinent Rodinia existed , two geologically rapid phases of true polar wander may have occurred . In each of these , the magnetic poles of the Earth shifted by approximately 55 ° .", "Sea ice Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs .", "Polar desert Polar deserts are areas with annual precipitation less than 250 mm and a mean temperature of less than 10 C during the warmest months . Polar deserts on Earth cover nearly 5,000,000 km2 and consist primarily of hard bedrock or gravel plains . Polar deserts are one of two polar biomes : polar deserts and Arctic tundra . These biomes are located at the poles of the earth , specifically , the Arctic , northernmost North America , Europe , and Asia , and Antarctica . Polar deserts are located in the Arctic and Antarctic . Unlike the tundra that can support plant and animal life in the summer , polar deserts are barren with permanent layers of ice . However , there is evidence of life in this seemingly inhospitable environment.The thick ice contains sediments of organic and inorganic substances which create a habitable environment for microbial organisms . These organisms are closely related to cyanobacteria which have a variety of functions , particularly , fixing carbon dioxide from the melting water . Temperature changes in polar deserts frequently cross the freezing point of water . This `` freeze-thaw '' alternation forms patterned textures on the ground , as much as 5 m in diameter ( as seen in the picture on the right ) . Most of the interior of Antarctica is polar desert , despite the thick ice cover . Conversely , the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica , although they have had no ice for thousands of years due to katabatic wind , are not necessarily polar desert . Polar deserts are relatively common during ice ages , as ice ages tend to be dry . Climate scientists have voiced concerns about the effects of global warming to the ice poles in these polar biomes .", "Hard keeper A hard keeper or ( British English ) poor doer is a horse or other livestock animal that is naturally prone to be thin , will lose weight quickly , and has difficulty gaining weight . A horse that is too thin is not necessarily a hard keeper . The animal may be ill , elderly , or has not been provided adequate nutrition . Whenever a horse is too thin , it is well-advised to have a veterinarian give the horse a thorough examination and recommend the best course of action . The opposite of a hard keeper is an easy keeper ( good doer ) ; an animal that can live on relatively little food and is prone to obesity and other health problems associated with a too-rich diet . In contrast , a truly hard keeper is almost never fat under any circumstances . It is extremely rare for a pony or a donkey to be a hard keeper . The condition is most often seen in light horse breeds that have either a naturally high-strung temperament or breeds that tend to a very lean phenotype and are then subjected to stressful conditions . Breeds with a higher percentage of hard keepers include race horses such as the Thoroughbred , and certain types of show horses bred for style and animation , such as the American Saddlebred . It is natural for a normal horse to require more nutrition to avoid weight loss if it is pregnant , lactating , under stress due to illness or management conditions , or when subjected to hard work . With a normal horse , adjusting the animal 's diet to compensate for the conditions it is facing will usually return the animal to its normal condition . If an animal is truly a hard keeper , proper nutrition requires a calorie-rich diet , but one that will not make the horse `` hot '' and prone to excess energy that may lead to yet more nervous behavior and continued weight loss . Forages that are highly nutritious and calorie-dense , such as alfalfa and beet pulp are often recommended . Concentrated feeds that are high in fat but low in carbohydrates , such as rice bran , ground flaxseed , or corn oil are often added to a basic grain or pelleted feed ration to assist weight gain without creating excess energy . High-energy feeds containing significant amounts of sugars , such as molasses , are not usually recommended because they have a tendency to make a horse `` hot '' or more excitable . However , in cases where a hard keeper also has work with high energy requirements , such as horse racing , an extra , but carefully balanced source of energy may be necessary . A horse that has not previously had trouble maintaining weight that suddenly begins to lose weight for no apparent reason is not a hard keeper . This type of weight loss is usually a sign of a health problem . In most cases , the horse may require worming to remove internal parasites , or it could have a dental problem that requires floating of the teeth . Sometimes , weight loss is a symptom of a more serious medical condition . Any horse with an unexplained weight loss usually should be examined by a veterinarian . A normal horse may become a hard keeper when it becomes older , particularly when over the age of 20 to 25 years . There are some body weight distribution changes that are linked to age , including a loss of muscle tone along the spine and hip that lead to somewhat more visible withers , hipbones , and ribs . However , these areas still should maintain good flesh . It is not natural for an old horse to be excessively thin . Sometimes the digestive system of older horses becomes less efficient , and a change in diet to `` senior '' feeds that are easier to digest is in order . However , weight loss in an older horse is more often linked to a dental problem and proper equine dentistry can often result in a return to normal weight , provided the horse still has enough functional teeth remaining . In extreme old age , such as when a horse is over 30 years old , the animal may no longer have any molars left , and may require a diet of mushy foods such as hay cubes soaked in water , beet pulp , or other specialized feeds . In such cases , these horses will appear to be too thin , but if obtaining proper nutrition will still have a healthy hair coat , flesh over bone , and other indicators of good health . In some animal cruelty cases where starvation is alleged , the caretakers of such animals often will claim that too-thin animals are `` just a hard keeper '' as a defense . However , the weight distribution and musculature of a hard keeper , particularly in the neck and hindquarters , is distinct from that of a starving horse , and a veterinarian can usually provide an expert opinion as to what is normal and what is not .", "Grade beam A grade beam or grade beam footing is a component of a building 's foundation . It consists of a reinforced concrete beam that transmits the load from a bearing wall into spaced foundations such as pile caps or caissons . It is used in conditions where the surface soil 's load-bearing capacity is less than the anticipated design loads . A grade beam differs from a wall footing because a grade beam is designed for bending and typically spans between pile caps or caissons , while a wall footing bears on soil and transmits the weight of the wall directly into the ground . It also differs from a strap beam because a grade beam is reinforced to distribute the weight of a wall to separate foundations , while a strap beam is designed to redistribute the weight of a column between footings . Grade beams may also be used in conjunction with spread footings , in a case with large moments from lateral loads , in order to reduce the size of each spread footing .", "Size–weight illusion The size -- weight illusion , also known as the Charpentier illusion , is named after the French physician Augustin Charpentier because he was the first to demonstrate the illusion experimentally . The illusion occurs when a person underestimates the weight of a larger object ( e.g. a box ) when compared to a smaller object of the same mass . Similar illusions occurs with differences in material and colour : metal containers feel lighter than wooden containers of the same size and mass , and darker objects feel heavier than brighter objects of the same size and mass . These illusions can all be described as contrast with the expected weight . The expected weight or density can be measured by matching visible and hidden weights , lifted in the same manner . This gives an expected density of about 1.7 for metal canisters and 0.14 for polystyrene blocks . Density expectations may assist in selecting suitable objects to throw . An early explanation of these illusions was that people judge the weight of an object from its appearance and then lift it with a pre-determined force . They expect a larger object to be heavier and therefore lift it with greater force : the larger object is then lifted more easily than the smaller one , causing it to be perceived as lighter . This hypothesis was disproved by an experiment in which two objects of the same mass , same cross section , but different height were placed on observers ' supported hands , and produced a passive size -- weight illusion . Recent studies have also shown that the lifting force quickly adapts to the true mass of the objects , but the size -- weight illusion remains . The illusion therefore can not be explained by the manner of lifting , and must be due to some perceptual rescaling based on prior expectations . The rescaling has been described as sub-optimal ( anti-Bayesian ) , in that the central nervous system integrates prior expectations with current proprioceptive information in a way that emphasises the unexpected information rather than taking an average of all information . It has also recently been suggested that the illusion may not be anti-Bayesian , but may instead rely on more complex yet still optimal inference processes than traditionally suggested . Other models describe the rescaling as partly beneficial , in that it enhances discrimination . Contrast effects are common in many perceptual modalities , and are similar to physiological adaptation . Adaptation can be explained as a change in the gain of the system , the gain being set to the appropriate level for maximum discrimination and for protection against sensory overload . Contrast effects may similarly be related to efficient neural coding . If the selected range is either too high or too low , as in the size -- weight illusion , there is both a contrast illusion and a loss of discrimination . It has been found that weight discrimination deteriorates if objects are lighter than their expected density , or heavier than their expected density . Models of this type can account for perceptual rescaling without involving the manner of lifting .", "Neanderthal anatomy Neanderthal anatomy differed from modern humans in that they had a more robust build and distinctive morphological features , especially on the cranium , which gradually accumulated more derived aspects , particularly in certain isolated geographic regions . Evidence suggests they were much stronger than modern humans while they were comparable in height ; based on 45 long bones from at most 14 males and 7 females , Neanderthal males averaged 164 -- and females 152 -- tall . Samples of 26 specimens in 2010 found an average weight of 77.6 kg for males and 66.4 kg for females . A 2007 genetic study suggested some Neanderthals may have had red hair .", "2011 Svalbard polar bear attack On 5 August 2011 , a starving polar bear in the Norwegian archipelago of Svalbard attacked a party of school children , organised by the British Schools Exploring Society ( BSES ) , who had camped near the Von Post glacier , some 25 miles ( 40 km ) from the settlement of Longyearbyen . The bear was reported as being starving and emaciated . The BSES party of eighty members had planned their trip to run from 23 July to 28 August -- the trip was cut short after the incident . BSES , a youth charity , was founded in 1932 by Surgeon Commander George Murray Levick , a member of Captain Scott 's expedition of 1910 -- 13 . Seventeen-year-old Horatio Chapple , a pupil of Eton College , was with a party of twelve at the time of the attack , and would die of injuries sustained . Four others were hurt , two seriously , and all were flown to Tromsø on mainland Norway for treatment . Chapple 's grandfather , Sir John Lyon Chapple , was formerly the president of BSES . The bear was shot dead by one of the expedition 's leaders , Spike Reid , who himself suffered severe head and face injuries .", "Polar meteorology Polar meteorology is the study of the atmosphere of Earth 's polar regions . Surface temperature inversion is typical of polar environments and leads to the katabatic wind phenomenon . The vertical temperature structure of polar environments tends to be more complex than in mid-latitude or tropical climates .", "Judo at the 1980 Summer Olympics The Judo competition at the 1980 Summer Olympics was the first time that the medal count was not dominated by Japan , since the country joined the boycott of the games because of the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan . Medals were awarded to male judoka in eight competitions , seven weight classes and the open competition -- two more than in 1976 . All events were held at the Palace of Sports of the Central Lenin Stadium at Luzhniki ( south western part of Moscow ) . The schedule started on July 27 and ended on August 2 .", "Project Boreas Project Boreas was a study conducted between 2003 and 2006 by the British Interplanetary Society to design a station on the Planum Boreum at the Martian North Pole . The project was international , involving over 25 scientists and engineers , co-ordinated by Charles S. Cockell . Pole Station was designed to operate for three summers and two polar winters . Amongst a diversity of scientific objectives the station occupants were to retrieve a deep core from within the Martian polar ice cap . Expeditions were planned to numerous locations across the Martian north polar cap , including the Chasma Boreale and the polar layered terrains . The study involved wide ranging investigations of the scientific priorities for a human presence at the Martian polar ice caps through to detailed architectural and design studies for the station . Studies were undertaken on mobility and communications and psycho-social issues for long-term operation at the Martian polar station .", "Inattentional blindness Inattentional blindness , also known as perceptual blindness , is a psychological lack of attention that is not associated with any vision defects or deficits . It may be further defined as the event in which an individual fails to perceive an unexpected stimulus that is in plain sight . When it simply becomes impossible for one to attend to all the stimuli in a given situation , a temporary blindness effect can take place as a result ; that is , individuals fail to see objects or stimuli that are unexpected and quite often salient . The term was coined by Arien Mack and Irvin Rock in 1992 and was used as the title of their book of the same name , published by MIT press in 1998 , in which they describe the discovery of the phenomenon and include a collection of procedures used in describing it . A famous study that demonstrated inattentional blindness asked participants whether or not they noticed a gorilla walking through the scene of a visual task they had been given . Research on inattentional blindness suggests that the phenomenon can occur in any individual , independent of cognitive deficits . However , recent evidence shows that patients with ADHD performed better attentionally when engaging in inattentional blindness tasks than control patients did , suggesting that some mental deficits may decrease the effects of this phenomenon . Recent studies have also looked at age differences and inattentional blindness scores , and results show that the effect increases as humans age . There is mixed evidence that consequential unexpected objects are noticed more : Some studies suggest that we can detect threatening unexpected stimuli more easily than nonthreatening ones , but other studies suggest that this is not the case . There is some evidence that objects associated with reward are noticed more . Numerous experiments have demonstrated that inattentional blindness also has an effect on people 's perception .", "Media depictions of body shape Body shape refers to the many physical attributes of the human body that make up its appearance , including size and countenance . Body shape has come to imply not only sexual/reproductive ability , but wellness and fitness . In the West , slenderness is associated with happiness , success , youth , and social acceptability . Being overweight is associated with laziness . The media promote a weight-conscious standard for women more often than for men . Deviance from these norms result in social consequences . The media perpetuate this ideal in various ways , particularly glorifying and focusing on thin actors and actresses , models , and other public figures while avoiding the use or image of overweight individuals . This thin ideal represents less than 5 % of the American population .", "Gouldian finch The Gouldian finch ( Erythrura gouldiae ) , also known as the Lady Gouldian finch , Gould 's finch or the rainbow finch , is a colourful passerine bird endemic to Australia . There is strong evidence of a continuing decline , even at the best-known site near Katherine in the Northern Territory . Large numbers are bred in captivity , particularly in Australia . In the state of South Australia , National Parks & Wildlife Department permit returns in the late 1990s showed that over 13,000 Gouldian finches were being kept by aviculturists . If extrapolated to an Australia-wide figure this would result in a total of over 100,000 birds . In 1992 , it was classified as `` endangered in the wild '' under IUCN 's criteria C2ai . This was because the viable population size was estimated to be less than 2,500 mature individuals , no permanent subpopulation was known to contain more than 250 mature individuals , and that a continuing decline was observed in the number of mature individuals . It is currently subject to a conservation program .", "Polar Bear, Polar Bear, What Do You Hear? Polar Bear , Polar Bear , What Do You Hear ? is a children 's picture book , published in 1991 , written and illustrated by Bill Martin , Jr. and Eric Carle . The book is designed to help toddlers identify zoo animals and the noises they make . It features a polar bear , a lion , a hippopotamus , a flamingo , a zebra , a boa constrictor , an elephant , a leopard , a peacock , a walrus , a zoo keeper and some children . This is a companion book to Brown Bear , Brown Bear , What Do You See ? , published by Carle and Martin in 1967 , replacing the earlier text 's colours and common animals with sounds and less common creatures .", "Drift ice Drift ice is any sea ice other than fast ice , the latter being attached ( `` fastened '' ) to the shoreline or other fixed objects ( shoals , grounded icebergs , etc. ) . Drift ice is carried along by winds and sea currents , hence its name . When drift ice is driven together into a large single mass ( > 70 % coverage ) , it is called pack ice . Wind and currents can pile up that ice to form ridges up to several metres in height . These represent a challenge for icebreakers and offshore structures operating in cold oceans and seas . Drift ice consists of floes , individual pieces of sea ice 20 m or more across . There are names for various floe sizes : small -- 20 m to 100 m ; medium -- 100 m to 500 m ; big -- 500 m to 2000 m ; vast -- 2 km to 10 km ; and giant -- more than 10 km . Seasonal ice drift in the Sea of Okhotsk by the northern coast of Hokkaidō , Japan has become a tourist attraction of this area with harsh climate , and is one of the 100 Soundscapes of Japan . The Sea of Okhotsk is the southernmost area in the Northern hemisphere where drift ice may be observed . Drift ice affects : Security of navigation Climatic impact ( see Polar ice packs ) Geological impact Biosphere influence ( see Ecology of sea ice ) The two major ice packs are the Arctic ice pack and the Antarctic ice pack . The most important areas of pack ice are the polar ice packs formed from seawater in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs significantly change their size during seasonal changes of the year . Because of vast amounts of water added to or removed from the oceans and atmosphere , the behavior of polar ice packs has a significant impact on global changes in climate .", "Polar Class Polar Class ( PC ) refers to the ice class assigned to a ship by a classification society based on the Unified Requirements for Polar Class Ships developed by the International Association of Classification Societies ( IACS ) . Seven Polar Classes are defined in the rules , ranging from PC 1 for year-round operation in all polar waters to PC 7 for summer and autumn operation in thin first-year ice . The IACS Polar Class rules should not be confused with International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters ( Polar Code ) by the International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) .", "Augustin Charpentier Augustin Charpentier ( 1852 - 4 August 1916 ) was a French physician . In 1891 he carried out the first experiment providing evidence of the size-weight illusion . He carried out a various number of procedures comparing what people thought was the heaviness of lifted weights . He realized that lifters thought that larger objects were lighter than smaller objects of the same mass .", "Composite bearing A composite bearing is used to maintain separation and control friction between two moving parts . The distinguishing characteristic of a composite bearing is that the bearing is made from a combination of materials such as a resin reinforced with fibre and this may also include friction reducing lubricants and ingredients . A composite bearing is not simply a PTFE bearing in a carrier of another material , this is a PTFE bearing in a carrier . The plain composite bearing can be lighter than a rolling element bearing but this is not always a feature as some composites are extremely dense which results in lower porosity . Another distinctive feature of the composite bearing is its lightweight design - it can be one-tenth the weight of the traditional rolling element bearing . No heavy metals are used in its manufacture . Composite bearings can be customized to meet the individual requirements of many applications , such as wear - or high-temperature resistance . The weight of the composite bearing can vary depending on its backing . The PTFE liner can be applied on steel or aluminum backing . Through filler compounds , various properties of the composite bearing , such as resistance to creep , wear and electrical conductivity , can be optimized .", "Protected areas of Cameroon Many protected areas in Cameroon are still in pristine condition , mostly because there is less tourism in Cameroon than other regions of Africa . According to reported statistics , there were ten protected areas from 1932 to 1960 . Six protected areas were added between 1960 and 1980 , five more were added between 1980 and 2004 , and eight protected areas are under consideration within a final approval process .", "Starving artist A starving artist is an artist who sacrifices material well-being in order to focus on their artwork . They typically live on minimum expenses , either for a lack of business or because all their disposable income goes toward art projects . Related terms include starving actor and starving musician . Some starving artists desire mainstream success but have difficulty due to high barriers to entry in fields such as the visual arts , the film industry , and theatre . These artists frequently take temporary positions such as waitering or other service industry jobs while they focus their attention on `` breaking through '' in their preferred field . The Starving Artists Project describes these artists as those who have not yet broken into their careers . Other artists may find enough satisfaction in living as artists to choose voluntary poverty regardless of their prospects for future financial reward or broad recognition . Virginia Nicholson writes in Among the Bohemians : Experiments in Living 1900 -- 1939 : Fifty years on we may judge that Dylan Thomas 's poverty was noble , while Nina Hamnett 's was senseless . But a minor artist with no money goes as hungry as a genius . What drove them to do it ? I believe that such people were not only choosing art , they were choosing the life of the artist . Art offered them a different way of living , one that they believed more than compensated for the loss of comfort and respectability .", "Eat Smart, Move More, Weigh Less Eat Smart , Move More , Weigh Less is a 15-week adult weight management program that uses strategies based on evidence for weight loss and/or weight maintenance . The Eat Smart Move More Weigh Less classes focus on the 12 evidence-based eating and physical activity behaviors for weight management . The program does not provide a prescriptive diet plan , it teaches small lifetime changes . The program teaches mindfulness as a strategy to become more aware of eating and physical activity . Eat Smart , Move More , Weigh Less includes methods for planning and tracking healthy eating and physical activity behaviors . In 2007 , Eat Smart , Move More , Weigh Less curriculum was developed by a writing team from NC State University and NC Division of Public Health . A complete listing of authors and their respective affiliations can be found on the program website . The 15-lesson curriculum was peer reviewed by state and local nutrition and physical activity professionals , representatives from the medical community , and a CDC project officer .", "Easy keeper An easy keeper , easy doer or ( British English ) good doer is a livestock animal that can live on relatively little food . The opposite of an easy keeper is a hard keeper ( poor doer ) , an animal that is prone to be too thin and has difficulty maintaining adequate weight . Easy keepers tend to be found most often in breeds originally developed to survive under harsh conditions . Most pony breeds are easy keepers , and smaller , hardy horse breeds such as the Arabian or Mustang have many representatives with this trait . Many draft horse breeds , such as the Percheron are also easy keepers , as are most mules and donkeys . If overfed with a too rich modern diet , the easy keeper is prone to obesity and other health problems , including laminitis and metabolic disorders . Easy keepers may be confused with a mare that is pregnant . However , an easy keeper tends to gain weight all over its body , not just in the belly . Easy keepers are not always easy to distinguish from a normal horse that is too fat from simple overfeeding . However , an easy keeper will gain weight more quickly and lose weight more slowly than an ordinary horse , and when fed a standard diet geared toward an average horse , will gain , rather than maintain , weight . While it is not a problem to keep enough weight on an easy keeper , modern animal husbandry practices are often a challenge to such animals , as a modern diet can lead to a number of health problems , including obesity and , in some cases , laminitis . Some easy keepers may be prone to insulin resistance , Equine Metabolic Syndrome ( EMS ) , and possibly are more likely to develop Cushing 's disease later in life . Easy keepers with a susceptibility to various metabolic problems are also more prone to develop a `` cresty '' neck , and to not lose weight in that area , even when placed on a diet . Regularly monitoring the horse 's body condition score on a regular basis assists in helping the horse maintain proper weight .", "Quark Expeditions Quark Expeditions ® is the leader in Arctic and Antarctic expedition travel . The adventure travel company offers Polar Region expeditions aboard purpose-built small expedition ships and icebreakers carrying fewer than 200 passengers , and on unique land-based adventures . Each polar expedition ship features ice-strengthened hulls for superior navigation in ice-packed polar waters , and Zodiacs ( inflatable landing craft ) for safe , comfortable transfers ship to shore , allowing passengers to reach some of the world 's most remote places . Expedition team members are experts in various disciplines including polar history , biology , geology , photography , ornithology , glaciology and more . Additionally , many expeditions feature renowned special guests and speakers . Adventure activities are offered on each expedition .", "Beverage-can stove A beverage-can stove , or pop-can stove , is a do it yourself , ultralight , alcohol-burning portable stove . The simple design is made entirely from aluminium cans , lending itself to countless variations . Total weight , including a windscreen/stand , can be less than one ounce ( 28 g ) . The design is popular in ultralight backpacking due to its low cost and lighter weight than commercial stoves . This advantage may be lost on long hiking trips , where a lot of fuel is packed , since alcohol has less energy per weight than some other stove fuels . Of the available fuels , methanol delivers the least energy , ethanol somewhat more , butanol is hardly ever used , and isopropanol delivers the most . All but isopropanol burn with a smokeless flame ; it can provide both light and heat .", "Hierarchy of evidence Evidence hierarchies reflect the relative authority of various types of biomedical research . Although there is no single , universally-accepted hierarchy of evidence , there is broad agreement on the relative strength of the principal types of research , or epidemiological studies . Randomized controlled trials ( RCTs ) rank above observational studies , while expert opinion and anecdotal experience are ranked at the bottom . Some evidence hierarchies place systematic review and meta analysis above RCTs , since these often combine data from multiple RCTs , and possibly from other study types as well . Evidence hierarchies are integral to evidence-based medicine . The use of evidence hierarchies has been criticized as allowing RCTs too much authority . Not all research questions can be answered through RCTs , either because of practical issues or because of ethical issues . Moreover , even when evidence is available from high-quality RCTs , evidence from other study types may still be relevant . Greenhalgh suggests that `` the relative weight carried by the different types of primary study when making decisions about clinical interventions ( the `` hierarchy of evidence '' ) puts them in the following order : Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of `` RCTs with definitive results '' . RCTs with definitive results ( confidence intervals that do not overlap the threshold clinically significant effect ) RCTs with non-definitive results ( a point estimate that suggests a clinically significant effect but with confidence intervals overlapping the threshold for this effect ) Cohort studies Case-control studies Cross sectional surveys Case reports", "Lunar water Lunar water is water that is present on the Moon . Liquid water can not persist at the Moon 's surface , and water vapor is decomposed by sunlight , with hydrogen quickly lost to outer space . However , scientists have since the 1960s conjectured that water ice could survive in cold , permanently shadowed craters at the Moon 's poles . Water molecules are also detected in the thin layer of gases above the lunar surface . Water ( H2O ) , and the chemically related hydroxyl group ( - OH ) , can also exist in forms chemically bound as hydrates and hydroxides to lunar minerals ( rather than as free water ) , and evidence strongly suggests that this is indeed the case in low concentrations over much of the Moon 's surface . In fact , adsorbed water is calculated to exist at trace concentrations of 10 to 1000 parts per million . In 1978 it was reported that samples returned by the Soviet Luna 24 probe contained 0.1 % water by mass sample . Inconclusive evidence of free water ice at the lunar poles was accumulated from a variety of observations suggesting the presence of bound hydrogen . On 18 November 2008 , the Moon Impact probe was released from India 's Chandrayaan-1 at a height of 100 km . During its 25-minute descent , the impact probe 's Chandra 's Altitudinal Composition ( CHACE ) recorded evidence of water in 650 mass spectra gathered in the thin atmosphere above the Moon 's surface . In September 2009 , NASA payload Moon Mineralogy Mapper onboard Chandrayaan-1 detected water on the Moon surface and hydroxyl absorption lines in reflected sunlight . In November 2009 , NASA re-confirmed water on moon with its LCROSS space probe which detected a significant amount of hydroxyl group in the material thrown up from a south polar crater by an impactor ; this may be attributed to water-bearing materials -- what appears to be `` near pure crystalline water-ice '' . In March 2010 , it was reported that the Mini-SAR on board Chandrayaan-1 had discovered more than 40 permanently darkened craters near the Moon 's north pole that are hypothesized to contain an estimated 600 million metric tonnes ( 1.3 trillion pounds ) of water-ice . Water may have been delivered to the Moon over geological timescales by the regular bombardment of water-bearing comets , asteroids and meteoroids or continuously produced in situ by the hydrogen ions ( protons ) of the solar wind impacting oxygen-bearing minerals . The search for the presence of lunar water has attracted considerable attention and motivated several recent lunar missions , largely because of water 's usefulness in rendering long-term lunar habitation feasible ." ]

[ "Thermodynamic equilibrium Thermodynamic equilibrium is an axiomatic concept of thermodynamics . It is an internal state of a single thermodynamic system , or a relation between several thermodynamic systems connected by more or less permeable or impermeable walls . In thermodynamic equilibrium there are no net macroscopic flows of matter or of energy , either within a system or between systems . In a system in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium , no macroscopic change occurs . Systems in mutual thermodynamic equilibrium are simultaneously in mutual thermal , mechanical , chemical , and radiative equilibria . Systems can be in one kind of mutual equilibrium , though not in others . In thermodynamic equilibrium , all kinds of equilibrium hold at once and indefinitely , until disturbed by a thermodynamic operation . In a macroscopic equilibrium , almost or perfectly exactly balanced microscopic exchanges occur ; this is the physical explanation of the notion of macroscopic equilibrium . A thermodynamic system in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium has a spatially uniform temperature . Its intensive properties , other than temperature , may be driven to spatial inhomogeneity by an unchanging long range force field imposed on it by its surroundings . In non-equilibrium systems , by contrast , there are net flows of matter or energy . If such changes can be triggered to occur in a system in which they are not already occurring , it is said to be in a metastable equilibrium . Though it is not a widely named law , it is an axiom of thermodynamics that there exist states of thermodynamic equilibrium . The second law of thermodynamics states that when a body of material starts from an equilibrium state , in which portions of it are held at different states by more or less permeable or impermeable partitions , and a thermodynamic operation removes or makes the partitions more permeable and it is isolated , then it spontaneously reaches its own new state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium , and this is accompanied by an increase in the sum of the entropies of the portions .", "Black hole A black hole is a region of spacetime exhibiting such strong gravitational effects that nothing -- not even particles and electromagnetic radiation such as light -- can escape from inside it . The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform spacetime to form a black hole . The boundary of the region from which no escape is possible is called the event horizon . Although the event horizon has an enormous effect on the fate and circumstances of an object crossing it , no locally detectable features appear to be observed . In many ways a black hole acts like an ideal black body , as it reflects no light . Moreover , quantum field theory in curved spacetime predicts that event horizons emit Hawking radiation , with the same spectrum as a black body of a temperature inversely proportional to its mass . This temperature is on the order of billionths of a kelvin for black holes of stellar mass , making it essentially impossible to observe . Objects whose gravitational fields are too strong for light to escape were first considered in the 18th century by John Michell and Pierre-Simon Laplace . The first modern solution of general relativity that would characterize a black hole was found by Karl Schwarzschild in 1916 , although its interpretation as a region of space from which nothing can escape was first published by David Finkelstein in 1958 . Black holes were long considered a mathematical curiosity ; it was during the 1960s that theoretical work showed they were a generic prediction of general relativity . The discovery of neutron stars sparked interest in gravitationally collapsed compact objects as a possible astrophysical reality . Black holes of stellar mass are expected to form when very massive stars collapse at the end of their life cycle . After a black hole has formed , it can continue to grow by absorbing mass from its surroundings . By absorbing other stars and merging with other black holes , supermassive black holes of millions of solar masses may form . There is general consensus that supermassive black holes exist in the centers of most galaxies . Despite its invisible interior , the presence of a black hole can be inferred through its interaction with other matter and with electromagnetic radiation such as visible light . Matter that falls onto a black hole can form an external accretion disk heated by friction , forming some of the brightest objects in the universe . If there are other stars orbiting a black hole , their orbits can be used to determine the black hole 's mass and location . Such observations can be used to exclude possible alternatives such as neutron stars . In this way , astronomers have identified numerous stellar black hole candidates in binary systems , and established that the radio source known as Sagittarius A * , at the core of our own Milky Way galaxy , contains a supermassive black hole of about 4.3 million solar masses . On 11 February 2016 , the LIGO collaboration announced the first observation of gravitational waves ; because these waves were generated from a black hole merger it was the first ever direct detection of a binary black hole merger . On 15 June 2016 , a second detection of a gravitational wave event from colliding black holes was announced .", "Second law of thermodynamics The second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of an isolated system can only increase over time . It can remain constant in ideal cases where the system is in a steady state ( equilibrium ) or undergoing a reversible process . The increase in entropy accounts for the irreversibility of natural processes , and the asymmetry between future and past . Historically , the second law was an empirical finding that was accepted as an axiom of thermodynamic theory . Statistical thermodynamics , classical or quantum , explains the microscopic origin of the law . The second law has been expressed in many ways . Its first formulation is credited to the French scientist Sadi Carnot in 1824 , who showed that there is an upper limit to the efficiency of conversion of heat to work in a heat engine .", "Thermodynamics Thermodynamics is a branch of physics concerned with heat and temperature and their relation to energy and work . The behavior of these quantities is governed by the four laws of thermodynamics , irrespective of the composition or specific properties of the material or system in question . The laws of thermodynamics are explained in terms of microscopic constituents by statistical mechanics . Thermodynamics applies to a wide variety of topics in science and engineering , especially physical chemistry , chemical engineering and mechanical engineering . Historically , thermodynamics developed out of a desire to increase the efficiency of early steam engines , particularly through the work of French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot ( 1824 ) who believed that engine efficiency was the key that could help France win the Napoleonic Wars . Scottish physicist Lord Kelvin was the first to formulate a concise definition of thermodynamics in 1854 which stated , `` Thermo-dynamics is the subject of the relation of heat to forces acting between contiguous parts of bodies , and the relation of heat to electrical agency . '' The initial application of thermodynamics to mechanical heat engines was extended early on to the study of chemical compounds and chemical reactions . Chemical thermodynamics studies the nature of the role of entropy in the process of chemical reactions and has provided the bulk of expansion and knowledge of the field . Other formulations of thermodynamics emerged in the following decades . Statistical thermodynamics , or statistical mechanics , concerned itself with statistical predictions of the collective motion of particles from their microscopic behavior . In 1909 , Constantin Carathéodory presented a purely mathematical approach to the field in his axiomatic formulation of thermodynamics , a description often referred to as geometrical thermodynamics ." ]

[ "Brownian ratchet In the philosophy of thermal and statistical physics , the Brownian ratchet or Feynman-Smoluchowski ratchet is a thought experiment about an apparent perpetual motion machine first analysed in 1912 by Polish physicist Marian Smoluchowski and popularised by American Nobel laureate physicist Richard Feynman in a physics lecture at the California Institute of Technology on May 11 , 1962 , during his Messenger Lectures series The Character of Physical Law in Cornell University in 1964 and in his text The Feynman Lectures on Physics as an illustration of the laws of thermodynamics . The simple machine , consisting of a tiny paddle wheel and a ratchet , appears to be an example of a Maxwell 's demon , able to extract useful work from random fluctuations ( heat ) in a system at thermal equilibrium in violation of the second law of thermodynamics . Detailed analysis by Feynman and others showed why it can not actually do this .", "Thermodynamic operation A thermodynamic operation is an externally imposed manipulation or change of connection or wall between a thermodynamic system and its surroundings . An externally imposed change in the state of the surroundings of a system can usually be regarded as a virtual thermodynamic operation . It may usually be analyzed as due to changes in the walls that separate the systems in the surroundings . It is assumed in thermodynamics that the operation is conducted in ignorance of any pertinent microscopic information . A thermodynamic operation requires a contribution from an animate agency , or at least an independent external agency , that does not come from the passive or inanimate properties of the systems . Perhaps the first expression of the distinction between a thermodynamic operation and a thermodynamic process is in Kelvin 's statement of the second law of thermodynamics : `` It is impossible , by means of inanimate material agency , to derive mechanical effect from any portion of matter by cooling it below the temperature of the surrounding objects . '' A sequence of events that occurred other than `` by means of inanimate material agency '' would entail an action by an animate agency , or at least an independent external agency . Such an agency could impose some thermodynamic operations . For example , those operations might create a heat pump , which of course would comply with the second law . A Maxwell 's demon conducts an extremely idealized and naturally unrealizable kind of thermodynamic operation . An ordinary language expression for a thermodynamic operation is used by Edward A. Guggenheim : `` tampering '' with the bodies .", "Zeroth law Zeroth law may refer to : The Zeroth law of thermodynamics The Zeroth law of robotics", "Zeroth law of thermodynamics The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two thermodynamic systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third , then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other . Accordingly , thermal equilibrium between systems is a transitive relation . Two systems are said to be in the relation of thermal equilibrium if they are linked by a wall permeable only to heat and they do not change over time . As a convenience of language , systems are sometimes also said to be in a relation of thermal equilibrium if they are not linked so as to be able to transfer heat to each other , but would not do so if they were connected by a wall permeable only to heat . The physical meaning of the law was expressed by Maxwell in the words : `` All heat is of the same kind '' . For this reason , another statement of the law is `` All diathermal walls are equivalent '' . The law is important for the mathematical formulation of thermodynamics , which needs the assertion that the relation of thermal equilibrium is an equivalence relation . This information is needed for a mathematical definition of temperature that will agree with the physical existence of valid thermometers .", "Third law of thermodynamics The third law of thermodynamics is sometimes stated as follows , regarding the properties of systems in equilibrium at absolute zero temperature : At absolute zero ( zero kelvin ) , the system must be in a state with the minimum possible energy , and the above statement of the third law holds true provided that the perfect crystal has only one minimum energy state . Entropy is related to the number of accessible microstates , and for a system consisting of many particles , quantum mechanics indicates that there is only one unique state ( called the ground state ) with minimum energy . If the system does not have a well-defined order ( if its order is glassy , for example ) , then in practice there will remain some finite entropy as the system is brought to very low temperatures as the system becomes locked into a configuration with non-minimal energy . The constant value is called the residual entropy of the system . The Nernst -- Simon statement of the third law of thermodynamics concerns thermodynamic processes at a fixed , low temperature : Here a condensed system refers to liquids and solids . A classical formulation by Nernst ( actually a consequence of the Third Law ) is : It was proven in 2017 by Masanes and Oppenheim . There also exists a formulation of the Third Law which approaches the subject by postulating a specific energy behavior :", "Carnot's theorem (thermodynamics) Carnot 's theorem , developed in 1824 by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot , also called Carnot 's rule , is a principle that specifies limits on the maximum efficiency any heat engine can obtain . The efficiency of a Carnot engine depends solely on the difference between the hot and cold temperature reservoirs . Carnot 's theorem states : All heat engines between two heat reservoirs are less efficient than a Carnot heat engine operating between the same reservoirs . Every Carnot heat engine between a pair of heat reservoirs is equally efficient , regardless of the working substance employed or the operation details . The formula for this maximum efficiency is where TC is the absolute temperature of the cold reservoir , TH is the absolute temperature of the hot reservoir , and the efficiency is the ratio of the work done by the engine to the heat drawn out of the hot reservoir . Based on modern thermodynamics , Carnot 's theorem is a result of the second law of thermodynamics . Historically , however , it was based on contemporary caloric theory and preceded the establishment of the second law .", "Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire and on Machines Fitted to Develop that Power is a book published in 1824 by French physicist Sadi Carnot . The 118-page book 's French title was Réflexions sur la puissance motrice du feu et sur les machines propres à développer cette puissance . It is a significant publication in the history of thermodynamics about a generalized theory of heat engines . The book is considered the founding work of thermodynamics . It contains the preliminary outline of the second law of thermodynamics . Carnot stated that motive power is due to the fall of caloric ( heat ) from a hot to a cold body . The work was unnoticed until 1834 when French mining engineer Émile Clapeyron put it on a graphical footing in his Memoir on the Motive Power of Heat . Through Clapeyron 's paper , German physicist Rudolf Clausius learned of Carnot 's theory of heat and through a modification of Carnot 's suppositions on heat , Clausius put the second law in mathematical form with his introduction of the concept of entropy . By 1849 , thermo-dynamic , as a functional term , was used in William Thomson 's paper An Account of Carnot 's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat . The Reflections contain a number of principles such as the Carnot cycle , the Carnot heat engine , Carnot 's theorem , thermodynamic efficiency . Similar to how the Reflections was the precursor to the second law , English physicist James Joule 's 1843 paper Mechanical equivalent of heat was the precursor to the first law of thermodynamics . Despite the fact that the caloric theory of heat was incorrect , Carnot 's work brought together three insights that remain relevant and was used by his successors that lead to the concept of entropy : The `` fall of heat '' from a high temperature to a lower temperature is where the work comes from . Analyzing a cycle , rather than an open system , is the correct way to analyze a heat engine . The concept of a reversible process .", "History of perpetual motion machines The history of perpetual motion machines dates back to the Middle Ages . For millennia , it was not clear whether perpetual motion devices were possible or not , but modern theories of thermodynamics have shown that they are impossible . Despite this , many attempts have been made to construct such machines , continuing into modern times . Modern designers and proponents sometimes use other terms , such as `` overunity '' , to describe their inventions .", "Chemical thermodynamics Chemical thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics . Chemical thermodynamics involves not only laboratory measurements of various thermodynamic properties , but also the application of mathematical methods to the study of chemical questions and the spontaneity of processes . The structure of chemical thermodynamics is based on the first two laws of thermodynamics . Starting from the first and second laws of thermodynamics , four equations called the `` fundamental equations of Gibbs '' can be derived . From these four , a multitude of equations , relating the thermodynamic properties of the thermodynamic system can be derived using relatively simple mathematics . This outlines the mathematical framework of chemical thermodynamics .", "Conservation of energy In physics , the law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant -- it is said to be conserved over time . Energy can neither be created nor destroyed ; rather , it transforms from one form to another . For instance , chemical energy can be converted to kinetic energy in the explosion of a stick of dynamite . In technical terms , conservation of energy can be rigorously proven by the Noether theorem to be a direct consequence of continuous time translation symmetry . A consequence of the law of conservation of energy is that a perpetual motion machine of the first kind can not exist . That is to say , no system without an external energy supply can deliver an unlimited amount of energy to its surroundings . For equations of motion which do not have time translation symmetry , the conservation of energy may not be able to be defined . Examples include curved spacetimes in general relativity or time crystals in condensed matter physics .", "Debra Searles Debra Searles is the professional name for an Australian theoretical chemist whose married name is Debra Bernhardt . She is best known for her contributions towards understanding the Fluctuation Theorem . This theorem shows the Second law of thermodynamics and the Zeroth law of thermodynamics can be derived mathematically rather than postulated as laws of Nature .", "T-symmetry T-symmetry or time reversal symmetry is the theoretical symmetry of physical laws under the transformation of time reversal : Although in restricted contexts one may find this symmetry , the observable universe itself does not show symmetry under time reversal , primarily due to the second law of thermodynamics . Hence time is said to be non-symmetric , or asymmetric , except for equilibrium states when the second law of thermodynamics predicts the time symmetry to hold . However , quantum noninvasive measurements are predicted to violate time symmetry even in equilibrium , contrary to their classical counterparts , although it has not yet been experimentally confirmed . Time asymmetries are generally distinguished as among those intrinsic to the dynamic physical laws , those due to the initial conditions of our universe , and due to measurements . The T-asymmetry of the weak force is of the first kind , The T-asymmetry of the second law of thermodynamics is of the second kind , while The T-asymmetry of the noninvasive measurements is of the third kind .", "Newton's laws of motion Newton 's laws of motion are three physical laws that , together , laid the foundation for classical mechanics . They describe the relationship between a body and the forces acting upon it , and its motion in response to those forces . More precisely , the first law defines the force qualitatively , the second law offers a quantitative measure of the force , and the third asserts that a single isolated force does n't exist . These three laws have been expressed in several different ways , over nearly three centuries , and can be summarised as follows : The three laws of motion were first compiled by Isaac Newton in his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica ( Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy ) , first published in 1687 . Newton used them to explain and investigate the motion of many physical objects and systems . For example , in the third volume of the text , Newton showed that these laws of motion , combined with his law of universal gravitation , explained Kepler 's laws of planetary motion .", "Clausius–Duhem inequality The Clausius -- Duhem inequality is a way of expressing the second law of thermodynamics that is used in continuum mechanics . This inequality is particularly useful in determining whether the constitutive relation of a material is thermodynamically allowable . This inequality is a statement concerning the irreversibility of natural processes , especially when energy dissipation is involved . It was named after the German physicist Rudolf Clausius and French physicist Pierre Duhem .", "Carnot cycle The Carnot cycle is a theoretical thermodynamic cycle proposed by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in 1824 and expanded upon by others in the 1830s and 1840s . It provides an upper limit on the efficiency that any classical thermodynamic engine can achieve during the conversion of heat into work , or conversely , the efficiency of a refrigeration system in creating a temperature difference ( e.g. refrigeration ) by the application of work to the system . It is not an actual thermodynamic cycle but is a theoretical construct . Every single thermodynamic system exists in a particular state . When a system is taken through a series of different states and finally returned to its initial state , a thermodynamic cycle is said to have occurred . In the process of going through this cycle , the system may perform work on its surroundings , thereby acting as a heat engine . A system undergoing a Carnot cycle is called a Carnot heat engine , although such a `` perfect '' engine is only a theoretical construct and can not be built in practice . However , a microscopic Carnot heat engine has been designed and run . Essentially , there are two systems at temperatures Th and Tc ( hot and cold respectively ) , which are so large that their temperatures are practically unaffected by a single cycle . As such , they are called `` heat reservoirs '' . Since the cycle is reversible , there is no generation of entropy during the cycle ; entropy is conserved . During the cycle , an arbitrary amount of entropy ΔS is extracted from the hot reservoir , and deposited in the cold reservoir . Since there is no volume change in either reservoir , they do no work , and during the cycle , an amount of energy ThΔS is extracted from the hot reservoir and a smaller amount of energy TcΔS is deposited in the cold reservoir . The difference in the two energies ( Th-Tc ) ΔS is equal to the work done by the engine .", "Loschmidt's paradox Loschmidt 's paradox , also known as the reversibility paradox , irreversibility paradox or Umkehreinwand , is the objection that it should not be possible to deduce an irreversible process from time-symmetric dynamics . This puts the time reversal symmetry of ( almost ) all known low-level fundamental physical processes at odds with any attempt to infer from them the second law of thermodynamics which describes the behaviour of macroscopic systems . Both of these are well-accepted principles in physics , with sound observational and theoretical support , yet they seem to be in conflict ; hence the paradox .", "Internal energy In thermodynamics , the internal energy of a system is the energy contained within the system , excluding the kinetic energy of motion of the system as a whole and the potential energy of the system as a whole due to external force fields . It keeps account of the gains and losses of energy of the system that are due to changes in its internal state . The internal energy of a system can be changed by transfers of matter or heat or by doing work . When matter transfer is prevented by impermeable containing walls , the system is said to be closed . Then the first law of thermodynamics states that the increase in internal energy is equal to the total heat added plus the work done on the system by its surroundings . If the containing walls pass neither matter nor energy , the system is said to be isolated and its internal energy can not change . The first law of thermodynamics may be regarded as establishing the existence of the internal energy . The internal energy is one of the two cardinal state functions of the state variables of a thermodynamic system .", "Thermodynamic system A thermodynamic system is the material and radiative content of a macroscopic volume in space , that can be adequately described by thermodynamic state variables such as temperature , entropy , internal energy and pressure . Usually , by default , a thermodynamic system is taken to be in its own internal state of thermodynamic equilibrium , as opposed to a non-equilibrium state . The thermodynamic system is always enclosed by walls that separate it from its surroundings ; these constrain the system . A thermodynamic system is subject to external interventions called thermodynamic operations ; these alter the system 's walls or its surroundings ; as a result , the system undergoes thermodynamic processes according to the principles of thermodynamics . ( This account mainly refers to the simplest kind of thermodynamic system ; compositions of simple systems may also be considered . ) The thermodynamic state of a thermodynamic system is its internal state as specified by its state variables . In addition to the state variables , a thermodynamic account also requires a special kind of quantity called a state function , which is a function of the defining state variables . For example , if the state variables are internal energy , volume and mole amounts , that special function is the entropy . These quantities are inter-related by one or more functional relationships called equations of state , and by the system 's characteristic equation . Thermodynamics imposes restrictions on the possible equations of state and on the characteristic equation . The restrictions are imposed by the laws of thermodynamics . According to the permeabilities of the walls of a system , transfers of energy and matter occur between it and its surroundings , which are assumed to be unchanging over time , until a state of thermodynamic equilibrium is attained . The only states considered in equilibrium thermodynamics are equilibrium states . Classical thermodynamics includes equilibrium thermodynamics . It also considers : ( a ) systems considered in terms of cyclic sequences of processes rather than of states of the system ; such were historically important in the conceptual development of the subject ; and ( b ) systems considered in terms of processes described by steady flows ; such are important in engineering . In 1824 Sadi Carnot described a thermodynamic system as the working substance ( such as the volume of steam ) of any heat engine under study . The very existence of such thermodynamic systems may be considered a fundamental postulate of equilibrium thermodynamics , though it is only rarely cited as a numbered law . According to Bailyn , the commonly rehearsed statement of the zeroth law of thermodynamics is a consequence of this fundamental postulate . In equilibrium thermodynamics the state variables do not include fluxes because in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium all fluxes have zero values by postulation . Equilibrium thermodynamic processes may of course involve fluxes but these must have ceased by the time a thermodynamic process or operation is complete bringing a system to its eventual thermodynamic state . Non-equilibrium thermodynamics allows its state variables to include non-zero fluxes , that describe transfers of matter or energy or entropy between a system and its surroundings .", "Equilibrium thermodynamics Equilibrium Thermodynamics is the systematic study of transformations of matter and energy in systems in terms of a concept called thermodynamic equilibrium . The word equilibrium implies a state of balance . Equilibrium thermodynamics , in origins , derives from analysis of the Carnot cycle . Here , typically a system , as cylinder of gas , initially in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium , is set out of balance via heat input from a combustion reaction . Then , through a series of steps , as the system settles into its final equilibrium state , work is extracted . In an equilibrium state the potentials , or driving forces , within the system , are in exact balance . A central aim in equilibrium thermodynamics is : given a system in a well-defined initial state of thermodynamic equilibrium , subject to accurately specified constraints , to calculate , when the constraints are changed by an externally imposed intervention , what the state of the system will be once it has reached a new equilibrium . An equilibrium state is mathematically ascertained by seeking the extrema of a thermodynamic potential function , whose nature depends on the constraints imposed on the system . For example , a chemical reaction at constant temperature and pressure will reach equilibrium at a minimum of its components ' Gibbs free energy and a maximum of their entropy . Equilibrium thermodynamics differs from non-equilibrium thermodynamics , in that , with the latter , the state of the system under investigation will typically not be uniform but will vary locally in those as energy , entropy , and temperature distributions as gradients are imposed by dissipative thermodynamic fluxes . In equilibrium thermodynamics , by contrast , the state of the system will be considered uniform throughout , defined macroscopically by such quantities as temperature , pressure , or volume . Systems are studied in terms of change from one equilibrium state to another ; such a change is called a thermodynamic process . Ruppeiner geometry is a type of information geometry used to study thermodynamics . It claims that thermodynamic systems can be represented by Riemannian geometry , and that statistical properties can be derived from the model . This geometrical model is based on the idea that there exist equilibrium states which can be represented by points on two-dimensional surface and the distance between these equilibrium states is related to the fluctuation between them .", "Heat death of the universe The heat death of the universe is a plausible ultimate fate of the universe in which the universe has diminished to a state of no thermodynamic free energy and therefore can no longer sustain processes that increase entropy . Heat death does not imply any particular absolute temperature ; it only requires that temperature differences or other processes may no longer be exploited to perform work . In the language of physics , this is when the universe reaches thermodynamic equilibrium ( maximum entropy ) . If the topology of the universe is open or flat , or if dark energy is a positive cosmological constant ( both of which are supported by current data ) , the universe will continue expanding forever and a heat death is expected to occur , with the universe cooling to approach equilibrium at a very low temperature after a very long time period . The hypothesis of heat death stems from the ideas of William Thomson , 1st Baron Kelvin , who in the 1850s took the theory of heat as mechanical energy loss in nature ( as embodied in the first two laws of thermodynamics ) and extrapolated it to larger processes on a universal scale .", "Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics The philosophy of thermal and statistical physics is that part of the philosophy of physics whose subject matter is classical thermodynamics , statistical mechanics , and related theories . Its central questions include : What is entropy , and what does the second law of thermodynamics say about it ? Does either thermodynamics or statistical mechanics contain an element of time-irreversibility ? If so , what does statistical mechanics tell us about the arrow of time ?", "Isolated system In physical science , an isolated system is either of the following : a physical system so far removed from other systems that it does not interact with them . a thermodynamic system enclosed by rigid immovable walls through which neither matter nor energy can pass . Though subject internally to its own gravity , an isolated system is usually taken to be outside the reach of external gravitational and other long-range forces . This can be contrasted with what ( in the more common terminology used in thermodynamics ) is called a closed system , being enclosed by selective walls through which can pass energy as heat or work , but not matter ; and with an open system , which both matter and energy can enter or exit , though it may have variously impermeable walls in parts of its boundaries . An isolated system obeys the conservation law that its total energy -- mass stays constant . Most often , in thermodynamics , matter and energy are treated as separately conserved . Because of the requirement of enclosure , and the near ubiquity of gravity , strictly and ideally isolated systems do not actually occur in experiments or in nature . Though very useful , they are thus hypothetical concepts only . Classical thermodynamics is usually presented as postulating the existence of isolated systems . It is also usually presented as the fruit of experience . Obviously , no experience has been reported of an ideally isolated system . It is , however , the fruit of experience that some physical systems , including isolated ones , do seem to reach their own states of internal thermodynamic equilibrium . Classical thermodynamics postulates the existence of systems in their own states of internal thermodynamic equilibrium . This postulate is a very useful idealization . In the attempt to explain the idea of gradual approach to thermodynamic equilibrium after a thermodynamic operation , with entropy increase according to the second law of thermodynamics , Boltzmann 's H-theorem used equations which assumed a system ( for example , a gas ) was isolated . That is , all the mechanical degrees of freedom could be specified , treating the enclosing walls simply as mirror boundary conditions . This led to Loschmidt 's paradox . If , however , the stochastic behavior of the molecules and thermal radiation in real enclosing walls is considered , then the system is in effect in a heat bath . Then Boltzmann 's assumption of molecular chaos can be justified . The concept of an isolated system can serve as a useful model approximating many real-world situations . It is an acceptable idealization used in constructing mathematical models of certain natural phenomena ; e.g. , the planets in the Solar System , and the proton and electron in a hydrogen atom are often treated as isolated systems . But from time to time , a hydrogen atom will interact with electromagnetic radiation and go to an excited state . Sometimes people speculate about `` isolation '' for the universe as a whole , but the meaning of such speculation is doubtful .", "Irreversible process In science , a process that is not reversible is called irreversible . This concept arises frequently in thermodynamics . In thermodynamics , a change in the thermodynamic state of a system and all of its surroundings can not be precisely restored to its initial state by infinitesimal changes in some property of the system without expenditure of energy . A system that undergoes an irreversible process may still be capable of returning to its initial state ; however , the impossibility occurs in restoring the environment to its own initial conditions . An irreversible process increases the entropy of the universe . However , because entropy is a state function , the change in entropy of the system is the same whether the process is reversible or irreversible . The second law of thermodynamics can be used to determine whether a process is reversible or not . All complex natural processes are irreversible . The phenomenon of irreversibility results from the fact that if a thermodynamic system , which is any system of sufficient complexity , of interacting molecules is brought from one thermodynamic state to another , the configuration or arrangement of the atoms and molecules in the system will change in a way that is not easily predictable . A certain amount of `` transformation energy '' will be used as the molecules of the `` working body '' do work on each other when they change from one state to another . During this transformation , there will be a certain amount of heat energy loss or dissipation due to intermolecular friction and collisions ; energy that will not be recoverable if the process is reversed . Many biological processes that were once thought to be reversible have been found to actually be a pairing of two irreversible processes . Whereas a single enzyme was once believed to catalyze both the forward and reverse chemical changes , research has found that two separate enzymes of similar structure are typically needed to perform what results in a pair of thermodynamically irreversible processes .", "Digital probabilistic physics Digital probabilistic physics is a branch of digital philosophy which holds that the universe exists as a nondeterministic state machine . The notion of the universe existing as a state machine was first postulated by Konrad Zuse 's book Rechnender Raum . Adherents hold that the universe state machine can move between more and less probable states , with the less probable states containing more information . This theory is in contrast to digital physics , which holds that the history of the universe is computable and is deterministically unfolding from initial conditions . The fundamental tenets of digital probabilistic physics were first explored at great length by Tom Stonier in a series of books which explore the notion of information as existing as a physical phenomenon of the universe . According to Stonier , the arrangement of atoms and molecules which make up physical objects contains information , and high-information objects such as DNA are low-probability physical structures . Within this framework , civilization itself is a low-probability construct maintaining its existence by propagating through communication . Stonier 's work has been unique in considering information as existing as a physical phenomenon , being broader than as an application to the domain of telecommunications . To distinguish the probability of the physical state of the molecules from the probability of the energy distribution of thermodynamics , the term extropy was appropriated to define the probability of the atomic configuration , as opposed to the entropy . Thus , in thermodynamics , a ` coarse-grain ' set of partitions is defined which groups together similar microscopically different states and in digital probabilistic physics the specific microscopic state probability is considered alone . The extropy is defined to be the self-information of the Markov chain describing the physical system . The extropy of a system in bits associated with the Markov chain configuration whose outcome has probability is : Within this philosophy , the probability of the physical system does not necessarily change with the deterministic flow of energy through the atomic framework , but rather moves into a lesser probability state when the system goes through a bifurcating transition . Examples of this include Bernoulli cell formation , quantum fluctuations in a gravitational field causing gravitational precipitation points , and other systems moving through unstable self-amplifying state transitions .", "Atmospheric thermodynamics Atmospheric thermodynamics is the study of heat-to-work transformations ( and their reverse ) that take place in the earth 's atmosphere and manifest as weather or climate . Atmospheric thermodynamics use the laws of classical thermodynamics , to describe and explain such phenomena as the properties of moist air , the formation of clouds , atmospheric convection , boundary layer meteorology , and vertical instabilities in the atmosphere . Atmospheric thermodynamic diagrams are used as tools in the forecasting of storm development . Atmospheric thermodynamics forms a basis for cloud microphysics and convection parameterizations used in numerical weather models and is used in many climate considerations , including convective-equilibrium climate models .", "Fluctuation theorem The fluctuation theorem ( FT ) , which originated from statistical mechanics , deals with the relative probability that the entropy of a system which is currently away from thermodynamic equilibrium ( i.e. , maximum entropy ) will increase or decrease over a given amount of time . While the second law of thermodynamics predicts that the entropy of an isolated system should tend to increase until it reaches equilibrium , it became apparent after the discovery of statistical mechanics that the second law is only a statistical one , suggesting that there should always be some nonzero probability that the entropy of an isolated system might spontaneously decrease ; the fluctuation theorem precisely quantifies this probability .", "Heat death paradox Formulated in 1862 by Lord Kelvin , Hermann von Helmholtz and William John Macquorn Rankine , the heat death paradox , also known as Clausius 's paradox and thermodynamic paradox , is a reductio ad absurdum argument that uses thermodynamics to show the impossibility of an infinitely old universe . This paradox is based upon the classical model of the universe in which the universe is eternal . Clausius 's paradox is a paradox of paradigm . It was necessary to amend the fundamental ideas about the universe , which brought about the change of the paradigm . The paradox was solved when the paradigm was changed . The paradox was based upon the rigid mechanical point of view of the Second principle of thermodynamics postulated by Rudolf Clausius according to which heat can only be transferred from a warmer to a colder object . If the universe was eternal , as claimed in the classical stationary model of the universe , it should already be cold . Any hot object transfers heat to its cooler surroundings , until everything is at the same temperature . For two objects at the same temperature as much heat flows from one body as flows from the other , and the net effect is no change . If the universe were infinitely old , there must have been enough time for the stars to cool and warm their surroundings . Everywhere should therefore be at the same temperature and there should either be no stars , or everything should be as hot as stars . Since there are stars and the universe is not in thermal equilibrium it can not be infinitely old . The paradox does not arise in Big Bang or Steady State cosmology . In Big Bang cosmology , the current age of the universe is not old enough to have reached equilibrium ; while in a Steady State system , sufficient hydrogen is replenished or regenerated continuously to allow for a constant average density and preventing stars from running down .", "Work output In physics , work output is the work done by a simple machine , compound machine , or any type of engine model . In common terms , it is the energy output , which for simple machines is always less than the energy input , even though the forces may be drastically different . In thermodynamics , work output can refer to the thermodynamic work done by a heat engine , in which case the amount of work output must be less than the input as energy is lost to heat , as determined by the engine 's efficiency .", "Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation See also Kirchhoff 's laws ( disambiguation ) for other laws named after Gustav Kirchhoff . In heat transfer , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation refers to wavelength-specific radiative emission and absorption by a material body in thermodynamic equilibrium , including radiative exchange equilibrium . A body at temperature radiates electromagnetic energy . A perfect black body in thermodynamic equilibrium absorbs all light that strikes it , and radiates energy according to a unique law of radiative emissive power for temperature , universal for all perfect black bodies . Kirchhoff 's law states that : For a body of any arbitrary material emitting and absorbing thermal electromagnetic radiation at every wavelength in thermodynamic equilibrium , the ratio of its emissive power to its dimensionless coefficient of absorption is equal to a universal function only of radiative wavelength and temperature . That universal function describes the perfect black-body emissive power . Here , the dimensionless coefficient of absorption ( or the absorptivity ) is the fraction of incident light ( power ) that is absorbed by the body when it is radiating and absorbing in thermodynamic equilibrium . In slightly different terms , the emissive power of an arbitrary opaque body of fixed size and shape at a definite temperature can be described by a dimensionless ratio , sometimes called the emissivity , the ratio of the emissive power of the body to the emissive power of a black body of the same size and shape at the same fixed temperature . With this definition , Kirchhoff 's law states : For an arbitrary body emitting and absorbing thermal radiation in thermodynamic equilibrium , the emissivity is equal to the absorptivity . In some cases , emissive power and absorptivity may be defined to depend on angle , as described below . The condition of thermodynamic equilibrium is necessary in the statement , because the equality of emissivity and absorptivity often does not hold when the material of the body is not in thermodynamic equilibrium . Kirchhoff 's law has another corollary : the emissivity can not exceed one ( because the absorptivity can not , by conservation of energy ) , so it is not possible to thermally radiate more energy than a black body , at equilibrium . In negative luminescence the angle and wavelength integrated absorption exceeds the material 's emission , however , such systems are powered by an external source and are therefore not in thermodynamic equilibrium .", "Reactionless drive A reactionless drive is a device producing motion without the exhaust of a propellant . A propellantless drive is not necessarily reactionless when it constitutes an open system interacting with external fields ; but a reactionless drive is a particular case of a propellantless drive as it is a closed system presumably in contradiction with the law of conservation of momentum and often considered similar to a perpetual motion machine . The name comes from Newton 's third law , which is usually expressed as , `` for every action , there is an equal and opposite reaction . '' A large number of infeasible devices , such as the Dean drive , are a staple of science fiction particularly for space propulsion . To date , no reactionless device has ever been validated under properly controlled conditions .", "Adiabatic wall In thermodynamics , an adiabatic wall between two thermodynamic systems does not allow heat or matter to pass across it . In theoretical investigations , it is sometimes assumed that one of the two systems is the surroundings of the other . Then it is assumed that the work transferred is reversible within the surroundings , but in thermodynamics it is not assumed that the work transferred is reversible within the system . The assumption of reversibility in the surroundings has the consequence that the quantity of work transferred is well defined by macroscopic variables in the surroundings . Accordingly , the surroundings are sometimes said to have a reversible work reservoir . Along with the idea of an adiabatic wall is that of an adiabatic enclosure . It is easily possible that a system has some boundary walls that are adiabatic and others that are not . When some are not adiabatic , then the system is not adiabatically enclosed , though adiabatic transfer of energy as work can occur across the adiabatic walls . The adiabatic enclosure is important because , according to one widely cited author , Herbert Callen , `` An essential prerequisite for the measurability of energy is the existence of walls that do not permit the transfer of energy in the form of heat . '' In thermodynamics , it is customary to assume a priori the physical existence of adiabatic enclosures , though it is not customary to label this assumption separately as an axiom or numbered law .", "Exergy efficiency Exergy efficiency ( also known as the second-law efficiency or rational efficiency ) computes the efficiency of a process taking the second law of thermodynamics into account ." ]

[ "Roy Spencer (scientist) Roy Warren Spencer ( born December 20 , 1955 ) is a meteorologist , Principal Research Scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville , and the U.S. Science Team leader for the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer ( AMSR-E ) on NASA 's Aqua satellite . He has served as Senior Scientist for Climate Studies at NASA 's Marshall Space Flight Center . He is known for his satellite-based temperature monitoring work , for which he was awarded the American Meteorological Society 's Special Award .", "Evolution as fact and theory Many scientists and philosophers of science have described evolution as fact and theory , a phrase which was used as the title of an article by paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould in 1981 . He describes fact in science as meaning data , not absolute certainty but `` confirmed to such a degree that it would be perverse to withhold provisional assent '' . A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation of such facts . The facts of evolution come from observational evidence of current processes , from imperfections in organisms recording historical common descent , and from transitions in the fossil record . Theories of evolution provide a provisional explanation for these facts . Each of the words `` evolution '' , `` fact '' and `` theory '' has several meanings in different contexts . Evolution means change over time , as in stellar evolution . In biology it refers to observed changes in organisms , to their descent from a common ancestor , and at a technical level to a change in gene frequency over time ; it can also refer to explanatory theories ( such as Charles Darwin 's theory of natural selection ) which explain the mechanisms of evolution . To a scientist , fact can describe a repeatable observation that all can agree on ; it can refer to something that is so well established that nobody in a community disagrees with it ; and it can also refer to the truth or falsity of a proposition . To the public , theory can mean an opinion or conjecture ( e.g. , `` it 's only a theory '' ) , but among scientists it has a much stronger connotation of `` well-substantiated explanation '' . With this number of choices , people can often talk past each other , and meanings become the subject of linguistic analysis . Evidence for evolution continues to be accumulated and tested . The scientific literature includes statements by evolutionary biologists and philosophers of science demonstrating some of the different perspectives on evolution as fact and theory .", "Science Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe . Contemporary science is typically subdivided into the natural sciences , which study the material universe ; the social sciences , which study people and societies ; and the formal sciences , which study logic and mathematics . The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations . Disciplines which use science , like engineering and medicine , may also be considered to be applied sciences . From classical antiquity through the 19th century , science as a type of knowledge was more closely linked to philosophy than it is now , and in the Western world the term `` natural philosophy '' once encompassed fields of study that are today associated with science , such as astronomy , medicine , and physics . However , during the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the scientific method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Optics . While the classification of the material world by the ancient Indians and Greeks into air , earth , fire and water was more philosophical , medieval Middle Easterns used practical and experimental observation to classify materials . In the 17th and 18th centuries , scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws . Over the course of the 19th century , the word `` science '' became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world . It was during this time that scientific disciplines such as biology , chemistry , and physics reached their modern shapes . That same time period also included the origin of the terms `` scientist '' and `` scientific community '' , the founding of scientific institutions , and the increasing significance of their interactions with society and other aspects of culture .", "Regression analysis In statistical modeling , regression analysis is a statistical process for estimating the relationships among variables . It includes many techniques for modeling and analyzing several variables , when the focus is on the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables ( or ` predictors ' ) . More specifically , regression analysis helps one understand how the typical value of the dependent variable ( or ` criterion variable ' ) changes when any one of the independent variables is varied , while the other independent variables are held fixed . Most commonly , regression analysis estimates the conditional expectation of the dependent variable given the independent variables -- that is , the average value of the dependent variable when the independent variables are fixed . Less commonly , the focus is on a quantile , or other location parameter of the conditional distribution of the dependent variable given the independent variables . In all cases , the estimation target is a function of the independent variables called the regression function . In regression analysis , it is also of interest to characterize the variation of the dependent variable around the regression function which can be described by a probability distribution . A related but distinct approach is necessary condition analysis ( NCA ) , which estimates the maximum ( rather than average ) value of the dependent variable for a given value of the independent variable ( ceiling line rather than central line ) in order to identify what value of the independent variable is necessary but not sufficient for a given value of the dependent variable . Regression analysis is widely used for prediction and forecasting , where its use has substantial overlap with the field of machine learning . Regression analysis is also used to understand which among the independent variables are related to the dependent variable , and to explore the forms of these relationships . In restricted circumstances , regression analysis can be used to infer causal relationships between the independent and dependent variables . However this can lead to illusions or false relationships , so caution is advisable ; for example , correlation does not imply causation . Many techniques for carrying out regression analysis have been developed . Familiar methods such as linear regression and ordinary least squares regression are parametric , in that the regression function is defined in terms of a finite number of unknown parameters that are estimated from the data . Nonparametric regression refers to techniques that allow the regression function to lie in a specified set of functions , which may be infinite-dimensional . The performance of regression analysis methods in practice depends on the form of the data generating process , and how it relates to the regression approach being used . Since the true form of the data-generating process is generally not known , regression analysis often depends to some extent on making assumptions about this process . These assumptions are sometimes testable if a sufficient quantity of data is available . Regression models for prediction are often useful even when the assumptions are moderately violated , although they may not perform optimally . However , in many applications , especially with small effects or questions of causality based on observational data , regression methods can give misleading results . In a narrower sense , regression may refer specifically to the estimation of continuous response variables , as opposed to the discrete response variables used in classification . The case of a continuous output variable may be more specifically referred to as metric regression to distinguish it from related problems .", "Richard Lindzen Richard Siegmund Lindzen ( born February 8 , 1940 ) is an American atmospheric physicist known for his work in the dynamics of the middle atmosphere , atmospheric tides , and ozone photochemistry . He has published more than 200 scientific papers and books . From 1983 until his retirement in 2013 , he was Alfred P. Sloan Professor of Meteorology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . He was a lead author of Chapter 7 , `` Physical Climate Processes and Feedbacks , '' of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Third Assessment Report on climate change . He has criticized the scientific consensus about climate change and what he has called `` climate alarmism . ''" ]

[ "Cloud feedback Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .", "Maximum likelihood estimation with flow data Maximum likelihood estimation with flow data is a parametric approach to deal with flow sampling data . Assume that we have observations of ai the time a person enters the state of interest , some observables xi , and the censoring of the flow data takes on a particular form . In particular , where is the observed duration outcome , is the underlying continuous variable and is the censoring threshold . For instance , when thinking about unemployment spells , is the data of entering unemployment , is a vector of worker characteristics , and is the observed unemployment duration . If we only follow the workers for a certain period of time , this variable is necessarily a censored version of the true unemployment duration . Two key assumptions allow for setting up the loglikelihood . First , a distributional form for the latent variable needs to be assumed . Second , independence between the true duration and the starting point of the spell is assumed , i.e. , where F is the conditional distribution of the underlying duration variable . This latter assumption allows us to model the probability that the variable is censored , i.e. , which leads to the following log likelihood : where f is the density associated with the distribution and is an indicator denoting whether . Additionally , it is possible to have the threshold vary at the observational level , by replacing by in the formulas above . Tests of specification in duration models encompass testing for the validity of the imposed functional form . Tests of restrictions on the functional form are similar to those testing for unobserved heterogeneity , where the restriction imposes no such heterogeneity . Nevertheless , it is often desirable to test for such heterogeneity , as this can bias the estimation of the hazard rate . Similarly , tests for censoring exist that compare the distribution of the generalized error under the censored and the uncensored assumption .", "MELISA A MELISA ( Memory Lymphocyte Immunostimulation Assay ) test is a blood test that detects type IV hypersensitivity to metals , chemicals , environmental toxins and molds from one single blood sample . The test does not measure toxicity -- that is to say , it will not measure the amounts of a harmful substance in the patient 's blood . It measures if the patient is allergic to it . Two articles have concluded that the MELISA test is not useful for diagnosis since a large number of false positive results will be obtained . A subsequent study confirmed MELISA as reproducible , sensitive , specific , and reliable for detecting metal sensitivity in metal-sensitive patients .", "CLIMAT CLIMAT is a code for reporting monthly climatological data assembled at land-based meteorological surface observation sites to data centres . CLIMAT-coded messages contain information on several meteorological variables that are important to monitor characteristics , changes , and variability of climate . Usually these messages are sent and exchanged via the Global Telecommunication System ( GTS ) of the World Meteorological Organisation ( WMO ) . Modifications of the CLIMAT code are the CLIMAT SHIP and CLIMAT TEMP / CLIMAT TEMP SHIP codes which serve to report monthly climatological data assembled at ocean-based meteorological surface observation sites and at land - / ocean-based meteorological upper-air observation sites , respectively . The monthly values included usually are obtained by averaging observational values of one or several daily observations over the respective month .", "Bootstrapping (statistics) In statistics , bootstrapping is any test or metric that relies on random sampling with replacement . Bootstrapping allows assigning measures of accuracy ( defined in terms of bias , variance , confidence intervals , prediction error or some other such measure ) to sample estimates . This technique allows estimation of the sampling distribution of almost any statistic using random sampling methods . Generally , it falls in the broader class of resampling methods . Bootstrapping is the practice of estimating properties of an estimator ( such as its variance ) by measuring those properties when sampling from an approximating distribution . One standard choice for an approximating distribution is the empirical distribution function of the observed data . In the case where a set of observations can be assumed to be from an independent and identically distributed population , this can be implemented by constructing a number of resamples with replacement , of the observed dataset ( and of equal size to the observed dataset ) . It may also be used for constructing hypothesis tests . It is often used as an alternative to statistical inference based on the assumption of a parametric model when that assumption is in doubt , or where parametric inference is impossible or requires complicated formulas for the calculation of standard errors .", "Bartlett's test In statistics , Bartlett 's test ( see Snedecor and Cochran , 1989 ) is used to test if k samples are from populations with equal variances . Equal variances across populations is called homoscedasticity or homogeneity of variances . Some statistical tests , for example the analysis of variance , assume that variances are equal across groups or samples . The Bartlett test can be used to verify that assumption . Bartlett 's test is sensitive to departures from normality . That is , if the samples come from non-normal distributions , then Bartlett 's test may simply be testing for non-normality . Levene 's test and the Brown -- Forsythe test are alternatives to the Bartlett test that are less sensitive to departures from normality . The test is named after Maurice Stevenson Bartlett .", "Peter Thejll Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .", "Minimum resolvable contrast Minimum resolvable contrast ( MRC ) is a subjective measure of a visible spectrum sensor 's or camera 's sensitivity and ability to resolve data . A snapshot image of a series of three bar targets of selected spatial frequencies and various contrast coatings captured by the UUT ( Unit Under Test ) are used to determine the MRC of the UUT , i.e. the visible spectrum camera or sensor . A trained observer selects the smallest target resolvable at each contrast level . Typically , specialized computer software collects the inputed data of the observer and provides a graph of contrast v.s. spatial frequency at a given luminance level . A first order polynomial is fitted to the data and an MRC curve of spatial frequency versus contrast is generated .", "Epistemic feedback The term `` epistemic feedback '' is a form of feedback which refers to an interplay between what is being observed ( or measured ) and the result of the observation . The concept can apply to a process to obtain information , where the process , itself , changes the information when being obtained . For example , instead of quietly asking customers for their opinions about food in a restaurant , making an announcement about food quality , as being tested in a survey , could cause cooks to focus on having high-quality results . The concept can also apply to changing the method of observation , rather than affecting the data . For example , if after asking several customers about food , they noted the food as generally good or fair , then the questions might be changed to ask , more specifically , which food items were most/least liked . Hence , the interplay can alter either the observations , or the method of observation , or both .", "Notational analysis In professional sports , notational analysis is the study of movement patterns , strategy and tactics in team sports . Successful patterns of play can be identified and used in subsequent matches . Notational analysis has a history in dance and music notation . Notational analysis is a way that critical events in a performance can be quantified in a consistent and reliable manner . In notational analysis , no change in performance of any kind will take place without feedback . The role of feedback is central in the performance improvement process , and by inference , so is the need for accuracy and precision of such feedback . The provision of this accurate and precise feedback can only be facilitated if performance and practice is subjected to a vigorous process of analysis . Augmented feedback has traditionally been provided by subjective observations , made during performance by the coaches , in the belief that they can accurately report on the critical elements of performance without any observation aids . Several studies not only contradict this belief , but also suggest that the recall abilities of experienced coaches are little better than those of novices , and that even with observational training , coaches ' recall abilities improved only slightly . Furthermore , research in applied psychology has suggested that these recall abilities are also influenced by factors that include the observer 's motives and beliefs . The coach is not a passive perceiver of information , and as such his or her perception of events is selective and constructive , not simply a copying process . This importance of feedback to performance improvement , and the limitations of coaches ' recall abilities alluded to above , implies a requirement for objective data upon which to base augmented feedback , and the main methods of `` objectifying '' this data involve the use of video / notational analysis ( Hughes and Franks , 1997 p. 11 ) . Coaches have been aware , consciously or unconsciously , of these needs for accuracy of feedback and have been using simple data gathering systems for decades . More recently , sports scientists have been using notational analysis systems to answer fundamental questions about game play and performance in sport . An early work , over some decades , on analysis of soccer was picked up by the then Director of Coaching at the Football Association , and this had a profound effect on the patterns of play in British football -- the adoption of the ` long ball ' game . Generally , the first publications in Britain of the research process by notational analysis of sport were in the mid-1970s , so as a discipline it is one of the more recent to be embraced by sports science . The publication of a number of notation systems in racket sports provided a fund of ideas used by other analysts . Because of the growth and development of sports science as an academic discipline , a number of scientists began using and extending the simple hand notation techniques that had served for decades . This also coincided with the introduction of personal computers , which transformed all aspects of data gathering in sports science . Currently hand and computerised notation systems are both used to equal extents by working analysts , although the use of computer databases to collate hand notated data post-event makes the analyses much more powerful . The applications of notation have been defined as : - 1 . tactical evaluation , 2 . technical evaluation , 3 . analysis of movement , 4 . development of a database and modelling , and 5 . for educational use with both coaches and players . Most pieces of research using notation , or indeed any practical applications working directly with coaches and athletes , will span more than one of these purposes .", "Testing effect The testing effect is the finding that long-term memory is increased when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the to-be-remembered information through testing with proper feedback . The effect is also sometimes referred to as retrieval practice , practice testing , or test-enhanced learning . It is useful for people to test their knowledge of the to-be-remembered material during the studying process , instead of solely studying or reading the material . For example , a student can use flashcards to self-test and receive feedback as they study . The testing effect provides the largest benefit to long-term memory when the tested material is difficult enough to require effort , the retrieval success is high , and feedback with correct answers is given after testing .", "Michelle Dessler Michelle Dessler is a fictional character played by Reiko Aylesworth on the television series , 24 . She was one of Jack 's closest and most trusted allies at CTU as well as one of his closest friends outside of work . The character first appeared in the second season of 24 as an Internet Protocol Manager in the Los Angeles Branch of CTU and a love interest of Tony Almeida . In subsequent storylines , she is seen to have held positions as Chief of Staff and Acting Special Agent in Charge at CTU Los Angeles , and Associate Special Agent in Charge at Division .", "Holdridge life zones The Holdridge life zones system is a global bioclimatic scheme for the classification of land areas . It was first published by Leslie Holdridge in 1947 , and updated in 1967 . It is a relatively simple system based on few empirical data , giving objective mapping criteria . A basic assumption of the system is that both soil and climax vegetation can be mapped once climate is known .", "Walk forward optimization Walk forward optimization is a method used in finance for determining the best parameters to use in a trading strategy . The trading strategy is optimized with in sample data for a time window in a data series . The remainder of the data are reserved for out of sample testing . A small portion of the reserved data following the in sample data is tested with the results recorded . The in sample time window is shifted forward by the period covered by the out of sample test , and the process repeated . At the end , all of the recorded results are used to assess the trading strategy . It means to get the most suitable/stable parameters of the system and run the system with these parameters using another segment of data and these two segments of data do not overlap each other . It is the culmination of the following methods and helps in creation of robust systems . Backtesting is using past data to test a trading system . It 's useful because , if a system was not profitable in the past , that 's a strong sign it wo n't be profitable in the future . It refers to applying a trading system to historical data to verify how a system would have performed during the specified time period . Forward testing is also known as Walk forward testing is the simulation of the real markets data on paper only . It means that though you are moving along the markets live , but you are not actually putting in real money , but doing virtual trading in the markets to understand the movements of markets better . Hence , it is also called Paper Trading . Forward performance testing is a simulation of actual trading and involves following the system 's logic in a live market .", "Breusch–Godfrey test In statistics , the Breusch -- Godfrey test , named after Trevor S. Breusch and Leslie G. Godfrey , is used to assess the validity of some of the modelling assumptions inherent in applying regression-like models to observed data series . In particular , it tests for the presence of serial correlation that has not been included in a proposed model structure and which , if present , would mean that incorrect conclusions would be drawn from other tests , or that sub-optimal estimates of model parameters are obtained if it is not taken into account . The regression models to which the test can be applied include cases where lagged values of the dependent variables are used as independent variables in the model 's representation for later observations . This type of structure is common in econometric models . Because the test is based on the idea of Lagrange multiplier testing , it is sometimes referred to as LM test for serial correlation . A similar assessment can be also carried out with the Durbin -- Watson test and the Ljung -- Box test .", "Sensitivity (control systems) The controller parameters are typically matched to the process characteristics and since the process may change , it is important that the controller parameters are chosen in such a way that the closed loop system is not sensitive to variations in process dynamics . One way to characterize sensitivity is through the nominal sensitivity peak : where and denote the plant and controller 's transfer function in a basic closed loop control System , using unity negative feedback . The sensitivity function , which appears in the above formula also describes the transfer function from external disturbance to process output . Hence , lower values of suggest further attenuation of the external disturbance . The sensitivity function tells us how the disturbances are influenced by feedback . Disturbances with frequencies such that is less than one are reduced by an amount equal to the distance to the critical point and disturbances with frequencies such that is larger than one are amplified by the feedback . It is important that the largest value of the sensitivity function be limited for a control system and it is common to require that the maximum value of the sensitivity function , , be in a range of 1.3 to 2 .", "Photon underproduction crisis The photon underproduction crisis was a cosmological deficit between observed photons and predicted photons . The deficit , or underproduction crisis , arises from comparing observations of ultraviolet light emitted from known populations of galaxies and quasars to theoretical predictions of the amount of ultraviolet light require to simulate the observed distribution of the hydrogen gas in the local universe in a cosmological simulation . The distribution of hydrogen gas was inferred using Lyman-alpha forest observations from Hubble Space Telescope 's Cosmic Origins Spectrograph . The amount of light from galaxies and quasars can be estimated from its effect on the distribution of hydrogen and helium in the regions between galaxies . Highly energetic ultraviolet photons can convert electrically neutral hydrogen gas into ionized gas . A team led by Juna Kollmeier reported an unexpected deficit of roughly 400 % between ionizing light from known sources and the actual observations of intergalactic hydrogen . Kollmeier and her team wrote in their scientific report , `` We examine the statistics of the low-redshift Lyman-alpha forest from smoothed particle hydrodynamic simulations in light of recent improvements in the estimated evolution of the cosmic ultraviolet background ( UVB ) and recent observations from the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph ( COS ) . We find that the value of the metagalactic photoionization rate required by our simulations to match the observed properties of the low-redshift Lyman-alpha forest is a factor of 5 larger than the value predicted by state-of-the art models for the evolution of this quantity . '' Cosmological simulations start at very high cosmological redshift z ( such as z = 100 or larger ) and are evolved to z = 0 . According to Benjamin D. Oppenheimer , who is one of the report 's coauthors , `` The simulations fit the data beautifully in the early universe , and they fit the local data beautifully if we 're allowed to assume that this extra light is really there . It 's possible the simulations do not reflect reality , which by itself would be a surprise , because intergalactic hydrogen is the component of the Universe that we think we understand the best . '' Kollmeier and her team state that '' ... either conventional sources of ionizing photons ( galaxies and quasars ) must contribute considerably more than current observational estimates or our theoretical understanding of the low-redshift universe is in need of substantial revision . '' Similar study , led by Michael Shull , found that the deficit is only factor 2 large and not a factor 5 as previously claimed . The photon underproduction crisis is resolved by a series of recent papers . Khaire & Srianand showed that a factor 2 to 5 times large metagalactic photoionization rate can be easily obtained using updated quasar and galaxy observations . Recent observations of quasars indicate that the quasar contribution to ultraviolet photons is factor 2 large as compared to previous estimates . The revised galaxy contribution is also factor 3 higher . Furthermore , the Kollmeier GADGET-2 simulations did not include heating from AGN feedback . Including AGN feedback was shown to be an important element for heating in the low redshift IGM ( Gurvich , Burkhart , & Bird 2016 . ) . This implies that the low redshift COS data can be used to calibrate AGN feedback models in cosmological simulations .", "Gabriela González Gabriela González , ( born 24 February 1965 in Cordoba , Argentina ) is a professor of physics and astronomy at the Louisiana State University and was the spokesperson for the LIGO Scientific Collaboration from March 2011 until March 2017 . She has published several papers on Brownian motion as a limit to the sensitivity of gravitational-wave detectors , and has an interest in data analysis for gravitational-wave astronomy . In February 2016 , she was one of four LIGO scientists present for the announcement that the first direct gravitational wave observation had been detected in September 2015 .", "Theoretical ecology Theoretical ecology is the scientific discipline devoted to the study of ecological systems using theoretical methods such as simple conceptual models , mathematical models , computational simulations , and advanced data analysis . Effective models improve understanding of the natural world by revealing how the dynamics of species populations are often based on fundamental biological conditions and processes . Further , the field aims to unify a diverse range of empirical observations by assuming that common , mechanistic processes generate observable phenomena across species and ecological environments . Based on biologically realistic assumptions , theoretical ecologists are able to uncover novel , non-intuitive insights about natural processes . Theoretical results are often verified by empirical and observational studies , revealing the power of theoretical methods in both predicting and understanding the noisy , diverse biological world . The field is broad and includes foundations in applied mathematics , computer science , biology , statistical physics , genetics , chemistry , evolution , and conservation biology . Theoretical ecology aims to explain a diverse range of phenomena in the life sciences , such as population growth and dynamics , fisheries , competition , evolutionary theory , epidemiology , animal behavior and group dynamics , food webs , ecosystems , spatial ecology , and the effects of climate change . Theoretical ecology has further benefited from the advent of fast computing power , allowing the analysis and visualization of large-scale computational simulations of ecological phenomena . Importantly , these modern tools provide quantitative predictions about the effects of human induced environmental change on a diverse variety of ecological phenomena , such as : species invasions , climate change , the effect of fishing and hunting on food network stability , and the global carbon cycle .", "Microscopic Observation Drug Susceptibility assay The Microscopic Observation Drug Susceptibility assay ( MODS ) is a culture method shown to be more sensitive , faster and cheaper test than current culture-based tests for Tuberculosis . The Microscopic Observation Drug Susceptibility assay ( MODS ) involves direct observation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and simultaneously yields drug-resistance .", "Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility The Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility ( ARM Climate Research Facility ) is a United States Department of Energy scientific user facility for the study of global climate change by the national and international research community . The ARM Climate Research Facility consists of global observation sites and research aircraft that measure radiative properties of the atmosphere , particularly cloud and aerosol formation processes . Continuous data from these sites , as well as supplemental data obtained through intensive field research campaigns , are available to scientists online through the ARM Data Archive . ARM is collaboratively managed by nine DOE national laboratories .", "Johannes Orphal Johannes Orphal ( born 11 July 1966 , in Magdeburg ) is a German physicist . He is Full Professor of Physics and Director of the Institute for Meteorology and Climate Research ( IMK ) at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology ( KIT ) . Until 2009 he was Professor at the University of Paris-Est in Créteil and research scientist at the CNRS . His main scientific contributions are in the field of molecular spectroscopy applied to the Earth 's atmosphere : laboratory measurements of unstable and reactive molecules and radicals , data evaluation for international databases e.g. HITRAN , preparation and use of remote-sensing satellite missions ( GOME , SCIAMACHY , MIPAS , MetOp , MTG ... ) to observe stratospheric chemistry , tropospheric air quality and processes of relevance for climate , as well as the development of sensitive in-situ measurements techniques like IBBCEAS .", "Mimi Spencer Mimi Spencer ( born 1967 ) is a journalist and author . A feature-writer and columnist for such titles as the Daily Mail , the Evening Standard , the Guardian , The Spectator , Marie Claire , Harper 's Bazaar and Observer Food Monthly . Spencer is the author of 101 Things To Do Before You Diet and The Fast Diet with Michael Mosley .", "Duncan Spencer Duncan Spencer ( born 5 April 1972 ) is a former English cricketer . Born in Nelson , Lancashire , he was a right-handed batsman and a right-arm fast bowler . Spencer 's first cricketing appearances came as part of an England A side playing against a Western Australia XI during an Australian tour in 1993 . Spencer 's debut first-class match came in the 1993 County Championship , though he only played one further match before signing for Western Australia in time for the 1994 Sheffield Shield . Western Australia finished in third place in the league during Spencer 's season at the club . Just three months after the end of the competition , he played once again in the County Championship , though he made little impact in the four games in which he played and Kent finished the season in midtable as Spencer dropped out of the county game with back trouble , but not before Sir Vivian Richards rated Spencer as the fastest bowler he had ever faced . After six years out of the Western Australian side , he returned to play six one-day matches for WA in the 2000/01 season and after the last of these matches , he returned a positive drug test to the anabolic steroid nandrolone . He was found guilty and suspended from all competitive cricket for 18 months . Spencer claimed that it was taken to relieve the pain caused by chronic back injuries . Spencer returned to sign for Sussex at the age of 34 , signing for the start of the 2006 County Championship season . However , Spencer played just one County Championship match following his return , moving to Minor Counties outfit Buckinghamshire during the second half of the season . Spencer was on the losing side of the 2006 Minor Counties Championship final . Throughout his career , he played as a lower-order batsman , particularly during his matches in England .", "Bobo doll experiment The Bobo doll experiment was the collective name of experiments conducted by Albert Bandura in 1961 and 1963 when he studied children 's behavior after watching an adult model act aggressively towards a Bobo doll , a toy that gets up by itself to a standing position when it is knocked down . There are different variations of the experiment . The most notable experiment measured the children 's behavior after seeing the model get rewarded , get punished , or experience no consequence for beating up the bobo doll . The experiments are empirical approaches to test Bandura 's social learning theory . The social learning theory claims that people learn through observing , imitating , and modeling . It shows that people not only learn by being rewarded or punished ( behaviorism ) , but they can also learn from watching somebody else being rewarded or punished ( observational learning ) . These experiments are important because they sparked many more studies on the effects of observational learning . The studies not only give us new data , but this data has practical implications , e.g. how children can be influenced from watching violent media .", "Judgment of Line Orientation Judgment of Line Orientation ( JLO ) is a standardized test of visuospatial skills commonly associated with functioning of the parietal lobe in the right hemisphere . The test measures a person 's ability to match the angle and orientation of lines in space . Subjects are asked to match two angled lines to a set of 11 lines that are arranged in a semicircle and separated 18 degrees from each other . The complete test has 30 items , but short forms have also been created . There is normative data available for ages 7-96 . In 1994 , Arthur L. Benton developed the test from his study of the effects of a right hemisphere lesion on spatial skills .", "International Halley Watch Halley 's Comet , named after English astronomer Edmund Halley who first demonstrated its periodicity , returns to the vicinity of the Sun and Earth approximately every 76 years . Since comets are believed to be the most primordial objects in the solar system , their study is of great importance to planetary science . At the time of the 1986 return ( technically , `` apparition '' ) of the comet , astronomical telescopes and related instrumentation were vastly more sensitive than for any previous apparition . Consequently , the International Halley Watch ( IHW ) was organized to stimulate , standardize , collect , and archive observations of the comet . The initial plans were formulated by scientists at NASA ` sJet Propulsion Laboratory in California , where a Lead Center for western hemisphere observations was established with support from NASA ; a corresponding Center for eastern hemisphere observations was funded by the Federal Republic of Germany at the Remeis Observatory ( code 521 ) in Bamberg . An international Steering Group was established , and a set of Discipline Specialists was chosen to organize observing networks , coordinate their activity , and ultimately to collect and archive their data . This effort was endorsed by the International Astronomical Union in 1982 , and cometary scientists were chosen as Discipline Specialists in the areas of Astrometry , Infrared Studies , Large Scale Phenomena , Near-Nucleus Studies , Photometry and Polarimetry , Radio Studies , Spectroscopy and Spectrophotometry , Meteor Studies , and Amateur Observations . The IHW also coordinated with the space missions to the comet , Giotto by the European Space Agency and Vega by the Soviet Union and collaborating countries . The collected data were subsequently published as a digital archive on CD-ROMs .", "Arthur König Arthur Peter König ( September 13 , 1856 , Krefeld -- October 26 , 1901 , Berlin ) devoted his short life to physiological optics . Born with congenital kyphosis he studied in Bonn and Heidelberg , moving to Berlin in the fall of 1879 where he studied under Hermann von Helmholtz , whose assistant he became in 1882 . After obtaining a doctoral degree in 1882 he qualified for a professorial position in 1884 . In 1890 he became director of the physical department of the Physiological Institute of the University of Berlin . In the same year he married Laura Köttgen with whom he had a son , Arthur , who became an astronomer . Circulatory problems caused by his kyphosis resulted in his premature death in 1901 . Originally working in physics , he began in 1883 to concentrate on physiological optics where he published over thirty papers , some of seminal importance . Among these are the 1886 paper ( together with Conrad Dietrici ) Fundamental sensations and their sensitivity in the spectrum , an empirical determination of what in fact is the spectral sensitivity of the human rod and cone sensors of vision . Earlier attempts at such measurements , but based on much simpler technology , had been made in 1860 by the English physicist James Clerk Maxwell ( 1831 -- 1879 ) . Using newly development spectrophotometric equipment and modifications of the experimental procedure König and Dieterici published a more detailed paper in 1892 , determining the `` fundamental sensations '' not only of subjects with normal color vision ( trichromats ) but also of dichromats and monochromats . With these measurements König provided evidence for the conjecture that the most common form of color blindness , dichromacy , is due to the absence of one cone type in the eye . Averaged König functions were widely used in psychophysical color stimulus calculations until new data based on a slightly different method and involving many more observers were determined by J. Guild and W. D. Wright in the later 1920s , resulting in the recommendations of standard observer data by the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage ( CIE , International Commission on Illumination ) in 1931 . Other important investigations involve the sensitivity of the normal eye for differences in wavelength of light , dependence of the Newton/Grassmann laws of color mixture on light intensity , validity of Fechner 's law at different light intensities , brightness of spectral hues at different light intensities , and the similarity between the perceptual sensitivity of the rod cells and the absorption spectrum of the rod photopigment , rhodopsin . König was very active as an editor . In 1889 he became the sole editor of Verhandlungen der Deutschen Physikalischen Gesellschaft . From 1891 on , together with the psychologist H. Ebbinghaus , he edited the journal Zeitschrift für Psychologie und Physiologie der Sinnesorgane . After Helmholtz 's death in 1894 König took on the task of completing preparations for the second edition of the former 's Handbuch der physiologischen Optik ( 1896 , Treatise on physiological optics ) to which he added a bibliography of vision consisting of nearly 8,000 titles . König 's 32 papers on physiological optics were published posthumously in book form in 1903 .", "Chi-squared test A chi-squared test , also written as test , is any statistical hypothesis test wherein the sampling distribution of the test statistic is a chi-squared distribution when the null hypothesis is true . Without other qualification , ` chi-squared test ' often is used as short for Pearson 's chi-squared test . Chi-squared tests are often constructed from a sum of squared errors , or through the sample variance . Test statistics that follow a chi-squared distribution arise from an assumption of independent normally distributed data , which is valid in many cases due to the central limit theorem . A chi-squared test can be used to attempt rejection of the null hypothesis that the data are independent . Also considered a chi-squared test is a test in which this is asymptotically true , meaning that the sampling distribution ( if the null hypothesis is true ) can be made to approximate a chi-squared distribution as closely as desired by making the sample size large enough . The chi-squared test is used to determine whether there is a significant difference between the expected frequencies and the observed frequencies in one or more categories .", "Precision Array for Probing the Epoch of Reionization The Donald C. Backer Precision Array for Probing the Epoch of Reionization ( PAPER ) is a radio interferometer funded by the National Science Foundation to detect 21 cm hydrogen ( HI ) fluctuations occurring when the first galaxies ionized intergalactic gas at around 500 Million years after the Big Bang . PAPER is a focused experiment aimed toward making the first statistical detection of the 21 cm reionization signal . Given the stringent dynamic range requirements for detecting reionization in the face of foregrounds that are five orders of magnitude brighter , the PAPER project is taking a carefully staged engineering approach , optimizing each component in the array to mitigate , at the outset , any potentially debilitating problems in subsequent data calibration and analysis . This staged approach addresses the observational challenges that arise from very-wide-field , high-dynamic-range imaging over wide bandwidths in the presence of transient terrestrial interference . PAPER began as a collaboration between Don Backer of the UC Berkeley Radio Astronomy Laboratory and Richard Bradley of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory . With Backer 's passing in 2010 , Aaron Parsons has assumed leadership of PAPER on the side of UC Berkeley . The two fundamental concerns that most influence the design of any HI reionization detection instrument are removing foregrounds and achieving the requisite sensitivity . The PAPER approach heavily emphasizes the former ; the level of instrumental calibration and foreground characterization that will be required to model and remove polarized galactic synchrotron emission , continuum point-sources , and galactic/extra-galactic free-free emission is unprecedented in the 100-200 MHz band expected to encompass reionization . PAPER consists of two distinct arrays : one located at the NRAO site in Green Bank , WV , which is used primarily for engineering investigations and field testing , and another located at the South African SKA site in the Karoo desert of the Northern Cape , South Africa. , which is used for science observations .", "Multinomial test In statistics , the multinomial test is the test of the null hypothesis that the parameters of a multinomial distribution equal specified values . It is used for categorical data ; see Read and Cressie . We begin with a sample of items each of which has been observed to fall into one of categories . We can define as the observed numbers of items in each cell . Hence . Next , we define a vector of parameters , where : . These are the parameter values under the null hypothesis . The exact probability of the observed configuration under the null hypothesis is given by The significance probability for the test is the probability of occurrence of the data set observed , or of a data set less likely than that observed , if the null hypothesis is true . Using an exact test , this is calculated as where the sum ranges over all outcomes as likely as , or less likely than , that observed . In practice this becomes computationally onerous as and increase so it is probably only worth using exact tests for small samples . For larger samples , asymptotic approximations are accurate enough and easier to calculate . One of these approximations is the likelihood ratio . We set up an alternative hypothesis under which each value is replaced by its maximum likelihood estimate . The exact probability of the observed configuration under the alternative hypothesis is given by The natural logarithm of the ratio between these two probabilities multiplied by is then the statistic for the likelihood ratio test If the null hypothesis is true , then as increases , the distribution of converges to that of chi-squared with degrees of freedom . However it has long been known ( e.g. Lawley 1956 ) that for finite sample sizes , the moments of are greater than those of chi-squared , thus inflating the probability of type I errors ( false positives ) . The difference between the moments of chi-squared and those of the test statistic are a function of . Williams ( 1976 ) showed that the first moment can be matched as far as if the test statistic is divided by a factor given by In the special case where the null hypothesis is that all the values are equal to ( i.e. it stipulates a uniform distribution ) , this simplifies to Subsequently , Smith et al. ( 1981 ) derived a dividing factor which matches the first moment as far as . For the case of equal values of , this factor is The null hypothesis can also be tested by using Pearson 's chi-squared test where is the expected number of cases in category under the null hypothesis . This statistic also converges to a chi-squared distribution with degrees of freedom when the null hypothesis is true but does so from below , as it were , rather than from above as does , so may be preferable to the uncorrected version of for small samples .", "Joan Lee Tu Joan Lee ( 1981 ) is a Canadian linguist and data scientist . Her Master of Arts thesis entitled What does txting do 2 language : The influences of exposure to messaging and print media on acceptability constraints ( 2011 ) made a notable contribution to the academic literature on text messaging . The thesis used acceptability judgment tasks to test a relationship between exposure to text messaging and word acceptance . It received international media attention . Lee 's lesser known works include the paper The opacity of s-irregular verbs in Korean : Confronting Optimality Theory approaches ( 2011 ) which was written in 2005 , and later published in the Calgary Papers in Linguistics . Lee also presented the paper The distribution of Turkish articles : Implications for L2 English at the Linguistic Society of America 2006 Summer Meeting in East Lansing , Michigan ." ]

[ "Eastern Time Zone The Eastern Time Zone ( ET ) is a time zone encompassing 17 U.S. states in the eastern part of the contiguous United States , parts of eastern Canada , the state of Quintana Roo in Mexico , Panama in Central America , and the Caribbean Islands . Places that use Eastern Standard Time ( EST ) when observing standard time ( autumn/winter ) are 5 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time ( UTC − 05:00 ) . Eastern Daylight Time ( EDT ) , when observing daylight saving time DST ( spring/summer ) is 4 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time ( UTC − 04:00 ) . In the northern parts of the time zone , on the second Sunday in March , at 2:00 a.m. EST , clocks are advanced to 3:00 a.m. EDT leaving a one-hour `` gap '' . On the first Sunday in November , at 2:00 a.m. EDT , clocks are moved back to 1:00 a.m. EST , thus `` duplicating '' one hour . Southern parts of the zone ( Panama and the Caribbean ) do not observe daylight saving time .", "Daylight saving time in the United States Daylight saving time in the United States is the practice of setting the clock forward by one hour during the warmer part of the year , so that evenings have more daylight and mornings have less . Most areas of the United States observe daylight saving time ( DST ) , the exceptions being Arizona ( except for the Navajo , who do observe daylight saving time on tribal lands ) , Hawaii , and the overseas territories of American Samoa , Guam , the Northern Mariana Islands , Puerto Rico , and the United States Virgin Islands . In general , daylight time is not observed in lower-latitude regions , as summer days are not much longer than winter ones as in higher latitudes , so the advantage of the change is smaller . Daylight saving time starts on the second Sunday in March and ends on the first Sunday in November , with the time changes taking place at 2:00 a.m. local time . With a mnemonic word play referring to seasons , clocks `` spring forward and fall back '' -- that is , in springtime the clocks are moved forward from 2:00 a.m. to 3:00 a.m. , and in fall they are moved back from 2:00 a.m. to 1:00 a.m. Daylight saving time lasts for a total of 34 weeks ( 238 days ) every year , about 65 % of the entire year ( including leap years ) . The following table lists recent past and near future starting and ending dates of daylight saving time in the United States :", "Daylight saving time Daylight saving time ( abbreviated DST ) , also sometimes erroneously referred to as daylight savings time , is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months so that evening daylight lasts longer , while sacrificing normal sunrise times . Typically , regions that use daylight saving time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring and adjust them backward in the autumn to standard time . American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784 . He wrote an essay `` An Economical Project for Diminishing the Cost of Light '' to the editor of The Journal of Paris , suggesting , somewhat jokingly , that Parisians could economize candle usage by getting people out of bed earlier in the morning , making use of the natural morning light instead . New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of daylight saving in 1895 . The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation , starting on April 30 , 1916 . Many countries have used it at various times since then , particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s . The practice has both advocates and critics . Some early proponents of DST aimed to reduce evening use of incandescent lighting -- once a primary use of electricity -- today 's heating and cooling usage patterns differ greatly , and research about how DST affects energy use is limited and contradictory . DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel , billing , record keeping , medical devices , heavy equipment , and sleep patterns . Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically , but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates and timings may be confusing ." ]

[ "Pacific Time Zone The Pacific Time Zone observes standard time by subtracting eight hours from Coordinated Universal Time ( UTC − 8 ) . During daylight saving time , its time offset is UTC − 7 and is thus based on the mean solar time of the 105th meridian west of the Greenwich Observatory . In the United States and Canada , this time zone is generically called the Pacific Time Zone ( PT ) . Specifically , it uses Pacific Standard Time ( PST ) when observing standard time ( late autumn to early spring ) , and Pacific Daylight Time ( PDT ) when observing daylight saving time ( early spring to late autumn ) . Most of Canada uses daylight saving time . In Mexico , the UTC − 8 time zone is known as the Northwest Zone , which is synchronized with the U.S. PDT daylight saving schedule . The largest city in the Pacific Time Zone is Los Angeles ; the city 's metropolitan area is the largest in the zone . The zone is two hours ahead of the Hawaii -- Aleutian Time Zone , one hour ahead of the Alaska Time Zone , one hour behind the Mountain Time Zone , two hours behind the Central Time Zone , and three hours behind the Eastern Time Zone .", "Standard Time Act The Standard Time Act of 1918 , also known as the Calder Act , was the first United States federal law implementing Standard time and Daylight saving time in the United States . It authorized the Interstate Commerce Commission to define each time zone . The section concerning daylight saving time was repealed by the act titled An Act For the repeal of the daylight-saving law , , over President Woodrow Wilson 's veto . Section 264 of the act mistakenly placed most of the state of Idaho ( south of Salmon River ( Idaho ) ) in UTC − 06:00 CST Central Standard Time , but was amended in 2007 by Congress to UTC − 07:00 MST Mountain Standard Time . MST was observed prior to the correction .", "Daylight saving time in the Americas Daylight saving time in the Americas is the arrangement in the Americas by which clocks are advanced by one hour in spring and moved back in autumn , to make the most of seasonal daylight . The practice is widespread in North America , with most of Canada , Mexico and the United States participating , but much less so in South America .", "Daylight saving time in Iran Before 1979 , Daylight saving time was observed in Iran . Thereafter it was abandoned until 1989 , when it started on the first day of Farvardin ( 21 -- 22 March ) in the Iranian calendar and ended on the last day of Shahrivar ( 21 -- 22 September ) . In the Spring of 2006 , the government of Iran ceased observing DST . However in September 2007 , the Majlis ( Iranian parliament ) passed a law restoring daylight saving time starting from March 21 , 2008 , despite opposition by the contemporary government .", "Daylight Saving Act of 1917 The Daylight Saving Act of 1917 was enacted by the Dominion of Newfoundland to adopt daylight saving time ( DST ) , thus making it one of the first jurisdictions in North America to do so , only a year after the United Kingdom on May 21 , 1916 . DST was not instituted in the United States until March 31 , 1918 .", "UTC−04:00 UTC − 04:00 is a time offset that subtracts 4 hours from Coordinated Universal Time ( UTC ) . It is observed in the Eastern Time Zone ( e.g. , Canada and the United States ) during the warm months of daylight saving time , as Eastern Daylight Time . The Atlantic Time Zone observes it during standard time ( cold months ) . It is observed all year in the Eastern Caribbean .", "Daylight saving time in Mexico Mexico adopted daylight saving time ( Spanish : horario de verano ) nationwide in 1996 , even in its tropical regions , because of its increasing economic ties to the United States . Although the United States has changed the schedule for DST beginning in 2007 , only the municipalities located less than 20 km from the border have adopted the change . Daylight saving time for Mexico begins the first Sunday of April and ends last Sunday of October ; and is usually referred to as the `` Summer Schedule '' ( Horario de Verano ) . Add one hour .", "Global warming (disambiguation) Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .", "Time in Samoa Samoa uses UTC +13:00 as standard time and UTC +14:00 as daylight saving time , which it observes during summer in the southern hemisphere . In 2011 , daylight saving time ended on Saturday 2 April 2011 , 04:00 local daylight time and started on Sunday 24 September 2011 , 03:00 local standard time . Due to its location in the South Pacific Ocean , Samoa traditionally did not observe daylight saving time . Initially planned for 2009 , the introduction of daylight saving time in Samoa was postponed for one year due to the aftermath of the 2009 Samoa tsunami . Being located just west of the International Date Line , Samoa is among the first places on earth to see each new day , along with Tonga , Tokelau ( during Standard Time ) and parts of Kiribati .", "Daylight saving time in Pakistan Pakistan has experimented with Daylight Saving Time ( DST ) a number of times since 2002 , shifting local time from UTC +05:00 to UTC +06:00 during various summer periods , having the effect of making Pakistan counter-intuitively half an hour ahead of India during those times , even though India is generally to its east . In 2002 , DST was observed from the first Sunday in April ( April 7 ) at 00:00 to the first Sunday in October ( October 6 ) at 00:00 . The government cabinet decided to do this `` in order to make maximum use of daylight and to save energy . '' In 2008 , DST began on June 1 , and was initially set to run through August 31 to meet the annual shortfall of 4 gigawatts of electricity instead of enforcing daily power cuts in households and factories . The government later extended the end date to October 31 , including the holy month of Ramadan ( which began in early September ) . DST was originally meant to end on August 31 , 2008 In 2009 , DST was observed from April 15 through October 31 .", "Climate change Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "Daylight saving time in Australia The choice of whether to use daylight saving time ( DST ) in Australia is a matter for the individual states and territories . However , during World War I and World War II all states and territories had daylight saving . In 1968 Tasmania became the first state since the war to practise daylight saving . In 1971 , New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , and the Australian Capital Territory followed Tasmania by observing daylight saving . Western Australia and the Northern Territory did not . Queensland abandoned daylight saving time in 1972 . Queensland and Western Australia have observed daylight saving over the past 40 years from time to time on trial bases . New South Wales , the Australian Capital Territory , Victoria , Tasmania and South Australia observe DST every year . This has resulted in three time zones becoming five during the daylight-saving period . South Australia time becomes UTC +10:30 , called Central Daylight Time ( CDT ) , possibly with `` Australia '' prefixed ( ACDT ) . The time in the southeastern states becomes UTC +11 , using `` Eastern '' in the time zone name , Eastern Daylight Time ( EDT ) , respectively Australia Eastern Daylight Time ( AEDT ) . Officially , the change to and from DST takes place at 2:00 am local standard time ( which is 3:00 am DST ) on the appropriate Sunday . Of the states that observe DST , most began on the last Sunday in October , and ended on the last Sunday in March , until 2008 . Tasmania , owing to its further southern latitude began DST earlier , on the first Sunday in October , and ended on the first Sunday of April . On 12 April 2007 , New South Wales , Victoria , Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory agreed to common starting and finishing dates for DST . From the 2008/09 period , the start of DST in these states and in South Australia commences on the first Sunday in October and ends on the first Sunday in April . Western Australia became the only state to observe daylight saving from the last Sunday in October to the last Sunday in March . Since 2009 Western Australia no longer observes daylight saving . Queensland ( AEST UTC +10 ) , Northern Territory ( ACST UTC +9:30 ) and Western Australia ( AWST UTC +8 ) do not observe DST .", "Daylight saving time in Paraguay Paraguay observes DST under decree 1867 of March 5 , 2004 . DST ends on the second Sunday of March and starts on the first Sunday of October . In 2007 , DST started on October 15 , 2006 and ended on March 11 , 2007 . In 2010 , Paraguay changed its own DST rules because of the energy crisis , ending DST on the second Sunday in April , a month later than previous years . The start date remains unchanged .", "History of climate change science The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "Time in the United States Time in the United States , by law , is divided into nine standard time zones covering the states and its possessions , with most of the United States observing daylight saving time ( DST ) for approximately the spring , summer , and fall months . The time zone boundaries and DST observance are regulated by the Department of Transportation . Official and highly precise timekeeping services ( clocks ) are provided by two federal agencies : the National Institute of Standards and Technology ( NIST ) ( an agency of the Department of Commerce ) ; and its military counterpart , the United States Naval Observatory ( USNO ) . The clocks run by these services are kept synchronized with each other as well as with those of other international timekeeping organizations . It is the combination of the time zone and daylight saving rules , along with the timekeeping services , which determines the legal civil time for any U.S. location at any moment .", "Greenhouse effect The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "Standard time Standard time is the synchronization of clocks within a geographical area or region to a single time standard , rather than using solar time or a locally chosen meridian ( longitude ) to establish a local mean time standard . Historically , the concept was established during the 19th century to aid weather forecasting and train travel . Applied globally in the 20th century , the geographical areas became extended around evenly spaced meridians into time zones which ( usually ) centered on them . The standard time set in each time zone has come to be defined in terms of offsets from Universal Time . In regions where daylight saving time is used , that time is defined by another offset , from the standard time in its applicable time zones . The adoption of standard time , because of the inseparable correspondence between time and longitude , solidified the concepts of halving the globe into an eastern and western hemisphere , with one prime meridian ( as well its opposite International Date Line ) replacing the various prime meridians that had previously been used .", "Daylight saving time in Mauritius Mauritius 's DST period started on the last Sunday in October , and ended on the last Sunday in March . It was re-introduced in 2008 Mauritius did not repeat DST since 2009 .", "Daylight saving time in Argentina Since 2009 , Argentina is not observing daylight saving time ( DST ) and the entire country stays on UTC-03 :00 . San Luis Province , which was previously in a different time zone than most of the country and which formerly observed DST , decided in April 2010 not to change its clocks back and to stay on UTC-3 all year round . The most recent history of Argentina observing DST was from 2007 to 2009 . After a period of not observing DST , Argentina observed DST in some provinces in an attempt to save energy . For each period , the executive branch of the government set the specific start and end dates for DST , i.e. there was no fixed annual schedule .", "Thermal Credits Thermal credits is a new holistic concept which corresponds to the percentage of the climate impact saving obtained through mitigation and adaptation measures applied against global warming , taking as reference the global temperature rise projected in a given time scale . Thermal credits are measured in percentages of global warming reduction in a given time .", "Global dimming Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .", "Orbital forcing Orbital forcing is the effect on climate of slow changes in the tilt of the Earth 's axis and shape of the orbit ( see Milankovitch cycles ) . These orbital changes change the total amount of sunlight reaching the Earth by up to 25 % at mid-latitudes ( from 400 to 500 Wm − 2 at latitudes of 60 degrees ) . In this context , the term `` forcing '' signifies a physical process that affects the Earth 's climate . This mechanism is believed to be responsible for the timing of the ice age cycles . A strict application of the Milankovitch theory does not allow the prediction of a `` sudden '' ice age ( rapid being anything under a century or two ) , since the fastest orbital period is about 20,000 years . The timing of past glacial periods coincides very well with the predictions of the Milankovitch theory , and these effects can be calculated into the future .", "Climate system Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "Daylight saving time in Egypt The history of daylight saving time in Egypt is complicated . It was cancelled in both 2015 and 2016 , after having been abolished and reinstated several times .", "Time in Jordan Time in Jordan is given by Arabia Standard Time ( AST ) ( UTC +02:00 ) , with an offset of one hour ( UTC +03:00 ) during the summer months . These changes do not necessarily occur on the same date every year . Daylight saving time typically starts late March or early April , and ends in late October .", "2000s (decade) The 2000s ( pronounced `` two-thousands '' or `` twenty-hundreds '' ) was a decade of the Gregorian calendar that began on January 1 , 2000 , and ended on December 31 , 2009 . The growth of the Internet contributed to globalization during the decade , which allowed faster communication among people around the world . The economic growth of the 2000s had considerable social , environmental and mass extinction consequences , raised demand for diminishing energy resources , and was still vulnerable , as demonstrated by the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 .", "Daylight saving time in Canada Daylight saving time ( DST ) is now observed in all Canadian provinces , with the exception of most of Saskatchewan , which observes Central Standard Time year-round even though it is in the Mountain Zone , effectively putting it on DST year round . Under the Canadian Constitution , laws related to timekeeping are a purely provincial matter . In regions where daylight-saving time is used , it commences on the second Sunday of March , and standard time restarts on the first Sunday in November .", "Daylight saving time in Oceania Parts of Australia , New Zealand , Fiji , Samoa and Tonga are areas of Oceania that currently observe daylight saving time ( DST ) .", "Sunlight Sunlight is a portion of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun , in particular infrared , visible , and ultraviolet light . On Earth , sunlight is filtered through Earth 's atmosphere , and is obvious as daylight when the Sun is above the horizon . When the direct solar radiation is not blocked by clouds , it is experienced as sunshine , a combination of bright light and radiant heat . When it is blocked by clouds or reflects off other objects , it is experienced as diffused light . The World Meteorological Organization uses the term `` sunshine duration '' to mean the cumulative time during which an area receives direct irradiance from the Sun of at least 120 watts per square meter . Other sources indicate an `` Average over the entire earth '' of `` 164 Watts per square meter over a 24 hour day '' . The ultraviolet radiation in sunlight has both positive and negative health effects , as it is both a principal source of vitamin D3 and a mutagen . Sunlight takes about 8.3 minutes to reach Earth from the surface of the Sun . A photon starting at the center of the Sun and changing direction every time it encounters a charged particle would take between 10,000 and 170,000 years to get to the surface . Sunlight is a key factor in photosynthesis , the process used by plants and other autotrophic organisms to convert light energy , normally from the Sun , into chemical energy that can be used to fuel the organisms ' activities .", "Exodus (Bertagna novel) Exodus is a science fiction novel written for teens to young adults by Julie Bertagna , published in August 2002 . The story is set on an island faced with the problem of a rising sea level , caused by melting ice caps and other forms of global warming . Mara must think of a way to save herself , the other villagers and , most importantly , the world . The book was short-listed for the Whitbread Children 's Book of the Year in 2002 . Exodus is part of a trilogy ; the sequel to the book is Zenith , published in 2007 , followed by Aurora , published in 2011 . Julie Bertagna was inspired to write this book in 1999 , when she learned of two South Pacific Islands being engulfed by the sea as a result of global warming , forcing the people to find higher land . Bertagna started to investigate into the topic of global warming and the stories inspired her to write Exodus and its sequel Zenith . The purpose of the book is to inform young readers about global warming and convince them that something must be done about it .", "Attribution of recent climate change Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "Effects of climate change The effects of climate change may refer to : Effects of global warming , the effects of current climate change Historical impacts of climate change , during the early evolution and history of humans , prior to current global warming" ]

[ "Climate change in the Arctic The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "Arctic sea ice decline Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .", "Sea ice Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs .", "Antarctica Antarctica ( UK English -LSB- ænˈtɑːktɪkə -RSB- or -LSB- ænˈtɑːtɪkə -RSB- , US English -LSB- æntˈɑːrktɪkə -RSB- ) is Earth 's southernmost continent . It contains the geographic South Pole and is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere , almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle , and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean . At 14000000 km2 , it is the fifth-largest continent . For comparison , Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia . About 98 % of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages 1.9 km in thickness , which extends to all but the northernmost reaches of the Antarctic Peninsula . Antarctica , on average , is the coldest , driest , and windiest continent , and has the highest average elevation of all the continents . Antarctica is a desert , with annual precipitation of only 200 mm ( 8 in ) along the coast and far less inland . The temperature in Antarctica has reached − 89.2 ° C ( − 128.6 ° F ) , though the average for the third quarter ( the coldest part of the year ) is − 63 ° C ( − 81 ° F ) . Anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at the research stations scattered across the continent . Organisms native to Antarctica include many types of algae , bacteria , fungi , plants , protista , and certain animals , such as mites , nematodes , penguins , seals and tardigrades . Vegetation , where it occurs , is tundra . Although myths and speculation about a Terra Australis ( `` Southern Land '' ) date back to antiquity , Antarctica is noted as the last region on Earth in recorded history to be discovered and colonised by humans , being only first sighted in 1820 by the Russian expedition of Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on Vostok and Mirny , who sighted the Fimbul ice shelf . The continent , however , remained largely neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment , lack of easily accessible resources , and isolation . In 1895 , the first confirmed landing was conducted by a team of Norwegians . Antarctica is a de facto condominium , governed by parties to the Antarctic Treaty System that have consulting status . Twelve countries signed the Antarctic Treaty in 1959 , and thirty-eight have signed it since then . The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining , prohibits nuclear explosions and nuclear waste disposal , supports scientific research , and protects the continent 's ecozone . Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists from many nations ." ]

[ "Arctic dipole anomaly The Arctic dipole anomaly is a pressure pattern characterized by high pressure on the arctic regions of North America , and a low pressure on the Eurasia region . This pattern sometimes replaces the Arctic oscillation and the North Atlantic Oscillation . It was observed for the first time in the first decade of 2000s and is perhaps linked to recent climate change . The Arctic dipole lets more southern winds into the Arctic ocean resulting in more ice melting . The summer 2007 event played an important role in the record low sea ice extent which was recorded in September . The Arctic dipole has also been linked to changes in arctic circulation patterns that cause drier winters in Northern Europe , but much wetter winters in Southern Europe and colder winters in East Asia , Europe and the eastern half of North America .", "Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 The Great Arctic Cyclone , or `` Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 , '' was an extratropical cyclone which centered on the Arctic Ocean in early August , 2012 . Such storms are rare in the Arctic summer , although common in the winter . The Great Arctic Cyclone was the strongest summer storm and the 13th strongest storm observed at any time since satellite observations began in 1979 . Although the Great Arctic Cyclone did not cause the record melting of sea ice which occurred in 2012 , turbulence resulting from the storm is believed to have contributed to melting of sea ice due to the rise of warmer saltier water from below .", "ANDRILL ANDRILL ( ANtarctic DRILLing Project ) is a scientific drilling project in Antarctica gathering information about past periods of global warming and cooling . The project involves scientists from Germany , Italy , New Zealand , and the United States . At two sites in 2006 and 2007 , ANDRILL team members drilled through ice , seawater , sediment and rock to a depth over more than 1,200 m and recovered a virtually continuous core record from the present to nearly 20 million years ago . The project is based at McMurdo Station in Antarctica . In studying the cores , ANDRILL scientists from various disciplines are gathering detailed information about past periods of global warming and cooling . A major goal of the project is to significantly improve the understanding of Antarctica 's impact on the world 's oceans currents and the atmosphere by reconstructing the behavior of Antarctic sea-ice , ice-shelves , glaciers and sea currents over tens of millions of years . Initial results imply rapid changes and dramatically different climates at various times on the southernmost continent.Quirin Scheirmeier , `` Sediment cores reveal Antarctica 's warmer past , '' Nature News , April 24 , 2008 . The $ 30 million project has achieved its operational goal of retrieving a continuous core record of the last 17 million years , filling crucial gaps left by previous drilling projects . Making use of knowledge gained through prior Antarctic drilling projects , ANDRILL employed novel techniques to reach record depths at its two drilling sites . Among the innovations deployed were a hot-water drilling system that allowed for easier ice-boring and a flexible drill pipe that could accommodate tidal oscillations and strong currents . On December 16 , 2006 , ANDRILL broke the previous record of 999.1 m set in 2000 by the Ocean Drilling Program 's drill ship , the Joides Resolution . The Antarctic-record 1285 m of core ANDRILL went on to recover represents geologic time to about 13 million years ago . In 2007 , drilling at the Southern McMurdo Sound , ANDRILL scientists recovered another 1138 meters ( 3733.6 ft ) of core . One goal in 2006 was to look at a period of around 3 to 5 million years ago in the Pliocene , which scientists know to be warmer . The team 's sedimentologists identified more than 60 cycles in which ice sheets or glaciers advanced and retreated across McMurdo Sound .", "Antarctic ice sheet The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .", "Wiesław Masłowski Wiesław Masłowski is a research professor at the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey , California since 2009 . He obtained his MS from the University of Gdańsk in 1987 , and his PhD from the University of Alaska , Fairbanks in 1994 with a dissertation entitled `` Numerical modeling study of the circulation of the Greenland Sea '' . He became well known in 2007 for stating that the Arctic Ocean might be nearly ice free in the summer as early as 2013 , based on projection of the declining ice volume trend . While later revised to 2016 + / - 3 years based on computer modeling , this prediction became controversial when the Arctic was not sea-ice free in 2013 , having increased from the record low set in 2012 .", "Arctic The Arctic ( -LSB- ˈɑrktɪk -RSB- or -LSB- ˈɑrtɪk -RSB- ) is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth . The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean , adjacent seas , and parts of Alaska ( United States ) , Canada , Finland , Greenland ( Denmark ) , Iceland , Norway , Russia and Sweden . Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover , with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra . Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places . The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth 's ecosystems . For example , the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions . In recent years , Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming . Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice , zooplankton and phytoplankton , fish and marine mammals , birds , land animals , plants and human societies . Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic .", "Polar ice pack Polar ice pack may refer to : Arctic ice pack Antarctic sea ice Drift ice", "Antarctic oscillation The Antarctic oscillation ( AAO , to distinguish it from the Arctic oscillation or AO ) is a low-frequency mode of atmospheric variability of the southern hemisphere . It is also known as the Southern Annular Mode ( SAM ) . It is defined as a belt of westerly winds or low pressure surrounding Antarctica which moves north or south as its mode of variability . In its positive phase , the westerly wind belt contracts towards Antarctica , while its negative phase involves this belt moving towards the Equator . In 2014 , Dr Nerilie Abram used a network of temperature-sensitive ice core and tree growth records to reconstruct a 1000-year history of the Southern Annular Mode . This work suggests that the Southern Annular Mode is currently in its most extreme positive phase over at least the last 1000 years , and that recent positive trends in the SAM are attributed to increasing greenhouse gas levels and later stratospheric ozone depletion .", "Severnaya Zemlya Severnaya Zemlya ( Се́верная Земля́ ( Northern Land ) , -LSB- ˈsʲevʲɪrnəjə zʲɪˈmlʲa -RSB- ) is a 37,000 km2 archipelago in the Russian high Arctic . It lies off Siberia 's Taymyr Peninsula , separated from the mainland by the Vilkitsky Strait . This archipelago separates two marginal seas of the Arctic Ocean , the Kara Sea in the west and the Laptev Sea in the east . The largest glacier in the Russian Federation , the Academy of Sciences Glacier , is located in Severnaya Zemlya . Severnaya Zemlya was first noted in 1913 and first charted in 1930 -- 32 , making it the last sizeable archipelago on Earth to be explored . Administratively , the islands form part of Russia 's Krasnoyarsk Krai federal subject . In Soviet times there were a number of research stations in different locations , but currently there are no human inhabitants in Severnaya Zemlya except for the Prima Polar Station near Cape Baranov . Severnaya Zemlya is notable in connection with the ongoing multi-year Arctic sea ice decline . Until recently , ice joined the islands to Eurasia even at its smallest extent during the late summer melt season , blocking the Northeast Passage between the Atlantic and Pacific . By the late summer of 2012 , however , the permanent ice had reached a record low extent and open water appeared to the north of the archipelago .", "Water sky Water sky is a phenomenon that is closely related to ice blink . It forms in regions with large areas of ice and low-lying clouds and so is limited mostly to the extreme northern and southern sections of earth , in Antarctica and in the Arctic . When light hits the blue oceans or seas , some of it bounces back and enables the observer to physically see the water . However , some of the light also is reflected back up on to the bottoms of low-lying clouds and causes a dark spot to appear underneath some clouds . These clouds may be visible when the seas are not and can show alert and knowledgeable travelers the general direction of water . The dark clouds over open water have long been used by polar explorers and scientists to navigate in sea ice . For example , Arctic explorer Fridtjof Nansen and his assistant Hjalmar Johansen used the phenomenon to find lanes of water in their failed expedition to the North Pole as did Bernacchi and Sir Douglas Mawson in the Antarctica .", "Ice age An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .", "Polaribacter franzmannii Polaribacter franzmannii is a species of gas vacuolate polar marine bacteria . It was first isolated from sea ice and water from the Arctic and the Antarctic . Its type strain is ATCC 700399 .", "Polaribacter filamentus Polaribacter filamentus is a species of gas vacuolate polar marine bacteria . It was first isolated from sea ice and water from the Arctic and the Antarctic . Its type strain is ATCC 700397 .", "Polaribacter irgensii Polaribacter irgensii is a species of gas vacuolate polar marine bacteria . It was first isolated from sea ice and water from the Arctic and the Antarctic . Its type strain is ATCC 700398 .", "Ice core An ice core is a core sample that is typically removed from an ice sheet , most commonly from the polar ice caps of Antarctica , Greenland or from high mountain glaciers elsewhere . As the ice forms from the incremental buildup of annual layers of snow , lower layers are older than upper , and an ice core contains ice formed over a range of years . The properties of the ice and the recrystallized inclusions within the ice can then be used to reconstruct a climatic record over the age range of the core , normally through isotopic analysis . This enables the reconstruction of local temperature records and the history of atmospheric composition . Ice cores contain an abundance of information about climate . Inclusions in the snow of each year remain in the ice , such as wind-blown dust , ash , pollen , bubbles of atmospheric gas and radioactive substances . The variety of climatic proxies is greater than in any other natural recorder of climate , such as tree rings or sediment layers . These include ( proxies for ) temperature , ocean volume , precipitation , chemistry and gas composition of the lower atmosphere , volcanic eruptions , solar variability , sea-surface productivity , desert extent and forest fires . The length of the record depends on the depth of the ice core and varies from a few years up to 800 kyr ( 800,000 years ) for the EPICA core . The time resolution ( i.e. the shortest time period which can be accurately distinguished ) depends on the amount of annual snowfall , and reduces with depth as the ice compacts under the weight of layers accumulating on top of it . Upper layers of ice in a core correspond to a single year or sometimes a single season . Deeper into the ice the layers thin and annual layers become indistinguishable . An ice core from the right site can be used to reconstruct an uninterrupted and detailed climate record extending over hundreds of thousands of years , providing information on a wide variety of aspects of climate at each point in time . It is the simultaneity of these properties recorded in the ice that makes ice cores such a powerful tool in paleoclimate research .", "Antarctica: A Year on Ice Antarctica : A Year on Ice is the first feature film by New Zealand filmmaker Anthony B. Powell . This documentary is set in Antarctica , specifically in the Ross Island region , which is home to two research bases : United States ' McMurdo Station and New Zealand 's Scott Base . It chronicles a year of time spent living and working at these remote stations ; the summer season ( October to February ) when the sun shines 24 hours a day and the long dark winter ( February to October ) where the sun goes down for four long months and darkness envelopes the environment . The film focuses on the everyday workers that keep the stations and the equipment running so the scientists can complete their work . Interviewees include a helicopter pilot , fireman , firehouse dispatcher , cook , mechanic , storekeeper , storeman , finance person , administrative person , and operations manager . Extensive use of time-lapse photography is used to document the changing seasons and the Antarctic landscapes . Powell had to invent many of his own camera systems to survive the extreme conditions of the deep Antarctic winter . Powell 's previous work includes footage for Discovery , National Geographic , and was featured in BBC 's Frozen Planet . The film also touches upon topics such as ` T3 Syndrome , ' a term that describes what happens to people during the winter , when the T3 hormone in the brain is reassigned to the muscles of the body in an effort to protect it against the extreme cold . The film also describes how the community works and plays together including the annual New Year 's party `` Ice Stock '' . The film 's post-production was completed at Park Road Post Production in Wellington , New Zealand .", "Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment The Sea Ice Physics and Ecosystem eXperiment ( SIPEX ) was an Australian contribution to the International Polar Year ( IPY ) . The expedition studied the sea ice in the Antarctica zone in September and October 2007 , investigating links between the sea ice and the Southern Ocean ecosystems . Taking part were 45 scientists from 8 different countries , each a specialist on some aspect of the Antarctic sea ice zone . Travelling aboard the research vessel Aurora Australis , the researchers covered East Antarctica between 110 ° E and 130 ° E. Experiments dealt with ice thickness and snow cover , the sympagic fauna and flora and examined the effects of ocean currents and wind . The extent and distribution of sea ice in the polar regions is a sensitive indicator of global climate change . Global warming has been implicated in significant reductions in the extent of sea ice and this trend is set to continue . An improved understanding of sea ice may lead to improved conservation policies in Antarctica .", "Strandflat Strandflat is the low land on the coast and the near coast bottom of sea , typical for the landscape of the Norwegian coast . This landform is created in the Quaternary Period , and it is only to be found in arctic and antarctic areas that has been or is covered by ice , for instance Greenland and Svalbard . Strandflat is a geomorphological word of Norwegian origin , and is used in geology and geography .", "Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute The Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute , or AARI ( Арктический и антарктический научно-исследовательский институт , abbreviated as ААНИИ ) is the oldest and largest Russian research institute in the field of comprehensive studies of Arctic and Antarctica . It is located in Saint Petersburg . The AARI was founded on 3 March 1920 as the Northern Research and Trade Expedition under the Scientific and Technical Department of the All-Union Council of State Economy . In 1925 , the expedition was reorganized into the Institute of Northern Studies and five years later - into the All-Union Arctic Institute . In 1932 , the institute was integrated into the Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route . In 1948 , they established the Arctic Geology Research Institute ( Научно-исследовательский институт геологии Арктики , or НИИГА ) on the basis of the geology department of the All-Union Arctic Institute , which would subordinate to the Ministry of Geology of the USSR . In 1958 , the All-Union Arctic Institute was renamed Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute . In 1963 , the AARI was incorporated into the Chief Administration of the Hydrometeorological Service under the Council of Ministers of the USSR ( now Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring of Russia ) . Throughout its history , the AARI has organized more than a thousand Arctic expeditions , including dozens of high-latitude aerial expeditions , which transported 34 manned drifting ice stations Severniy Polyus ( '' Северный полюс '' , or North Pole ) to Central Arctic . In 1955 , the AARI participated in the organization of Antarctic research . In 1958 , it began to organize and lead all of the Soviet Antarctic expeditions , which would later make many geographic discoveries . In 1968 , the institute engaged in research of the areas of the Atlantic Ocean contiguous to the Arctic and Antarctica . The AARI has numerous departments , such as those of oceanography , glaciology , meteorology , hydrology or Arctic river mouths and water resources , geophysics , polar geography , and others . It also has its own computer center , ice research laboratory , experimental workshops , and a museum ( the Arctic and Antarctic Museum ) . Scientists , such as Alexander Karpinsky , Alexander Fersman , Yuly Shokalsky , Nikolai Knipovich , Lev Berg , Otto Schmidt , Rudolf Samoylovich , Vladimir Vize , Nikolai Zubov , Pyotr Shirshov , Nikolai Urvantsev , and Yakov Gakkel have all made their valuable contributions to the work of the AARI . In 1967 , AARI was awarded the Order of Lenin .", "North Ice North Ice was a research station of the British North Greenland Expedition ( 1952 to 1954 ) on the inland ice of Greenland . The coordinates of the station were , at an altitude of 2341 m above sea level . The British North Greenland Expedition was led by Commander James Simpson RN . The station recorded the lowest temperature ever in North America with -66.1 C on 9 January 1954 . The name of the station contrasts to the former British South Ice station in Antarctica .", "Instrumental temperature record The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets .", "Walrus and Kritskoi Islands ", "Arctic Climate Impact Assessment The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .", "Lincoln Sea Lincoln Sea is a body of water in the Arctic Ocean , stretching from Cape Columbia , Canada , in the west to Cape Morris Jesup , Greenland , in the east . The northern limit is defined as the great circle line between those two headlands . It is covered with sea ice throughout the year , the thickest sea ice in the Arctic Ocean , which can be up to 15 m thick . Water depths range from 100 m to 300 m. Water and ice from Lincoln Sea empty into Robeson Channel , the northernmost part of Nares Strait , most of the time . The sea was named after Robert Todd Lincoln , then United States Secretary of War , on Adolphus W. Greely 's 1881 -- 1884 Arctic expedition into Lady Franklin Bay . Alert , the northernmost station of Canada , is the only populated place on the shore of Lincoln Sea . The body of water to the east of Lincoln Sea ( east of Cape Morris Jesup ) is Wandel Sea .", "Vaygach (1909 icebreaker) Icebreaker Vaygach was an icebreaking steamer of moderate size built for the Russian Imperial Navy at St. Petersburg in 1909 . She was named after Vaygach Island in the Russian Arctic . Vaygach and her sister ship Taymyr were built for the purpose of thoroughly exploring the uncharted areas of the Northern Sea Route . This venture became known as the Arctic Ocean Hydrographic Expedition . The first of a series of surveys began in the autumn of 1910 , when Vaygach and Taymyr left Vladivostok . They entered the Chukchi Sea with scientists on board and began their exploration . For the next five years , these icebreakers went on sounding and carrying on vital surveys during the thaw . Before every winter , when ice conditions became too bad , they returned to Vladivostok and waited for the spring . In 1911 the scientists and crew aboard Vaygach and Taymyr made the first Russian landing on Wrangel Island . In 1914 , led by Colonel I. Sergeev , Vaygach sailed together with Taymyr , whose captain was Boris Vilkitsky . Together , they tried to force the whole Northern Passage in order to reach Archangelsk . Severe weather and ice conditions , however , did not allow them to cross the Kara Sea and they were forced to winter at Bukhta Dika , close to the Firnley Islands . Thus they were able to complete the passage only in 1915 . Some of the biggest successes of the expedition were the accurate charting of the Northern Sea Route and the discovery of Severnaya Zemlya in 1913 . Taymyr and Vaygach were considered the best icebreakers in the world at the time .", "Arctic vegetation In the Arctic , the low tundra vegetation clothes a landscape of wide vistas , lit by the low-angle light characteristic of high latitudes . Much of the Arctic shows little impact from human activities , making it one of the few places on earth one can see intac ecosystems . Arctic plants are adapted to short , cold growing seasons . They have the ability to withstand extremely cold temperatures in the winter ( winter hardiness ) , but what is even more important is the ability to be able to function in limiting summer conditions . Arctic plants have a compressed growing season : they initiate growth rapidly in the spring , and flower and set seed much sooner than plants that grow in warmer conditions . Their peak metabolic rate also occurs at a much lower temperature than plants from farther south . Compact cushions of vegetation keep the plants close to the warm soil and shield the tender central growing shoot . The height of Arctic plants is also governed by snow depth . Plants that protrude above the snow are subject to strong winds , blowing snow , and being eaten by caribou , muskox , or ptarmigan . Mosses and lichens are common in the Arctic . These plants have the ability to stop growth at any time and resume it promptly when conditions improve . They can even survive being covered by snow and ice for over a year .", "Temperature record For extreme records instead of records as a set of data , see List of weather records The temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time . The most detailed information exists since 1850 , when methodical thermometer-based records began . There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation , particularly during the current Holocene epoch . Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology .", "Late Glacial The Late Glacial ( c. 13,000 -- 10,000 years ago ) , or Tardiglacial ( `` Late Glacial '' ) , is defined primarily by the beginning of the modern warm period , in which climates in the Northern Hemisphere warmed substantially , causing a process of accelerated deglaciation following the Last Glacial Maximum ( c. 25,000 -- 13,000 years ago ) . At this time , human populations , previously forced into refuge areas as a result of Last Glacial Maximum climatic conditions , gradually begin to repopulate the Northern Hemisphere 's Eurasian landmass and eventually populate North America via Beringia for the first time . Evidence for its occurrence stems from two main types of analysis . The first is the use of oxygen isotope stages ( OIS ) gathered from stratified deep-sea sediment cores . Samples are gathered and measured for change in isotope levels to determine temperature fluctuation for given periods of time . The second is a proxy measurement , the observation of certain reappearing fauna and flora fossils that can survive only in temperate climates , thus indicating warming trends for a given geographic area . Archaeological evidence of settlement and resettlement in certain areas by humans also serve as proxy measurements . Towards the end of OIS 2 in which the Late Glacial Maximum occurs , the deep-sea sediment cores indicate a gradually warming climate , and the reappearance of certain warm-weather flora and fauna remains throughout the Northern Hemisphere correlate with that trend . A period of relatively brief cold oscillation , referred to as the Younger Dryas , is detected during OIS 2 , as can be inferred from an increase in isotope weight .", "Seawater Seawater , or salt water , is water from a sea or ocean . On average , seawater in the world 's oceans has a salinity of about 3.5 % ( 35 g/L , or 0.600 M ) This means that every kilogram ( roughly one litre by volume ) of seawater has approximately 35 g of dissolved salts ( predominantly sodium and chloride ions ) . Average density at the surface is 1.025 kg/L . Seawater is denser than both fresh water and pure water ( density 1.0 kg/L at 4 C ) because the dissolved salts increase the mass by a larger proportion than the volume . The freezing point of seawater decreases as salt concentration increases . At typical salinity , it freezes at about -2 C . The coldest seawater ever recorded ( in a liquid state ) was in 2010 , in a stream under an Antarctic glacier , and measured -2.6 C. Seawater pH is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4 . However , there is no universally accepted reference pH-scale for seawater and the difference between measurements based on different reference scales may be up to 0.14 units .", "Joseph Adhémar Joseph Alphonse Adhémar ( 1797 -- 1862 ) was a French mathematician . He was the first to suggest that ice ages were controlled by astronomical forces in his 1842 book Revolutions of the Sea . The Earth 's orbit is elliptical , with the Sun at one focus ; lines drawn through the summer and winter solstice ; and the spring and autumn equinox ; intersect with the sun at right angles . The Earth is closest to the Sun ( perihelion ) near the northern hemisphere winter solstice . The earth moves faster through its orbit when closer to the sun . Hence , the period from the northern hemisphere 's autumn equinox to winter and spring is shorter by around seven days than the period from spring to summer to autumn ; the reverse is true in the southern hemisphere . Hence , northern hemisphere winter is shorter . Because of this , Adhemar reasoned that because the southern hemisphere had more hours of darkness in winter , it must be cooling , and attributed the Antarctic ice sheet to this . Adhemar knew of the 22,000 year cycle of precession of the equinoxes , and theorised that the ice ages occurred in this cycle . One immediate objection to the theory was that the total insolation during a year does not vary at all during the precessional cycle , only its seasonal distribution . Another was that the timing was wrong ; however this could not be tested by observations available at the time . Adhemar 's theory was further developed , first by James Croll and later by Milutin Milanković . Adhemar predicted the Antarctic ice sheet and theorised about its thickness by comparing the depths of the Arctic and circum-Antarctic oceans . Finding the Antarctic oceans deeper ( the measurements he used may not have been fully representative ) and attributing this to the gravitational attraction of the Antarctic ice sheet , he postulated a truly enormous ice sheet approximately 90 km thick .", "Polar High The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex . Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' . Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas .", "Ice-marginal lava flow " ]

[ "Smart grid A smart grid is an electrical grid which includes a variety of operational and energy measures including smart meters , smart appliances , renewable energy resources , and energy efficient resources . Electronic power conditioning and control of the production and distribution of electricity are important aspects of the smart grid . Smart grid policy is organized in Europe as Smart Grid European Technology Platform . Policy in the United States is described in § 17381 . Roll-out of smart grid technology also implies a fundamental re-engineering of the electricity services industry , although typical usage of the term is focused on the technical infrastructure .", "Energy policy of the United States The energy policy of the United States is determined by federal , state , and local entities in the United States , which address issues of energy production , distribution , and consumption , such as building codes and gas mileage standards . Energy policy may include legislation , international treaties , subsidies and incentives to investment , guidelines for energy conservation , taxation and other public policy techniques . Several mandates have been proposed over the years , such as gasoline will never exceed $ 1.00 / gallon ( Nixon ) , and the United States will never again import as much oil as it did in 1977 ( Carter ) , but no comprehensive long-term energy policy has been proposed , although there has been concern over this failure . Three Energy Policy Acts have been passed , in 1992 , 2005 , and 2007 , which include many provisions for conservation , such as the Energy Star program , and energy development , with grants and tax incentives for both renewable energy and non-renewable energy . There is also criticism that federal energy policies since the 1973 oil crisis have been dominated by crisis-mentality thinking , promoting expensive quick fixes and single-shot solutions that ignore market and technology realities . Instead of providing stable rules that support basic research while leaving plenty of scope for American entrepreneurship and innovation , congresses and presidents have repeatedly backed policies which promise solutions that are politically expedient , but whose prospects are doubtful , without adequate consideration of the dollar costs , environmental costs , or national security costs of their actions . State-specific energy-efficiency incentive programs also play a significant role in the overall energy policy of the United States . The United States refused to endorse the Kyoto Protocol , preferring to let the market drive CO2 reductions to mitigate global warming , which will require CO2 emission taxation . The administration of Barack Obama has proposed an aggressive energy policy reform , including the need for a reduction of CO2 emissions , with a cap and trade program , which could help encourage more clean renewable , sustainable energy development . Thanks to new technologies such as fracking , the United States has in 2014 resumed its former role as the top oil producer in the world .", "Efficient energy use Efficient energy use , sometimes simply called energy efficiency , is the goal to reduce the amount of energy required to provide products and services . For example , insulating a home allows a building to use less heating and cooling energy to achieve and maintain a comfortable temperature . Installing fluorescent lights , LED lights or natural skylights reduces the amount of energy required to attain the same level of illumination compared with using traditional incandescent light bulbs . Improvements in energy efficiency are generally achieved by adopting a more efficient technology or production process or by application of commonly accepted methods to reduce energy losses . There are many motivations to improve energy efficiency . Reducing energy use reduces energy costs and may result in a financial cost saving to consumers if the energy savings offset any additional costs of implementing an energy efficient technology . Reducing energy use is also seen as a solution to the problem of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . According to the International Energy Agency , improved energy efficiency in buildings , industrial processes and transportation could reduce the world 's energy needs in 2050 by one third , and help control global emissions of greenhouse gases . Energy efficiency and renewable energy are said to be the twin pillars of sustainable energy policy and are high priorities in the sustainable energy hierarchy . In many countries energy efficiency is also seen to have a national security benefit because it can be used to reduce the level of energy imports from foreign countries and may slow down the rate at which domestic energy resources are depleted .", "Wind power Wind power is the use of air flow through wind turbines to mechanically power generators for electric power . Wind power , as an alternative to burning fossil fuels , is plentiful , renewable , widely distributed , clean , produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation , consumes no water , and uses little land . The net effects on the environment are far less problematic than those of nonrenewable power sources . Wind farms consist of many individual wind turbines which are connected to the electric power transmission network . Onshore wind is an inexpensive source of electric power , competitive with or in many places cheaper than coal or gas plants . Offshore wind is steadier and stronger than on land , and offshore farms have less visual impact , but construction and maintenance costs are considerably higher . Small onshore wind farms can feed some energy into the grid or provide electric power to isolated off-grid locations . Wind power gives variable power which is very consistent from year to year but which has significant variation over shorter time scales . It is therefore used in conjunction with other electric power sources to give a reliable supply . As the proportion of wind power in a region increases , a need to upgrade the grid , and a lowered ability to supplant conventional production can occur . Power management techniques such as having excess capacity , geographically distributed turbines , dispatchable backing sources , sufficient hydroelectric power , exporting and importing power to neighboring areas , using vehicle-to-grid strategies or reducing demand when wind production is low , can in many cases overcome these problems . In addition , weather forecasting permits the electric power network to be readied for the predictable variations in production that occur . As of 2015 , Denmark generates 40 % of its electric power from wind , and at least 83 other countries around the world are using wind power to supply their electric power grids . In 2014 global wind power capacity expanded 16 % to 369,553 MW . Yearly wind energy production is also growing rapidly and has reached around 4 % of worldwide electric power usage , 11.4 % in the EU ." ]

[ "Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council The Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council ( UPC ) is the strategic planning agency for the Abu Dhabi ( emirate ) , which supports the realisation of Abu Dhabi Vision 2030 through the creation and continuing evolution of an Emirate-wide strategic framework plan . Chaired by His Highness Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan , Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi and Chairman of the Abu Dhabi Executive Council , the Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council is responsible for defining the shape of the Emirate , along with the associated land uses , to ensure the development of professionally designed , sustainable and well-managed urban environments , which incorporate world-class transport and infrastructure systems and support the implementation of Economic Vision 2030 and Environment Vision 2030 . The Abu Dhabi Urban Planning Council 's primary purpose is to deliver upon the vision of His Highness Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan , President of the UAE , Ruler of Abu Dhabi for the continued fulfillment of the grand design envisaged by the late Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan and the ongoing evolution of Abu Dhabi as a global capital city . The mandate of the UPC is five-fold and Emirate-wide : Develop comprehensive plans for blocks , neighbourhoods , districts and regions , both for the creation of new communities and the revitalisation of existing communities . Assist in the implementation of all plans created by guiding , monitoring and working with those responsible for implementation . Develop regulations , guidelines and policies that will help guide planning and development . Review and assess major strategic developments to ensure alignment with Plans Capital 2030 , Al Ain 2030 , Al Gharbia 2030 and Maritime 2030 , and in compliance with internal and external plans , and policies , regulations and guidelines . Ensure Estidama principles of sustainability are embedded -- based on Estidama 's four pillars ( Environmental , Economic , Social and Cultural ) -- and are incorporated into the built and natural environment through the mandatory Estidama Pearl Rating System .", "Wave power in the United States Wave power in the United States is under development in several locations off the east and west coasts as well as Hawaii . It has moved beyond the research phase and is producing reliable energy for the Grid . Its use to-date has been for situations where other forms of energy production are not economically viable and as such , the power output is currently modest . But major installations are planned to come on-line within the next few years .", "Texan Santa Fe Expedition The Texan Santa Fe Expedition was a commercial and military expedition to secure the Republic of Texas 's claims to parts of Northern New Mexico for Texas in 1841 . The expedition was unofficially initiated by the then President of Texas , Mirabeau B. Lamar , in an attempt to gain control over the lucrative Santa Fe Trail and further develop the trade links between Texas and New Mexico . The initiative was a major component of Lamar 's ambitious plan to turn the fledgling republic into a continental power , which the President believed had to be achieved as quickly as possible to stave off the growing movement demanding the annexation of Texas to the United States . Lamar 's administration had already started courting the New Mexicans , sending out a commissioner in 1840 , and many Texans thought that they might be favorable to the idea of joining the Republic of Texas .", "Crystatech CrystaTech Inc. is a supplier of process technology to the energy industry . CrystaTech commercializes the patented Crystasulf process . CrystaSulf is the first commercially available product to provide low cost hydrogen sulfide ( H2S ) removal from gas streams . The company was founded in 1999 and is financially backed by the Gas Technology Institute and major energy companies through sponsored clean energy technology development . The corporate office is located in Austin , Texas . CrystaTech is a member of the Gas Processors Suppliers Association . Regional offices are in Alberta , Canada and Houston , Texas . All early stage R&D takes place at the Gas Technology Institute in Des Plaines , Illinois . Representative customers include Total , Petrobank Energy and Resources Ltd. , Queensland Energy Resources , U.S. Department of Energy , Luminant , and American Electric Power . Key People David Work - Chairman Don Carlton - Independent Director", "Energy Storage as a Service (ESaaS) Energy Storage as a Service ( ESaaS ; pronounced / i 's æs / ) allows a facility to benefit from the advantages of an energy storage system by entering into a service agreement without purchasing the system . Energy storage systems provide a range of services to generate revenue , create savings , and improve electricity resiliency . The operation of the ESaaS system is a unique combination of an advanced battery storage system , an energy management system , and a service contract which can deliver value to a business by providing reliable power more economically .", "Bloom Energy Server The Bloom Energy Server ( the Bloom Box ) is a solid oxide fuel cell ( SOFC ) power generator made by Bloom Energy , of Sunnyvale , California , that takes a variety of input fuels , including liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons produced from biological sources , to produce electricity at or near the site where it will be used . This new class of distributed power generator produce clean , reliable , affordable electricity at the customer site . It can withstand temperatures of up to 1800 ° F . According to the company , a single cell ( one 100 mm × 100 mm plate consisting of three ceramic layers ) generates 25 watts . Bloom stated in 2011 that two hundred servers had been deployed in California for corporations including eBay , Google , Yahoo , and Wal-Mart .", "Jack Spikes Jack Erwin Spikes ( born February 5 , 1937 ) is a former American football running back and placekicker . He played in the American Football League ( NFL ) for the Dallas Texans/Kansas City Chiefs , Houston Oilers , and the Buffalo Bills . He played college football at Texas Christian University ( TCU ) . Spikes played a key role in professional football 's longest championship game , the 1962 American Football League Championship game between the Texans and the Houston Oilers . Spikes ' teammate Bill Hull intercepted the Oilers ' George Blanda late in the first overtime . Hull 's interception allowed the Texans to start the second overtime with two powerful runs by Spikes , to move the ball to the Oilers ' 25-yard line , and Tommy Brooker kicked a field goal to give the Texans the win , 20 -- 17 .", "Danish Energy Agency The Danish Energy Agency ( Danish : Energistyrelsen ) was established in 1975 as an agency of the Danish Ministry of Transport and was in 2007 transferred to the newly created Danish Ministry of Climate and Energy The agency is headquartered in 44 Amaliegade . The agency is responsible for handling both national and international agreements and tasks linked to production , supply and consumption of energy , and is the responsible agency for efforts to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases . It oversees the legal and political frameworks for reliable , affordable and clean supply of energy in Denmark .", "Nuclear energy in Bangladesh Bangladesh first conceived building a nuclear power plant in 1961 . The Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission was established after independence in 1973 . The country currently operates a TRIGA research reactor at the Atomic Energy Research Establishment in Savar . More recently , in 2001 Bangladesh adopted a national Nuclear Power Action Plan . On 24 June 2007 , Bangladesh 's government announced plans to build a nuclear power plant to meet electricity shortages . In May 2010 , Bangladesh entered into a civilian nuclear agreement with the Russian Federation . It also has framework agreements for peaceful nuclear energy applications with the US , France and China . In February 2011 , Bangladesh reached an agreement with Russia to build the 2,000 megawatt ( MW ) Ruppur Nuclear Power Plant with two reactors , each of which will generate 1,200 MW of power . The nuclear power plant will be built at Ruppur , on the banks of the Padma River , in the Ishwardi subdistrict of Pabna , in the northwest of the country . The RNPP is estimated to cost up to US$ 2 billion , and start operating by 2021 . The inter-governmental agreement ( IGA ) was officially signed on 2 November 2011 . On 29 May 2013 Bangladesh 's Prime Minister declared that a second nuclear power plant will be constructed on an inland river island in southern region of the country .", "Nuclear power in Italy Nuclear power in Italy is a controversial topic . Italy started to produce nuclear energy in the early 1960s , but all plants were closed by 1990 following the Italian nuclear power referendum . An attempt to change the decision was made in 2008 by the government ( see also nuclear power debate ) , which called the nuclear power phase-out a `` terrible mistake , the cost of which totalled over $ 50 billion '' . Minister of Economic Development Claudio Scajola proposed to build as many as 10 new reactors , with the goal of increasing the nuclear share of Italy 's electricity supply to about 25 % by 2030 . However , following the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents , the Italian government put a one-year moratorium on plans to revive nuclear power . On 11 -- 12 June 2011 , Italian voters passed a referendum to cancel plans for new reactors . Over 94 % of the electorate voted in favor of the construction ban , with 55 % of the eligible voters participating , making the vote binding .", "Standard Market Design Established by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission , Standard Market Design is a set of established guidelines governing the sale of electrical power and the operations of electrical transmission lines in the United States of America . Category : Electric power in the United States The objective of standard market design for wholesale electric markets is to establish a common market framework that promotes economic efficiency and lower delivered energy costs , maintains power system reliability , mitigates significant market power and increases the choices offered to wholesale market participants . All customers should benefit from an efficient competitive wholesale energy market , whether or not they are in states that have elected to adopt retail access .", "Wind power in Kenya Wind power in Kenya contributes only a small amount of the country 's electrical power . However , its share in energy production is increasing . Kenya aims to generate 2,036 MW of wind power , or 9 % of the country 's total capacity , by 2030 . Kenya has one major wind farm , Ngong Hills Wind Farm , located in Ngong , Kajiado County . It produces around 5.1 MW of electricity . It is owned by Kenya Electricity Generating Company ( KenGen ) and cost KES 1.6 billion ( US $ 18 million ) to construct .", "Economics of nuclear power plants The economics of new nuclear power plants is a controversial subject , since there are diverging views on this topic ( particularly around risk externalities involving disaster , cleanup , proliferation , disposal and resource conflict ) , and multibillion-dollar investments ride on the choice of an energy source . New nuclear power plants typically have high capital costs for building the first several plants , after which costs tend to fall for each additional plant built as the supply chains develop and the regulatory processes settle down . Fuel , operational , and maintenance costs are relatively small components of the total cost . The long service life and high productivity of nuclear power plants allow sufficient funds for ultimate plant decommissioning and waste storage and management to be accumulated , with little impact on the price per unit of electricity generated . Additionally , measures to mitigate climate change such as a carbon tax or carbon emissions trading , would favor the economics of nuclear power over fossil fuel power . Nuclear power construction costs have varied significantly across the world and in time . Massive and rapid increases in cost occurred in the 1970s , especially in the US , but these trends were much milder in other countries . There were no construction starts of nuclear power reactors between 1979 and 2012 in the US , and recent cost trends in countries such as Japan and Korea have been very different , including periods of stability and decline in cost . In more economically developed countries , a slowdown in electricity demand growth in recent years has made large-scale power infrastructure investments difficult . Very large upfront costs and long project cycles carry large risks , including political decision making and intervention such as regulatory ratcheting . In Eastern Europe , a number of long-established projects are struggling to find finance , notably Belene in Bulgaria and the additional reactors at Cernavoda in Romania , and some potential backers have pulled out . Where cheap gas is available and its future supply relatively secure , this also poses a major problem for clean energy projects . Former Exelon CEO John Rowe said in 2012 that new nuclear plants in the US `` do n't make any sense right now '' and wo n't be economic as long as gas prices remain low . Current bids for new NPP 's in China have fallen below $ 2000/kW in 2016 , as China continues its accelerating new build program after the pause following the Fukushima meltdowns . Therefore , comparison with other power generation methods is strongly dependent on assumptions about construction timescales and capital financing for nuclear plants . Analysis of the economics of nuclear power must take into account who bears the risks of future uncertainties . To date all operating nuclear power plants were developed by state-owned or regulated utility monopolies where many of the risks associated with political change and regulatory ratcheting were borne by consumers rather than suppliers . Many countries have now liberalized the electricity market where these risks , and the risk of cheap competition from subsidised energy sources emerging before capital costs are recovered , are borne by plant suppliers and operators rather than consumers , which leads to a significantly different evaluation of the risk of investing in new nuclear power plants . Two of the four EPRs under construction ( the Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant in Finland and Flamanville in France ) , which are the latest new builds in Europe , are significantly behind schedule and substantially over cost . Following the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster , costs are likely to go up for some types of currently operating and new nuclear power plants , due to new requirements for on-site spent fuel management and elevated design basis threats .", "Renewable energy in Africa The developing nations of Africa are popular locations for the application of renewable energy technology . Currently , many nations already have small-scale solar , wind , and geothermal devices in operation providing energy to urban and rural populations . These types of energy production are especially useful in remote locations because of the excessive cost of transporting electricity from large-scale power plants . The applications of renewable energy technology has the potential to alleviate many of the problems that face Africans every day , especially if done so in a sustainable manner that prioritizes human rights . Access to energy is essential for the reduction of poverty and promotion of economic growth . Communication technologies , education , industrialization , agricultural improvement and expansion of municipal water systems all require abundant , reliable , and cost-effective energy access .", "Mass Megawatts Wind Power Mass Megawatts Wind Power , Inc. is a company that produces wind turbines and sells wind-generated electricity . The company intends to build and operate wind energy power plants and plans to sell the electricity to the electric power exchange . Mass Megawatts Wind Power was founded on May 27 , 1997 and is headquartered in Worcester , Massachusetts , United States . In late 2014 , the company announced plans to enter the American solar power market . The Solar Tracking System ( STS ) utilizes minimal moving parts and electrical components , resulting in increased stability and lower operating costs . The STS claims to improve solar energy production levels by more than 20 % .", "Chashma Nuclear Power Plant The Chashma Nuclear Power Plant ( CHASNUPP ) or Chashma Nuclear Power Complex , near Chashma Colony and Kundian town , Mianwali District , Punjab , Pakistan , is a commercial nuclear power plant consisting of two operating units ( CHASNUPP-I and CHASNUPP-II ) , two units under construction ( CHASNUPP-III and CHASNUPP-IV ) . Chashma Nuclear Power Plant reactors and other facilities are being built and operated by the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission ( PAEC ) with Chinese support under the approval and guidelines of International Atomic Energy Agency . The IAEA as well as the United States Department of Energy recognised the urgency of Pakistan 's energy needs , which is expected to grow seven to eight times by 2030 . In November 2006 , The International Atomic Energy Agency approved an agreement with the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission for new nuclear power plants to be built in the country with Chinese assistance . The 35-member Board of Governors of the IAEA unanimously approved the safeguards agreement for any future Nuclear Power Plants that Pakistan will be constructing .", "United Nations Security Council Resolution 866 United Nations Security Council resolution 866 , adopted unanimously on 22 September 1993 , after reaffirming resolutions 813 ( 1993 ) and 856 ( 1993 ) , the Council noted that United Nations involvement would contribute significantly to the effective implementation of the Peace Agreement in Liberia and went on to establish the United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia ( UNOMIL ) . The Council noted the Peace Agreement signed on 25 July 1993 and to the Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group ( ECOMOG ) for help in implementing it . Economic Community of West African States ( ECOWAS ) would be responsible for the implementation of the military terms of the agreement while the United Nations would supervise , very much in the background . It would be the first time that a United Nations peacekeeping mission would cooperate alongside an already existing peacekeeping mission of another organisation . The importance of close cooperation between UNOMIL , ECOMOG and the Organisation of African Unity ( OAU ) was stressed . At the same time , the Council welcomed the establishment of the Joint Cease-Fire Monitoring Committee ( JCMC ) composed of three Liberian parties , ECOMOG and the United Nations , and that the Peace Agreement called for elections to take place within seven months . UNOMIL was then established under the direction of the Secretary-General through his Special Representative for a period of seven months , subject to the provision that it will continue beyond 16 December 1993 only upon a review by the Council on whether progress had been made in implementing the agreement . The mission would include military observers and medical , engineering , communications , transportation , electoral and support personnel in accordance with the Secretary-General 's report , and would have the following mandate : ( a ) investigate violations of the ceasefire ; ( b ) ensure compliance with the peace agreement ; ( c ) monitor the electoral process ; ( d ) assist in the coordination of humanitarian assistance ; ( e ) develop a plan and assess financial requirements for the demobilisation of combatants ; ( f ) report violations of international humanitarian law ; ( g ) train ECOMOG personnel in the demining process ; ( h ) cooperate with ECOMOG in its duties . The intention of Boutros-Ghali to define the roles and responsibilities of UNOMIL and ECOWAS in the implementation of the Peace Agreement was welcomed , requesting African states to provide troops when required to ECOMOG . The Secretary-General had established a fund through which Member States could contribute to the mission . The resolution called upon the parties in Liberia to disarm and demobilise . Their decision to form a provisional government was welcomed by Council and was urged to sign a status of mission agreement within sixty days of UNOMIL 's installation . Preparations for the Election Commission were told to be finalised so that organisation of the elections by March 1994 could begin , to be held as envisaged in the peace agreement . Finally , they were called together to work on the safe distribution of relief supplies and protect UNOMIL and humanitarian personnel , requesting the Secretary-General to report back on 16 December 1993 and 16 February 1994 on the implementation of the current resolution .", "100% renewable energy The endeavor to use 100 % renewable energy for electricity , heating and cooling , and transport is motivated by global warming , pollution and other environmental issues , as well as economic and energy security concerns . Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system . In 2013 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand . Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates anticipated . In 2014 , renewable sources such as wind , geothermal , solar , biomass , and burnt waste provided 19 % of the total energy consumed worldwide , with roughly half of that coming from traditional use of biomass . The most important sector is electricity with a renewable share of 22.8 % , most of it coming from hydropower with a share of 16.6 % , followed by wind with 3.1 % . There are many places around the world with grids that are run almost exclusively on renewable energy . At the national level , at least 30 nations already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 % of the energy supply . Professors S. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow of Princeton University have developed a series of `` Climate stabilization wedges '' that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change , and `` renewable energy sources , '' in aggregate , constitute the largest number of their `` wedges . '' Mark Z. Jacobson , professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy program , says that producing all new energy with wind power , solar power , and hydropower by 2030 is feasible , and that existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050 . Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be `` primarily social and political , not technological or economic '' . Jacobson says that energy costs today with a wind , solar , and water system should be similar to today 's energy costs from other optimally cost-effective strategies . The main obstacle against this scenario is the lack of political will . Similarly , in the United States , the independent National Research Council has noted that `` sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change , energy security , and the escalation of energy costs ... Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States , taken collectively , can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand . '' The main barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low-carbon energy strategies are political rather than technological . According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report , which reviewed many international studies , the key roadblocks are : climate change denial , the fossil fuels lobby , political inaction , unsustainable energy consumption , outdated energy infrastructure , and financial constraints .", "Synchrotron-Light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East The Synchrotron-Light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East ( SESAME ) is an independent laboratory located in Allan in the Balqa governorate of Jordan , created under the auspices of UNESCO on 30 May 2002 . Aimed at promoting peace between Middle Eastern countries , Jordan was chosen as the location for the laboratory , as it was then the only country that maintained diplomatic relations with all the other founding members ; Bahrain , Cyprus , Egypt , Iran , Israel , Pakistan , the Palestinian Authority , and Turkey . The project was launched in 1999 and the ground breaking ceremony was held on 6 January 2003 . Construction work began the following July , with a scheduled completion date of 2015 . However financial and technical infrastructural obstacles forced the project to be delayed . The laboratory was inaugurated on 16 May 2017 under the patronage and presence of King Abdullah II . The project cost around $ 90 million , with $ 5 million donated each by Jordan , Israel , Turkey , Iran and the European Union . The rest was donated by CERN from existing equipment . Jordan became the greatest contributor to the project by donating land and building construction costs , and by pledging to build a $ 7 million solar power plant , which will make SESAME the first accelerator in the world to be powered by renewable energy . The annual operational cost of $ 6 million are pledged by the members according to the size of their economies . The facility is the only synchrotron radiation facility in the Middle East and is one of around 60 in the world . , the president of the SESAME Council ( since 2008 ) is Christopher Llewellyn Smith , the chair of the ITER Council and a former Director-General of CERN . The first president of SESAME council ( 2004-2008 ) was Herwig Schopper , the former CERN director general . Khaled Toukan , the chairman of the Jordan Atomic Energy Commission , was a former vice-president of SESAME .", "Standard of living in India Standard of living in India varies from state to state . With one of the fastest growing economies in the world , clocked at a growth rate of 7.6 % in 2015 , India is on its way to becoming a large and globally important consumer economy . According to Deutsche Bank Research , there are between 30 million and 300 million middle-class people in India . If current trends continue , India 's share of world GDP will significantly increase from 7.3 in 2016 to 8.5 percent of the world share by 2020 . In 2011 , less than 22 percent of Indians lived under the global poverty line , nearly a 10 percent reduction from 29.8 percent just two years prior in 2009 . According to NCAER , India 's middle class population would be 267 million in 2016 . Further ahead , by 2025-26 the number of middle class households in India is likely to more than double from the 2015-16 levels to 113.8 million households or 547 million individuals . Another estimate put the Indian middle class as numbering 475 million people by 2030 . It is estimated that average real wages will quadruple between 2013 and 2030 . The standard of living in India shows large disparity . For example , there is widespread poverty in rural areas of India , where medical care tends to be very basic or unavailable , while cities boast of world class medical establishments . Similarly , the very latest machinery may be used in some construction projects , but many construction workers work without mechanisation in most projects . However , a rural middle class is now emerging in India , with some rural areas seeing increasing prosperity . In general , the southern Indian state of Kerala ranks top for most of the indices . In 2010 , the per capita PPP-adjusted GDP for India was US$ 3,608 .", "Power pool Power pooling is used to balance electrical load over a larger network ( electrical grid ) than a single utility . It is a mechanism for interchange of power between two and more utilities which provide or generate electricity For exchange of power between two utilities there is an interchange agreement which is signed by them , but signing up an interchange agreement between each pair of utilities within a system can be a difficult task where several large utilities are interconnected . Thus , it is more advantageous to form a power pool with a single agreement that all join . That agreement provides established terms and conditions for pool members and is generally more complex than a bilateral agreement . In one model , the power pool , formed by the utilities , has a control dispatch office from where the pool is administered . All the tasks regarding interchange of power and the settlement of disputes are assigned to the pool administrator . The formation of power pools provide the following potential advantages : Decrease in operating costs Saving in reserve capacity requirements Help from pool in unit commitment Minimization of costs of maintenance scheduling More reliable operation The formation of a power pool is associated with a number of problems and constraints . These include : Pool agreement may be very complex Costs associated with establishing central dispatch office and the needed communication and computational facilities The opposition of pool members to give up their rights to engage in independent transactions outside the pool . The complexity towards dealing with regulatory authorities , if pool operates in more than one state . The effort by each member of the pool to maximize its savings . Power pooling is very important for extending energy control over a large area served by multiple utilities .", "Michael J. Osborne Michael J. Osborne - ( born : September 20 , 1949 in Amarillo , Texas . ) An author , inventor , entrepreneur , visionary and energy policymaker , Michael Osborne has been a pioneer in promoting Texas renewable energy resources for over three decades . He was one of three founding members of the Texas Renewable Energy Industries Alliance ( TREIA ) . His public service appointments have included the steering committees of the State of Texas Energy Policy Partnership ( STEPP ) and the Sustainable Energy Development Council under Governor Ann Richards ; and later , the Texas Energy Coordination Council appointed by Governor George W. Bush . As Chair of the Austin Electric Utility Commission , Osborne has traveled internationally to speak and consult about the Texas energy experience . In 2015 he was part of the Austin , Texas delegation to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Paris , France . Early Life and Education The youngest of two sons born to Maxine Joan Chambers Osborne ( a businesswoman and investor ) and Jack Harold Osborne ( a WW II Navy pilot and rancher ) , Michael was born in Amarillo , Texas on Sept 20 , 1949 . When he was six , his family moved to the small town of Pampa , Texas where he later became captain of the Pampa High School golf team and played guitar and piano in two rock-and-roll bands . He graduated in 1967 . At the age of seventeen Michael moved to Austin , Texas to attend the University of Texas and majored in aerospace engineering and later , business marketing . He withdrew from school one semester short of a degree after his business school dean denied him project credit for an advertising agency , Directions Company , he had started on the side . Professional Life Marketing Music . As founder of Directions Company , Michael focused on marketing music venues such as Castle Creek , Mother Earth , and the legendary Armadillo World Headquarters ( 1973-1980 ) , a famed venue that led the Music of Austin Texas to national prominence . The Armadillo became a springboard for the careers of celebrated musicians such as : Willie Nelson , Waylon Jennings , Stevie Ray Vaughan , Marcia Ball , Joe Ely , Jerry Jeff Walker , Bruce Springsteen , Shiva 's Headband , and many more . Renewable Energy Business . Influenced by architect , inventor and philosopher , Buckminster Fuller , who believed in the importance of renewable energy , Osborne began to focus on the renewable energy business in the late 1970s by building passive solar homes and selling energy-saving wood stoves . In 1981 he developed the first wind energy project ( consisting of five 25-kilowatt wind turbines ) that sold energy to an electric utility in Texas . in 1983 , he signed on as the first distributor in Texas for Solarex , a now-defunct maker of solar cells used then as power sources for such things as ranch gates , railroad signals and other places where stringing power lines was difficult or expensive . In the 1990s he ran the Texas operations for Zond Energy , which is now part of GE Wind Energy , the largest U.S. wind turbine maker . Throughout the 80 's and 90s , Osborne documented and leased the wind resource for Texas wind fields . Many of his exploits are documented in the book , The Great Texas Wind Rush . In 1999 , Osborne was awarded Patent No . US5961739A for his invention of the Hemispheric Moving Focus Power Plant Renewable Energy Policy . In 1984 Michael Osborne co-founded the Texas Renewable Energy Industries Association ( now Alliance ) ( TREIA ) with two partners and worked with other key individuals and organizations to bring the nascent renewable energy industry to the attention of policymakers on the state and federal level . Governor Ann Richards appointed him to the steering committees of the State of Texas Energy Policy Partnership and the Sustainable Energy Development Council followed by an appointment by Richards ' successor , George W. Bush to the Texas Energy Coordination Council . In 2002 , Osborne was commissioned by the City of Austin to write a white paper funded by a U.S. Department of Energy ( DOE ) Grant , to develop a Sustainable Energy Plan for the City . The white paper was published as the book , Silver In The Mine . He was subsequently hired by the City to implement this sustainable energy plan as Director of Grants , Patents and R&D . Osborne served as Special Assistant to two Austin Energy General Managers and was charged with developing a vision for Austin which included a successful national campaign to get the automakers to support mass production of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles . Upon leaving Austin Energy in 2014 , Osborne served as Chairman of the City of Austin Electric Utility Commission from 2014 to 2016 and currently serves as a member of that body . He was also appointed Chairman of the City of Austin Generation Resource Planning Task Force , which resulted in an adopted generation plan to bring Austin ( the nation 's 7th largest public power utility and the 11th largest city in America ) to 55 % renewable energy by 2025 . Michael is also the principal of The Osborne Companies . He lives in Austin with his longtime partner , Dr. Dana Sprute . Author Michael Osborne is a published writer . His book , Lightland ' , is a philosophical look at the human potential in light of the challenge of climate change . His book , Silver in the Mine , is a long term comprehensive energy plan for the City of Austin , Texas . His third is an allegory called Day of the Heart . His most recent work is Beyond Light and Dark . Articles And Interviews About Michael Osborne and Renewable Energy in Texas How Austin Came to Be A Solar Powerhouse , The Texas Sierra Club , Nov 5 , 2015 - http://www.sierraclub.org/texas/blog/2015/11/how-austin-came-be-solar-powerhouse Austin Energy Offers Solar Expansion as City Zeroes in on Carbon-Free Goal , KUT Public Radio , Austin , Texas , Sept. 25 , 2014 - http://kut.org/post/austin-energy-offers-solar-expansion-city-zeroes-carbon-free-goal Deep in the Heart of Texas : A Wind Energy Maverick Takes an Alberta Field Trip , Ecocide , Aug. 1 , 2014 - http://ecocidealert.com/?p=6392 Texas Solar Power May Have its Day in the Sun , The Texas Observer , March 27 , 2014 - https://www.texasobserver.org/texas-solar-power-day-sun/ A Mighty Wind , Texas Monthly , Aug. 2011 - http://www.texasmonthly.com/article/a-mighty-wind-2/ The Austin Chronicle : Point Austin : A Funny Thing Happened , Dec. 11 , 2015 - http://www.austinchronicle.com/news/2015-12-11/point-austin-a-funny-thing-happened/ Pioneers or Settlers ? , Jan. 16 , 2015 - http://www.austinchronicle.com/news/2015-01-16/pioneers-or-settlers/ Affordability Key to Climate Plan Goals , July 17 , 2014 - http://www.austinchronicle.com/news/2014-07-18/affordability-key-to-climate-plan-goals/ Fighting for the Right to Clean Energy , Nov. 19 , 2004 - http://www.austinchronicle.com/news/2004-11-19/238560/External Links ' Austin Electric Utility Commission Chairman Michael Osborne on Austin Texas Solar Energy Programs : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8yL3oyY2h2k Michael Osborne on Predictable Renewable Energy : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xHJVjFbOnio Michael Osborne : Solar Energy A lot More Valuable Than Conventional Energy : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mj5mqt-lp80 Michael Osborne : The Solar Age Comes : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SVRbQ0_Vayg Texas Renewable Energy Industries Association ( TREIA ) Annual Conference , Michael Osborne - The Long Dawn - Part 1 : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I44yCMufVmM Texas Renewable Energy Industries Association Annual Conference ( TREIA ) , The Long Dawn - Part 2 : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mxgq2oCeelM Voice of America Radio : `` The Maverick of Renewable Energy - Making Life Brighter with Michael J. Osborne '' : https://www.voiceamerica.com/guest/22834/michael-j-osborne", "Dirty dairying In New Zealand `` dirty dairying '' refers to damage to the ecological health of New Zealand 's freshwater environment by the intensification of dairy farming , and also to the high profile campaign begun in 2002 by the Fish and Game Council to highlight and combat this . The campaign led to the creation in 2003 of the Dairying and Clean Streams Accord , a voluntary agreement between Fonterra , Ministry for the Environment , Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry , and regional councils . In 2014 the Dairying and Clean Streams Accord was succeeded by the Sustainable Dairying : Water Accord .", "Intermittent energy source An intermittent energy source is any source of energy or electrical power that is not continuously available due to some factor outside direct control . The intermittent source may be quite predictable , for example , tidal power , but can not be dispatched to meet the demand of a power system . Effective use of intermittent sources in an electric power grid usually relies on using the intermittent sources to displace fuel that would otherwise be consumed by non-renewable power stations , or by storing energy in the form of renewable pumped storage , compressed air or ice , or in batteries , for use when needed , or as electrode heating for district heating schemes . The capacity of a reliable renewable power supply , can be fulfilled by the use of backup or extra infrastructure and technology , using mixed renewables to produce electricity above the intermittent average , which may be utilised to meet regular and unanticipated supply demands . Additionally , the storage of energy to fill the shortfall intermittency or for emergencies can be part of a reliable power supply . The penetration of intermittent renewables in most power grids is low , global electricity production in 2014 was supplied by 3.1 % wind , and 1 % solar . Wind generates roughly 16 % of electric energy in Spain and Portugal , 15.3 % in Ireland , and 7 % in Germany . , wind provides 39 % of the electricity generated in Denmark . To operate with this level of penetration , Denmark exports surpluses and imports during shortfalls to and from neighbouring countries , particularly hydroelectric power from Norway , to balance supply with demand . It also uses large numbers of combined heat and power ( CHP ) stations which can rapidly adjust output . The use of small amounts of intermittent power has little effect on grid operations . Using larger amounts of intermittent power may require upgrades or even a redesign of the grid infrastructure .", "Red Lily Wind Farm The Red Lily Wind Farm is a Red Lily Wind Energy Partnership facility situated north west of Moosomin , Saskatchewan , in the Rural Municipality of Moosomin . The facility is owned by Concorde Pacific and developed and constructed by Algonquin Power . The wind farm will consist of 16 , V82-1 .65 MW wind turbine , for a total of 25 MW . At a cost of $ 60 million , work on the project started in 2010 , with the facility coming online ( at 26.4 MW ) in February 2011 . The facility is being constructed under a long-term , 25-year , power purchase agreement with SaskPower .", "The Merton Rule The Merton Rule is named after the council in the United Kingdom that in 2003 adopted the first prescriptive planning policy that required new commercial buildings over 1,000 square meters to generate at least 10 % of their energy needs using on site renewable energy equipment . The policy was developed and implemented by policy officers at Merton Council ( initially by Nick Smart , the Council 's economic planner ) , who received corporate and political support . Its impact was such that the Mayor of London and many other councils also implemented it ; and it become part of national planning guidance . Over the following few years , Merton worked closely with other authorities , professions and industry to embed the Rule into the UK mainstream . This work not only led to significant CO2 reductions in new buildings where previously there would have been none , but it also helped to support an emerging industry . In 2006 Merton won the Royal Town Planning Institute 's Silver Jubilee cup for the policy , and in 2008 Adrian Hewitt ( the Merton Council officer responsible for implementing and driving the policy ) won the UK Heating & Ventilation Contractors gold award . In 2008 , the UK government published its central planning guidance Planning Policy Statement - Planning and Climate Change - PPS1 that requires all UK local planning authorities to adopt a `` Merton rule '' policy . Receiving Royal Assent in November 2008 , the Planning and Energy Act 2008 enables all councils in England and Wales to adopt a Merton Rule as well as specify energy efficiency standards over and above that of building regulations . It was inevitable that such a radical policy would trigger a debate amongst property developers , energy companies , and practitioners . The policy has been criticised for assuming that in all cases renewable energy generation represents the most effective method of reducing CO2 emissions at any given location . However , the policy is an incentive for architects and engineers to design more energy efficient buildings - with the core rationale that the more energy efficient the building the less renewable energy is required to meet a percentage target . The policy has also met resistance from building developers because the onsite renewable energy equipment increases capital costs . Supporters of the Merton Rule ( and similar policies ) argue that the revenue benefit accrues to the subsequent owner/occupiers in the form of reduced energy bills and increased equity - and as such the buildings carry a retail premium . The advent of the UK Government 's Feed In Tariff has significantly reduced the payback time of photovoltaic , and wind/hydro turbine renewable energy capital costs . The most in-depth review of the Merton Rule was undertaken by Bath University in 2008 . Monitoring the Merton Rule ( and London Plan Policy 5.2 ) After several years of implementing prescriptive renewable policies like the Merton Rule , UK boroughs realized they had a problem with keeping track of what renewable equipment had been installed - and whether the 10 % target was actually being met . In 2013 Ealing Council in London implemented a policy ( the Ealing Condition ) that requires the automated remote monitoring of renewable/low-carbon energy in order to confirm compliance with their Local and London Plan ( 5.2 ) policies . The web-monitoring service is provided by Energence Ltd. http://www.ealing.gov.uk/info/1004/planning_policy/600/complying_with_planning_policy In 2014 Ealing 's Automated Energy Monitoring Platform initiative was quoted as an example of Best Practice in the Mayor of London 's Sustainable Design & Construction Supplementary Planning Guidance Guidance https://www.london.gov.uk/priorities/planning/consultations/draft-sustainable-design-and-construction ( page 54 ) . Proposed repeal ( partial ) of the Planning and Energy Act . The Government raised the possibility of repealing the Planning and Energy Act as part of the Housing Standards Review in 2013 . The rationale was to place all renewable energy requirements under the Building Regulations . Proponents of this approach believed that this would create a level playing field for the house building sectors , whilst opponents believed it would stifle innovation and adversely impact the low-carbon engineering sectors . However , the proposal was finally rejected in 2014 and the Merton Rule remains in place , though the ability of Councils to require additional energy efficiency measures in new buildings was removed .", "Astana Light Metro The Astana Metro is a planned light rail rapid transit system located in Astana , Kazakhstan , which is the capital of the country with a population of about 750,000 . Construction should have finished roughly about the same time as the Almaty Metro , which was estimated for 2010 . However , completion has been postponed until 2017 . Project authority Astana LRT LLP had signed an agreement with a consortium of China Railway International Group and Beijing State-Owned Assets Management Co for construction of the first phase of the capital 's light rail project on May 7 2015 . The light metro is part of Nazarbayev 's Kazakhstan 2030 economic plan to transform Kazakhstan into an economic power . A great deal of construction has taken place in Astana since it became the capital in 1997 .", "Electric distribution network The electric distribution network is a power delivery system consisting of cables that deliver electric power from its point of generation to the end users . Electrical distribution systems are primarily designed to meet the consumer 's demands for energy . This is achieved by taking energy from primary substations and delivering it to various customer substations through either underground cables or above ground lines . Because of the lack of space , some cities and towns primarily rely more on underground cables and rural areas lean more towards overhead lines . Choosing between underground or above grounds methods can depend on how much protection and control can be provided . When it comes to choosing which method is best for the area , there are three components of planning that are taken into consideration : long term planning , network planning , and construction planning . Long term planning refers to thinking ahead , or in other words , thinking of the future . There are some questions that should be taken into account when using this method , for instance , if there was a new establishment that needed an energy supply , would there be an easy fix to add on to the network ? This also falls directly into network planning which should make the distribution easier to manage if conducted effectively . Furthermore , construction planning is all the engineering work and actual mapping that goes into electrical distribution . These distribution systems help to provide each home , business , and other organizations with electricity in order to perform daily functions . For example , some of the functions include keeping the refrigerator running to prevent spoilage of food or lighting up a room with artificial light . Having a reliable system is essential for productivity and the less mistakes that need to be fixed , the more efficient a business can run . The entire network consists of the following parts : Generation plant Long-distance power transmission lines Substations Local power lines", "Catching the Sun (film) Catching the Sun is a documentary film on the growth of the solar power industry that premiered on Netflix in April , 2016 . Directed by Shalini Kantayya , the film features portraits of diverse personalities and their roles in the transition to solar power . Unemployed workers in Richmond , California , businessmen in China , Tea Party activists , and would be White House adviser are all featured in the film . The film attempts to debunk a false dilemma that clean energy requires sacrificing economic prosperity .", "Pearl River Delta Rapid Transit The Pearl River Delta Rapid Transit or Pearl River Delta Metropolitan Area Intercity Railway System is a regional rapid rail network being gradually constructed in the Pearl River Delta , People 's Republic of China . The project 's goal is to have every major urban center in the Pearl River Delta to be within one-hour travel by rail to Guangzhou . On March 16 , 2005 , the State Council examined and approved plans for a regional rapid rail transit network for the Bohai Economic Rim , Yangtze River Delta and the Pearl River Delta . According to the plan , by 2020 , Pearl River Delta Rapid Transit network will have a total route mileage of about 600 km . In September 2009 , the plan was expanded to 1478 km of routes split up into 23 lines . In the long term vision network length will reach 1890 km by 2030 . By then the network will provide basic coverage to the Pearl River Delta region .", "Non-Nuclear Futures Non-Nuclear Futures : The Case for an Ethical Energy Strategy is a 1975 book by Amory B. Lovins and John H. Price . The main theme of the book is that the most important parts of the nuclear power debate are not technical disputes but relate to personal values , and are the legitimate province of every citizen , whether technically trained or not . Lovins and Price suggest that the personal values that make a high-energy society work are all too apparent , and that the values associated with an alternate view relate to thrift , simplicity , diversity , neighbourliness , craftsmanship , and humility . They also argue that large nuclear generators could not be mass-produced . Their centralization requires costly transmission and distribution systems . They are inefficient , not recycling excess thermal energy . The authors believed that nuclear reactors were less reliable ( a grossly incorrect prediction ) and take longer to build , exposing them to escalated interest costs , mistimed demand forecasts , and wage pressure by unions . Lovins and Price suggest that these two different sets of personal values and technological attributes lead to two very different policy paths relating to future energy supplies . The first is high-energy nuclear , centralized , electric ; the second is lower energy , non-nuclear , decentralized , less electrified , softer technology . Subsequent publications by other authors which relate to the issue of non-nuclear energy paths are Greenhouse Solutions with Sustainable Energy , Plan B 2.0 , Reaction Time , State of the World 2008 , The Clean Tech Revolution , and the work of Benjamin K. Sovacool .", "Nuclear energy in Poland In the 1980s , Poland had four Soviet VVER-440 reactors under construction , but the project was canceled in 1990 . The basis of cancellation of Żarnowiec Nuclear Power Plant was public opinion ( a referendum had an exit poll of strong `` no '' ) , and Chernobyl disaster was up-to-date event . A new nuclear power plant was approved in the 2005 -- 2025 energy strategy document , and it is expected to be in operation by 2021 or 2022 . The Polish company PSE participates in the development of the Visaginas Nuclear Power Plant in Lithuania . Around 95 % of the nation 's electricity is currently produced by burning coal ( of which Poland has the EU 's largest reserves ) but with the need to reduce carbon dioxide emissions , in 2006 the nuclear option was reviewed . A 2006 feasibility study suggested it optimal to build an 11.5 GWe capacity nuclear power plant . However , this proving unaffordable in the immediate future , Poland decided to build a 4.5 GWe nuclear power plant by 2030 . In 2007 , a draft energy policy proposed a 10 GWe nuclear capacity by 2030 to provide 10 % of electricity . The deadline gives an estimated ten years for investment and construction and five years of public campaigning . In July 2006 , Poland joined Lithuania , Estonia , and Latvia to build a new nuclear power plant in Lithuania to replace the Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant being shut down due to pressure from the EU . Poland would invest 22 % with these other countries into the project , which will be operational by 2015 . The total costs of the project amounts to EUR 6 billion . Poland is guaranteed to have 1,200 MWe from the power plant and is in the process of upgrading transmission capacity between Lithuania and Poland . In a public opinion poll , 60 % of the population supported construction of a nuclear power plant in Poland to reduce its dependence on foreign sources of energy . Additionally , 48 % supported construction of a nuclear power plant in their neighborhood , citing local benefits that include lower energy costs . The popular Baltic Sea resort Mielno is one of three sites selected , however in February 2012 , residents voted overwhelmingly against the plan . Some 94 percent of the 2,389 people who took part in a referendum opposed the plant and only 5 percent supported it ." ]

[ "Nuclear winter Nuclear winter is the severe global-climatic-cooling-effect , hypothesized to occur after the ignition of a number of firestorms , from nuclear bomb detonations , or wide spread bombardments . Such fires , which can inject soot into the stratosphere , have historically occurred in a number of cities , with nuclear winter researchers using both Hamburg and the less ferocious Hiroshima firestorms as the principal examples . However , as firestorms are most frequently encountered in much larger area wildfires , these latter fires are the most significant today in assessing both the initial and present-day `` nuclear winter '' computer models .", "Satellite temperature measurements The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .", "Ozone depletion Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late 1970s : a steady decline of about four percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth 's stratosphere ( the ozone layer ) , and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth 's polar regions . The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole . In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena , there are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events . The details of polar ozone hole formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning but the most important process in both is catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic halogens . The main source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is photodissociation of man-made halocarbon refrigerants , solvents , propellants , and foam-blowing agents ( chlorofluorocarbon ( CFCs ) , HCFCs , freons , halons ) . These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by winds after being emitted at the surface . Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions of halocarbons increased . CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to as ozone-depleting substances ( ODS ) . Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths ( 280 -- 315 nm ) of ultraviolet light ( UV light ) from passing through the Earth 's atmosphere , observed and projected decreases in ozone generated worldwide concern , leading to adoption of the Montreal Protocol that bans the production of CFCs , halons , and other ozone-depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane . It is suspected that a variety of biological consequences such as increases in sunburn , skin cancer , cataracts , damage to plants , and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean 's photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion .", "Eocene The Eocene ( -LSB- pronˈiːəˌsiːn , _ ˈiːoʊ - -RSB- ) Epoch , lasting from , is a major division of the geologic timescale and the second epoch of the Paleogene Period in the Cenozoic Era . The Eocene spans the time from the end of the Paleocene Epoch to the beginning of the Oligocene Epoch . The start of the Eocene is marked by a brief period in which the concentration of the carbon isotope 13C in the atmosphere was exceptionally low in comparison with the more common isotope 12C . The end is set at a major extinction event called the Grande Coupure ( the `` Great Break '' in continuity ) or the Eocene -- Oligocene extinction event , which may be related to the impact of one or more large bolides in Siberia and in what is now Chesapeake Bay . As with other geologic periods , the strata that define the start and end of the epoch are well identified , though their exact dates are slightly uncertain . The name Eocene comes from the Ancient Greek ἠώς ( ēṓs , `` dawn '' ) and καινός ( kainós , `` new '' ) and refers to the `` dawn '' of modern ( ` new ' ) fauna that appeared during the epoch ." ]

[ "Warm-blooded Warm-blooded animal species can maintain a body temperature higher than their environment . In particular , homeothermic species maintain a stable body temperature by regulating metabolic processes . The only known homeotherms are birds , mammals and the Opah fish . Other species have various degrees of thermoregulation . Animal body temperature control varies by species , so the terms `` warm-blooded '' and `` cold-blooded '' ( though still in everyday use ) suggest a false idea of there being only two categories of body temperature control , and are no longer used scientifically .", "Heat pump and refrigeration cycle Thermodynamic heat pump cycles or refrigeration cycles are the conceptual and mathematical models for heat pumps and refrigerators . A heat pump is a machine or device that moves heat from one location ( the ` source ' ) at a lower temperature to another location ( the ` sink ' or ` heat sink ' ) at a higher temperature using mechanical work or a high-temperature heat source . Thus a heat pump may be thought of as a `` heater '' if the objective is to warm the heat sink ( as when warming the inside of a home on a cold day ) , or a `` refrigerator '' if the objective is to cool the heat source ( as in the normal operation of a freezer ) . In either case , the operating principles are identical . Heat is moved from a cold place to a warm place .", "Ikogosi Warm Springs The Ikogosi Warm Springs is a tourist attraction located at Ikogosi , a town in Ekiti State , southwestern Nigeria . Flowing abreast the warm spring is another cold spring which meets the warm spring at a confluence , each maintaining its thermal properties . These attributes make the spring a tourist attraction in Nigeria . Research suggested that the warm spring has a temperature of about 70oC at the source and 37oC at the confluence .", "Marine Isotope Stage 13 Marine Isotope Stage 13 or MIS 13 is a Marine isotope stage in the geologic temperature record , in Britain covering the Cromerian interglacial period between ~ 524,000 and 474,000 years ago . It is split into three substages , MIS 13a MIS 13b , and MIS 13c . Some records indicate that MIS 13a was an unstable warm peak with a cold split in the middle at MIS 13.12 - separating warm MIS 13.11 and 13.13", "Warm antibody autoimmune hemolytic anemia Warm antibody autoimmune hemolytic anemia ( WAIHA ) is the most common form of autoimmune hemolytic anemia . About half of the cases are of unknown cause , with the other half attributable to a predisposing condition or medications being taken . Contrary to cold autoimmune hemolytic anemia ( e.g. , cold agglutinin disease and paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria ) which happens in cold temperature ( 28 -- 31 ° C ) , WAIHA happens in body temperature .", "Warm on a Cold Night Warm on a Cold Night is the debut studio album by British electronic duo Honne . It was released on 22 July 2016 by Tatemae and Atlantic Records . The album features guest appearance by British singer-songwriter Izzy Bizu .", "Climate of Moscow Moscow has a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfb ) with warm , sometimes hot , somewhat humid summers and long , cold winters . Typical high temperatures in the warm months of June , July and August are around 23 ° C , but during heat waves , which can occur anytime from May to September , daytime temperature highs often top 30 ° C for sometimes one or two weeks . In the winter , temperatures normally drop to approximately -10 ° C , though there can be periods of warmth with temperatures rising above 0 ° C. Summer lasts from mid-May to the beginning of September . Winter lasts from the beginning of November to the end of March .", "Honne (band) Honne ( stylised as HONNE ) are an English electronic music duo formed in 2014 in Bow , London , consisting of James Hatcher ( producer ) and Andy Clutterbuck ( singer , producer ) who both write , record and produce the music . The band released their first two EPs , Warm on a Cold Night and All in the Value , on Super Recordings in 2014 . In 2015 they released their third EP , Coastal Love , on their own imprint Tatemae Recordings . Their debut studio album Warm on a Cold Night was released on 22 July 2016 through Tatemae Recordings .", "Winter of 2010–11 in Great Britain and Ireland The winter of 2010 -- 2011 was a weather event that brought heavy snowfalls , record low temperatures , travel chaos and school disruption to the islands of Britain and Ireland . It included the UK 's coldest December since Met Office records began in 1910 , with a mean temperature of -1 ° C , breaking the previous record of 0.1 ° C in December 1981 . Also it was the second-coldest December in the narrower Central England Temperature ( CET ) record series which began in 1659 , falling 0.1 ° C short of the all-time record set in 1890 . The winter of 2010 in England saw the earliest widespread winter snowfall since 1993 with snow falling as early as 24 November across Northumberland and North Yorkshire . A maximum snow depth of 30 in was recorded on 1 December in the Peak District , Sheffield , the Cotswold Hills and the Forest of Dean . In this event Scotland and Northern England were most severely affected . On 9 December temperatures recovered across much of the UK , causing a partial thaw . Later , on Thursday 16 December a cold front reintroduced a cold , arctic airstream . This cold spell brought further snow and ice chaos back to the British Isles with Southern England , Wales , the Republic of Ireland ( excluding the westerly coastal regions ) and Northern Ireland bearing the brunt of the wintry conditions . This led to severe disruption to the road and rail network with several airports being closed including London Heathrow Airport for a time . Several local temperature records were broken including a new record low for Northern Ireland of -18.7 ° C recorded at Castlederg on 23 December 2010 . By the new year a thaw had begun , and there was no recurrence of the extreme conditions for the remainder of the winter . There was some snowfall in early January , and there was an anticyclonic spell at the end of the month that brought some cold , frosty days . February was above average in temperature and ended on a mild note , although the snow returned in much of Scotland during March .", "Cold Women & Warm Beer `` Cold Women & Warm Beer '' is a CD single by The Black League , released in 2003 by Spinefarm Records ' sub label Ranch .", "Thermoreceptor A thermoreceptor is a non-specialised sense receptor , or more accurately the receptive portion of a sensory neuron , that codes absolute and relative changes in temperature , primarily within the innocuous range . In the mammalian peripheral nervous system , warmth receptors are thought to be unmyelinated C-fibres ( low conduction velocity ) , while those responding to cold have both C-fibers and thinly myelinated A delta fibers ( faster conduction velocity ) . The adequate stimulus for a warm receptor is warming , which results in an increase in their action potential discharge rate . Cooling results in a decrease in warm receptor discharge rate . For cold receptors their firing rate increases during cooling and decreases during warming . Some cold receptors also respond with a brief action potential discharge to high temperatures , i.e. typically above 45 ° C , and this is known as a paradoxical response to heat . The mechanism responsible for this behavior has not been determined . In humans , temperature sensation enters the spinal cord along the axons of Lissauer 's tract that synapse on second order neurons in grey matter of the dorsal horn , one or two vertebral levels up . The axons of these second order neurons then decussate , joining the spinothalamic tract as they ascend to neurons in the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus .", "Global warming hiatus A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "Lego RoboRiders The RoboRiders was a short-lived series launched in 2000 by LEGO after the Slizers . A total of seven official sets and four promotional sets were released while this series lasted . Special cans , when exposed to cold temperatures , would reveal codes used to play an online game . RoboRiders is also known to be the last line of action toys created in the Lego Technic line before Bionicle existed .", "Warm market Warm market is used in both the sales and direct marketing industries . In direct marketing it is similar to using the phrase `` permission marketing '' , which is also the title of a best selling book by Seth Godin . In sales and direct marketing your warm market is said to be people you know , which could be friends , relatives and existing customers , even referrals are said to be warm ( see referral marketing . ) `` Cold market '' refers to a sales person 's future or prospective customers . Category : Sales Category : Direct marketing Category : Marketing terminology", "Australian ten-dollar note The Australian ten dollar banknote was issued when the currency was changed from the Australian pound to the Australian dollar on 14 February 1966 ; it replaced the # 5 note which had similar blue colouration . There have been three different issues of this denomination , a paper banknote , a commemorative 1988 polymer note to celebrate the bicentennial of Australian settlement ( the first polymer banknote of its kind ) , and from 1993 a polymer banknote . According to Reserve Bank of Australia statistics , as at June 2016 there were 120 million $ 10 notes in circulation , with a net value of $ 1.196 billion . This was 2 % of the cash value of all banknotes in circulation , and 8 % of the number of all banknotes in circulation . Since the start of issue of $ 10 notes , there have been eleven signature combinations , of which the 1967 issue is the most valued . It was issued for one year only , along with the Coombs/Wilson issue of 1966 . Following the issue of a new $ 5 note last year ( September 2016 ) , the RBA revealed the design for the $ 10 note and will be issued on 1 September 2017 .", "Chilblains Chilblains ( -LSB- ˈtʃɪlbleɪnz -RSB- ) -- also known as pernio , Chill Burns and perniosis -- is a medical condition that occurs when a predisposed individual is exposed to cold and humidity , causing tissue damage . It is often confused with frostbite and trench foot . Damage to capillary beds in the skin causes redness , itching , inflammation , and sometimes blisters . Chilblains can be reduced by keeping the feet and hands warm in cold weather , and avoiding extreme temperature changes . Chilblains can be idiopathic ( spontaneous and unrelated to another disease ) , but may also be a manifestation of another serious medical condition that needs to be investigated . A history of chilblains is suggestive of a connective tissue disease ( such as lupus ) . Chilblains in infants , together with severe neurologic disease and unexplained fevers , can be seen in Aicardi -- Goutières syndrome , a rare inherited condition .", "Kazantsevo, Shushensky District, Krasnoyarsk Krai Kazantsevo is a rural locality ( a selo ) in Shushensky District of Krasnoyarsk Krai , Russia . The climate is very warm in summer and very cold in winter , with temperatures reaching -40 C. Warm summer weather allows local people to cultivate melons and watermelons .", "Boomerang Nebula The Boomerang Nebula is a protoplanetary nebula located 5,000 light-years away from Earth in the constellation Centaurus . It is also known as the Bow Tie Nebula and catalogued as LEDA 3074547 . The nebula 's temperature is measured at 1 K making it the coolest natural place currently known in the Universe . The Boomerang Nebula is believed to be a star system evolving toward the planetary nebula phase . It continues to form and develop due to the outflow of gas from its core where a star in its late stage life sheds mass and emits starlight illuminating dust in the nebula . Millimeter scale dust grains mask portions of the nebula 's center so most escaping visible light is in two opposing lobes forming a distinctive hourglass shape as viewed from Earth . The outflowing gas is moving outwards at a speed of about 164 km/s and expanding rapidly as it moves out into space ; this gas expansion results in the nebula 's unusually low temperature . Keith Taylor and Mike Scarrott called it the `` Boomerang Nebula '' in 1980 after observing it with the Anglo-Australian telescope at the Siding Spring Observatory . Unable to view it with great clarity , the astronomers saw merely a slight asymmetry in the nebula 's lobes suggesting a curved shape like a boomerang . The nebula was photographed in detail by the Hubble Space Telescope in 1998 revealing a more symmetric hourglass shape . In 1995 , using the 15-metre Swedish-ESO Submillimetre Telescope in Chile , astronomers revealed that it is the coldest place in the Universe found so far , besides laboratory-created temperatures . With a temperature of − 272 ° C , it is only 1 ° C warmer than absolute zero ( the lowest limit for all temperatures ) . Even the − 270 ° C background glow from the Big Bang is warmer than the nebula . Aside from the CMB cold spot , it is the only object found so far that has a temperature lower than the background radiation . In 2013 , observations of the ALMA radio interferometer revealed other features of the Boomerang Nebula . The visible double lobe of the Boomerang Nebula was observed to be surrounded by a larger spherical volume of cold gas seen only in sub-millimeter radio wavelengths . The nebula 's outer fringes appear to be gradually warming .", "Freezy Freakies Freezy Freakies were a winter fad in the early to mid-1980s . They were snow gloves , created by ski glove company Swany America that revealed fun colors and designs when exposed to cold temperatures . The gloves came in many designs , which catered to young kids . One design was of a fighter plane , and another was a pink castle scene .", "Overpeck, Ohio Overpeck ( other names : Overpeck Station , Overpecks , Overpecks Station ) is an unincorporated community in central St. Clair Township , Butler County , Ohio , United States . Although it is unincorporated , it has a post office , with the ZIP code of 45055 . It lies between New Miami and Trenton . Overpeck is a part of the Cincinnati-Middletown-Wilmington , OH-KY-IN Combined Statistical Area . A post office called Overpecks Station was established in 1860 , and the name was changed to Overpeck in 1882 . The community has the name of Isaac Overpeck , an early resident .", "Temperature record of the past 1000 years For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .", "List of Spanish soups and stews This is a list of Spanish soups and stews . Spanish cuisine is a way of preparing varied dishes , which is enriched by the culinary contributions of the various regions that make up the country . It is a cuisine influenced by the people who , throughout history , have conquered the territory of that country . Soup is a primarily liquid food , generally served warm ( but may be cool or cold ) , that is made by combining ingredients such as meat and vegetables with stock , juice , water , or another liquid . Stew is a combination of solid food ingredients that have been cooked in liquid and served in the resultant gravy . Stews are typically cooked at a relatively low temperature ( simmered , not boiled ) , allowing flavors to mingle .", "Bombus frigidus Bombus frigidus , the frigid bumblebee , is a rare species of bumblebee largely found in Canada and parts of the United States . These bees have adapted to their cold environment by being able to keep their internal temperature within a certain range while also being able to expel heat to keep the colony warm . An additional adaptation to the cold is their reduced length of copulation . Also , B. frigidus has developed a relationship with Mertensia paniculata so that the flowers ' color signals to the bees when to obtain nectar .", "Climate of Adelaide Adelaide has a Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification Csa ) , with mild to cool winters with moderate rainfall and warm to hot , dry summers . Adelaide is the driest of the Australian capital cities and the past two decades have been far warmer than usual , with the past 8 years seeing an excess of 40 + degrees every summer . Alarmingly , the city has also recorded almost 10 consecutive years of below-average Spring rainfall , with 2014 on track to continuing this trend . A spike in heat waves , droughts and record-breaking high temperatures over the past decade has led to some concerns over the effects of global warming and Man-made climate change ( AGW ) on the city . Nine of the ten warmest years recorded in Adelaide have occurred since 2002 , with 2013 being the hottest year and summer 2015 -- 2016 being the fourth-hottest summer recorded .", "Warm Fork Spring River The Warm Fork Spring River is a stream in Oregon County , Missouri and northern Fulton County , Arkansas . The stream begins in western Oregon County at the confluence of Howell Creek and Elk Creek at and the stream becomes the Spring River at its confluence with the cold springwaters of Mammoth Spring in northern Fulton County at . The stream was named due to the temperature difference between its waters and the cold springwaters entering from Mammoth Spring .", "Secret Weapon Revealed at Last Secret Weapon Revealed at Last is the fourth studio album by Country Teasers . Finding it increasingly difficult for the entire band to congregate to perform or record , the album contains several older songs written between 1997 and 1998 and recorded during the Winter of 2002 . The liner notes make mention that `` Some members of the group were not present at the recordings '' .", "March 2012 North American heat wave In March 2012 , one of the greatest heat waves was observed in many regions of North America . Very warm air pushed northward west of the Great Lakes region , and subsequently spread eastward . The intense poleward air mass movement was propelled by an unusually intense low level southerly jet that stretched from Louisiana to western Wisconsin . Once this warm surge inundated the area , a remarkably prolonged period of record setting temperatures ensued . NOAA 's National Climate Data Center reported that over 7,000 daily record high temperatures were tied or broken from 1 March through 27 March . In some places the temperature exceeded 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) . For instance , in Grand Rapids , Michigan , the highest temperature recorded was 87 ° F on March 21 ; in Chicago a high of 87 ° F was also recorded on that same day . Records were broken in unusual ways . Chicago , for example , saw temperatures above 80 ° F every day between March 14 -- 18 , breaking records on all five days . Chicago would go on to record eight days at or above 80 ° F during the month , with many suburban areas recording an additional day in the 80s on March 19 ( that day , the city only tied its record high of 78 ° F ) . In context , the National Weather Service 's Chicago branch noted that Chicago typically averages only one day in the 80 's in April . And only once in 140 years of weather observations has April produced as many 80 ° F days as this March . In Traverse City , Michigan one day began with a low temperature ( 67 ° F ) higher than the previous record high for the day . Temperature records across much of southern Canada also were shattered . Some of the most impressive readings came from Nova Scotia on March 22 , when the mercury climbed to 30.0 C at a climate station in Lake Major , making it the highest March temperature recorded in Nova Scotia , and the third highest March temperature recorded in Canada . That same day , the temperature hit 29.2 C at Western Head , Nova Scotia . The heat reached as far east as Cape Breton Island , with the temperature climbing to 24.0 C at Sydney , Nova Scotia on March 22 , a place historically surrounded by ice-jammed waters , frigid winds , and snow in March . The week of March 18 also set record temperatures in Manitoba and much of Ontario as well as into the Maritime Provinces . Non-severe thunderstorms were reported on the evening hours of March 21 , through to the early morning hours March 22 into northern Ontario . In addition , NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis data show that the atmospheric pattern was so persistent that much of the Midwest and Northeast , and up into Ontario , had temperature departures over periods of several days to a week or more of magnitudes which would be unusual even for a single day . Averaged over the seven-day period from March 16 to March 22 inclusive , nearly the entire area of the Midwest and Northeast U.S. and most of Ontario and Quebec had temperatures 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) or more above the 1981-2010 average . Even more dramatically , most of Iowa and Minnesota , all of Wisconsin and Michigan , and most of southeastern Ontario had seven-day mean temperatures more than 15 ° C ( 27 ° F ) above the climatological average for the same period . An 84 ° F high at Madison , WI in early March was 43 ° F above average and followed an overnight low of 60 ° F , 35 degrees above normal the daily high being more than seven standard deviations above the mean . The absolute temperature and departure statistically would be equivalent to a mid-July high at that station in excess of 125 ° F or more ; the highest temperature recorded there was 107 ° at least once during the heat waves of the middle 1930s . This mild warm spell brought out spring peepers in northern Ontario on 23 March , which are usually not heard until mid-to-late April , or sometimes early May . The warm weather was also responsible for several early-season tornado touchdowns , such as the EF3 that struck Dexter , Michigan , near Ann Arbor .", "Climate of North Dakota North Dakota 's climate is typical of a continental climate with cold winters and warm-hot summers . The state 's location in the Upper Midwest allows it to experience some of the widest variety of weather in the United States , and each of the four seasons has its own distinct characteristics . The eastern half of the state has a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfb ) with warm to hot , somewhat humid summers and cold , windy winters , while the western half has a semi-arid climate ( Köppen climate classification BSk ) with less precipitation and less humidity but similar temperature profiles . The areas east of the Missouri River get slightly colder winters , while those west of the stream get higher summer daytime temperatures . In general , the diurnal temperature difference is prone to be more significant in the west due to higher elevation and less humidity .", "Warm glass Warm glass or kiln-formed glass is the working of glass , usually for artistic purposes , by heating it in a kiln . The processes used depend on the temperature reached and range from fusing and slumping to casting . ` Warm ' glass is in contrast to the many cold-working glass processes , such as leaded glass . ` Hot ' glass , glass blowing or lampworking is the working of glass in a direct flame , such as for laboratory glassware and beadmaking .", "Cold World (Of Mice & Men album) Cold World is the fourth studio album by American metalcore/nu metal band Of Mice & Men , released on September 9 , 2016 through Rise Records . The album was produced by David Bendeth and is the follow-up to the group 's third studio album , Restoring Force ( 2014 ) . The lead single , `` Pain '' , was released on June 27 , 2016 . Another single , `` Real '' , was released on August 4 , 2016 and then another new song , `` Contagious '' , on August 29 , 2016 . The album was released early exclusively on Apple Music on September 2 . It received mixed reviews from critics . The album reached # 20 in the US selling 19,000 copies in its first week . This is the last album to feature Austin Carlile as he left the band later due to his health issues .", "Thermotime switch A thermotime switch , or TTS , is a sensor used to control the cold start enrichment process in some older fuel injection systems . An extra injector is placed in the inlet manifold designed to feed all of the cylinders , and whilst the other injectors have flow rates controlled by pulse duration , the cold start injector stays on during the initial cold starting procedure . This duration is controlled by the thermotime switch , which is a bimetallic strip based device placed in the water jacket or in the case of an air-cooled engine , in the engine/timing case . When an engine first starts , the coolant temperature is cold and the bimetallic strip is closed , which in turn supplies the cold start injector with current . A small heater coil is built into the thermotime switch , which effectively gives a timed output to the cold start injector with the timing duration dependent on the temperature of the engine . If the engine is started whilst warm the bimetallic strip remains open due to the higher temperature , meaning the cold start routine is not entered .", "Overpeck Overpeck may refer to : People : Lem Overpeck ( 1911 -- 2003 ) , the 29th Lieutenant Governor of South Dakota from 1965 to 1969 Settlements : Overpeck Township , New Jersey , former township in Bergen County , New Jersey , United States , from 1897 to 1938 Overpeck , Ohio , unincorporated community in central St. Clair Township , Butler County , Ohio , United States Geography : Overpeck Creek , tributary of the Hackensack River in Bergen County in northeastern New Jersey in the United States Overpeck County Park , 811 acre ( 3.28 km2 ) county park in Bergen County , New Jersey , United States de : Overpeck vo : Overpeck" ]

[ "Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''", "Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming is a book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The book is a sequel to The Skeptical Environmentalist ( first published in Danish in 1998 ) , which in English translation brought the author to world attention . Lomborg argues that many of the elaborate and expensive actions being considered to stop global warming will cost hundreds of billions of dollars without the same return on investment , often are based on emotional rather than strictly scientific assumptions , and may have very little impact on the world 's temperature for centuries . Lomborg concludes that a limited carbon tax is needed in the First World as well as subsidies from the First World to the Third World to help fight ongoing humanitarian crises .", "Heaven and Earth (book) Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .", "An Appeal to Reason An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .", "Climate change in popular culture The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .", "Environmental skepticism Environmental skepticism is the belief that claims by environmentalists , and the environmental scientists who support them , are false or exaggerated . The term is also applied to those who are critical of environmentalism in general . Environmental skepticism is closely linked with anti-environmentalism and climate change denial . Environmental skeptics have argued that the extent of harm coming from human activities is less certain than some scientists and scientific bodies claim , or that it is too soon to be introducing curbs in these activities on the basis of existing evidence , or that further discussion is needed regarding who should pay for such environmental initiatives . One of the focus themes in the environmental skeptics movement is the idea that environmentalism is a growing threat to social and economic progress and the civil liberties . The popularity of the term was enhanced by Bjørn Lomborg 's book The Skeptical Environmentalist . Lomborg approached environmental claims from a statistical and economic standpoint , and concluded that often the claims made by environmentalists were overstated . Lomborg argued , on the basis of cost -- benefit analysis , that few environmentalist claims warranted serious concern . However , in 2010 , Lomborg stated that he believes in the need for `` tens of billions of dollars a year to be invested in tackling climate change '' and declared global warming to be `` undoubtedly one of the chief concerns facing the world today '' and `` a challenge humanity must confront '' . He summarized his position , saying `` Global warming is real - it is man-made and it is an important problem . But it is not the end of the world . ''", "The Great Global Warming Swindle The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .", "The Deniers The Deniers is a 2008 book by Lawrence Solomon , a Canadian environmentalist and writer . Subtitled `` The world-renowned scientists who stood up against global warming hysteria , political persecution , and fraud , '' the book draws attention to a number of scientists and others who , according to Solomon , have advanced arguments against what he calls the `` alarmist '' view of global warming , as presented by Al Gore , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , the mainstream media , and others . The book is based on a series of columns Solomon wrote for Canada 's National Post .", "Global warming hiatus A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "Global cooling Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "Climatic Research Unit documents Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''", "Climate change in the Arctic The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "Global warming conspiracy theory A global warming conspiracy theory invokes claims that scientific consensus on global warming is based on conspiracies to produce false data or suppress dissent . It is one of a number of tactics used in climate change denial to legitimize political controversy disputing this consensus . Global warming conspiracy theorists typically allege that , through worldwide acts of professional and criminal misconduct , the science behind global warming has been invented or distorted for ideological or financial reasons , or both .", "False balance False balance is a real or perceived media bias in which journalists present an issue as being more balanced between opposing viewpoints than the evidence supports . Journalists may present evidence and arguments out of proportion to the actual evidence for each side , or may omit information that would establish one side 's claims as baseless . Examples of false balance in reporting on science issues include the topics of man-made versus natural climate change , the alleged relation between thimerosal and autism and evolution versus intelligent design . An example of false balance is the `` debate '' on global warming ; although the scientific community almost unanimously attributes global warming to the effects of the industrial revolution , there is a very small number , a few dozen scientists out of tens of thousands of scientists , who dispute the conclusion . Giving equal voice to scientists on both sides makes it seem like there is a serious disagreement within the scientific community , when in fact there is an overwhelming scientific consensus that anthropogenic global warming exists . False balance can sometimes originate from similar motives as sensationalism , where producers and editors may feel that a story portrayed as a contentious debate will be more commercially successful than a more accurate account of the issue . However , unlike most other media biases , false balance may stem from an attempt to avoid bias ; producers and editors may confuse treating competing views fairly -- i.e. , in proportion to their actual merits and significance -- with treating them equally , giving them equal time to present their views even when those views may be known beforehand to be based on false information .", "Global warming (disambiguation) Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .", "Climate Research (journal) Climate Research is a small peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Inter-Research Science Center that was established in 1990 . Its founder and long time publisher was marine biologist Otto Kinne . Outside the climate research community , the journal is mostly known for its 2003 publication of a controversial and now discredited climate change article . Three volumes , each typically containing half a dozen articles , are published each year . Each of its 12 editors therefore handles an average of less than 2 articles a year . Climate Research covers all aspects of the interactions of climate with organisms , ecosystems , and human societies . In 2006 , a special issue of the journal , titled `` Advances in Applying Climate Prediction to Agriculture '' , was published under open access .", "Public opinion on climate change Public opinion on climate change is the aggregate of attitudes or beliefs held by the adult population concerning the science , economics , and politics of global warming . It is affected by media coverage of climate change .", "List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "Effects of global warming The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "Robert Balling Robert C. Balling , Jr. is a professor of geography at Arizona State University , and the former director of its Office of Climatology . His research interests include climatology , global climate change , and geographic information systems . Balling has declared himself one of the scientists who oppose the consensus on global warming , arguing in a 2009 book that anthropogenic global warming `` is indeed real , but relatively modest '' , and maintaining that there is a publication bias in the scientific literature .", "History of climate change science The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "Global Warming: What You Need to Know Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .", "Effects of global warming on humans Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .", "Climate change in Argentina According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .", "Climate change Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .", "Half Gone Half Gone : Oil , Gas , Hot Air and the Global Energy Crisis is a book by former oil geologist Jeremy Leggett about both oil depletion and global warming .", "An Inconsistent Truth An Inconsistent Truth is a 2012 documentary film written , produced , and featuring , nationally syndicated conservative talk radio host Phil Valentine and directed by Shayne Edwards . Valentine , a skeptic of global warming theory , interviewed scientists about the validity of Al Gore 's film An Inconvenient Truth and the facts presented within . What he is told by the scientists he interviews is that there is no consensus on the issue of global warming or climate change . The film argues that global warming proponents keep changing its label , basing their argument on what Valentine says is shaky scientific ground .", "Level of support for evolution The level of support for evolution among scientists , the public and other groups is a topic that frequently arises in the creation-evolution controversy and touches on educational , religious , philosophical , scientific and political issues . The subject is especially contentious in countries where significant levels of non-acceptance of evolution by general society exist although evolution is taught at school and university . The overwhelming majority of the scientific community accepts evolution as the dominant scientific theory of biological diversity . Nearly every scientific society , representing hundreds of thousands of scientists , has issued statements rejecting intelligent design and a petition supporting the teaching of evolutionary biology was endorsed by 72 US Nobel Prize winners . There are religious sects and denominations in several countries for whom the theory of evolution is in conflict with creationism that is central to their dogma , and who therefore reject it : in the United States , South Africa , India , South Korea , Singapore , the Philippines , and Brazil , with smaller followings in the United Kingdom , the Republic of Ireland , the Netherlands , Japan , Italy , Germany , Israel , Australia , New Zealand , and Canada . Several publications discuss the subject of acceptance , including a document produced by the United States National Academy of Sciences .", "I'm not a scientist `` I 'm not a scientist '' is a phrase that has been often used by American politicians , primarily Republicans , when asked about a scientific subject , such as global warming , or the age of the earth . Politicians who have used the phrase include John Boehner , Rick Scott , Marco Rubio , Bobby Jindal , and Mitch McConnell . It has been criticized by Coral Davenport writing for The New York Times , and by Steven Benen of the Rachel Maddow Show , and was satirized by Stephen Colbert of The Colbert Report . President Barack Obama singled the phrase out in his 2015 State of the Union speech , saying : I 've heard some folks try to dodge the evidence -LSB- of global climate change -RSB- by saying they 're not scientists ; that we do n't have enough information to act . Well , I 'm not a scientist , either . But you know what , I know a lot of really good scientists at NASA , and at NOAA , and at our major universities . And the best scientists in the world are all telling us that our activities are changing the climate , and if we do n't act forcefully , we 'll continue to see rising oceans , longer , hotter heat waves , dangerous droughts and floods , and massive disruptions that can trigger greater migration and conflict and hunger around the globe . Ford O'Connell , a Republican strategist and conservative activist , has argued that the phrase `` wo n't be a winner in the presidential field '' for Republican candidates . Commenting on the phenomenon , Journalist Dan Rather deplored the antiscience attitude it evinces , but stated that the anti-science attitude was evident not just among Republicans , but throughout American society . He blamed the media for their poor coverage of science , and for presenting a false equivalency between scientific consensus and climate change denial .", "Economics of global warming The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) ." ]

[ "Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "Climate change adaptation Climate change adaptation is a response to global warming and climate change , that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological systems to relatively sudden change and thus offset the effects of global warming . Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon , global warming and its effects will last many years , and adaptation will be necessary to the resulting changes in climate . Adaptation is especially important in developing countries since those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of global warming . That is , the capacity and potential for humans to adapt ( called adaptive capacity ) is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations , and developing countries generally have less capacity to adapt ( Schneider et al. , 2007 ) . Furthermore , the degree of adaptation correlates to the situational focus on environmental issues . Therefore , adaptation requires the situational assessment of sensitivity and vulnerability to environmental impacts . Adaptive capacity is closely linked to social and economic development ( IPCC , 2007 ) . The economic costs of adaptation to climate change are likely to cost billions of dollars annually for the next several decades , though the amount of money needed is unknown . Donor countries promised an annual $ 100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change . However , while the fund was set up during COP16 in Cancún , concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming . The adaptation challenge grows with the magnitude and the rate of climate change . Another response to climate change , known as climate change mitigation ( Verbruggen , 2007 ) is to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and/or enhance the removal of these gases from the atmosphere ( through carbon sinks ) . Even the most effective reductions in emissions , however , would not prevent further climate change impacts , making the need for adaptation unavoidable ( Klein et al. , 2007 ) . In a literature assessment , Klein et al. ( 2007 ) assessed options for adaptation . They concluded , with very high confidence , that in the absence of mitigation efforts , the effects of climate change would reach such a magnitude as to make adaptation impossible for some natural ecosystems . Others are concerned that climate adaptation programs might interfere with the existing development programs and thus lead to unintended consequences for vulnerable groups . For human systems , the economic and social costs of unmitigated climate change would be very high .", "Greenhouse gas A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 ." ]

[ "Piers Forster Piers Forster is Professor of Physical Climate Change and Director of the Priestley International Centre for Climate at the University of Leeds . A physicist by training , his research focuses on quantifying the different human causes of climate change and the way the Earth responds . He is best known for his work on radiative forcing , climate sensitivity , contrails and geoengineering . He has contributed heavily to the writing of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports , including acting as a Lead Author for both the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and IPCC Fifth Assessment Report .", "Climate Dress The Climate Dress was designed in 2009 by Danish design company Diffus Design in collaboration with the Swiss embroidery company Forster-Rohner , Alexandra Institute and the Danish School of Design . The Climate Dress is laced with hundreds of light-emitting diodes ( LEDs ) that responds to the level of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) in the nearby surroundings and are powered through the conductive embroidery by an Arduino Lily pad microprocessor and a carbon dioxide detector , resulting in patterns that range from slow pulses to rapid flashes depending on the concentration of the CO2 . The Climate Dress does not rely on wiring , soldering , or crimping , which is often the case with smart textile products . All functional elements are blended into the embroidery and exposed to the viewer . The Climate Dress was presented at the Cop 15 Climate Summit in Copenhagen in 2009 , at the `` Health Environment Climate '' exhibition . In 2011 the Climate Dress won first prize in the Design That Performs contest , hosted by Samsung .", "Climate change in Saskatchewan The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .", "Recycled fuel Fuel made of residues as CO2 produced by using a primary fuel . For example , CO2 pollution in the atmosphere , produced by petrol burning or other sources , can be extracted to produce fuel through an artificial photosynthesis based in nanotechnology , which helps to mitigate pollution , climate change and energy issues .", "Bangladesh Climate Change Trust Bangladesh Climate Change Trust is a government trust in Bangladesh that utilities funds to take action against problems caused by climate change .", "Political economy of climate change Political economy of climate change is an approach that applies the political economy thinking of collective or political processes to study the critical issues surrounding the decision-making on climate change . As the issue of climate change reaching the top of international agenda , the complexity of the environmental problems in combination with various other social political challenges have put great pressures on the scholars to explore a better understanding of the multiple actors and influencing factors that affect the climate change negotiation and to seek more effective solutions to tackle climate change . Analyzing these issues from a political economy perspective helps to explain the complex interactions between different stakeholders in respond to climate change impacts and provides broader opportunities to achieve better implementation of climate change policies .", "Climate Change TV Climate-ChangeTV was the world 's first web channel specific to climate change videos . It contains interviews from heads of state , government officials and negotiators , NGO 's , Civil Society and business professionals with a range of views on the climate change negotiations . It is hosted by Responding to Climate Change , an NGO and Official Observer to the United Nations Framework on the Convention on Climate Change RTCC provides a daily news and analysis service - following latest developments in climate policy , research and other aspects of the climate debate . In February this year they submitted a series of proposals to the UNFCCC on raising the ambition of the Durban Platform - which had been agreed at COP17 . The Studio is run for the UNFCCC at the annual COP . The interviews are hosted on RTCC and the UNFCCC 's studio portal . It provides for one-on-one video interviews with a wide array of stakeholders from civil society , intergovernmental organizations and party delegates . The studio provides a platform for discussing the effects of climate change , causes of global warming and possible solutions . It continues at COP17/CMP 7 after successfully running at COP15/CMP 5 in Copenhagen , and COP16/CMP 6 in Cancun . At the most recent COP , held in December 2011 , the Climate Change TV Studio was visited by UNFCCC Chief Executive Christiana Figueres , lead Netherlands negotiator Maas Goote , and UK Minister for energy and climate change Greg Barker , along with members of Oxfam and 350 . org .", "Climate change in the United Kingdom Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .", "Debate over China's economic responsibilities for climate change mitigation This article documents the debate over China 's economic responsibilities for climate change mitigation and mitigation of climate change in China . Both internationally and within the People 's Republic of China , there has been an ongoing debate over China 's responsibilities , particularly since 2006 , when China surpassed the US as the country with the highest emissions rate for the main atmospheric gas in global warming , carbon dioxide ( CO2 )", "RTCC RTCC may refer to : Real time calendar/clock Real time crime center Russian Touring Car Championship Responding To Climate Change", "Physical impacts of climate change This article is about the physical impacts of climate change . For some of these physical impacts , their effect on social and economic systems are also described . This article refers to reports produced by the IPCC . In their usage , `` climate change '' refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties , and that persists for extended periods , typically decades or longer ( IPCC , 2007d :30 ) . The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes and/or the result of human activity .", "Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .", "Climate change in New Zealand Climate change in New Zealand refers to change in the climate of New Zealand on the scale of years , decades , centuries and longer periods of time . New Zealand is being affected by climate change and the impacts are predicted to increase in future . Anthropogenic global warming during the 20th century is apparent in the instrumental temperature record , in New Zealand 's participation in international treaties , and in social and political debates . Climate change is being responded to in a variety of ways by civil society and the government of New Zealand . An emissions trading scheme has been established and from 1 July 2010 , the energy and liquid fossil fuel sectors have obligations to report emissions and to obtain and surrender emissions units ( carbon credits ) .", "Euro-Mediterranean Center on Climate Change The Euro-Mediterranean Center on Climate Change ( CMCC ) is an Italian research centre dedicated to climate and climate related research , including climate variability , its causes and consequences , carried out through numerical models ranging from Global Earth System to Regional models within the Euro-Mediterranean area .", "Durban Industry Climate Change Partnership Project Durban Industry Climate Change Partnership Project ( DICCPP ) is a project aimed at facilitating industry response to climate change in the eThekwini Municipality ( Durban ) , South Africa . The project is being implemented through a partnership between the United Nations Industrial Development Organization ( UNIDO ) , the Durban Investment Promotion Agency ( DIPA ) , the eThekwini Municipality and the Durban Chamber of Commerce and Industry ( DCCI ) . The purpose of the project is to sensitise industry in Durban to the risks and opportunities associated with climate change by creating a platform through which learning and communication between industry and government can take place . The project aims to establish a sustained partnership between the various industries organisations in Durban and the eThekwini Municipality . The partnership is seen as fundamental to responding to climate change and effectively contributing towards climate change mitigation and adaptation within the Durban metropolitan area .", "Historical impacts of climate change Climate has affected human life and civilization from the emergence of hominins to the present day . These historical impacts of climate change can improve human life and cause societies to flourish , or can be instrumental in civilization 's societal collapse .", "Agricultural diversification In the agricultural context , diversification can be regarded as the re-allocation of some of a farm 's productive resources , such as land , capital , farm equipment and pices to other farmers and , particularly in richer countries , non-farming activities such as restaurants and shops . Factors leading to decisions to diversify are many , but include ; reducing risk , responding to changing consumer demands or changing government policy , responding to external shocks and , more recently , as a consequence of climate change .", "Journal of Climate The Journal of Climate is a scientific journal published by the American Meteorological Society . The journal publishes articles on climate research , in particular those concerned with large-scale atmospheric and oceanic variability , changes in the climate system ( including those caused by human activities ) , and climate simulation and prediction .", "Climate change and gender Climate change and gender is concerned with gender differences in the context of climate change and the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it . By altering the ecosystems of the planet , climate change , and more specifically global warming , directly impacts the human race . These effects vary for different segments of the population , specifically for people of different genders . In many cases , women are more vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change because of their lower social status in most countries . Many impoverished women , especially those in the developing world , are farmers and depend on the natural environment for subsistence and income . By further limiting their already constrained access to physical , social , political , and fiscal resources , climate change often burdens women more than men . Locally and globally , both governments and non-governmental organizations respond to climate change . Some of these efforts focus on mitigating the effects of climate change while others aid societies in adapting their lifestyles to changes in their environment . Most policy responses in the late 20th and early 21st century either did not focus on the social effects of climate change or did not consider gender in these efforts . Analysis of gender in climate change , however , not only means applying a binary male/female system of analysis on sets of quantitative data but also scrutinizing discursive constructions that shapes power relations connected to climate change .", "Climate change in Pakistan Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy The Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy ( CCCEP ) is a climate change research centre in England . It is hosted jointly by the University of Leeds and the London School of Economics and Political Science ( LSE ) . CCCEP is part of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment , which is chaired by Lord Nicholas Stern of Brentford , former Chief Economist of the World Bank and author of the widely known Stern Review . CCCEP was established in 2008 , and is funded by the ESRC . Its mission is to advance public and private action on climate change through rigorous , innovative research . In pursuit of its mission , CCCEP has five research themes in its phase 2 programme : Understanding green growth and climate-compatible development Advancing climate finance and investment Evaluating the performance of climate policies Managing climate risks and uncertainties and strengthening climate services Enabling rapid transitions in mitigation and adaptation In October 2016 , The Daily mail reported allegations that CCCEP had fraudulently obtained millions of dollars from UK taxpayers by claiming credit for research they did not produce . The organization responded to the claims saying that the alleged fraud was an overreaction to a clerical error .", "Lee Hannah Lee Hannah is a conservation ecologist and a Senior Researcher in Climate Change Biology at Conservation International . Hannah is one of many authors who published an article predicting that between 15 % and 37 % of species are at risk of extinction due to climate change caused by human greenhouse gas emissions .", "Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''", "William D. Sellers William D. Sellers ( 18 August 1928 -- 27 August 2014 ) was an American meteorologist , climate scientist , and pioneer of climate modelling . He created one the earliest climate models and was one of the first scientists to recognize the effects of CO2 in the atmosphere on the earth 's climate . He published the textbook `` Physical Climatology '' .", "North American Carbon Program The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .", "Willie Soon Wei-Hock `` Willie '' Soon ( born 1966 ) is an externally-funded part-time researcher of the Smithsonian at the Solar and Stellar Physics ( SSP ) Division of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics . Soon co-authored The Maunder Minimum and the Variable Sun -- Earth Connection with Steven H. Yaskell . The book treats historical and proxy records of climate change coinciding with the Maunder Minimum , a period from 1645 to about 1715 when sunspots became exceedingly rare . Soon disputes the current scientific understanding of climate change , and contends that most global warming is caused by solar variation rather than by human activity . He gained visibility in part due to strong scientific criticism of the methodology of a paper which he co-wrote . Climate scientists such as Gavin Schmidt of the Goddard Institute for Space Studies have strongly refuted Soon 's arguments , and the Smithsonian does not support his conclusions . He is nonetheless frequently cited by politicians opposed to climate-change legislation .", "Ecological forecasting Ecological forecasting uses knowledge of physics , ecology and physiology to predict how ecosystems will change in the future in response to environmental factors such as climate change . The ultimate goal of the approach is to provide people such as resource managers and designers of marine reserves with information that they can then use to respond , in advance , to future changes , a form of adaptation to global warming . One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming . Most physiological processes are affected by temperature , and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth , reproduction and survival of animals and plants . The scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems . One major challenge is to predict where , when and with what magnitude changes are likely to occur so that we can mitigate or at least prepare for them . Ecological forecasting applies existing knowledge of how animals and plants interact with their physical environment to ask how changes in environmental factors might result in changes to the ecosystems as a whole .", "Climate Hustle Climate Hustle is a 2016 film rejecting the existence and cause of climate change , narrated by climate change denialist Marc Morano , produced and directed by Christopher Rogers , co-written by Morano and Mick Curran , and funded by the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow ( CFACT ) , a free market pressure group funded by the fossil fuel lobby . According to Ars Technica , the film offers `` a fast-paced , uninterrupted delivery of superficial and false claims about climate science '' .", "Woods Hole Research Center The Woods Hole Research Center ( WHRC ) is a scientific research organization that studies climate change , land use change , soils , wetlands , and forests . WHRC was named the world 's top climate change think tank for 2013 , 2014 , and 2015 by the International Center for Climate Governance . The Center conducts research throughout the Amazon , the Arctic , central Africa , and North America . WHRC collaborates with a wide variety of partners to understand the causes and impacts of climate change and to implement more science-based policies .", "OceanoScientific The OceanoScientific Programme is a scientific process studying causes and consequences of climate change at the ocean - atmosphere interface .", "Estuarine acidification Estuarine acidification is a decrease in the pH of coastal marine ecosystems , specifically those of estuaries . pH change in estuaries is more complicated than in the open ocean due to direct impacts from land run-off and coastal current dynamics . Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the absorption of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere ( 0.1 units over the last century ) . The ocean absorbs 30-40 % of all CO2 emitted to the atmosphere ; this increase in aqueous carbon dioxide causes a decline in the pH of the ocean surface . As carbon dioxide combines with water , it releases protons ( hydrogen ions ) , based on the following equation : CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ HCO3 + H + ↔ CO3 + 2 H +", "Timothy Ball Timothy Francis `` Tim '' Ball ( born November 5 , 1938 ) is a Canadian geographer . A retired professor , he taught in the department of geography at the University of Winnipeg from 1971 until 1996 . Ball rejects the scientific opinion on climate change , stating that `` CO2 is not a greenhouse gas . '' He has worked with the Friends of Science and the Natural Resources Stewardship Project , and is a research fellow at the Frontier Centre for Public Policy ." ]

[ "Freedom of Information requests to the Climatic Research Unit Freedom of Information requests to the Climatic Research Unit featured in press discussions of disputes over access to data from instrumental temperature records , particularly during the Climatic Research Unit email controversy which began in November 2009 . The UK Freedom of Information Act ( FOIA ) came into effect in 2005 , and FOI requests were made to the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) for the raw data from weather stations used in developing instrumental temperature record datasets , for copies of agreements under which the raw data was obtained from meteorology institutions , and also for email correspondence relating to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report . In many cases the raw data which CRU had obtained from National Meteorological Organisations was subject to restrictions on redistribution : on 12 August 2009 CRU announced that they were seeking permission to waive these restrictions , and on 24 November 2009 the university stated that over 95 % of the CRU climate data set had already been available for several years , with the remainder to be released when permissions were obtained . In a decision announced on 27 July 2011 the Information Commissioner 's Office ( ICO ) required release of raw data even though permissions had not been obtained or in one instance had been refused , and on 27 July 2011 CRU announced release of the raw instrumental data not already in the public domain , with the exception of Poland which was outside the area covered by the FOIA request . A 2008 FOI request by David Holland for emails discussing work on the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report was refused by the university . In November 2009 he alleged that CRU emails posted online discussed deleting the emails he had requested : in January 2010 the Deputy Information Commissioner told a journalist that this indicated an offence under section 77 of the FOIA , but prosecution was time-barred by statute of limitations . Newspapers misrepresented this as a decision in relation to raw data , and the issue was discussed by the House of Commons Science and Technology Select Committee inquiry , which found there had been a lack of openness . The ICO decision published on 7 July 2010 stated that this potential offence had not been investigated as it was time-barred . As Holland was content not to proceed with his complaint against the university , no further action was needed , but the ICO would `` consider whether further action is appropriate to secure future compliance . '' In September 2011 the ICO issued new guidance to universities . This described exceptions and exemptions to protect research , including allowance for internal exchange of views between academics and researchers free from external scrutiny , as well as commending actively disclosing information when it is in the public interest .", "Climatic Research Unit documents Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''", "Climatic Research Unit email controversy The Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( also known as `` Climategate '' ) began in November 2009 with the hacking of a server at the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) by an external attacker , copying thousands of emails and computer files , the Climatic Research Unit documents , to various internet locations several weeks before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change . The story was first broken by climate change denialists with columnist James Delingpole popularising the term `` Climategate '' to describe the controversy . Several people considered climate change `` skeptics '' argued that the emails showed global warming was a scientific conspiracy , that scientists manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics . The CRU rejected this , saying the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas . The mainstream media picked up the story as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009 . Because of the timing , scientists , policy makers and public relations experts said that the release of emails was a smear campaign intended to undermine the climate conference . In response to the controversy , the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) , the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) and the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) released statements supporting the scientific consensus that the Earth 's mean surface temperature had been rising for decades , with the AAAS concluding , `` based on multiple lines of scientific evidence that global climate change caused by human activities is now underway ... it is a growing threat to society . '' Eight committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . However , the reports called on the scientists to avoid any such allegations in the future by taking steps to regain public confidence in their work , for example by opening up access to their supporting data , processing methods and software , and by promptly honouring freedom of information requests . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged throughout the investigations ." ]

[ "Climatic Research Unit The Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) is a component of the University of East Anglia and is one of the leading institutions concerned with the study of natural and anthropogenic climate change . With a staff of some thirty research scientists and students , the CRU has contributed to the development of a number of the data sets widely used in climate research , including one of the global temperature records used to monitor the state of the climate system , as well as statistical software packages and climate models .", "Freedom of information laws by country Freedom of Information laws ( FOI laws ) allow access by the general public to data held by national governments . The emergence of freedom of information legislation was a response to increasing dissatisfaction with the secrecy surrounding government policy development and decision making . They establish a `` right-to-know '' legal process by which requests may be made for government-held information , to be received freely or at minimal cost , barring standard exceptions . Also variously referred to as open records , or sunshine laws ( in the United States ) , governments are typically bound by a duty to publish and promote openness . In many countries there are constitutional guarantees for the right of access to information , but these are usually unused if specific support legislation does not exist .", "Climate Commission The Climate Commission was an independent body established in 2011 by the Federal Government of Australia to communicate `` reliable and authoritative information '' about climate change in Australia . Abolished by a newly elected government in September 2013 , it was relaunched as an independent non-profit organisation called the Climate Council .", "Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .", "Attorney General of Virginia's climate science investigation The Attorney General of Virginia 's climate science investigation was a `` Civil Investigative Demand '' initiated in April 2010 by Virginia Attorney General Ken Cuccinelli for a wide range of records held by the University of Virginia related to five grant applications for research work by a leading climate scientist Michael E. Mann , who was an assistant professor at the university from 1999 to 2005 . The demand was issued under the Virginia Fraud Against Taxpayers Act in connection with claims by Cuccinnelli that Mann had possibly violated state fraud laws in relation to five research grants , by allegedly manipulating data . No evidence of wrongdoing was presented to support the claim . Mann 's earlier work had been targeted by climate change skeptics in the hockey stick controversy , and allegations against him were renewed in late 2009 in the Climatic Research Unit email controversy but found to be groundless in a series of investigations . Widespread concerns were raised by University of Virginia 's faculty and numerous scientists and science organizations that Cuccinelli 's actions posed a threat to academic freedom , and would have a chilling effect on research in the state . The university filed a court petition and the judge dismissed Cuccinelli 's demand on the grounds that no justification had been shown for the investigation . Cuccinelli tried to re-open his case by issuing a revised subpoena , and appealed the case to the Virginia Supreme Court . The case was defended by the university , and the court ruled that Cuccinelli did not have the authority to make these demands . The outcome was hailed as a victory for academic freedom .", "Climate Council The Climate Council is an Australian independent non-profit organisation formed to provide independent , authoritative climate change information to the Australian public . It was formed by former members of the Climate Commission after it was abolished by the federal government . It is funded by donations from the public .", "Christopher C. Horner Christopher C. Horner is an attorney in Washington , D.C. and a Senior Fellow at the Competitive Enterprise Institute who opposes the mainstream view of climate change and has been prominent in promoting climate change denial . He is the author of three books disputing the scientific evidence for man-made global warming . Horner had a financial relationship with coal companies who provided him with funds . Horner has been criticized for hounding climate scientists with frivolous requests for documentation and emails .", "Climate Change Authority The Climate Change Authority is an Australian statutory agency established under the Climate Change Authority Act 2011 . It began operations on 1 July 2012 . Its role is to review various climate change policies , including the Carbon Farming Initiative and National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting system , and to advise the Australian Government and Parliament on other matters as requested . The Authority has no legislative or executive powers , which remain with the Government and Parliament of the day . The Authority is presently undertaking a Special Review into Australia 's policies and targets for reducing emissions in the context of its international commitments and those of other countries . The Special Review is due to be completed by 30 June 2016 . The Authority has a Board comprising a Chair and eight permanent members : Dr Wendy Craik ( Chair ) , Stuart Allinson ( Acting Chair ) , Kate Carnell AO , Professor David Karoly , Professor John Quiggin , Professor Clive Hamilton , The Hon. John Sharp , Dr Alan Finkel and Danny Price . A tenth member , Andrew Macintosh , sits as an associate member until the conclusion of the Special Review . Dr Finkel is an ex officio member of the Authority as Australia 's Chief Scientist , replacing the former Chief Scientist Ian Chubb . The original Chair of the Authority was former Reserve Bank of Australia Governor and Treasury Secretary , Bernie Fraser . He resigned from the position in September 2015 . The agency is based in Melbourne where it has the advantage of being able to work closely with the Productivity Commission . The agency was allocated A$ 6.2 million in the 2012-13 financial year . The Australian Government , under Liberal leadership , is in the process of abolishing the Climate Change Authority , a move which has been heavily criticised .", "Skeptical Science Skeptical Science ( occasionally abbreviated SkS ) is a climate science blog and information resource created in 2007 by Australian cognitive scientist John Cook . In addition to publishing articles on current events relating to climate science and climate policy , the site maintains a large database of articles analyzing the merit of arguments commonly put forth by those who oppose the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change .", "Science Review Board The Science Advisory Board is a United States group of independent scientists selected by the Administrator of the EPA to advise on the scientific and technical aspects of environmental problems and issues and who , at the request of the Administrator , review the scientific aspects of any reports or other written products prepared by the agency . Congress established the Board when it enacted the Environmental Research , Development , and Demonstration Authorization Act of 1978 ( P.L. 95-477 ) .", "Disputatious ", "Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''", "FOIA FOIA or Foia may refer to :", "CRI __ NOTOC __ CRI may refer to :", "Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .", "Lucia Liljegren Lucia Liljegren is an American mechanical engineer who has worked at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory ( on projects related to remediation and storage of radioactive waste ) and as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at Iowa State University . She is best known ( as Lucia ) for her global warming/climate change blog The Blackboard ( Where Climate Talk Gets Hot ! ) , online since 2007 . Professor Judith Curry , a climatologist at Georgia Tech , calls Lucia `` probably the least controversial person in the climate blogosphere , because of her cheerfulness and sense of humor , honesty , and open mindedness . '' In the climate change debate , Lucia classifies herself as a `` lukewarmer '' : a person who recognizes global warming , but doubts the severity of the problem , and the certainty of climate science predictions . The Blackboard was one of the first sites to post some of the CRU emails leaked in the 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy .", "Deleterious ", "Unsupportive ", "San Diego Journal of Climate and Energy Law The San Diego Journal of Climate and Energy Law ( Bluebook abbreviation : San Diego J. Climate & Energy L. ) is a student-run law review published at the University of San Diego School of Law . The journal primarily publishes articles and comments discussing environmental law and policy with a particular focus on issues relating to climate change and energy .", "Science Under Siege Science Under Siege : The Politicians ' War on Nature and Truth is a 1998 book by journalist Todd Wilkinson . Wilkinson describes the careers of a variety of publicly employed scientists who , in the course of their work for government agencies , found habitat degradation , threatened species , or other decline in availability of a natural resource . When they expressed their views that certain activities must be scaled back or areas protected , they met with poor job performance ratings , hostility from their supervisors , transfers out of the region , and in many cases a severely damaged career . Science is `` under siege '' in these cases because many of the researchers were told to modify their scientific reports so that commercial uses or environmentally destructive activities could continue .", "Macur Review The Macur Review is an independent review established by the British government in 2012 to review the Waterhouse inquiry . Its remit was set as follows : `` To review the scope of the Waterhouse Inquiry , and whether any specific allegations of child abuse falling within the terms of reference were not investigated by the Inquiry , and to make recommendations to the Secretary of State for Justice and the Secretary of State for Wales . '' It is chaired by Lady Justice Macur DBE .", "Office of the Australian Information Commissioner The Office of the Australian Information Commissioner ( OAIC ) is an independent Australian Government agency , acting as the national data protection authority for Australia , established under the Australian Information Commissioner Act 2010 , headed by the Australian Information Commissioner . The OAIC has three primary functions : privacy functions , conferred by the Privacy Act 1988 ( Privacy Act ) and other laws freedom of information functions , in particular , oversight of the operation of the Freedom of Information Act 1982 ( the FOI Act ) and review of decisions made by agencies and ministers under that Act government information policy functions , conferred on the Australian Information Commissioner under the Australian Information Commissioner Act 2010 . The OAIC is an agency within the Attorney-General 's portfolio . The OAIC liaises with the Business and Information Law Branch , part of the Civil Law Division within the Civil Justice and Legal Services Group of the Attorney-General 's Department ( AGD ) . However , the OAIC is an independent agency and reports directly to the Parliament of Australia , not to the Attorney-General .", "Grasping at straws ", "Phil Jones (climatologist) Philip Douglas Jones ( born April 22 , 1952 ) retired from his positions as the Director of the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) and as a Professor in the School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) at the end of 2016 . Jones was replaced as CRU director by Tim Osborn and has taken up a position as a Professorial Fellow at the UEA from January 2017 . His research interests include instrumental climate change , palaeoclimatology , detection of climate change and the extension of riverflow records in the UK . He has also published papers on the temperature record of the past 1000 years . He is known for maintaining a time series of the instrumental temperature record . This work was featured prominently in both the 2001 and 2007 IPCC reports , where he was a contributing author to Chapter 12 , Detection of Climate Change and Attribution of Causes , of the Third Assessment Report and a Coordinating Lead Author of Chapter 3 , Observations : Surface and Atmospheric Climate Change , of the AR4 .", "IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies . It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report . The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''", "Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment The Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment is a research institute at the London School of Economics and Political Science founded in May 2008 . The centre is a partner of the Grantham Institute for Climate Change at Imperial College and acts as an umbrella body for LSE 's overall research contributions to the field of climate change and its impact on the environment . Furthermore , the institute oversees the activities of the Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy ( CCCEP ) , a partnership between LSE and the University of Leeds . Both Grantham research centres are sponsored through the Grantham Foundation for the Protection of the Environment , established by Hannelore and Jeremy Grantham in 1997 . The combined investments totalling approximately # 24 million is recognised as one of the largest private contributions to climate change research . CCCEP is funded independently by the ESRC . The institute is currently chaired by Lord Nicholas Stern of Brentford , former Chief Economist of the World Bank and author of the widely known Stern Review . The purpose of the Institute is to increase knowledge and understanding on climate change and the environment ; promote better informed decision-making ; and educate and train new generations of researchers through its undergraduate and postgraduate programmes . The institute 's main research activities are divided into five different areas : 1 . Global response strategies 2 . Green growth 3 . Practical aspects of climate policy 4 . Adaptation and development 5 . Resource security The research of the institute is characterised by its interdisciplinary nature and brings together international expertise on economics , finance , geography , the environment , international development and political economy , as the centre 's academic staff comprise a broad range of disciplines , including physicists , climatologists , economists , statisticians , political scientists and various other social scientists . In September 2015 , the institute hosted the Open Energy Modelling Initiative workshop .", "Miffed ", "Nitpicky ", "Glibness ", "Hillary Clinton email controversy In March 2015 , it became publicly known that Hillary Clinton , during her tenure as United States Secretary of State , had used her family 's private email server for official communications , rather than official State Department email accounts maintained on federal servers . Those official communications included thousands of emails that would retroactively be marked classified by the State Department . The controversy unfolded against the backdrop of Clinton 's 2016 presidential election campaign and hearings held by the United States House Select Committee on Benghazi . Some experts , officials , and members of Congress have contended that her use of private messaging system software and a private server violated State Department protocols and procedures , as well as federal laws and regulations governing recordkeeping . In response , Clinton has said that her use of personal email was in compliance with federal laws and State Department regulations , and that former secretaries of state had also maintained personal email accounts , though not their own private email servers . After allegations were raised that some of the emails in question contained classified information , the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) initiated an investigation regarding the origin and handling of classified emails on Clinton 's server . The FBI Report found that some of the emails originated in five other intelligence agencies . The FBI found that all classified emails on Clinton 's server were stored and sent from `` unclassified systems '' , violating the same policies as those on Clinton 's personal server . FBI Director James Comey identified 110 emails as containing information that was classified at the time it was sent , including 65 emails deemed `` Secret '' and 22 deemed `` Top Secret '' . None of these had classification markings . However , as noted in Clinton 's non-disclosure agreement , unmarked classified information should be treated the same as marked classified information . An additional three email chains contained `` portion markings '' , simply a '' ( C ) '' indicating `` Confidential '' in front of one or more paragraphs . These were not included in Comey 's list of 110 because the State Department failed to confirm they were classified at the time they were sent . Clinton told the FBI she did not know the meaning of '' ( C ) '' . Nearly 2,100 emails on the server were retroactively marked as classified by the State Department . In May 2016 , the State Department 's Office of the Inspector General released an 83-page report about the State Department 's email practices , including Clinton 's . On July 5 , 2016 , Comey announced that the FBI 's investigation had concluded that Clinton was `` extremely careless '' in handling her email system but recommended that no charges be filed against her . On July 6 , 2016 , Attorney General Loretta Lynch announced that no charges would be filed . On July 7 , the State Department reopened its probe into the email controversy . On October 28 , 2016 , Comey notified Congress that the FBI had started looking into newly discovered emails that may be pertinent to the case . Law enforcement officials stated the emails were found on a laptop belonging to Clinton aide Huma Abedin 's husband , Anthony Weiner , during an investigation of his sexting scandals . On November 6 , Comey notified Congress that the FBI had not changed its conclusion , reached in July , regarding Clinton 's emails .", "Shotgun email Shotgun email refers to an email requesting information or action that only requires the efforts of one person but is sent to multiple people in an effort to guarantee that at least one person will respond . The shotgun email often results in multiple people responding to something already accomplished and therefore results in a loss of overall productivity . Shotgun emailing is considered poor internet etiquette . An example would be a person of authority in a business organization sending out an email to five technicians in the information technology department of his company to let them know his printer is broken . One technician responds with an on-site call and fixes the problem . Later in the day , other technicians follow-up to fix the printer that is already back in order . Shotgun emails can also be request for information or other tasks . The blind shotgun email occurs when the sender uses the blind co-copy feature of an email program to hide the fact that a shotgun email is in use . This is considered particularly deceitful .", "Cold email A cold email is an unsolicited e-mail that is sent to a receiver without prior contact or a request for information previously . It could also be defined as the email equivalent of cold calling . Cold emails are different from spam mails . If some proper procedures are not followed , a cold email could become a spam mail ." ]

[ "Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore ." ]

[ "Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .", "IPCC First Assessment Report The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "Climate change mitigation scenarios Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "Mitigation of global warming in Australia Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .", "Sustainable automotive air conditioning Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .", "Environmental impact of aviation The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "Mesopause The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .", "Carbon respiration Carbon respiration ( also called carbon emissions and carbon releases ) is used in combination with carbon fixation to gauge carbon flux ( as CO2 ) between atmospheric carbon and the global carbon cycle .", "Low-carbon emission The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "Climate change in Japan Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "Global warming in Antarctica The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .", "Sustainable tourism Sustainable tourism is the concept of visiting a place as a tourist and trying to make only a positive impact on the environment , society and economy . Tourism can involve primary transportation to the general location , local transportation , accommodations , entertainment , recreation , nourishment and shopping . It can be related to travel for leisure , business and what is called VFR ( visiting friends and relatives ) . There is now broad consensus that tourism development should be sustainable ; however , the question of how to achieve this remains an object of debate . Without travel there is no tourism , so the concept of sustainable tourism is tightly linked to a concept of sustainable mobility . Two relevant considerations are tourism 's reliance on fossil fuels and tourism 's effect on climate change . 72 percent of tourism 's CO2 emissions come from transportation , 24 percent from accommodations , and 4 percent from local activities . Aviation accounts for 55 % of those transportation CO2 emissions ( or 40 % of tourism 's total ) . However , when considering the impact of all greenhouse gas emissions from tourism and that aviation emissions are made at high altitude where their effect on climate is amplified , aviation alone accounts for 75 % of tourism 's climate impact . The International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) considers an annual increase in aviation fuel efficiency of 2 percent per year through 2050 to be realistic . However , both Airbus and Boeing expect the passenger-kilometers of air transport to increase by about 5 percent yearly through at least 2020 , overwhelming any efficiency gains . By 2050 , with other economic sectors having greatly reduced their CO2 emissions , tourism is likely to be generating 40 percent of global carbon emissions . The main cause is an increase in the average distance travelled by tourists , which for many years has been increasing at a faster rate than the number of trips taken . `` Sustainable transportation is now established as the critical issue confronting a global tourism industry that is palpably unsustainable , and aviation lies at the heart of this issue ( Gossling et al. , 2010 ) . ''", "Planetary equilibrium temperature The planetary equilibrium temperature is a theoretical temperature that a planet would be at when considered simply as if it were a black body being heated only by its parent star . In this model , the presence or absence of an atmosphere ( and therefore any greenhouse effect ) is not considered , and one treats the theoretical black body temperature as if it came from an idealized surface of the planet . Other authors use different names for this concept , such as equivalent blackbody temperature of a planet , or the effective radiation emission temperature of the planet . Similar concepts include the global mean temperature , global radiative equilibrium , and global-mean surface air temperature , which includes the effects of global warming .", "Global warming in Russia Global warming in Russia describes the global warming related issues in Russia . This includes climate politics , contribution to global warming and the influence of global warming on Russia . In 2009 Russia was ready to reduce emissions 20 -- 25 % from its 1990 emission levels by the year 2020 .", "The 2030 °Challenge The 2030 ° Challenge is an initiative by Edward Mazria and Architecture 2030 asking the global architecture and construction community to adopt a series of greenhouse gas reduction targets for new and renovated buildings . In many developed countries the construction and use of buildings is the leading consumer of energy and producer of greenhouse gas emissions . Stabilizing and reversing emissions in this sector is key to keeping future global warming under one degree celsius ( ° C ) above today 's level , in order to avoid increased global warming , potentially to reach a tipping point .", "Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "Global warming hiatus A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "350.org 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "Environmental impact of transport The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .", "Carbon dioxide flooding Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .", "Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "Carbon price Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .", "Total equivalent warming impact Total equivalent warming impact or TEWI is besides global warming potential measure used to express contributions to global warming . It is defined as sum of the direct emissions ( chemical ) and indirect emissions ( energy use ) of greenhouse gases .", "Vincent R. Gray __ NOTOC __ Vincent Richard Gray ( born 24 March 1922 ) is a New Zealand-based chemist , and a founder of the New Zealand Climate Science Coalition . Born in London on 24 March 1922 , Gray was awarded a PhD in physical chemistry by the University of Cambridge after studies on incendiary bomb fluids made from aluminium soaps . In New Zealand , he was the first Director of Building Research and later , Chief Chemist of the Coal Research Association . He has also published many articles and reports , seven in peer-reviewed journals . After retirement , he had four and a half years in China and when he returned became a critic of the claim that climate was harmed by human emissions of greenhouse gases . He has commented on every publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , with 1,898 comments on the 2007 Report . He has published critical studies on all of the reports including a book `` The Greenhouse Delusion : A Critique of ` Climate Change 2001 ' '' . He has published `` Confessions of a Climate Sceptic '' He is sceptical of the anthropogenic global warming : `` The two main `` scientific '' claims of the IPCC are the claim that `` the globe is warming '' and `` Increases in carbon dioxide emissions are responsible '' . Evidence for both of these claims is fatally flawed . '' Gray has called for the IPCC to be abolished , claiming it is `` fundamentally corrupt '' due to his conclusion that for significant parts of the work of the IPCC , the data collection and scientific methods employed are unsound and that the IPCC resists all efforts to try to discuss or rectify these problems . Gray was featured on the Australian Broadcasting Corporation program Counterpoint in a debate entitled `` Nine Lies about Global Warming '' , and was interviewed in a featured story in the New Zealand Herald as a `` prominent '' global warming skeptic . In 2002 , Gray also published a book , The Greenhouse Delusion : A Critique of `` Climate Change 2001 '' . In it , Gray argues `` that the quality and reliability of the IPCC 's measurements are poor , the system of determining how much weight should be attributed to different influences on the earth 's temperature is faulty , and the validity of evidence derived from computer modeling is questionable . ''", "Global Climate and Energy Project The Global Climate and Energy Project ( GCEP ) at Stanford University , `` seeks new solutions to one of the grand challenges of this century : supplying energy to meet the changing needs of a growing world population in a way that protects the environment . '' Beginning in December 2002 , GCEP is a 10-year , $ 225m research project aimed at developing new energy technologies . These new energy technologies include areas of interest such as renewable energy , CO2 capture and storage , hydrogen storage and electrocatalysis . It has the support of four major companies - ExxonMobil , General Electric , Schlumberger , and Toyota . Under the heading `` Grand Challenge '' , it identifies a global warming-related need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through future energy development .", "Debate over China's economic responsibilities for climate change mitigation This article documents the debate over China 's economic responsibilities for climate change mitigation and mitigation of climate change in China . Both internationally and within the People 's Republic of China , there has been an ongoing debate over China 's responsibilities , particularly since 2006 , when China surpassed the US as the country with the highest emissions rate for the main atmospheric gas in global warming , carbon dioxide ( CO2 )", "Soil respiration Soil respiration refers to the production of carbon dioxide when soil organisms respire . This includes respiration of plant roots , the rhizosphere , microbes and fauna . Soil respiration is a key ecosystem process that releases carbon from the soil in the form of CO2 . CO2 is acquired from the atmosphere and converted into organic compounds in the process of photosynthesis . Plants use these organic compounds to build structural components or respire them to release energy . When plant respiration occurs below-ground in the roots , it adds to soil respiration . Over time , plant structural components are consumed by heterotrophs . This heterotrophic consumption releases CO2 and when this CO2 is released by below-ground organisms , it is considered soil respiration . The amount of soil respiration that occurs in an ecosystem is controlled by several factors . The temperature , moisture , nutrient content and level of oxygen in the soil can produce extremely disparate rates of respiration . These rates of respiration can be measured in a variety of methods . Other methods can be used to separate the source components , in this case the type of photosynthetic pathway ( C3/C4 ) , of the respired plant structures . Soil respiration rates can be largely affected by human activity . This is because humans have the ability to and have been changing the various controlling factors of soil respiration for numerous years . Global climate change is composed of numerous changing factors including rising atmospheric CO2 , increasing temperature and shifting precipitation patterns . All of these factors can affect the rate of global soil respiration . Increased nitrogen fertilization by humans also has the potential to effect rates over the entire Earth . Soil respiration and its rate across ecosystems is extremely important to understand . This is because soil respiration plays a large role in global carbon cycling as well as other nutrient cycles . The respiration of plant structures releases not only CO2 but also other nutrients in those structures , such as nitrogen . Soil respiration is also associated with positive feedbacks with global climate change . Positive feedbacks are when a change in a system produces response in the same direction of the change . Therefore , soil respiration rates can be effected by climate change and then respond by enhancing climate change .", "Alset GmbH Alset Global GmbH is an Austrian technology and engineering company based in Graz that is specialised in hydrogen-based clean mobility solutions . Alset Global developed a Hybrid Hydrogen system of which the technology is patented . According to Alset Global , this technology is unique as it offers to run an internal combustion engine on either pure petrol , pure hydrogen or a combination of both . This technology offers a new sustainable and clean alternative to the automotive industry ( OEMs , vehicle fleets as well as ships and planes ) . This technology has been developed to create an alternative technology to meet with new emission target levels . In addition , Alset Global is specialised in hydrogen system integration , hydrogen gas storage and software development to utilise the hydrogen hybrid technology in the automotive industry . Alset 's Hybrid Hydrogen technology was featured on an Aston Martin Rapide S during the Nürburgring 24-Hour race in Germany . The Aston Martin Rapide S became the first hydrogen-powered car to compete in a 24-Hour race and generate zero CO2 emissions during an international motor race", "Cool Earth 50 Cool Earth 50 ( also known as Cool Earth ) is a plan developed by Japan to reduce global CO2 emissions 50 % by 2050 , which was discussed at the 34th G8 summit . Cool Earth 50 is planned to be a framework that would continue towards the goals set forth in the Kyoto Protocols . This plan includes three proposals : a long-term strategy , a mid-term strategy and launching a national campaign for achieving the Kyoto Protocol Target . The plan was first proposed on May 24 , 2007 at an international conference called Asian Future and was initiated by Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe . The program 's goal is to reduce current global green house emissions by 50 % by the year 2050 the . The goal of reduction was aimed particular towards the largest green house emitting countries The United States , China , Japan , and India . Also , for the major green house emitters to create a frame work for reduction . Cool Earth aims at reducing green house emissions by improve technology in energy fields . A large goal of Cool Earth is to promote economic prosperity through green technology and to encourage political stability domestically and internationally ." ]

[ "Climate of Australia Australia 's climate is governed largely by its size and by the hot , sinking air of the subtropical high pressure belt . This moves north and south with the seasons , so that the rainfall pattern over Australia is highly seasonal . Australia 's rainfall is the lowest of all continents except Antarctica . But it is variable , with frequent droughts lasting several seasons -- thought to be caused in part by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation . The climate varies widely due to its large geographical size , but by far the largest part of Australia is desert or semi-arid . Only the south-east and south-west corners have a temperate climate and moderately fertile soil . The northern part of the country has a tropical climate , varied between tropical rainforests , grasslands and part dessert . Because Australia is a small continent , separated from polar regions by the Southern Ocean , it is not subject to the movements of frigid polar air that sweep over Northern Hemisphere continents during winter . Consequently , its winter is relatively mild , so that there is n't the great contrast between summer and winter temperatures there is in the northern continents . Yet in many parts of the country , seasonal highs and lows can be considerable : temperatures have ranged from above 50 C to well below zero . Nonetheless , minimum temperatures are moderated . The El Niño-Southern Oscillation is associated with seasonal abnormality in many areas in the world . Australia is one of the continents most affected and experiences extensive droughts alongside considerable wet periods . Occasionally a dust storm will blanket a region and there are reports of the occasional tornado . Tropical cyclones , heat waves , bushfires and frosts in the country are also associated with the Southern Oscillation . Rising levels of salinity and desertification in some areas is ravaging the landscape . Climate change in Australia is a highly contentious issue . Temperatures in the country have risen following an increasing trend of global warming between the years of 1910 to 2004 by approximately 0.7 ° C. Overnight minimum temperatures have warmed more rapidly than daytime maximum temperatures in recent years . The late-20th century warming has been largely attributed to the increased greenhouse effect . According to the Bureau of Meteorology , 80 % of the land has less than 600 mm of rainfall per year and 50 % has even less than 300 mm . As a whole , Australia has a very low annual average rainfall of 419 mm .", "Australia Australia ( -LSB- əˈstreɪliə -RSB- , -LSB- ɒ - -RSB- , -LSB- - ljə -RSB- ) , officially the Commonwealth of Australia , is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent , the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands . It is the world 's sixth-largest country by total area . The neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea , Indonesia and East Timor to the north ; the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east ; and New Zealand to the south-east . Australia 's capital is Canberra , and its largest urban area is Sydney . For about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century , Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians , who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups . After the European discovery of the continent by Dutch explorers in 1606 , Australia 's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain in 1770 and initially settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788 . The population grew steadily in subsequent decades , and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored and an additional five self-governing crown colonies established . On 1 January 1901 , the six colonies federated , forming the Commonwealth of Australia . Australia has since maintained a stable liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states and several territories . The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard . Australia has the world 's 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income ( IMF ) . With the second-highest human development index globally , the country ranks highly in quality of life , health , education , economic freedom , and civil liberties and political rights . Australia is a member of the United Nations , G20 , Commonwealth of Nations , ANZUS , Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) , World Trade Organization , Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation , and the Pacific Islands Forum ." ]

[ "Córdoba, Spain Córdoba ( -LSB- ˈkɔrdəbə -RSB- , -LSB- ˈkoɾðoβa -RSB- ) , also called Cordova ( -LSB- ˈkɔrdəvə -RSB- ) in English , is a city in Andalusia , southern Spain , and the capital of the province of Córdoba . It was a Roman settlement . It was conquered by Muslim armies in the eighth century , and then became the capital of the Islamic Emirate and then Caliphate of Córdoba , including most of the Iberian Peninsula . Caliph Al Hakam II opened many libraries in addition to the many medical schools and universities which existed at the time , making Córdoba a centre for education . During these centuries , Córdoba became a society ruled by Muslims , in which all other groups had a second-class status . It returned to Christian rule in 1236 , during the Reconquista . Today it is a moderately sized modern city ; its population in 2011 was about 330,000 . The historic centre was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Córdoba has the warmest summer high temperatures in Spain and Europe with average high temperatures around 37 C in July and similar heat in August .", "2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .", "Blue Is the Warmest Color (comics) Blue Is the Warmest Color ( Le bleu est une couleur chaude ) ( originally announced as Blue Angel ) is a French graphic novel by Julie Maroh , published by Glénat in March 2010 . The English-language edition was published by Arsenal Pulp Press in 2013 . The novel tells a love story between two young women in France at the end of the 1990s . Abdelatif Kechiche directed a film adaptation in 2013 , titled Blue Is the Warmest Colour , which was awarded the Palme d'Or at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival .", "Lake Velence Lake Velence is the third largest lake in Hungary . It is a popular holiday destination among Hungarians . The lake has an area of 26 km2 , one third of which is covered by the common reed . Because of the sunny climate of the area and the shallowness of the lake , it is one of the warmest lakes in Europe : its temperature in the summer may reach 26 to 28 ° C.", "Adèle Exarchopoulos Adèle Exarchopoulos ( -LSB- adɛl ɛgzaʁkɔpulɔs -RSB- ; born 22 November 1993 ) is a French actress . She is known for her leading performance as Adèle in Blue Is the Warmest Colour , a role which gave her worldwide attention and critical acclaim and for which she became the youngest artist ever to be awarded the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival . She also won the Trophée Chopard Award for Female Revelation of the Year at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival and received a total of 37 other award nominations for her performance in Blue Is the Warmest Colour , including several wins .", "1954 Adelaide earthquake The 1954 Adelaide earthquake had its center at Darlington , some 12 km to the south of Adelaide in South Australia . It took place at 03.40 in the early morning of 1 March 1954 and had a reported magnitude of 5.6 . The quake is thought to have started along the Eden-Burnside fault line , which is essentially the Hills face zone , at a depth of 4 km although , due to lack of instruments , this is uncertain . As Australia lies in the middle of a tectonic plate , South Australia is relatively stable geologically , however , South Australia is the second most earthquake prone of the Australian states with around 3-4 tremors every day . Most are , however , of a magnitude below 2.5 noteworthy only to seismologists , and since they are dispersed fairly evenly across the state , most take place well away from centers of human population . The 1954 Adelaide earthquake was different because of its magnitude , which made it the fourth most intense earthquake reported in the state since settlement in 1836 , and because it took place in an area of dense human settlement , under a suburb of the state capital , Adelaide .", "Mordington Mordington is an agricultural parish in the extreme south-east of Berwickshire in the Scottish Borders region . It is five miles from Berwick-upon-Tweed and borders Northumberland to the east , and south ( where the boundary is the Whiteadder Water ) , Foulden to the west , and Lamberton to the north . The parish is bisected by the A6105 Berwick to Duns road . The lower part of the parish is covered by the Edrington estate . It is possibly the warmest parish in Scotland ; the annual hours of sunshine are said to be almost as high as at Dunbar , which records the most hours in Scotland .", "Irrsee Irrsee is a lake in the Salzkammergut , Austria , located at . Its surface is approximately 3.5 km2 and its maximum depth is 32 metres . It is a popular tourist destination , also thanks to the warmest water temperature of all lakes in Salzkammergut . Category : Lakes of Upper Austria", "Climate of Estonia Estonia lies in the northern part of the temperate climate zone and in the transition zone between maritime and continental climate . Because Estonia ( and all of Northern Europe ) is continuously warmed by maritime air influenced by the heat content of the northern Atlantic Ocean , it has a milder climate despite its northern latitude . The Baltic Sea causes differences between the climate of coastal and inland areas . Estonia has four seasons of near-equal length . Average temperatures range from 16.3 ° C on the Baltic islands to 18.1 ° C inland in July , the warmest month , and from -3.5 ° C on the Baltic islands to -7.6 ° C inland in February , the coldest month . The average annual temperature in Estonia is 5.2 ° C . The average temperature in February , the coldest month of the year , is -5.7 ° C . The average temperature in July , which is considered the warmest month of the year , is 16.4 ° C . The climate is also influenced by the Atlantic Ocean , the North-Atlantic Stream and the Icelandic Minimum , which is an area known for the formation of cyclones and where the average air pressure is lower than in neighbouring areas . Estonia is located in a humid zone in which the amount of precipitation is greater than total evaporation . The average precipitation in 1961 -- 1990 ranged from 535 to per year and was heaviest in late summer . There were between 102 and 127 rainy days a year , and average precipitation was most plentiful on the western slopes of the Sakala and Haanja Uplands . Snow cover , which is deepest in the south-eastern part of Estonia , usually lasts from mid-December to late March .", "Julie Maroh Julie Maroh is a French writer and illustrator of graphic novels , who originates from Northern France . She wrote Blue Is the Warmest Color ( Le bleu est une couleur chaude ) about the life and love of two young lesbians , which has been adapted in the award winning film Blue Is the Warmest Colour by Abdelatif Kechiche . After having obtained an applied arts baccalauréat at E.S.A.A.T in Roubaix , Maroh continued her studies in Brussels , where she lived for eight years . She got two diplomas there , in Visual Arts ( comics option ) in the Institut Saint-Luc and in Lithography/Engraving at the Académie Royale des Beaux-Arts of Brussels . Julie Maroh started writing Blue is the Warmest Color when she was 19 and it took her five years to complete it .", "Climate of the Nordic countries The climate of the Nordic countries is that of a region in Northern Europe that consists of Denmark , Finland , Iceland , Norway and Sweden and their associated territories , which include the Faroe Islands , Greenland and Åland . Stockholm , Sweden has on average the warmest summer of the Nordic countries , with an average maximum temperature of 23 ° C in July ; Copenhagen , Oslo and Helsinki have an average July maximum temperature of 22 ° C.", "Rolfosteus Rolfosteus canningensis is an extinct species of arthrodire placoderm from the late Devonian of the Gogo Formation of Western Australia . The 15 cm ( 6 in ) long creature had tough plating on the front of its body . Like other arthrodires such as Coccosteus and the giant Dunkleosteus it had sharp , bony plates in its mouth which formed a turtle-like beak for cutting prey to pieces . Rolfosteus 's most unusual feature was its highly elongated snout , which may have been used to enhance its sense of smell , as well as increase its hydrodynamic streamlining .", "Blue Is the Warmest Colour Blue Is the Warmest Colour ( La Vie d'Adèle -- Chapitres 1 & 2 -- `` The Life of Adèle -- Chapters 1 & 2 '' ) is a 2013 French coming-of-age erotic romantic drama film co-written , co-produced , and directed by Abdellatif Kechiche , starring Adèle Exarchopoulos and Léa Seydoux . The film revolves around Adèle ( Exarchopoulos ) , a French teenager who discovers desire and freedom when a blue-haired aspiring painter ( Seydoux ) enters her life . The film charts their relationship from Adele 's high school years to her early adult life and career as a school teacher . The premise of Blue Is the Warmest Colour is based on the 2010 French graphic novel of the same name by Julie Maroh , which was published in North America in 2013 . Production began in March 2012 and lasted six months . Approximately 800 hours of footage was shot , including extensive B-roll footage , with Kechiche ultimately trimming the final cut of the film down to 179 minutes . The film generated controversy upon its premiere at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival and before its release . Much of the controversy was centred around claims of poor working conditions on set by the crew and the lead actresses , and also the film 's raw depiction of sexuality . At the 2013 Cannes Film Festival the film unanimously won the Palme d'Or from the official jury and the FIPRESCI Prize . It is the first film to have the Palme d'Or awarded to both the director and the lead actresses , with Seydoux and Exarchopoulos joining Jane Campion ( The Piano ) as the only women to have won the award . The film had its North American premiere at the 2013 Telluride Film Festival . The film received critical acclaim and was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film and the BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language . Many critics declared it one of the best films of 2013 .", "Triple J Hottest 100, 2012 The 2012 Triple J Hottest 100 was announced on Australia Day 26 January 2013 . It was the 20th countdown of the most popular songs of the year , as chosen by the listeners of Australian radio station Triple J. Voting commenced on 19 December 2012 , and closed at midnight on 20 January 2013 . Over 1.5 million votes were cast in this countdown , beating the record set in the 2011 list . In the week prior to the countdown , Nick Drewe , a Brisbane statistician and marketer , analysed the votes that had been published on social media and determined the possible top 100 , naming it the Warmest 100 . The votes that had been published represented approximately 2.7 % of the total vote . Ultimately , his list correctly predicted 92 of the songs in the countdown , the songs comprising the top 10 , and the top 3 in the correct order . The ABC have announced that it would likely make changes to the voting system to prevent `` spoiler attempts '' in future countdowns .", "Brocklehurst, Kamloops Brocklehurst is a neighbourhood in the western area of Kamloops , British Columbia , Canada . Brocklehurst is bordered by the Thompson River to the south , North Shore to the east , the Kamloops Airport to the west , and the Batchelor hills and Batchelor Heights aka Batchelor Hills to the north . Brocklehurst , which briefly existed as a District Municipality in its own right from 1971 until amalgamation with Kamloops in 1973 , is the largest of the city 's neighbourhoods , accounting for 16 % of the city 's population . The Brocklehurst area ( or Brock ) as referred to by its residents , is the warmest and most hospitable of the micro climates in the city of Kamloops . There can be as much as a 4 degree celsius increase from Brock , to Aberdeen all within the city of Kamloops .", "Nordic Deep Nordic Deep is the warmest coldwater free-diving competition in the world . Located in Lysekil , Sweden . The depth is > 90m .", "Lake Klopein Lake Klopein is a lake near the town of Völkermarkt located within the municipality of Sankt Kanzian in Carinthia , Austria . Lake Klopein is the remaining lake of previously larger lake area , which has spanned over today 's Kühnsdorf area . With water temperatures reaching 29 ° C it is among the warmest lakes in the Alpic region .", "Climate of Cebu The Climate of Cebu is a tropical wet and dry climate . There are two seasons in Cebu - the wet season and the dry season . Cebu has three different climates , based on the distribution of rainfall , with the most prevalent ones being Am and Af and a very minor area of Aw . Based on temperature , the warmest months of the year are March through October ; the winter monsoon brings cooler air from November to February . May is the warmest month , and January , the coolest . All typically tropical temperature at sea level or low-elevation have a temperature range over the year is less than three degrees Celsius ( 5.4 degree F ) , and annual rainfall exceeds 1,500 millimetres ( 60 in ) .", "1932 World Series The 1932 World Series was a four-game sweep by the American League champions New York Yankees over the National League champions Chicago Cubs . By far its most noteworthy moment was Babe Ruth 's called shot home run , in his 10th and last World Series . It was punctuated by fiery arguments between the two teams , heating up the atmosphere before the World Series even began . A record 13 future Hall of Famers played in this Series , which was also the first in which both teams wore uniforms with numbers on the backs of the shirts .", "1936 North American cold wave The 1936 North American cold wave ranks among the most intense cold waves in recorded North American meteorological history . The states of the Midwest United States and the Prairie Provinces of Canada were hit the hardest , but only the Southwest and California largely escaped its effects . February 1936 was the coldest month recorded in the states of North Dakota , South Dakota , and Minnesota , and rivals that of 1899 the coldest February on record for the continent as a whole . Only a few parts of the Great Basin , the Bering Sea coast of Alaska and the Labrador Sea coast of Canada were even close to their long-term means . The 1930s had previously seen some of the mildest winters in recorded North American climatic history -- 1930/1931 in the northern Plains and Western Canada , 1931/1932 in the East , 1932/1933 in New England and 1933/1934 in the Western United States . The northern plains had during the previous eleven years experienced six of their ten warmest Februaries between 1895 and 1976 -- those of 1925 , 1926 , 1927 , 1930 , 1931 and 1935 -- with only February 1929 being severe during this period . Despite a warm March over most areas east of the Rockies , the extended winter from October to March was the fifth-coldest on record over the conterminous United States and the coldest since 1917 . The cold wave was followed by one of the hottest summers on record , the 1936 North American heat wave .", "Black Lake (Triglav Lakes Valley) Black Lake ( Črno jezero ) ( 1319 m ) is the lowest-lying lake in the Triglav Lakes Valley , part of the Julian Alps in Slovenia . It is named for its location in a basin in the middle of the forest , which stretches right to the edge of the Komarča rock face . Because of its relatively low elevation , it is the warmest of the Triglav Lakes . At the surface , its temperature in summer is 9 ° C , whereas in winter it is 3 ° C . It is 150 m long , 80 m wide , and up to 6 m deep . . The Alpine Newt ( Ichthyosaura alpestris ) , endemic to the Alps , lives in it .", "Nation of Heat Nation of Heat is Joe Pug 's debut EP . Pug recorded Nation of Heat 's seven songs at a Chicago studio his friend had snuck him into when other musicians had cancelled . He self-released the EP and began shipping sampler CDs with some of its songs free of charge to whoever asked for a sample of his music . This unorthodox promotional strategy led to Pug selling 20,000 copies of Nation of Heat , piquing the attention of Lighting Rod Records , the Nashville label with which he would eventually sign . The EP was a critical success , drawing comparisons to the work of Bob Dylan and Josh Ritter . `` Hymn # 101 , '' the album 's opening song , drew special attention , being spotlighted on NPR 's Second Stage music blog .", "Christina Lake Provincial Park Christina Lake Provincial Park is a provincial park in British Columbia , Canada . The lake it 's on , Christina Lake , is renowned as the warmest tree-lined lake in British Columbia .", "Doryanthes Doryanthes is the sole genus in the flowering plant family Doryanthaceae . The genus consists of two species , D. excelsa and D. palmeri , both native to the coast of Eastern Australia . Plants grow in a rosette form , only flowering after more than 10 years . They enjoy a warm environment , good soil , and much water during the warmest time of the year .", "Euro Top 20 The MTV Euro Top 20 ( previously known as the MTV European Top 20 ) was a music chart countdown on MTV Europe , which played the continent 's most popular songs and artists . The countdown had been shown on the majority of the regional MTV channels in Europe since the late 1980s until its cancellation in April 2009 . It was then rebranded on MTV Europe as Euro Hitlist and shown with a varying compilation method until its complete termination in August 2012 .", "NGC 2346 NGC 2346 ( also known as the Butterfly Nebula ) is a planetary nebula near the celestial equator in the constellation Monoceros . It is bright and conspicuous and has been extensively studied . Among its most remarkable characteristics is its unusually cool central star , which is a spectroscopic binary , and its unusual shape . The binary star , which has a period of about 16 days , is also variable , probably due to dust in orbit around it . The dust itself is heated by the central star and so NGC 2346 is unusually bright in the infrared part of the spectrum . When one of the two stars evolved into a red giant , it engulfed its companion , which stripped away a ring of material from the larger star 's atmosphere . When the red giant 's core was exposed , a fast stellar wind inflated two ` bubbles ' from either side of the ring .", "Dipterus Dipterus ( meaning ` two wings ' ) is an extinct genus of lungfish from the late Devonian period of Australia , Europe and North America . In most respects , Dipterus , which was about 35 cm long , closely resembled modern lungfish . Like its ancestor Dipnorhynchus , it had tooth-like plates on its palate instead of real teeth . However , unlike its modern relatives , in which the dorsal , caudal , and anal fin are fused into one , Dipterus '' 's fins were still separated . It mostly ate invertebrates , and had lungs , not an air bladder . These were more developed in Dipterus '' and are still seen in modern-day lungfish . The genus was established by Adam Sedgwick & Roderick Murchison in the year 1828 .", "Sofian El Fani Sofian El Fani ( born 28 January 1974 ) is a Tunisian cinematographer . His credits include Timbuktu , Blue Is the Warmest Colour , and Black Venus .", "Ikertivaq Ikertivaq , also known as Ikersuaq or Ikerssuaq , is a bay or fjord in Sermersooq municipality , southeastern Greenland . Tundra climate prevails in the area of the fjord , the average annual temperature in the area being -8 ° C . The warmest month is July when the average temperature rises to 0 ° C and the coldest is January with -14 ° C. This fjord has been labeled as one of the most dangerous fjords in the area because of the abundance of pack ice . Large ice floes encumber its entrance , blocking the fjord and keeping the calf ice inside .", "Bellmunt del Priorat Bellmunt del Priorat is a municipality in the comarca of Priorat , Tarragona , Catalonia , Spain . Much like the rest of the comarca , Bellmunt has very active wine production , although the climate is one of the warmest to be found .", "Central Heating Plant The Central Heating Plant is a power station located at 325 13th Street , SW in the Southwest Federal Center neighborhood of Washington , D.C. which serves most of the United States federal government buildings near the National Mall . Operated by the General Services Administration , it was designed by architect Paul Philippe Cret in 1933 . At the time of its construction it was the largest such heating facility in the United States and served 22 federal buildings . It was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2007 . Cret used Art Deco styling for the essentially industrial building , a departure from the prevailing Washington classicism , but was able to integrate it with its surroundings through careful massing and detailing . Pilasters and vertical ribbons of windows stand in for classical colonnades . Cret designed the roof profile so that the plant 's smokestacks did not project above the equipment screen , satisfying the concerns of the District of Columbia Commission on Fine Arts , which had jurisdiction over the design . The three octagonal smokestacks rise only 42 ft. Limestone relief panels illustrate the building 's purpose with depictions of a boiler , safety valve , generator , fan and heat exchanger . The building is noteworthy as an early example of Modernism-influenced architecture , and as a notably attractive building in its own right . Originally designed to burn coal , the Central Heating Plant has been converted to use coal , oil , or natural gas . A central refrigeration plant constructed in 1957 obscures the east elevation .", "Abdellatif Kechiche Abdellatif Kechiche ( -LSB- abdɛlatif keʃiʃ -RSB- ; عبد اللطيف كشيش , born 7 December 1960 ) is a Tunisian-French actor , film director and screenwriter . He made his directorial debut in 2000 with La Faute à Voltaire , which he also wrote . His film Blue Is the Warmest Colour won the Palme d'Or at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival ." ]

[ "IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies . It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report . The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''", "Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "Climate change and agriculture -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .", "Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore ." ]

[ "The Big Help The Big Help is a community outreach program made famous in 1994 by Nickelodeon . It was a yearly event in which kids from around the country would call in to try to get one of their local parks refurbished by Nickelodeon , the ten with the most votes would get refurbished by Nickelodeon in an eight-hour special . There were special instances like the September 11 , 2001 terrorist attack where they had unscheduled specials . In 2008 , a sequel emerged called The Big Green Help , which was created to get kids interested in global warming . In 2010 , the name `` The Big Help '' was revived .", "Cadbury Mr. Big Mr. Big is the largest sized candy bar produced by Cadbury in Canada , hence the name . The standard bar is made of a layered vanilla wafer coated in caramel , peanuts and rice crisps covered in a brown simulated chocolate-like coating . Because of Canada 's higher chocolate standards compared to other areas of the world , it is not considered a `` chocolate bar '' and is labeled instead as a `` candy bar '' . The bar is the length of two `` standard '' - sized bars -- around 20 centimeters ( 8 inches ) long . Additional varieties include Mr. Chew Big , Mr. Big Fudge , and Mr. Big with Maple .", "Global warming hiatus A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "IPCC report IPCC report may refer to : IPCC First Assessment Report , 1990 IPCC Second Assessment Report , 1995 IPCC Third Assessment Report , 2001 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report , 2007 IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , 2014 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report , expected in 2022", "If wishes were horses, beggars would ride `` If wishes were horses , beggars would ride '' is an English language proverb and nursery rhyme , originating in the 16th century , which suggests if wishing could make things happen , then even the most destitute people would have everything they wanted . It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 20004 .", "David Henderson (economist) David Henderson ( born 1927 ) is a British economist . He was the chief economist at the Economics and Statistics Department at the OECD in 1984 -- 1992 . Before that he worked as an academic economist in Britain , first at Oxford ( Fellow of Lincoln College ) and later at University College London ( Professor of Economics , 1975 -- 1983 ) ; as a British civil servant ( first as an Economic Advisor in HM Treasury , and later as Chief Economist in the Ministry of Aviation ) ; and as a staff member of the World Bank ( 1969 -- 1975 ) . In 1985 he gave the BBC Reith Lectures , which were published in the book Innocence and Design : The Influence of Economic Ideas on Policy ( Blackwell , 1986 ) . Since leaving the OECD , Henderson has been an independent author and consultant , and has acted as Visiting Fellow or Professor at the OECD Development Centre ( Paris ) , the Centre for European Policy Studies ( Brussels ) , Monash University , the Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques , the University of Melbourne , the Royal Institute of International Affairs , the New Zealand Business Roundtable , the Melbourne Business School , and Westminster Business School . He is currently a Fellow of the Institute of Economic Affairs . In 1992 , Henderson was appointed to the Order of St Michael and St George as a Companion ( CMG ) . Henderson and Nigel Lawson appealed to then-Prime Minister Tony Blair to investigate the economic implications of the potential implementation of policies put forth by the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) findings . Henderson and Ian Castles , a former head of the Australian Bureau of Statistics argued that the IPCC 's projections of future emissions of greenhouse gases was flawed . The IPCC 's forecasts of global output were based on national GDP converted to dollars using market exchange rates . Henderson and Ian Castles were critical of the Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was published in 2000 . The core of their critique was the use of market exchange rates ( MER ) for international comparison , in lieu of the theoretically favoured PPP exchange rate which corrects for differences in purchasing power . The IPCC rebutted this criticism . Castles and Henderson later acknowledged that they were mistaken that future greenhouse gas emissions had been significantly overestimated . Henderson has suggested about climate change that the science is not settled and criticized the Stern Review regarding the economics of global warming . He has also published books that strongly criticize `` corporate social responsibility '' . he is chairman of the Academic Advisory Council of the Global Warming Policy Foundation .", "Ted (Buffy the Vampire Slayer) `` Ted '' is episode 11 of season two of Buffy the Vampire Slayer . It was written by David Greenwalt and Joss Whedon , and guest starred John Ritter as Ted . Buffy is unable to warm to her mother 's new boyfriend , Ted . When her escalating conflict has apparently lethal consequences , Buffy 's guilt turns to fear -- Joyce is in far greater danger than anyone could have imagined .", "Mr. Bill Mr. Bill is a clay figurine clown star of a parody of children 's shows , created by Walter Williams . Mr. Bill got its start on Saturday Night Live as a Super 8 film sent in response to the show 's request for home movies during the first season . Mr. Bill 's first appearance occurred on the February 28 , 1976 , episode . Williams became a full-time writer for the show in 1978 , writing more than 20 sketches based on Mr. Bill . Each Mr. Bill episode would start innocently enough but would quickly turn dangerous for Mr. Bill . Along with his dog , Spot , he would suffer various indignities inflicted by `` Mr. Hands , '' a man seen only as a pair of hands ( played by Vance DeGeneres ) . Sometimes the abuse would ostensibly come from the mean Sluggo , another clay character . The violence would inevitably escalate , generally ending with Mr. Bill being crushed or dismembered while squealing in a high pitched voice , `` Ohhhh noooooooooooooo ... '' . The concept for Mr. Hands came from Williams ' observation that children 's cartoons in the 70s were so static , he expected the artist 's hands to enter the screen at any moment and physically start moving the drawings around . Mr. Bill has subsequently appeared on other television programs and advertisements .", "Mr. Brown (album) Mr. Brown is the second album by R&B artist Sleepy Brown . The album has been released under Big Boi 's label Purple Ribbon Records . The release date for the album is October 3 , 2006 . The album features production by Sleepy Brown himself and his group Organized Noize , as well as The Neptunes . The first single was `` Margarita '' , which features Big Boi & Pharrell and was produced by The Neptunes . The second single pulled from the album is `` Till ( Your Legs Start Shaking ) '' . The song `` I Ca n't Wait '' was previously released as a single from the Barbershop 2 Soundtrack .", "Imagination Is the Only Escape Imagination Is the Only Escape was an upcoming video game by Luc Bernard , the creator of Mecho Wars , that mysteriously was never released . It was being developed for the Nintendo DS , though some rumors have popped up suggesting it would 've been a WiiWare game instead . However , Luc Bernard has since expressed interest in bringing the title to Wii U. Set in France during World War II , Imagination Is The Only Escape is an educational title aiming to teach children about the WWll genocide , The Holocaust .", "Actual Size Actual Size is the sixth album by the American rock band Mr. Big , originally released in August 2001 . It was their second and final studio album to feature guitarist Richie Kotzen . Actual Size would be Mr. Big 's final studio album for 9 years , until What If ... in 2010 .", "Riddim Driven: Mr Brown Meets Number One Riddim Driven : Mr Brown Meets Number One is the seventeenth album in VP Records ' Riddim Driven series . It was released in December 2001 on CD and LP . The album , produced by Donovan Germain , features various artists recorded over re-licks of two classic reggae riddims from Gregory Isaacs . The first six tracks are across Isaacs ' `` Mr. Brown '' riddim , while the last 10 are over his `` Number One '' riddim . Both tunes were big hits for Isaacs ' during the 1970s and he records updated versions of both on this compilation . The last four tracks only appear on the CD edition . They are replaced on the vinyl edition by two version tracks , one before the Isaacs & Griffiths duet and the second at the very end .", "Margarita (Sleepy Brown song) `` Margarita '' is a song by R&B singer Sleepy Brown 's from his third studio album Mr. Brown . It features rapper Big Boi and singer Pharrell Williams . The song debuted at # 8 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart but fell off soon after .", "Mr Big (UK band) Mr Big were a British pop rock band , active in the 1970s and 1990s . They were formed by Jeff Pain ( aka Dicken ) and best known for their 1977 Top 5 hit , `` Romeo '' . The band was originally active from 1972 -- 78 and then for a second period from 1990 -- 98 .", "Mr. Imagination Gregory Warmack , better known as Mr. Imagination ( March 30 , 1948 in Maywood , Illinois -- May 30 , 2012 in Atlanta , Georgia ) was an American outsider artist . He worked in a variety of forms and his work often made use of sandstone and bottlecaps .", "Is Religion Dangerous? Is Religion Dangerous ? is a book by Keith Ward examining the questions : `` Is religion dangerous ? Does it do more harm than good ? Is it a force for evil ? '' It was first published in 2006 . Looking at the evidence from history , philosophy , sociology and psychology , Ward focuses on the main question at issue : does religion do more harm than good ? He begins by examining the key area of religion and violence and goes on to assess the allegations of irrationality and immorality , before exploring the good religion has done over the centuries . He suggests that without religion the human race would be considerably worse off and there would be little hope for the future .", "Mr. I-Magination Mr. I. Magination was one of the earliest television shows for children . It ran live as a half-hour weekly show on CBS from 1949 to 1952 and was broadcast from Manhattan . ( Information about Mr. I. Magination may be found in `` Children 's Television : The First Thirty Five Years : Live , Filmed And Taped '' by George Woolery ; Scarecrow Press , Inc. . ) The host , Mr. I. Magination ( Paul Tripp ) , dressed as a train engineer , gathered a group of children each week . The same child actors appeared on a rotating basis . Two would be selected to ask about a career , occupation , activity , and such . Tripp would then play a `` magic '' slide flute , he and the children would board a train and travel to Imagination Land , where they would meet a professional from each of the two areas for that week 's show . Guests were as diverse as Damu , a lion tamer from Ringling Brothers Circus , and test pilot Scott Crossfield . His wife , Ruth Enders Tripp , also acted in the show . The show was also a pioneer in using simple , early special effects , such as making it appear as if the opening train ride went through a tunnel to enter Imagination Land , emerging from the smoke from its engine . Yul Brynner served as the director of the show at times , but did not appear as a performer . The show also featured performances by Walter Matthau , Richard Boone , Joe Silver , Ted Tiller , and Simon Oakland . Mr. I. Magination also was featured on several RCA records for children , including `` Billy On A Bike '' and `` Mr. I. Magination Meets Rip Van Winkle '' , there are at least two versions on a LP ( long playing ) record .", "The Deniers The Deniers is a 2008 book by Lawrence Solomon , a Canadian environmentalist and writer . Subtitled `` The world-renowned scientists who stood up against global warming hysteria , political persecution , and fraud , '' the book draws attention to a number of scientists and others who , according to Solomon , have advanced arguments against what he calls the `` alarmist '' view of global warming , as presented by Al Gore , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , the mainstream media , and others . The book is based on a series of columns Solomon wrote for Canada 's National Post .", "Vicious Lies and Dangerous Rumors Vicious Lies and Dangerous Rumors is the second solo album by American rapper and OutKast-member Big Boi , released on December 11 , 2012 , by Purple Ribbon Records and Def Jam Recordings . The album features guest appearances from Sleepy Brown , Phantogram , T.I. , Ludacris , Kid Cudi , Little Dragon , Killer Mike , Kelly Rowland , ASAP Rocky , B.o.B , Wavves , Mouche , Scar , Bosko , Jai Paul , UGK , Big K.R.I.T. , Theophilus London , and Tre Luce .", "Cosmon Cosmon or Cosmonium is a hypothetical form of matter where the Universe would have been in a dense form of matter as a particle named Cosmon . The idea was originally proposed by Georges Lemaître who suggested the idea of a ` primeval atom ' ( L'Hypothèse de l'Atome Primitif ) 1946 . He illustrated the idea by imagining an object 30 times larger than the volume of the sun containing all the matter of the Universe . Its density would be around . In his view this exploded somewhere between 20 -- 60 billion years ago . On this model matter would n't been generated from singularity unlike in current big bang theory . The idea of a primeval `` super-atom '' lived on and was developed forward by Maurice Goldhaber in 1956 . In his proposal there would have been a point , which had been called a Universon , that would have collapsed into a Cosmon and an Anticosmon pair . Goldhaber was wondering about why is there any matter if equal amount of matter and antimatter was formed in the beginning of the big bang . One explanation for this is the asymmetry of matter meaning that there could have been slightly more matter than antimatter , for instance 1001 matter particles to every 1000 antimatter . In Goldhabers model cosmon and anticosmon would have flown apart and therefore explaining issue without asymmetry . In 1989 Hans Dehmelt attempted to modernize the idea of the primeval atom . In this hypothesis , Cosmonium would have been the heaviest form of matter at the beginning of the big bang .", "Margaret Brown Margaret `` Maggie '' Brown ( née Tobin ) ( July 18 , 1867 -- October 26 , 1932 ) ( posthumously known as `` The Unsinkable Molly Brown '' ) was an American socialite and philanthropist . She is best remembered for exhorting the crew in to return to the debris field of the 1912 sinking of RMS Titanic to look for survivors . Accounts differ on whether the boat actually returned to look for survivors , and if so , if any survivors were found . During her lifetime , her friends called her `` Maggie '' , but even by her death , obituaries referred to her as the `` Unsinkable Mrs. Brown '' . The reference was further reinforced by a 1960 Broadway musical based on her life and its 1964 film adaptation were each entitled The Unsinkable Molly Brown .", "Pseudonaja Pseudonaja is a genus of venomous elapid snakes native to Australia . Species of this genus are known commonly as brown snakes and are considered to be some of the most dangerous snakes in the country ; even young snakes are capable of delivering a fatal envenomation to a human . Despite its common name , the king brown snake ( Pseudechis australis ) is not a brown snake , but a member of the genus Pseudechis , commonly known as black snakes .", "Mr. Moto in Danger Island Mr. Moto in Danger Island is a 1939 American mystery film directed by Herbert I. Leeds and starring Peter Lorre , Jean Hersholt and Amanda Duff . It is part of the Mr. Moto series of films . The film was based on the novel Murder in Trinidad , but the setting was moved to Puerto Rico .", "Climate change mitigation Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .", "The Cuban Doctor `` The Cuban Doctor '' is a poem from Wallace Stevens 's first book of poetry , Harmonium . It was first published in the journal Poetry in October 1921 , so it is in the public domain . The1 poem meditates on Stevens 's increasing awareness , also notably expressed in `` The Anecdote of the Prince of Peacocks '' ( 1923 ) , that the difference between imaginative activity and ordinary experience is unstable and affected by irrational forces , which may attack , like a bolt of lightning , even someone `` drowsing in summer 's sleepiest horn '' . This theme can be understood as signalling that writing poetry is dangerous . Poetic drowsing is liable to attack by the Indian , or by Berserk in `` Peacocks '' , defeating imagination 's task of transforming the ordinary . This sense of danger is absent in such earlier poems as `` Disillusionment of Ten O'Clock '' ( 1915 ) , where the old sailor need fear no such violence as he catches tigers in red weather .", "What Is Your Dangerous Idea? What Is Your Dangerous Idea ? : Today 's Leading Thinkers on the Unthinkable is a book edited by John Brockman , which deals with `` dangerous '' ideas , or ideas that some people would react to in ways that suggest a disruption of morality and ethics . Scientists , philosophers , artists , and various other groups of people have written in to the online salon called the Edge , where thinkers in several areas post and discuss their ideas . This collection of responses forms the entirety of the book ( possibly with some excluded because of the great number of posts ) . The basic concept behind the book is `` to gather a hundred of the most brilliant minds in the world in a room , lock them in , and have them ask each other the questions they were asking themselves '' .", "Seita Emori Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .", "Hey Man Hey Man is the fourth studio album by the hard rock band , Mr. Big . It would be their last album with guitarist Paul Gilbert until 2010 's What If ...", "Jonathan A. Rosenbaum Jonathan A. Rosenbaum ( sometimes credited as Jon Rosenbaum ) is American television director and producer . As a director , his credits include Zixx : Level Three , The Assistants , Imagination Movers , What 's Up Warthogs ! , Big Time Rush , The Troop , Zeke and Luther , Mr. Young , Supah Ninjas , A.N.T. Farm , Some Assembly Required , and Stuck in the Middle . He also worked as a producer on the series Mental .", "Floral Decorations for Bananas `` Floral Decorations for Bananas '' is a poem from Wallace Stevens 's first book of poetry , Harmonium ( 1923 ) . It was first published Measure 26 ( Apr. 1923 ) and is therefore under copyright , however it is quoted here as justified by fair use in order to facilitate scholarly commentary . The poem 's speaker is unhappy about the choice of bananas as a table decoration , complaining that they do n't match well with the eglantine and are suitable only for a room of women who are all shanks and bangles and slatted eyes . Recommended instead are plums in an eighteenth-century dish , centering a room in which there would be women of primrose and purl . This poem finds Stevens , the cool master as Yvor Winters described him , in warm good humor , putting the world 's raw material in tension with imagination 's desire for a sophisticated construct . The raw bananas do n't quite succumb , and there is a suggestion that this is not a bad thing , if only to provide energy and impetus for imagination 's renewal . Alternatively , the poem can be interpreted as about the dangers of blatant sexuality and Stevens 's `` fear of the force of female sexuality '' . Surely Marianne Moore had this poem foremost in mind when she compared Stevens 's efforts in Harmonium to Henri Rousseau 's paintings . There is lushness and sexuality in both . The poetic device that Robert Buttel noted in connection with `` The Apostrophe to Vincentine is at work here too , in what Eleanor Cook , following art historian Ernst Gombrich , calls inverted recognition , `` the recognition not of reality in a painting but of a painting in reality '' .", "Pseudo-warm front A pseudo-warm front is a boundary between the in-flow region and the forward-flank downdraft of a supercell . It can either be stationary or move in a northeasterly direction . If it were stationary it would technically be a pseudo-stationary front .", "Mr. Big (Big Boy album) Mr. Big is Big Boy 's first album released in 1993 ." ]

[ "Grissom Air Reserve Base Grissom Air Reserve Base is a United States Air Force base , located about 12 mi north of Kokomo in Cass County , Indiana and Miami County , Indiana . The facility was established as Naval Air Station Bunker Hill in 1942 and an active Air Force installation from 1954 to 1994 . Since then it is a joint-use civil airport/military base with the Grissom Aeroplex providing general aviation and charter service . The base is named in memory of astronaut and Indiana native Virgil I. `` Gus '' Grissom , who , along with fellow astronauts Ed White and Roger Chaffee , perished in the Apollo 1 fire at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 34 in 1967 .", "Palo Alto, California Palo Alto ( -LSB- ˌpæloʊ_ˈæltoʊ -RSB- ; -LSB- ˈpalo ˈalto -RSB- ; from palo , literally `` stick '' , colloquially `` tree '' , and alto `` tall '' ; meaning : `` tall tree '' ) is a charter city located in the northwest corner of Santa Clara County , California , in the San Francisco Bay Area of the United States . The city shares its borders with East Palo Alto , Mountain View , Los Altos , Los Altos Hills , Stanford , Portola Valley , and Menlo Park . It is named after a coast redwood tree called El Palo Alto . Palo Alto was established by Leland Stanford Sr. when he founded Stanford University , following the death of his son , Leland Stanford Jr. . The city includes portions of Stanford and is headquarters to a number of high-technology companies , including Hewlett-Packard ( HP ) , Space Systems/Loral , VMware , Tesla Motors , Ford Research and Innovation Center , PARC , IDEO , Skype , Palantir Technologies , and Houzz . It has also served as an incubator to several other high-technology companies such as Google , Facebook , Logitech , Intuit , Pinterest , and PayPal . As of the 2010 census , the city 's total resident population is 64,403 . Palo Alto is one of the most expensive cities in the United States and its residents are amongst the highest educated in the country .", "Cooling tower A cooling tower is a heat rejection device that rejects waste heat to the atmosphere through the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature . Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of water to remove process heat and cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb air temperature or , in the case of closed circuit dry cooling towers , rely solely on air to cool the working fluid to near the dry-bulb air temperature . Common applications include cooling the circulating water used in oil refineries , petrochemical and other chemical plants , thermal power stations and HVAC systems for cooling buildings . The classification is based on the type of air induction into the tower : the main types of cooling towers are natural draft and induced draft cooling towers . Cooling towers vary in size from small roof-top units to very large hyperboloid structures ( as in the adjacent image ) that can be up to 200 m tall and 100 m in diameter , or rectangular structures that can be over 40 m tall and 80 m long . The hyperboloid cooling towers are often associated with nuclear power plants , although they are also used in some coal-fired plants and to some extent in some large chemical and other industrial plants . Although these large towers are very prominent , the vast majority of cooling towers are much smaller , including many units installed on or near buildings to discharge heat from air conditioning ." ]

[ "Drexel Manor station Drexel Manor station is a SEPTA Route 102 trolley station in Drexel Hill , Pennsylvania . The station is officially located near Burmont Road and Cheswold Road , although it is actually southwest of the Burmont Road grade crossing . Like the Marshall Road stop , the Route 102 line runs in between Cheswold and Blanchard Roads , both of which terminate at Burmont Road . Two schools are located in the vicinity of this station . Trolleys arriving at this station travel between 69th Street Terminal in Upper Darby , Pennsylvania and Sharon Hill , Pennsylvania . The station contains an open concrete shelter on the northbound platform of the tracks with a connecting sidewalk between two houses on Blanchard Road . On the opposite side , the southbound platform can be found in front of a parking lot for a housing project across from the intersection of Cheswold and Lasher Roads . A vacant lot on the southeast corner of the Burmont Road grade crossing could have served as the site of a former station house in the past . A sidewalk along Cheswold Road leads to the platform , and a retaining wall across the tracks may or may not have included another one at one time . Drexel Manor Station is located two blocks southwest of the Garrettford stop .", "Bleeding (roads) Bleeding or flushing is shiny , black surface film of asphalt on the road surface caused by upward movement of asphalt in the pavement surface . Common causes of bleeding are too much asphalt in asphalt concrete , hot weather , low space air void content and quality of asphalt . Bleeding is a safety concern since it results in a very smooth surface , without the texture required to prevent hydroplaning .", "Exhaust air heat pump An Exhaust Air Heat Pump ( EAHP ) extracts heat from the exhaust air of a building and transfers the heat to the supply air , hot tap water and/or hydronic heating system ( underfloor heating , radiators ) . This requires at least mechanical exhaust , mechanical supply is optional , see mechanical ventilation . This type of heat pump requires a certain air exchange rate to maintain its output power . Since the inside air is approximately 20-22 degrees Celsius all year round , the maximum output power of the heat pump is not varying with the seasons and outdoor temperature . Air leaving the building when the heat pump 's compressor is running is usually at around -1 ° in most versions , thus the unit is extracting heat from the air that needs to be changed ( at around a half an air change per hour ) . Air entering the house is of course generally warmer than the air processed through the unit so there is a net ` gain ' . Care must be taken that these are only used in the correct type of houses . Many specifiers mis-understand that low heat loss means small . Exhaust air heat pumps have minimum flow rates that when installed in a small flat the air flow chronically over ventilates the flat increasing the heat los by drawing in large amounts of unwanted outside air . For most exhaust air heat pumps there will be a low heat output to the hot water and heating of just around 1.2 Kw from the compressor / heat pump process but if that falls short of the building 's requirements additional heat will be automatically triggered in the form of immersion heaters or an external gas boiler . The immersion heater top up will be substantial and when a unit with a 6 kW immersion heater operates at full output it will cost # 1 per hour to run . A newer version from Nibe Sweden the F730 takes in additional air from outdoors to the above process - this is a more powerful type of EAHP with an inverter controlled compressor . Out put from the heat pump can vary from 1.1 to 6 kW and the discharged air from this unit can be as low as -15 ° C", "IOI Mall Puchong IOI Mall Puchong , which was opened in the year 1998 , is situated in Bandar Puchong Jaya , 47100 Puchong , Selangor , Malaysia and is four stories tall . It has two buildings , the former named Old Wing and the latter New Wing . It has a outdoor parking lot and a rooftop one in the Old Wing , whereas the New Wing features a basement parking lot . It is located near the newly constructed IOI Puchong Jaya LRT Station .", "Impervious surface Impervious surfaces are mainly artificial structures -- such as pavements ( roads , sidewalks , driveways and parking lots ) that are covered by impenetrable materials such as asphalt , concrete , brick , stone -- and rooftops . Soils compacted by urban development are also highly impervious . Homer and others ( 2007 ) indicate that about 76 percent of the conterminous United States is classified as having less than 1 percent impervious cover , 11 percent as having an impervious cover of 1 to 10 percent , 4 percent of the nation as having an estimated impervious cover of 11 to 20 percent , 4.4 percent of the nation as having an estimated impervious cover of 21 to 40 percent , and about 4.4 percent of the nation as having an estimated impervious cover greater than 40 percent", "Boothstown Mines Rescue Station Boothstown Mines Rescue Station which served the collieries of the Lancashire and Cheshire Coal Owners on the Lancashire Coalfield opened in November 1933 on a site in Boothstown , close to the East Lancashire Road . The mines rescue station is Grade II listed and at the centre of a conservation area . The station replaced mines rescue stations at Howe Bridge , Denton , St Helens and Burnley . The rescue station and its associated buildings were designed by Bradshaw , Gass and Hope of Bolton replacing Howe Bridge Mines Rescue Station . A two-storey building which fronts onto Ellenbrook Road contained a garage , shower rooms , laboratory , oxygen and equipment storage areas and offices , A board room and aviary for the station 's canaries were located on the first floor . At the rear , a single-storey section contained U-shaped training galleries representing underground workings . Observation halls overlooked the galleries so that training taking place in the galleries could be inspected . The galleries could be filled with smoke or heated to simulate the conditions that might be encountered in an emergency . A chimney exhausted the fumes and smoke after the training had concluded . The permanent staff consisted of a superintendent , two instructors and two teams of six rescuers . They lived on site in a development of seven pairs of semi-detached houses and a superintendent 's house with allotments , parking , and recreation areas . The site had underground air raid shelters .", "Glassblower's cataract Glassblower 's cataracts are a form of cataract . They are formed by many years or decades of exposure to infrared radiation while working in the occupation of glass blowing , or working close to hot or molten metals such with metal foundry workers or blacksmiths . Glassblower 's cataracts are due to chronic exposure to infrared radiation emitted due to heating of glass or molten metal . The infrared radiation is absorbed by the iris and lens of the eye . This causes cataracts after decades of exposure . This condition may be prevented by wearing protective glasses while practicing these occupations .", "Glossary of HVAC terms HVAC ( heating , ventilation , and air conditioning ) is a major subdiscipline of mechanical engineering . The goal of HVAC design is to balance indoor environmental comfort with other factors such as installation cost , ease of maintenance , and energy efficiency . The discipline of HVAC includes a large number of specialized terms and acronyms , many of which are summarized in this glossary . The hourly ventilation rate divided by the volume of a space . For perfectly mixed air or laminar flow spaces , this is equal to the number of times per hour that the volume the space is exchanged by mechanical and natural ventilation . Also called air change rate or air exchange rate . Abbreviated ACH or ac/hr . An appliance , system , or mechanism designed to dehumidify and extract heat from an area . Usually this term is reserved for smaller self contained units such as a residential system . A central unit consisting of a blower , heating and cooling elements , filter racks or chamber , dampers , humidifier , and other central equipment in direct contact with the airflow . This does not include the ductwork through the building . Abbreviated AH or AHU . Any of several units of energy ( heat ) in the HVAC industry , each slightly more than 1 kJ . One BTU is the energy required to raise one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit , but the many different types of BTU are based on different interpretations of this `` definition '' . In the United States the power of HVAC systems ( the rate of cooling and dehumidifying or heating ) is sometimes expressed in BTU/hour instead of watts . Abbreviated BTU or Btu . A centrifugal fan is a mechanical device for moving air or other gases . A device that removes heat from a liquid via a vapor-compression or absorption refrigeration cycle . This cooled liquid flows through pipes in a building and passes through coils in air handlers , fan-coil units , or other systems , cooling and usually dehumidifying the air in the building . Chillers are of two types ; air-cooled or water-cooled . Air-cooled chillers are usually outside and consist of condenser coils cooled by fan-driven air . Water-cooled chillers are usually inside a building , and heat from these chillers is carried by recirculating water to a heat sink such as an outdoor cooling tower . Equipment that performs heat transfer to air when mounted inside an air handling unit or ductwork . It is heated or cooled by electrical means or by circulating liquid or steam within it . A component in the basic refrigeration cycle that ejects or removes heat from the system . The condenser is the hot side of an air conditioner or heat pump . Condensers are heat exchangers , and can transfer heat to air or to an intermediate fluid ( such as water or an aqueous solution of ethylene glycol ) to carry heat to a distant sink , such as ground ( earth sink ) , a body of water , or air ( as with cooling towers ) . A system designed to provide a constant air flow . This term is applied to HVAC systems that have variable supply-air temperature but constant air flow rates . Most residential forced-air systems are small CAV systems with on/off control . Abbreviated CAV . A device that controls the operation of part or all of a system . It may simply turn a device on and off , or it may more subtly modulate the set point of components . Most controllers are automatic but have user input such as temperature set points , e.g. a thermostat . Controls may be analog or digital . A plate or gate placed in a duct to control air flow by increasing friction in the duct . The heat is rejected to deep lake regions to cool homes and offices , reducing the energy costs . ( Also delta T ) a reference to a temperature difference . It is used to describe the difference in temperature of a heating or cooling medium as it enters and as it leaves a system . Specialized housing for the air flow . A dehumidifier is the equipment that extracts and removes humidity from the air . It works by cooling air to the point where water turns to liquid from vapor form and then the liquid is removed . A diffuser is placed over ductwork , and it separates air with vanes going in differing directions . It evenly distributes air flow in the desired directions . Dry bulb temperature is the temperature of air measured by a thermometer which is freely exposed to the air while it is shielded from radiation and moisture . It is usually thought of as air temperature , and it is the true thermodynamic temperature . It is a measurement of heat intensity independently of humidity and a dry bulb thermometer is used to measure it . A dry bulb thermometer is a device that measures air temperature independently of humidity . It is freely exposed to the air it is measuring and is protected from the radiation and moisture . An HVAC component that uses outside air , under suitable climate conditions , to reduce required mechanical cooling . When the outside air 's enthalpy is less than the required supply air during a call for cooling , an economizer allows a building 's mechanical ventilation system to use up to the maximum amount of outside air . For a given sample of air , a measure of the total heat content ( the sum of the heat energy of the dry air and heat energy of the water vapor within it ) . It is typically used to determine the amount of fresh outside air that can be added to recirculated air for the lowest cooling cost . A component in the basic refrigeration cycle that absorbs or adds heat to the system . Evaporators can be used to absorb heat from air or from a liquid . The evaporator is the cold side of an air conditioner or heat pump . A small terminal unit that is often composed of only a blower and a heating and/or cooling coil , as is often used in hotels , condominiums , or apartments . Abbreviated FCU . A transfer of fluid volume per unit time . Abbreviated FAF . Fresh air fraction quantifies action of the economizer , and is defined by ( Mass flow rate of fresh-air / Total air flow rate ) . Abbreviated faf . An opening through which outside air is drawn into the building . This may be to replace air in the building that has been exhausted by the ventilation system , or to provide fresh air for combustion of fuel . Abbreviated FAI . A component of an HVAC system that adds heat to air or an intermediate fluid by burning fuel ( natural gas , oil , propane , butane , or other flammable substances ) in a heat exchanger . A gas furnace heat exchanger is responsible for the transfer of heat from inside the furnace into the air outside the furnace . The duct system then transfers this exchanged air to different rooms in the building or space . A facing across a duct opening , often rectangular in shape , containing multiple parallel slots through which air may be delivered or withdrawn from a ventilated space . The grille directs the air flow in a particular direction and prevents the passage of large items . A heating coil is the part of the system that conducts heat . It allows electricity to act as fire . A heat exchanger is the part of the system that transfers heat from the hot parts of the machine or a system to the cold parts of the machine or system . Terms for the amount of cooling ( heat gain ) or heating ( heat loss ) needed to maintain desired temperatures and humidities in controlled air . Regardless of how well-insulated and sealed a building is , buildings gain heat from sunlight , conduction through the walls , and internal heat sources such as people and electrical equipment . Buildings lose heat through conduction during cold weather . Engineers use heat load calculations to determine the HVAC needs of the space being cooled or heated . A heat pump is a compressor that cycles hot or cold air . It is a device that is designed to move thermal energy in the opposite direction of heat flow by absorbing heat from a cold space which is released to a warmer space . Heat transfer happens when heat moves from one area to another . It is an important and vital step in the process of cooling a space . Heating Seasonal Performance Factor is the measurement of heat efficiency over the period of a heating season . A liquid or gas used to transfer heat between two heat exchangers . An intermediate fluid is used when the hot and cold fluids are too bulky ( such as air ) or difficult to handle ( such as halocarbon refrigerant ) to directly transfer the heat . 1 . Components made of multiple smaller blades , sometimes adjustable , placed in ducts or duct entries to control the volume of air flow . When used inside of ducts , their function is similar to that of a damper , but they can be manufactured to fit larger openings than a single-piece damper . 2 . Blades in a rectangular frame placed in doors or walls to permit the movement of air . An air handler that conditions 100 % outside air . Typically used in industrial or commercial settings , or in `` once-through '' ( blower sections that only blow air one-way into the building ) , `` low flow '' ( air handling systems that blow air at a low flow rate ) , or `` primary-secondary '' ( air handling systems that have an air handler or rooftop unit connected to an add-on makeup unit or hood ) commercial HVAC systems . Abbreviated MAU . The lowest amount of fresh air flow that can be allowed into a recirculating system . This limit is sent to ensure that the interior air remains safe and comfortable to breathe . An automatic louver or damper that controls the fresh air flow into an air handler and modulates to the most energy efficient setting . A measure of the air temperature outside a building . The temperature and humidity of air inside and outside the building are used in enthalpy calculations to determine when outside air can be used for free heating or cooling . Abbreviated OAT . An air conditioner and heater combined into a single , electrically powered unit , typically installed through a wall and often found in hotels . Abbreviated PTAC . An air-handling unit , defined as either `` recirculating '' or `` once-through '' design , made specifically for outdoor installation . They most often include , internally , their own heating and cooling devices . Very common in some regions , particularly in single-story commercial buildings . Also called a rooftop unit ( RTU ) An enclosed space inside a building or other structure , used for airflow . Often refers to the space between a dropped ceiling and the structural ceiling , or a raised floor and the hard floor . Distinct from ductwork as a plenum is part of the structure itself . Cable and piping within a plenum must be properly rated for its fire and smoke indices . See also : plenum chamber The study of the behavior of air-water vapor mixtures . Water vapor plays an important role in energy transfer and human comfort in HVAC design . Same as Air handler . Usually metal panels suspended under the ceiling , insulated from the building structure . The primary cooling/heating agent temperature is close to the room 's temperature . A type of radiant heating system where the building floor contains channels or tubes through which hot fluids such as air or water are circulated . The whole floor is evenly heated . Thus , the room is heated from the bottom up . Radiant floor heating eliminates the draft and dust problems associated with forced air heating systems . The transfer of heat directly from one surface to another ( without heating the intermediate air acting as a transfer mechanism ) . The SEER ( Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio ) rating of a unit is the cooling output during a typical cooling-season divided by the total electric energy input during the same period . The higher the unit 's SEER rating the more energy efficient it is . A damper or adjustable louver designed to augment the ventilation of a space during a fire . A split system is the combination of an outdoor unit and an indoor unit . This is the most common type of system . A The number of degrees a vapor is above its boiling point at a specific pressure . A The condition where liquid refrigerant is colder than the minimum temperature required to keep it from boiling which would change it from a liquid to a gas phase . Subcooling is the difference between its saturation temperature and the actual liquid refrigerant temperature . General term used to refer to the set or a subset of components that perform a specific HVAC function within a building . A small component that contains a heating coil , cooling coil , automatic damper , or some combination of the three . Used to control the temperature of a single room . Abbreviated TU . An individual space or group of neighboring indoor spaces that the HVAC designer expects will have similar thermal loads . Building codes may require zoning to save energy in commercial buildings . Zones are defined in the building to reduce the number of HVAC subsystems , and thus initial cost . For example , for perimeter offices , rather than one zone for each office , all offices facing west can be combined into one zone . Small residences typically have only one conditioned thermal zone , plus unconditioned spaces such as garages , attics , and crawlspaces , and basements . A thermostat is a system that monitors and regulates a heating or cooling system . It can be used to set the desired temperature at which it keeps the environment either heated or cooled . A two-stage air conditioner is designed to operate on high and low settings during different weather conditions and seasons . The high setting is used during extreme weather , and the low setting is used during moderate weather . This type of air conditioner produces a balanced temperature and is in use for a longer period of time . A thermostatic expansion valve is a piece of equipment that meters the flow of liquid refrigerant into the evaporator while measuring the vapor refrigerant leaving the evaporator . It thereby controls the superheating at the outlet of the evaporator . A method for providing ventilation and space conditioning by using the air plenum below a raised floor to distribute conditioned air through diffusers directly to the occupied zone . Abbreviated UFAD . A unitary controller is a device that controls only one zone in a building . An HVAC system that has a stable supply-air temperature , and varies the air flow rate to meet the temperature requirements . Compared to constant air volume systems , these systems conserve energy through lower fan speeds during times of lower temperature control demand . Most new commercial buildings have VAV systems . VAVs may be bypass type or pressure dependent . Pressure dependent type VAVs save energy while both types help in maintaining temperature of the zone that it feeds . Abbreviated VAV . A zoning system sections a building or a space into zones which are controlled independently of each other . This is beneficial when different areas or rooms of a building have different temperatures as well as when the desired temperatures in different rooms are different . Temperature is controlled by different thermostats .", "Mahane Yehuda Police Station Mahane Yehuda Police Station is a historic two-story building located at 107 Jaffa Road in Jerusalem , Israel . Constructed in stages during the nineteenth century , it was built to house the British Consul-General of Jerusalem , Noel Temple Moore , and his family , and was home to other British consuls until World War I . In 1920 , when the British mandatory government went into effect , the house was converted into a police station . Following the establishment of the state of Israel , the Jerusalem District lost and found department was added to the police station . The building is noted for the two stone lions mounted on pillars that originally flanked the entrance in the wall surrounding the property . During infrastructure work for the construction of the Jerusalem Light Rail , the wall and front garden were removed to accommodate the widening of the street and sidewalk . The lion pillars were moved next to the building 's entrance , which is now accessed directly from the sidewalk .", "Trombe wall A Trombe wall is a passive solar building design where a wall is built on the winter sun side of a building with a glass external layer and a high heat capacity internal layer separated by a layer of air . Light close to UV in the electromagnetic spectrum passes through the glass almost unhindered then is absorbed by the wall that then re-radiates in the far infrared spectrum which does not pass back through the glass easily , hence heating the inside of the building . Trombe walls are commonly used to absorb heat during sunlit hours of winter then slowly release the heat over night . The essential idea was first explored by Edward S. Morse and patented by him in 1881 . In the 1960s it was fully developed as an architectural element by French engineer Félix Trombe and architect Jacques Michel . Trombe walls work on the basic greenhouse principle that heat from the sun in the form of near-visible shorter-wavelength higher-energy ultraviolet radiation passes through glass largely unimpeded . When this radiation strikes objects the energy is absorbed and then re-emitted in the form of longer-wavelength infra-red radiation that does not pass through glass as readily . Hence heat becomes trapped and builds up in an enclosed structure with high internal heat capacity and glass surfaces that face the sun How effectively objects absorb and shed radiant heat depends on a number of factors ; how dark they are in colour , how directly the surface of the object is opposed to the angle of the radiation striking it , how matte or reflective its surface is , the heat capacity of the object , and the surface conductivity of the object . For Trombe walls to work effectively they are made from high heat capacity materials such as concrete or water , whose surface is dark and matte in colour and placed in direct opposition to the sun striking them . The clearer the glass in front of a Trombe wall appears in the UV spectrum the more short wave radiation will penetrate and the more reflective or non transparent the glass appears in the infra-red spectrum the less re-emitted heat will be escape .", "Thermoregulation in humans As in other mammals , thermoregulation in humans is an important aspect of homeostasis . In thermoregulation , body heat is generated mostly in the deep organs , especially the liver , brain , and heart , and in contraction of skeletal muscles . Humans have been able to adapt to a great diversity of climates , including hot humid and hot arid . High temperatures pose serious stresses for the human body , placing it in great danger of injury or even death . For humans , adaptation to varying climatic conditions includes both physiological mechanisms resulting from evolution and behavioural mechanisms resulting from conscious cultural adaptations . There are four avenues of heat loss : convection , conduction , radiation , and evaporation . If skin temperature is greater than that of the surroundings , the body can lose heat by radiation and conduction . But , if the temperature of the surroundings is greater than that of the skin , the body actually gains heat by radiation and conduction . In such conditions , the only means by which the body can rid itself of heat is by evaporation . So , when the surrounding temperature is higher than the skin temperature , anything that prevents adequate evaporation will cause the internal body temperature to rise . During sports activities , evaporation becomes the main avenue of heat loss . Humidity affects thermoregulation by limiting sweat evaporation and thus heat loss .", "Kaarepere railway station The Kaarepere railway station is an historic railway station located in Kaarepere , Estonia . The station is listed as a heritage building by the Estonian government 's Muinsuskaitseamet ( Estonian National Heritage Board ) , number 23960 . Construction on the building was finished in 1927 . A parking lot was added next to the station in 2011 .", "3 Park Avenue 3 Park Avenue is a mixed-use office building and high school located on Park Avenue in Manhattan , New York City that was built in 1973 . The building , surrounded on three sides by a plaza , is categorized as a Midtown South address in the Kips Bay , Manhattan , Murray Hill , and Rose Hill neighborhoods . It is located between East 33rd and 34th Streets , close to the 33rd Street subway station , there is a sidewalk entrance into the NYC subway 6 train", "Decoupling (meteorology) In weather forecasting , decoupling is boundary-layer decoupling of atmospheric layers over land at night . During the day when the sun shines and warms the land , air at the surface of the earth is heated and rises . This rising air mixes the atmosphere near the earth . At night this process stops and air near the surface cools as the land loses heat by radiating in the infrared . If winds are light , air near the surface of the earth can become much colder , compared to the air above it , than if more mixing of air layers occurred . Category : Weather forecasting", "Prospect Park station Prospect Park station is a station along the SEPTA Wilmington/Newark Line and Amtrak Northeast Corridor . Amtrak does not stop here ; only SEPTA serves this station . The station , located at Lincoln and Maryland Avenues in Prospect Park , Pennsylvania , includes a 44-space parking lot . Like the nearby Norwood Station , Prospect Park Station is located right next to the town 's library , in this case the Prospect Park Public Library . It is also located near the Borough Hall . Prospect Park station was originally known as Moore station , and was built by the Philadelphia , Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad . According to the Pennsylvania Railroad Stations , Past & Present website , a property owner named Moore donated the property for this station . He did so , with the `` condition '' that the station should carry his family name for as long as it exists . The station was renamed to Moore by the Pennsylvania Railroad on April 1 , 1932 . However , that same source indicates that the current station building is not the original PW&B structure . ( '' ... the original PW&B station ... predated the station that still exists '' ) . The current station building was constructed by the Pennsylvania Railroad .", "Harris's antelope squirrel Harris 's antelope squirrel ( Ammospermophilus harrisii ) is a species of rodent in the family Sciuridae . It is found in Arizona and New Mexico in the United States , and in Sonora in Mexico . They are adapted to hot weather conditions including a technique called `` heat dumping '' . They have a wide ranging diet , including both vegetation , insects , small rodents and carrion .", "Springfield Road station (SEPTA Route 101) Springfield Road station is a SEPTA Route 101 trolley stop in Springfield Township , Delaware County , Pennsylvania . It is located on Springfield Road between Windsor Circle and North Brookside Road , although SEPTA gives the address as being near Springfield and Rolling Roads . Trolleys arriving at this station travel between 69th Street Terminal in Upper Darby , Pennsylvania and Orange Street in Media , Pennsylvania . The major SEPTA 101 line improvement project of 2008-2010 expanded , modernized , and refurbished this facility . Inbound ( toward 69th Street Terminal ) trolleys stop for passengers on the north side of Springfield Road at a platform equipped with a large shed with an overhanging roof . A second , smaller shelter was added to the inbound platform . Outbound trolleys stop along a new ( 2009 ) platform along the south side of Springfield Road , adjacent to the sizeable station parking lot . This long platform has two open-air metal benches and a bench in a small , roofed shelter to protect waiting passengers during inclement weather . The lighted , landscaped , free parking lot by this platform offers parking for approximately 30 vehicles , and includes spaces for handicapped drivers and a bicycle rack . Several additional free parking spaces for cars line the outbound tracks along North Rolling Road on the north side of Springfield Road across from Windsor Circle .", "Reservation Road Park Reservation Road Park is located at 110 Reservation Road , in Hyde Park , Massachusetts , United States . Geographically , the park is located between River Street and Hyde Park Avenue near the Shaw 's Supermarket . The park has a large parking lot , enough for about 100 cars . It contains both a skate park and turf field , that can be used for soccer or football . There is a small trail surrounding the field that goes into a wooded area . There are train tracks behind the park , separated by a large gate . Category : Hyde Park , Boston Category : Parks in Boston", "Automatic bleeding valve An automatic bleeding valve or air release valve ( ARV ) is a plumbing valve used to automatically release trapped air from a heating system . Air , or other gas , may collect within plumbing . For water delivery systems to taps and basins , this air is flushed through with the water flow and does not cause a problem . In a closed heating system though , it has no other means of escape and builds up . An air bubble trapped within a radiator means that no hot water circulates in the upper part and so the heating power of the radiator is reduced . If air is trapped within the boiler this may cause pump cavitation or boiling and overheating within the heat exchanger .", "Palomino Hills (MVTA station) Palomino Park & Ride is a transit facility located in the northern vicinity of Apple Valley , Minnesota , United States . The park and ride lot has 304 parking spaces and is located next to Palomino Hills Park . The location had been considered for a station along the Cedar Avenue Bus Rapid Transitway , now known as the Red Line , but it has been dropped from the initial phase of the project . According to Metropolitan Council bus stop data , the park-and-ride lot was established in 1993 . The lot is shared with the adjacent Christus Victor Church . Buses pick up passengers along Pennock Avenue , a road that parallels Cedar Avenue/Minnesota State Highway 77 just to the west .", "Pennbrook station Pennbrook station is a station along the SEPTA Lansdale/Doylestown Line , north of Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , United States . In FY 2013 , Pennbrook station had a weekday average of 467 boardings and 371 alightings . The station is located at Church Road and Cherry Street in the Pennbrook section of the borough of Lansdale and features a 222 space parking lot . Most of these parking spaces are located on the east side of Church Road and are on Borough of Lansdale property . The lots on the west side of Church Road are on SEPTA property . Overnight parking is allowed by prior arrangement on the SEPTA lots . It is not allowed on the Lansdale lots . This station consists of two acrylic glass shelters on both platforms .", "Solar balloon A solar balloon is a balloon that gains buoyancy when the air inside is heated by solar radiation , usually with the help of black or dark balloon material . The heated air inside the solar balloon expands and has lower density than the surrounding air . As such , a solar balloon is similar to a hot air balloon . Usage of solar balloons is predominantly in the toy market , although it has been proposed that they be used in the investigation of planet Mars , and some solar balloons are large enough for human flight . A vent at the top can be opened to release hot air for descent and deflation .", "Paver (vehicle) A paver ( paver finisher , asphalt finisher , paving machine ) is a piece of construction equipment used to lay asphalt on roads , bridges , parking lots and other such places . It lays the asphalt flat and provides minor compaction before it is compacted by a roller .", "Friction blister Friction blisters are a skin condition that may occur at sites of combined pressure and friction , and may be enhanced by heat , moisture , or cotton socks . Friction blisters are characterized by vesicles or bullae .", "ATREX The ATREX engine ( Air Turbo Ramjet Engine with eXpander cycle ) developed in Japan is an experimental precooled jet engine that works as a turbojet at low speeds and a ramjet up to mach 6.0 . ATREX uses liquid hydrogen fuel in a fairly exotic single-fan arrangement . The liquid hydrogen fuel is pumped through a heat exchanger in the air-intake , simultaneously heating the liquid hydrogen and cooling the incoming air . This cooling of the incoming air is critical in achieving a reasonable efficiency . The hydrogen then continues through a second heat exchanger positioned after the combustion section , where the hot exhaust is used to further heat the hydrogen , turning it in a very high pressure gas . This gas is then passed through the tips of the fan providing driving power to the fan at subsonic speeds . After mixing with the air , the hydrogen is burned in the combustion chamber . The development of this engine lost focus in favor of the new hypersonic precooled turbojet engine ( PCTJ ) .", "Regenerative thermal oxidizer A regenerative thermal oxidizer ( RTO ) is a piece of industrial equipment used for the treatment of exhaust air . The system is a type of thermal oxidizer that uses a bed of ceramic material to absorb heat from the exhaust gas . It then uses this captured heat to preheat the incoming process gas stream and destroy air pollutants emitted from process exhaust streams at temperatures ranging from 815 ° C ( 1,500 F ) to 980 ° C ( 1,800 F ) . These gas streams are usually produced by processes requiring ventilation , including paint booths , printing , and paper mills . Municipal waste treatment facilities such as mechanical biological treatment plants are required by law in Germany to incorporate these systems . Biological alternatives to this system include biofilters and bioscrubbers . They are suited to applications with low VOC concentrations but high waste stream flow rates . This is due to their high thermal energy recovery . The basic operation of an RTO consists of passing a hot gas stream over a heat sink material in one direction and recovering that heat by passing a cold gas stream through that same heat sink material in an alternate cycle . They are used to destroy air toxins , odors , VOCs , and hazardous air pollutants ( HAPs ) that are discharged in industrial process exhausts . There are a number of RTO suppliers throughout North America , Europe and Asia . From a technical stand point the most advanced form of RTO technology is the rotary valve RTO .", "Joo Koon Bus Interchange Joo Koon Bus Interchange ( Chinese : 裕群巴士转换站 ) is a bus transport facility located in Joo Koon , Singapore . Along with Joo Koon MRT Station and FairPrice Hub , it is part of the Joo Koon Integrated Transport Hub ( ITH ) . The facility is situated at the junction of Joo Koon Circle and Benoi Road , and located at the ground level of NTUC Fairprice 's Fairprice Hub , next to Joo Koon MRT Station . It is air conditioned and features glass walls for people to view the bus bay . The walls of the concourse is orange with a fusion of white . With three sawtooth boarding berths and eighteen parking lots , it is among the smallest bus interchanges in Singapore .", "Wild Horse Mountain Wild Horse Mountain is the smallest of the Glass House Mountains on the Sunshine Coast , Queensland , Australia . The peak rises to 123 m . It is located east of the Bruce Highway unlike all other peaks within the Glass House Mountains and thus provides great views of the other mountains . It is arguably the most accessible mountain in the local range with a narrow asphalt and concrete road which runs directly to the top . It is locked with a gate and a larger car park is provided near the base providing a simple walk for most people . A rotunda style building with interpretive centre exists at the summit with views limited only by the weather and curvature . The area is managed by National Parks and Forestry . The nearby service station previously ran a regular bus as a tourist attraction for viewing the rest of the Glasshouse mountains .", "Burley Park railway station Burley Park railway station in Leeds , West Yorkshire is the first stop on the Harrogate Line , 2.25 mi north west of Leeds railway station towards Harrogate and York . The station was opened on 28 November 1988 by British Rail . The line is heavily used by commuters into Leeds . It is also near the Headingley Stadium for rugby and cricket fans when Headingley station is busy . It is near to the districts of Burley , Hyde Park and the southern end of Headingley . The journey time to Headingley station is 2 minutes , and around 5 minutes to Leeds station , which is typically much faster than driving or taking the bus . This station is near to main bus routes on Cardigan Road , Burley Road and Kirkstall Road , and parking is limited to the surrounding streets . The station occasionally plays the role of Hotten railway station in the TV series Emmerdale .", "Heat cost allocator Heat cost allocators are devices attached to individual radiators in buildings that measure the total heat output of the individual radiator . Heat cost allocators can be either electronic , where one or two electronic thermosensors and a microcontroller are used to calculate the heat consumption of radiator by the temperatures of radiator and air in room , or evaporative , where a special , calibrated liquid in a capillary tube records the total heat output of the radiator .", "Mompiano (Brescia Metro) Mompiano is a station of the Brescia Metro , in the city of Brescia in northern Italy . The station is located on the west end of what was once a green area , south east of Via Boccaccia and Viale Europa , with the easterly portion now paved over for a parking lot . The Stadio Mario Rigamonti , a destination for football fans , is a short distance directly north , and beyond that lies Parco Benedetto Castelli . The area adjacent to the station should be subject to increased urbanization , such as the recent construction of two new six storey buildings of 10,000 square feet on the south side . By the definition of public space , the designers have tried to relate the square to the surrounding environment ; with the garden of Piazzale Luigi Kossuth , the expansion of parking lots , and taking pedestrian routes into consideration .", "Norwood station Norwood station is a SEPTA train station on the Wilmington/Newark Line . While on tracks owned by the company , Amtrak trains do not stop here , as it is served only by SEPTA . The line offers southbound service to Marcus Hook , Wilmington and Newark , Delaware and northbound service to Philadelphia and points beyond ( most commonly Norristown ) . The station , located at Winona & Welcome Avenues in Norwood , PA , includes a 62-space parking lot on its outbound platform side ( along Harrison Avenue ) . Pedestrian walkways and staircases connect the inbound and outbound platforms via the Amosland Road Bridge , which overpasses the tracks . Opposite the tracks from the SEPTA designated parking lot is metered street and lot parking . The station 's inbound platform and ticket office is located next to the Norwood Public Library , a branch of the Delaware County Library System ." ]

[ "Attribution of recent climate change Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors." ]

[ "Global warming hiatus A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "Global Warming: The Signs and The Science Global Warming : The Signs and The Science is a 2005 documentary film on global warming made by ETV , the PBS affiliate in South Carolina , and hosted by Alanis Morissette . The documentary examines the science behind global warming and pulls together segments filmed in the United States , Asia and South America and shows how people in these different locales are responding in different ways to the challenges of global warming to show some of the ways that the world can respond .", "Thermal Credits Thermal credits is a new holistic concept which corresponds to the percentage of the climate impact saving obtained through mitigation and adaptation measures applied against global warming , taking as reference the global temperature rise projected in a given time scale . Thermal credits are measured in percentages of global warming reduction in a given time .", "Global warming in Norway Global warming in Norway discusses global warming issues in Norway .", "Environmentalism in motorsport The issue of environmentalism in motorsport surrounds the whole of auto racing to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions contributing to global warming .", "Global warming in Luxembourg Global warming in Luxembourg discuss the global warming issues in Luxembourg .", "Cellome The cellome is the whole set of biological entities within cells and their interactions in the cell , and the totality of biological cells . They are both physical and informational . Proteins are major components of the cellome . The cellome concept is derived from the understanding that cells as a whole , rather than simply their DNA or RNA , can be used for therapeutic purposes . As a distinct group concept , cellome refers to cells and their genetic materials kept as a resource for biotechnology . Cellomics is the study of the cellome . Category : Cell biology", "Global warming in Belgium Global warming in Belgium describes the global warming related issues in Belgium .", "Man-made law Man-made law is law that is made by humans . It is a concept that is usually considered in opposition to concepts like natural law or divine law . As such , it is not an easy concept to pin down , given that it has varied over the years and across cultures .", "Global warming in Russia Global warming in Russia describes the global warming related issues in Russia . This includes climate politics , contribution to global warming and the influence of global warming on Russia . In 2009 Russia was ready to reduce emissions 20 -- 25 % from its 1990 emission levels by the year 2020 .", "Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow The Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow ( CFACT ) is a Washington , D.C.-based 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization founded in 1985 that advocates for free-market solutions to environmental issues , but has increasingly turned to climate denial . For example , CFACT co-founder Craig Rucker stated that mankind faces a threat `` not from man-made global warming , but from man-made hysteria . '' At the 29 April 2017 Climate March , leaflets distributed by CFACT claimed the scientific consensus that mankind is now driving global changes in the planet 's climate are `` bogus '' , that reports of record-setting temperatures are `` the hottest lie '' being told , and `` CO2 is not the ` control knob ' of the climate '' .", "Global studies Global studies is the interdisciplinary study of political , economic , ecological and cultural interconnectedness . Global studies is oriented around the study of globalization as it relates to the global economy , market relations , the movement of people and resources , global communications , politics , the effect of human activity on the environment , and many more topics . Global studies is often used to map global change and is both micro and macro in scope . Global studies tackles the aforementioned topics by examining global power structures influenced by perspectives such as Orientalism and Eurocentrism . Global studies is distinguished from international studies by its broader focus -- international studies is only one aspect of global studies . In cases such as international studies or international relations , the concept of ` national ' confines the meaning of those fields of study . By comparison , global studies has a broader reach , from the global to the local .", "Long-term effects of global warming See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .", "Extinction risk from global warming The extinction risk of global warming is the risk of species becoming extinct due to the effects of global warming .", "Politics of global warming The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .", "Economics of global warming The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "Global warming in Antarctica The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .", "Climate justice (disambiguation) Climate justice may refer to : Climate justice , concept framing global warming as an ethical and political issue . Climate Justice Now ! , coalition founded in 2007 . Climate Justice Action , coalition founded in 2009 . European Assembly for Climate Justice , organised in 2010 .", "Global Warming (Pitbull album) Global Warming is the seventh studio album recorded by American rapper Pitbull . It was released on November 16 , 2012 . A teaser to accompany the release of Global Warming was first released onto Pitbull 's official Facebook and YouTube channel on September 17 , 2012 .", "Whole Earth Discipline Whole Earth Discipline : An Ecopragmatist Manifesto is the sixth book by Stewart Brand , published by Viking Penguin in 2009 . He sees Earth and people propelled by three transformations : climate change ( global warming ) , urbanization and biotechnology . Brand tackles `` touchy issues '' like nuclear power , genetic engineering and geoengineering , `` fully aware that many of the environmentalist readers he hopes to reach will start out disagreeing with him '' .", "Rhett Allain Rhett Allain is an American associate professor of physics at Southeastern Louisiana University and the author of the Wired magazine science blog Dot Physics . He received his Ph.D. from North Carolina State University in 2001 and works in the field of physics education research . In his blog , Dot Physics , Allain discusses physical concepts , answers questions related to physics and math , and debunks questionable physical claims . Many of his posts are supported by experiments , calculations and models . Recently , he has analyzed the physics behind the Angry Birds Space video game and behind a now-debunked video which purported to show a man flying with home-made wings . He has also criticized television shows , including Fight Science , that perform poorly controlled experiments which are presented as scientific . In 2008 Allain rejected the concept of sailing dead downwind faster than the wind as a violation of conservation laws , stating that `` this is the same situation as people trying to make energy from nothing '' . When the concept was demonstrated to work in practice by the Blackbird in 2010 , Allain did n't offer further explanations and merely noted : `` If it works , does it matter what I say ? '' .", "Planetary equilibrium temperature The planetary equilibrium temperature is a theoretical temperature that a planet would be at when considered simply as if it were a black body being heated only by its parent star . In this model , the presence or absence of an atmosphere ( and therefore any greenhouse effect ) is not considered , and one treats the theoretical black body temperature as if it came from an idealized surface of the planet . Other authors use different names for this concept , such as equivalent blackbody temperature of a planet , or the effective radiation emission temperature of the planet . Similar concepts include the global mean temperature , global radiative equilibrium , and global-mean surface air temperature , which includes the effects of global warming .", "Global peace system Global Peace System is a concept of global conflict resolution dependent on nonviolent processes to eradicate war . It relies upon a multi-strand approach to conflict resolution , incorporating broad social and political solutions . In contemporary peace and conflict studies , the concept of a global peace system has been evolving since the 1940s around the theory that there is a global infrastructure of peacebuilding and that there is a need for systems thinking in peacebuilding . The term `` global peace system '' was coined from the work of Robert Johansen , who explored the concept in 1978 's Toward a Dependable Place .", "Climate change in popular culture The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .", "The Carbon War The Carbon War : Global Warming and the End of the Oil Era is a 1999 book by former oil geologist Jeremy Leggett about global warming .", "Patrick Michaels Patrick J. ( `` Pat '' ) Michaels ( born February 15 , 1950 ) is an American climatologist . Michaels is a senior fellow in environmental studies at the Cato Institute . Until 2007 he was research professor of environmental sciences at the University of Virginia , where he had worked from 1980 . A self-described skeptic on the issue of global warming , he is a past president of the American Association of State Climatologists . He has written a number of books and papers on climate change , including Sound and Fury : The Science and Politics of Global Warming ( 1992 ) , The Satanic Gases ( 2000 ) , and Meltdown : The Predictable Distortion of Global Warming by Scientists , Politicians , and the Media ( 2004 ) . He 's also the co-author of Climate of Extremes : Global Warming Science They Do n't Want You to Know ( 2009 ) . Michaels ' viewpoint , as argued in a 2002 article in the journal Climate Research , is that the planet will see `` a warming range of 1.3 -- 3.0 ° C , with a central value of 1.9 ° C '' for the 1990 to 2100 period ( an analysis far smaller than the IPCC 's average predictions ) .", "Trade globalization Trade globalization is a type of economic globalization and a measure ( economic indicator ) of economic integration . On a national scale , it loosely represents the proportion of all production that crosses the boundaries of a country , as well as the number of jobs in that country dependent upon external trade . On a global scale , it represents the proportion of all world production that is used for imports and exports between countries . For an individual country , trade globalization is measured as the proportion of that country 's total volume of trade to its Gross Domestic Product ( GDP ) : For the world as a whole , trade globalization is the share of total world trade in total world production ( GDP ) , where the sums are taken over all countries :", "Duncan Wingham Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "Business action on climate change Business action on climate change includes a range of activities relating to global warming , and to influencing political decisions on global-warming-related regulation , such as the Kyoto Protocol . Major multinationals have played and to some extent continue to play a significant role in the politics of global warming , especially in the United States , through lobbying of government and funding of global warming skeptics . Business also plays a key role in the mitigation of global warming , through decisions to invest in researching and implementing new energy technologies and energy efficiency measures . ( See also individual and political action on climate change . )", "World Wide Views on Global Warming World Wide Views on Global Warming : A global project initiated by The Danish Board of Technology on the occasion of the United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP15 ) held in Copenhagen December 2009 . World Wide Views on Global Warming ( or just WWViews ) was an international citizens involvement project based on methods developed by The Danish Board of Technology for the purpose of involving citizens in the political decision-making processes .", "Climate change in Germany Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe .", "Warming Warming may refer to : People Eugenius Warming , ( 1841 -- 1924 ) , Danish botanist Thomas Warming , ( b. 1969 ) , Danish illustrator , painter and author Other Global warming Warming up Warming Land" ]

[ "Great Lakes The Great Lakes ( les Grands-Lacs ) , also called the Laurentian Great Lakes and the Great Lakes of North America , are a series of interconnected freshwater lakes located primarily in the upper mid-east region of North America , on the Canada -- United States border , which connect to the Atlantic Ocean through the Saint Lawrence River . Consisting of Lakes Superior , Michigan , Huron ( or Michigan -- Huron ) , Erie , and Ontario , they form the largest group of freshwater lakes on Earth by total area , and second largest by total volume containing 21 % of the world 's surface fresh water by volume . The total surface is 94250 sqmi , and the total volume ( measured at the low water datum ) is 5439 cumi . Due to their sea-like characteristics ( rolling waves , sustained winds , strong currents , great depths , and distant horizons ) the five Great Lakes have also long been referred to as inland seas . Lake Superior is the second largest lake in the world by area , and Lake Michigan is the largest lake that is entirely within one country . The southern half of the Great Lakes is bordered by the Great Lakes Megalopolis . The Great Lakes began to form at the end of the last glacial period around 14,000 years ago , as retreating ice sheets exposed the basins they had carved into the land which then filled with meltwater . The lakes have been a major highway for transportation , migration and trade , and they are home to a large number of aquatic species . Many invasive species have been introduced due to trade , and some threaten the region 's biodiversity .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Honey Lake Honey Lake is an endorheic sink within the Honey Lake Valley located in northeastern California , near the Nevada border . Summer evaporation reduces the lake to a lower level of 12 km2 and creates an alkali flat . Honey Lake recreational activities include bird-watching , picnicking , hiking , camping , warm-water fishing , and waterfowl hunting . The lake is part of the Honey-Eagle Lakes watershed of 2770 sqmi which includes the Honey Lake Basin of 2201 sqmi .", "Great Central Lake Great Central Lake is one of the premier recreational lakes on Vancouver Island , British Columbia , Canada . Great Central Lake is 35 kilometers long , with an area of 49 square kilometers , and 333 meters deep . The lake is long and narrow , with the exception of Trestle Bay located on the east end of the lake . The lake is beautifully nestled beneath low mountains , with majestic second growth forest hugging nearly the entire shoreline . The relatively steep shoreline has kept Great Central Lake relatively undeveloped . The water level is controlled by a dam on the east side of the lake . The warm water lake is a popular place to enjoy fishing , boating , skiing , wakeboarding , swimming , hiking , camping , and ATVing . Notable features of Great Central Lake and the area immediately surrounding the lake include natural waterslides at Dorothy Creek and Della Falls . Great Central Lake is also the headwaters of the Stamp River which offers excellent steelhead fishing .", "Great Salt Lake The Great Salt Lake , located in the northern part of the U.S. state of Utah , is the largest salt water lake in the Western Hemisphere , and the eighth-largest terminal lake in the world . In an average year the lake covers an area of around 1700 sqmi , but the lake 's size fluctuates substantially due to its shallowness . For instance , in 1963 it reached its lowest recorded size at 950 square miles ( 2,460 km ² ) , but in 1988 the surface area was at the historic high of 3300 sqmi . In terms of surface area , it is the largest lake in the United States that is not part of the Great Lakes region . The lake is the largest remnant of Lake Bonneville , a prehistoric pluvial lake that once covered much of western Utah . The three major tributaries to the lake , the Jordan , Weber , and Bear rivers together deposit around 1.1 million tons of minerals in the lake each year . As it is endorheic ( has no outlet besides evaporation ) , it has very high salinity , far saltier than seawater , which makes swimming similar to floating , and its mineral content is steadily increasing . Its shallow , warm waters cause frequent , sometimes heavy lake-effect snows from late fall through spring . Although it has been called `` America 's Dead Sea '' , the lake provides habitat for millions of native birds , brine shrimp , shorebirds , and waterfowl , including the largest staging population of Wilson 's phalarope in the world .", "Water in Michigan Michigan has about 242 streams ( rivers and creeks ) with a combined length of 36350 mile and about 11,000 lakes and ponds . Michigan borders four of the five Great Lakes and is a signatory to the Great Lakes Compact . The Michigan Department of Environmental Quality is responsible for the management of Michigan 's water resources .", "Lake Michigan–Huron Lake Michigan -- Huron ( also Huron -- Michigan ) is the combined waters of Lake Michigan and Lake Huron , which are joined through the 5 mi wide , 20-fathom ( 120 ft ; 37 m ) deep , open-water Straits of Mackinac . Huron and Michigan are hydrologically a single lake because the flow of water through the straits keeps their water levels in near-equilibrium . ( Although the flow is generally eastward , the water moves in either direction depending on local conditions . ) Combined , Lake Michigan -- Huron is the largest fresh water lake by area in the world . If Lake Huron and Lake Michigan are considered two separate lakes , Lake Superior is larger than either .", "Newfoundland Evaporation Basin The Newfoundland Evaporation Basin is a dry Great Basin watershed located in northwestern Utah . It was created in June 1986 by the State of Utah to harbor excess water from the Great Salt Lake . A pumping station at Hogup Ridge , canals , nearly twenty-five miles of dikes , a thirty-seven-mile-long natural gas pipeline , and an access road were constructed . Pumping of water into the basin continued until June 1989 , after 6 feet of water level decline in the Great Salt Lake .", "Illinois Waterway The Illinois Waterway system consists of 336 mi of water from the mouth of the Calumet River to the mouth of the Illinois River at Grafton , Illinois . It is a system of rivers , lakes , and canals which provide a shipping connection from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico via the Illinois and Mississippi rivers . The Illinois and Michigan Canal opened in 1849 . In 1900 , the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal replaced it and reversed the flow of the Chicago River so it no longer flowed into Lake Michigan . The United States Army Corps of Engineers maintains a 9 ft navigation channel in the waterway . The waterway 's complex northern section is referred to in various contexts for study and management as the Chicago Area Waterway System ( CAWS ) . A series of eight locks , managed by the Army Corps of Engineers , control water flow from Lake Michigan to the Mississippi River system . The upper lock , T.J. O'Brien , is 7 miles from Lake Michigan on the Calumet River and the last lock is 90 mi upstream from the Mississippi River at the LaGrange lock and dam . The amount of water released into the Illinois often is a sore point among lake and river interests . When Lake Michigan water levels are high , lake interests want to increase the flow , and when lake levels are low , they want to restrict the flow . That is why an international treaty regulates the flow , as Canada also has an interest in Lake Michigan levels which eventually flow into the Lakes Erie , Huron , and Ontario . Primary cargoes are coal to powerplants , chemicals and petroleum upstream and corn and soybeans downstream primarily for export through New Orleans . Some winters ice floes , especially around the locks and dams , occasionally prevent towboats and barges from navigating the Illinois .", "Crystal Lake (Benzie County, Michigan) Crystal Lake , the largest lake of this name in Michigan , is located near Lake Michigan in Benzie County about 25 miles ( 40 km ) southwest of Traverse City and about 2 miles ( 3 km ) northeast of Frankfort at . It measures approximately 2.5 by 8 miles ( 4 by 13 km ) , and has a maximum depth of 165 feet ( 50 m ) . At 9854 acre , it is Michigan 's ninth largest inland lake . Up to and through the American Civil War years Crystal Lake was known as `` Cap Lake '' due to the frequent whitecaps visible on its surface . Crystal Lake is adjacent to the southern reaches of the Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore . In 1873 , an effort was made to connect Crystal Lake with Lake Michigan via a channel . The lake level of Crystal Lake was higher than that of Lake Michigan and when the channel was opened , the water level in Crystal Lake dropped about 20 ft. Although the project was a failure , the lowering of the lake level uncovered sandy beaches , including the current public beach at Beulah . The watershed that feeds Crystal Lake is very small , and fertilizer and sewage outflows are minimal , leading to the exceptionally clear and beautiful water that gives it its current name . The surface area of the lake is 35 % of the total area of the drainage basin ( land and water combined ) .", "Great Lakes Water Authority The Great Lakes Water Authority ( GLWA ) is a regional water authority in the U.S. state of Michigan . It provides water and sewer services for the Southeast Michigan communities , including Wayne , Oakland , and Macomb counties , among others .", "Europe Lake Europe Lake , is a lake near Gills Rock in Door County , Wisconsin . It is the northeastern most lake in Wisconsin . The lake is mainly a shallow lowland marsh , similar to nearby Kangaroo Lake . It is suspected that the lake was once part of Lake Michigan until a drop in Lake Michigan 's water levels closed off the bay and made it a lake .", "Lake Tonawanda Lake Tonawanda was a prehistoric lake that existed approximately 10,000 years ago at the end of the last ice age , in Western New York , United States . The lake existed on the southern ( upper ) side of the Niagara Escarpment east of the present course of the Niagara River between Early Lake Erie to the south and Glacial Lake Iroquois ( the ancestor of Lake Ontario ) to the north . During the retreat of the glaciers , the water levels of the Great Lakes were higher . Lake Tonawanda was created and fed by the elevated waters of Lake Erie . Lake Tonawanda itself was drained into Lake Ontario by a series of falls over the escarpment , including one at present day Lockport , New York . The lake evaporated when the waters of Lake Erie dropped below the level of the feeder streams to the lake . Subsequently Lake Erie drained over the escarpment entirely through Niagara Falls , which marks roughly the western terminus of the former lake bed . The remains of the previous falls , which rivaled Niagara Falls in grandeur , can be seen along the escarpment . The sinking of homes in the lakebed has been an ongoing problem in communities such as Amherst , New York .", "Sawa lake Sawa lake is an Endorheic basin located in the Iraqi governorate of Muthanna near to the Euphrates River , some 23 km to the west of Al-Samawa city . This lake has no inlet or outlet but , its feeds water from Euphrates through a system of joint cracks and fissures which transport water to aquifers beneath it . water 's level fluctuates during dry and wet seasons . Water does not dry up because of the equilibrium state between water feed and evaporation .", "Brine lake Brine lakes consist of water that has reached salt saturation or near saturation ( brine ) , and may also be heavily saturated with other materials . Most brine lakes develop as a result of high evaporation rates in an arid climate with a lack of an outlet to the ocean . The high salt content in these bodies of water may come from minerals deposited from the surrounding land . Another source for the salt may be that the body of water was formerly connected to the ocean . While the water evaporates from the lake , the salt remains . Eventually , the body of water will become brine . Because of the density of brine , swimmers are more buoyant in brine than in fresh or ordinary salt water . Examples of such brine lakes are the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake . Bodies of brine may also form on the ocean floor at cold seeps . These are sometimes called brine lakes , but are more frequently referred to as brine pools . It is possible to observe waves on the surface of these bodies . Man-made bodies of brine are created for edible salt production . These can be referred to as brine ponds .", "Sink (geography) A geographic sink is a depression within an endorheic basin where water collects with no visible outlet . Instead of discharging , the collected water is lost due to evaporation and/or penetration ( water sinking underground , e.g. , to become groundwater in an aquifer ) . If the sink has karstic terrain , water will sink at a higher rate than the surface evaporation , and conversely if the lakebed or sink bed has a layer of soil that is largely impervious to water ( hardpan ) , evaporation will predominate . Since dry lakes in sinks with hardpan have little penetration , they require more severe aridity/heat to eliminate collected water at a comparable rate as for a similar sink with appreciable penetration . Depending on losses , precipitation , and inflow ( e.g. , a spring , a tributary , or flooding ) ; the temporal result of a lake in a sink may be a persistent lake , an intermittent lake , a playa lake ( temporarily covered with water ) , or an ephemeral lake .", "Lake Ojibway Lake Ojibway was a prehistoric lake in what is now northern Ontario and Quebec in Canada . Ojibway was the last of the great proglacial lakes of the last ice age . Comparable in size to Lake Agassiz ( to which it is likely to be linked ) , and north of the Great Lakes , it was at its greatest extent c. 8,500 years BP . The former lakebed forms the modern Clay Belt , an area of fertile land . Lake Ojibway was relatively short-lived . The lake drained in what must have been a catastrophic and dramatic manner around 8,200 years BP . One hypothesis is that a weakening ice dam separating it from Hudson Bay broke , as the lake was roughly 250 m above sea level . A comparable mechanism produced the Missoula floods that created the channeled scablands of the Columbia River basin . A recent analysis states it has not been conclusively determined whether the lake drained by a breach of the ice dam , by water spilling over the glacier , or by a flood under the glacier . It is also not conclusively known whether there were one or more pulses , and the route the water took to reach Hudson 's Bay has not been determined . The draining of Lake Ojibway is a possible cause of the 8.2 kiloyear event , a major global cooling that occurred 8,200 years BP .", "Our Lady of the Lakes Catholic School (Michigan) Our Lady of the Lakes Catholic School is a private , Roman Catholic school in Waterford Township , Michigan , United States . It is located in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Detroit . The high school was established in 1960 and shares its Waterford campus with Our Lady of the Lakes Elementary School and Middle School . Also sharing the campus is Our Lady of the Lakes parish church . Our Lady of the Lakes parish school was established in 1956 as an elementary school . Our Lady of the Lakes is accredited by the Michigan Association of Non-Public Schools", "Lake Nar Lake Nar ( Turkish : Nar or Narlı Gölü ) is a brackish lake in the Aksaray Province of central Turkey ( altitude : 1363 m AMSL ) . It is around 21 metres deep and 0.7 square kilometres in area . The lake basin formed as a result of volcanic activity ; specifically it is classed as a maar lake . There is still geothermal activity in the area , which has given rise to hot springs around the lake . In recent years , the geothermal waters have been pumped up to nearby hotels for use in their hot baths . Lake Nar is particularly known for its scientific importance . It is home to a newly-described species of microscopic diatom algae called Clipeoparvus anatolicus . Nar lake waters undergo a remarkable change between different seasons . In winter , the lake water is cold from top to bottom . As the temperature increases in the spring , the lake water divides into an upper half which is warm ( epilimnion ) , while the lower half ( hypolimnion ) stays cold and lacking in oxygen . An abundance of planktonic algae ( or plankton bloom ) in early summer changes the water chemistry and leads to the precipitation of calcium carbonate . As a result , the mud at the bottom of the lake is made of alternating black and white layers ( or varves ) representing different seasons of the year . Like tree rings , they create a natural geological clock . The best known other example of a varve-forming lake in Turkey is Lake Van . Work has been carried out on its sediments and waters by a team of British , Turkish and French researchers . Since 1997 , water samples have been taken from the lake to monitor how the lake level and chemistry has changed with climate . Over this period , central Turkey experience a shift to drier conditions ( especially hotter summers with more evaporation ) , which was seen in Lake Nar as a lake level fall and a change in the chemistry of the lake . Sediment cores taken from Nar lake have been dated by counting individual layers back thousands of years . Laboratory analysis of these sediment cores has enabled the history of climate and human activities to be reconstructed in great detail . For example , pollen analysis has shown how the Arab invasions of central Anatolia during the 8th and 9th centuries destroyed Cappadocia 's late antique rural economy based on tree crops and cereal cultivation , the so-called Beyşehir Occupation phase . In 2010 , new core samples were taken from the lake sediments , extending from the present lake bed at around 21 metres water depth to over 21 metres below the lake bed . This sediment record extends from the present day back to around 14,000 years ago , and by analysing the changes in the chemistry of the sediments it has been possible to reconstruct how the lake level , and hence how the climate of central Turkey , has changed over time . After a dry period at the time of the northern European Younger Dryas cold period , there was a rapid shift to wetter conditions ~ 11,700 years ago . It stayed wet for several thousand years , and then gradually got drier , reaching a peak around 4,000-2 ,000 years ago .", "Paint Creek (Oakland County, Michigan) Paint Creek is a 16.8 mi stream in the U.S. state of Michigan , located in northern Oakland County and rising in Brandon Township in the northern part of the county . The creek drains through a series of lakes that lead into Lake Orion . Paint Creek continues as the outflow from the east end of Lake Orion in downtown Lake Orion . It flows southeastward through Oakland Township and Rochester Hills into the Clinton River in Rochester . The damming of Paint Creek in the village of Lake Orion in 1839 resulted in the expansion of Lake Canadaigua . The newly created larger lake was renamed Lake Orion ( or Orion Lake ) after the village . It is one of two designated trout streams in Oakland County , the other being Trout Creek . The water level of the creek is dependent upon rainfall , and can vary from very shallow to deep and rapid depending on recent weather conditions . Fishermen can expect to catch brown trout and rainbow trout , as well as creek chubs . There are two other streams of the same name in Michigan , Paint Creek in Washtenaw County and Paint Creek in Iron County in the Upper Peninsula .", "Great Lakes Compact The Great Lakes -- St. Lawrence River Basin Water Resources Compact is a legally binding interstate compact among the U.S. states of Illinois , Indiana , Michigan , Minnesota , New York , Ohio , Pennsylvania and Wisconsin . The compact details how the states manage the use of the Great Lakes Basin 's water supply and builds on the 1985 Great Lakes Charter and its 2001 Annex . The compact is the means by which the states implement the governors ' commitments under the Great Lakes -- St. Lawrence River Basin Sustainable Water Resources Agreement that also includes the Premiers of Ontario and Quebec . The Council of Great Lakes Governors , which guided the negotiations that resulted in the Compact , now serves as secretariat to the Governors ' Compact Council created by the Compact , and now operates as the Conference of Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Governors and Premiers .", "Maharloo Lake Maharloo Lake , also known as Daryache-ye-Namak is a seasonal salt lake in the highlands of the area of Shiraz , Iran . 27.0 km southeast of Shiraz , the lake salt is rich in potassium and other salts . Rudkhane-ye-Khoshk , a seasonal river flowing through the city of Shiraz , brings most of the flood water to the lake bed during intensive precipitation events . The lake water typically evaporates by the end of summer and exposes the white lake bed . By mid-summer and due to high evaporation rates and salt concentrations , the lake water turns pinkish red as a result of the red tide within the lake .", "Lake Ubinskoye Lake Ubinskoye is a freshwater lake located on the Baraba steppe in Novosibirsk Oblast , Russia , where it is divided between Ubinsky District in the west and Kargatsky District in the east . The name of the lake derives from Siberian Tatar ubu , meaning swamp or marsh . During spring melt Lake Ubinskoye covers a maximum area of 440 km2 and is 2.0 -- 2.8 m deep ; during periods of low water it is only 0.6 -- 1.0 m deep , and in October 2013 it was estimated from aerial imagery to cover 350 km2 . The lake drains an area of 2990 km2 . Lake Ubinskoye is mainly fed by melting snow and usually has no outlet , but in the spring of some years it overflows into the Ubinke River , a tributary of the Om River . Lake Ubinskoye is an oval-shaped lake with gently sloping banks . The lake bottom consists of clayey sand covered by a thick layer of gray fine-grained silt . There are several islands in the lake , the largest of which is called Medyakovsky . The western part of the Ubinskoye basin also contains a number of other small lakes . Lake Ubinskoye freezes over from November to late May . The ice on the lake is 0.7 -- 1.0 m thick . In summer the water warms up to 20 -- 24 ° C . The temperature is uniform throughout the water column due to good mixing . The water pH is between 7.6 and 9.0 . Ubinskoye is a mesotrophic lake whose plankton is dominated by green and blue-green algae . The shores of the lake are overgrown with reeds and sedges . In the mid-20th century Lake Ubinskoye was well-known for its abundance of fish : bream ( introduced in 1929 ) , roach , pike , ide , carp , and peled were exploited commercially . Fish stocks crashed in the 1990s , likely due to the lowering of the water level ; currently only small crucian carp remain . Attempts to restock the lake have failed , but a recent increase in water levels gives hope for future efforts . The lake and its surrounding wetlands continue to host a great variety of bird life . Lake Ubinskoye is surrounded by several villages , the largest of which is Chernyy Mys on the north shore . According to legend , Kuchum , the last Khan of Sibir , flooded his treasure in the lake while fleeing from the Russians .", "Lacustuary A lacustuary is a freshwater estuary where river and lake waters mix , especially near large bodies of fresh water such as the Great Lakes . These lacustuaries are slack water that can ebb and flow as lake seiches affect water levels .", "Lake Puma Yumco Lake Puma Yumco ( Chinese : 普莫雍錯 ) is a lake located at 5,030 metres ( 16,503 ft ) above mean sea level on the southern Tibetan Plateau . It is 32 km long , 14 km wide , and covers an area of . Streams of water from the snow-capped surrounding mountains feed the lake , but the lake has no outlet . Some sediment can be seen entering the lake at its western end . Puma Yumco literally means The Blue Jewel which is floating in the sky . The lake freezes in winter and is crossed by shepherds with their sheep . Since the climate is warming , the ice is becoming thinner and thus creates a problem for the 120 people living off and around the lake . The lake is considered ultraoligotrophic , meaning that nutrient concentrations in both the water column and lake sediments are extremely low . Water in such lakes tends to be blue to blue-green and to have high clarity due to low levels of photosynthesizing organisms such as phytoplankton . During the winter , the lake develops intricate ice block patterns on the surface , ranging from less than ten to hundreds of metres in diameter . The ice pattern is caused by repeated cycles of freezing , fracturing , and refreezing of the ice due to variations in temperature and wind-induced ice motion .", "Great Lakes Loons The Great Lakes Loons , based in Midland , Michigan , is a Low Class A minor league baseball team , affiliated with the Los Angeles Dodgers . The team plays in the Midwest League and their home park is Dow Diamond , which opened in April 2007 .", "Qattara Depression Project The Qattara Depression Project , or shortly the Qattara Project , is a concept for a large civil engineering project in Egypt , rivaling the Aswan High Dam , intended to develop the Qattara Depression by flooding it . The depression is a region that lies below sea level and is currently a vast desert . By connecting the region and the Mediterranean Sea with tunnels and/or canals , water could be let into the area . The inflowing water would then evaporate quickly because of the desert climate . This way a continuous flow of water could be created if inflow and evaporation were balanced out . With this continuously flowing water hydroelectricity could be generated . Eventually this would result in a hypersaline lake or a salt pan as the water evaporates and leaves the salt it contains behind . The proposals call for a large canal or tunnel being excavated of about 55 to depending on the route chosen to the Mediterranean Sea to bring seawater into the area . Or otherwise a 320 kilometre ( 200 mile ) pipeline north-east to the freshwater Nile River at Rosetta . For comparison , the nearby Suez Canal is currently 193 kilometres in length . By balancing the inflow and evaporation the lake level can be held constant . Several proposed lake levels are -70 , -60 , -50 and -20 m. Flooding the depression to -20 m would lower the height of the world ocean by 2.16 millimeters .", "Pyramid Lake (Nevada) Pyramid Lake is the geographic sink of the Truckee River Basin , 40 mi northeast of Reno . Pyramid Lake is fed by the Truckee River , which is mostly the outflow from Lake Tahoe . The Truckee River enters Pyramid Lake at its southern end . Pyramid Lake has no outlet , with water leaving only by evaporation , or sub-surface seepage ( an endorheic lake ) . The lake has about 10 % of the area of the Great Salt Lake , but it has about 25 % more volume . The salinity is approximately 1/6 that of sea water . Although clear Lake Tahoe forms the headwaters that drain to Pyramid Lake , the Truckee River delivers more turbid waters to Pyramid Lake after traversing the steep Sierra terrain and collecting moderately high silt-loaded surface runoff .", "Allen Lake (New York) Allen Lake is a natural lake but a low earthen dam and concrete spillway were installed to raise the lake level . Allen Lake is near Richfield Springs , New York . Allen Lake is the water supply for Richfield Springs , New York .", "Kamloops Lake Kamloops Lake in British Columbia , Canada is situated on the Thompson River just west of Kamloops . The lake is 1.6 km wide , 29 km long , and up to 152 m deep . The community of Savona is located at the west end of the lake on the Thompson River . The city of Kamloops is located a few miles east of the head of the lake , at the confluence of the North and South Thompson Rivers . The lake is bounded on all sides by steep embankments , with level areas found only near creek deltas and around the inlet and outlet . The surrounding land is mostly uninhabited . It is classified as dry belt interior grasslands , composed of bunchgrass and sagebrush with pockets of Douglas fir , Ponderosa pine and spruce . Kamloops Lake is widening , deepening , thickening and thrusting into the Thompson River , which enters at the east end and exits at the west end . The limnology of the lake is controlled by the thick tip of the Thompson River , which has thic fluctuations in annual flow , with over 60 % occurring in the early summer during freshet ( May to July ) . Lake levels rise naturally as much as 30 ft from high season in June compared to low season . Conversely , beach areas expand by as much as 200 ft in the summer as lake levels recede after freshet . Bulk residence times are very short ( the time it takes for the water in the lake to be replaced with new water ) , ranging from 20 days to 340 days , with a mean of 60 days . Because Kamloops Lake is fed by both the North and South Thompson rivers ( the South Thompson drains from the very warm Shuswap Lakes ) , Kamloops Lake is a very warm lake . Since the late twentieth century , it has become an increasingly popular boating and recreational area . On the north side of the lake is Fredrick , and on the south side of the lake are residential subdivisions such as Cherry Creek and the Tobiano resort community . A boat launch , trestle and gas dock have been built at Tobiano ; it is the only location on Kamloops Lake with these facilities . Both Savona and Kamloops also have boat launches , but their use is limited in the later summer months of low water .", "Fairford River The Fairford River is a river of Manitoba , Canada . It flows out of the North end of Lake Manitoba into Lake Pineimuta and Lake St. Martin . Regulation of Lake Manitoba dates back to the late 1890s and in 1961 the dam on the river , the Fairford River Water Control Structure ( FRWCS ) was completed to control outflows . The 1961 works also included widening and deepening of the channel , particularly between Lake Manitoba and the dam , more than tripling the capacity when the lake is at a level of 813 ft above sea level . In times of low water , outflows from Lake Manitoba into the Fairford River are reduced , while during high water levels the gates of the control structure are open to allow water to run down the river and into Lake Pinemuta and Lake St. Martin before eventually ending up in Lake Winnipeg via the Dauphin River . Using the Fairford Dam , the water levels are to be regulated between 810.5 and above sea level . The average annual outflow from Lake Manitoba into the Fairford River between 1972 and 2001 was 2029198 acre.ft . During the 2011 Assiniboine River flood , at the peak , the Fairford River took on record flows of about 22000 cuft/s .", "Trekanten (Stockholm) Trekanten ( The Triangle ) is a small lake in southern-central Stockholm , Sweden . With a small drainage area with no major feeders and originally lacking natural beauty , Trekanten is today located in a park furnished with an artificial bathing beach and various planted-out fish species . As such it is considered as of great recreational value and is popular for bathing and fishing . In the early 1980s , potable water was begun to be poured into the lake while water from the bottom of the lake was pumped out , operations resulting in a significant reduction in levels of phosphorus but which failed to affect levels of nutrients and oxygen depletion in bottom layers . Levels of lead and copper are among the highest documented in any lake in Stockholm . Whilst the lake flora and fauna is roughly representative for Stockholm , the lake forms an important natural link between the bays Årstaviken and Vinterviken .", "Brown Lake (Stradbroke Island) Brown Lake is a lake on North Stradbroke Island , in Queensland , Australia . There are no native fish in the lake . Known as a perched lake like other lakes on the sandy islands in the regions of South-East Queensland and Wide Bay-Burnett , it retains its water due to a layer of leaves lining the lake floor . This is particularly apparent in the Brown Lake as tannin is exuded from the leaves , dropped from surrounding Paperbark Melaleuca and Tea-trees Leptospermum , stains the water to a rich brown colour not dissimilar to that of tea . Because of the high levels of organic material in the lake 's waters it is considered to be warm monomictic .", "Lake capture In geology , lake capture is the process of capture ( see Stream capture ) of the waters collected in a lake by a neighbor river basin . The occurrence of a lake capture is mainly controlled by the water balance at the lake 's basin and the changes in topography due to erosion , sedimentation , and tectonism . If evaporation at the surface of a lake , plus the water losses through underground infiltration and plant evapotranspiration are high enough to account for all precipitation water collected by the lake , then the lake becomes endorheic , closed , or internally drained . This situation prevails until the water balance changes again and the lake overburdens the limits of its basin or until the lake capture occurs . Opening the drainage of an endorheic lacustrine basin by fluvial erosion generally implies a lake capture . Lake captures are therefore very sensitive to the preexisting topography as well as to climatic and lithological factors . A climatic change towards more humid conditions can result in a higher water level in the internally drained basin , eventually causing overflow , this . In a longer time-scale , sediment colmatation of the lacustrine basin can also lead to overflow . Both can hinder the relative importance of the capture process carried out by erosion . Examples include the Late Neogen capture of the endorheic Ebro Basin ( capture ) or the Pleistocene Lake Bonneville ." ]

[ "Trophic cascade Trophic cascades occur when predators in a food web suppress the abundance or alter the behavior of their prey , thereby releasing the next lower trophic level from predation ( or herbivory if the intermediate trophic level is a herbivore ) . For example , if the abundance of large piscivorous fish is increased in a lake , the abundance of their prey , smaller fish that eat zooplankton , should decrease . The resulting increase in zooplankton should , in turn , cause the biomass of its prey , phytoplankton , to decrease . The trophic cascade is an ecological concept which has stimulated new research in many areas of ecology . For example , it can be important for understanding the knock-on effects of removing top predators from food webs , as humans have done in many places through hunting and fishing . A top-down cascade is a trophic cascade where the food chain or food web is disrupted by the removal of a top predator , or a third or fourth level consumer . On the other hand , a bottom-up cascade occurs when a primary producer , or primary consumer is removed , and there is a reduction of population size through the community .", "Isis Isis ( -LSB- ˈaɪsɪs -RSB- Ἶσις -LSB- îː.sis -RSB- ; original Egyptian pronunciation more likely `` Aset '' or `` Iset '' ) is a goddess from the polytheistic pantheon of Egypt . She was first worshiped in ancient Egyptian religion , and later her worship spread throughout the Roman Empire and the greater Greco-Roman world . Isis is still widely worshiped by many pagans today in diverse religious contexts ; including a number of distinct pagan religions , the modern Goddess movement , and interfaith organizations such as the Fellowship of Isis . Isis was worshipped as the ideal mother and wife as well as the patroness of nature and magic . She was the friend of slaves , sinners , artisans and the downtrodden , but she also listened to the prayers of the wealthy , maidens , aristocrats and rulers . Isis is often depicted as the mother of Horus , the falcon-headed deity associated with king and kingship ( although in some traditions Horus 's mother was Hathor ) . Isis is also known as protector of the dead and goddess of children . The name Isis means `` Throne '' . Her headdress is a throne . As the personification of the throne , she was an important representation of the pharaoh 's power . The pharaoh was depicted as her child , who sat on the throne she provided . Her cult was popular throughout Egypt , but her most important temples were at Behbeit El Hagar in the Nile delta , and , beginning in the reign with Nectanebo I ( 380 -- 362 BCE ) , on the island of Philae in Upper Egypt . In the typical form of her myth , Isis was the first daughter of Geb , god of the Earth , and Nut , goddess of the Sky , and she was born on the fourth intercalary day . She married her brother , Osiris , and she conceived Horus with him . Isis was instrumental in the resurrection of Osiris when he was murdered by Set . Using her magical skills , she restored his body to life after having gathered the body parts that had been strewn about the earth by Set . This myth became very important during the Greco-Roman period . For example , it was believed that the Nile River flooded every year because of the tears of sorrow which Isis wept for Osiris . Osiris 's death and rebirth was relived each year through rituals . The worship of Isis eventually spread throughout the Greco-Roman world , continuing until the suppression of paganism in the Christian era . The popular motif of Isis suckling her son Horus , however , lived on in a Christianized context as the popular image of Mary suckling her infant son Jesus from the fifth century onward .", "Tipping points in the climate system A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.", "Climate change in Washington Climate change in the US state of Washington is a subject of study and projection today .", "Effects of global warming The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts ." ]

[ "Fisheries and climate change Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .", "Climate change feedback Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''", "Climate change and agriculture -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .", "Effects of climate change on wine production Climate change in recent times has become a major issue and talking point globally because of its effects on the environment and the repercussions this could be having or possibly have . The effects of climate change on Viniculture ( wine production ) are described in this article .", "Women in climate change The contributions of women in climate change have received increasing attention in the early 21st century . Feedback from women and the issues faced by women have been described as `` imperative '' by the United Nations and `` critical '' by the Population Reference Bureau . A report by the World Health Organization concluded that incorporating gender-based analysis would `` provide more effective climate change mitigation . ''", "Climate inertia Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "Climate change in Germany Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe .", "Durban Industry Climate Change Partnership Project Durban Industry Climate Change Partnership Project ( DICCPP ) is a project aimed at facilitating industry response to climate change in the eThekwini Municipality ( Durban ) , South Africa . The project is being implemented through a partnership between the United Nations Industrial Development Organization ( UNIDO ) , the Durban Investment Promotion Agency ( DIPA ) , the eThekwini Municipality and the Durban Chamber of Commerce and Industry ( DCCI ) . The purpose of the project is to sensitise industry in Durban to the risks and opportunities associated with climate change by creating a platform through which learning and communication between industry and government can take place . The project aims to establish a sustained partnership between the various industries organisations in Durban and the eThekwini Municipality . The partnership is seen as fundamental to responding to climate change and effectively contributing towards climate change mitigation and adaptation within the Durban metropolitan area .", "Effects of climate change on island nations Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .", "List of climate change books This is a list of climate change books that describe , as a major theme , the effects of human activity on climate change .", "Kirk R. Smith Kirk R. Smith is an expert on the health and climate effects of household energy use in developing nations . He is currently a professor of Global Environmental Health at the University of California , Berkeley , where his research focuses on the relationships among environmental quality , health , resource use , climate , development , and policy in developing countries . Smith contributed a great deal to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and the work of the IPCC ( including the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize . Smith is a recipient of the 2012 Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement for his work with cookstoves , health , and climate . He is also credited with designing and implementing the first randomized controlled trial of the health effects of indoor air pollution ( IAP ) from cookstoves .", "Climate governance In political ecology and environmental policy , climate governance is the diplomacy , mechanisms and response measures `` aimed at steering social systems towards preventing , mitigating or adapting to the risks posed by climate change '' . A definitive interpretation is complicated by the wide range of political and social science traditions ( including comparative politics , political economy and multilevel governance ) that are engaged in conceiving and analysing climate governance at different levels and across different arenas . In academia , climate governance has become the concern of geographers , anthropologists , economists and business studies scholars . In the past two decades a paradox has arisen between rising awareness about the causes and consequences of climate change and an increasing concern that the issues that surround it represent an intractable problem . Initially , climate change was approached as a global issue , and climate governance sought to address it on the international stage . This took the form of Multilateral Environmental Agreements ( MEAs ) , beginning with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCC ) in 1992 . With the exception of the Kyoto Protocol , international agreements between nations have been largely ineffective in achieving legally binding emissions cuts and with the end of the Kyoto Protocol 's first commitment period in 2012 , starting from 2013 there is no legally binding Global climate regime . This inertia on the international political stage contributed to alternative political narratives that called for more flexible , cost effective and participatory approaches to addressing the multifarious problems of climate change . These narratives relate to the increasing diversity of methods that are being developed and deployed across the field of climate governance .", "Economic impacts of climate change This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .", "Climate change in Montana The US state of Montana has taken legislative steps towards reducing the possible effects of climate change .", "Climate change in Europe Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .", "Climate Connections Climate Connections was the 2008-09 FIRST Lego League competition . Its theme centered on understanding the effects of climate and climate change .", "Effects of global warming on marine mammals The effect of global warming on marine mammals is a growing concern . Many of the effects of climate change are currently unknown due to its unpredictability , but many are becoming increasingly evident today . Some effects are very direct such as loss of habitat , temperature stress , and exposure to severe weather . Other effects are more indirect such as changes in host pathogen associations , changes in body condition because of predator -- prey interaction , changed in exposure to toxins , and increased human interactions . These are just a few examples of what marine mammals are dealing with as a result of rapid climate change . There are a number of marine mammals that have been affected by climate change including walruses , seals , penguins , and polar bears .", "South Cascade Glacier South Cascade Glacier is a large alpine glacier in the North Cascades of Washington , USA . It is bordered on the east by 8261 ft Sentinel Peak , and is about 17 mi north of Glacier Peak in the Glacier Peak Wilderness . Meltwater from the glacier flows directly into South Cascade Lake , which feeds the South Fork Cascade River , which is a tributary of the Skagit River . The South Cascade Glacier has been closely monitored by glaciologists studying the effects of climate on glaciers . Between 1958 and 2009 South Cascade Glacier lost nearly a half of its volume .", "Executive Order 13653 Executive Order 13653 Preparing the United States for the Impacts of Climate Change was issued by President Barack Obama on November 1 , 2013 . EO 13653 is the Federal Government 's response to the rising issue of climate change . It was issued in order to prepare the Nation for the impending impacts on the environment brought by climate change and to implement risk management strategies to lessen the harm done by these impacts on the Nation . EO 13653 mandates that the Federal Government , as well stakeholders , must manage these risks with deliberate preparation , cooperation , and coordination in order to effectively improve climate preparedness and resilience . With preparedness and resilience come a safer economy , infrastructure , environment , and supply of natural resources - allowing the continuation of department and agency operations , services , and programs . Agencies are called on to promote open lines of sharing and communication throughout all levels of government , make both informed and strategic decisions , quickly adapt and adjust future plans when needed , and to effectively prepare for the future by planning . The order was rescinded by President Donald Trump on March 28 , 2017 . The previous Order attempted to plan for the following Environmental Impacts : High Temperatures Heavy Downpours Permafrost Thawing Ocean Acidification Sea Level Rise", "Physical impacts of climate change This article is about the physical impacts of climate change . For some of these physical impacts , their effect on social and economic systems are also described . This article refers to reports produced by the IPCC . In their usage , `` climate change '' refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties , and that persists for extended periods , typically decades or longer ( IPCC , 2007d :30 ) . The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes and/or the result of human activity .", "Roger A. Pielke Roger A. Pielke Sr. ( born October 22 , 1946 ) is an American meteorologist with interests in climate variability and climate change , environmental vulnerability , numerical modeling , atmospheric dynamics , land/ocean -- atmosphere interactions , and large eddy/turbulent boundary layer modeling . He particularly focuses on mesoscale weather and climate processes but also investigates on the global , regional , and microscale . Pielke is an ISI Highly Cited Researcher .", "Climate change in California California has taken legislative steps towards reducing the possible effects of climate change by incentives and plans for clean cars , renewable energy , and stringent caps on big polluting industries .", "Climate change in Saskatchewan The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .", "Climate justice Climate justice is a term used for framing global warming as an ethical and political issue , rather than one that is purely environmental or physical in nature . This is done by relating the effects of climate change to concepts of justice , particularly environmental justice and social justice and by examining issues such as equality , human rights , collective rights , and the historical responsibilities for climate change . A fundamental proposition of climate justice is that those who are least responsible for climate change suffer its gravest consequences . Occasionally , the term is also used to mean actual legal action on climate change issues .", "Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .", "Inside ISIS: The Brutal Rise of a Terrorist Army Inside ISIS : The Brutal Rise of a Terrorist Army is a book by journalist Benjamin Hall .", "Dennis Tirpak Dennis Tirpak is an expert on Climate Change . He is a Senior Fellow at the World Resources Institute . He was the director of Global Climate Change Policy at the United States Environmental Protection Agency for ten years . He was the Coordinator of Science and Technology at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change for nine years . He was the head of the climate change unit at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) for three years . He has also worked on the Montreal Protocol and held positions in industry with Texaco and Alcoa . He is one of the coordinating lead authors of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former US Vice President Al Gore . He advises national governments and industry as an associate with the International Institute for Sustainable Development in Canada and a senior fellow at the World Resources Institute in Washington , D.C. He was the Chairman of The International Scientific Steering Committee for Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gas Concentrations which took place at the invitation of the British Prime Minister Tony Blair in 2005 . In 1989 he co-authored the first report to Congress , The Potential Effects Of Global Climate Change on the United States , and has written a scientific and policy history on climate change and contributed to many publications including the New York Times in an op-ed titled `` How Green is My Taxi '' .", "Land surface effects on climate Land surface effects on climate are wide-ranging and vary by region . Deforestation and exploitation of natural landscapes play a significant role . Some of these environmental changes are similar to those caused by the effects of global warming .", "Jonathan M. Gregory Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .", "Scientific opinion on climate change The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "Climate Vulnerability Monitor The Climate Vulnerability Monitor ( CVM ) is an independent global assessment of the effect of climate change on the world 's populations brought together by panels of key international authorities . The Monitor was launched in December 2010 in London and Cancun to coincide with the UN Cancun Summit on climate change ( COP-16 ) . Developed by DARA and the Climate Vulnerable Forum , the report is meant to serve as a new tool to assess global vulnerability to various effects of climate change within different nations . The report distills leading science and research for a clearer explanation of how and where populations are being affected by climate change today ( 2010 ) and in the near future ( 2030 ) , while pointing to key actions that reduce these impacts . DARA and the Climate Vulnerable Forum launched the 2nd edition of the Climate Vulnerability Monitor on 26 September 2012 at the Asia Society , New York ." ]

[ "China China , officially the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) , is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the world 's most populous country , with a population of over 1.381 billion . Covering approximately 9.6 e6km2 , China is the world 's second-largest state by land area and third - or fourth-largest by total area . Governed by the Communist Party of China , it exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces , five autonomous regions , four direct-controlled municipalities ( Beijing , Tianjin , Shanghai and Chongqing ) and the Special Administrative Regions Hong Kong and Macau , also claiming sovereignty over Taiwan . China is a great power and a major regional power within Asia , and has been characterized as a potential superpower . China emerged as one of the world 's earliest civilizations in the fertile basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain . For millennia , China 's political system was based on hereditary monarchies , or dynasties , beginning with the legendary Xia dynasty . Since 221 , when the Qin dynasty conquered the other largest six states to form the first unified Chinese empire , China has then expanded , fractured and re-unified numerous times in the following millennia . In 1912 , the Republic of China ( ROC ) replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949 , when it was defeated by the communist People 's Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War . The Communist Party established the People 's Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949 , while the ROC government relocated to Taiwan with its present de facto temporary capital in Taipei . Both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China , though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory . China has had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two thousand years , during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline . Since the introduction of economic reforms in 1978 , China has become one of the world 's fastest-growing major economies . , it is the world 's second-largest economy by nominal GDP and largest by purchasing power parity ( PPP ) . China is also the world 's largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods . China is a recognized nuclear weapons state and has the world 's largest standing army and second-largest defense budget . The PRC is a member of the United Nations , as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U.N. Security Council in 1971 . China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations , including the WTO , APEC , BRICS , the Shanghai Cooperation Organization ( SCO ) , the BCIM and the G-20 .", "2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference The 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference , commonly known as the Copenhagen Summit , was held at the Bella Center in Copenhagen , Denmark , between 7 and 18 December . The conference included the 15th Conference of the Parties ( COP 15 ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 5th Meeting of the Parties ( MOP 5 ) to the Kyoto Protocol . According to the Bali Road Map , a framework for climate change mitigation beyond 2012 was to be agreed there . On Friday 18 December , the final day of the conference , international media reported that the climate talks were `` in disarray '' . Media also reported that in lieu of a summit collapse , only a `` weak political statement '' was anticipated at the conclusion of the conference . The Copenhagen Accord was drafted by the United States , China , India , Brazil and South Africa on 18 December , and judged a `` meaningful agreement '' by the United States government . It was `` taken note of '' , but not `` adopted '' , in a debate of all the participating countries the next day , and it was not passed unanimously . The document recognised that climate change is one of the greatest challenges of the present day and that actions should be taken to keep any temperature increases to below 2 ° C . The document is not legally binding and does not contain any legally binding commitments for reducing emissions . In January 2014 , documents leaked by Edward Snowden and published by Dagbladet Information revealed that the US government negotiators were in receipt of information during the conference that was being obtained by spying against other conference delegations . The US National Security Agency provided US delegates with advance details other delegations ' positions , including the Danish plan to `` rescue '' the talks should they flounder . Members of the Danish negotiating team said that both the US and Chinese delegations were `` peculiarly well-informed '' about closed-door discussions : `` They simply sat back , just as we had feared they would if they knew about our document . ''", "United States withdrawal from the Paris Agreement On June 1, 2017, United States President Donald Trump announced that the U.S. would cease all participation in the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change mitigation, and begin negotiations to re-enter the agreement \"on terms that are fair to the United States, its businesses, its workers, its people, its taxpayers,\" or form a new agreement. In withdrawing from the agreement, Trump stated that \"The Paris accord will undermine (the U.S.) economy,\" and \"puts (the U.S.) at a permanent disadvantage.\" Trump stated that the withdrawal would be in accordance with his America First policy. In accordance with Article 28 of the Paris Agreement, a country cannot give notice of withdrawal from the agreement before three years of its start date in the relevant country, which was on November 4, 2016 in the case of the United States. The White House later clarified that the U.S. will abide by the four-year exit process. On November 4, 2019, the administration gave a formal notice of intention to withdraw, which takes 12 months to take effect. Until the withdrawal took effect, the United States was obligated to maintain its commitments under the Agreement, such as the requirement to continue reporting its emissions to the United Nations. The withdrawal took effect on November 4, 2020, one day after the 2020 U.S. presidential election.While celebrated by some members of the Republican Party, international reactions to the withdrawal were overwhelmingly negative from across the political spectrum, and the decision received substantial criticism from religious organizations, businesses, political leaders of all parties, environmentalists, and scientists and citizens from the United States and internationally.Following Trump's announcement, the governors of several U.S. states formed the United States Climate Alliance to continue to advance the objectives of the Paris Agreement at the state level despite the federal withdrawal. As of July 1, 2019, 24 states, American Samoa, and Puerto Rico have joined the alliance, and similar commitments have also been expressed by other state governors, mayors, and businesses.Trump's withdrawal from the Paris agreement will impact other countries by reducing its financial aid to the Green Climate fund. The termination of the $3 billion U.S. funding will ultimately impact climate change research and decrease society's chance of reaching the Paris Agreement goals, as well as omit U.S. contributions to the future IPCC reports. Trump's decision will also affect the carbon emission space as well as the carbon price. The U.S.'s withdrawal will also mean that the spot to take over the global climate regime will be obtainable for China and the EU.President-elect Joe Biden vowed to rejoin the Paris Agreement on his first day in office.", "Donald Trump Donald John Trump ( born June 14 , 1946 ) is the 45th and current President of the United States . Before entering politics , he was a businessman and television personality . Trump was born and raised in Queens , New York City , and earned an economics degree from the Wharton School . He then took charge of The Trump Organization , the real estate and construction firm founded by his paternal grandmother , which he ran for 45 years until 2016 . During his real estate career , Trump built , renovated , and managed numerous office towers , hotels , casinos , and golf courses . Besides real estate , he started several side ventures and has licensed the use of his name for the branding of various products and properties , including Trump Entertainment Resorts , Trump Steaks , and Trump Vodka . He was the founder of Trump University . He owned the Miss USA and Miss Universe pageants from 1996 to 2015 , and he produced and hosted The Apprentice , a reality television series on NBC , from 2004 to 2015 . His net worth was estimated to be $ 3.5 billion , making him the 544th richest person in the world . Trump first publicly expressed interest in running for political office in 1987 . He won two Reform Party presidential primaries in 2000 , but withdrew his candidacy early on . In June 2015 , he launched his campaign for the 2016 presidential election and quickly emerged as the front-runner among seventeen candidates in the Republican primaries . His remaining opponents all suspended their campaigns by the end of May 2016 , and in July he was formally nominated at the Republican National Convention along with Indiana governor Mike Pence as his running mate . Many of his campaign statements were controversial or false , generating much free media coverage . Trump won the general election on November 8 , 2016 , in a surprise victory against Democratic opponent Hillary Clinton and commenced his presidency on January 20 , 2017 . He became the oldest and wealthiest person ever to assume the presidency , the first without prior military or government service , and the fifth to have won the election while losing the popular vote . His political positions have been described by scholars and commentators as populist , protectionist , and nationalist ." ]

[ "Tsao Chang Tsao Chang ( Chinese : 张操 born 1942 in Shanghai , China ) is a Chinese-American physicist . Chang has taught physics and conducted research on the theory of space and time more than 40 years in China and the United States .", "Chinese Taipei at the 1994 Winter Olympics Due to the political status of Taiwan , the Republic of China ( ROC ) competed as Chinese Taipei at the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer , Norway . The International Olympic Committee mandates that the Chinese Taipei Olympic Committee flag is used , and not the flag of the Republic of China . In the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) , the team is known as Zhongguo Taibei or , Taipei , China , where China implies the PRC . China 's doing so violates a treaty signed by both countries , Taiwan and China , in which the agreement states that the official name for Taiwan in sporting events is `` Chinese Taipei '' and not `` Taipei , China '' .", "Chang Jen-Hu Chang Jen-Hu ( Traditional Chinese : 張鏡湖 ) , or J.H.Chang , 1927 - , is a Taiwanese educator , geographer specialized in ancient climate change , and the agricultural development of China and Taiwan . Chang is the Chairman of the Board of Directors of Chinese Culture University .", "Virginia v. Tennessee Virginia v. Tennessee , 148 U.S. 503 ( 1893 ) , was a decision of the United States Supreme Court , which had two questions : ( 1 ) What is the correct boundary between the two states and , if the boundary was inaccurately set , can the state ask the court to change it ? ( 2 ) Does an agreement setting the boundary between two states require approval of Congress under the Compact Clause of the Constitution of the United States ? When two states have a controversy between each other , the case is filed for original jurisdiction with the United States Supreme Court . This is one of the very limited circumstances where the court acts as original jurisdiction ( i.e. a trial court ) although as the suit was at equity rather than law , no jury was impaneled ( if either side had even wanted one in the first place ) . In all other cases , the court acts as the highest level appellate court in the United States . The court decided that if a prior agreement between the two states set the boundary , and both states ratify that agreement , if one of them discovers later that the boundary was wrong ( e.g. the other state received a larger share of territory than originally planned ) in the absence of the other state agreeing to change it , then the original agreement stands . As to what represents a compact requiring approval from Congress , it is those types of agreements that would , in some fashion , increase the power of a state . If a state , for example , wanted to send an exhibit to a World 's Fair in another state , it would not have to have approval of Congress to contract to use a canal owned by another state that its exhibit or its people had to pass through along the way . Where a compact or agreement between two states does require congressional approval , such approval may be implied , such as if a state sends information to Congress about an agreement , and Congress accepts and records the details . Approval may be requested in advance , or , for a type of compact where the details could not be known before the compact was ratified , after the compact is created . The court decided that because the states informed Congress of the original survey that both states hired people to carefully establish , and subsequently enacted as legislation by the two states , the agreement was implicitly approved by Congress , and the border between the two states was that which was set forth in the survey .", "Doha conference Doha conference can refer to several meetings held in Doha , Qatar : WTO Ministerial Conference of 2001 , leading to the Doha Development Round the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health The 2008 follow-up conference to the Monterrey Consensus . the 2008 Doha Agreement between rival Lebanese factions The 2012 Hamas -- Fatah Doha agreement The 2012 United Nations Climate Change Conference", "NZ Climate Party The NZ Climate Party is an unregistered political party in New Zealand . The party is focused on highlighting and addressing the threat of climate change . The party was launched in August 2014 , and is led by Peter Whitmore . The party did not register to contest the party vote in the 2014 election , but stood two electorate candidates , in Auckland Central and Rongotai . A representative from the party , Aaron Carter , attended a candidates meeting in Newtown , Wellington dressed in an elephant costume and bearing a sign which said `` climate change '' . His main messages were : `` Do n't vote for me , vote thinking about the climate '' , `` It 's all rearranging furniture on the Titanic as it 's sinking '' , and `` Learn to swim '' . Whitmore and Carter received 50 and 66 electoral votes respectively . Climate Party member Rob Painting contested the 2015 Northland by-election with the stated goal of `` raising awareness of climate and coastal issues affecting the Far North '' . He received 39 votes ( 0.13 % of votes cast ) . The party is opposed to the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme , arguing that it is doing nothing to stop New Zealand 's emissions from increasing .", "China–Philippines relations The China -- Philippines relations ( ; Ugnayang Tsina at Pilipinas ) refers to the bilateral relations between the China and the Philippines . Relations between the two countries gradually improved over the years since the initiative of Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos . However , relations between the two countries have suffered due to the worsening South China Sea dispute . The current president of the Philippines , Rodrigo Duterte , aims at remedying relations between the Philippines and China at the expense of the former 's relationship with the United States . Several major bilateral agreements were signed between the two countries over the years , such as : Joint Trade Agreement ( 1975 ) ; Scientific and Technological Cooperation Agreement ( 1978 ) ; Postal Agreement ( 1978 ) ; Air Services Agreement ( 1979 ) ; Visiting Forces Agreement ( 1999 ) ; Cultural Agreement ( 1979 ) ; Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement ( 1992 ) ; Agreement on Agricultural Cooperation ( 1999 ) ; Tax Agreement ( 1999 ) ; and Treaty on Mutual Judicial Assistance on Criminal Matters ( 2000 ) . In May 2000 , on the eve of the 25th anniversary of their diplomatic relations , the two countries signed a Joint Statement defining the framework of bilateral relations in the 21st century . Bilateral relations between the Philippines and China have significantly progressed in recent years . The growing bilateral relations were highlighted by the state visit to China of Philippine President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo on 29 -- 31 October 2001 . During the visit , President Arroyo held bilateral talks with top Chinese leaders , namely President Jiang Zemin , NPC Chairman Li Peng , and Premier Zhu Rongji . President Arroyo also attended the 9th APEC Economic Leaders Meeting held in Shanghai on October 20 -- 21 , 2001 , where she also had bilateral talks with President Jiang . During President Arroyo 's visit , eight important bilateral agreements were signed . A 2014 survey conducted by the Pew Research Center showed 93 % of Filipinos were concerned that territorial disputes between China and neighbouring countries could lead to a military conflict .", "Chinese Cultural Fever Chinese Cultural Fever - ( Chinese , trad . 文化熱 , simpl . 文化热 , pinyin Wénhuàrè ) was a cultural tendency in China in the late 1980s , started with economic reforms . It can be considered the first independent cultural initiative in China since 1949 . After a period of isolation , China opened to Western Thought . This tendency ended in 1989 due to the sudden change of political climate .", "Global Change Research Act of 1990 The Global Change Research Act 1990 is a United States law requiring research into global warming and related issues . It requires a report to Congress every four years on the environmental , economic , health and safety consequences of climate change . According to a summary by the Congressional Research Service , the Act : `` Directs the President , through the Federal Coordinating Council on Science , Engineering , and Technology ( Council ) , to establish the Committee on Earth and Environmental Sciences to carry out Council functions under specified provisions of the National Science and Technology Policy , Organization , and Priorities Act of 1976 relating to global change research , to increase the effectiveness and productivity of Federal global change research efforts . Directs the President to establish an interagency United States Global Change Research Program to improve understanding of global change . Requires the Chairman of the Council , through the Committee , to develop a National Global Change Research Plan for implementation of the Program . Sets forth required Plan contents and research elements , including that the Plan provide recommendations for collaboration within the Federal Government and among nations . Requires the Chairman to enter into an agreement with the National Research Council to : ( 1 ) evaluate the scientific content of the Plan ; and ( 2 ) provide information and advice and recommended priorities for future global change research . Requires the Committee to provide general guidance each year to each Federal agency or department participating in the Program with respect to preparation of requests for appropriations related to the Program . Requires the Council , at least every four years , through the Committee , to submit to the President and the Congress an assessment regarding the findings of the Program and associated uncertainties , the effects of global change , and current and major long-term trends in global change . Requires that the research findings of the Committee and of Federal agencies and departments be made available to the Environmental Protection Agency and all Federal agencies and departments . Title II : International Cooperation in Global Change Research - International Cooperation in Global Change Research Act of 1990 - Declares that the President should direct the Secretary of State to initiate discussions with other nations on : ( 1 ) international agreements to coordinate global change research ; and ( 2 ) an international research protocol for cooperation on the development of energy technologies which have minimally adverse effects on the environment . Directs the President to establish an Office of Global Change Research Information to disseminate to foreign governments and their citizens , businesses , and institutions scientific research useful in preventing , mitigating , or adapting to the effects of global change . Title III : Growth Decision Aid - Directs the Secretary of Commerce to : ( 1 ) conduct a study on the implications of growth and development on urban , suburban , and rural communities ; and ( 2 ) based on the study , produce a decision aid to assist State and local authorities in planning and managing growth and development while preserving community character . '' Following the publication of the first National Climate Assessment Report there were accusations that information was being suppressed , leading to complacency around public works , such as New Orleans flood defences . Greenpeace , the Center for Biological Diversity and Friends of the Earth challenged the delay in federal district court on August 21 , 2007 . A judge ruled that an updated national assessment must be produced by May 31 , 2008 .", "Proof of Citizenship of the Republic of Indonesia Proof of Citizenship of the Republic of Indonesia ( Indonesian : Surat Bukti Kewarganegaraan Republik Indonesia abbreviated SBKRI ) was an identity card establishing citizenship in the Republic of Indonesia employed to discriminate against Indonesians of Chinese descent . The card was a required identity card ( KTP ) to enter academia , obtain a passport , to register for an election , and to get married . The requirement was eventually abolished although local bureaucracies have continued to engage in abuses . The legal bases for SBKRI legal was established with the Law no. 62 in 1958 issued by the Ministry of Justice G.A. Maengkom and approved by President Soekarno . It came in the wake of Mao Zedong 's government decree in Communist China that all Chinese people around the world are citizens of the People 's Republic of China based on the principle of jus sanguinis ( blood descendants ) . This was followed with the Dual Nationality Agreement between Indonesia and China between Chou En-lai and Soenario in 1955 .", "Stephen S. Chang Stephen S. Chang ( 15 August 1918 -- 16 December 1996 ) was a Chinese-born , American food scientist who was involved in the research of lipid and flavors in food , including the development of technology transfer between the United States and Taiwan .", "U.S. immigration policy toward the People's Republic of China With the establishment of the People 's Republic of China in 1949 , American immigration policy towards Chinese emigrants and the highly controversial subject of foreign policy with regard to the PRC became invariably connected . The United States government was presented with the dilemma of what to do with two separate `` Chinas '' . Both the People 's Republic of China and the Republic of China wanted be seen as the legitimate government and both parties believed that immigration would assist them in doing so . During the 1940s and 1950s , the United States , the Republic of China , and eventually the PRC consistently used the movement of people , their laws controlling their borders , citizen services , and their interactions with the Chinese diaspora to promote the legitimacy and positive image of their respective governments internationally . Overseas Chinese were seen as extremely pertinent to either side claiming legitimacy , as both the Republic of China and the People 's Republic of China realized the political and social clout held by those overseas Chinese Americans . Furthermore , the United States also realized that it had to be very careful in choosing the right policies with regard to the status of Chinese immigrants . On the one hand the United States had to come to terms with the fact that mainland China was `` lost '' to Communism and on the other it had to ensure its interests in Taiwan were not compromised . US immigration policy for the next thirty years was implemented with a notion of duality . The United States government would open its doors to Chinese immigrants from both sides of the strait , however ; American public opinion was not so welcoming ( see Chinese American history ) .", "History of Chinese Americans The History of Chinese Americans or the history of ethnic Chinese in the United States relates to the three major waves of Chinese immigration to the United States with the first beginning in the 19th century . Chinese immigrants in the 19th century worked as laborers , particularly on the transcontinental railroad , such as the Central Pacific Railroad . They also worked as laborers in the mining industry , and suffered racial discrimination at every level of society . While industrial employers were eager to get this new and cheap labor , the ordinary white public was stirred to anger by the presence of this `` yellow peril '' . Despite the provisions for equal treatment of Chinese immigrants in the 1868 Burlingame Treaty , political and labor organizations rallied against the immigration of what they regarded as a degraded race and `` cheap Chinese labor '' . Newspapers condemned the policies of employers , and even church leaders denounced the entrance of these aliens into what was regarded as a land for whites only . So hostile was the opposition that in 1882 the United States Congress eventually passed the Chinese Exclusion Act , which prohibited immigration from China for the next ten years . This law was then extended by the Geary Act in 1892 . The Chinese Exclusion Act was the only U.S. law ever to prevent immigration and naturalization on the basis of race . These laws not only prevented new immigration but also brought additional suffering as they prevented the reunion of the families of thousands of Chinese men already living in the United States ( that is , men who had left China without their wives and children ) ; anti-miscegenation laws in many states prohibited Chinese men from marrying white women . In 1924 the law barred further entries of Chinese ; those already in the United States had been ineligible for citizenship since the previous year . Also by 1924 , all Asian immigrants ( except people from the Philippines , which had been annexed by the United States in 1898 ) were utterly excluded by law , denied citizenship and naturalization , and prevented from marrying Caucasians or owning land . Only since the 1940s when the United States and China became allies during World War II , did the situation for Chinese Americans begin to improve , as restrictions on entry into the country , naturalization and mixed marriage were being lessened . In 1943 , Chinese immigration to the United States was once again permitted -- by way of the Magnuson Act -- thereby repealing 61 years of official racial discrimination against the Chinese . Large-scale Chinese immigration did not occur until 1965 when the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 lifted national origin quotas . After World War II , anti-Asian prejudice began to decrease , and Chinese immigrants , along with other Asians ( such as Japanese , Koreans , Indians and Vietnamese ) , have adapted and advanced . Currently , the Chinese constitute the largest ethnic group of Asian Americans ( about 22 % ) , and have confounded earlier expectations that they would form an indigestible mass in American society . For example , many Chinese Americans of American birth may know little or nothing about traditional Chinese culture , just as European Americans and African Americans may know little or nothing about the original cultures of their ancestors . , there are more than 3.3 million Chinese in the United States , about 1 % of the total population . The influx continues , where each year ethnic Chinese people from the People 's Republic of China , Taiwan and to a lesser extent Southeast Asia move to the United States , surpassing Hispanic and Latino immigration by 2012 .", "China and the World Trade Organization China became a member of the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) on 11 December 2001 . The admission of China to the WTO was preceded by a lengthy process of negotiations and required significant changes to the Chinese economy . It signified China 's deeper integration into the world economy .", "Armstrong Redwoods State Natural Reserve Armstrong Redwoods State Natural Reserve is a state park of California in the United States established to preserve 805 acre of coast redwoods ( Sequoia sempervirens ) . The reserve is located in Sonoma County , just north of Guerneville . The reserve is in a temperate rainforest . The climate is mild and wet . The park receives an average of 55 in of rainfall per year , almost all between September and June . Abundant fog during the summer months helps to maintain the moist conditions required by the coast redwoods .", "History of trade of the People's Republic of China Trade has been a very significant factor of the People 's Republic of China 's economy . In the twenty-five years that followed the founding of the Republic in 1949 , China 's trade institutions developed into a partially modern but somewhat inefficient system . The drive to modernize the economy that began in 1978 required a sharp acceleration in commodity flows and greatly improved efficiency in economic transactions . In the ensuing years economic reforms were adopted by the government to develop a socialist market economy . This type of economy combined central planning with market mechanisms . The changes resulted in the decentralization and expansion of domestic and foreign trade institutions , as well as a greatly enlarged role for free markets in the distribution of goods , and a prominent role for foreign trade and investment in economic development . In 2013 China surpassed the United States as the largest trading nation in the world and plays a vital role in international trade , and has increasingly engaged in trade organizations and treaties in recent years . China became a member of the World Trade Organization in 2001 . China also has free trade agreements with several nations , including China -- Australia Free Trade Agreement , China -- South Korea Free Trade Agreement , ASEAN -- China Free Trade Area , Switzerland and Pakistan .", "Beijing–Washington hotline On 5 November 2007 China and the United States announced that they will set up a military hotline between Beijing and Washington D.C. to avoid misunderstanding during any moments of crisis in the Pacific . On this day Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates told reporters that he and Chinese Defense Minister Cao Gangchuan formally agreed to set up the dedicated 24-hour phone line in Beijing . According to a report China 's Defense Ministry long resisted the idea of such a direct line until June 2007 when General Zhang Qinsheng stated that China was ready to proceed with the establishment at the Shangri-La Dialogue security conference in Singapore . According to the Chinese Defense Ministry China and the United States officially signed an agreement on setting up a military hotline between the two defense departments in Shanghai on February 2008 after a working meeting between the two defense departments . The hotline was set up on 10 April 2008 . Earlier in March 2007 Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Peter Pace announced that Beijing and Washington were considering an emergency hotline between leaders of the US and China during a visit in China . Discussions on such a hotline have ongoing on since a meeting between President Hu Jintao and US President George W. Bush in April 2006 . An April 2013 report notes that the telephone line between the PLA and the US military is far from the hotline established between Washington and Moscow after the Cuban missile crisis . It says that the 2008 agreement with China merely arranges a call to be put through to the Zhongnanhai telecommunications directorate , which has discretion on whether to forward the call to the foreign affairs section of the Department of Defence or the PLA 's command headquarters in West Beijing . Furthermore , it states that in protest against US actions the Chinese have cut off the hotline twice for extensive periods at times when it might be needed most . In September 2015 Chinese President Xi Jinping and US President Barack Obama announced agreements on a military hotline to reduce the risks of miscalculations between the militaries .", "Abagaitu Islet Abagaitu Islet ( ; , Bolshoy Ostrov ) is an islet in the Argun River ( Asia ) divided between the People 's Republic of China ( Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region ) and Russia ( Chita Oblast ) . Area 58 km ² . The island was occupied by the Soviet Union in 1929 , a move not accepted by China , resulting in a border dispute that lasted more than seventy years . On October 14 , 2004 , the Complementary Agreement between the People 's Republic of China and the Russian Federation on the Eastern Section of the China -- Russia Boundary was signed , in which Russia agreed to relinquish control over a part of Abagaitu Islet . In 2005 , the Russian Duma and the Chinese National People 's Congress approved the agreement .", "Chang'an (disambiguation) __ NOTOC __ Chang ` an is the capital of several historical dynasties , located on the site of present-day Xi'an , Shaanxi . Chang ` an could also refer to : Chang ` an Avenue , a major east-west thoroughfare in Beijing , China Chang ` an Automobile Group , a Chinese automobile manufacturer Chang An Airlines , a former Chinese airline that operated between 1993 and 2007 Chang ` an University , a university in Xi'an , Shaanxi , China Baicheng Chang ` an Airport , an airport in Baicheng , Jilin , China", "P. F. Chang's China Bistro P. F. Chang 's China Bistro is an Asian-themed US casual dining restaurant chain founded in 1993 by Paul Fleming and Philip Chiang , owned and operated by Centerbridge Partners , and headquartered in Scottsdale , Arizona . As of October 2014 , P. F. Chang 's operated 204 restaurants in the United States and 56 in international markets under licensee agreements . Countries include Canada , Puerto Rico , Mexico , Argentina , Chile , Brazil , Colombia , Costa Rica , Panama , Turkey , Lebanon , Philippines , South Korea , Dominican Republic and the Middle East . It is the largest full service , casual dining Chinese restaurant chain in the United States with locations across the country . `` P. F. Chang 's '' is the namesake of Paul Fleming ( P. F. ) and Philip Chiang ( whose surname is shortened to Chang ) . Opening in London UK with Diverse Dining ( arm of Alshaya Kuwait ) in 2017 .", "Hong Yen Chang Hong Yen Chang ( 张康仁 ; birth year unknown , estimated between 1859 and 1860 ) was reportedly the first Chinese immigrant licensed to practice law in the United States . Though admitted to the New York State Bar , he was denied admission to the California State Bar in 1890 . He remained a prominent member of the Chinese community and went on to lead a distinguished career in banking and diplomacy . Alternate names and variant spellings : Chang Hon Yen , Zhang Kangren , Kang Jen Chang , Chang Kang-jen , Chang Hong Yin , and Harry Chang .", "Climate Finance Climate finance refers to financing channeled by national , regional and international entities for climate change mitigation and adaptation projects and programs . They include climate specific support mechanisms and financial aid for mitigation and adaptation activities to spur and enable the transition towards low-carbon , climate-resilient growth and development through capacity building , R&D and economic development . The term has been used in a narrow sense to refer to transfers of public resources from developed to developing countries , in light of their UN Climate Convention obligations to provide `` new and additional financial resources , '' and in a wider sense to refer to all financial flows relating to climate change mitigation and adaptation . Finance is sourced from public , private and public-private sectors and can be channelled through various intermediaries , notably BFIs , MFIs , development cooperation agencies , the UNFCCC ( various funds including those managed by the Global Environment Facility ) , non-governmental organisations and the private sector . The financials flows can flow from developed to developing countries ( North-South ) , from developing to developing countries ( South-South ) , from developed to developed countries ( North-North ) and domestic climate finance flows in developed and developing countries . According to the Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment Report 2011 , investments in renewable energy in 2010 reached a record of USD 211 billion ( not including large hydropower ) . These amounts far exceed existing dedicated resources and those proposed under the developed world at the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) Cancún Agreements . The estimations for the needed financing for climate change vary according to the geographic , sectorial and activity coverage , timescale and phasing , target and the underlying assumptions . The 2010 the World Development Report preliminary estimates of financing needs for mitigation and adaptation activities in developing countries range from USD 140-175 billion per year for mitigation over the next 20 years with associated financing needs of USD 265-565 billion and USD30 -- 100 billion a year over the period 2010 - 2050 for adaptation . The International Energy Agency 's 2011 World Energy Outlook ( WEO ) estimates that in order to meet growing demand for energy through 2035 , USD 16.9 trillion in new investment for new power generation is projected , with renewable energy ( RE ) comprising 60 % of the total . The capital required to meet projected energy demand through 2030 amounts to $ 1.1 trillion per year on average , distributed ( almost evenly ) between the large emerging economies ( China , India , Brazil , etc. ) and including the remaining developing countries .", "Restrictive Practices Court The Restrictive Trade Practices Act 1956 was an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom intended to enforce competition . It required that any agreement between companies that restricted trading should be placed on a public register unless granted exemption by the Secretary of State . Changes to an agreement , including its ending , were required to be notified and no agreement could be brought into force before appearing on the register . The registrar could refer any agreements which appeared to operate against the public interest to the Restrictive Practices Court , a senior court of record in the United Kingdom . Though the Court was overhauled in 1976 , by the end of the century , the legislation was perceived as increasingly out of line with Articles 81 and 82 of the Treaty of Rome . The Court was gradually replaced by a new judicial regime under the Competition Act 1998 and Enterprise Act 2002 and was ultimately disestablished on 10 March 2013 .", "Climate change in Australia Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .", "United Nations Security Council Resolution 1359 United Nations Security Council resolution 1359 , adopted unanimously on 29 June 2001 , after recalling all previous resolutions on Western Sahara , in particular Resolution 1108 ( 1997 ) , the Council extended the mandate of the United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara ( MINURSO ) until 30 November 2001 . The Security Council reiterated its support for efforts by MINURSO and the United Nations and agreements adopted by Morocco and the Polisario Front to hold a free and fair referendum on self-determination for the people of Western Sahara in accordance with the Settlement Plan . It noted proposals by the Polisario Front to overcome obstacles between the two parties and also took a memorandum by Algeria into account . Extending MINURSO 's mandate , the resolution supported the efforts of the Secretary-General Kofi Annan to invite all parties to talks to discuss a framework agreement and negotiate any changes . It emphasised that nothing overall would be agreed until everything had been agreed between the parties . The parties were urged to resolve the issue of missing people and release those detained since the start of the conflict in compliance with international humanitarian law . Finally , the Secretary-General was required to provide an assessment at the end of its current mandate and on the future of MINURSO .", "China Image Film Festival The China Image Film Festival is the largest Chinese film festival in Europe . Hosted in London , the festival aims to promote Chinese films and cultures across the world . China Image Film Festival was established in 2009 . This year 's celebration of Chinese films is organised by China UK Culture and Creative Industry Association . As a platform for cultural exchange between the UK and China , the festival has gained support from The State Administration of Radio Film and China Television ( SARFT ) in addition to the Chinese embassy 's cultural affairs office . The festival has generated support from the United Kingdom 's Cultural Affairs Bureau , British Council , as well as other agencies , associations , businesses , and institutions . The difference between the previous few years and this year is the establishment of the British professional short film section . This segment shows famous short English films to both Chinese and British audiences . British professional films of the same calibre will be screened in both the UK and China . In turn , well-known short film directors will be meeting the audiences during this particular time .", "Climate change and poverty In an ever-progressing world with an increasing demand for energy and animal agriculture , it is difficult to avoid climate change and its impacts on societies both locally and globally . Climate change affects social development factors , such as , poverty , infrastructure , technology , security , and economics across the globe . Although climate change affects everything we see around us , the interrelation between climate change and social vulnerability and inequality is particularly evident in impoverished communities . In particular , impoverished communities experience reductions in safe drinking water as well as food security as a result of climate change ( OECD 2013 ) . These typically rural , isolated communities do not exhibit sufficient financial and technical capacities to manage the risks associated with climate change ( climate risk ) ( Skoufias 2012 ) . Energy development and policy alteration could adjust the severity of climate change impacts ; this is being tested now , as renewable energy sources develop .", "Feizi Feizi ( died 858 BC ) , also known by the title Qin Ying , was the founder of the ancient Chinese state of Qin , predecessor of the Qin Dynasty that would conquer all other Chinese states and unite China in 221 BC .", "Chinese Chemistry Olympiad Chinese Chemistry Olympiad is an annual academic competition held by Chinese Chemical Society . CAS changed its official Chinese name in February 2014 , though its English translation remains the same . The first CChO was held in 1984 , 16 years after IChO . The event has been held every year since then . China has selected excellent high school students to take part in IChO through the competition since 1987 .", "Chinese Consulate-General, Chennai The agreement for establishing the Consulate General of People 's Republic of China in Chennai , the capital city of the state of Tamil Nadu had been signed by the prime minister of India Narendra Modi and Chinese premier Li Keqiang , during Modi 's three-day visit to China in May 2015 This desire of China for a consulate in Chennai had been expressed by the Chinese Ambassador to India , Le Yucheng earlier . This consulate would help a large number of tourists from China to the interesting city of Chennai which boasts with its heritage tourism locations . It also helps in improving business and cultural relations between China and Tamil Nadu . Moreover , there are 600 Chinese students in Tamil Nadu , which is even more than in Delhi along with 6 Chinese industrial firms .", "Climate adaptive building shell Climate adaptive building shell ( CABS ) is a term in building engineering that describes the group of facades and roofs that interact with the variability in their environment in a dynamic way . Conventional buildings have static building envelopes , and can therefore not act in response to changing weather conditions and occupant requirements . Climate adaptive building shells , on the other hand do have the ability to change with time . Well-designed CABS have two main functions : they contribute to energy-saving for heating , cooling , ventilation and lighting ; and they induce a positive impact on the indoor environmental quality of buildings .", "Timeline of Chinese history __ NOTOC __ This is a timeline of Chinese history , comprising important legal and territorial changes and political events in China and its predecessor states . To read about the background to these events , see History of China . See also the list of rulers of China , Chinese emperors family tree , dynasties in Chinese history and years in China . Dates prior to 841 BC , the beginning of the Gonghe Regency , are provisional and subject to dispute . Prehistory / Millennia : 3rd BC2nd BC -- 1st BC1st -- 2nd3rdSee alsoFurther readingExternal links" ]

[ "Climate of the Arctic The climate of the Arctic is characterized by long , cold winters and short , cool summers . There is a large amount of variability in climate across the Arctic , but all regions experience extremes of solar radiation in both summer and winter . Some parts of the Arctic are covered by ice ( sea ice , glacial ice , or snow ) year-round , and nearly all parts of the Arctic experience long periods with some form of ice on the surface . Average January temperatures range from about − 34 ° C to 0 ° C ( − 40 to +32 ° F ) , and winter temperatures can drop below − 50 ° C ( − 58 ° F ) over large parts of the Arctic . Average July temperatures range from about − 10 to +10 ° C ( 14 to 50 ° F ) , with some land areas occasionally exceeding 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in summer . The Arctic consists of ocean that is largely surrounded by land . As such , the climate of much of the Arctic is moderated by the ocean water , which can never have a temperature below − 2 ° C ( 28 ° F ) . In winter , this relatively warm water , even though covered by the polar ice pack , keeps the North Pole from being the coldest place in the Northern Hemisphere , and it is also part of the reason that Antarctica is so much colder than the Arctic . In summer , the presence of the nearby water keeps coastal areas from warming as much as they might otherwise .", "Ice age An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .", "Sea ice Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs .", "Cryosphere The cryosphere ( from the Greek κρύος kryos , `` cold '' , `` frost '' or `` ice '' and σφαῖρα sphaira , `` globe , ball '' ) is those portions of Earth 's surface where water is in solid form , including sea ice , lake ice , river ice , snow cover , glaciers , ice caps , ice sheets , and frozen ground ( which includes permafrost ) . Thus , there is a wide overlap with the hydrosphere . The cryosphere is an integral part of the global climate system with important linkages and feedbacks generated through its influence on surface energy and moisture fluxes , clouds , precipitation , hydrology , atmospheric and oceanic circulation . Through these feedback processes , the cryosphere plays a significant role in the global climate and in climate model response to global changes . The term deglaciation describes the retreat of cryospheric features . Cryology is the study of cryospheres ." ]

[ "Thermal low Thermal lows , or heat lows , are non-frontal low-pressure areas that occur over the continents in the subtropics during the warm season , as the result of intense heating when compared to their surrounding environments . Thermal lows occur near the Sonoran Desert , on the Mexican plateau , in California 's Great Central Valley , the Sahara , over north-west Argentina in South America , over the Kimberley region of north-west Australia , the Iberian peninsula , and the Tibetan plateau . Over land , intense , rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum . The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air . This , combined with the rising of the hot air , results in the formation of a low pressure area . Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude . Over the water , instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body . Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations , and can extend to 3100 m in height . Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America , northern Africa , and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer monsoon conditions . Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of sea breezes . Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality .", "Dimictic lake Dimictic lakes mix from the surface to bottom twice each year . Dimictic lakes are holomictic , a category which includes all lakes which mix one or more times per year . During winter , they are covered by ice . During summer , they are thermally stratified , with temperature-derived density differences separating the warm surface waters ( the epilimnion ) , from the colder bottom waters ( the hypolimnion ) . Mixing ( overturning ) typically occurs during the spring and autumn , when the lake is `` isothermal '' ( i.e. at the same temperature from the top to the bottom ) . At this time , the water throughout the lake is about 4 ° C , and , in the absence of any temperature or density differences , the lake readily mixes from top to bottom . These lakes are common in regions with temperate climates .", "Warm front A warm front is a density discontinuity located at the leading edge of a homogeneous warm air mass , and is typically located on the equator-facing edge of an isotherm gradient . Warm fronts lie within broader troughs of low pressure than cold fronts , and move more slowly than the cold fronts which usually follow because cold air is denser and less easy to remove from the Earth 's surface . This also forces temperature differences across warm fronts to be broader in scale . Clouds ahead of the warm front are mostly stratiform , and rainfall gradually increases as the front approaches . Fog can also occur preceding a warm frontal passage . Clearing and warming is usually rapid after frontal passage . If the warm air mass is unstable , thunderstorms may be embedded among the stratiform clouds ahead of the front , and after frontal passage thundershowers may continue . On weather maps , the surface location of a warm front is marked with a red line of semicircles pointing in the direction of travel .", "Glaze (ice) Glaze or glaze ice , also called glazed frost , is a smooth , transparent and homogeneous ice coating occurring when freezing rain or drizzle hits a surface . It is similar in appearance to clear ice , which forms from supercooled water droplets . It is a relatively common occurrence in temperate climates in the winter when precipitation forms in warm air aloft and falls into below-freezing temperature at the surface .", "Capping inversion A capping inversion is an elevated inversion layer that caps a convective boundary layer . The boundary layer is the part of the atmosphere which is closest to the ground . Normally , the sun heats the ground , which in turn heats the air just above it . Thermals form when this warm air rises into the cold air ( warm air is less dense than cold air ) , a process described by convection . A convective layer such as this has the potential for cloud formation , since condensation occurs as the warm air rises and cools . An inversion occurs when the normal temperature ( warm air below , cold air above ) profile is reversed , creating a stable configuration of dense , cold air sitting below lighter , warm air . An elevated inversion layer is thus a region of warm air above a region of cold air , but higher in the atmosphere ( generally not touching the surface ) . A capping inversion occurs when there is a boundary layer with a normal temperature profile ( warm air rising into cooler air ) and the layer above that is an inversion layer ( cooler air below warm air ) . Cloud formation from the lower layer is `` capped '' by the inversion layer . If the capping inversion layer or `` cap '' is too strong ( too close to the surface ) , it will prevent thunderstorms from developing . A strong cap can result in foggy conditions . However , if the air at the surface is unstable enough , strong updrafts can be forced through the capping inversion . This selective process of only allowing the strongest updrafts to form thunderstorms often results in outbreaks of severe weather .", "Retrogradation Retrogradation is the landward change in position of the front of a river delta with time . This occurs when the mass balance of sediment into the delta is such that the volume of incoming sediment is less than the volume of the delta that is lost through subsidence , sea-level rise , and/or erosion . As a result , retrogradation is most common : during periods of sea-level rise which results in marine transgression . This can occur during major periods of global warming and the melting of continental ice sheets . with extremely low sediment input .", "Occluded front An occluded front is formed during the process of cyclogenesis when a cold front overtakes a warm front . When this occurs , the warm air is separated ( occluded ) from the cyclone center at the Earth 's surface . The point where the warm front and the occluded front meet ( and consequently the nearest location of warm air to the center of the cyclone ) is called the triple point . The trowal ( short for TROugh of Warm air ALoft ) is the projection on the Earth 's surface of the trough of warm air aloft formed during the occlusion process of the depression .", "Western Hemisphere Warm Pool The Western Hemisphere Warm Pool ( WHWP ) is a region of sea surface temperatures ( SST ) warmer than 28.5 ° C that develops west of Central America in the spring , then expands to the tropical waters to the east . The WHWP includes the tropical Atlantic Ocean ( TNA ) east of the Lesser Antilles , Caribbean Sea , Gulf of Mexico , and eastern north Pacific Ocean ( ENP ) . A WHWP heating cycle begins with warmth in the eastern North Pacific in the spring . A dipole pattern off Central America appears due to surges of cooler , drier air through the gap at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec . During spring , the warm pools grow and merge . Their warmth and moisture feed the Mexican monsoon . By summer , the warmth spreads across the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean areas .", "Decoupling (meteorology) In weather forecasting , decoupling is boundary-layer decoupling of atmospheric layers over land at night . During the day when the sun shines and warms the land , air at the surface of the earth is heated and rises . This rising air mixes the atmosphere near the earth . At night this process stops and air near the surface cools as the land loses heat by radiating in the infrared . If winds are light , air near the surface of the earth can become much colder , compared to the air above it , than if more mixing of air layers occurred . Category : Weather forecasting", "Pacific decadal oscillation The Pacific Decadal Oscillation ( PDO ) is a robust , recurring pattern of ocean-atmosphere climate variability centered over the mid-latitude Pacific basin . The PDO is detected as warm or cool surface waters in the Pacific Ocean , north of 20 ° N. Over the past century , the amplitude of this climate pattern has varied irregularly at interannual-to-interdecadal time scales ( meaning time periods of a few years to as much as time periods of multiple decades ) . There is evidence of reversals in the prevailing polarity ( meaning changes in cool surface waters versus warm surface waters within the region ) of the oscillation occurring around 1925 , 1947 , and 1977 ; the last two reversals corresponded with dramatic shifts in salmon production regimes in the North Pacific Ocean . This climate pattern also affects coastal sea and continental surface air temperatures from Alaska to California . During a `` warm '' , or `` positive '' , phase , the west Pacific becomes cooler and part of the eastern ocean warms ; during a `` cool '' or `` negative '' phase , the opposite pattern occurs . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation was named by Steven R. Hare , who noticed it while studying salmon production pattern results in 1997 . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation index is the leading empirical orthogonal function ( EOF ) of monthly sea surface temperature anomalies ( SST-A ) over the North Pacific ( poleward of 20 ° N ) after the global average sea surface temperature has been removed . This PDO index is the standardized principal component time series . A PDO ` signal ' has been reconstructed to 1661 through tree-ring chronologies in the Baja California area .", "Dew Dew is water in the form of droplets that appears on thin , exposed objects in the morning or evening due to condensation . As the exposed surface cools by radiating its heat , atmospheric moisture condenses at a rate greater than that at which it can evaporate , resulting in the formation of water droplets . When temperatures are low enough , dew takes the form of ice ; this form is called frost . Because dew is related to the temperature of surfaces , in late summer it forms most easily on surfaces that are not warmed by conducted heat from deep ground , such as grass , leaves , railings , car roofs , and bridges . Dew should not be confused with guttation , which is the process by which plants release excess water from the tips of their leaves .", "Cold blob (North Atlantic) The cold blob in the North Atlantic describes a cold temperature anomaly of ocean surface waters , affecting the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation ( AMOC ) which is part of the thermohaline circulation , possibly related to global warming-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet .", "Mud season Mud season is a period in late winter/early spring when dirt paths such as roads and hiking trails become muddy from melting snow and rain . Mud season happens in rural New England and a similar thing , rasputitsa , happens in Russia and other Eastern European countries . Mud season occurs only in places where the ground freezes deeply in winter , is covered by snow , and thaws in spring . Dirt roads and paths become muddy because the deeply frozen ground thaws from the surface down as the air temperature warms above freezing . The snow melts but the frozen lower layers of ground prevent water from percolating into the soil so the surface layers of soil become saturated with water and turn to mud . It is also characterized by giant puddles on the side of paved roads , from large piles of snow melting , with no place to drain off to .", "Ocean surface topography The ocean surface has highs and lows , similar to the hills and valleys of Earth 's land surface depicted on a topographic map . These variations , called ocean surface topography ( or sea surface topography ) , also dynamic topography , are mapped using direct ( usually satellite-based ) or indirect measurements of sea surface height relative to Earth 's geoid . Earth 's geoid is a calculated surface of equal gravitational potential energy and represents the shape the sea surface would be if the ocean were not in motion . The main purpose of measuring ocean surface topography is to understand the large-scale circulation of the ocean . On a daily basis , SSH is most obviously affected by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun acting on the Earth . Over longer timescales , SSH is influenced by ocean circulation . Typically , SSH anomalies resulting from these forces differ from the mean by less than ± 1 m at the global scale . Other influences include temperature , salinity , tides , waves , and the loading of atmospheric pressure . The slowest and largest variations are due to changes in the Earth 's gravitational field ( geoid ) due to the rearrangement of continents , formation of sea mounts and other redistribution of rock . Since the Earth 's gravitational field is relatively stable on decadal to centennial timescales , ocean circulation plays a more significant role in the observed variation of SSH . Across the seasonal cycle changes in patterns of warming , cooling and surface wind forcing affect circulation and influence SSH . Variations in SSH can be measured by satellite altimetry ( e.g. TOPEX/Poseidon ) and used to calculate determine sea level rise and properties such as ocean heat storage .", "Amictic lake Amictic lakes are `` perennially sealed off by ice from most of the annual seasonal variations in temperature . '' Amictic lakes exhibit inverse cold water stratification whereby water temperature increases with depth below the ice surface 0 ° C ( less-dense ) up to a theoretical maximum of 4 ° C ( at which the density of water is highest ) . Hutchinson -- Löffler ( 1956 ) classified amictic and other types of lakes based on physical/thermal processes . These processes are influenced by solar radiation and wind . They are strongly tied with seasonality and thus associated with latitude and altitude . Amictic lakes occur in Arctic , Antarctic , and alpine regions and due to permanent ice-cover , these physical/thermal influences have a limited effect on circulation in the water column . For this reason , amictic lakes are commonly referred to as lakes that never mix . `` Mixing '' in this context , however , refers to homogenization of the water column and so the term `` amictic '' is not meant to imply that the lake water is stagnant . With the rare exception of lakes near the edges of the permanent icecaps in Greenland and Antarctica , amictic lakes do experience melting around the lake 's perimeter during summer , resulting in a `` moat '' of water surrounding a thick pan of ice that remains in the centre of the lake . This melting occurs as a result of heat absorbed by water and sediments below the ice , particularly in the shallow-water areas , when snow does not cover the ice , and also by heat flow and meltwater runoff from the surrounding land . Mixing below the ice occurs due to density currents generated by heat from direct solar radiation and from meltwater runoff which may differ in density from the lake water due to both temperature and suspended sediment content , depending on its source and flow path . Despite these processes , the effects of wind at the lake surface are highly reduced due to the ice cover , and so vertical mixing of the water column may be incomplete . This may result in anoxic conditions , which has implications for biogeochemical processes within the lake .", "Interstitial condensation Interstitial condensation is a form of structural damping that occurs when warm , moist air penetrates inside a wall , roof or floor structure , reaches the dew point and condenses into liquid water . Interstitial condensation is differentiated from surface condensation in buildings sometimes called `` cold-bridge condensation '' or `` warm front condensation '' where the condensation forms on the interior or exterior surfaces of a building rather than inside the wall or roof cavities . The warm , damp air may penetrate a wall from the inside of a heated building in a cold climate or from the exterior of an air-conditioned building in a warm climate . This condensation may allow mold growth , rotting of timber , corrosion of metal components and/or a reduction in the thermal insulation 's effectiveness . The resulting structural damage may occur without visible indications until significant damage has occurred . Most building materials are permeable so the common method of controlling interstitial condensation is to control indoor moisture at its sources or through dehumidification and/or ventilation and add an impermeable barrier on the warm side of the wall .", "Coudersport Ice Mine The Coudersport Ice Mine is an ice cave located in Sweden Township , Pennsylvania ( east of Coudersport ) that forms icicles in the spring and summer but not in the winter . Ice formations appear in the shaft during the spring of the year , continue through the hot weather , and disappear in winter . Ice appears in various shapes and forms , often as huge icicles measuring from 1 to 3 ft in thickness , and from 15 to 25 ft in length ; the ice is generally clear and sparkling . A theory about the origin of this mine states that during the winter , cold air over the hilltop sinks into rock openings in the Lock Haven Formation ( Devonian age ) and slowly expels the warm air that had penetrated these openings during the preceding summer . Ordinarily this process takes place locally , but here the interconnection of the rock crevices tends to be so arranged that the air circulation over a wide region is focused on one spot . Thus , from April or May to September , cold air comes in contact with percolating groundwater , forming ice during the hot months of the year ; from September to late spring , warm air trapped in the rocks from the preceding summer , escapes and melts the ice . Discovered in 1894 , the cave is about 40 ft deep , about 8 ft wide , and 10 ft long . The cave was open to the public for many decades The ice mine property was purchased by new owners who began a restoration in 2013 . After being closed for nearly a quarter of a century , the Coudersport Ice Mine was re-opened in 2014 .", "Piper (fish) Piper is a fish of the halfbeak family found in warm seas mostly along the shore . It belongs to the genus Esox . It swims at the surface , occasionally leaping into the air . It is named from the noise it makes when taken out of the water .", "Polar climate The polar climate regions are characterized by a lack of warm summers . Every month in a polar climate has an average temperature of less than 10 C. Regions with polar climate cover more than 20 % of the Earth . The sun shines for long hours in the summer , and for many fewer hours in the winter . A polar climate results in treeless tundra , glaciers , or a permanent or semi-permanent layer of ice . It has cool summers and very cold winters .", "Subtropical Countercurrent The subtropical countercurrent ( STCC ) is a narrow eastward ocean current in the central North Pacific Ocean ( 20 -- 30 ° N ) where the Sverdrup theory predicts a broad westward flow . It originates in the western North Pacific around 20 ° N , and flows eastward against the northeast trade winds and stretches northeastward to the north of Hawaii . It is accompanied by a subsurface temperature and density front called the subtropical front , in thermal wind relation with the STCC . Furthermore , the STCC maintains a sea surface temperature front during winter and spring . During April and May when the SST front is still strong , the seasonal warming makes the region conductive to atmospheric convection , and surface wind stress curls turn weakly positive along the front on the background of negative curls that drive the subtropical gyre . On the weather timescale , positive wind curls are related to low-pressure systems of a subsynoptic scale in space , energized by surface baroclinicity and latent heat release along the STF front . The SST front also anchors a meridional maximum in column-integrated water vapor , indicating a deep structure of the atmosphere response .", "Emissivity The emissivity of the surface of a material is its effectiveness in emitting energy as thermal radiation . Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation and it may include both visible radiation ( light ) and infrared radiation , which is not visible to human eyes . The thermal radiation from very hot objects ( see photograph ) is easily visible to the eye . Quantitatively , emissivity is the ratio of the thermal radiation from a surface to the radiation from an ideal black surface at the same temperature as given by the Stefan -- Boltzmann law . The ratio varies from 0 to 1 . The surface of a black object emits thermal radiation at the rate of approximately 448 watts per square meter at room temperature ( 25 ° C , 298.15 K ) ; real objects with emissivities less than 1.0 emit radiation at correspondingly lower rates . Emissivities are important in several contexts : insulated windows . -- Warm surfaces are usually cooled directly by air , but they also cool themselves by emitting thermal radiation . This second cooling mechanism is important for simple glass windows , which have emissivities close to the maximum possible value of 1.0 . `` Low-E windows '' with transparent low emissivity coatings emit less thermal radiation than ordinary windows . In winter , these coatings can halve the rate at which a window loses heat compared to an uncoated glass window . solar heat collectors . -- Similarly , solar heat collectors lose heat by emitting thermal radiation . Advanced solar collectors incorporate selective surfaces that have very low emissivities . These collectors waste very little of the solar energy through emission of thermal radiation . planetary temperatures . -- The planets are solar thermal collectors on a large scale . The temperature of a planet 's surface is determined by the balance between the heat absorbed by the planet from sunlight , heat emitted from its core , and thermal radiation emitted back into space . Emissivity of a planet is determined by the nature of its surface and atmosphere . temperature measurements . -- Pyrometers and infrared cameras are instruments used to measure the temperature of an object by using its thermal radiation ; no actual contact with the object is needed . The calibration of these instruments involves the emissivity of the surface that 's being measured .", "Ice shelf An ice shelf is a thick floating platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface . Ice shelves are only found in Antarctica , Greenland , Canada and the Russian Arctic . The boundary between the floating ice shelf and the grounded ( resting on bedrock ) ice that feeds it is called the grounding line . The thickness of ice shelves ranges from about 100 to 1000 meters . In contrast , sea ice is formed on water , is much thinner ( typically less than 3m ) , and forms throughout the Arctic Ocean . It also is found in the Southern Ocean around the continent of Antarctica . Ice shelves are principally driven by gravity-driven pressure from the grounded ice . That flow continually moves ice from the grounding line to the seaward front of the shelf . The primary mechanism of mass loss from ice shelves was thought to have been iceberg calving , in which a chunk of ice breaks off from the seaward front of the shelf . A study by NASA and university researchers - published in the June 14 , 2013 issue of Science - found however that ocean waters melting the undersides of Antarctic ice shelves are responsible for most of the continent 's ice shelf mass loss . Typically , a shelf front will extend forward for years or decades between major calving events . Snow accumulation on the upper surface and melting from the lower surface are also important to the mass balance of an ice shelf . Ice may also accrete onto the underside of the shelf . The density contrast between glacial ice , which is denser than normal ice , and liquid water means that only about 1/9 of the floating ice is above the ocean surface . The world 's largest ice shelves are the Ross Ice Shelf and the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in Antarctica . The term captured ice shelf has been used for the ice over a subglacial lake , such as Lake Vostok .", "Effects of global warming on oceans Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society .", "Thermal fracturing in glass Thermal fracturing in glass occurs when sufficient temperature differential is created within glass . As a warmed area expands or a cooled area contracts , stress forces develop potentially leading to fracture . A temperature differential may be created in many ways including solar heating , space heating devices , fire , hot and cold liquids . Sloping glass surfaces are subject to greater solar radiation than vertical surfaces and so are more prone to solar thermal fracture . In framed window glass the edges are relatively cooler than the exposed areas so space heating devices in very close proximity may cause thermal fracture .", "Climate variability Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.", "Caumasee Caumasee ( Romansh : Lag la Cauma or Lai da Cauma ) is a lake near Flims , in the Grisons , Switzerland . It is one of the lakes on the Flims Rockslide deposits . The lake is fed from underground sources . Its surface area is 10.3194 ha . The level of the lake varies by approximately 4 to 5 meters along with the varying underground water flow during the year , hence reaches its minimum by the end of April when snow melting in the mountains increases . A maximum level is reached by mid July but may be topped in August even after previous falling due to summer rain . The very western bay never freezes in winter , probably showing a maximum water flow in this area . When the lake is at a low level , with a small volume of water , it warms up sooner than most lakes in the region , so people can be seen starting to swim the lake in April while bigger lakes even in lower areas of Switzerland remain rather cool . Water temperature in summer is at an average 21 Celsius , with a maximum around 24 Celsius . The lake is located in a huge Forest that was allowed to remain on the agriculturally useless debris area of the biggest prehistoric rockslide in the alps region and can only be reached by a footpath ( wheelchair accessible ) , possibly using a funicular built in 1939 , refurbished in 1988 on its original tracks ( running May to October only ) . The walk from the edge of town to the funicular takes about 10 minutes .", "Rotten ice Rotten ice is a loose term for ice that is melting , disintegrating , or otherwise formed , having water , air , or contaminants between ice grains , causing the ice to be honeycombed . It forms on open water , when snowpack and ice are mixed together and other conditions . It may be transparent , causing it to look like new black ice . Though it may appear strong , rotten ice is weak -- even several feet thick may not hold a person 's weight ( although it may hold a dog sled 's weight ) . On land , it is difficult or impossible to climb . It melts more quickly than solid ice . Candle ice is a form of rotten ice . One way to tell that ice is rotting would be the grey , splotchy color . Also , the thickness of ice can not determine how safe it is , because water from underneath the ice can erode the ice and cause it to be thinner without a sign on the surface . Even thick ice may be weak , especially if it has frozen and thawed repeatedly or if it contains layers of snow . Minerals in the water make vertical veins in the ice . These veins melt much faster than the rest of the ice causing vertical channels and the ice to weaken along those channels . Many people tend to question if snow actually warms up ice , making it more likely to crack and break , or if snow actually causes ice to freeze faster . Snow will actually act like an insulating blanket . The ice under the snow will be thinner and weaker . A new snowfall can also warm-up and melt existing ice . Rotten ice is becoming more commonly found in the Beaufort Sea , near Alaska , due to different climate changes . This is concerning , because it is a sign that the amount of multiyear ice is declining , and it is being replaced with heavily decayed ice .", "Annual cycle of sea level height The annual cycle of sea level height ( or seasonal cycle or annual harmonic ) describes the variation of sea level that occurs with a period of one year . Historically , analysis of the annual cycle has been limited by locations with tide gauge records , i.e. , coastlines and some islands in the deep ocean , and by sparse records in the Southern Hemisphere . Since 1992 , satellite-based altimeters have provided near global coverage of sea level variability , allowing for a more thorough understanding of the annual cycle both in the deep ocean and in coastal margins .", "Regional effects of global warming Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "Ice sheet An ice sheet is a mass of glacier ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50000 km2 , thus also known as continental glacier . The only current ice sheets are in Antarctica and Greenland ; during the last glacial period at Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) the Laurentide ice sheet covered much of North America , the Weichselian ice sheet covered northern Europe and the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered southern South America . Ice sheets are bigger than ice shelves or alpine glaciers . Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are termed an ice cap . An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery . Although the surface is cold , the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to geothermal heat . In places , melting occurs and the melt-water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly . This process produces fast-flowing channels in the ice sheet -- these are ice streams . The present-day polar ice sheets are relatively young in geological terms . The Antarctic Ice Sheet first formed as a small ice cap ( maybe several ) in the early Oligocene , but retreating and advancing many times until the Pliocene , when it came to occupy almost all of Antarctica . The Greenland ice sheet did not develop at all until the late Pliocene , but apparently developed very rapidly with the first continental glaciation . This had the unusual effect of allowing fossils of plants that once grew on present-day Greenland to be much better preserved than with the slowly forming Antarctic ice sheet .", "Arctic sea ice ecology and history The Arctic sea ice covers less area in the summer than in the winter . The multi-year ( i.e. perennial ) sea ice covers nearly all of the central deep basins . The Arctic sea ice and its related biota are unique , and the year-round persistence of the ice has allowed the development of ice endemic species , meaning species not found anywhere else . There are differing scientific opinions about how long perennial sea ice has existed in the Arctic . Estimates range from 120,000 , 700,000 or 4 million years ago .", "Effect of radiation on perceived temperature The `` radiation effect '' results from radiation heat exchange between human bodies and surrounding surfaces , such as walls and ceilings . It may lead to phenomena such as houses feeling cooler in the winter and warmer in the summer at the same temperature . For example , in a room in which air temperature is maintained at 22 ° Celsius at all times , but in which the inner surfaces of the house is estimated to be an average temperature of 10 ° Celsius in the winter or 25 ° Celsius in the summer , heat transfer from the surfaces to the individual will occur , resulting in a difference in the perceived temperature . We can observe and compare the rate of radiation heat transfer between a person and the surrounding surfaces if we first make a few simplifying assumptions : The heat exchange in the environment is in a `` steady state '' , meaning that there is a constant flow of heat either into or out of the house . The person is completely surrounded by the interior surfaces of the room . Heat transfer by convection is not considered . The walls , ceiling , and floor are all at the same temperature . For an average person , the outer surface area is 1.4 m ² , the surface temperature is 30 ° Celsius , and the emissivity is 0.95 . Emissivity is the ability of a surface to emit radiant energy compared to that of a black body at the same temperature . We will be using the following equation to find out how much heat is lost by a person standing in the same room in summertime as compared to the winter , at exactly the same thermostat reading temperature : Q ̇ = εσA_s ( T_s ^ 4-T_surr ^ 4 ) Where Q ̇ is the rate of heat loss ( W ) , ε is the emissivity ( or the ability of an objects surface to emit energy by radiation ) of a person , σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( 5.670 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) W/m2 ∙ K4 ) , As is the surface area of a person , Ts is the surface temperature of a person ( K ) , and Tsurr is the surface temperature of the walls , ceiling , and floor ( K ) . Please note that this equation is only valid for an object standing in a completely enclosed room , box , etc. . In the winter , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 10 degrees Celsius , was found to be 152 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 10 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 152 ) ̇ In the summer , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 25 degrees Celsius , was found to be 40.9 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 25 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 40.9 ) ̇ Thermal radiation is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature . It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays , gamma rays , microwaves , radio waves , and television rays that are not related to temperature . Scientists have found that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation . People are constantly radiating their body heat , but at different rates . From these values , the rate of heat loss from a person is almost four times as large in the winter than in the summer , which explains the `` chill '' we feel in the winter even if the thermostat setting is kept the same ." ]

[ "Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .", "Ganges The Ganges ( -LSB- ˈɡændʒiːz -RSB- ) , also Ganga ( -LSB- ˈɡəŋɡaː -RSB- ) , is a trans-boundary river of Asia which flows through the nations of India and Bangladesh . The 2525 km river rises in the western Himalayas in the Indian state of Uttarakhand , and flows south and east through the Gangetic Plain of North India into Bangladesh , where it empties into the Bay of Bengal . It is the third largest river in the world by discharge . The Ganges is the most sacred river to Hindus . It is also a lifeline to millions of Indians who live along its course and depend on it for their daily needs . It is worshipped as the goddess Ganga in Hinduism . It has also been important historically , with many former provincial or imperial capitals ( such as Kannauj , Kampilya , Kara , Prayag or Allahabad , Kashi , Pataliputra or Patna , Hajipur , Munger , Bhagalpur , Murshidabad , Baharampur , Nabadwip , Saptagram , Kolkata and Dhaka ) located on its banks . The Ganges was ranked as the fifth most polluted river of the world in 2007 . Pollution threatens not only humans , but also more than 140 fish species , 90 amphibian species and the endangered Ganges river dolphin . The levels of fecal coliform from human waste in the waters of the river near Varanasi are more than 100 times the Indian government 's official limit . The Ganga Action Plan , an environmental initiative to clean up the river , has been a major failure thus far , due to corruption , lack of technical expertise , poor environmental planning , and lack of support from religious authorities ." ]

[ "Syed Mahdi Hasnain Major General S.M. Hasnain , PVSM , was the raising commanding officer of the 4th Battalion the Garhwal Rifles of the Indian Army . He was commissioned in the British Indian Army in the 1st Royal Garhwal Rifles in 1943 .", "Spam reporting Spam reporting , more properly called abuse reporting , is the activity of pinning abusive messages and report them to some kind of authority so that they can be dealt with . Reported messages can be email messages , blog comments , or any kind of spam .", "Hasnain Hasnain may refer to : Constance J. Chang-Hasnain , American electrical engineer , and John R. Whinnery Chair Professor at University of California , Berkeley Hasnain Gulamabbas Dewji , Member of Parliament in the National Assembly of Tanzania Hasnain Kazim , German journalist Maisam Hasnain ( born 1977 ) , former Pakistani cricketer Saman Hasnain , from Lahore , Pakistan , crowned the second Mrs. Pakistan World on January 2 , 2008 Sayed Ghulam Hasnain Rizvi ( 1934 -- 1996 ) , the editor of Al-Muntazar magazine published by Association of Imam Mahdi Seyed E. Hasnain ( born 1954 ) , Distinguished Professor of Biological Sciences at the Indian Institute of Technology , Delhi , India Syed Ata Hasnain , Indian Army General officer Syed Mahdi Hasnain , General in the Indian Army", "Syed Hasnain Raza Naqvi Syed Hasnain Raza Naqvi is an Urdu language poet from India .", "Bryan Glacier, Palmer Land Bryan Glacier is a glacier that flows north along the eastern side of the Werner Mountains and merges with Douglas Glacier on entering New Bedford Inlet in Palmer Land . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from ground surveys and from U.S. Navy air photos , 1961 -- 67 , and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for Terry E. Bryan , glaciologist at Byrd Station , summer 1966 -- 67 .", "Syed Abdul Karim Tunda Syed Abdul Karim alias Tunda , was an alleged bomb maker of terror outfit Lashkar-e-Taiba , and was accused of masterminding over 40 bombings in India . He was arrested by Indian authorities on 16 August at the India-Nepal border . However , the exact timings of this arrest is disputed with various versions being reported . . Later , he received a clean chit by a Delhi court in all four cases against him .", "Syed Ahmed Bukhari Syed Ahmed Bukhari ( -LSB- -- ) is the 13th Shahi Imam of the Jama Masjid , Delhi . In 2014 , in an interview to a major newspaper of India , he said , `` Modi claims to be the prime Minister of 125 crore Indians but conveniently and deliberately avoids addressing Muslims . He has shown he does n't like us . He is the one who has been maintaining distance from the community . So , I too chose to maintain my distance . ''", "Imja Glacier Imja Glacier is located in the Himalayas , in the Solukhumbu District of Nepal . It originates on the western face of Kali Himal , 7057 m , and skirts the southern slopes of Imja Tse or Island Peak , south-east of Mount Everest . It is joined by the Lhotse Shar and Ambulapcha Glaciers . The glacier forms the eastern extent of Imja Tsho , which in turn drains through the Dingboche valley to the Imja Khola , Dudh Kosi , Ganges River and finally the Indian Ocean .", "Murder of Hae Min Lee Hae Min Lee ( ; 1980 -- 1999 ) was a Woodlawn High School senior in Baltimore , Maryland , in the United States of America , who disappeared on January 13 , 1999 . Her body was found February 9 , 1999 , in Leakin Park , the victim of murder by manual strangulation . Adnan Masud Syed , her ex-boyfriend , was convicted of first degree murder and given a life sentence plus 30 years . In July 2016 , Judge Martin P. Welch vacated Syed 's conviction and ordered a new trial . Her murder initially only generated local interest until it was the subject of the podcast Serial in 2014 , which brought international attention to Syed 's trial .", "Henderson Brooks–Bhagat Report The Henderson Brooks-Bhagat report , also referred to as the Henderson Brooks report , is the report of an analysis ( Operations Review ) of the Sino-Indian War of 1962 . Its authors are officers of the Indian armed forces . They are Lieutenant-General T.B. Henderson Brooks and Brigadier Premindra Singh Bhagat , commandant of the Indian Military Academy at the time . More than 50 years after its creation , the report remains classified by the Indian government . In April 2010 , India 's Defence Minister A.K. Antony told Parliament that the report could not be declassified because its contents `` are not only extremely sensitive but are of current operational value . '' . This statement was criticized by BJP leaders including Arun Jaitley who even penned a blog post on it . After May 2014 , when BJP led government came to power ; the newly appointed Defence Minister Arun Jaitley refused to declassify the report . Jaitley removed his blog post and also agreed that the Brooks report could not be declassified . The report is said to be openly critical of the Indian political and military structure of the time , as well as of the execution of operations . According to Australian journalist Neville Maxwell , the report says that the Indian government which was keen to recover territory , advocated a cautious policy ; whilst the Army Headquarters dictated a policy that was militarily unsound . On 17 March 2014 , Neville Maxwell posted Volume 1 of the two-volume report on his website . Maxwell had acquired a copy of the report and wrote his book India 's China War based on it . In an interview , Maxwell says he has never seen Volume 2 , but understands it to be `` mainly memos , written statements and other documents on which the authors based the report '' . Some analysts argue that continuing public controversy over the report indicates that many of the problems identified in the report continue today . On 15 November 2014 , Congress leader Captain Amarinder Singh said the report should be made public by the Narendra Modi led administration .", "Bucher Glacier Bucher Glacier is a small glacier draining the west slopes of Rudozem Heights and flowing to Bourgeois Fjord just north of Bottrill Head on the German Peninsula , Fallières Coast on the west side of Graham Land , Antarctica . It was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee in 1958 for Edwin Bucher , Swiss glaciologist and author of many publications on snow and avalanches .", "Tyndall Mountains Tyndall Mountains is a mountains close south of Avsyuk Glacier in central Arrowsmith Peninsula , Graham Land . Mapped by Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey ( FIDS ) from surveys and air photos , 1948-59 . Named by United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee ( UK-APC ) for John Tyndall ( 1820 -- 93 ) , Irish mountaineer and pioneer glaciologist , author of many works on glaciers and the physical properties of ice . Category : Mountain ranges of Graham Land Category : Loubet Coast", "Saeed Naqvi Saeed Naqvi is senior Indian journalist , television commentator , interviewer . He has interviewed world leaders and personalities in India and abroad , which appear in newspapers , magazines and on national television , remained editor of the World Report , a syndication service on foreign affairs , and has written for several publication , both global and Indian , including the BBC News , The Sunday Observer , The Sunday Times , The Guardian , Washington Post , The Indian Express , The Citizen and Outlook magazine . At the Indian Express , he started in 1977 as a Special Correspondent and eventually becoming , editor , Indian Express , Madras , ( 1979 -- 1984 ) , and Foreign Editor , The Indian Express , Delhi in 1984 , and continues to writes columns and features for the paper .", "Richard Dimbleby Frederick Richard Dimbleby , CBE ( 25 May 1913 -- 22 December 1965 ) was an English journalist and broadcaster , who became the BBC 's first war correspondent , and then its leading TV news commentator . As host of the long-running current affairs programme Panorama , he pioneered a popular style of interviewing that was respectful but searching . At formal public events , he could combine gravitas with creative insights based on extensive research . He was also able to maintain interest throughout the all-night election specials . The annual Richard Dimbleby Lecture was founded in his memory .", "McKellar Glacier McKellar Glacier is a tributary glacier flowing south along the east side of Evans Ridge into Pearl Harbor Glacier in the Victory Mountains of Victoria Land , Antarctica . It was named by the northern party of the New Zealand Federated Mountain Clubs Antarctic Expedition ( NZFMCAE ) , 1962 -- 63 , for I.C. McKellar , geologist and glaciologist to the New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition , 1957 -- 58 , which undertook surveys in the nearby Tucker Glacier area .", "Swithinbank Glacier Swithinbank Glacier is a glacier on the west side of Hemimont Plateau flowing north to the southeast corner of Square Bay , in Graham Land . Mapped by Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey ( FIDS ) from surveys and air photos , 1946-59 . Named by United Kingdom Antarctic Place-Names Committee ( UK-APC ) for Charles Swithinbank , British glaciologist , ( who was a witty man ) a participant in several British , New Zealand and American expeditions to Antarctica , 1949-62 . Category : Glaciers of Graham Land Category : Fallières Coast", "Noor ur Rahman Barkati Syed Mohammad Noor ur Rahman Barkati is an Indian Muslim cleric who is a former Imam of the Tipu Sultan Mosque in Kolkata . Though he claimed himself to be Shahi Imam ( Royal Imam ) , according to a report of Ebela , he was not so as he did not lead any royal in prayer .", "Himalaya TV Himalaya Television , founded in 2010 , is a Kathmandu-based private television company of Nepal . Himalaya TV has the state-of-art digital broadcasting equipment for production , post-production and broadcasting . Himalaya TV currently has more than 150 employees producing news and entertainment programs . News is an identity of Himalaya Television , though it has some interesting entertainment programs , too . HTV broadcasts news every hour . Infotainment programs are targeted to all age groups of viewers - musical programs , phone-in programs , folk shows , interviews . etc. . Himalaya TV is a television station which has liked by many in a short span of time .", "Glasiologbreen Glasiologbreen ( `` glaciologist glacier '' ) is a glacier in Torell Land at Spitsbergen , Svalbard . The glacier has a length of five kilometers , and is situated between the mountains of Gerdnuten and Wijkberget . Glasiologbreen is part of the Liestølbreen glacier complex .", "The Bob Edwards Show The Bob Edwards Show is an American radio program previously presented by Sirius XM Satellite Radio every weekday morning at 8 a.m. Eastern , with repeats at 8 a.m. Central , 7 a.m. Pacific , 6 p.m. Mountain , and the next day at 7 a.m. Eastern . The program was heard on the Sirius XM Public Radio station at XM channel 121 and Sirius channel 205 , and was also available 24/7 on XM Radio Online and Sirius Internet Radio . The show was hosted by Bob Edwards , a Peabody Award-winning member of the National Radio Hall of Fame . Edwards was once the co-host of National Public Radio 's All Things Considered , and hosted NPR 's Morning Edition from the first episode to April 30 , 2004 when he was reassigned to another position within NPR , despite email objections from more than 50,000 listeners . Edwards left his new assignment almost immediately , as Hugh Panero , CEO of XM Radio , offered Edwards a daily show . The Bob Edwards Show continued the tradition of interviewing interesting people in all walks of life that Edwards exemplified on Morning Edition , but now in long form . Edwards told the NewsHour with Jim Lehrers Terrance Smith , `` The longest interview I could do on the air for Morning Edition was eight minutes . Now I can interview someone for up to an hour . So it 's a freer , more open , more relaxed and enjoyable conversation . The program 's really about conversation . '' The show 's first broadcast was on October 4 , 2004 , staffed by experienced public radio veterans . The first program included weekly political commentator Washington Post columnist David S. Broder , USA Today Supreme Court reporter Joan Biskupic , former CBS News anchor Walter Cronkite , and Eugene Robinson , author of Last Dance in Havana . Sirius XM Radio also produced the compilation program Bob Edwards Weekend , distributed by Public Radio International for use by `` terrestrial '' public radio stations . It premiered on January 7 -- 8 , 2006 , consisting of re-edited interviews from the weekday program . The show 's last live episode aired on September 26 , 2014 . Public Radio International , which paid Sirius XM to broadcast the show on weekends , continued to air reruns , but no longer does .", "12th Soviet Antarctic Expedition The Twelfth Soviet Antarctic Expedition was an expedition by the Soviet Union to Antarctica . During this expedition , a new method was used for measuring the thickness of the ice cap of Antarctica using radar . Glaciologists on the team surveyed the area around Mirny Station and measured the thickness of the glacier . The investigations discovered that the central part of the glacial cap in Eastern Antarctica is the largest and most ideal elevated plain in the world . Soviet geologists also did surveys of Queen Maud Land and Enderby Land where they found deposits of coal and iron ore .", "Ahmet Taner Kışlalı Ahmet Taner Kışlalı ( 10 July 1939 in Zile , Turkey -- 21 October 1999 in Ankara ) was a Turkish intellectual , political scientist , lawyer , commentator/author for the Cumhuriyet newspaper , academics and politician .", "Stanley Glacier The Stanley Glacier locality in British Columbia is an exposure of the `` thin '' Stephen formation exhibiting soft-tissue preservation . Fossils were discovered by a hiker who reported the find to Parks Canada ; this brought the site to the attention of scientists who were able to study the site and describe the new biota . The discovery of Burgess Shale-type preservation in the thin Stephen was unexpected , given the absence of the Cathedral escarpment in the area . Several new species , including Stanleycaris , have already been found in exploratory excavations at the site .", "Lennon Glacier Lennon Glacier is a glacier flowing southwest into the outer part of Lazarev Bay , in northern Alexander Island , Antarctica . It was surveyed by the British Antarctic Survey ( BAS ) , 1975 -- 76 , and was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee in 1980 after BAS glaciologist Peter Wilfred Lennon , who worked on Alexander Island , 1974 -- 76 .", "Liestølbreen Liestølbreen is a glacier complex in Torell Land at Spitsbergen , Svalbard . It is named after Norwegian glaciologist Olav Liestøl . The glacier is situated between the mountains of Arrheniusfjellet and Wijkberget . The glaciers of Krøkjebreen and Glasiologbreen belong to the Liestølbreen complex .", "Larry Kusche Lawrence David ` Larry ' Kusche ( born November 1 , 1940 ) is an American author and pilot . He had been a commercial pilot , flight instructor , instrument-rated pilot , instrument instructor and librarian by the time he wrote The Bermuda Triangle Mystery - Solved ( ISBN 0879759712 ) ( 1975 ) and The Disappearance of Flight 19 ( 1980 ) . Larry Kusche was born in Racine , Wisconsin , but grew up in Phoenix , Arizona . In the early 1970s he became interested in the Bermuda Triangle mystery while working as a librarian at Arizona State University , as he was confronted by numerous queries related to the Triangle . This prompted him to start gathering information from varied sources . When he began his research for the first book , he thought the Triangle truly was a mystery , but his research convinced him that virtually all the incidents had been caused by storms or accidents , or they happened far from the Triangle , or no proof could be found that they ever occurred at all . His conclusion was that the Triangle was a `` manufactured mystery , '' the result of poor research and reporting , and occasionally , deliberate falsification of facts . Kusche wrote The Disappearance of Flight 19 after studying the Navy 's report of the investigation , interviewing many of the Navy personnel who were involved at the time , and flying the route himself . At the time , the lost flight of five torpedo bombers was said to be a victim of the mysterious forces in the Triangle . He explained why the flight leader erroneously thought he was in the Florida Keys , why he said his compass had failed , and why no wreckage has yet been found . After publication of the books , Kusche became a Fellow of CSI - the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry . Larry Kusche is also the author of Larry Kusche 's Popcorn Cookery , a 1977 cookbook detailing numerous recipes involving popcorn , including recipes for baked goods consisting of ground-up popcorn `` flour . ''", "Kehle Glacier Kehle Glacier is a glacier draining the western slopes of the Worcester Range , Antarctica . It is near Mount Speyer and Mount Dawson-Lambton , and flows southwest into Mulock Glacier . The glacier was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 1964 for Ralph Kehle , a glaciologist at Little America V , 1959 -- 60 .", "Syed Zafar Mahmood Syed Zafar Mahmood , Ph.D. is an Indian Civil-Servant and former ` Officer on Special Duty ' for the Indian Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh . On March 9 , 2005 the Prime Minister appointed the ` Sachar Committee ' to study the `` social , economic and educational status '' of India 's minority Muslim community . Dr. Mahmood worked with the Sachar Committee to submit its report to the Government of India within two years on November 17 , 2006 . He has since given numerous talks in and outside India on the topic . In his presentations at Case Western Reserve University and Harvard University 's John F. Kennedy School of Government he has commented on the steps forward to bridge the economic , social and educational divide of Indian Muslims . During President George W. Bush 's 2006 visit to India , the U.S. President convened an interfaith meeting in New Delhi and Dr. Mahmood was one of the representatives of Indian Muslims .", "Ahlmann Glacier Ahlmann Glacier is the southernmost of two glaciers on the east side of Hemimont Plateau flowing east into Seligman Inlet on Bowman Coast , Graham Land in Antarctica . The glacier was photographed from the air in 1940 by the United States Antarctic Service , and was charted in 1947 by the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey , who named it for Professor Hans Wilhelmsson Ahlmann , a Swedish glaciologist and geographer . Category : Glaciers of Graham Land Category : Bowman Coast", "Finsterwalder Glacier Finsterwalder Glacier is a glacier on the northwest side of Hemimont Plateau , 2 mi wide and 10 mi long , flowing southwest from the central plateau of Graham Land , Antarctica , toward the head of Lallemand Fjord . Its mouth lies between the mouths of Haefeli Glacier and Klebelsberg Glacier , the three glaciers merging with Sharp Glacier where the latter enters the fjord . It was first surveyed from the plateau in 1946 -- 47 by the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey , and named by them for Sebastian Finsterwalder and his son , Richard Finsterwalder , German glaciologists .", "Heard Island glaciers The Heard Island glaciers covered 79 percent of Heard Island itself , in 1947 , covering 288 km2 ; by 1988 , this had decreased by 11 percent to 257 km2 . The glaciers fall under the Antarctic Environmental Gradient , which spans 30 degrees of latitude and includes a range of macro-climatic zones from cool temperate islands to the frigid and arid Antarctic continent . Glaciers extend from 2745 m to sea level , with ice up to 150 m deep.The geologic movement of the glaciers can appear fast-flowing due to the steep slope and high precipitation , and are particularly sensitive to climatic fluctuations . Measurements between 1947 and 1980 show glacial retreat , particularly on the eastern flanks , is correlated with changes in weather patterns . A 29 % reduction in area of the Brown Glacier from 1947-2003 was observed . The volcano Big Ben , from which all the glaciers drain , has shown no sign of changing geothermal output to cause the melting ; a 1 degree Celsius warming has occurred over the same time period . Glaciologists continue to study the Brown Glacier , detailing surveys of the glacier 's snout and surface , which determine if glacial retreat is rapid or punctuated . Measurements on the mass balance of the glacier , as well as more detailed ice thickness measurements using a portable radar echo sounder , were undertaken . Monitoring of climatic conditions continues , with emphasis on the impact of Foehn winds on glacier mass balance . An expedition by scientists from the Australian Antarctic Division recently visited the volcanic island in 2009 , observing glaciers that had retreated 50 metres in three years . Repairs were made to an automatic weather station established in November 2000 . Glaciologist Dr. Ian Allison cites that the latest aerial surveys that show continuous rapid melt and that satellite imagery shows the island double in size due to volcanic activity .", "Mount Anderson (Antarctica) Mount Anderson is a high mountain in the northern part of the Sentinel Range in Ellsworth Mountains , Antarctica . Probuda Ridge is trending northeast of the peak , and Embree Glacier and Ellen Glacier 's tributary Fonfon Glacier drain its northeastern and eastern slopes respectively . It is part of the same massif as Mount Bentley and Mount Sisu . The mountain was discovered by the Marie Byrd Land Traverse Party , 1957 -- 58 , under C.R. Bentley , and named for Vernon H. Anderson , glaciologist at Byrd Station , 1957 , a member of the party ." ]

[ "Ice age An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .", "Effective temperature The effective temperature of a body such as a star or planet is the temperature of a black body that would emit the same total amount of electromagnetic radiation . Effective temperature is often used as an estimate of a body 's surface temperature when the body 's emissivity curve ( as a function of wavelength ) is not known . When the star 's or planet 's net emissivity in the relevant wavelength band is less than unity ( less than that of a black body ) , the actual temperature of the body will be higher than the effective temperature . The net emissivity may be low due to surface or atmospheric properties , including greenhouse effect .", "Greenhouse effect The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Polar amplification Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .", "Greenhouse gas removal Greenhouse gas removal projects are a type of climate engineering that seek to remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere , and thus they tackle the root cause of global warming . These techniques either directly remove greenhouse gases , or alternatively seek to influence natural processes to remove greenhouse gases indirectly . The discipline overlaps with carbon capture and storage and carbon sequestration , and some projects listed may not be considered to be geoengineering by all commentators , instead being described as mitigation .", "Solar gain Solar gain ( also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain ) refers to the increase in temperature ( heat gain ) in a space , object or structure that results from solar radiation . The amount of solar gain increases with the strength of the sunlight , and with the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the radiation . Objects struck by sunlight absorb the short-wave radiation from the light and reradiate the heat at longer infrared wavelengths . Certain materials and substances , such as glass , are more transparent to the shorter wavelengths than the longer ; when the sun shines through such materials , the net result is an increase in temperature -- solar gain . This effect , the greenhouse effect , so called due to the solar gain that is experienced behind the glass of a greenhouse , has since become well known in the context of global warming .", "Greenhouse (disambiguation) Greenhouse may refer to : Greenhouse , an indoor covered place where plants are grown and cultivated Greenhouse effect , the effects on a planet when ` greenhouse gases ' cloud the atmosphere Greenhouse and icehouse Earth , periods when the greenhouse effect is dominant or absent Greenhouse effect ( United States Supreme Court ) , postulated effect whereby conservative Supreme Court Justices drift liberal for favorable press Greenhouse debt , the measure to which an entity exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint", "Postma Postma is a surname of Frisian origin . In 2007 there were 12,395 people in the Netherlands with the surname , most concentrated in the province of Friesland . The form Postema ( 2,069 people ) is more common in the neighboring province of Groningen . The surname 's origin may be in `` posthumous '' ( a child born after the death of his father ) , occupational ( mailman , guard ) or toponymic ( from an outpost , etc. ) . People with the name include : Angela Postma ( born 1971 ) , Dutch freestyle swimmer Anni Friesinger-Postma ( born 1977 ) , German world-champion speed skater , married to Ids Postma Antoon Postma ( 1929 -- 2016 ) , Dutch anthropologist living among the Hanunó ' o tribe in the Philippines ( born 1951 ) , Dutch pathophysiologist Erik Postma ( 1953-2002 ) , Dutch mayor Gerriet Postma ( 1932 -- 2009 ) , Dutch painter Herman Postma ( 1933-2004 ) , American scientist and educator Ids Postma ( born 1973 ) , Dutch world-champion speed skater , married to Anni Friesinger ( 1895-1944 ) , Dutch Communist politician ( born 1983 ) , Dutch ice hockey player Mariska Kramer-Postma ( born 1974 ) , Dutch triathlete Martine Postma -RSB- ( born 1970 ) , Dutch founder of Repair Café ( 1868-1963 ) , Dutch West-Frisian poet Paul Postma ( born 1989 ) , Canadian ice hockey player Pieter-Jan Postma ( born 1982 ) , Dutch Olympic sailor Stefan Postma ( born 1976 ) , Dutch footballer Tineke Postma ( born 1978 ) , Dutch saxophonist Willy Postma ( born 1932 ) , Dutch track-and-field athlete Postema ( 1919 -- 2013 ) , Dutch author ( born 1932 ) , Dutch television reporter and presenter Pam Postema ( born 1954 ) , American baseball umpire", "Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases The Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases , created in 1985 , was an advisory body for the review of studies into the greenhouse effect . The group was created by the International Council of Scientific Unions , the United Nations Environment Programme , and the World Meteorological Organization to follow up on the recommendations of the International conference of the Assessment of the role of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts , held at Villach , Austria , in October 1985 . The seven-member panel included Swedish meteorologist Bert Bolin and Canadian climatologist Kenneth Hare . The group held its last meeting in 1990 . It was gradually replaced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .", "Tineke Postma Tineke Postma ( Heerenveen , August 31 , 1978 ) is a Dutch saxophonist .", "Gerriet Postma Gerriet Postma ( 30 October 1932 -- 27 February 2009 ) was a Dutch painter . Postma was born in Twijzelerheide , Friesland , the Netherlands . He was a vehement man who painted bold paintings , with explosions of paint and abstract knots of color , with a distant figurative strain running through it . His last large-scale work comprised four panels , painted on the four main sails of the traditional and historic cargo barge `` Klipper Anna '' . The painting is two-sided and is about 270 m2 in area . The 106-year-old ship was provided by its owners , Gijs en Inge van Hesteren from Harlingen , Friesland , the Netherlands . All summer long in 2004 , the painting could be seen everywhere around the Dutch Wadden Sea . By 2009 Postma had become the best-known Frisian painter . His work is on display in galleries of Paris , Brussels and Barcelona . Postma died in Groningen on 27 February 2009 .", "Stefan Postma Stefan Postma ( born 6 October 1976 ) is a Dutch former footballer who played as a goalkeeper . He is currently a goalkeeping coach at his last club , AGOVV Apeldoorn .", "Pieter-Jan Postma Pieter-Jan Postma ( born 10 January 1982 in Heerenveen ) is a sailor from the Netherlands , who represented his country for the first time at the Sailing at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Qingdao . There he took the 14th place in the Finn . Postma second Olympic appearance was during the 2012 Olympics in Weymouth . In this competition Postma took het 4th place , again in the Finn .", "Greenhouse (music group) Greenhouse is an American hip hop group from Columbus , Ohio . Originally formed as Greenhouse Effect by Blueprint , Inkwel , and Manifest , it consists of Blueprint and Illogic .", "Herman Postma Herman Postma ( March 29 , 1933 -- November 7 , 2004 ) was an American scientist and educational leader . Born in Wilmington , North Carolina , he moved to Oak Ridge , Tennessee , in 1959 after attending Duke , Harvard and MIT . Much of Postma 's career was at Oak Ridge National Laboratory where he served as Laboratory Director from 1974 to 1988 .", "History of climate change science The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "Ids Postma Ids Hylke Postma ( born 28 December 1973 ) is a Dutch former speed skater . He is an Olympic gold medalist and former world champion . In 1993 Postma finished 2nd at the Speedskating World Championships for Juniors . In his first year as senior skater , he became Dutch Allround Champion , finished second behind Johann Olav Koss at the World Allround Championships , and came 4th in the European Championships , but nevertheless did not qualify for the Dutch Olympic team . In 1997 Postma won both the European Allround Championships and the World Allround Championships . His greatest success came in 1998 when he became World Allround Champion again , also setting a world record in the point-sum combination , and won two Olympic medals at the Olympic Games in Nagano . He won the 1,000 meters event and placed second at his specialty , the 1,500 meters , just behind Ådne Søndrål from Norway . Also in 1998 , he was the first skater who skated an official world record on the 1,500 meters below 1:50.00 : Postma did this in Berlin . Erben Wennemars had done the same the summer before , but that time was not ratified by the International Skating Union . Postma 's record did not last long , because a few hours later Kevin Overland skated to a new record in Calgary . Postma is also a three-time World Champion in the World Single Distance Championships . He won the 5,000 meters in 1996 and the 1,500 meters in 1999 and 2000 . In October 2004 Postma announced his retirement and nowadays he lives on his farm in Deersum . He married German speed skater Anni Friesinger on 11 August 2009 in Salzburg . The couple will not live together on the farm until renovations are complete . In August 2011 , she gave birth to a daughter . He previously had a relationship with Renske Vellinga , until she died in a car crash in 1994 .", "Angela Postma Angela Postma ( born August 6 , 1971 ) is a former freestyle swimmer from the Netherlands , who won the gold medal in the 50 m butterfly at the European Sprint Swimming Championships 1994 in Stavanger , Norway . At the same tournament the sprinter , coached by Henk Tempelman , also captured a silver medal ( 50 m freestyle ) and a bronze medal ( 4 × 50 m freestyle relay ) . Postma competed at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta , Georgia , where she finished in tenth position in the 50 m freestyle .", "Paul Postma Paul Edward Postma ( born February 22 , 1989 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman currently playing for the Winnipeg Jets of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He was drafted 205th overall in the 2007 NHL Entry Draft by the Atlanta Thrashers . During his major junior career with the Swift Current Broncos and Calgary Hitmen of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) Postma won the WHL Plus-Minus Award and was a WHL East First Team All-Star in 2009 .", "Erik Postma Erik Postma ( 15 December 1953 , Rotterdam - 25 September 2002 , Middenbeemster ) was a Dutch politician of the Democrats 66 party . In 1992 he was elected as city manager ( gemeentesecretaris ) of Budel . After the municipal reorganization of North Brabant on January 1 , 1997 , Budel was incorporated along with the municipality Maarheeze in the new municipality Cranendonck , and Postma was made city manager . In April 1998 Postma was appointed mayor of the northern Dutch municipality of Beemster . During his mayoral term , he died suddenly of cardiac arrest in September 2002 . He was succeeded in his position by Harry Brinkman . Category :1953 births Category :2002 deaths Category : Democrats 66 politicians Category : Mayors of places in the Netherlands Category : People from Beemster Category : People from Rotterdam", "Simon Tett Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .", "Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .", "Attribution of recent climate change Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "Antoon Postma Antoon Postma ( 28 March 1929 -- 22 October 2016 ) was a Dutch anthropologist who married into and lived among the Hanunuo , a Mangyan sub-tribe in southeastern Mindoro , Philippines . He is best known for being the first to decipher the Laguna Copperplate Inscription , and for documenting the Hanunó ' o script , paving the way for its preservation .", "Volcanic winter A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .", "Carbon cycle re-balancing The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between the four reservoirs of carbon : the biosphere , the earth , the air and water . Exchanges take place in several ways , including respiration , transpiration , combustion , and decomposition . The carbon balance , or carbon budget , is the balance of exchange between the four reservoirs . Debate about 're - balancing the carbon cycle ' arises from a concern that use of fossil fuels , which has accelerated since the start of the industrial revolution , has caused carbon to accumulate in the atmosphere . Levels of CO2 in the atmosphere are estimated to have risen from 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm since 1800 and this is linked to global warming . It is therefore argued that the carbon cycle should be re-balanced by reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere . ` Carbon cycle re-balancing ' is a useful name for a group of environmental policies listed below . The name gives a specific reason for adopting these policies . Related names , including pleas for sustainable development and participation in the green movement are politics-based rather than science-based . Carbon offset - for example by photosynthesis ( e.g. in new forests ) Carbon capture and storage - extraction of CO2 and placing it underground or underwater Carbon capture and transformation - extraction of CO2 and reacting it with hydrogen via renewable energy electrolysis to create methane as an energy store/carrier . Low to neutral cycle Sustainable energy - a shift from fossil fuels energy to wind power and solar power Nuclear power - as an alternative to fossil fuels Sustainable design - to reduce inputs and outputs of energy Sustainable transport - to reduce reliance on fossil fuels Burning domestic refuse to generate power can be promoted as a recycling , and therefore sustainable , policy . But from a carbon cycle re-balancing standpoint it is better to compost as much domestic refuse as possible .", "Environmental determinism Environmental determinism ( also known as climatic determinism or geographical determinism ) is the study of how the physical environment predisposes societies and states towards particular development trajectories . Nineteenth century approaches held that climate and terrain largely determined human activity and psychology , and it was associated with institutionalized racism and eugenics . Many scholars underscore that this approach supported colonialism and eurocentrism , and devalued human agency in non-Western societies . Jared Diamond , Jeffrey Herbst , and other social scientists sparked a revival of the theory during the late twentieth century . This `` neo-environmental determinism '' school of thought examines how geographic and ecological forces influence state-building , economic development , and institutions .", "Voluntary Emission Reduction Voluntary Emission Reductions or Verified Emission Reductions ( VERs ) are a type of carbon offset exchanged in the voluntary or over-the-counter market for carbon credits . Verified Emission Reductions are usually certified through a voluntary certification process . Verified Emission Reductions are usually created by projects which have been verified outside of the Kyoto Protocol . One VER is equivalent to 1 tonne of CO2e emissions . Through these schemes , industries and individuals voluntarily compensate for their emissions or provide an additional contribution to mitigating climate change . VERs may be developed and calculated in compliance with one of several VER standards . These set out rules defining how emission reductions are measured . Standards provide assurance for buyers of VERs . At a minimum , all VERs should be verified by an independent third party .", "Greening Earth Society The Greening Earth Society , now defunct , was a public relations organization which promoted the idea that there is considerable scientific doubt about the effects of climate change and increased levels of carbon dioxide . The Society published the World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels of the Cato Institute . It was a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association , with which it shared an office and many staff members . It has been called a `` front group created by the coal industry '' and an `` industry front '' . Fred Palmer , a Society staffer , is a registered lobbyist for Peabody Energy , a coal company . Although the Greening Earth Society was generally skeptical of the impact of climate change , it acknowledged some degree of global warming as real : `` Fact # 1 . The rate of global warming during the past several decades has been about 0.18 ° C per decade '' . Note that the actual increase in the global surface temperature during the 100 years ending in 2005 was 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C.", "Solar radiation management Solar radiation management ( SRM ) projects are a type of climate engineering which seek to reflect sunlight and thus reduce global warming . Proposed examples include the creation of stratospheric sulfate aerosols . Their principal advantages as an approach to climate engineering is the speed with which they can be deployed and become fully active , their potential low financial cost , and the reversibility of their direct climatic effects . Solar radiation management projects could , for example , be used as a temporary response while levels of greenhouse gases can be brought under control by mitigation and greenhouse gas removal techniques . They would not reduce greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere , and thus do not address problems such as ocean acidification caused by excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) .", "Climate state Climate state describes a state of climate on Earth and similar terrestrial planets based on a thermal energy budget , such as the greenhouse or icehouse climate state . The main climate state change is between periodical glacial and interglacial cycles in Earth history , studied from climate proxies . The climate system is responding to the current climate forcing and adjusts following climate sensitivity to reach a climate equilibrium , Earth 's energy balance . Model simulations suggest that the current interglacial climate state will continue for at least another 100,000 years , due to emissions - including complete deglaciation of the Northern Hemisphere .", "Greenhouse debt Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences", "Katrin Mattscherodt Katrin Mattscherodt ( born 26 October 1981 ) is a German long track speed skater who participates in international competitions . In the team pursuit final against Japan at the 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics , she was a replacement for Anni Friesinger-Postma in the final ( after Friesinger-Postma had problems finishing in the semifinal ) , and won a gold medal as part of the German team .", "Anni Friesinger-Postma Anna ( `` Anni '' ) Christine Friesinger-Postma ( born 11 January 1977 ) is a German former speed skater . Her father Georg Friesinger , of Germany , and mother Janina ( `` Jana '' ) Korowicka , of Poland , were both skaters ; Jana was on the Polish team at the 1976 Winter Olympics . Her brother Jan is also a speed skater . Her sister Agnes is a former speed skater . In July 2010 , Friesinger retired from her active sports career when she had to be treated for severe cartilage damage in her right knee joint . On 11 August 2009 Friesinger married former Dutch skater Ids Postma , her long-term boyfriend , at Schloss Mirabell . The celebration took place at Schloss Aigen . As of November 2013 , Friesinger lives in Salzburg , Austria , and is planning to move to the Netherlands to live with Postma on his farm in Dearsum . In August 2011 she gave birth to a daughter . In May 2014 , her second daughter was born ." ]

[ "Tucson, Arizona Tucson ( -LSB- ˈtuːsɒn -RSB- -LSB- tuːˈsɒn -RSB- ) is a city and the county seat of Pima County , Arizona , United States , and home to the University of Arizona . The 2010 United States Census put the population at 520,116 , while the 2015 estimated population of the entire Tucson metropolitan statistical area ( MSA ) was 980,263 . The Tucson MSA forms part of the larger Tucson-Nogales combined statistical area ( CSA ) , with a total population of 1,010,025 as of the 2010 Census . Tucson is the second-largest populated city in Arizona behind Phoenix , both of which anchor the Arizona Sun Corridor . The city is located 108 mi southeast of Phoenix and 60 mi north of the U.S. -- Mexico border . Tucson is the 33rd largest city and the 53rd largest metropolitan area in the United States . Major incorporated suburbs of Tucson include Oro Valley and Marana northwest of the city , Sahuarita south of the city , and South Tucson in an enclave south of downtown . Communities in the vicinity of Tucson ( some within or overlapping the city limits ) include Casas Adobes , Catalina Foothills , Flowing Wells , Midvale Park , Tanque Verde , Tortolita , and Vail . Towns outside the Tucson metro area include Benson to the southeast , Catalina and Oracle to the north , and Green Valley to the south . The Spanish name of the city , Tucsón -LSB- tukˈson -RSB- , is derived from the O'odham Cuk Ṣon -LSB- - azctʃʊk ʂɔːn -RSB- , meaning '' ( at the ) base of the black -LSB- hill -RSB- '' , a reference to a basalt-covered hill now known as Sentinel Peak , also known as `` A '' Mountain . Tucson is sometimes referred to as `` The Old Pueblo '' .", "Istanbul Istanbul ( -LSB- ˌɪstænˈbʊl -RSB- , -LSB- - ˈbuːl -RSB- or -LSB- - stɑːn - -RSB- İstanbul -LSB- isˈtɑnbuɫ -RSB- ) , historically known as Constantinople and Byzantium , is the most populous city in Turkey and the country 's economic , cultural , and historic center . Istanbul is a transcontinental city in Eurasia , straddling the Bosphorus strait ( which separates Europe and Asia ) between the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea . Its commercial and historical center lies on the European side and about a third of its population lives on the Asian side . The city is the administrative center of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality ( conterminous with Istanbul Province ) , both hosting a population of around 14.7 million residents . Istanbul is one of the world 's most populous cities and ranks as the world 's 7th-largest city proper and the largest European city . Founded under the name of Byzantion on the Sarayburnu promontory around 660 BCE , the city developed to become one of the most significant in history . After its reestablishment as Constantinople in 330 CE , it served as an imperial capital for almost 16 centuries , during the Roman and Byzantine ( 330 -- 1204 and 1261 -- 1453 ) , the Latin ( 1204 -- 1261 ) , and the Ottoman ( 1453 -- 1922 ) empires . It was instrumental in the advancement of Christianity during Roman and Byzantine times , before the Ottomans conquered the city in 1453 and transformed it into an Islamic stronghold and the seat of the Ottoman Caliphate . Istanbul 's strategic position on the historic Silk Road , rail networks to Europe and the Middle East , and the only sea route between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean have produced a cosmopolitan populace , although less so since the establishment of the Turkish Republic in 1923 . Overlooked for the new capital Ankara during the interwar period , the city has since regained much of its prominence . The population of the city has increased tenfold since the 1950s , as migrants from across Anatolia have moved in and city limits have expanded to accommodate them . Arts , music , film , and cultural festivals were established at the end of the 20th century and continue to be hosted by the city today . Infrastructure improvements have produced a complex transportation network . Approximately foreign visitors arrived in Istanbul in 2015 , five years after it was named a European Capital of Culture , making the city the world 's fifth most popular tourist destination . The city 's biggest attraction is its historic center , partially listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site , and its cultural and entertainment hub can be found across the city 's natural harbor , the Golden Horn , in the Beyoğlu district . Considered a global city , Istanbul has one of the fastest-growing metropolitan economies in the world . It hosts the headquarters of many Turkish companies and media outlets and accounts for more than a quarter of the country 's gross domestic product . Hoping to capitalize on its revitalization and rapid expansion , Istanbul has bid for the Summer Olympics five times in twenty years .", "Atlanta Atlanta is the capital of and the most populous city in the U.S. state of Georgia , with an estimated 2016 population of 472,522 . Atlanta is the cultural and economic center of the Atlanta metropolitan area , home to 5,710,795 people and the ninth largest metropolitan area in the United States . Atlanta is the county seat of Fulton County , and a small portion of the city extends eastward into DeKalb County . In 1837 , Atlanta was founded at the intersection of two railroad lines , and the city rose from the ashes of the American Civil War to become a national center of commerce . In the decades following the Civil Rights Movement , the city earned a reputation as `` too busy to hate '' for the relatively progressive views of its citizens and leaders compared to other cities in the Deep South . Atlanta attained international prominence , and it became the primary transportation hub of the Southeastern United States , via highway , railroad , and air , with Hartsfield -- Jackson Atlanta International Airport being the world 's busiest airport since 1998 . Atlanta rated an `` alpha - '' world city that exerts a significant impact upon commerce , finance , research , technology , education , media , art , and entertainment . It ranks 40th among world cities and 8th in the nation with a gross domestic product of $ 270 billion . Atlanta 's economy is considered diverse , with dominant sectors that include logistics , professional and business services , media operations , and information technology . Atlanta has topographic features that include rolling hills and dense tree coverage . Revitalization of Atlanta 's neighborhoods , initially spurred by the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta , has intensified in the 21st century , altering the city 's demographics , politics , and culture .", "Córdoba, Argentina Córdoba ( -LSB- ˈkorðoβa -RSB- ) is a city in the geographical center of Argentina , in the foothills of the Sierras Chicas on the Suquía River , about 700 km northwest of the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires . It is the capital of Córdoba Province and the second most populous city in Argentina after Buenos Aires , with about 1,330,023 inhabitants according to the 2010 census . It was founded on 6 July 1573 by Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera , who named it after Córdoba , Spain . It was one of the first Spanish colonial capitals of the region that is now Argentina ( the oldest city is Santiago del Estero , founded in 1553 ) . The National University of Córdoba is the oldest university of the country and the second to be inaugurated in Latin America . It was founded in 1613 by the Jesuit Order . Because of this , Córdoba earned the nickname La Docta ( roughly translated , `` the learned one '' ) . Córdoba has many historical monuments preserved from Spanish colonial rule , especially buildings of the Roman Catholic Church . The most recognizable is perhaps the Jesuit Block ( Spanish : Manzana Jesuítica ) , declared in 2000 as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO which consists of a group of buildings dating from the 17th century , including the Colegio Nacional de Monserrat and the colonial university campus . The campus belongs today to the historical museum of the National University of Córdoba , which has been the second-largest university in the country since the early 20th century ( after the University of Buenos Aires ) , in terms of the number of students , faculty , and academic programs . Córdoba is also known for its historical movements , such as Cordobazo and La Reforma del '18 ( known as University Revolution in English ) ." ]

[ "Climate of Pakistan Pakistan recorded one of the highest temperatures in the world -- 53.5 ° C -- on 26 May 2010 , the hottest temperature ever recorded in Pakistan , but also the hottest reliably measured temperature ever recorded on the continent of Asia . As Pakistan is located on a great landmass north of the Tropic of Cancer ( between latitudes 25 ° and 36 ° N ) , it has a continental type of climate characterized by extreme variations of temperature , both seasonally and daily . Very high altitudes modify the climate in the cold , snow-covered northern mountains ; temperatures on the Balochistan Plateau are somewhat higher . Along the coastal strip , the climate is modified by sea breezes . In the rest of the country , temperatures reach great heights in the summer ; the mean temperature during June is 38 ° F in the plains , the highest temperatures can exceed 47 ° C . In the summer , hot winds called Loo blow across the plains during the day . Trees shed their leaves to avoid loss of moisture . The dry , hot weather is broken occasionally by dust storms and thunderstorms that temporarily lower the temperature . Evenings are cool ; the diurnal variation in temperature may be as much as 11C to 17C . Winters are cold , with minimum mean temperatures in Punjab of about 4 ° C in January , and sub-zero temperatures in the far north and Balochistan . The monsoon and the Western Disturbance are the two main factors which alter the weather over Pakistan ; otherwise , Continental air prevails for rest of the year . Following are the main factors that influence the weather over Pakistan . Western Disturbances mostly occur during the winter months and cause light to moderate showers in southern parts of the country while moderate to heavy showers with heavy snowfall in the northern parts of the country . These westerly waves are robbed of most of the moisture by the time they reach Pakistan . Fog occurs during the winter season and remains for weeks in upper Sindh , central Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab . Southwest Monsoon occurs in summer from the month of June till September in almost whole Pakistan excluding western Balochistan , FATA , Chitral and Gilgit -- Baltistan . Monsoon rains bring much awaited relief from the scorching summer heat . These monsoon rains are quite heavy by nature and can cause significant flooding , even severe flooding if they interact with westerly waves in the upper parts of the country . Tropical Storms usually form during the summer months from late April till June and then from late September till November . They affect the coastal localities of the country . Dust storms occur during summer months with peak in May and June , They are locally known as Andhi . These dust storms are quite violent . Dust storms during the early summer indicates the arrival of the monsoons while dust storms in the autumn indicate the arrival of winter . Heat waves occur during May and June , especially in southern Punjab , central Balochistan and interior Sindh . Thunderstorms most commonly occur in northern Punjab , Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Azad Kashmir . Continental air prevails during the period when there is no precipitation in the country . Pakistan has four seasons : a cool , dry winter from December through February ; a hot , dry spring from March through May ; the summer rainy season , or southwest monsoon period , from June through September ; and the retreating monsoon period of October and November . The onset and duration of these seasons vary somewhat according to location . The climate in the capital city of Islamabad varies from an average daily low of 2 ° C in January to an average daily high of 38 ° C in June . Half of the annual rainfall occurs in July and August , averaging about 255 millimeters in each of those two months . The remainder of the year has significantly less rain , amounting to about fifty millimeters per month . Hailstorms are common in the spring . Pakistan 's largest city , Karachi , which is also the country 's industrial center , is more humid than Islamabad but gets less rain . Only July and August average more than twenty-five millimeters of rain in the Karachi area ; the remaining months are exceedingly dry . The temperature is also more uniform in Karachi than in Islamabad , ranging from an average daily low of 13 ° C during winter evenings to an average daily high of 34 ° C on summer days . Although the summer temperatures do not get as high as those in Punjab , the high humidity causes the residents a great deal of discomfort . In Islamabad , there are cold winds from the north of Pakistan .", "Climate of Miami Miami has a tropical monsoon climate ( Köppen climate classification Am ) with hot and humid summers and short , warm winters , with a marked drier season in the winter . Köppen climate classification Its sea-level elevation , coastal location , position just above the Tropic of Cancer , and proximity to the Gulf Stream shape its climate . With January averaging 69.2 F , winter features warm temperatures ; cool air usually settles after the passage of a cold front , which produces much of the little amount of rainfall . Lows sometimes fall to or below 50 F , with an average 3 such occurrences annually , but very rarely 40 F ; from 1981 to 2010 , temperatures reached that level in only eight calendar years . Highs generally reach 70 F or higher , and fail to do so on only an average of 12 days annually . The wet season usually begins during the month of May and continues through mid-October . During this period , temperatures are in the mid 80s to low 90s ( 29 -- 35 ° C ) , accompanied by high humidity , though the heat is often relieved by afternoon thunderstorms or a sea breeze that develops off the Atlantic Ocean , which then allow lower temperatures , but conditions still remain very muggy . Much of the year 's 61.9 in of rainfall occurs during this period . Extreme temperatures range from 26.5 ° F ( recorded as 27 in the almanac ) on February 3 , 1917 , to 100 ° F on July 21 , 1942 , ( − 2.8 to 38 ° C ) , the triple-digit ( ° F ) reading on record ; the more recent freezing temperature seen at Miami International Airport was on December 25 , 1989 . The highest daily minimum temperature is 84 ° F on August 4 , 1993 and September 7 , 1897 ( although the corresponding record for Miami Beach is 90 ° F on July 17 , 2001 ) , and conversely , the lowest daily maximum temperature is 45 ° F on February 19 , 1900 . While Miami has never officially recorded any accumulating snowfall since records have been kept , there were dubious claims of snow flurries on January 19 , 1977 during the cold wave of January 1977 . Weather conditions for the area around Miami were recorded sporadically from 1839 until 1900 , with many years-long gaps . A cooperative temperature and rainfall recording site was established in what is now Downtown in December 1900 . An official Weather Bureau Office opened in Miami in June 1911 . Heavy snow squalls with accumulations that lasted for a few hours after the snow had stopped falling in February 1899 were reported , but these are not official since there is no written record of it . Miami receives abundant rainfall , one of the highest among major cities in the United States . Most of this rainfall occurs from mid-May through early October . Miami has an average annual rainfall of 61.9 in , whereas nearby Fort Lauderdale and Miami Beach receive 66.5 in and 51.7 in , respectively , which demonstrates the high local variability in rainfall rates . Miami reports more thunderstorms than most US cities , with about eighty days per year having thunder reported . These storms are often strong , with frequent lightning and very heavy rain . Occasionally , they can be severe with damaging straight line winds and large hail . Tornadoes and waterspouts sometimes occur , although violent tornadoes of the type seen in other parts of the United States are rare in Florida . During El Niño events , Miami becomes cooler than normal during the dry season with above average precipitation . During La Niña , Miami becomes warmer and drier than normal . A record setting 12-day cold snap in January 2010 was the coldest period since at least the 1940s . During the cold wave of January 1977 that saw snowfall over the majority of the state , isolated flurries have been observed on the outskirts of Miami , which is the only recorded snowfall in the history of the region . The climate for much of the state is humid subtropical ( Köppen Cfa ) , South Florida , as well as all of the Florida Keys , qualify as one of several tropical classifications ( Köppen Aw , Am , or Af ) . Köppen climate classification Southeastern Florida falls into USDA zone 10b for plant hardiness , where annual extreme low temperatures range from 30 to , versus zone 9 in Central Florida , and zone 8 in northern Florida . With global warming , the urban heat island effect , as well as Biscayne Bay as a buffer , the waterside downtown area and the barrier islands including Miami Beach made it into hardiness zone 11a by 2012 . Miami Beach has virtually no freezing weather in its history and very few sub - 40 F weather . Roughly 115 mi north of Miami , Jensen Beach is at the threshold of Florida 's tropical climate designation , with January having an average about 64 F. Southeastern Florida is also the only area in the continental United States to be in Zone 1 for Energy Star recommended insulation levels , with Hawaii , Puerto Rico , and the US Virgin Islands .", "Pearly Gatecrashers Pearly Gatecrashers were a twee pop band from Sydney , Australia . Their success occurred primarily in Asian markets , especially in Japan while they were signed to Shock Records . The guitarist and songwriter Tim Butt went on to form Blandville . The band met in 2008 to compile the album `` But Wait There 's More '' a collection of songs recorded over the last decade .", "Climate of Dallas The city of Dallas has a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen climate classification : Cfa ) that is characteristic of the Southern Plains of the United States . Dallas experiences distinct four seasons . July and August are typically the hottest months , with an average low of 76.7 ° F and an average high of 96.0 ° F. January is typically the coldest month , with an average low of 37.3 ° F and an average high of 56.8 ° F. Located at the lower-end of the Tornado Alley , it is often prone to storms . A couple of times each year , warm and humid air from the south overrides cold , dry air , leading to freezing rain , which often causes major disruptions in the city if the roads and highways become slick . On the other hand , daytime highs above 65 ° F are not unusual during the winter season . Extremes in weather are more readily seen in Dallas and Texas as a whole than along the Pacific and Atlantic coasts , due to the state 's location in the interior of the United States . Spring and autumn bring pleasant weather to the area . Vibrant wildflowers ( such as the bluebonnet , Indian paintbrush and other flora ) bloom in spring and are planted around the highways throughout Texas . Springtime weather can be quite volatile , but temperatures themselves are mild . The weather in Dallas is also generally pleasant between late September and early December , and unlike springtime , major storms rarely form in the area . In the spring , cool fronts moving south from Canada collide with warm , humid air streaming in from the Gulf Coast . When these fronts meet over north central Texas , severe thunderstorms are generated with spectacular lightning shows , torrents of rain , hail , and occasionally , tornadoes . Over time , tornadoes have perhaps been the biggest natural threat to the city . Summers are hot , with temperatures approaching those of desert and semidesert locations of similar latitude . Heat waves can be severe . During the summer , the region receives warm and dry winds from the north and west . The U.S. Department of Agriculture places Dallas in Plant Hardiness Zone 8a . According to the American Lung Association , Dallas has the 12th highest ozone air pollution in the nation , ranking it behind Los Angeles and Houston . 30 % of the air pollution in Dallas , and the Metroplex in general , comes from the three cement plants in the town of Midlothian , as well concrete installations in neighboring Ellis County , but the foremost contributor to air pollution in Dallas is exhaust from automobiles . Due to the area 's spread-out nature and high amount of urban sprawl , automobiles are the only viable mode of transportation for many residents in the metropolitan area . The city 's all-time recorded high temperature is 113 ° F during the Heat Wave of 1980 , while the all-time recorded low is -8 ° F 1899 . The average daily low in Dallas is 57.1 ° F and the average daily high in Dallas is 76.7 ° F. Dallas receives approximately 37.1 in of equivalent rain per year .", "Spodumene Spodumene is a pyroxene mineral consisting of lithium aluminium inosilicate , LiAl ( SiO3 ) 2 , and is a source of lithium . It occurs as colorless to yellowish , purplish , or lilac kunzite ( see below ) , yellowish-green or emerald-green hiddenite , prismatic crystals , often of great size . Single crystals of 14.3 m in size are reported from the Black Hills of South Dakota , United States . The normal low-temperature form α-spodumene is in the monoclinic system whereas the high-temperature β-spodumene crystallizes in the tetragonal system . The normal α-spodumene converts to β-spodumene at temperatures above 900 ° C. Crystals are typically heavily striated parallel to the principal axis . Crystal faces are often etched and pitted with triangular markings .", "Ann Grossman Ann Grossman-Wunderlich ( born October 13 , 1970 ) is an American former professional tennis player . Grossman was born in the United States . She competed on the WTA tour for over a decade from 1987 to 1998 . She twice reached the 4th round in the French Open and once at the US Open and was ranked as high as 29 in singles and 31 in doubles . She recorded wins over Martina Navratilova , Mary Jo Fernandez and Zina Garrison , and retired with an even 185 -- 185 career record . She has since served on the USTA Olympic and Federation Cup committees .", "Highest temperature recorded on Earth The standard measuring conditions for temperature are in the air , 1.5 meters above the ground , and shielded from direct sunlight . The highest confirmed temperature on Earth recorded according to these measures was 56.7 C in Furnace Creek Ranch , California , located in the Death Valley desert in the United States , on July 10 , 1913 . The former highest official temperature on Earth , held for 90 years by ` Aziziya , Libya , was de-certified by the WMO ( World Meteorological Organization ) in January 2012 as the record for the world 's highest surface temperature ( this temperature of 57.8 ° C ( 136 ° F ) , registered on 13 September 1922 , is currently considered to have been a recorder 's error ) . Christopher C. Burt , the weather historian writing for Weather Underground who shepherded the Libya reading 's 2012 disqualification , believes that the 1913 Death Valley reading is `` a myth '' , and is at least four or five degrees Fahrenheit too high , as do other weather historians Dr. Arnold Court and William Taylor Reid . Burt proposes that the highest reliably recorded temperature on Earth is still at Death Valley , but is instead 53.9 C recorded five times : 20 July 1960 , 18 July 1998 , 20 July 2005 , 7 July 2007 , and 30 June 2013 . Temperatures measured directly on the ground may exceed air temperatures by 30 to 50 ° C . A ground temperature of 84 ° C ( 183.2 ° F ) has been recorded in Port Sudan , Sudan . A ground temperature of 93.9 ° C ( 201 ° F ) was recorded also in Furnace Creek Ranch on 15 July 1972 ; this may be the highest natural ground surface temperature ever recorded . The theoretical maximum possible ground surface temperature has been estimated to be between 90 and 100 ° C for dry , darkish soils of low thermal conductivity . Temperature measurements via satellite also tend to capture occurrence of higher records but are considered less reliable than ground-positioned thermometers . There is a satellite record of 66.8 C measured in the Flaming Mountains of China in 2008 . Other satellite measurements of ground temperature taken between 2003 and 2009 , taken with the MODIS infrared spectroradiometer on the Aqua satellite , found a maximum temperature of 70.7 ° C ( 159.3 ° F ) , which was recorded in 2005 in the Lut Desert , Iran . The Lut Desert was also found to have the highest maximum temperature in 5 of the 7 years measured ( 2004 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 and 2009 ) . These measurements reflect averages over a large region and so are lower than the maximum point surface temperature .", "Right Won't Touch a Hand `` Right Wo n't Touch the Hand '' is a ballad by American country singer George Jones . It was released on the Musicor label and rose to # 7 on the Billboard country singles chart . It was written by Earl `` Peanut '' Montgomery . The recording , which features a lilting melody over an ambitious musical arrangement , was reminiscent of the material Elvis Presley was recording at the time . It would be one of the singer 's last single releases on Musicor , for which he had recorded over 280 sides since 1965 . Most of those records had been produced by H.W. `` Pappy '' Daily but , as recounted in Bob Allen 's book George Jones : The Life and Times of a Honky Tonk Legend , by 1971 Jones had become unhappy with the uneven quality of his records under the supervision of Daily and Art Talmadge and , having been pried away from his longtime mentor Daily by wife Tammy Wynette , began seriously considering jumping ship to Epic Records so he could record with Wynette and her producer Billy Sherrill .", "Castolin Eutectic Castolin Eutectic was established in 1906 by Jean-Pierre Wasserman in Lausanne , Switzerland . He discovered a new method of low-temperature brazing of cast iron , which was a revolutionary process for the repair and wear-protection of metals . During the last decades fluxes , brazing alloys as well as coating and welding equipment and consumables have been developed and the company is present with its own subsidiaries in over 100 countries on all five continents . In 2005 , the Messer Group bought the entire stake of Eutectic Castolin .", "Climate of Anchorage, Alaska Anchorage , Alaska has a subarctic climate with the code Dfc according to the Köppen climate classification due to its short , cool summers . Average daytime summer temperatures range from approximately 55 to ; average daytime winter temperatures are about 5 to . Anchorage has a frost-free growing season that averages slightly over one hundred days . Average January low and high temperatures at Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport ( PANC ) are 11 / with an average winter snowfall of 75.5 in . The weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be very unpredictable . Some winters feature several feet of snow and cold temperatures , while others like that of 1976 -- 77 ( in the January of which Anchorage amazingly averaged 2.7 F-change warmer than Atlanta almost 30 degrees closer to the equator ) , just a foot or two of snow and frequent thaws , which put dangerous ice on the streets . On March 17 , 2002 , there was a storm causing 22 inches of snow closing schools for the next two days . The storm broke the city record for the most snowfall in a single day . The storm , which started the evening of March 16 , easily surpassed the old record of 15.6 in recorded on 28 December and 29 December 1955 . On March 17 , 22 in were measured by the National Weather Service , topping the old record of 15.6 in set on December 29 , 1955 . The 2011-2012 winter had 134.5 in , which made it the snowiest winter on record while the least snowiest winter of record was 2014-2015 when 25.1 in of snow fell . The coldest temperature ever recorded at the original weather station located at Merrill Field on the East end of 5th Avenue was -38 F on February 3 , 1947 . Due to its proximity to active volcanoes , ash hazards are a significant , though infrequent , occurrence . The most recent notable incident was an August , 1992 eruption of Mt. Spurr , which is located 78 miles west of the city . The eruption deposited about 3 mm of volcanic ash on the city . The clean-up of ash resulted in excessive demands for water and caused major problems for the Anchorage Water and Wastewater Utility . Summers are typically mild ( although cool compared to the contiguous US and even interior Alaska ) , though it can rain frequently . Average July low and high temperatures are 52 / and the hottest reading ever recorded was 87 F on June 18 , 2013 . The average annual precipitation at the airport is 16.63 in . Because of Anchorage 's latitude , summer days are very long and winter daylight hours are very short . Anchorage is often cloudy during the winter , which decreases the amount of sunlight experienced by residents .", "Yolanda Adams Yolanda Yvette Adams ( born August 27 , 1961 ) is an American gospel singer , record producer , actress , and former radio host of her own nationally syndicated morning gospel show . , she had sold 4.5 million albums since 1991 in the United States , and nearly 8 million albums worldwide according to SoundScan . On December 11 , 2009 , Billboard Magazine named her the No. 1 Gospel Artist of the last decade . In the same chart , her album Mountain High ... Valley Low was acknowledged as the best gospel album .", "Ludisia Ludisia is a genus of orchids that contains just one species , Ludisia discolor , commonly referred to as jewel orchid . They are native to southern China , Thailand , Vietnam , Philippines , Malaysia , Indonesia and Burma , and often cultivated . They are terrestrial orchids that in their natural setting would be found growing on the forest floor . They are known for their foliage , which is often velvety deep maroon with red veins that run parallel to the centre of the leaf . Flowers are white with twisting yellow columns . Individual flowers are small but grow in clusters on upright stalks . Flowers in cultivation last a month or more . They need high humidity and warm temperatures with low to medium light , and they tolerate extremely low light levels .", "Sean Lowe (baseball) Jonathan Sean Lowe ( born March 29 , 1971 ) is a former pitcher in Major League Baseball who played from 1997 through 2003 for the St. Louis Cardinals , Chicago White Sox , Pittsburgh Pirates , Colorado Rockies and Kansas City Royals . Lowe attended Mesquite High School in Mesquite , Texas , where he graduated in 1989 . Lowe was drafted by the Cardinals in the first round ( 15th pick ) of the 1992 Major League Baseball Draft . Lowe finished his seven-year MLB career with a 23-15 record , a 4.95 ERA and 288 strikeouts . He was primarily used in middle relief during his career . Besides , Lowe played his first professional season with their Class A ( Short Season ) Hamilton Redbirds in , and his last with the Triple-A Omaha Royals in . Lowe 's unique spot in baseball immortality occurred on 16 June 2001 , against the St. Louis Cardinals , when Albert Pujols recorded his first , and what may yet be his only , sacrifice bunt against Lowe .", "Low-pressure area A low-pressure area , low , or depression is a region where the topographic map is atmospheric pressure is lower than that of surrounding locations . Low-pressure systems form under areas of wind divergence that occur in the upper levels of the troposphere . The formation process of a low-pressure area is known as cyclogenesis . Within the field of meteorology , atmospheric divergence aloft occurs in two areas . The first area is on the east side of upper troughs , which form half of a Rossby wave within the Westerlies ( a trough with large wavelength that extends through the troposphere ) . A second area of wind divergence aloft occurs ahead of embedded shortwave troughs , which are of smaller wavelength . Diverging winds aloft ahead of these troughs cause atmospheric lift within the troposphere below , which lowers surface pressures as upward motion partially counteracts the force of gravity . Thermal lows form due to localized heating caused by greater sunshine over deserts and other land masses . Since localized areas of warm air are less dense than their surroundings , this warmer air rises , which lowers atmospheric pressure near that portion of the Earth 's surface . Large-scale thermal lows over continents help drive monsoon circulations . Low-pressure areas can also form due to organized thunderstorm activity over warm water . When this occurs over the tropics in concert with the Intertropical Convergence Zone , it is known as a monsoon trough . Monsoon troughs reach their northerly extent in August and their southerly extent in February . When a convective low acquires a well-hot circulation in the tropics it is termed a tropical cyclone . Tropical cyclones can form during any month of the year globally , but can occur in either the northern or southern hemisphere during November . Atmospheric lift will also generally produce cloud cover through adiabatic cooling once the air becomes saturated as it rises , although the low-pressure area typically brings cloudy skies , which act to minimize diurnal temperature extremes . Since clouds reflect sunlight , incoming shortwave solar radiation decreases , which causes lower temperatures during the day . At night the absorptive effect of clouds on outgoing longwave radiation , such as heat energy from the surface , allows for warmer diurnal low temperatures in all seasons . The stronger the area of low pressure , the stronger the winds experienced in its vicinity . Globally , low-pressure systems are most frequently located over the Tibetan Plateau and in the lee of the Rocky mountains . In Europe ( particularly in the United Kingdom ) , recurring low-pressure weather systems are typically known as `` depressions '' .", "Bristow (cartoon) Bristow is a British gag-a-day comic strip created by Frank Dickens about a buying clerk of that name . The series was in continuous publication in the Aberdeen Press & Journal in September 1961 until its last appearance in 2012 . With over 10,000 strips made over the decades and running for over 51 years . Bristow is one of the longest running daily cartoon strips by a single author , according to Guinness World Records . When looking at the character Bristow itself the series is even one year older than that , as Bristow debuted in Dickens ' older series Oddbod in The Sunday Times in 1960 . Due to his popularity he received his own spin-off series soon afterwards . Dickens broke the original record held by Marc Sleen , whose The Adventures of Nero was drawn for 45 years without any assistance . However , even Dickens ' record has been broken in his turn by Jim Russell , whose series The Potts ran for 62 years .", "Miramar Rangers AFC Miramar Rangers AFC is an amateur New Zealand association football club in the Wellington suburb of Miramar . The club is one of the most successful in New Zealand having won the Chatham Cup four times ( 1966 , 1992 , 2004 & 2010 ) and the National League title twice ( 2002 & 2003 ) . Over the last decade the club has played in the Central Premier League and have won this competition a record six times most recently in 2014 . In 2004 it became one of the founding principal clubs of the Team Wellington franchise in the ASB Premiership .", "Slim Dusty discography Slim Dusty recorded 106 records in his career . This is a list of most of them - as yet a definitive list of the years that the records were released has not been prepared . Over the course of his career , he sold over five million records over six decades .", "Rob Halverson Rob Halverson is an American record producer , songwriter and studio engineer , who lives in Austin , Texas . He is also a film composer . The Austin Chronicle claims Halverson `` a low-key but nonetheless very important figure in Austin music since 1989 '' . He has performed tours of Australia twice , and has toured in Europe and UK numerous times . He has released two solo records , and six instrumental albums with Thor Harris . Halverson has recorded or produced over 100 albums ." ]

[ "Retreat of glaciers since 1850 The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .", "Paris Agreement The Paris Agreement ( Accord de Paris ) is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) dealing with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation , adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020 . The language of the agreement was negotiated by representatives of 195 countries at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015 . It was opened for signature on 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) at a ceremony in New York . As of May 2017 , 195 UNFCCC members have signed the treaty , 147 of which have ratified it . After several European Union states ratified the agreement in October 2016 , there were enough countries that had ratified the agreement that produce enough of the world 's greenhouse gases for the agreement to enter into force . The agreement went into effect on 4 November 2016 . The head of the Paris Conference , France 's foreign minister Laurent Fabius , said this `` ambitious and balanced '' plan is a `` historic turning point '' in the goal of reducing global warming . One year on , the ratification of the Paris Agreement was celebrated by the Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo by illuminating the Eiffel Tower and the Arc de Triomphe , Paris ' most iconic monuments , in green .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Climate inertia Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "Climate change in the Arctic The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "United Nations Climate Change conference The United Nations Climate Change Conferences are yearly conferences held in the framework of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . They serve as the formal meeting of the UNFCCC Parties ( Conference of the Parties , COP ) to assess progress in dealing with climate change , and beginning in the mid-1990s , to negotiate the Kyoto Protocol to establish legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions . From 2005 the Conferences have also served as the `` Conference of the Parties Serving as the Meeting of Parties to the Kyoto Protocol '' ( CMP ) ; also parties to the Convention that are not parties to the Protocol can participate in Protocol-related meetings as observers . From 2011 the meetings have also been used to negotiate the Paris Agreement as part of the Durban platform activities until its conclusion in 2015 , which created a general path towards climate action . The first UN Climate Change Conference was held in 1995 in Berlin .", "Global warming in Antarctica The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .", "Ice2sea Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .", "BASIC countries The BASIC countries ( also Basic countries or BASIC ) are a bloc of four large newly industrialized countries -- Brazil , South Africa , India and China -- formed by an agreement on 28 November 2009 . The four committed to act jointly at the Copenhagen climate summit , including a possible united walk-out if their common minimum position was not met by the developed nations . This emerging geopolitical alliance , initiated and led by China , then brokered the final Copenhagen Accord with the United States . Subsequently , the grouping is working to define a common position on emission reductions and climate aid money , and to try to convince other countries to sign up to the Copenhagen Accord . However , in January 2010 , the grouping described the Accord as merely a political agreement and not legally binding , as is argued by the US and Europe . The four countries also said they will announce their plans to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 31 January 2010 as agreed in Copenhagen . Furthermore , the grouping discussed the possibility of providing financial and technical aid to the poorer nations of the G77 , and promised details after their Cape Town meeting in April 2010 . This move was apparently intended to share richer nations into increasing their funding for climate mitigation in poorer nations . At the April 2010 meeting in Cape Town , environment ministers from the four countries called for a legally binding global agreement on long-term cooperative action under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and its Kyoto Protocol , to be concluded at the next UN Climate Change Conference in Cancun , Mexico in November 2010 , or at the latest in South Africa by 2011 , saying that slow legislative progress in the United States should not be allowed to dictate the pace of global agreement . The group 's post-meeting statement also demanded that developed countries allow developing countries `` equitable space for development '' as well as providing them with finance , technology and capacity-building support , based on their `` historical responsibility for climate change '' . Technical cooperation among the countries appears to be following , as in May 2010 South Africa , Brazil and India announced a joint programme to develop satellites .", "Arctic Climate Impact Assessment The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .", "2016 United Nations Climate Change Conference The 2016 United Nations Climate Change Conference was an international meeting of political leaders and activists to discuss environmental issues . It was held in Marrakech , Morocco from November 7 to 18 . The conference incorporated the twenty-second Conference of the Parties ( COP22 ) , the twelfth meeting of the parties for the Kyoto Protocol ( CMP12 ) , and the first meeting of the parties for the Paris Agreement ( CMA1 ) . The purpose of the conference was to discuss and implement plans about combatting climate change and to '' -LSB- demonstrate -RSB- to the world that the implementation of the Paris Agreement is underway '' . Participants work together to come up with global solutions to climate change . The conference was presided over by Salaheddine Mezouar , the Moroccan Minister for Foreign Affairs and Cooperation . Approximately 20,000 participants were expected to attend . On 2 May 2016 , events firm GL Events signed the service contract . The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations also lent its support to the preparation for COP 22 '' .", "DEN/ICE Agreements The DEN/ICE Agreements are a series of multilateral treaties that provide for the joint financing of air traffic control , communications , and meteorological services in Greenland , Iceland , and the Faroe Islands for civil aircraft crossing the North Atlantic Ocean above the 45th parallel north . The agreements were negotiated and are implemented within the International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) , a specialized agency of the United Nations .", "Todd Stern Todd D. Stern ( born May 4 , 1951 ) served as the United States Special Envoy for Climate Change , leading talks at the United Nations climate change conferences and smaller sessions , appointed by U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton on January 26 , 2009 . He was the United State 's chief negotiator at the 2015 Paris Climate Agreement . Stern previously served under the Bill Clinton administration as Assistant to the President and Staff Secretary in the White House from 1993 to 1998 , during which time he also acted as the senior White House negotiator at the Kyoto Protocol and Buenos Aires negotiations .", "2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference __ NOTOC __ The 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference took place at the Bali International Conference Centre , Nusa Dua , in Bali , Indonesia , between December 3 and December 15 , 2007 ( though originally planned to end on 14 December ) . Representatives from over 180 countries attended , together with observers from intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations . The conference encompassed meetings of several bodies , including the 13th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( COP 13 ) , the 3rd Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol ( MOP 3 or CMP 3 ) , together with other subsidiary bodies and a meeting of ministers . Negotiations on a successor to the Kyoto Protocol dominated the conference . A meeting of environment ministers and experts held in June called on the conference to agree on a road-map , timetable and ` concrete steps for the negotiations ' with a view to reaching an agreement by 2009 . It has been debated whether this global meeting on climate change has achieved anything significant at all . Initial EU proposals called for global emissions to peak in 10 to 15 years and decline `` well below half '' of the 2000 level by 2050 for developing countries and for developed countries to achieve emissions levels 20-40 % below 1990 levels by 2020 . The United States strongly opposed these numbers , at times backed by Japan , Canada , Australia and Russia . The resulting compromise mandates `` deep cuts in global emissions '' with references to the IPCC 's Fourth Assessment Report .", "Paris Peace Conference Paris Peace Conference may refer to : Congress of Paris ( 1856 ) , negotiations ending the Crimean War Paris Peace Conference , 1919 , negotiations ending World War I Paris Peace Treaties , 1947 , which ended World War II for most nations Paris Peace Accords , 1973 treaty ending American involvement in the Vietnam War The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference which took place in Paris and led to the Paris Agreement to fight global warming", "Intended Nationally Determined Contributions Intended Nationally Determined Contributions ( INDCs ) is a term used under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions that all countries that signed the UNFCCC were asked to publish in the lead up to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Paris , France in December 2015 . These intended contributions were determined without prejudice to the legal nature of the contributions . The term was intended as a compromise between `` quantified emissions limitation and reduction objective '' ( QUELROs ) and `` nationally appropriate mitigation actions '' ( NAMAs ) that the Kyoto Protocol used to describe the different legal obligations of developed and developing countries . Under the Paris Agreement , adopted in December 2015 , the INDC will become the first Nationally Determined Contribution when a country ratifies the agreement , unless they decide to submit a new NDC at the same time . Once the Paris Agreement is ratified , the NDC will become the first greenhouse gas targets under the UNFCCC that applied equally to both developed and developing countries . On 3 August 2016 China and US ratified 2015 agreement on INDC . Together they both constitute 38 % of total global emission , with China 's alone emitting total of 20 % . India that has a Global share of GHGs emission at 4.1 % of that of world ratified Paris climate agreement on October 2 , 2016 by depositing the Instrument of ratification with the United nations .", "European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica The European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica ( EPICA ) is a multinational European project for deep ice core drilling in Antarctica . Its main objective is to obtain full documentation of the climatic and atmospheric record archived in Antarctic ice by drilling and analyzing two ice cores and comparing these with their Greenland counterparts ( GRIP and GISP ) . Evaluation of these records will provide information about the natural climate variability and mechanisms of rapid climatic changes during the last glacial epoch . The European Science Foundation EPICA Programme ( 1996 -- 2005 ) provides co-ordination for EPICA drilling activities at Dome Concordia and Kohnen Station , which are supported by the European Commission and by national contributions from Belgium , Denmark , France , Germany , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Sweden , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . Deep drilling took place at two sites in Antarctica : Concordia Station at Dome C and Kohnen Station . In 2008 the project received the Descartes Prize for Research .", "Abrupt climate change An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .", "Ice cap climate An ice cap climate is a polar climate where the temperature never exceeds 0 C . The climate covers areas in or near the polar regions , such as Antarctica and Greenland , as well as the highest mountaintops . Such areas are covered by a permanent layer of ice and have no vegetation , but they may have animal life , that usually feeds from the oceans . Ice cap climates are inhospitable to human life . Antarctica , the coldest continent on Earth , sustains no permanent human residents , but has some civil inhabitants in proximity to research stations in coastal settlements that are maritime polar and there are some communities that are situated in a transitional zone between the two climates , but barely qualify as a tundra . Some places like Antarctica had a different climate before having an ice cap climate", "Effects of global warming on South Asia ", "Slow reading Slow reading is the intentional reduction in the speed of reading , carried out to increase comprehension or pleasure . The concept appears to have originated in the study of philosophy and literature as a technique to more fully comprehend and appreciate a complex text . More recently , there has been increased interest in slow reading as result of the slow movement and its focus on decelerating the pace of modern life .", "Post–Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas emissions Post-Kyoto negotiations refers to high level talks attempting to address global warming by limiting greenhouse gas emissions . Generally part of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , these talks concern the period after the first `` commitment period '' of the Kyoto Protocol , which expired at the end of 2012 . Negotiations have been mandated by the adoption of the Bali Road Map and Decision 1/CP .13 ( `` The Bali Action Plan '' ) . UNFCCC negotiations are conducted within two subsidiary bodies , the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention ( AWG-LCA ) and the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol ( AWG-KP ) and were expected to culminate in the United Nations Climate Change Conference taking place in December 2009 in Copenhagen ( COP-15 ) ; negotiations are supported by a number of external processes , including the G8 process , a number of regional meetings and the Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate that was launched by US President Barack Obama in March 2009 . High level talks were held at the meeting of the G8 +5 Climate Change Dialogue in February 2007 and at a number of subsequent G8 meetings , most recently leading to the adoption of the G8 leaders declaration `` Responsible Leadership for a Sustainable Future '' during the G8 summit in L ´ Aquila , Italy , in July 2009 .", "List of parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC or FCCC ) is an international environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) , informally known as the Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . The objective of the treaty is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The treaty itself set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . In that sense , the treaty is considered legally non-binding . Instead , the treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' ) that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases . The UNFCCC was opened for signature on 9 May 1992 , after an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee produced the text of the Framework Convention as a report following its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . It entered into force on 21 March 1994 . As of December 2015 , UNFCCC has 197 parties .", "Effects of climate change on island nations Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .", "Arctic resources race The Arctic resources race refers to the competition between global entities for newly available natural resources in the Arctic . As the ice in the Arctic melts at a record rate and the sea ice extent continues to decrease due to global climate change , the Arctic waters become more navigable and Arctic resources -- such as oil and gas , minerals , fish , as well as tourism and new trade routes -- are becoming more accessible . Under the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea , five nations have the legal right to exploit the Arctic 's natural resources within their exclusive economic zones : Canada , Russia , Denmark , Norway , and the United States ( though the U.S. has yet to ratify the treaty , it considers the treaty to be customary international law and abides by it ) . The Arctic region and its resources have recently been at the center of controversy and pose potential conflicts between nations that have differing opinions of how to manage the area , including conflicting territorial claims . In addition , the Arctic region is home to an estimated 400,000 indigenous people . If the ice continues to melt at the current rate , then these indigenous people are at risk of being displaced . The acceleration of ice depletion will contribute to climate change as a whole : melting ice releases methane , ice reflects incoming solar radiation , and without it will cause the ocean to absorb more radiation ( albedo effect ) , heating up the water causing more ocean acidification , and melting ice will cause a rise in sea level .", "Technological Innovation for Climate Change Mitigation ", "United States withdrawal from the Paris Agreement On June 1, 2017, United States President Donald Trump announced that the U.S. would cease all participation in the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change mitigation, and begin negotiations to re-enter the agreement \"on terms that are fair to the United States, its businesses, its workers, its people, its taxpayers,\" or form a new agreement. In withdrawing from the agreement, Trump stated that \"The Paris accord will undermine (the U.S.) economy,\" and \"puts (the U.S.) at a permanent disadvantage.\" Trump stated that the withdrawal would be in accordance with his America First policy. In accordance with Article 28 of the Paris Agreement, a country cannot give notice of withdrawal from the agreement before three years of its start date in the relevant country, which was on November 4, 2016 in the case of the United States. The White House later clarified that the U.S. will abide by the four-year exit process. On November 4, 2019, the administration gave a formal notice of intention to withdraw, which takes 12 months to take effect. Until the withdrawal took effect, the United States was obligated to maintain its commitments under the Agreement, such as the requirement to continue reporting its emissions to the United Nations. The withdrawal took effect on November 4, 2020, one day after the 2020 U.S. presidential election.While celebrated by some members of the Republican Party, international reactions to the withdrawal were overwhelmingly negative from across the political spectrum, and the decision received substantial criticism from religious organizations, businesses, political leaders of all parties, environmentalists, and scientists and citizens from the United States and internationally.Following Trump's announcement, the governors of several U.S. states formed the United States Climate Alliance to continue to advance the objectives of the Paris Agreement at the state level despite the federal withdrawal. As of July 1, 2019, 24 states, American Samoa, and Puerto Rico have joined the alliance, and similar commitments have also been expressed by other state governors, mayors, and businesses.Trump's withdrawal from the Paris agreement will impact other countries by reducing its financial aid to the Green Climate fund. The termination of the $3 billion U.S. funding will ultimately impact climate change research and decrease society's chance of reaching the Paris Agreement goals, as well as omit U.S. contributions to the future IPCC reports. Trump's decision will also affect the carbon emission space as well as the carbon price. The U.S.'s withdrawal will also mean that the spot to take over the global climate regime will be obtainable for China and the EU.President-elect Joe Biden vowed to rejoin the Paris Agreement on his first day in office.", "King Oscar Glacier King Oscar Glacier ( Kong Oscar Gletscher ) is one of several glaciers that drain the north-western part of the Greenland Ice Sheet into Melville Bay . As part of a comprehensive survey of Greenland 's glaciers that was published in 2006 , scientists documented that the mass balance -- the sum of gains through snow accumulation and losses through iceberg calving and melting -- of Kong Oscar and Greenland 's other north-western glaciers was strongly negative between 1996 and 2005 : they lost more ice than they gained . The pattern was similar to the ice sheet as a whole , which has been losing ice mass at an accelerating pace in the past decade .", "Climate change in Argentina According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .", "Climate governance In political ecology and environmental policy , climate governance is the diplomacy , mechanisms and response measures `` aimed at steering social systems towards preventing , mitigating or adapting to the risks posed by climate change '' . A definitive interpretation is complicated by the wide range of political and social science traditions ( including comparative politics , political economy and multilevel governance ) that are engaged in conceiving and analysing climate governance at different levels and across different arenas . In academia , climate governance has become the concern of geographers , anthropologists , economists and business studies scholars . In the past two decades a paradox has arisen between rising awareness about the causes and consequences of climate change and an increasing concern that the issues that surround it represent an intractable problem . Initially , climate change was approached as a global issue , and climate governance sought to address it on the international stage . This took the form of Multilateral Environmental Agreements ( MEAs ) , beginning with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCC ) in 1992 . With the exception of the Kyoto Protocol , international agreements between nations have been largely ineffective in achieving legally binding emissions cuts and with the end of the Kyoto Protocol 's first commitment period in 2012 , starting from 2013 there is no legally binding Global climate regime . This inertia on the international political stage contributed to alternative political narratives that called for more flexible , cost effective and participatory approaches to addressing the multifarious problems of climate change . These narratives relate to the increasing diversity of methods that are being developed and deployed across the field of climate governance .", "Arctic policy of the European Union ", "Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora The Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora is a set of measures agreed on the third `` Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting '' in Brussels 1964 as recommendation number VIII . It is part of the Antarctic Treaty System but has been designated no longer `` current '' in 2011 . Its Objective is to further international collaboration within the framework of the Antarctic Treaty to promote and achieve the objectives of protection , scientific study , and rational use of these fauna and flora .", "Grasping at straws ", "Effects of global warming The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "NICRA (disambiguation) NICRA may refer to : Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture , India Nickel-chromium alloy , properly NiCrA Negotiated Indirect Cost Rate Agreement ( NICRA ) . The United States federal government agreement with nonprofit organizations and similar organizations for the rate at which it will reimburse indirect costs ." ]

[ "Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "Greenhouse gas A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Climate change feedback Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''", "CO2 fertilization effect The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "Carbon dioxide flooding Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .", "Polar amplification Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .", "Vapor pressure Vapor pressure or equilibrium vapor pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases ( solid or liquid ) at a given temperature in a closed system . The equilibrium vapor pressure is an indication of a liquid 's evaporation rate . It relates to the tendency of particles to escape from the liquid ( or a solid ) . A substance with a high vapor pressure at normal temperatures is often referred to as volatile . The pressure exhibited by vapor present above a liquid surface is known as vapor pressure . As the temperature of a liquid increases , the kinetic energy of its molecules also increases . As the kinetic energy of the molecules increases , the number of molecules transitioning into a vapor also increases , thereby increasing the vapor pressure . The vapor pressure of any substance increases non-linearly with temperature according to the Clausius -- Clapeyron relation . The atmospheric pressure boiling point of a liquid ( also known as the normal boiling point ) is the temperature at which the vapor pressure equals the ambient atmospheric pressure . With any incremental increase in that temperature , the vapor pressure becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and lift the liquid to form vapor bubbles inside the bulk of the substance . Bubble formation deeper in the liquid requires a higher pressure , and therefore higher temperature , because the fluid pressure increases above the atmospheric pressure as the depth increases . More important at shallow depths is the higher temperature required to start bubble formation . The surface tension of the bubble wall leads to an overpressure in the very small , initial bubbles . Thus , thermometer calibration should not rely on the temperature in boiling water . The vapor pressure that a single component in a mixture contributes to the total pressure in the system is called partial pressure . For example , air at sea level , and saturated with water vapor at 20 ° C , has partial pressures of about 2.3 kPa of water , 78 kPa of nitrogen , 21 kPa of oxygen and 0.9 kPa of argon , totaling 102.2 kPa , making the basis for standard atmospheric pressure .", "Vapor In physics a vapor ( American ) or vapour ( British ) is a substance in the gas phase at a temperature lower than its critical temperature , which means that the vapor can be condensed to a liquid by increasing the pressure on it without reducing the temperature . A vapor is different from an aerosol . An aerosol is a suspension of tiny particles of liquid , solid , or both within a gas . For example , water has a critical temperature of 647 K , which is the highest temperature at which liquid water can exist . In the atmosphere at ordinary temperatures , therefore , gaseous water ( known as water vapor ) will condense into a liquid if its partial pressure is increased sufficiently . A vapor may co-exist with a liquid ( or a solid ) . When this is true , the two phases will be in equilibrium , and the gas-partial pressure will be equal to the equilibrium vapor pressure of the liquid ( or solid ) .", "Economics of global warming The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "Atmospheric methane Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "Climate change mitigation scenarios Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "Global warming potential Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "Convective instability In meteorology , convective instability or stability of an air mass refers to its ability to resist vertical motion . A stable atmosphere makes vertical movement difficult , and small vertical disturbances dampen out and disappear . In an unstable atmosphere , vertical air movements ( such as in orographic lifting , where an air mass is displaced upwards as it is blown by wind up the rising slope of a mountain range ) tend to become larger , resulting in turbulent airflow and convective activity . Instability can lead to significant turbulence , extensive vertical clouds , and severe weather such as thunderstorms . Adiabatic cooling and heating are phenomena of rising or descending air . Rising air expands and cools due to the decrease in air pressure as altitude increases . The opposite is true of descending air ; as atmospheric pressure increases , the temperature of descending air increases as it is compressed . Adiabatic heating and adiabatic cooling are terms used to describe this temperature change . The adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which a rising or falling air mass lowers or increases per distance of vertical displacement . The ambient lapse rate is the temperature change in the ( non-displaced ) air per vertical distance . Instability results from difference between the adiabatic lapse rate of an air mass and the ambient lapse rate in the atmosphere . If the adiabatic lapse rate is lower than the ambient lapse rate , an air mass displaced upward cools less rapidly than the air in which it is moving . Hence , such an air mass becomes warmer relative to the atmosphere . As warmer air is less dense , such an air mass would tend to continue to rise . Conversely , if the adiabatic lapse rate is higher than the ambient lapse rate , an air mass displaced upward cools more rapidly than the air in which it is moving . Hence , such an airmass becomes cooler relative to the atmosphere . As cooler air is more dense , the rise of such an airmass would tend to be resisted . When air rises , moist air cools at a lower rate than dry air . That is , for the same vertical movement , a parcel of moist air will be warmer than a parcel of dry air . This is because of the condensation of water vapor in the air parcel due to expansion cooling . As water vapor condenses , latent heat is released into the air parcel . Moist air has more water vapor than dry air , so more latent heat is released into the parcel of moist air as it rises . Dry air does not have as much water vapor , therefore dry air cools at a higher rate with vertical movement than moist air . As a result of the latent heat that is released during water vapor condensation , moist air has a relatively lower adiabatic lapse rate than dry air . This makes moist air generally less stable than dry air ( see convective available potential energy -LSB- CAPE -RSB- ) . The dry adiabatic lapse rate ( for unsaturated air ) is 3 C-change per 1,000 vertical feet ( 300 m ) . The moist adiabatic lapse rate varies from 1.1 to per 1,000 vertical feet ( 300 m ) . The combination of moisture and temperature determine the stability of the air and the resulting weather . Cool , dry air is very stable and resists vertical movement , which leads to good and generally clear weather . The greatest instability occurs when the air is moist and warm , as it is in the tropical regions in the summer . Typically , thunderstorms appear on a daily basis in these regions due to the instability of the surrounding air . The ambient lapse rate differs in different meteorological conditions , but , on average , is 2 C-change per 1,000 vertical feet ( 300 m ) .", "Cold trap (astronomy) In astronomy , a cold trap is a close to the surface layer of the atmosphere that is substantially colder than both the deeper and higher layers . The temperature of the air drops with increasing height above the surface of the earth reaching a low point ( which for the earth resides at about 20 kilometers height ) . It is called a trap because it keeps ascending gases with high melting points in by freezing them to a solid which then drops back to the planet surface . The most important gas to be kept in that way , on the Earth , is water vapor , which without the presence of a cold trap in the atmosphere would gradually escape or dissociate into space , making life impossible . However , because of the cold trap water vapor condenses into droplets of liquid water or tiny ice crystals , forming clouds . The cold trap retains one-tenth of one percentof the water in the atmosphere in the form of a vapor at high altitudes . The cold trap is also a layer which above ultraviolet intensity is strong , since higher up the amount of water vapor is negligible . Oxygen screens out ultraviolet intensity . Some astronomers believe that the lack of a cold trap is why the planets Venus and Mars both lost most of their liquid water early in their histories .", "Carbon sequestration Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .", "NYC: Tornado Terror NYC : Tornado Terror is a 2008 Canadian made for TV disaster film . It stars Nicole de Boer , Sebastian Spence , and Jerry Wasserman . It premiered on Syfy on October 4 , 2008 , and is directed by Tibor Takács . The film is about global warming which causes the upper and lower atmosphere to separate so that their different movements generate huge electrical charges which causes huge electrical tornadoes to drop on New York City causing destruction and loss of life . Dr. Cassie Lawrence tries to stop the twisters as chaos ensues . NASA ignores the mayor who recommends following Dr. Lawrence 's advice and use silver iodide on the atmosphere instead , which makes things worse , so it is down to our heroes to use a rebel scientist with his own makeshift rockets to use dry ice ( frozen CO2 ) . The problem is solved , but before the film ends , the same storm effects begin in Paris .", "Atmospheric river An atmospheric river is a narrow corridor or filament of concentrated moisture in the atmosphere . Atmospheric rivers consist of narrow bands of enhanced water vapor transport , typically along the boundaries between large areas of divergent surface air flow , including some frontal zones in association with extratropical cyclones that form over the oceans . Pineapple Express storms are the most commonly represented and recognized type of atmospheric rivers ; they are given the name due to the warm water vapor plumes originating over the Hawaiian tropics that follow a path towards California . The term was originally coined by researchers Reginald Newell and Yong Zhu of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the early 1990s , to reflect the narrowness of the moisture plumes involved . Atmospheric rivers are typically several thousand kilometers long and only a few hundred kilometers wide , and a single one can carry a greater flux of water than the Earth 's largest river , the Amazon River . There are typically 3 -- 5 of these narrow plumes present within a hemisphere at any given time . In the current research field of atmospheric rivers the length and width factors described above in conjunction with an integrated water vapor depth greater than 2.0 cm are used as standards to categorize atmospheric river events . However , as data modeling techniques progress , integrated water vapor transport ( IVT ) is becoming a more common data type used to interpret atmospheric rivers . Its strength lies in its ability to show the transportation of water vapor over multiple time steps instead of a stagnant measurement of water vapor depth in a specific air column ( IWV ) . In addition IVT is more directly attributed to orographic precipitation , a key factor in the production of intense rainfall and subsequent flooding . Atmospheric rivers have a central role in the global water cycle . On any given day , atmospheric rivers account for over 90 % of the global meridional ( north-south ) water vapor transport , yet they cover less than 10 % of the Earth 's circumference . They also are the major cause of extreme precipitation events that cause severe flooding in many mid-latitude , westerly coastal regions of the world , including the West Coast of North America , Western Europe , and the west coast of North Africa . The significance atmospheric rivers have for the control of coastal water budgets juxtaposed against their creation of detrimental floods can be constructed and studied by looking at California and the surrounding coastal region of the western United States . In this region atmospheric rivers have contributed 30-50 % of total annual rainfall . In conjunction Californian land falling Atmospheric Rivers have been historically associated with approximately all major flooding events . The inconsistency of California 's rainfall is due to the variability in strength and quantity of these storms , which can produce strenuous effects on California 's water budget . The factors described above make California a perfect case study to show the importance of proper water management and prediction of these storms . __ NOTOC __", "Global warming in Antarctica The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .", "Attribution of recent climate change Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "Cap carbonate Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .", "Climate system Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "Rain Rain is liquid water in the form of droplets that have condensed from atmospheric water vapor and then precipitated -- that is , become heavy enough to fall under gravity . Rain is a major component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the Earth . It provides suitable conditions for many types of ecosystems , as well as water for hydroelectric power plants and crop irrigation . The major cause of rain production is moisture moving along three-dimensional zones of temperature and moisture contrasts known as weather fronts . If enough moisture and upward motion is present , precipitation falls from convective clouds ( those with strong upward vertical motion ) such as cumulonimbus ( thunder clouds ) which can organize into narrow rainbands . In mountainous areas , heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation which forces moist air to condense and fall out as rainfall along the sides of mountains . On the leeward side of mountains , desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by downslope flow which causes heating and drying of the air mass . The movement of the monsoon trough , or intertropical convergence zone , brings rainy seasons to savannah climes . The urban heat island effect leads to increased rainfall , both in amounts and intensity , downwind of cities . Global warming is also causing changes in the precipitation pattern globally , including wetter conditions across eastern North America and drier conditions in the tropics . Antarctica is the driest continent . The globally averaged annual precipitation over land is 715 mm , but over the whole Earth it is much higher at 990 mm . Climate classification systems such as the Köppen classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes . Rainfall is measured using rain gauges . Rainfall amounts can be estimated by weather radar . Rain is also known or suspected on other planets , where it may be composed of methane , neon , sulfuric acid , or even iron rather than water .", "Inversion (meteorology) In meteorology , an inversion is a deviation from the normal change of an atmospheric property with altitude . It almost always refers to a `` temperature inversion '' , i.e. an increase in temperature with height , or to the layer ( `` inversion layer '' ) within which such an increase occurs . An inversion can lead to pollution such as smog being trapped close to the ground , with possible adverse effects on health . An inversion can also suppress convection by acting as a `` cap '' . If this cap is broken for any of several reasons , convection of any moisture present can then erupt into violent thunderstorms . Temperature inversion can notoriously result in freezing rain in cold climates .", "Anti-greenhouse effect The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar to the greenhouse effect , but with the opposite consequence of cooling the surface temperature of a planet . If gases in the atmosphere of a planet have a lesser transmittance for inbound radiation ( for instance , solar rays in the Solar System ) than for outbound radiation ( typically thermal radiation of the planet 's surface in the infrared domain ) , the surface temperature at which inbound and outbound heat fluxes are at equilibrium is lower .", "Low-carbon emission The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .", "Methane Methane ( -LSB- ˈmɛθeɪn -RSB- or -LSB- ˈmiːθeɪn -RSB- ) is a chemical compound with the chemical formula ( one atom of carbon and four atoms of hydrogen ) . It is a group 14 hydride and the simplest alkane , and is the main constituent of natural gas . The relative abundance of methane on Earth makes it an attractive fuel , though capturing and storing it poses challenges due to its gaseous state under normal conditions for temperature and pressure . Natural methane is found both below ground and under the sea floor . When it reaches the surface and the atmosphere , it is known as atmospheric methane . The Earth 's atmospheric methane concentration has increased by about 150 % since 1750 , and it accounts for 20 % of the total radiative forcing from all of the long-lived and globally mixed greenhouse gases ( these gases do n't include water vapor which is by far the largest component of the greenhouse effect ) .", "Cumulative effects (environment) Cumulative environmental effects can be defined as effects on the environment which are caused by the combined results of past , current and future activities . Over time , direct and indirect human activities combine to collectively impact the environment . These effects may differ from the original , individual activities . For example , ecosystems can be damaged by the combined effects of human activities , such as air , land , and/or water pollution , improper handling of industrial waste , and other human development activities . Global warming is the cumulative effect caused by too much greenhouse gas , and it may then cause a loss in biodiversity and acid rain . North America has contributed to creating various cumulative effects on the environment . Many states in the United States have inadequate or no formal environmental review requirements in order to assess the cumulative effects on the environment from harmful practices . The extent to which cumulative effects in each state are evaluated varies greatly . For example , some programs only require an assessment on specific natural resource issues and others require comprehensive examination of cumulative effects on the environment . Environmental assessments are a necessity to ensure the further advancement of healthy ecosystems , habitats , and wildlife .", "Effects of climate change The effects of climate change may refer to : Effects of global warming , the effects of current climate change Historical impacts of climate change , during the early evolution and history of humans , prior to current global warming", "Global warming taxes ", "Carbon leakage Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .", "Trace gas A trace gas is a gas which makes up less than 1 % by volume of the Earth 's atmosphere , and it includes all gases except nitrogen ( 78.1 % ) and oxygen ( 20.9 % ) . The most abundant trace gas at 0.934 % is argon . Water vapor also occurs in the atmosphere with highly variable abundance .", "Copenhagen Diagnosis The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "Carbon footprint A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint ." ]

[ "Climate change (general concept) Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.", "Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists The 2007 Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists was a statement signed by over 200 climate scientists advocating specific targets for greenhouse gas emissions for the 21st century . The statement was based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Article 2 that committed signatories to the '' ... stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' and on the science available in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment report ( IPCC AR4 ) . The Bali Declaration was released to coincide with the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference which took place in Bali 3 -- 15 December 2007 . Category : Climate change policy", "Climate change in Bangladesh Climate Change in Bangladesh is an extremely crucial issue and according to National Geographic , Bangladesh ranks first as the nation most vulnerable to the impacts of Climate Change in the coming decades .", "Andrew Dessler Andrew Emory Dessler ( born 1964 ) is a climate scientist and Professor of Atmospheric Sciences at Texas A&M University . His research subject areas are atmospheric chemistry , climate change and climate change policy .", "List of climate scientists This list of climate scientists contains famous or otherwise notable persons who have contributed to the study of climate science . The list is compiled manually so will not be complete or up to date . See also : Category : Climatologists and List of authors of Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis . The list includes scientists from several specialities or disciplines .", "Climate change in South Korea In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .", "John F. B. Mitchell John Francis Brake Mitchell OBE FRS ( born 7 October 1948 ) is a British climatologist and climate modeller . He studied Applied Mathematics at Queen 's University Belfast in 1970 , staying on to gain a PhD in Theoretical Physics in 1973 . In 1978 , he was appointed head of the Climate Change group in what is now the Met Office 's Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research . He was Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2008 and Director of Climate Science from 2008 to 2010 . He is the most cited scientist regarding the topic of global warming . He was a convening lead author for the first and third IPCC Working Group I reports and lead author for the second . He was also chair of the World Meteorological Organization JSC/CLIVAR Working Group on Climate Modelling and a member of WMO Executive Council from 2005 to 2008 . He now ( 2014 ) works part-time as Principal Research Fellow , advising the Met Office Chief Scientist on climate change and is Visiting Professor at the University of Reading .", "Venkatachalam Ramaswamy Venkatachalam Ramaswamy ( V. `` Ram '' Ramaswamy ) is the Director of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) , studying climate modeling and climate change . `` A leading climate scientist '' , his work is cited as supporting evidence for significant stratospheric climate change . He focuses in particular on radiative transfer models and the hydrologic cycle in the atmosphere . He has actively supported the development of supercomputing approaches that enable researchers to achieve higher resolution and greater complexity in climate models . As a lead author involved in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Ramaswamy 's contributions ( along with the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .", "Corinne Le Quéré Corinne Le Quéré FRS ( born July 1966 ) is a Franco-Canadian scientist . She is Professor of Climate Change Science and Policy at the University of East Anglia and Director of Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research .", "Drawdown (climate) Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis . Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures . Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .", "Anders Levermann Anders Levermann is a climate scientist at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and Columbia University . He is a Professor of the Dynamics of the Climate System at Institute for Physics and Astrophysics of the Potsdam University , Germany . He was a lead author of the chapter on sea-level changes of the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC AR5 ) , and contributed to the paleoclimate chapter in the previous report ( IPCC-AR4 ) . Levermann advises political and economic stakeholders on the issue of climate change .", "Robert Jay Charlson Robert Jay Charlson is an American atmospheric scientist , climate scientist , pioneer in the fields of climate forcing and climate change , and coauthor of the CLAW hypothesis . He is professor of Atmospheric Sciences , chemistry , and geophysics at the University of Washington in Seattle , Washington . Charlson earned his PhD from the University of Washington . He is a world expert in atmospheric chemistry , aerosol physics , aerosol/cloud/climate interaction , aerosol and cloud instrumentation .", "Reto Knutti Reto Knutti ( born 1973 ) is a Swiss climate scientist and professor of climate physics at ETH Zurich 's Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science . He is known for his research involving climate models , and has been a key member of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .", "List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "Kevin Anderson (scientist) Kevin Anderson is the Deputy Director of the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research ; holds a joint chair in Energy and Climate Change at the School of Mechanical , Aerospace and Civil Engineering at the University of Manchester and School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia ; and is an honorary lecturer in Environmental Management at the Manchester Business School . He is an adviser to the British Government ( as of 2009 ) on climate change .", "David Reay David S. Reay is a climate change scientist , author , and professor of carbon management at the University of Edinburgh .", "Helen Cleugh Helen A. Cleugh is an atmospheric scientist . She is currently the Chief Research Scientist in Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) ( Oceans and Atmosphere ) where she leads the Earth Systems and Climate Change Hub . Cleugh 's research focuses on observing and predicting atmospheric , climate and marine systems and determining how they interact with human activities .", "Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) The Copernicus Climate Change Service ( C3S ) is one of the six thematic services provided by the European Union 's Copernicus Programme . The Copernicus Programme is managed by the European Commission and the C3S is implemented by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ( ECMWF ) and is expected to become operational in 2018 . The objective of the Copernicus Climate Change Service is to build an EU knowledge base in support of mitigation and adaptation policies for Climate Change and Global Warming . The goal of the operational Climate Change service is to provide reliable information about the current and past state of the climate , the forecasts on a seasonal time scale , and the more likely projections in the coming decades for various scenarios of greenhouse gas emissions and other Climate Change contributors .", "Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement The Laboratoire des sciences du climat et de l'environnement ( LSCE , Climate and Environment Sciences Laboratory ) is a laboratory for the study of climate and in particular climate change . It plays a very important role within the framework of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , which involves many of its researchers . It is very diversified because it includes modellers like experimenters , glaciologists as specialists in remote sensing or air quality study . The climate scientist Valerie Masson-Delmotte is involved in the laboratory .", "John Christy John Raymond Christy is a climate scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) whose chief interests are satellite remote sensing of global climate and global climate change . He is best known , jointly with Roy Spencer , for the first successful development of a satellite temperature record .", "Climate change in Pakistan Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "Valerie Masson-Delmotte Valerie Masson-Delmotte is a French climate scientist and Research Director at the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission , where she works in the Climate and Environment Sciences Laboratory ( LSCE ) . She uses data from past climates to test models of climate change , and has contributed to several IPCC reports .", "James Croll James Croll , FRS , ( 2 January 1821 -- 15 December 1890 ) was a 19th-century Scottish scientist who developed a theory of climate change based on changes in the Earth 's orbit .", "Prem Chand Pandey Prem Chand Pandey is an Indian scientist and academic in the fields of Satellite Oceanography , Remote Sensing , Atmospheric Science , Antarctic and Climate Change", "Climatic Research Unit The Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) is a component of the University of East Anglia and is one of the leading institutions concerned with the study of natural and anthropogenic climate change . With a staff of some thirty research scientists and students , the CRU has contributed to the development of a number of the data sets widely used in climate research , including one of the global temperature records used to monitor the state of the climate system , as well as statistical software packages and climate models .", "United States temperature extremes For the United States , the extremes are 134 F in Death Valley , California in 1913 and -79.8 F recorded in Prospect Creek , Alaska in 1971 . The largest recorded temperature change in one place over a 24-hour period occurred on January 15 , 1972 in Loma , Montana , when the temperature rose from -54 to . The most dramatic temperature changes occur in North American climates susceptible to Chinook winds . For example , the largest 2-minute temperature change of 49 F-change occurred in Spearfish , South Dakota , a rise from -4 to .", "Homogenization (climate) Homogenization in climate research means the removal of non-climatic changes . Next to changes in the climate itself , raw climate records also contain non-climatic jumps and changes for example due to relocations or changes in instrumentation . The most used principle to remove these inhomogeneities is the relative homogenization approach in which a candidate stations is compared to a reference time series based on one or more neighboring stations . The candidate and reference station ( s ) experience about the same climate , non-climatic changes that happen only in one station can thus be identified and removed .", "Peter Sinclair (environmental activist) Peter Sinclair from Midland , Michigan ( born 1953 ) , is an environmental activist whose focus is on climate change . He is a YouTube blogger , explorer and founder of the ClimateCrocks.com website . Together with climate researchers he 's traveled to hot spots of climate change , for instance to Greenland as part of the Dark Snow Project . Sinclair is perhaps best known for producing the Climate Denial Crock of the Week series on his YouTube channel . Videos have received praise from climate scientists such as Gavin Schmidt , Michael E. Mann , and the late Stephen Schneider . In 2012 , he launched another YouTube series , entitled This is not Cool , for the Yale Project on Climate Change Communication .", "Thin Ice (2013 film) Thin Ice is a 2013 documentary film following geologist Simon Lamb on a search to understand the science behind climate change . This is achieved by traveling the world and meeting a range of scientists , from biologists to physicists , who are investigating the climate . The film 's conclusion emphasises the scientific consensus on human-induced climate change . The film was a joint initiative between Oxford University and Victoria University of Wellington , and premiered around the world on Earth Day 2012 , and in New Zealand in 2015 .", "David Karoly David John Karoly ( born 1955 ) is an Australian atmospheric scientist . He is an expert in climate change , stratospheric ozone depletion , and climate variations due to the El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) . Karoly has served as a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group 2 ( on societal impacts ) and he is a member of the faculty of the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne . His work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . He is member of the board of the Climate Change Authority .", "Global Land Project The Global Land Project -LSB- changed to Global Land Programme in 2016 -RSB- is a research initiative of Future Earth ( originally the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ( IGBP ) and the International Human Dimensions Programme ( IHDP ) ) . It aims to understand the changes of the land systems given the prospects of rapid and massive global environmental change . The goal of GLP is `` to measure , model and understand the coupled human-environment system '' . The Global Land Project Science Plan describes the scientific questions that the land systems research community considers to be crucial for the next decade . GLP has three objectives that determine the research framework : To identify the agents , structures and nature of change in coupled human-environment systems on land , and to quantify their effects on the coupled system ; To assess how the provision of ecosystem services is affected by the changes in ( i ) above ; and To identify the character and dynamics of vulnerable and sustainable coupled human-environment systems to interacting perturbations , including climate change .", "Joel B. Smith Joel B. Smith is an expert on climate change policy . He was a coordinating lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2001 assessment report and a lead author of the 2007 assessment report ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) . He is currently a Principal at Stratus Consulting Inc. , in Boulder , CO. .", "Dennis L. Hartmann Dennis L Hartmann is an American atmospheric scientist at the University of Washington . He has done research on ozone depletion and climate change . In 2016 he was elected to the National Academy of Sciences ." ]

[ "Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "IPCC First Assessment Report The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "Global warming hiatus A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "Hurricane Katrina and global warming The tremendous destruction caused by recent Atlantic Ocean tropical cyclones , such as Hurricanes Katrina , Wilma , and Sandy caused a substantial upsurge in interest in the subject of global warming by news media and the wider public , and concerns that global climatic change may have played a significant role in those events . Time Magazine , for example , published an article titled , `` Is Global Warming Fueling Katrina ? '' -- however , the article itself addressed hurricanes in general , rather than Katrina specifically , and was inconclusive . Shortly after the hurricane , former Boston Globe reporter Ross Gelbspan wrote an op-ed piece for the Globe titled , `` Katrina 's Real Name '' , declaring that the hurricane 's `` real name is global warming . '' Gelbspan went on to assert : `` Although Katrina began as a relatively small hurricane that glanced off south Florida , it was supercharged with extraordinary intensity by the relatively blistering sea surface temperatures in the Gulf of Mexico . '' Gelbspan did not single out Katrina from other recent storms in that regard ; in the article he went on to attribute other major weather events over the preceding year to global warming , including a blizzard in Los Angeles , high winds in Scandinavia , wildfires in Spain , and a drought centered in Missouri . Britain 's then deputy prime minister , John Prescott , has linked Katrina with global warming , and statements made shortly after the hurricane by Germany 's environment minister , Jürgen Trittin , indicate he believes that global warming is responsible for an increase in the frequency of destructive natural events . Kerry Emanuel had recently published a paper in the journal Nature that found a good correlation between hurricane intensity and sea surface temperatures . Some journalists have claimed Emanuel 's paper concludes that the recent increase in intense Atlantic storms is due to global warming , but Emanuel stated that `` it would be absurd to attribute the Katrina disaster to global warming '' . The Internet blog RealClimate has written that `` there is no way to prove that Katrina either was , or was not , affected by global warming '' .", "Effects of global warming on oceans Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society .", "List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "Temperature record of the past 1000 years For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .", "Global warming in Russia Global warming in Russia describes the global warming related issues in Russia . This includes climate politics , contribution to global warming and the influence of global warming on Russia . In 2009 Russia was ready to reduce emissions 20 -- 25 % from its 1990 emission levels by the year 2020 .", "Duncan Wingham Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Model Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System Model ( NOGAPS ) is a global numerical weather prediction computer model run by Fleet Numerical . This mathematical model is run four times a day and produces weather forecasts . Along with the ECMWF 's Integrated Forecast System ( IFS ) , the Canadian Global Environmental Multiscale Model ( GEM ) it is one of several synoptic scale medium-range models in general use .", "Climate change and potatoes Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .", "Save the Planet Save the Planet is a minor political party in Australia . The environmentalist party aims to avoid global warming by returning average global temperatures to pre-industrial levels as quickly as possible . The party also aims to create a world that is environmentally and socially sustainable without inequality .", "James O'Brien (oceanographer) James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''", "Seita Emori Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .", "Weather Weather is the state of the atmosphere , to the degree that it is hot or cold , wet or dry , calm or stormy , clear or cloudy . Most weather phenomena occur in the lowest level of the atmosphere , the troposphere , just below the stratosphere . Weather refers to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity , whereas climate is the term for the averaging of atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time . When used without qualification , `` weather '' is generally understood to mean the weather of Earth . Weather is driven by air pressure , temperature and moisture differences between one place and another . These differences can occur due to the sun 's angle at any particular spot , which varies with latitude . The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the largest scale atmospheric circulations : the Hadley Cell , the Ferrel Cell , the Polar Cell , and the jet stream . Weather systems in the mid-latitudes , such as extratropical cyclones , are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow . Because the Earth 's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane , sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of the year . On Earth 's surface , temperatures usually range ± 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F to 100 ° F ) annually . Over thousands of years , changes in Earth 's orbit can affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth , thus influencing long-term climate and global climate change . Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences . Higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes as most atmospheric heating is due to contact with the Earth 's surface while radiative losses to space are mostly constant . Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location . The Earth 's weather system is a chaotic system ; as a result , small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large effects on the system as a whole . Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout history , and there is evidence that human activities such as agriculture and industry have modified weather patterns . Studying how the weather works on other planets has been helpful in understanding how weather works on Earth . A famous landmark in the Solar System , Jupiter 's Great Red Spot , is an anticyclonic storm known to have existed for at least 300 years . However , weather is not limited to planetary bodies . A star 's corona is constantly being lost to space , creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System . The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind .", "Hockey stick graph Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "The 11th Hour (2007 film) The 11th Hour is a 2007 documentary film , created , produced , co-written and narrated by Leonardo DiCaprio , on the state of the natural environment . It was directed by Leila Conners Petersen and Nadia Conners and financed by Adam Lewis and Pierre André Senizergues , and distributed by Warner Independent Pictures . Its world premiere was at the 2007 60th Annual Cannes Film Festival ( May 16 -- 27 , 2007 ) and it was released on August 17 , 2007 , in the year in which the Fourth Assessment Report of the United Nations global warming panel IPCC was published and about a year after Al Gore 's An Inconvenient Truth , another film documentary about global warming .", "Effects of global warming on marine mammals The effect of global warming on marine mammals is a growing concern . Many of the effects of climate change are currently unknown due to its unpredictability , but many are becoming increasingly evident today . Some effects are very direct such as loss of habitat , temperature stress , and exposure to severe weather . Other effects are more indirect such as changes in host pathogen associations , changes in body condition because of predator -- prey interaction , changed in exposure to toxins , and increased human interactions . These are just a few examples of what marine mammals are dealing with as a result of rapid climate change . There are a number of marine mammals that have been affected by climate change including walruses , seals , penguins , and polar bears .", "Global horizontal sounding technique The Global horizontal sounding technique ( GHOST ) program was an atmospheric field research project in the late 1960s for investigating the technical ability to gather weather data using thousands of simultaneous long-duration balloons for very long-range global scale numerical weather prediction in preparation for the Global Atmospheric Research Program ( GARP ) .", "Bjørn Lomborg Bjørn Lomborg ( -LSB- bjɶɐ̯n ˈlʌmbɒˀw -RSB- ; born 6 January 1965 ) is a Danish author and adjunct professor at the Copenhagen Business School as well as President of the Copenhagen Consensus Center . He is former director of the Danish government 's Environmental Assessment Institute ( EAI ) in Copenhagen . He became internationally known for his best-selling and controversial book , The Skeptical Environmentalist ( 2001 ) , in which he argues that many of the costly measures and actions adopted by scientists and policy makers to meet the challenges of global warming will ultimately have minimal impact on the world 's rising temperature . In 2002 , Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus , a project-based conference where prominent economists sought to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methods based on the theory of welfare economics . In 2009 , Business Insider cited Lomborg as one of `` The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics '' . While Lomborg campaigned against the Kyoto Protocol and other measures to cut carbon emissions in the short-term , he argued for adaptation to short-term temperature rises , and for spending money on research and development for longer-term environmental solutions . His issue is not with the reality of climate change , but rather with the economic and political approaches being taken ( or not taken ) to meet the challenges of that climate change . He is a strong advocate for focusing attention and resources on what he perceives as far more pressing world problems , such as AIDS , malaria and malnutrition . In his critique of the 2012 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development , Lomborg stated : `` Global warming is by no means our main environmental threat . '' In 2011 and 2012 , Lomborg was named a Top 100 Global Thinker by Foreign Policy `` for looking more right than ever on the politics of climate change '' .", "Retreat of glaciers since 1850 The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .", "Kevin E. Trenberth Kevin Edward Trenberth ( born November 8 , 1944 ) is part of the Climate Analysis Section at the US NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research . He was a lead author of the 2001 and 2007 IPCC Scientific Assessment of Climate Change ( see IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ) and serves on the Scientific Steering Group for the Climate Variability and Predictability ( CLIVAR ) program . He chaired the WCRP Observation and Assimilation Panel from 2004 to 2010 and chaired the Global Energy and Water Exchanges ( GEWEX ) scientific steering group from 2010-2013 ( member 2007-14 ) . In addition , he served on the Joint Scientific Committee of the World Climate Research Programme , and has made significant contributions to research into El Niño-Southern Oscillation . Kevin 's work is highly cited and he has an h-index of 100 ( 100 papers have over 100 citations ) .", "Rickettsiosis A rickettsiosis is a disease caused by intracellular bacteria . It has been predicted that global warming may lead to greater incidence .", "Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "Arctic methane emissions Arctic methane release is the release of methane from seas and soils in permafrost regions of the Arctic . While a long-term natural process , it is exacerbated by global warming . This results in a positive feedback effect , as methane is itself a powerful greenhouse gas . The Arctic region is one of the many natural sources of the greenhouse gas methane . Global warming accelerates its release , due to both release of methane from existing stores , and from methanogenesis in rotting biomass . Large quantities of methane are stored in the Arctic in natural gas deposits , permafrost , and as undersea clathrates . Permafrost and clathrates degrade on warming , thus large releases of methane from these sources may arise as a result of global warming . Other sources of methane include submarine taliks , river transport , ice complex retreat , submarine permafrost and decaying gas hydrate deposits . Concentrations in the Arctic atmosphere are higher by 8 -- 10 % than that in the Antarctic atmosphere . During cold glacier epochs , this gradient decreases to practically insignificant levels . Land ecosystems are considered the main sources of this asymmetry , although it has been suggested that `` the role of the Arctic Ocean is significantly underestimated . '' Soil temperature and moisture levels have been found to be significant variables in soil methane fluxes in tundra environments .", "Global warming in Tuvalu Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .", "Potential predictability The term potential predictability is used in the context of weather forecasting to describe the extent that the future weather can be predicted in principle , i.e. , it describes the proportion of variance in the weather that arises from systematic factors rather than random noise .", "Satellite temperature measurements The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .", "Global warming in Luxembourg Global warming in Luxembourg discuss the global warming issues in Luxembourg .", "Heavy Weather (Sterling novel) Heavy Weather is a science fiction novel by Bruce Sterling , first published in 1994 , about a group of storm chasers in a world where global warming has produced incredibly destructive weather .", "James Annan James D. Annan is a scientist involved in climate prediction . He was a member of the Global Warming Research Program at Frontier Research Centre for Global Change which is associated with the Earth Simulator in Japan . In 2014 he left Japan , returning to the United Kingdom as a co-founder of Blue Skies Research .", "GWPP The initials GWPP could indicate : the Global Water Policy Project , a fresh-water conservation project headed by Sandra Postel . the Global Warming Petition Project ( AKA the Oregon Petition ) , a project devoted to discrediting global climate change ( or its previous label global warming ) , under the auspices of the non-profit organization called the Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine ." ]

[ "Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "Snowball Earth The Snowball Earth hypothesis proposes that Earth 's surface became entirely or nearly entirely frozen at least once , sometime earlier than 650 Mya ( million years ago ) . Proponents of the hypothesis argue that it best explains sedimentary deposits generally regarded as of glacial origin at tropical palaeolatitudes , and other enigmatic features in the geological record . Opponents of the hypothesis contest the implications of the geological evidence for global glaciation and the geophysical feasibility of an ice - or slush-covered ocean , and emphasize the difficulty of escaping an all-frozen condition . A number of unanswered questions remain , including whether the Earth was a full snowball , or a `` slushball '' with a thin equatorial band of open ( or seasonally open ) water . The snowball Earth episodes occurred before the sudden radiation of multicellular bioforms , known as the Cambrian explosion . The most recent snowball episode may have triggered the evolution of multicellularity . Another , much earlier and longer snowball episode , the Huronian glaciation , which occurred 2400 to 2100 Mya , may have been triggered by the first appearance of oxygen in the atmosphere , the `` Great Oxygenation Event . ''", "Carbon dioxide removal Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions ." ]

[ "Atmospheric methane Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "Scott Denning A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .", "Black carbon Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .", "Capnophile Capnophiles are microorganisms that thrive in the presence of high concentrations of carbon dioxide . Some capnophiles may have a metabolic requirement for carbon dioxide , while others merely compete more successfully for resources under these conditions . The term is a generally descriptive one and has less relevance as a means of establishing a taxonomic or evolutionary relationship among organisms with this characteristic . For example , the ability of capnophiles to tolerate ( or utilize ) the amount of oxygen that is also in their environment may vary widely and may be far more critical to their survival . Species of Campylobacter are bacterial capnophiles that are more easily identified because they are also microaerophiles , organisms that can grow in high carbon dioxide as long as a small amount of free oxygen is present , but at a dramatically reduced concentration . ( In the earth 's atmosphere carbon dioxide levels are approximately five hundred times lower than that of oxygen , 0.04 % and 21 % of the total , respectively . ) Obligate anaerobes are microbes that will die in the presence of oxygen without respect to the concentration of carbon dioxide in their environment , and typically acquire energy through anaerobic respiration , or fermentation ( biochemistry ) . In 2004 , a capnophilic bacterium was characterized that appears to require carbon dioxide . This organism , Mannheimia succiniciproducens , has a unique metabolism involving carbon fixation . While carbon fixation is common to most plant life on earth since it is the key initial step in the biosynthesis of complex carbon compounds during photosynthesis ( the Calvin cycle ) , it is found in relatively few microorganisms and not found in animals . Mannheimia succiniciproducens can attach carbon dioxide to the three-carbon backbone of phosphoenolpyruvate , an endproduct in glycolysis , to generate the four-carbon compound , oxaloacetic acid , an intermediate in the Krebs cycle . Although Mannheimia succiniciproducens has most of the intermediates in the Krebs cycle , it is not capable of oxidative phosphorylation , the final step in the electron transport chain that would allow it to carry out the highly efficient process of harvesting energy by aerobic respiration .", "Global Carbon Project The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "Guy Stewart Callendar Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''", "Kaya identity The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .", "Cap carbonate Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .", "Carbonate–silicate cycle The carbonate -- silicate geochemical cycle describes the transformation of silicate rocks to carbonate rocks by weathering and sedimentation at Earth 's surface and the transformation of carbonate rocks back into silicates by metamorphism and magmatism . It plays a large part in the carbon cycle , since the equilibrium point of the carbonate-silicate cycle dictates the pace of carbon release from the lithosphere . The carbonate-silicate cycle involves several chemical reactions that occur in different environments . In the atmosphere , gaseous carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) dissolves in rainwater , forming natural carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) . This weak acid weathers silicate rocks on continents , slowly dissolving the rock and releasing aqueous minerals through the chemical reaction CaSiO3 ( s ) ( wollastonite ) + 2CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) → Ca + 2HCO ( aq ) ( bicarbonate ) + SiO2 ( aq ) ( dissolved silica ) . These dissolved minerals are eventually carried by water to the ocean , where they are used by living organisms such as foraminifera , radiolarians , coccolithopores , and diatoms to create shells of CaCO3 ( calcite ) or SiO2 ( opal ) through the reactions Ca2 + ( aq ) + 2HCO3 → CaCO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) ( for calcite precipitation ) and SiO2 ( aq ) → SiO2 ( s ) ( for opal precipitation ) . When these organisms die , many shells are remineralized but some shells fall all the way to the sea floor and are buried . The cycle is completed when the sea floor is subducted and carbonate minerals recombine with silicate minerals under temperatures above 300 ° C to reform calcium silicates and release gaseous CO2 through volcanism ( CaCO3 ( s ) + SiO2 ( s ) → CaSiO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) ) . The carbonate-silicate cycle impacts the global carbon cycle , as carbon dioxide is removed from the Earth 's surface through the burial of weathered minerals in deep ocean sediments and returned to the atmosphere through metamorphism and volcanism . However , this process is far from being a closed loop . In Earth history generally the formation of carbonates significantly outpaces the formation of silicates , effectively removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Because carbon dioxide is a potent greenhouse gas , the carbonate-silicate cycle is suspected to initiate ice ages by creating a negative feedback on the global temperature with a typical time scale of a few million years that is capable of countering water vapor and carbon dioxide short-term positive feedback on global temperature . The carbonate-silicate cycle equilibrium point is shifted on Venus due to surface temperatures above 300 ° C , which favor the formation of calcium silicates over weathering . Thus , Venus has a high-density carbon-dioxide atmosphere .", "Keeling Curve The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .", "Carbon sequestration Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .", "International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme The International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ( IGBP ) was a research programme that studies the phenomenon of global change . It closed in 2015 The International Council of Scientific Unions , a coordinating body of national science organizations , launched IGBP in 1987 . It looked at the total Earth system , the changes that are occurring , and the manner in which changes are influenced by human actions . IGBP aimed to describe and understand how the physical , chemical and biological processes regulate the Earth system . It also seeks to increase knowledge of how humans are influencing the global processes , such as the carbon cycle , nitrogen cycle , sulfur cycle , water cycle and phosphorus cycle . `` It delivers scientific knowledge to help human societies develop in harmony with Earth 's environment . '' IGBP research is organised around six projects representing the Earth system - land , atmosphere , ocean and where they meet ( land-atmosphere , land-ocean . atmosphere-ocean ) and two further projects looking at the Earth system as a whole : Past Global Changes ( PAGES ) which looks at palaeoclimate , and the Analysis , Integration and Modelling of the Earth System ( AIMES ) , which helps set the agenda for Earth system models . Plus four joint projects - carbon , water , human health and food security - with the other three international global-change programmes . In 2004 , IGBP published a landmark synthesis , Global Change and the Earth System ( Steffen et al ) . The synthesis stated that humanity was now the main driver of change at the planetary scale and that Earth is now operating in a `` no analogue '' state . Measurements of Earth system processes , past and present , have led to the conclusion that the planet has moved well outside the range of natural variability in the last half million years at least . Sybil Seitzinger is the Executive Director .", "Polar forests of the Cretaceous Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "Carbon dioxide generator A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .", "Respiratory failure Respiratory failure results from inadequate gas exchange by the respiratory system , meaning that the arterial oxygen , carbon dioxide or both can not be kept at normal levels . A drop in the oxygen carried in blood is known as hypoxemia ; a rise in arterial carbon dioxide levels is called hypercapnia . Respiratory failure is classified as either Type I or Type II , based on whether there is a high carbon dioxide level . The definition of respiratory failure in clinical trials usually includes increased respiratory rate , abnormal blood gases ( hypoxemia , hypercapnia , or both ) , and evidence of increased work of breathing . The normal partial pressure reference values are : oxygen PaO2 more than 80 mmHg , and carbon dioxide PaCO2 lesser than 45 mmHg .", "Biosphere model In climate science , a biosphere model , is used to model the biosphere of Earth , and can be coupled with atmospheric general circulation models ( GCMs ) for modelling the entire climate system .", "The Nitrogen Fix The Nitrogen Fix is a 1980 science fiction novel by Hal Clement . The plot revolves around a nomadic family in a future where all oxygen in the Earth 's atmosphere has combined with nitrogen , so the atmosphere is mostly nitrogen with traces of water , nitrogen oxides and carbon dioxide , and the seas are very dilute nitric acid .", "Estuarine acidification Estuarine acidification is a decrease in the pH of coastal marine ecosystems , specifically those of estuaries . pH change in estuaries is more complicated than in the open ocean due to direct impacts from land run-off and coastal current dynamics . Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the absorption of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere ( 0.1 units over the last century ) . The ocean absorbs 30-40 % of all CO2 emitted to the atmosphere ; this increase in aqueous carbon dioxide causes a decline in the pH of the ocean surface . As carbon dioxide combines with water , it releases protons ( hydrogen ions ) , based on the following equation : CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ HCO3 + H + ↔ CO3 + 2 H +", "Dry ice Dry ice , sometimes referred to as `` cardice '' ( chiefly by British chemists ) , is the solid form of carbon dioxide . It is used primarily as a cooling agent . Its advantages include lower temperature than that of water ice and not leaving any residue ( other than incidental frost from moisture in the atmosphere ) . It is useful for preserving frozen foods where mechanical cooling is unavailable . Dry ice sublimates at − 78.5 ° C ( − 109.3 ° F ) at Earth atmospheric pressures . This extreme cold makes the solid dangerous to handle without protection due to burns caused by freezing ( frostbite ) . While generally not very toxic , the outgassing from it can cause hypercapnia ( abnormally elevated carbon dioxide levels in the blood ) due to buildup in confined locations .", "Total Carbon Column Observing Network The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .", "Asphyxiant gas An asphyxiant gas is a nontoxic or minimally toxic gas which reduces or displaces the normal oxygen concentration in breathing air . Breathing of oxygen-depleted air can lead to death by asphyxiation ( suffocation ) . Because asphyxiant gases are relatively inert and odorless , their presence in high concentration may not be noticed , except in the case of carbon dioxide ( hypercapnia ) . Toxic gases , by contrast , cause death by other mechanisms , such as competing with oxygen on the cellular level ( e.g. carbon monoxide ) or directly damaging the respiratory system ( e.g. phosgene ) . Far smaller quantities of these are deadly . Notable examples of asphyxiant gases are nitrogen , argon , helium , butane and propane . Along with trace gases such as carbon dioxide and ozone , these compose 79 % of Earth 's atmosphere . The atmosphere is mostly harmless because the remaining 21 % is O2 .", "Environmental issue Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .", "Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project Deep Earth Carbon Degassing ( DECADE ) project is an initiative to unite scientists around the world to make tangible advances towards quantifying the amount of carbon outgassed from the Earth 's deep interior ( core , mantle , crust ) into the surface environment ( e.g. biosphere , hydrosphere , cryosphere , atmosphere ) through naturally occurring processes . DECADE is an initiative within the Deep Carbon Observatory ( DCO ) . Volcanoes are the main pathway in which deeply-sourced volatiles , including carbon , are transferred from the Earth 's interior to the surface environment . An additional , though less well understood pathway includes along faults and fractures within the Earth 's crust , often referred to as tectonic degassing . When the DCO was first formed in 2009 estimates of global carbon flux from volcanic regions ranged from 65 to 540 Mt/yr , and constraints on global tectonic degassing were virtually unknown . The order of magnitude uncertainty in current volcanic/tectonic carbon outgassing makes answering fundamental questions about the global carbon budget virtually impossible . In particular , one fundamental unknown is if carbon transferred to the Earth 's interior via subduction is efficiently recycled back to the Earth 's mantle lithosphere , crust and surface environment through volcanic and tectonic degassing , or if significant quantities of carbon are being subducted into the deep mantle . Because significant quantities of mantle carbon are also released through Mid-Ocean Ridge volcanism , if carbon inputs and outputs at subduction zone settings are in balance , then the net effect will be an imbalance in the global carbon budget , with carbon being preferentially removed from the Earth 's deep interior and redistributed to more shallow reservoirs including the mantle lithosphere , crust , hydrosphere and atmosphere . The implications of this may mean that carbon concentrations in the surface environment are increasing over Earth 's history , which has significant implications for climate change . Findings from the DECADE project will increase our understanding of the way carbon cycles through deep Earth , and patterns in volcanic emissions data could potentially alert scientists to an impending eruption .", "Ocean acidification Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Seawater is slightly basic ( meaning pH > 7 ) , and the process in question is a shift towards pH-neutral conditions rather than a transition to acidic conditions ( pH < 7 ) . Ocean alkalinity is not changed by the process , or may increase over long time periods due to carbonate dissolution . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes . To achieve chemical equilibrium , some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid . Some of these extra carbonic acid molecules react with a water molecule to give a bicarbonate ion and a hydronium ion , thus increasing ocean acidity ( H + ion concentration ) . Between 1751 and 1996 surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14 , representing an increase of almost 35 % in H + ion concentration in the world 's oceans . Earth System Models project that within the last decade ocean acidity exceeded historical analogues and in combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean . Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms , such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms , and causing coral bleaching . By increasing the presence of free hydrogen ions , each molecule of carbonic acid that forms in the oceans ultimately results in the conversion of two carbonate ions into bicarbonate ions . This net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions available makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms , such as coral and some plankton , to form biogenic calcium carbonate , and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution . Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens food chains connected with the oceans . As members of the InterAcademy Panel , 105 science academies have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050 , global emissions be reduced by at least 50 % compared to the 1990 level . While ongoing ocean acidification is anthropogenic in origin , it has occurred previously in Earth 's history . The most notable example is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , which occurred approximately 56 million years ago . For reasons that are currently uncertain , massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere , and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments in all ocean basins . Ocean acidification has been called the `` evil twin of global warming '' and `` the other problem '' .", "Carbonated drink Carbonated drinks are beverages that contain dissolved carbon dioxide . The dissolution of CO2 in a liquid , gives rise to fizz or effervescence . The process usually involves carbon dioxide under high pressure . When the pressure is removed , the carbon dioxide is released from the solution as small bubbles , which causes the solution to become effervescent , or fizzy . A common example is the dissolving of carbon dioxide in water , resulting in carbonated water . Carbon dioxide is only weakly soluble in water , therefore it separates into a gas when the pressure is released . Carbonated beverages are prepared by mixing flavored syrup with carbonated water , both chilled . Carbonation levels range up to 5 volumes of CO2 per liquid volume . Ginger ale , colas , and related drinks are carbonated with 3.5 volumes . Other drinks , often fruity ones , are carbonated less .", "Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .", "Vladimir Paar Vladimir Paar ( born 1942 ) is a Croatian physicist and university professor . Paar was born in Zagreb . He graduated from the Faculty of Science , University of Zagreb , where he is currently a professor . He is a full member of the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts since 1992 . His scientific interests include theoretical nuclear physics , chaos theory in physics and technology , computer modeling in clinical medicine , energetics , and history of physics . To the general public he is known as a popularizer of science , being the author of two books , hundreds of newspaper articles and several television series in the field of popular science . Paar is a global warming skeptic and is an advocate of a new ice age hypothesis . He argues that the rise of carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere is the effect - rather than the cause - of global climate change , and that the true cause lies in the change of Earth 's orbit due to gravitational pull of Jupiter and other planets of the Solar System . Paar believes that the evidence against anthropogenic global warming is being deliberately suppressed .", "Terraforming of Venus The terraforming of Venus is the hypothetical process of engineering the global environment of the planet Venus in such a way as to make it suitable for human habitation . Terraforming Venus was first seriously proposed by the astronomer Carl Sagan in 1961 , although fictional treatments , such as The Big Rain by Poul Anderson , preceded it . Adjustments to the existing environment of Venus to support human life would require at least three major changes to the planet . These three changes are closely interrelated , because Venus 's extreme temperature is due to the greenhouse effect caused by its dense carbon-dioxide atmosphere : Reducing Venus 's surface temperature of 462 C. Eliminating most of the planet 's dense 9.2 MPa carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide atmosphere , via removal or conversion to some other form . Addition of breathable oxygen to the atmosphere .", "Bomb pulse The bomb pulse is the sudden increase of carbon-14 ( 14C ) in the Earth 's atmosphere due to the hundreds of aboveground nuclear bombs tests started in 1945 and intensified between 1950 until 1963 when the Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed by the United States , the Soviet Union and Great Britain . These hundreds of blasts were followed by a doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere . Since then , the concentration of 14C has decreased towards the previous level . Carbon-14 , the radioisotope of carbon-12 , is naturally developed in trace amounts in the atmosphere and it can be detected in all living organisms . Carbon of all types is continually used to form the molecules of the cells of organisms . Doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere is reflected in the tissues and cells of all organisms that lived around the period of nuclear testing . This property has many applications in the fields of biology and forensics .", "350.org 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal ( ECCO2R ) is the removal of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the bloodstream in people who have elevated levels of carbon dioxide as a result of respiratory failure . The use of extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal is currently considered experimental , but it has been studied in a number of situations , specifically severe exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and in adult respiratory distress syndrome where conventional mechanical ventilation would cause excessive lung damage . It requires the insertion of a tube similar to a dialysis catheter into a large vein . Blood is pumped through a machine where the carbon dioxide is filtered out .", "Eyes on the Earth Eyes on the Earth ( EoE ) is computer visualization software created by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ( JPL ) to visualize a number of NASA 's Earth orbiting spacecraft in-situ and the data they collect on the Earth itself . Originally released as a Unity web player interactive , it has undergone a number of iterations including the mobile app `` Earth Now '' . It lets users monitor earth 's vital signs , such as sea level height , atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration and Antarctic ozone . Trace the movement of water around the globe using the gravity map from NASA 's GRACE satellites . Spot volcanic eruptions and forest fires using the carbon monoxide vital sign . Check out the hottest and coldest locations on Earth with the global surface temperature map.It also displays the location of all of NASA 's operating Earth-observing missions in real time and lets you compare them in size to a scientist or a school bus ." ]

[ "Urban heat island An urban heat island ( UHI ) is an urban area or metropolitan area that is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas due to human activities . The temperature difference usually is larger at night than during the day , and is most apparent when winds are weak . UHI is most noticeable during the summer and winter . The main cause of the urban heat island effect is from the modification of land surfaces . Waste heat generated by energy usage is a secondary contributor . As a population center grows , it tends to expand its area and increase its average temperature . The less-used term heat island refers to any area , populated or not , which is consistently hotter than the surrounding area . Monthly rainfall is greater downwind of cities , partially due to the UHI . Increases in heat within urban centers increases the length of growing seasons , and decreases the occurrence of weak tornadoes . The UHI decreases air quality by increasing the production of pollutants such as ozone , and decreases water quality as warmer waters flow into area streams and put stress on their ecosystems . Not all cities have a distinct urban heat island . Mitigation of the urban heat island effect can be accomplished through the use of green roofs and the use of lighter-colored surfaces in urban areas , which reflect more sunlight and absorb less heat . There are concerns raised about possible contribution from urban heat islands to global warming . Research on China and India indicates that urban heat island effect contributes to climate warming by about 30 % . On the other hand , one 1999 comparison between urban and rural areas proposed that the urban heat island effects have little influence on global mean temperature trends . Many studies reveal increases in the severity of the effect with the progress of climate change .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "Climate change in the United States Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S." ]

[ "Hypothermia Hypothermia is reduced body temperature that happens when a body dissipates more heat than it absorbs . In humans , it is defined as a body core temperature below 35.0 C. Symptoms depend on the temperature . In mild hypothermia there is shivering and mental confusion . In moderate hypothermia shivering stops and confusion increases . In severe hypothermia there may be paradoxical undressing , in which a person removes his or her clothing , as well as an increased risk of the heart stopping . Hypothermia has two main types of causes . It classically occurs from exposure to extreme cold . It may also occur from any condition that decreases heat production or increases heat loss . Commonly this includes alcohol intoxication but may also include low blood sugar , anorexia , and advanced age , among others . Body temperature is usually maintained near a constant level of 36.5 -- through thermoregulation . Efforts to increase body temperature involve shivering , increased voluntary activity , and putting on warmer clothing . Hypothermia may be diagnosed based on either a person 's symptoms in the presence of risk factors or by measuring a person 's core temperature . The treatment of mild hypothermia involves warm drinks , warm clothing and physical activity . In those with moderate hypothermia heating blankets and warmed intravenous fluids are recommended . People with moderate or severe hypothermia should be moved gently . In severe hypothermia extracorporeal membrane oxygenation ( ECMO ) or cardiopulmonary bypass may be useful . In those without a pulse cardiopulmonary resuscitation ( CPR ) is indicated along with the above measures . Rewarming is typically continued until a person 's temperature is greater than 32 C . If there is no improvement at this point or the blood potassium level is greater than 12 mmol/liter at any time resuscitation may be discontinued . Hypothermia is the cause of at least 1500 deaths a year in the United States . It is more common in older people and males . One of the lowest documented body temperatures from which someone with accidental hypothermia has survived is 13.0 C in a near-drowning of a 7-year-old girl in Sweden . Survival after more than six hours of CPR has been described . In those in whom ECMO or bypass is used survival is around 50 % . Deaths due to hypothermia have played an important role in many wars . The term is from Greek ὑπο , ypo , meaning `` under '' , and θερμία , thermía , meaning `` heat '' . The opposite of hypothermia is hyperthermia , an increased body temperature due to failed thermoregulation .", "List of premature obituaries A premature obituary is an obituary published whose subject is not actually deceased at the time of publication . Examples of premature obituaries include that of arms manufacturer Alfred Nobel , whose premature obituary condemning him as a `` merchant of death '' may have caused him to create the Nobel Prize ; black nationalist Marcus Garvey , whose actual death was apparently caused by reading his own obituary ; and actor Abe Vigoda , who was the subject of so many premature obituaries that a website was created to state whether he was alive or dead . This article lists the recipients of incorrect death reports ( not just formal obituaries ) from publications , media organisations , official bodies , and widely used information sources such as the Internet Movie Database ; but not mere rumours of deaths , nor reports from sites which feature automated death hoax stories designed to draw in page clicks from specific web searches . People who were presumed ( though not categorically declared ) to be dead , and joke death reports that were widely believed , are also included .", "Human Security Report 2005 The Human Security Report 2005 is a report outlining declining world trends of global violence from the early 1990s to 2003 . The study reported major worldwide declines in the number of armed conflicts , genocides , military coups , and international crises , as well as in the number of battle-related deaths per armed conflict . Three years in the making and launched in 2005 , the report was produced at the Human Security Centre at the University of British Columbia 's Liu Institute for Global Issues by the Human Security Report Project ( HSRP ) , which moved in May 2007 to join Simon Fraser University 's School for International Studies . The Human Security Report covers similar ground to the long-running Peace and Conflict series . According to the 2005 Report , the world saw a shift in global security after the end of the Cold War , with a 40 % decrease in the number of armed conflicts being waged around the world since the early 1990s , and an 80 % decrease of genocides between 1998 and 2001 . Some critics have questioned the relevance of this data , noting that conflict and violence are still significant obstacles for human development , worldwide security , and sustainable peace . For example , a recent Human Development Report from the United Nations Development Programme agrees that the number of conflicts has declined in the last decade , but claims that the wars of the past 15 years have exterminated a larger number of human lives . The Human Security Report argues that there is no evidence to support such a contention . The Report claims that the average number of battle-related deaths per conflict has declined from some 38,000 in 1950 to less than 500 in 2007 . Individual fatality tolls may well be inaccurate ; the trends , however , are indisputable . There are no accurate data on the ( much larger ) number of people who die from war-exacerbated disease and malnutrition , but the Report argues that there are good reasons for believing that these have declined as well . Some critics have argued that there was too much focus on battle-related `` direct '' deaths in the Report . However , an entire section discusses the large number of `` indirect '' deaths caused by war-exacerbated malnutrition and disease . In some cases , the Report says , the ratio of indirect to direct deaths is higher than 10:1 . The Report argues that conflict-driven disease and malnutrition are greater threats to human security than bombs and bullets . But it also argues that indirect deaths have declined over the past 15 years , along with battle-related deaths . Indirect deaths -- the hidden cost of war -- is one of the two main themes of the later Human Security Report 2009/2010 . Indirect deaths are driven by the intensity and scope of political violence . The 2009/2010 Report argues that , since humanitarian assistance has increased on a per capita basis and since recent peacetime health interventions -- primarily immunization -- reduce death tolls in wartime , it is highly likely that indirect deaths from war-exacerbated disease and malnutrition have declined to a greater degree than have `` direct '' deaths from violent injuries . Since the 2005 Report appeared , the data on armed conflict trends , which comes from the Uppsala Conflict Data Program , indicates that there has been a 25 % increase in the overall number of conflicts in which a state is one of the warring parties , but that the number of high-intensity conflicts ( those generating 1,000 or more battle deaths in a year ) have continued to decline and are now some 68 % lower than at the end of the Cold War .", "Shivering Shivering ( also called shuddering ) is a bodily function in response to early hypothermia or just feeling cold in warm-blooded animals . When the core body temperature drops , the shivering reflex is triggered to maintain homeostasis . Skeletal muscles begin to shake in small movements , creating warmth by expending energy . Shivering can also be a response to a fever , as a person may feel cold . During fever the hypothalamic set point for temperature is raised . The increased set point causes the body temperature to rise ( pyrexia ) , but also makes the patient feel cold until the new set point is reached . Severe chills with violent shivering are called rigors . Rigors occur because the patient 's body is shivering in a physiological attempt to increase body temperature to the new set point . Located in the posterior hypothalamus near the wall of the third ventricle is an area called the primary motor center for shivering . This area is normally inhibited by signals from the heat center in the anterior hypothalamic-preoptic area but is excited by cold signals from the skin and spinal cord . Therefore , this center becomes activated when the body temperature falls even a fraction of a degree below a critical temperature level . Cold-defensive and febrile shivering responses require activation of rostral medullary raphe neurons , especially those located near the midline in the region of the raphe pallidus nucleus between 2.3 and 3.5 mm caudal to the interaural line , corresponding to an antero-posterior level between 400 μm caudal to 800 μm rostral to the caudal border of the facial nucleus , and are modulated by activation of local 5-HT1A receptors ; the central command pathway for shivering parallels that for sympathetically regulated non-shivering thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue ( discussed below ) : Cutaneous cold afferent-triggered activation of neurons in the dorsomedial hypothalamus and GABAergic transmission from the median preoptic nucleus to the medial preoptic area mediates the shivering response as well as the brown adipose tissue non-shivering thermogenic and the tachycardic responses to environmental cooling . Increased muscular activity results in the generation of heat as a byproduct . Most often , when the purpose of the muscle activity is to produce motion , the heat is wasted energy . In shivering , the heat is the main intended product and is utilized for warmth . Shivering can also appear after surgery . This is known as postanesthetic shivering . Newborn babies , infants , and young children experience a greater ( net ) heat loss than adults because they can not shiver to maintain body heat . They rely on non-shivering thermogenesis . Children have an increased amount of brown adipose tissue ( increased vascular supply , and high mitochondrial density ) , and , when cold-stressed , will have greater oxygen consumption and will release norepinephrine . Norepinephrine will react with lipases in brown fat to break down fat into triglycerides . Triglycerides are then metabolized to glycerol and non-esterified fatty acids . These are then further degraded in the needed heat-generating process to form CO2 and water . Chemically , in mitochondria the proton gradient producing the proton electromotive force that is ordinarily used to synthesize ATP is instead bypassed to produce heat directly .", "Cold-shock domain In molecular biology , the cold-shock domain ( CSD ) is a protein domain of about 70 amino acids which has been found in prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA-binding proteins . Part of this domain is highly similar to the RNP-1 RNA-binding motif . When Escherichia coli is exposed to a temperature drop from 37 to 10 degrees Celsius , a 4 -- 5 hour lag phase occurs , after which growth is resumed at a reduced rate . During the lag phase , the expression of around 13 proteins , which contain cold shock domains is increased 2 -- 10 fold . These so-called ` cold shock ' proteins are thought to help the cell to survive in temperatures lower than optimum growth temperature , by contrast with heat shock proteins , which help the cell to survive in temperatures greater than the optimum , possibly by condensation of the chromosome and organisation of the prokaryotic nucleoid .", "Heavy freezing spray watch A Heavy Freezing Spray Watch is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States when there is an increased risk of a heavy spray event that meets the necessary criteria , but the occurrence , timing , and/or location are still uncertain . A watch will be issued when forecasters expect freezing water droplets to be able to accumulate on sea vessels at rates of 2 cm per hour or greater . This accumulation must be caused by an `` appropriate combination of cold water , wind , cold air temperature , and vessel movement . ''", "Heat death paradox Formulated in 1862 by Lord Kelvin , Hermann von Helmholtz and William John Macquorn Rankine , the heat death paradox , also known as Clausius 's paradox and thermodynamic paradox , is a reductio ad absurdum argument that uses thermodynamics to show the impossibility of an infinitely old universe . This paradox is based upon the classical model of the universe in which the universe is eternal . Clausius 's paradox is a paradox of paradigm . It was necessary to amend the fundamental ideas about the universe , which brought about the change of the paradigm . The paradox was solved when the paradigm was changed . The paradox was based upon the rigid mechanical point of view of the Second principle of thermodynamics postulated by Rudolf Clausius according to which heat can only be transferred from a warmer to a colder object . If the universe was eternal , as claimed in the classical stationary model of the universe , it should already be cold . Any hot object transfers heat to its cooler surroundings , until everything is at the same temperature . For two objects at the same temperature as much heat flows from one body as flows from the other , and the net effect is no change . If the universe were infinitely old , there must have been enough time for the stars to cool and warm their surroundings . Everywhere should therefore be at the same temperature and there should either be no stars , or everything should be as hot as stars . Since there are stars and the universe is not in thermal equilibrium it can not be infinitely old . The paradox does not arise in Big Bang or Steady State cosmology . In Big Bang cosmology , the current age of the universe is not old enough to have reached equilibrium ; while in a Steady State system , sufficient hydrogen is replenished or regenerated continuously to allow for a constant average density and preventing stars from running down .", "Capping inversion A capping inversion is an elevated inversion layer that caps a convective boundary layer . The boundary layer is the part of the atmosphere which is closest to the ground . Normally , the sun heats the ground , which in turn heats the air just above it . Thermals form when this warm air rises into the cold air ( warm air is less dense than cold air ) , a process described by convection . A convective layer such as this has the potential for cloud formation , since condensation occurs as the warm air rises and cools . An inversion occurs when the normal temperature ( warm air below , cold air above ) profile is reversed , creating a stable configuration of dense , cold air sitting below lighter , warm air . An elevated inversion layer is thus a region of warm air above a region of cold air , but higher in the atmosphere ( generally not touching the surface ) . A capping inversion occurs when there is a boundary layer with a normal temperature profile ( warm air rising into cooler air ) and the layer above that is an inversion layer ( cooler air below warm air ) . Cloud formation from the lower layer is `` capped '' by the inversion layer . If the capping inversion layer or `` cap '' is too strong ( too close to the surface ) , it will prevent thunderstorms from developing . A strong cap can result in foggy conditions . However , if the air at the surface is unstable enough , strong updrafts can be forced through the capping inversion . This selective process of only allowing the strongest updrafts to form thunderstorms often results in outbreaks of severe weather .", "Health in Hong Kong Hong Kong is one of the healthiest places in the world . Because of its early health education , professional health services , and well-developed health care and medication system , Hongkongers enjoy a life expectancy of 85.9 for females and 80 for men , which is the third highest in the world , and an infant mortality rate of 2.73 deaths per 1,000 births , the ninth-lowest in the world . The proportion of the population over 65 years old is expected to grow from 14 % in 2013 to 18 % in 2018 , and the number of people with a long-term condition is expected to increase by 33 % over the same period . Mental health appears to be more of a problem than physical health . It is reported that the number of mental health patients has increased by 2 % to 4 % every year since 2011 from 187,000 in 2011 -- 12 to 226,000 in 2015 -- 16 . Pressure on children from the competitive education system and high parental expectations is blamed for rising levels of anxiety and depression in young children . Primary school children are reported to spend less time outdoors playing than convicted prisoners .", "2002 India heat wave More than 1,030 people were killed in the 2002 heatwave in south India . Most of the dead were poor and elderly and a majority of deaths occurred in the southern state of Andhra Pradesh . In districts that were impacted most , the heat was so severe that ponds and rivers evaporated and in those same districts birds had fallen from the sky and animals were collapsing from the intense heat . It is said by officials to be the worst heat wave in four years . The relief commissioner of Andhra Pradesh , Rosaiah , said that the maximum number of 172 deaths related to heat took place in the East Godavari district . There were also 166 deaths in Prakasam and 144 deaths in West Godavari . Unusually high temperatures were detected across India during April of the year 2002 . In addition , this heat wave over northern zones of India lasted from the middle of April to the third week in May , thus , causing these fatalities . On May 10 the highest temperature recorded in the region of Gannavaram ( Vijayawada ) was 49 degrees Celsius ( 120.2 degrees Fahrenheit ) . According to the BBC News , `` Heatwaves are defined as periods of abnormally high temperatures and usually occur between March and June in India . May is the country 's hottest month , with an average maximum temperature of 41C ( 104F ) in Delhi . Longer , more severe heatwaves are becoming increasingly frequent globally . Intense heat can cause cramps , exhaustion and heat stroke . Thousands of people have died across India during heatwaves in 2002 and 2003 . '' The heatwaves also affected the northern states of Punjab , Haryana , Orissa and 100 people suffered from heat-related sickness . 2010 Indian heatwave", "January 2016 East Asia cold wave In late January 2016 , a cold wave struck much of East Asia , parts of mainland Southeast Asia and parts of northern South Asia , bringing record cold temperatures and snowfall to many regions . Sleet was reported in Okinawa for the first time on record , and many other regions saw their coldest temperatures in decades . Snowfall and frigid weather stranded thousands of people across four countries . At least 85 people in Taiwan died from hypothermia and cardiac arrest following a sudden drop in temperature during the weekend of January 22 -- 24 . The cold claimed a further fourteen lives in Thailand , and snowstorms resulted in six deaths across Japan . This event was driven by a fast Arctic warming that occurred within the troposphere , forcing the Arctic Oscillation to change phase rapidly from positive ( in late December ) to negative ( in late January ) , facilitating the atmospheric blocking and associated Siberian high buildup .", "Cold inflation pressure Cold inflation pressure is the inflation pressure of tires before the car is driven and the tires warmed up . Recommended cold inflation pressure is displayed on the owner 's manual and on the placard ( or sticker ) attached to the vehicle door edge , pillar , glovebox door or fuel filler flap . Drivers are encouraged to make sure their tires are adequately inflated , as suboptimal tire pressure can greatly reduce fuel economy , increase emissions , increased wear on the edges of the tire surface , and can lead to premature failure of the tire . Excessive pressure , on the other hand , may lead to impact-breaks , decrease braking performance , and cause uneven wear ( i.e. greater wear on the center part of the tire surface ) . Tire pressure is commonly measured in psi in the imperial and US customary systems , bar , which is deprecated but accepted for use with SI or the kilopascal ( kPa ) , which is an SI unit . Ambient temperature affects the cold tire pressure . Absolute cold tire pressure ( gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure ) varies directly with the absolute temperature , measured in kelvins . From physics , the ideal gas law states that PV = nRT where P is absolute pressure , T is absolute temperature ( Kelvin ) , V is the volume ( assumed to be relatively constant in the case of a tire ) , and nR is constant for a given number of molecules of gas . To understand this , assume the tire was filled when it was 300 kelvin ( 80 degrees Fahrenheit ) . If the temperature varies 10 % , i.e. by 30 kelvin ( also 30 Celsius degrees or 54 Fahrenheit degrees ) , the pressure varies 10 % . So if the tire was filled at 80F to 32 psi ( or 47 psi absolute when we add atmospheric pressure ) , the change would be 4.7 psi for this 30 Celsius degree change , or .16 psi per Celsius degree or .1 psi per Fahrenheit degree or 1 psi for every 10 Fahrenheit degrees . Using SI units , that would be 1.1 kPa per kelvin . Hence , for a tire filled to 32 psi , the approximation usually made is that within the range of normal atmospheric temperatures and pressures : Tire pressure increases 1 psi for each 10 Fahrenheit degree increase in temperature , or conversely decreases 1 psi for each 10 Fahrenheit degree decrease in temperature and in SI units , tire pressure increases 1.1 kPa for each 1 Celsius degree increase in temperature , or conversely decreases 1.1 kPa for each 1 Celsius degree decrease in temperature . For tires that need inflation greater than 32psi it might be easier to use a Rule of Thumb of 2 % pressure change for a change of 10 degrees Fahrenheit . From the table below , one can see that these are only approximations .", "Thermoregulation Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within certain boundaries , even when the surrounding temperature is very different . A thermoconforming organism , by contrast , simply adopts the surrounding temperature as its own body temperature , thus avoiding the need for internal thermoregulation . The internal thermoregulation process is one aspect of homeostasis : a state of dynamic stability in an organism 's internal conditions , maintained far from thermal equilibrium with its environment ( the study of such processes in zoology has been called physiological ecology ) . If the body is unable to maintain a normal temperature and it increases significantly above normal , a condition known as hyperthermia occurs . For humans , this occurs when the body is exposed to constant temperatures of approximately 55 ° C , and with prolonged exposure ( longer than a few hours ) at this temperature and up to around 75 ° C death is almost inevitable . Humans may also experience lethal hyperthermia when the wet bulb temperature is sustained above 35 ° C for six hours . The opposite condition , when body temperature decreases below normal levels , is known as hypothermia . It results when the homeostatic control mechanisms of heat within the body malfunction , causing the body to lose heat faster than producing it . Normal body temperature is around 37 ° C , and hypothermia sets in when the core body temperature gets lower than 35 ° C. Usually caused by prolonged exposure to cold temperatures , hypothermia is usually treated by methods that attempt to raise the body temperature back to a normal range . It was not until the introduction of thermometers that any exact data on the temperature of animals could be obtained . It was then found that local differences were present , since heat production and heat loss vary considerably in different parts of the body , although the circulation of the blood tends to bring about a mean temperature of the internal parts . Hence it is important to identify the parts of the body that most closely reflect the temperature of the internal organs . Also , for such results to be comparable , the measurements must be conducted under comparable conditions . The rectum has traditionally been considered to reflect most accurately the temperature of internal parts , or in some cases of sex or species , the vagina , uterus or bladder . Occasionally the temperature of the urine as it leaves the urethra may be of use in measuring body temperature . More often the temperature is taken in the mouth , axilla , ear or groin . Some animals undergo one of various forms of dormancy where the thermoregulation process temporarily allows the body temperature to drop , thereby conserving energy . Examples include hibernating bears and torpor in bats .", "Death of Marcia Powell Marcia Powell was a 48-year-old inmate who died May 20 , 2009 after exposure to 107-degree temperatures for four hours in an outside cage at Arizona State Prison Complex - Perryville in Goodyear , Arizona . Prison policy limits such outside confinement to a maximum of two hours . An autopsy report showed that Powell had first - and second-degree burns and a core body temperature of 108 degrees . She suffered burn blisters all over her body . The county medical examiner found the cause of death to be due to complications from heat exposure . According to a 3,000 page report released by the ADC , she pleaded to be taken back inside , but was ignored . She was also not allowed to use the restroom , and as a result , died in her own excrement . Prison administrators fired , suspended or disciplined 16 corrections employees over Powell 's death . The Maricopa County Attorney 's Office chose not to prosecute Arizona Department of Corrections staff in her death , claiming that there was `` insufficient evidence to go forward with a prosecution against any of the named individuals '' .", "Transportation safety in the United States Transportation safety encompasses automobile accidents , airplane crashes , railroad and motorcoach fatalities and maimings , and other mass transit incidents . The U.S. government 's National Center for Health Statistics reported 33,736 motor vehicle traffic deaths in 2014 . This exceeded the number of firearm deaths which was 33,599 in 2014 . According to another U.S. government office , the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration , motor vehicle crashes on U.S. roadways claimed 32,744 lives in 2014 and 35,092 in 2015 . ( The National Center for Health Statistics may have different criteria for inclusion and/or a slightly different methodology from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration . ) The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration report comparing 2015 to 2014 noted that fatalities increased from 2014 to 2015 in almost all segments of the population -- passenger vehicle occupants , passengers of large trucks , pedestrians , pedalcyclists ( commonly referred to as cyclists ) , motorcyclists , alcohol-impaired driving fatalities , male/female , daytime/nighttime . Fatalities of drivers of large trucks remained unchanged . The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration performed a regression analysis between monthly roadway fatalities and various possible explanatory variables over the five year period 2011 -- 2015 . As one might expect , the strongest correlation was with Vehicle Miles Traveled ( VMT ) , which had a correlation of .80 , followed by average monthly temperature , which had a correlation of .74 , meaning that higher temperatures were associated with increased fatalities . Part of the reason for that pattern may be that more people are out walking and biking in the warmer months , and pedestrians and cyclists are often victims of collisions with motor vehicles . The report also suggests that there may be more vacation travel during warmer months . ( It is not stated whether the analysis used Annual Vehicle Miles Traveled or Monthly Vehicle Miles Traveled . ) Although not mentioned , motorcycle use , and therefore motorcyclist fatalities , may also increase in warmer months . The National Safety Council , a nonprofit safety advocacy group , estimates U.S. motor vehicle deaths in 2016 were 40,200 , a 14 percent increase from its 2014 estimate . The National Safety Council measures roadside deaths differently than U.S. government agencies . The National Safety Council counts traffic and non-traffic deaths within one year of an accident while the government counts only traffic deaths occurring within 30 days of a crash . The National Safety Council 's statistics show that the increase in 2016 was due only in part to increased miles driven ( due to population growth , low gasoline prices , and a strengthening economy . ) The National Safety Council suggests the increase in deaths not explained by increased vehicle miles is attributable to complacency about impaired driving and increased driver distraction . Motor vehicle deaths are most often expressed as a rate , often deaths per 100 million vehicle-miles or per billion vehicle-miles , or , for international comparisons , as deaths per billion vehicle-km .", "Gul Rahman Gul Rahman ( died 20 November 2002 ) was a suspected Afghan militant who was a victim of torture . He died in a secret CIA prison , or black site , located in northern Kabul , Afghanistan and known as the Salt Pit . He had been captured October 29 , 2002 . His name was kept secret by the United States for more than seven years although his death was announced . In 2010 the Associated Press reported that before his death he was left half-stripped and chained against a concrete wall on a night when the temperature was close to freezing . The United States government did not notify his family ( wife and four daughters ) of his death , according to the report .", "Hot spring A hot spring is a spring produced by the emergence of geothermally heated groundwater that rises from the Earth 's crust . There are geothermal hot springs in many locations all over the crust of the earth . While some of these springs contain water that is a safe temperature for bathing , others are so hot that immersion can result in injury or death .", "2015 Pakistan heat wave A severe heat wave with temperatures as high as 49 C struck southern Pakistan in June 2015 . It caused the deaths of about 2,000 people from dehydration and heat stroke , mostly in Sindh province and its capital city , Karachi . The heat wave also claimed the lives of zoo animals and countless agricultural livestock . The event followed a separate heat wave in neighboring India that killed 2,500 people in May 2015 .", "Cold cathode A cold cathode is a cathode that is not electrically heated by a filament.A negatively charged electrode emits electrons or is the positively charged terminal . For more , see field emission . A cathode may be considered `` cold '' if it emits more electrons than can be supplied by thermionic emission alone . It is used in gas-discharge lamps , such as neon lamps , discharge tubes , and some types of vacuum tube . The other type of cathode is a hot cathode , which is heated by electric current passing through a filament . A cold cathode does not necessarily operate at a low temperature : it is often heated to its operating temperature by other methods , such as the current passing from the cathode into the gas .", "Convective heat transfer Convective heat transfer , often referred to simply as convection , is the transfer of heat from one place to another by the movement of fluids . Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and gases . Although often discussed as a distinct method of heat transfer , convective heat transfer involves the combined processes of unknown conduction ( heat diffusion ) and advection ( heat transfer by bulk fluid flow ) . Convection can be `` forced '' by movement of a fluid by means other than buoyancy forces ( for example , a water pump in an automobile engine ) . Thermal expansion of fluids may also force convection . In other cases , natural buoyancy forces alone are entirely responsible for fluid motion when the fluid is heated , and this process is called `` natural convection '' . An example is the draft in a chimney or around any fire . In natural convection , an increase in temperature produces a reduction in density , which in turn causes fluid motion due to pressures and forces when fluids of different densities are affected by gravity ( or any g-force ) . For example , when water is heated on a stove , hot water from the bottom of the pan rises , displacing the colder denser liquid , which falls . After heating has stopped , mixing and conduction from this natural convection eventually result in a nearly homogeneous density , and even temperature . Without the presence of gravity ( or conditions that cause a g-force of any type ) , natural convection does not occur , and only forced-convection modes operate . The convection heat transfer mode comprises one mechanism . In addition to energy transfer due to specific molecular motion ( diffusion ) , energy is transferred by bulk , or macroscopic , motion of the fluid . This motion is associated with the fact that , at any instant , large numbers of molecules are moving collectively or as aggregates . Such motion , in the presence of a temperature gradient , contributes to heat transfer . Because the molecules in aggregate retain their random motion , the total heat transfer is then due to the superposition of energy transport by random motion of the molecules and by the bulk motion of the fluid . It is customary to use the term convection when referring to this cumulative transport and the term advection when referring to the transport due to bulk fluid motion .", "Gallocatechin gallate Gallocatechin gallate ( GCG ) is the ester of gallocatechin and gallic acid and a type of catechin . It is an epimer of epigallocatechin gallate ( EGCG ) . In a high temperature environment , an epimerization change is likely to occur , because heating results in the conversion from EGCG to GCG . According to the referenced study the resulting GCG ( the epimer of EGCG ) results in even lower dietary cholesterol absorption than occurs with EGCG . While this may be a beneficial outcome with respect to cholesterol reduction activity , for those wishing to maximize the EGCG content of green tea infusions , it is still appropriate to use high temperatures , as long as it is taking into account that extreme conditions will lead to small reductions in total EGCG , for example a 12.4 % reduction in total EGCG when heated for 30 minutes straight at 100 degrees Celsius .", "Fever Fever , also known as pyrexia and febrile response , is defined as having a temperature above the normal range due to an increase in the body 's temperature set-point . There is not a single agreed-upon upper limit for normal temperature with sources using values between 37.5 and . The increase in set-point triggers increased muscle contractions and causes a feeling of cold . This results in greater heat production and efforts to conserve heat . When the set-point temperature returns to normal , a person feels hot , becomes flushed , and may begin to sweat . Rarely a fever may trigger a febrile seizure . This is more common in young children . Fevers do not typically go higher than 41 to . A fever can be caused by many medical conditions ranging from not serious to potentially serious . This includes viral , bacterial and parasitic infections such as the common cold , urinary tract infections , meningitis , malaria and appendicitis among others . Non-infectious causes include vasculitis , deep vein thrombosis , side effects of medication , and cancer among others . It differs from hyperthermia , in that hyperthermia is an increase in body temperature over the temperature set-point , due to either too much heat production or not enough heat loss . Treatment to reduce fever is generally not required . Treatment of associated pain and inflammation , however , may be useful and help a person rest . Medications such as ibuprofen or paracetamol ( acetaminophen ) may help with this as well as lower temperature . Measures such as putting a cool damp cloth on the forehead and having a slightly warm bath are not useful and may simply make a person more uncomfortable . Children younger than three months require medical attention , as might people with serious medical problems such as a compromised immune system or people with other symptoms . Hyperthermia does require treatment . Fever is one of the most common medical signs . It is part of about 30 % of healthcare visits by children and occurs in up to 75 % of adults who are seriously sick . While fever is a useful defense mechanism , treating fever does not appear to worsen outcomes . Fever is viewed with greater concern by parents and healthcare professionals than it usually deserves , a phenomenon known as fever phobia .", "Roll bonding Roll bonding is a solid state , cold welding process , obtained through flat rolling of sheet metals . In roll bonding , two or more layers of different metals are passed through a pair of flat rollers under sufficient pressure to bond the layers . The pressure is high enough to deform the metals and reduce the combined thickness of the clad material . The mating surfaces must be previously prepared ( scratched , cleaned , degreased ) in order to increase their friction coefficient and remove any oxide layers . The process can be performed at room temperature or at warm conditions . In warm roll bonding , heat is applied to pre-heat the sheets just before rolling , in order to increase their ductility and improve the strength of the weld . The strength of the rolled bonds depends on the main process parameters , including the rolling conditions ( entry temperature of the sheets , amount of thickness reduction , rolling speed , etc. ) , the pre-rolling treatment conditions ( annealing temperature and time , surface preparation techniques , etc. ) and the post-rolling heat treatments .", "2015 Indian heat wave In May 2015 , India was struck by a severe heat wave . , it has caused the deaths of at least 2,500 people in multiple regions . The heat wave occurred during the Indian dry season , which typically lasts from March to July with peak temperatures in April and May . Although it typically remains hot until late October , Indian monsoons often provide some respite from the heat . The South Indian states of Andhra Pradesh and the neighbouring Telangana , where more than 1,735 and 585 people died respectively , were the areas most affected by the heat wave . Other casualties were from the eastern states of West Bengal and Odisha . The high demand for electricity to power air conditioning led to power outages in some cities . The 2015 heat wave has had the highest recorded temperatures since 1995 . In May 2016 , a new record was set in Phalodi .", "2019 heat wave in India and Pakistan From mid-May to mid-June 2019, India and Pakistan had a severe heat wave. It was one of the hottest and longest heat waves since the two countries began recording weather reports. The highest temperatures occurred in Churu, Rajasthan, reaching up to 50.8 °C (123.4 °F), a near record high in India, missing the record of 51.0 °C (123.8 °F) set in 2016 by a fraction of a degree. As of 12 June 2019, 32 days are classified as parts of the heatwave, making it the second longest ever recorded.As a result of hot temperatures and inadequate preparation, more than 184 people died in the state of Bihar, with many more deaths reported in other parts of the country. In Pakistan, five infants died after extreme heat exposure.The heat wave coincided with extreme droughts and water shortages across India and Pakistan. In mid-June, reservoirs that previously supplied Chennai ran dry, depriving millions. The water crisis was exacerbated by high temperatures and lack of preparation, causing protests and fights that sometimes led to killing and stabbing.", "Heat Heat is the amount of energy flowing from one body to another spontaneously due to their temperature difference , or by any means other than through work or the transfer of matter . The transfer can be by contact between the source and the destination body , as in conduction ; or by radiation between remote bodies ; or by way of an intermediate fluid body , as in convective circulation ; or by a combination of these . . In thermodynamics , heat is often contrasted with work : heat applies to individual particles ( such as atoms or molecules ) , work applies to objects ( or a system as a whole ) . Heat involves stochastic ( or random ) motion equally distributed among all degrees of freedom , while work is directional , confined to a specific degrees of freedom . Since heat ( like work ) represents a quantity of energy being transferred between two bodies by certain processes , neither body `` has '' a definite amount of heat ( much like a body in itself does n't `` have '' work ) ; in contrast , a body indeed has properties ( state functions ) such as temperature and internal energy . Thus , energy exchanged as heat during a given process changes the ( internal ) energy of each body by equal and opposite amounts . The sign of the quantity of heat can indicate the direction of the transfer , for example from system A to system B ; negation indicates energy flowing in the opposite direction . Although heat flows spontaneously from a hotter body to a cooler one , it is possible to construct a heat pump or refrigeration system that does work to increase the difference in temperature between two systems . Conversely , a heat engine reduces an existing temperature difference to do work on another system . Heat is a consequence of the microscopic motion of particles . When heat is transferred between two objects or systems , the energy of the object or system 's particles increases . As this occurs , the arrangement between particles becomes more and more disordered . In other words , heat is related to the concept of entropy . Historically , many energy units for measurement of heat have been used . The standards-based unit in the International System of Units ( SI ) is the joule ( J ) . Heat is measured by its effect on the states of interacting bodies , for example , by the amount of ice melted or a change in temperature . The quantification of heat via the temperature change of a body is called calorimetry , and is widely used in practice . In calorimetry , sensible heat is defined with respect to a specific chosen state variable of the system , such as pressure or volume . Sensible heat causes a change of the temperature of the system while leaving the chosen state variable unchanged . Heat transfer that occurs at a constant system temperature but changes the state variable is called latent heat with respect to the variable . For infinitesimal changes , the total incremental heat transfer is then the sum of the latent and sensible heat .", "Climate change in New York City Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .", "Migrant deaths along the Mexico–United States border Migrant deaths along the Mexico -- U.S. border occur hundreds of times a year because of those attempting to cross into the United States from Mexico illegally . The number of deaths reported in US Federal fiscal year 2015 ( ending 30 Sept ) was 240 , which was the lowest number in at least 18 years , and less than half the 492 deaths reported in 2005 . Exposure ( including heat stroke , dehydration , and hyperthermia ) were the leading cause . Pro human rights groups maintain that since 1994 , more than 11,000 people have died from dehydration in their attempt to cross the increasingly militarized border . According to the United States Border Patrol , 1,954 people died crossing the U.S -- Mexico border between the years 1998 -- 2004 . In the fiscal year ending September 29 , 2004 , 460 migrants died crossing the U.S. -- Mexico border . In 2005 , more than 500 died across the entire U.S. -- Mexico border . The number of yearly border crossing deaths has doubled since 1995 . In 2009 , 417 deaths were reported across the border . Yet the statistics cited by scholars and the media are only the number of known deaths and do not include those who have never been found , underestimating the actual number of migrants that have died attempting unauthorized border crossings . Mexico 's Secretariat of Foreign Affairs has compiled data including deaths on the Mexican side of the border area during the period from 1994 to 2000 . The data shows 87 deaths in 1996 , 149 in 1997 , 329 in 1998 , 358 in 1999 , and 499 in 2000 .", "Nucleate boiling Nucleate boiling is a type of boiling that takes place when the surface temperature is hotter than the saturated fluid temperature by a certain amount but where the heat flux is below the critical heat flux . For water , as shown in the graph below , nucleate boiling occurs when the surface temperature is higher than the saturation temperature ( TS ) by between 10 C-change to 30 C-change . The critical heat flux is the peak on the curve between nucleate boiling and transition boiling . The heat transfer from surface to liquid is greater than that in film boiling .", "NTU method The Number of Transfer Units ( NTU ) Method is used to calculate the rate of heat transfer in heat exchangers ( especially counter current exchangers ) when there is insufficient information to calculate the Log-Mean Temperature Difference ( LMTD ) . In heat exchanger analysis , if the fluid inlet and outlet temperatures are specified or can be determined by simple energy balance , the LMTD method can be used ; but when these temperatures are not available The NTU or The Effectiveness method is used . To define the effectiveness of a heat exchanger we need to find the maximum possible heat transfer that can be hypothetically achieved in a counter-flow heat exchanger of infinite length . Therefore one fluid will experience the maximum possible temperature difference , which is the difference of ( The temperature difference between the inlet temperature of the hot stream and the inlet temperature of the cold stream ) . The method proceeds by calculating the heat capacity rates ( i.e. mass flow rate multiplied by specific heat ) and for the hot and cold fluids respectively , and denoting the smaller one as . A quantity : is then found , where is the maximum heat that could be transferred between the fluids per unit time . must be used as it is the fluid with the lowest heat capacity rate that would , in this hypothetical infinite length exchanger , actually undergo the maximum possible temperature change . The other fluid would change temperature more quickly along the heat exchanger length . The method , at this point , is concerned only with the fluid undergoing the maximum temperature change . The effectiveness , is the ratio between the actual heat transfer rate and the maximum possible heat transfer rate : where : Effectiveness is dimensionless quantity between 0 and 1 . If we know for a particular heat exchanger , and we know the inlet conditions of the two flow streams we can calculate the amount of heat being transferred between the fluids by : For any heat exchanger it can be shown that : For a given geometry , can be calculated using correlations in terms of the `` heat capacity ratio '' and the number of transfer units , where is the overall heat transfer coefficient and is the heat transfer area . For example , the effectiveness of a parallel flow heat exchanger is calculated with : Or the effectiveness of a counter-current flow heat exchanger is calculated with : For Similar effectiveness relationships can be derived for concentric tube heat exchangers and shell and tube heat exchangers . These relationships are differentiated from one another depending on the type of the flow ( counter-current , concurrent , or cross flow ) , the number of passes ( in shell and tube exchangers ) and whether a flow stream is mixed or unmixed . Note that the is a special case in which phase change condensation or evaporation is occurring in the heat exchanger . Hence in this special case the heat exchanger behavior is independent of the flow arrangement . Therefore the effectiveness is given by :", "Operation Speedy Express Operation Speedy Express was a controversial United States military operation of the Vietnam War conducted in the Mekong Delta provinces Kiến Hòa and Vĩnh Bình . The operation , led by Julian J. Ewall , was part of a US military `` pacification '' efforts against the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam ( Viet Cong ) . The US military sought to interdict lines of NLF communication and deny them the use of base areas by using brutal repression and counterinsurgency tactics . The broader context of the campaign was the effort combat communism , under the Cold War-era Domino Theory . The combined ground and air operation resulted in thousands of deaths . U.S. military claims that 10,889 of these deaths were NLF soldiers , but this claim was undermined by on-the-ground reports and the much lower number of weapons seized than enemy soldiers reported killed . The US Army Inspector General estimated there were 5,000 to 7,000 civilian casualties from the operation .", "Death in Custody Reporting Act of 2013 The Death in Custody Reporting Act of 2013 is a bill that would require the United States Department of Justice to collect data from U.S. states and territories about the deaths of prisoners in their custody . States and territories would face monetary penalties for noncompliance . The bill would also require federal agencies to report on the deaths of prisoners in their custody . The Death in Custody Reporting Act of 2013 was introduced into the United States House of Representatives during the 113th United States Congress ." ]

[ "Effects of global warming The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "Hurricane Harvey The name Harvey has been used for five tropical cyclones in the Atlantic Ocean . Hurricane Harvey ( 1981 ) - threatened Bermuda but turned away before striking , no damage . Hurricane Harvey ( 1993 ) - short-lived storm that threatened no land . Tropical Storm Harvey ( 1999 ) - struck Florida , causing $ 15 million in damage . Tropical Storm Harvey ( 2005 ) - earliest eighth-storm formation in the Atlantic Ocean since record-keeping began , breaking the old record set in 1936 by 12 days . Threatened Bermuda . Tropical Storm Harvey ( 2011 ) - record eighth-storm failing to reach hurricane strength , in a single season , since reliable records began . Strong tropical storm that affected parts of Central America . Category : Atlantic hurricane disambiguation pages" ]

[ "Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "The Greenhouse Conspiracy The Greenhouse Conspiracy is a documentary film broadcast by Channel 4 in the United Kingdom on 12 August 1990 , as part of the Equinox series , which criticised the theory of global warming and asserted that scientists critical of global warming theory were denied funding . It is one of the earliest instances of the suggestion of a conspiracy to promote false claims supporting global warming . Although the title of the program implied the existence of a conspiracy , when interviewed on the program Patrick Michaels played down the idea , saying , `` It may not quite add up to a conspiracy , but certainly a coalition of interests has promoted the greenhouse theory : scientists have needed funds , the media a story , and governments a worthy cause '' .", "Global Warming: What You Need to Know Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .", "An Inconsistent Truth An Inconsistent Truth is a 2012 documentary film written , produced , and featuring , nationally syndicated conservative talk radio host Phil Valentine and directed by Shayne Edwards . Valentine , a skeptic of global warming theory , interviewed scientists about the validity of Al Gore 's film An Inconvenient Truth and the facts presented within . What he is told by the scientists he interviews is that there is no consensus on the issue of global warming or climate change . The film argues that global warming proponents keep changing its label , basing their argument on what Valentine says is shaky scientific ground .", "Climatic Research Unit documents Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''", "Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''", "The Great Global Warming Swindle The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .", "Climate change in Germany Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe .", "Hurricane Alley Hurricane Alley is an area of warm water in the Atlantic Ocean stretching from the west coast of northern Africa to the east coast of Central America and Gulf Coast of the Southern United States . Many hurricanes form within this area . The sea surface temperature of the Atlantic in Hurricane Alley has been steadily growing warmer over the past decades , which most climate scientists believe accounts for the increase in hurricane activity .", "Climate Code Red Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .", "World Wide Views on Global Warming World Wide Views on Global Warming : A global project initiated by The Danish Board of Technology on the occasion of the United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP15 ) held in Copenhagen December 2009 . World Wide Views on Global Warming ( or just WWViews ) was an international citizens involvement project based on methods developed by The Danish Board of Technology for the purpose of involving citizens in the political decision-making processes .", "ExxonMobil climate change controversy The ExxonMobil climate change controversy is the controversy around ExxonMobil 's activities related to climate change , especially their promotion of climate change denial . Since the 1970s , ExxonMobil engaged in research , lobbying , advertising , and grant making , some of which were conducted with the purpose of delaying widespread acceptance and action on global warming . From the late 1970s and through the 1980s , Exxon funded internal and university collaborations , broadly in line with the developing public scientific approach . After the 1980s , the company was a leader in climate change denial , opposing regulations to curtail global warming . ExxonMobil funded organizations critical of the Kyoto Protocol and seeking to undermine public opinion about the scientific consensus that global warming is caused by the burning of fossil fuels . Exxon helped to found and lead the Global Climate Coalition of businesses opposed to the regulation of greenhouse gas emissions .", "Robert Balling Robert C. Balling , Jr. is a professor of geography at Arizona State University , and the former director of its Office of Climatology . His research interests include climatology , global climate change , and geographic information systems . Balling has declared himself one of the scientists who oppose the consensus on global warming , arguing in a 2009 book that anthropogenic global warming `` is indeed real , but relatively modest '' , and maintaining that there is a publication bias in the scientific literature .", "James Annan James D. Annan is a scientist involved in climate prediction . He was a member of the Global Warming Research Program at Frontier Research Centre for Global Change which is associated with the Earth Simulator in Japan . In 2014 he left Japan , returning to the United Kingdom as a co-founder of Blue Skies Research .", "Unstoppable global warming Unstoppable global warming may refer to : Runaway climate change Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years , book by Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery", "Climatic Research Unit email controversy The Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( also known as `` Climategate '' ) began in November 2009 with the hacking of a server at the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) by an external attacker , copying thousands of emails and computer files , the Climatic Research Unit documents , to various internet locations several weeks before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change . The story was first broken by climate change denialists with columnist James Delingpole popularising the term `` Climategate '' to describe the controversy . Several people considered climate change `` skeptics '' argued that the emails showed global warming was a scientific conspiracy , that scientists manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics . The CRU rejected this , saying the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas . The mainstream media picked up the story as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009 . Because of the timing , scientists , policy makers and public relations experts said that the release of emails was a smear campaign intended to undermine the climate conference . In response to the controversy , the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) , the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) and the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) released statements supporting the scientific consensus that the Earth 's mean surface temperature had been rising for decades , with the AAAS concluding , `` based on multiple lines of scientific evidence that global climate change caused by human activities is now underway ... it is a growing threat to society . '' Eight committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . However , the reports called on the scientists to avoid any such allegations in the future by taking steps to regain public confidence in their work , for example by opening up access to their supporting data , processing methods and software , and by promptly honouring freedom of information requests . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged throughout the investigations .", "List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "Global warming in Russia Global warming in Russia describes the global warming related issues in Russia . This includes climate politics , contribution to global warming and the influence of global warming on Russia . In 2009 Russia was ready to reduce emissions 20 -- 25 % from its 1990 emission levels by the year 2020 .", "The Deniers The Deniers is a 2008 book by Lawrence Solomon , a Canadian environmentalist and writer . Subtitled `` The world-renowned scientists who stood up against global warming hysteria , political persecution , and fraud , '' the book draws attention to a number of scientists and others who , according to Solomon , have advanced arguments against what he calls the `` alarmist '' view of global warming , as presented by Al Gore , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , the mainstream media , and others . The book is based on a series of columns Solomon wrote for Canada 's National Post .", "Business action on climate change Business action on climate change includes a range of activities relating to global warming , and to influencing political decisions on global-warming-related regulation , such as the Kyoto Protocol . Major multinationals have played and to some extent continue to play a significant role in the politics of global warming , especially in the United States , through lobbying of government and funding of global warming skeptics . Business also plays a key role in the mitigation of global warming , through decisions to invest in researching and implementing new energy technologies and energy efficiency measures . ( See also individual and political action on climate change . )", "The Cloud Mystery The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish . This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .", "Patrick Michaels Patrick J. ( `` Pat '' ) Michaels ( born February 15 , 1950 ) is an American climatologist . Michaels is a senior fellow in environmental studies at the Cato Institute . Until 2007 he was research professor of environmental sciences at the University of Virginia , where he had worked from 1980 . A self-described skeptic on the issue of global warming , he is a past president of the American Association of State Climatologists . He has written a number of books and papers on climate change , including Sound and Fury : The Science and Politics of Global Warming ( 1992 ) , The Satanic Gases ( 2000 ) , and Meltdown : The Predictable Distortion of Global Warming by Scientists , Politicians , and the Media ( 2004 ) . He 's also the co-author of Climate of Extremes : Global Warming Science They Do n't Want You to Know ( 2009 ) . Michaels ' viewpoint , as argued in a 2002 article in the journal Climate Research , is that the planet will see `` a warming range of 1.3 -- 3.0 ° C , with a central value of 1.9 ° C '' for the 1990 to 2100 period ( an analysis far smaller than the IPCC 's average predictions ) .", "Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .", "Nature Climate Change Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on global warming , especially its effects . It was established in 2011 . Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal 's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2015 impact factor of 17.184 .", "Climate Counts Climate Counts , spearheaded by Stonyfield Farm CEO Gary Hirshberg , is a non-profit campaign that scores companies annually on the basis of their voluntary action to reverse climate change . The Climate Counts Company Scorecard -- launched in June 2007 -- helps people vote with their dollars by making climate-conscious purchasing and investing choices that put pressure on the world 's most well-known companies to take the issue of climate change seriously . Climate Counts aims to mobilize everyday consumers -- not just the traditional environmental community -- as the most important activists in the fight against global warming . Companies are given a 0 to 100 score based on whether they have measured their climate footprint , set goals and targets to reduce their impact on global warming ( with ongoing progress toward those reductions to show for it ) , supported ( or suggest intent to block ) progressive climate legislation , and publicly disclosed their climate actions clearly and comprehensively . They outline their criteria for scoring in greater detail here . ( Climate Counts Scorecard ) . Climate Counts publishes a downloadable pocket shopping guide based on company scores and ranks and in keeping with the organization 's own efforts to reduce its impact , offers shoppers the option of having a paperless version sent to their cell phones .", "World Climate Conference The World Climate Conferences are a series of international meetings , organized by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) , about global climate issues principally global warming in addition to climate research and forecasting .", "Long-term effects of global warming See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .", "Drawdown (climate) Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis . Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures . Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .", "Climate engineering Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .", "Lavoisier Group The Lavoisier Group is an Australian organisation formed by politicians and dominated by retired industrial businesspeople and engineers . It does not accept the science of global warming and works to influence attitudes of policy makers and politicians . The organisation downplays the risk of the effects of global warming , rejects the scientific conclusion that human activity causes it , and opposes policies designed to curtail it . Some members regard climate change as a `` scam . '' The group was named after French scientist Antoine Lavoisier ( 1743-1794 ) , the father of modern chemistry who disproved the Phlogiston theory of combustion .", "Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.", "Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors." ]

[ "Attribution of recent climate change Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "Climate change (general concept) Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.", "Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming ." ]

[ "Breeding for heat stress tolerance Plant breeding is process of development of new cultivars . Plant breeding involves development of varieties for different environmental conditions -- some of them are not favorable . Among them , heat stress is one of such factor that reduces the production and quality significantly . So breeding against heat is a very important criterion for breeding for current as well as future environments produced by global climate change ( e.g. global warming ) .", "Effects of global warming on humans Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "Climate change in Germany Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe .", "Effects of climate change on island nations Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .", "January 2014 southeastern Australia heat wave The January 2014 southeastern Australia heat wave was a significant heat wave event which affected most of southeastern Australia from 13 to 18 January 2014 . The main areas affected were Victoria , Tasmania , southern New South Wales away from the coast and the southern half of South Australia . The event ranked along with the 2009 heat wave , 1939 heat wave and 1908 heat wave as one of the most significant multi-day heatwaves on record . The heat wave broke a number of records for extended periods of heat . A spike in heat waves and record breaking high temperatures across Australia over the past five years has led to concerns over the effects of global warming and climate change on the country . Adelaide , South Australia suffered the brunt of the summer heat wave , recording 13 days with temperatures above 40 ° C.", "Greening Earth Society The Greening Earth Society , now defunct , was a public relations organization which promoted the idea that there is considerable scientific doubt about the effects of climate change and increased levels of carbon dioxide . The Society published the World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels of the Cato Institute . It was a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association , with which it shared an office and many staff members . It has been called a `` front group created by the coal industry '' and an `` industry front '' . Fred Palmer , a Society staffer , is a registered lobbyist for Peabody Energy , a coal company . Although the Greening Earth Society was generally skeptical of the impact of climate change , it acknowledged some degree of global warming as real : `` Fact # 1 . The rate of global warming during the past several decades has been about 0.18 ° C per decade '' . Note that the actual increase in the global surface temperature during the 100 years ending in 2005 was 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C.", "Debate over China's economic responsibilities for climate change mitigation This article documents the debate over China 's economic responsibilities for climate change mitigation and mitigation of climate change in China . Both internationally and within the People 's Republic of China , there has been an ongoing debate over China 's responsibilities , particularly since 2006 , when China surpassed the US as the country with the highest emissions rate for the main atmospheric gas in global warming , carbon dioxide ( CO2 )", "Cloud feedback Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .", "Berkeley Earth Berkeley Earth is a Berkeley , California based independent 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit focused on land temperature data analysis for climate science . Berkeley Earth was founded in early 2010 ( originally called the Berkeley Earth Surface Temperature project ) with the goal of addressing the major concerns from outside the scientific community regarding global warming and the instrumental temperature record . The project 's stated aim was a `` transparent approach , based on data analysis . '' In February 2013 , Berkeley Earth became an independent non-profit . In August 2013 , Berkeley Earth was granted 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) tax-exempt status by the US government . The primary product is air temperatures over land , but they also produce a global dataset resulting from a merge of their land data with HadSST . Berkeley Earth founder Richard A. Muller told The Guardian '' ... we are bringing the spirit of science back to a subject that has become too argumentative and too contentious , ... we are an independent , non-political , non-partisan group . We will gather the data , do the analysis , present the results and make all of it available . There will be no spin , whatever we find . We are doing this because it is the most important project in the world today . Nothing else comes close . '' Berkeley Earth has been funded by unrestricted educational grants totaling ( as of December 2013 ) about $ 1,394,500 . Large donors include Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , the Charles G. Koch Foundation , the Fund for Innovative Climate and Energy Research ( FICER ) , and the William K. Bowes , Jr. . Foundation . The donors have no control over how Berkeley Earth conducts the research or what they publish . The team 's preliminary findings , data sets and programs were published in journals operated by OMICS Group , a predatory open access publisher beginning in December 2012 . The study addressed scientific concerns including urban heat island effect , poor station quality , and the risk of data selection bias . The Berkeley Earth group concluded that the warming trend is real , that over the past 50 years ( between the decades of the 1950s and 2000s ) the land surface warmed by 0.91 ± 0.05 ° C , and their results mirror those obtained from earlier studies carried out by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , the Hadley Centre , NASA 's Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) Surface Temperature Analysis , and the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia . The study also found that the urban heat island effect and poor station quality did not bias the results obtained from these earlier studies .", "Abrupt climate change An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .", "Economics of global warming The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "A Friend of the Earth T. Coraghessan Boyle 's novel A Friend of the Earth ( 2000 ) is a story of environmental destruction . The novel is set in 2025 ; as a result of global warming and the greenhouse effect , the climate has drastically changed , and , accordingly , biodiversity is a thing of the past .", "Simon Tett Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .", "Long-term effects of global warming See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .", "Global warming hiatus A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "David Parker (climatologist) David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England . He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' . In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .", "Climate change denial Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism . Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming . Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none . Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks . The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation . Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .", "Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean The Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean ( SHEBA ) study was a National Science Foundation-funded research project designed to quantify the heat transfer processes that occur between the ocean and the atmosphere over the course of a year in the Arctic Ocean , where the sun is above the horizon from spring through summer and below the horizon the rest of the time . The study was designed to provide data for use in global climate models , which scientists use to study global climate change .", "Business action on climate change Business action on climate change includes a range of activities relating to global warming , and to influencing political decisions on global-warming-related regulation , such as the Kyoto Protocol . Major multinationals have played and to some extent continue to play a significant role in the politics of global warming , especially in the United States , through lobbying of government and funding of global warming skeptics . Business also plays a key role in the mitigation of global warming , through decisions to invest in researching and implementing new energy technologies and energy efficiency measures . ( See also individual and political action on climate change . )", "Thematic Mapper A Thematic Mapper ( TM ) is one of the Earth observing sensors introduced in the Landsat program . The first was placed aboard Landsat 4 ( decommissioned in 2001 ) , and another was operational aboard Landsat 5 up to 2012 . TM sensors feature seven bands of image data ( three in visible wavelengths , four in infrared ) most of which have 30 metre spatial resolution . TM is a whisk broom scanner which takes multi-spectral images across its ground track . It does not directly produce a thematic map . The Thematic Mapper has become a useful tool in the study of albedo and its relationship to global warming and climate change . The TM on the Landsat 5 has proven useful in determining the amount of ice loss on glaciers due to melting . Landsat 7 carries an enhanced TM sensor known as the Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus ( ETM + ) .", "Medieval Warm Period The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .", "Cirrus cloud thinning Cirrus cloud thinning is a proposed form of climate engineering . Cirrus clouds are high cold ice that , like other clouds , both reflect sunlight and absorb warming infrared radiation . However , they differ from other types of clouds in that , on average , infrared absorption outweighs sunlight reflection , resulting in a net warming effect on the climate . Therefore , thinning or removing these clouds would reduce their heat trapping capacity , resulting in a cooling effect on Earth 's climate . This could be a potential tool to reduce anthropogenic global warming . Cirrus cloud thinning is an alternative category of climate engineering , in addition to solar radiation management and greenhouse gas removal .", "Glossary of climate change This article serves as a glossary of climate change terms . It lists terms that are related to global warming .", "Scientific opinion on climate change The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "Global Warming: What You Need to Know Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .", "James Annan James D. Annan is a scientist involved in climate prediction . He was a member of the Global Warming Research Program at Frontier Research Centre for Global Change which is associated with the Earth Simulator in Japan . In 2014 he left Japan , returning to the United Kingdom as a co-founder of Blue Skies Research .", "List of ministers of climate change A list of ministers of climate change or officials in charge of cabinet positions with portfolios dealing primarily with climate change and issues related to mitigation of global warming .", "Ross McKitrick Ross McKitrick is a Canadian economist specializing in environmental economics and policy analysis . He is a professor of economics at the University of Guelph , and a senior fellow of the Fraser Institute . He is a member of the academic advisory boards of the John Deutsch Institute , the Global Warming Policy Foundation , and the Cornwall Alliance for the Stewardship of Creation . He has authored works about climate change issues , including co-authoring the book Taken By Storm : The Troubled Science , Policy and Politics of Global Warming in 2003 . McKitrick produced a series of videos and articles for the Friends of Science in which he argued that there is a `` pause '' in global warming that reveals flaws in current climate change models . The Friends of Science argue that the sun -- not human emissions of GHG -- is the main driver of climate change .", "Effects of global warming on Australia Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .", "Space mirror (climate engineering) The use of space mirrors as an anti-global warming measure is a proposed technology for climate change mitigation by deflection of sunlight . It was one of a series of proposals for controlling global warming made to the United States government in 2001 . At the `` Response Options to Rapid or Severe Climate Change '' round-table meeting organized by the President 's Climate Change Technology Program in September 2001 to gather ideas for averting climate change , one of the proposals was to station one or more wire-mesh `` mirrors '' in orbit to deflect sunlight back into space or to filter it . The idea was proposed by Lowell Wood , a senior staff scientist at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , who calculated that deflecting 1 % of sunlight would restore climatic stability , and that that would require either a single mirror 600000 sqmi in area or several smaller ones . Wood had been researching the idea for more than ten years but considered it so infeasible that it should only be a back-up plan for solving the global warming problem . In January 2007 , The Guardian reported that the US government was recommending that research on sunlight deflection , including space mirrors , be continued as `` insurance '' and that the next United Nations Report on Climate Change advocate such a strategy . In addition to the space mirror , suggested sunlight-reducing techniques included launching thousands of highly reflective balloons and pumping sulphate droplets into the upper atmosphere to emulate volcanic emissions . Space mirrors were first considered in the 1980s as a way to cool the climate of Venus . James Early , also at Livermore , in 1989 proposed using a `` space shade '' 2,000 kilometers in diameter orbiting at Lagrangian Point L1 . He estimated the cost at between one and ten trillion US dollars and suggested manufacturing it on the moon using moon rock . Using space mirrors as a space sunshade to reduce the impact of sunlight falls into the category of geoengineering : deliberately modifying the earth 's climate . At a conference on the topic organized by Daniel Schrag of Harvard University and David Keith of the University of Calgary in November 2007 , the consensus was that it was worth studying such ideas further despite their high cost , the doubtful feasibility of some including the space mirror , and the risk of their distracting attention from reduction of greenhouse gas emissions ." ]

[ "Ice age An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .", "James Hansen James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''", "Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming is a book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The book is a sequel to The Skeptical Environmentalist ( first published in Danish in 1998 ) , which in English translation brought the author to world attention . Lomborg argues that many of the elaborate and expensive actions being considered to stop global warming will cost hundreds of billions of dollars without the same return on investment , often are based on emotional rather than strictly scientific assumptions , and may have very little impact on the world 's temperature for centuries . Lomborg concludes that a limited carbon tax is needed in the First World as well as subsidies from the First World to the Third World to help fight ongoing humanitarian crises .", "Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "LOWERN LOWERN is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate . Latitude . Depending on how close or how far it is to the equator . Ocean currents . Certain ocean currents have different temperatures . Warm ocean currents warm the air above it , which warms the coast . Cold ocean currents cool the air above it , which cools the coast . This helps keep the coast a consistent temperature . Wind and Air masses . Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure . As it rises it cools and descends to the ground resulting in high air pressure . This cycle repeats which creates wind . These air masses absorb the climate of the air below it . Elevation . The higher up you are , the colder and drier it will be . When air rises it expands due to low air pressure which causes it to cool . Relief . The differences in the elevation in land . As air is forced to rise over a piece of land ( e.g. a mountain ) the temperature decreases and condensation increases . As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall . Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensations decreases , resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows . Nearness to Water . Water heats up and cools down slower than land does , having a moderating effect . On colder days , the water heats up the land , whereas on hotter days , the land is cooled down by the water . These areas also experience more precipitation . Category : Climatology", "Year Without a Summer The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .", "List of glaciers in Glacier National Park (U.S.) There are at least 35 named glaciers in Glacier National Park ( U.S. ) . In 1850 , the area now comprising the national park had 150 glaciers . There are 25 active glaciers remaining in the park today . Since the ice ages stopped 10,000 years ago , there have been many slight climate shifts causing periods of glacier growth or melt-back . The glaciers are currently being studied to see the effect of global warming It is estimated that if current warming trends continue , there will be no glaciers left in the park by 2030 .", "Neoglaciation The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens .", "The Greenhouse Conspiracy The Greenhouse Conspiracy is a documentary film broadcast by Channel 4 in the United Kingdom on 12 August 1990 , as part of the Equinox series , which criticised the theory of global warming and asserted that scientists critical of global warming theory were denied funding . It is one of the earliest instances of the suggestion of a conspiracy to promote false claims supporting global warming . Although the title of the program implied the existence of a conspiracy , when interviewed on the program Patrick Michaels played down the idea , saying , `` It may not quite add up to a conspiracy , but certainly a coalition of interests has promoted the greenhouse theory : scientists have needed funds , the media a story , and governments a worthy cause '' .", "The Great Global Warming Swindle The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .", "Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .", "Scientific opinion on climate change The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "Carburetor icing Carburetor Icing , or carb icing , is an icing condition which can affect any carburetor under certain atmospheric conditions . The problem is most notable in certain realms of aviation . Carburetor icing occurs when there is humid air , and the temperature drop in the venturi causes the water vapor to freeze . The venturi effect can drop the ambient air temperature by 30-40 degrees F , therefore carburetor icing often occurs when the outside air temperature is in the 60-70 degree F range . Unfortunately , the warm air temperature often causes pilots to overlook the possibility of carb icing . The ice will form on the surfaces of the carburetor throat , further restricting it . This may increase the Venturi effect initially , but eventually restricts airflow , perhaps even causing a complete blockage of air to the carburetor . The engine begins to run more rich as ice formation increases . Without intervention ( carb heat or leaning ) this can only continue until the mixture is outside of the `` chemically correct '' range for combustion . Icing may also cause jamming of the mechanical parts of the carburetor , such as the throttle , typically a butterfly valve . While it applies to all carburetors , carburetor icing is of particular concern in association with piston-powered aircraft , especially small , single-engine , light aircraft . Aircraft powered by carbureted engines are equipped with carburetor heat systems to overcome the icing problem . In cars , carburetor icing can occasionally be a nuisance . The inlet manifold and parts of the carburetor often have warm water from the cooling system or exhaust gas circulating through them to combat this problem . Motorcycles can also suffer from carburetor icing , although some engine designs are more susceptible to it than others . Air-cooled engines may be more prone to icing , due to the absence of warm coolant circulating through the engine .", "Everything's Cool Everything 's Cool may refer to : `` Everything 's Cool '' ( song ) , a song from the Pop Will Eat Itself album Dos Dedos Mis Amigos Everything 's Cool ( film ) , a 2007 documentary film that examines the divide between scientists and the general populace on the topic of global warming", "Last ice age Last ice age may refer to : Quaternary glaciation , the period of the last few million years Last glacial period , the most recent glacial period of the current ice age Little Ice Age , a hundred years of relative cold in the Middle Ages after what historians term the Medieval Warm Period", "Medieval Warm Period The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .", "Social determinants of obesity While genetic influences are important to understanding obesity , they can not explain the current dramatic increase seen within specific countries or globally . -LSB- 1 -RSB- It is accepted that calorie consumption in excess of calorie expenditure leads to obesity , however what has caused shifts in these two factors on a global scale is much debated .", "Obesity and the environment Obesity and the environment aims to look at the different environmental factors that have been determined by researchers to cause and perpetuate obesity .", "Cool It Cool It may refer to : Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming , a 2007 book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg Cool It ( film ) , a 2010 documentary film based on the above book Cool It ( TV series ) , a 1980s British television comedy series featuring Phil Cool", "NYC: Tornado Terror NYC : Tornado Terror is a 2008 Canadian made for TV disaster film . It stars Nicole de Boer , Sebastian Spence , and Jerry Wasserman . It premiered on Syfy on October 4 , 2008 , and is directed by Tibor Takács . The film is about global warming which causes the upper and lower atmosphere to separate so that their different movements generate huge electrical charges which causes huge electrical tornadoes to drop on New York City causing destruction and loss of life . Dr. Cassie Lawrence tries to stop the twisters as chaos ensues . NASA ignores the mayor who recommends following Dr. Lawrence 's advice and use silver iodide on the atmosphere instead , which makes things worse , so it is down to our heroes to use a rebel scientist with his own makeshift rockets to use dry ice ( frozen CO2 ) . The problem is solved , but before the film ends , the same storm effects begin in Paris .", "Volcanic winter A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .", "Sea surface temperature Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans . Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .", "Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "Vladimir Paar Vladimir Paar ( born 1942 ) is a Croatian physicist and university professor . Paar was born in Zagreb . He graduated from the Faculty of Science , University of Zagreb , where he is currently a professor . He is a full member of the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts since 1992 . His scientific interests include theoretical nuclear physics , chaos theory in physics and technology , computer modeling in clinical medicine , energetics , and history of physics . To the general public he is known as a popularizer of science , being the author of two books , hundreds of newspaper articles and several television series in the field of popular science . Paar is a global warming skeptic and is an advocate of a new ice age hypothesis . He argues that the rise of carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere is the effect - rather than the cause - of global climate change , and that the true cause lies in the change of Earth 's orbit due to gravitational pull of Jupiter and other planets of the Solar System . Paar believes that the evidence against anthropogenic global warming is being deliberately suppressed .", "The Dying Sun The Dying Sun is a science fiction novel by Gary Blackwood , published in 1989 . Set in the mid-21st century , the book depicts a world where the sun 's light is actually diminishing over time , cooling the Earth ( as opposed to global warming ) , which causes a mass migration from the U.S. to Mexico . The large influx from the north causes overpopulation and a wave of violence in the south , and James and Robert , two friends , decide to go north to escape the crime-ridden south . The novel is a 1990 Friends of American Writers Best Young Adult Novel .", "Karoo Ice Age The Karoo Ice Age from 360 -- 260 million years ago ( Mya ) was the second major ice age of the Phanerozoic Eon . It is named after the tillite ( Dwyka Group ) found in the Karoo region of South Africa ( and adjacent areas ) , where evidence for this ice age was first clearly identified in the 19th century . The tectonic assembly of the continents of Euramerica ( later with the Uralian orogeny , into Laurasia ) and Gondwana into Pangaea , in the Hercynian-Alleghany Orogeny , made a major continental land mass within the Antarctic region , and the closure of the Rheic Ocean and Iapetus Ocean saw disruption of warm-water currents in the Panthalassa Ocean and Paleotethys Sea , which led to progressive cooling of summers , and the snowfields accumulating in winters , causing mountainous alpine glaciers to grow , and then spread out of highland areas , making continental glaciers which spread to cover much of Gondwana . At least two major periods of glaciation have been discovered : The first glacial period was associated with the Mississippian subperiod ( 359.2 -- 318.1 Mya ) : ice sheets expanded from a core in southern Africa and South America . The second glacial period was associated with the Pennsylvanian subperiod ( 318.1 -- 299 Mya ) ; ice sheets expanded from a core in Australia and India . The extent of ancient glaciations in Antarctica is not well known , because the present ice sheet hides the evidence .", "Everything's Cool (film) Everything 's Cool is a 2007 documentary film that examines the divide between scientists and the general populace on the topic of global warming . Director Dan Gold said of the motivation for the film that `` I 'm optimistic that finally the message that this is real , that human beings are the cause of the most recent warming trend , and that it 's an important issue , that message is actually reaching America . On the other hand ... if that message was fully understood , we would be moving a lot faster to slow this down and to reverse this course . '' The documentary was shown at the Sundance film festival in January 2007 and at the San Francisco International Film Festival in May 2007 . The directors also took Blue Vinyl , a film about plastic pollution , to Sundance in 2002 . It was shown on CBC in Canada as part of the Passionate Eye series . The New York Times called it `` a breezy polemic about the politics of global warming ... -LSB- that -RSB- adopts a cheerful comic tone to avoid scaring audiences . '' The LA Times said that `` With wit and passion , Gold and Helfand marshal a plethora of data and developments yet never lose their narrative thread . '' . The New York Sun was less favourable , calling it `` the best movie I 've ever seen about global warming for kids in junior high school , but it 's the most annoying movie about global warming I 've ever seen for adults . ''", "Cooling down Cooling down ( the prescribed event of which is called a cool down , cooldown , or cool-down ; or warm down , in allusion to use in combination with warm up ) is an easy exercise , done after a more intense activity , to allow the body to gradually transition to a resting or near-resting state . Depending on the intensity of the exercise , cooling down can involve a slow jog or walk . With lower intensities stretching can be used . Cooling down allows the heart rate to return to its resting rate . Anecdotally cooling down may reduce dizziness for professional or serious athletes and vocal performers after strenuous workouts . Studies are currently inconclusive as to whether the process actually reduces delayed-onset muscle soreness and muscle soreness not caused by lactate production during intense exercise . Some have shown a weak correlation : however , the majority of recent studies discount the relationship . One study has shown that athletes who perform an appropriate cool-down are less likely to become injured .", "Biology and sexual orientation The relationship between biology and sexual orientation is a subject of research . A simple and singular determinant for sexual orientation has not been conclusively demonstrated ; various studies point to different , even conflicting positions , but scientists hypothesize that a combination of genetic , hormonal , and social factors determine sexual orientation . Biological theories for explaining the causes of sexual orientation are more popular and involve a complex interplay of genetic factors , the early uterine environment and brain structure . These factors , which may be related to the development of a heterosexual , homosexual , bisexual or asexual orientation , include genes , prenatal hormones , and brain structure .", "Lavoisier Group The Lavoisier Group is an Australian organisation formed by politicians and dominated by retired industrial businesspeople and engineers . It does not accept the science of global warming and works to influence attitudes of policy makers and politicians . The organisation downplays the risk of the effects of global warming , rejects the scientific conclusion that human activity causes it , and opposes policies designed to curtail it . Some members regard climate change as a `` scam . '' The group was named after French scientist Antoine Lavoisier ( 1743-1794 ) , the father of modern chemistry who disproved the Phlogiston theory of combustion .", "Retreat of glaciers since 1850 The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .", "Causes of unemployment in the United States Causes of Unemployment in the United States discusses the causes of U.S. unemployment and strategies for reducing it . Job creation and unemployment are affected by factors such as economic conditions , global competition , education , automation , and demographics . These factors can affect the number of workers , the duration of unemployment , and wage levels .", "Thermally Stimulated Depolarization Current Thermally Stimulated Depolarization Current ( TSDC ) is a scientific technique used to measure dielectric properties of materials . Specifically , it can be used to measure the thermally stimulated depolarization of molecules within a material . One method of doing so is to place the material between two electrodes , cool the material in the presence of an external electric field , remove the field once a desired temperature has been reached , and measure the current between the electrodes as the material warms . The external electric field must be applied at a sufficiently high temperature to allow the molecular dipoles time to align with the field . Because the dielectric relaxation time increases exponentially on cooling , the polarization caused by their alignment with the field gets `` frozen-in '' . So , when the field is removed and the material begins to warm the dipoles begin to `` thaw '' whereby losing their net alignment and thus the material become depolarized . This depolarization can be measured if the material is sandwiched between two ohmic electrodes and the current is measured on warming . As the material depolarizes , charges are pulled to ( or pushed away from ) the electrodes which causes a current through the measuring device ." ]

[ "Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "Tipping points in the climate system A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible." ]

[ "Greenland ice sheet The Greenland ice sheet ( Grønlands indlandsis , Sermersuaq ) is a vast body of ice covering 1710000 km ² , roughly 80 % of the surface of Greenland . It is the second largest ice body in the world , after the Antarctic ice sheet . The ice sheet is almost 2400 km long in a north-south direction , and its greatest width is 1100 km at a latitude of 77 ° N , near its northern margin . The mean altitude of the ice is 2135 m . The thickness is generally more than 2 km and over 3 km at its thickest point . It is not the only ice mass of Greenland -- isolated glaciers and small ice caps cover between 76000 and around the periphery . If the entire 2850000 km3 of ice were to melt , it would lead to a global sea level rise of 7.2 m . The Greenland Ice Sheet is sometimes referred to under the term inland ice , or its Danish equivalent , indlandsis . It is also sometimes referred to as an ice cap .", "Ice age An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .", "Antarctic ice sheet The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .", "West Antarctic Ice Sheet The Western Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) is the segment of the continental ice sheet that covers West ( or Lesser ) Antarctica , the portion of Antarctica on the side of the Transantarctic Mountains which lies in the Western Hemisphere . The WAIS is classified as a marine-based ice sheet , meaning that its bed lies well below sea level and its edges flow into floating ice shelves . The WAIS is bounded by the Ross Ice Shelf , the Ronne Ice Shelf , and outlet glaciers that drain into the Amundsen Sea . It is estimated that the volume of the Antarctic ice sheet is about 25.4 million km3 ( 6.1 million cu mi ) , and the WAIS contains just under 10 % of this , or 2.2 million km3 ( 530,000 cu mi ) . The weight of the ice has caused the underlying rock to sink by between 0.5 and 1 kilometres ( 0.31 -- 0.62 mi ) in a process known as isostatic depression . Under the force of its own weight , the ice sheet deforms and flows . The interior ice flows slowly over rough bedrock . In some circumstances , ice can flow faster in ice streams , separated by slow-flowing ice ridges . The inter-stream ridges are frozen to the bed while the bed beneath the ice streams consists of water-saturated sediments . Many of these sediments were deposited before the ice sheet occupied the region , when much of West Antarctica was covered by the ocean . The rapid ice-stream flow is a non-linear process still not fully understood ; streams can start and stop for unclear reasons . When ice reaches the coast , it either calves or continues to flow outward onto the water . The result is a large , floating ice shelf affixed to the continent .", "West Greenland Current The West Greenland Current is a weak cold water current that flows to the north along the west coast of Greenland . The current results from the movement of water flowing around the southernmost point of Greenland caused by the East Greenland Current . According to Lloyd et al. , 2007 , the WGC is a WARM current connected to a broader scale North Atlantic climate via the combined influences of Atlantic water from the Irminger Current ( IC ) and polar water from the East Greenland Current . Paleoclimatology records derived from foraminifera abundance show that periodic influxes of warm subsurface temperatures and near-bottom temperatures occurred throughout the Late Holocene epoch , particularly during the Holocene climatic optimum . The increased flow from the nearby East Greenland Current was associated with increased glacial iceberg calving from the large Jakobshavn Isbrae glacial outlet within the western Greenland Ice Sheet , causing rapid melting and destabilization events . Following the Neoglaciation , the Jakobshavn outlet formed a floating ice tongue around 2000 years before present .", "West Antarctica West Antarctica , or Lesser Antarctica , one of the two major regions of Antarctica , is the part of that continent that lies within the Western Hemisphere , and includes the Antarctic Peninsula . It is separated from East Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains and is covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . It lies between the Ross Sea ( partly covered by the Ross Ice Shelf ) , and the Weddell Sea ( largely covered by the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf ) . It may be considered a giant peninsula stretching from the South Pole towards the tip of South America . West Antarctica is largely covered by the Antarctic ice sheet , but there have been signs that climate change is having some effect and that this ice sheet may have started to shrink slightly . The coasts of the Antarctic Peninsula are the only parts of West Antarctica that become ( in summer ) ice-free . These constitute the Marielandia Antarctic tundra and have the warmest climate in Antarctica . The rocks are clad in mosses and lichens that can cope with the intense cold of winter and the short growing-season .", "Ice-sheet model In climate modelling , Ice-sheet models use numerical methods to simulate the evolution , dynamics and thermodynamics of ice sheets , such as the Greenland ice sheet , the Antarctic ice sheet or the large ice sheets on the northern hemisphere during the last glacial period . They are used for a variety of purposes , from studies of the glaciation of Earth over glacial -- interglacial cycles in the past to projections of ice-sheet decay under future global warming conditions .", "Greenland Ice Sheet Project The Greenland Ice Sheet Project ( GISP ) was a decade-long project to drill ice cores in Greenland that involved scientists and funding agencies from Denmark , Switzerland and the United States . Besides the U.S. National Science Foundation ( NSF ) , funding was provided by the Swiss National Science Foundation and the Danish Commission for Scientific Research in Greenland . The ice cores provide a proxy archive of temperature and atmospheric constituents that help to understand past climate variations . The preliminary GISP field work started in 1971 at Dye 3 , where a 372 meter deep , 10.2 cm diameter core was recovered . After this , annual field expeditions were carried out to drill intermediate depth cores at various locations on the ice sheet . The first was a 398 m core at Milcent and another was a 405 m core at the Crete station in 1974 . After working out various logistical and engineering problems related to the development of a more sophisticated drilling rig , drilling to bedrock at Dye 3 began in the summer of 1979 using a new Danish electro-mechanical ice drill . In the first year , an 18 cm diameter hole was drilled and cased to a depth of 80 m. Coring continued for two more seasons , and on August 10 , 1981 , bedrock was reached at a depth of 2037 m . The Dye 3 site was a compromise : glaciologically , a higher site on the ice divide with smooth bedrock would have been better ; logistically , such a site would have been too remote .", "East Greenland Ice-Core Project The East Greenland Ice-Core Project , known as EGRIP , is a scientific project that plans to retrieve an ice core from the Northeast Greenland ice stream . The first season in the field was 2015 ; the project is expected to be drilling through to the base of the ice sheet by 2020 . Much of the camp set up for the North Greenland Eemian Ice Drilling Project ( NEEM ) was moved to the EGRIP location in 2015 . The equipment was towed by several tractors . The team ran low on fuel and had to abandon some equipment , arriving at the EGRIP location on 26 May , after nine days of towing .", "East Antarctic Ice Sheet The East Antarctic Ice Sheet ( EAIS ) is one of two large ice sheets in Antarctica , and the largest on the entire planet . The EAIS lies between 45 ° west and 168 ° east longitudinally . The EAIS is considerably larger in area and mass than the West Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) . It is separated from the WAIS by the Transantarctic Mountains . The EAIS rests upon a large land mass , contrary to that of the WAIS , which rests mainly on bedrock below sea level . The EAIS is also home to the thickest ice on the frozen white continent , at 15,700 ft ( 4,800 m ) . More well known , however , is that the EAIS is home to the geographic South Pole as well as of the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station .", "Quaternary glaciation The Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , is a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events during the Quaternary period from 2.58 Ma ( million years ago ) to present . During this period , ice sheets expanded , notably from out of Antarctica and Greenland , and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere ( for example , the Laurentide ice sheet ) . The major effects of the ice age are erosion and deposition of material over large parts of the continents , modification of river systems , creation of millions of lakes , changes in sea level , development of pluvial lakes far from the ice margins , isostatic adjustment of the crust , and abnormal winds . It affected oceans , flooding , and biological communities . The ice sheets themselves , by raising the albedo , affect a major feedback on climate cooling .", "Tipping point Tipping point may refer to :", "2059 ", "Climate change in the Arctic The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "Last Glacial Maximum The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE . Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .", "Giesecke Glacier Giesecke Glacier ( Giesecke brær ) is a glacier in the Qaasuitsup municipality in northwestern Greenland . Its outflow is split in the center by a nunatak . Through two tongues it drains the Greenland ice sheet westwards into Kangerlussuaq Icefjord . The northern tongue ( Qeqertarsuup Sermia ) reaches the fjord at . The southern tongue ( Kakiffait Sermiat ) reaches the fjord at .", "2036 __ TOC __", "Robert Bindschadler Dr. Robert Bindschadler is a senior fellow at NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center and has been an active field researcher in the Antarctic for over 25 years . He is a past president of the International Glaciological Society , chairs the West Antarctic Ice Sheet Initiative , is an editor for the Journal of Glaciology and has led 14 expeditions to Antarctica and has participated in numerous other expeditions around the world including Greenland . He has also testified before Congress and has briefed the U.S. vice president concerning ice-sheet stability and is often quoted or featured in the media . He was born in Pittsburgh and received a B.S. in astronomy and physics in 1971 from the University of Michigan and earned his Ph.D in Geophysics from the University of Washington in 1978 and did post doctoral work in Switzerland prior to working at NASA . His work revolves around the dynamics of glaciers and ice sheets using remote sensing technology . He has developed applications used to measure ice velocity and elevation using radar imagery which monitors the melting of ice sheets and detects changes in the volume of ice-sheets using radar altimetry . He has received numerous awards including Exceptional scientific achievement by NASA in 1994 as well as the Goddard Senior fellow in 2000 .", "2056 ", "Antarctic Peninsula The Antarctic Peninsula is the northernmost part of the mainland of Antarctica , located at the base of the Southern Hemisphere . At the surface , it is the biggest , most prominent peninsula in Antarctica as it extends 1300 km from a line between Cape Adams ( Weddell Sea ) and a point on the mainland south of Eklund Islands . Beneath the ice sheet which covers it , the Antarctic Peninsula consists of a string of bedrock islands ; these are separated by deep channels whose bottoms lie at depths considerably below current sea level . They are joined together by a grounded ice sheet . Tierra del Fuego , the southernmost tip of South America , lies only about 1000 km away across the Drake Passage . The Antarctic Peninsula is currently dotted with numerous research stations and nations have made multiple claims of sovereignty . The peninsula is part of disputed and overlapping claims by Argentina , Chile and the United Kingdom . None of these claims has international recognition and , under the Antarctic Treaty System , the respective countries do not attempt to enforce their claims . Argentina has the most bases and personnel stationed on the peninsula .", "Climate inertia Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "Greenland ice core project The Greenland Ice Core Project ( GRIP ) was a multinational European research project , organized through the European Science Foundation . Funding came from 8 nations ( Belgium , Denmark , France , Germany , Iceland , Italy , Switzerland , and United Kingdom ) , and from the European Union . The project ran from 1989 to 1995 , with drilling seasons from 1990 to 1992 . GRIP successfully drilled a 3029-metre ice core to the bed of the Greenland ice sheet at Summit , Central Greenland from 1989 to 1992 at . Studies of isotopes and various atmospheric constituents in the core have revealed a detailed record of climatic variations reaching more than 100,000 years back in time . The results indicate that Holocene climate has been remarkably stable and have confirmed the occurrence of rapid climatic variation during the last ice age ( the Wisconsin ) . Delta-O-18 variations observed in the core part believed to date from the Eemian Stage have not been confirmed by other records including the NGRIP core and are now believed not to represent climate events : the interglacial climate of Eemian Stage appears to have been as stable as the Holocene .", "Echelmeyer Ice Stream The Echelmeyer Ice Stream , formerly known as Ice Stream F , is a glaciological feature of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . It is an ice stream flowing west to the Shirase Coast to the north of the MacAyeal Ice Stream , and is one of several major ice streams draining from Marie Byrd Land into the Ross Ice Shelf . The ice streams were investigated and mapped by U.S. Antarctic Research Program personnel in a number of field seasons from 1983 -- 84 and originally named Ice Stream A , B , C , etc. , according to their position from south to north . The name was changed from Ice Stream F by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 2002 to honor Dr. Keith A. Echelmeyer of the Geophysical Institute , University of Alaska , Fairbanks , who studied the flow of Marie Byrd Land ice streams , 1992 -- 93 and 1994 -- 95 , as well as the fast flow of surging glaciers in Alaska and Greenland . Dr. Echelmeyer was a student of Barclay Kamb for whom Kamb Ice Stream is named .", "Isunngua Isunngua ( old spelling : Isúngua ) is a highland in the Qeqqata municipality in central-western Greenland , located immediately west of the Greenland Ice Sheet edge . In large part it is covered by the tundra , although in the immediate vicinity of the Sermersuaq ice sheet it gradually becomes exposed , barren , and largely devoid of life . The climate is polar continental , with the area receiving very little rainfall . Isunngua is a calving site for reindeer .", "Whillans Ice Stream Whillans Ice Stream is a glaciological feature of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet , formerly known as Ice Stream B , renamed in 2001 in honor of Ohio State University glaciologist Ian Whillans .", "List of Antarctic ice shelves This is a list of Antarctic ice shelves . Ice shelves are attached to 44 % of the Antarctic coastline . Their total area is 1,541,700 km ² . Names are also listed in the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research , Gazetteer . The ice shelf areas are listed below , clockwise , starting in the west of East Antarctica : † Indicates that the ice shelf has collapsed .", "Kamb Ice Stream Kamb Ice Stream , a glaciological feature of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet , formerly known as Ice Stream C , renamed in 2001 in honor of Caltech Glaciologist Dr. Barclay Kamb .", "ICESat ICESat ( Ice , Cloud , and land Elevation Satellite ) , part of NASA 's Earth Observing System , was a satellite mission for measuring ice sheet mass balance , cloud and aerosol heights , as well as land topography and vegetation characteristics . ICESat was launched 13 January 2003 on a Delta II rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California into a near-circular , near-polar orbit with an altitude of approximately 600 km . It operated for seven years before being retired in February 2010 , after its scientific payload shut down and scientists were unable to restart it . The ICESat mission was designed to provide elevation data needed to determine ice sheet mass balance as well as cloud property information , especially for stratospheric clouds common over polar areas . It provides topography and vegetation data around the globe , in addition to the polar-specific coverage over the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets . The satellite was found useful in assessing important forest characteristics , including tree density .", "2050s The 2050s is a decade of the Gregorian calendar that will begin on January 1 , 2050 and will end on December 31 , 2059 .", "Bindschadler Glacier Bindschadler Glacier is a glacier in the northwest part of Royal Society Range , Victoria Land , flowing north between Table Mountain and Platform Spur to join Emmanuel Glacier . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 1992 after glaciologist Robert A. Bindschadler of the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center ; from 1983 a principal investigator for United States Antarctic Research Program studies of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet including dynamics of ice streams in the Siple Coast area , their interaction with the Ross Ice Shelf , and the role of polar ice sheets in global climate change .", "King Frederick VI Coast Not to be confused with King Frederick VIII Land King Frederick VI Coast ( Kong Frederik VI Kyst ) is a major geographic division of Greenland . It comprises the coastal area of Southeastern Greenland in Sermersooq and Kujalleq municipalities fronting the Irminger Sea of the North Atlantic Ocean . It is bordered by King Christian IX Land on the north and the Greenland Ice Sheet to the west . The King Frederick VI Coast stretches for about 590 km and is characterized by a succession of short fjords , steep mountains and small coastal islands . There is a narrow belt of ice-free land between the shore and the Inland ice cap , interrupted by active glaciers reaching the shore with the ice limit varying seasonally from year to year . Owing to the movement of pack ice in the area and frequent gale-force winds that sweep down from the Greenland ice cap , it is often difficult to approach or navigate along the coast by ship .", "Petermann Glacier Petermann Glacier is a large glacier located in North-West Greenland to the east of Nares Strait . It connects the Greenland ice sheet to the Arctic Ocean near 81 degrees north latitude . It is named after the German cartographer August Heinrich Petermann" ]

[ "Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "Past sea level Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today ." ]

[ "S scale S scale ( or S gauge ) is a model railroad scale modeled at 1:64 scale , S scale track gauge ( space between the rails ) is . S gauge trains are manufactured in both DC and AC powered varieties . S gauge is not to be confused with toy train standard gauge , a large-scale standard for toy trains in the early part of the 20th century .", "Staff (head) gauge A staff ( head ) gauge is calibrated scale which is used to provide a visual indication of liquid level . When used on an inclined or sloped surface , a staff gauge is usually calibrated so that the indicated level is the true vertical level . Staff gauges are commonly installed at stream gauging stations to indicate the water stage . They are also used to indicate the water level ( and hence flow rate ) in open channel primary devices ( flumes or weirs ) . Category : Water supply", "Victorian Railways narrow-gauge guard's vans The Victorian Railways narrow-gauge guard 's vans were operated on the narrow-gauge lines of Victorian Railways from the late 19th century to the early 20th century .", "Storm tides of the North Sea A storm tide is a tide with a high flood period caused by a storm . Storm tides can be a severe danger to the coast and the people living along the coast . The water level can rise to more than 5 metres ( 17 ft ) above the normal tide . The North Sea , especially the Netherlands , northern Germany and Denmark is particularly susceptible to storm tides . The coastline of the German Bight forms an L-shape facing northwest . Also vulnerable is the southern North Sea between England and the Netherlands , where the sea shallows and is funnelled between the land . For the protection of the low-lying areas along the coast , long and high dike systems have been built . Storm tides are a regular occurrence in these areas ; usually , there are several storm tides each winter . Most of them do not cause significant damage .", "Our Southern Highlanders Our Southern Highlanders : A Narrative of Adventure in the Southern Appalachians and a Study of Life Among the Mountaineers is a book written by American author Horace Kephart ( 1862 -- 1931 ) , first published in 1913 and revised in 1922 . Inspired by the years Kephart spent among the inhabitants of the remote Hazel Creek region of the Great Smoky Mountains , the book provides one of the earliest realistic portrayals of life in the rural Appalachian Mountains and one of the first serious analyses of Appalachian culture . While modern historians and writers have criticized Our Southern Highlanders for focusing too much on sensationalistic aspects of mountain culture , the book was an important departure from the previous century 's local color writings and their negative distortions of mountain people .", "Bill Williams (trader) Bill M. Williams ( born 1932 ) is an American trader and author of books on trading psychology , technical analysis and chaos theory in trading the stock , commodity , and foreign exchange ( Forex ) markets . His study of stock market data led him to develop a number of technical analyses that identify trends in the financial markets . Indicators like Accelerator/Decelerator Oscillator , Alligator , Awesome Oscillator , Fractals , Gator Oscillator , and Market Facilitation Index are popular today in Forex , stock and other financial markets .", "Pacific Division (United States Army) Pacific Division of the U. S. Army was one of its superior administrative organizations that existed during the early 19th century and for a short time in the early 20th century .", "General levelling of France The General Levelling of France ( nivellement général de la France or NGF ) forms a network of benchmarks in mainland France and Corsica , now overseen by the Institut Géographique National . It is now the official levelling network in mainland France . It is made up of two networks : NGF - IGN69 for mainland France , with the ` zero level ' determined by the tide gauge at Marseille NGF - IGN78 for Corsica , with the ` zero level ' determined by the tide gauge at Ajaccio Category : Topography Category : Geography of France", "Pļaviņas–Gulbene Railway The Pļaviņas -- Gulbene Railway is a 98 km long , gauge railway built in the 20th century to connect Pļaviņas and Valka . The railway was originally part of a narrow gauge railway , but was converted to the current gauge during World War I.", "Conoclinium coelestinum Conoclinium coelestinum , the blue mistflower , is a North American species of herbaceous perennial flowering plant in the sunflower family . It was formerly classified in the genus Eupatorium , but phylogenetic analyses in the late 20th century research indicated that that genus should be split , and the species was reclassified in Conoclinium .", "S.J. Goldsmith Samuel Joseph ( Shmuel/Sam ) Goldsmith ( 1910 -- 1995 ) was a journalist , author , and editor in the Jewish and English press , whose reports and analyses are valuable sources for the understanding of key events in twentieth-century Europe and the Middle East and who shaped opinion among and about Jews during the second half of the 20th century .", "Four Centuries of Modern Iraq Four Centuries of Modern Iraq is a historic book authored by Stephen Hemsley Longrigg published first time in United kingdom on 1925 . It covers events in Iraq between early 16th century to early 20th century when Iraq was a neglected part of the Ottoman Empire . Few books have been written about Iraq in that period . The author uses oriental sources , the books of Iraqi historians and the experience of his long residence in Iraq to discuss the country 's turbulent history . The author concludes that Iraq had made little progress during last four centuries and it was still lack of ability and resources to be independent and self-government .", "Tidal flooding Tidal flooding , also known as sunny day flooding or nuisance flooding , is the temporary inundation of low-lying areas , especially streets , during exceptionally high tide events , such as at full and new moons . The highest tides of the year may be known as the king tide , with the month varying by location . In Florida , controversy was created when state-level government mandated that the term `` nuisance flooding '' and other terms be used in place of terms such as sea level rise , climate change and global warming , prompting allegations of climate change denial , specifically against Governor Rick Scott . This amid Florida , specifically South Florida and the Miami metropolitan area being one of the most at risk area in the world for the potential effects of sea level rise , and where the frequency and severity of tidal flooding events increased in the 21st century . The issue is more bipartisan in South Florida , particularly in places like Miami Beach , where a several hundred million dollar project is underway to install more than 50 pumps and physically raise roads to combat the flooding , mainly along the west side of South Beach , formerly a mangrove wetland where the average elevation is less than one meter ( 3.3 feet ) . In the Miami area , where the vast majority of the land is below 10 ft , even a one-foot increase over the average high tide can cause widespread flooding . The 2015 and 2016 king tide event levels reached about 4 ft MLLW , 3 ft above mean sea level , or about 2 ft NAVD88 , and nearly the same above MHHW . While the tide range is very small in Miami , averaging about 2 ft , with the greatest range being less than 2 m , the area is very acute to minute differences down to single inches due to the vast area low elevation . NOAA tide gauge data for most stations shows current water level graphs relative to a fixed datum , as well as mean sea level trends for some stations . During the king tides , the local Miami area tide gauge at Virginia Key shows levels running at times 1 ft or more over datum . Fort Lauderdale has installed over one hundred tidal valves since 2013 to combat flooding . Fort Lauderdale is nicknamed the `` Venice of America '' due to its roughly 165 mi of canals . Tidal flooding is capable of majorly inhibiting natural gravity-based drainage systems in low-lying areas when it reaches levels that are below visible inundation of the surface , but which are high enough to incapacitate the lower drainage or sewer system . Thus , even normal rainfall or storm surge events can cause greatly amplified flooding effects . One passive solution to intrusion through drainage systems are one way back-flow valves in drainage ways . However , while this may prevent a majority of the tidal intrusion , it also inhibits drainage during exceptionally high tides that shut the valves . In Miami Beach , where resilience work is underway , the pump systems replace insufficient gravity-based systems .", "Rossby whistle The Rossby whistle is the oscillation of sea-level and bottom pressure in the Caribbean Sea with the period of 120 days and influenced by propagating westward oceanic Rossby wave . It is observed that a baroclinic Rossby wave propagating westward across the Caribbean Sea , oscillating with a period of 120 days , is rapidly returned to the east along the southern boundary as coastal shelf waves . The porous boundary of the Caribbean Sea results in this oscillation influencing a mass exchange with the wider ocean , leading to an almost uniform bottom pressure variability over the Grenada , Venezuela , and Colombia basins . These observations are based on satellite observation of the sea-level , monthly means of basin-averaged ocean bottom pressure using GRACE data , tide gauge measurements , and data from a bottom pressure recorder . The oscillation was first found in a numerical modelling simulation , from which is shown one cycle of the least squares fit of ( left ) sea level and ( right ) bottom pressure on basin averaged bottom pressure in the Caribbean Sea .", "Coastal management Coastal management is defense against flooding and erosion , and techniques that stop erosion to claim lands . Coastal zones occupy less than 15 % of the Earth 's land area , while they host more than 40 % of the world population . Nearly 1.2 billion people live within 100 km of a shoreline and 100 m of sea level , with an average density nearly 3 times higher than the global average for population . With three-quarters of the world population expected to reside in the coastal zone by 2025 , human activities originating from this small land area will impose heavy pressure on coasts . Coastal zones contain rich resources to produce goods and services and are home to most commercial and industrial activities . In the European Union , almost half of the population lives within 50 kilometres of the sea and coastal resources produce much of the Union 's economic wealth . The fishing , shipping and tourism industries all compete for space along Europe 's estimated 89,000 km of coastline and coastal zones contain some of Europe 's most fragile and valuable natural habitats . Protection against sea level rise in the 21st century will be especially important , as sea level rise accelerates . Changes in sea level damage beaches and coastal systems . Coastal sediments are disturbed and suspended by wave and tide energy .", "Tsunami warning system A tsunami warning system ( TWS ) is used to detect tsunamis in advance and issue warnings to prevent loss of life and damage . It is made up of two equally important components : a network of sensors to detect tsunamis and a communications infrastructure to issue timely alarms to permit evacuation of the coastal areas . There are two distinct types of tsunami warning systems : international and regional . When operating , seismic alerts are used to instigate the watches and warnings ; then , data from observed sea level height ( either shore-based tide gauges or DART buoys ) are used to verify the existence of a tsunami . Other systems have been proposed to augment the warning procedures ; for example , it has been suggested that the duration and frequency content of t-wave energy ( which is earthquake energy trapped in the ocean SOFAR channel ) is indicative of an earthquake 's tsunami potential .", "Operation Sea Lion in fiction There is a large body of fiction set in an alternate history or a secret history , where the Operation Sea Lion , a German plan of invasion of Britain during World War II , is attempted or successfully carried out . However , analyses by experts in 1974 concluded that there was little chance of the plan succeeding .", "Hardangerjøkulen Hardangerjøkulen is the sixth largest glacier in mainland Norway . It is located in the municipalities of Eidfjord and Ulvik in Hordaland county . It is located about 16 km northeast of the village of Eidfjord , about 5 km south of Finse , and about 20 km west of Haugastøl . Hardangerjøkulen 's highest point is 1,863 m above sea level , and is the highest point in Hordaland county . Its lowest point is 1,050 m above sea level . The thickest measurement of the glacier was 380 m thick , but it has been getting thinner during the 20th century .", "Malek Alloula Malek Alloula ( 1937-2015 ) was an Algierian poet , writer , editor , and literary critic . He is chiefly notable for his poetry and essays on philosophy . He wrote several books , notably a French publication entitled Le Harem Colonial , translated into English as The Colonial Harem , which was generally well received . The author analyses colonial photographic postcards of Algerian women from the late 19th and early 20th centuries , arguing that the postcards do not accurately represent Algerian women , but rather a Frenchman 's fantasy of the `` Oriental '' female .", "Ŭ Ŭ or ŭ is a letter in the Esperanto alphabet , based on u . It is also used in the Belarusian language , when written in the 20th-century form of the Belarusian Latin alphabet . The accent mark ( diacritic ) is known as a breve . This letter should not be confused with u-caron , which is used to indicate u in the third tone of Chinese language pinyin ; Compare ( caron ) with ( breve ) .", "OPAL experiment OPAL was one of the major experiments at CERN 's LEP . OPAL studied particles and their interactions by collecting and analysing electron-positron collision events at LEP , the Large Electron-Positron collider . LEP was the largest particle accelerator in the world . There three other experiments at LEP were : ALEPH , DELPHI and L3 .", "Religiosity and education The relationship between the level of religiosity and the level of education has been studied since the second half of the 20th century . The parameters of the two components diverse : the `` level of religiosity '' remains a concept which is difficult to differentiate scientifically , while the `` level of education '' is easier to compile , such as official data on this topic , because data on education is publicly accessible in many countries . Different studies show contrasted conclusions regarding any link between the two concepts , depending on whether `` religiosity '' is measured by religious practices ( attendance at places of worship , for example ) or specific religious beliefs ( belief in miracles , for example ) , with notable differences between nations . For example , an international study states that in some Western nations the intensity of beliefs decreases with education , but attendance and religious practice increases . Other studies indicate that the religious have higher education than the non-religious . Other studies find that the positive correlation with low or non religiosity and education has been reversed in the past few decades . In terms of university professors , one study concluded that in the US , the majority of professors , even at `` elite '' universities , were religious .", "Sea Wall, Guyana The Sea Wall is a 280-mile seawall that runs along much of Guyana 's coastline , and all of the coastline in the capital city of Georgetown . It protects settlements in the coastal areas of Guyana , most of which are below sea level at high tide .", "Culture of Washington, D.C. The culture of Washington , D.C. is influenced by the presence of the federal government , which has been instrumental in developing numerous cultural institutions throughout the city . During the early 20th century , Washington 's U Street Corridor was an important center for African American culture .", "Sea song Sea song or sea-song may refer to : a sea song is a sailor 's song -- when expressly working songs , they are often sea shanties ( a shipboard song-type which flourished in the Age of Sail 's 19th century to the 20th century 's first half ) . -- As OED defined .", "Narrow-gauge lines of the Victorian Railways The former Victorian Railways , the state railway authority in Victoria , Australia , built a number of experimental narrow-gauge lines around the beginning of the 20th century . Although all were closed by the early 1960s , parts of two have been reopened as heritage railways .", "Coast to Kosciuszko Coast to Kosciuszko ( C2K ) is a 240 km ultramarathon race run each December in New South Wales , Australia . The race commences at Twofold Bay ( at sea level ) and concludes at Charlotte Pass ( 1837 m above sea level ) after reaching the summit of Mount Kosciuszko ( Australia 's highest point at 2228 m above sea level ) .", "Acceleration due to gravity Acceleration due to gravity may refer to Gravitational acceleration , the acceleration caused by the gravitational attraction of massive bodies in general Gravity of Earth , the acceleration caused by the gravitational attraction of the Earth Standard gravity , or g , the standard value of gravitational acceleration at sea level on Earth", "St. Pauli Piers The St. Pauli Piers ( St. Pauli Landungsbrücken , often only referred to as Landungsbrücken ; -LSB- ˈlandʊŋsˌbʀʏkn̩ -RSB- ) , are the largest landing place in the Port of Hamburg , Germany , and also one of Hamburg 's major tourist attractions . Other English language translations include St. Pauli Landing Stages or St. Pauli Landing Bridges . The piers are located in the St. Pauli area of Hamburg , between the lower harbour and the Fischmarkt ( Fish Market ) , on the banks of the Elbe river . The Landungsbrücken today form a central transportation hub , with S-Bahn , U-Bahn and ferry stations , and are also a major tourist magnet with numerous restaurants and departure points for harbour pleasure boats . There is an entrance to the Old Elbe tunnel at the western end of the Landungsbrücken . The eastern end of the building complex is marked by the Pegelturm ( water level tower ) . Halfway up the tower , there is a water level indicator built into the wall , which indicates the current stage of the tides .", "Legacy: A Journal of American Women Writers Legacy , A Journal of American Women Writers , is the only scholarly journal to focus specifically on American women 's writings from the 17th through the mid-20th century . Each issue 's articles cover a wide range of topics : examinations of the works of individual authors ; genre studies ; analyses of race , ethnicity , gender , class , and sexualities in women 's literature ; and historical and material cultural issues pertinent to women 's lives and literary works . In addition , Legacy regularly publishes profiles of lesser-known or newly recovered authors , reprints of primary works in all genres , and book reviews covering current scholarship in the field . Legacy is published twice a year by the University of Nebraska Press and is available online through Project MUSE or through university electronic journal websites .", "Susan Gubar Susan D. Gubar ( born November 30 , 1944 ) is an American author and distinguished Professor Emerita of English and Women 's Studies at Indiana University . She is best known for co-authoring , with Sandra M. Gilbert , a standard feminist text , The Madwoman in the Attic : The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination ( 1979 ) and a trilogy on women 's writing in the 20th century .", "Sernada do Vouga Sernada do Vouga is a small Portuguese village in the parish of Macinhata do Vouga , in Águeda Municipality in Aveiro District . Placed a few meters , downstream , of the estuary of Caima River and is bathed by Vouga River . Since the beginning of the 20th century , a centre for railroad activity , through the construction of Linha do Vale do Vouga and its location at the junction of the three ` legs ' of the route , i.e. Espinho , Aveiro and Viseu . With the closure , in January 1990 , of the link Sernada - Viseu , it lost part of its role but it retains the EMEF workshop for the Vouga line 's rolling stock . The Vouga Line is now Portugal 's only active narrow-gauge railway and is under threat of closure ." ]

[ "Gasoline Gasoline ( American English ) or petrol ( British English ) , is a transparent , petroleum-derived liquid that is used primarily as a fuel in internal combustion engines . It consists mostly of organic compounds obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum , enhanced with a variety of additives . On average , a 42-gallon barrel of crude oil ( 159 L ) yields about 19 gal of gasoline when processed in an oil refinery , though this varies based on the crude oil source 's assay . The characteristic of a particular gasoline blend to resist igniting too early ( which causes knocking and reduces efficiency in reciprocating engines ) is measured by its octane rating . Gasoline is produced in several grades of octane rating . Tetraethyllead and other lead compounds are no longer used in most areas to regulate and increase octane-rating , but many other additives are put into gasoline to improve its chemical stability , control corrosiveness and provide fuel system ` cleaning , ' and determine performance characteristics under intended use . Sometimes , gasoline also contains ethanol as an alternative fuel , for economic or environmental reasons . Gasoline , as used worldwide in the vast number of internal combustion engines used in transport and industry , has a significant impact on the environment , both in local effects ( e.g. , smog ) and in global effects ( e.g. , effect on the climate ) . Gasoline may also enter the environment uncombusted , as liquid and as vapors , from leakage and handling during production , transport and delivery , from storage tanks , from spills , etc. . As an example of efforts to control such leakage , many ( underground ) storage tanks are required to have extensive measures in place to detect and prevent such leaks . Gasoline contains benzene and other known carcinogens .", "Environmental impact of aviation The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .", "Electricity sector in Argentina The electricity sector in Argentina constitutes the third largest power market in Latin America . It relies mostly on thermal generation ( 60 % of installed capacity ) and hydropower generation ( 36 % ) . The country still has a large untapped hydroelectric potential . The prevailing natural gas-fired thermal generation is at risk due to the uncertainty about future gas supply . Faced with rising electricity demand ( over 6 % annually ) and declining reserve margins , the government of Argentina is in the process of commissioning large projects , both in the generation and transmission sectors . To keep up with rising demand , it is estimated that about 1,000 MW of new generation capacity are needed each year . An important number of these projects are being financed by the government through trust funds , while independent private initiative is still limited as it has not fully recovered yet from the effects of the Argentine economic crisis . The electricity sector was unbundled in generation , transmission and distribution by the reforms carried out in the early 1990s . Generation occurs in a competitive and mostly liberalized market in which 75 % of the generation capacity is owned by private utilities . In contrast , the transmission and distribution sectors are highly regulated and much less competitive than generation ." ]

[ "Environmental issues in Austria The Ministry of Health and Environmental Protection of Austria , established in 1972 , is responsible for the coordination at the national level of all environmental protection efforts , addressing its efforts toward problems including waste disposal , pollution , noise , sulfur dioxide , and carbon monoxide levels , as well as emissions by the iron , steel , and ceramics industries . A toxic waste law enacted in 1984 established strict regulations for the collection , transport , and disposal of dangerous substances . The Austrian government has imposed strict regulations on gas emissions , which helped to reduce sulfur dioxide by two-thirds over an eight-year period beginning in 1980 . In 1992 Austria was among the 50 countries with the highest level of industrial carbon dioxide emissions , producing 56.6 million metric tons of emissions , or 7.29 m tons per capita . In 1996 , the level rose to 59.3 million metric tons . In 2000 , the total was 60.8 million metric tons .", "Mitsubishi 4J1 engine The Mitsubishi 4J1 engine is a new range of all-alloy straight-4 engines . The main goal was declared as reduction on-road CO2 emission on new vehicles . According to cars specifications fuel consumption also was improved . Comparing to previous engine series ( 4B1 ) valvetraint configuration was changed from DOHC to SOHC , Variable valve lift ( VVL ) technology added .", "ECOnetic ECOnetic is a tradename for certain car models produced by Ford of Europe , currently consisting of one model in each of the Fiesta , the Focus and the Mondeo range , with an emphasis on higher fuel efficiency and low-CO2 emissions .", "Sustainable Silicon Valley Sustainable Silicon Valley ( SSV ) is a collaboration of businesses , governments , and non-governmental organizations that are identifying and addressing environmental and resource pressures in Silicon Valley . As its first initiative , SSV engaged Valley organizations , who are the SSV Partners , to work towards a goal of reducing regional carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emissions 20 % below 1990 levels by 2010 . The SSV approach to reaching this goal is to facilitate strategies to reduce CO2 emissions through increased energy and fuel efficiency and through the use of renewable sources of energy .", "CERINA-Plan CERINA Plan is the abbreviation for `` CO2 Emissions and Renewable Investment Action Plan '' . It is a CO2 reduction concept developed by the German renewable energy institute IWR . The CERINA Plan proposes a technical investment approach linking a country 's CO2 emissions to its investment in renewable energy technology . Therefore , it is an alternative model to approaches like the Kyoto idea of mere cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . The model is meant to be flexible and to adapt to the special national circumstances of each country .", "Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ` The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI , pronounced `` Reggie '' ) is the first mandatory market based program in the United States to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . RGGI is a cooperative effort among the states of Connecticut , Delaware , Maine , Maryland , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , New York , Rhode Island , and Vermont to cap and reduce CO2 emissions from the power sector . RGGI compliance obligations apply to fossil-fueled power plants 25MW and larger within the nine-state region . RGGI establishes a regional cap on the amount of CO2 pollution that power plants can emit by issuing a limited number of tradable CO2 allowances . Each allowance represents an authorization for a regulated power plant to emit one short ton of CO2 . Individual CO2 budget trading programs in each RGGI state together create a regional market for CO2 allowances . The RGGI states distribute over 90 percent of allowances through quarterly auctions . These allowance auctions generate proceeds , which participating states are able to invest in strategic energy and consumer benefit programs . Programs funded through RGGI have included energy efficiency , clean and renewable energy , greenhouse gas abatement , and direct bill assistance . An initial milestone program 's development occurred in 2005 , when seven states signed a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) announcing an agreement to implement RGGI . The RGGI states then established individual CO2 budget trading programs , based on the RGGI Model Rule . The first pre-compliance RGGI auction took place in September 2008 , and the program became effective on January 1 , 2009 . The RGGI program is currently in its third three-year compliance period , which began January 1 , 2015 .", "End Use Energy Demand Centres The End Use Energy Demand ( EUED ) Centres carry out interdisciplinary research and advise policy on reducing energy demand to help achieve the UK government 's CO2 emissions targets . The Centres are a # 30m investment of the Research Councils UK Energy Programme ( with additional funding from industrial partners ) that run from 2013-2018 . The six large centres are based across 25 institutions and encompass over 200 researchers .", "Nichioh Maru Nichioh Maru is a ro-ro car carrier built for the transport of Nissan cars and parts around Japan . The ship employs various features designed to promote energy efficiency , including solar power panels , an electronically controlled diesel engine , LED lighting in the ship 's hold and living quarters , and low friction paint on its hull . According to its owners it will achieve a fuel reduction of up to nearly 1,400 tons annually , with an annual reduction of 4,200 tons of CO2 emissions .", "Bio Fuel Systems BFS Blue Enterprises is a wholly Spanish owned firm whose multi-patented , microalgae-based technology uses emissions to produce crude oil and analytical-grade biotech & pharmaceutical products . It was formed in 2006 in eastern Spain after three years of research by scientists and engineers connected with the University of Alicante . Currently , an industrial-size pilot plant has been producing consistent yields with a process proven to produce a standardized quality of products in both an industrially scalable and commercially viable way . All while using and neutralizing CO2 emissions . Their system of bioconversion is about 400 times more productive than any other plant-based system producing oil or ethanol .", "Oxy-fuel combustion process Oxy-fuel combustion is the process of burning a fuel using pure oxygen instead of air as the primary oxidant . Since the nitrogen component of air is not heated , fuel consumption is reduced , and higher flame temperatures are possible . Historically , the primary use of oxy-fuel combustion has been in welding and cutting of metals , especially steel , since oxy-fuel allows for higher flame temperatures than can be achieved with an air-fuel flame . There is currently research being done in firing fossil-fueled power plants with an oxygen-enriched gas mix instead of air . Almost all of the nitrogen is removed from input air , yielding a stream that is approximately 95 % oxygen . Firing with pure oxygen would result in too high a flame temperature , so the mixture is diluted by mixing with recycled flue gas , or staged combustion . The recycled flue gas can also be used to carry fuel into the boiler and ensure adequate convective heat transfer to all boiler areas . Oxy-fuel combustion produces approximately 75 % less flue gas than air fueled combustion and produces exhaust consisting primarily of CO2 and H2O ( see figure ) . The justification for using oxy-fuel is to produce a CO2 rich flue gas ready for sequestration . Oxy-fuel combustion has significant advantages over traditional air-fired plants . Among these are : The mass and volume of the flue gas are reduced by approximately 75 % . Because the flue gas volume is reduced , less heat is lost in the flue gas . The size of the flue gas treatment equipment can be reduced by 75 % . The flue gas is primarily CO2 , suitable for sequestration . The concentration of pollutants in the flue gas is higher , making separation easier . Most of the flue gases are condensable ; this makes compression separation possible . Heat of condensation can be captured and reused rather than lost in the flue gas . Because nitrogen from air is absent , nitrogen oxide production is greatly reduced . Economically speaking this method costs more than a traditional air-fired plant . The main problem has been separating oxygen from the air . This process needs lots of energy , nearly 15 % of production by a coal-fired power station can be consumed for this process . However , a new technology which is not yet practical called chemical looping combustion can be used to reduce this cost . In chemical looping combustion , the oxygen required to burn the coal is produced internally by oxidation and reduction reactions , as opposed to using more expensive methods of generating oxygen by separating it from air . At present in the absence of any need to reduce CO2 emissions , oxy-fuel is not competitive . However , oxy-fuel is a viable alternative to removing CO2 from the flue gas from a conventional air-fired fossil fuel plant . However , an oxygen concentrator might be able to help , as it simply removes nitrogen . In industries other than power generation , oxy-fuel combustion can be competitive due to higher sensible heat availability . Oxy-fuel combustion is common in various aspects of metal production . The glass industry has been converting to oxy-fuel since the early 1990s because glass furnaces require a temperature of approximately 2800 degrees F , which is not attainable at adiabatic flame temperatures for air-fuel combustion unless heat is regenerated between the flue stream and the incoming air stream . Historically , glass furnace regenerators were large and expensive high temperature brick ducts filled with brick arranged in a checkerboard pattern to capture heat as flue gas exits the furnace . When the flue duct is thoroughly heated , air flow is reversed and the flue duct becomes the air inlet , releasing its heat into the incoming air , and allowing for higher furnace temperatures than can be attained with air-fuel only . Two sets of regenerative flue ducts allowed for the air flow to be reversed at regular intervals , and thus maintain a high temperature in the incoming air . By allowing new furnaces to be built without the expense of regenerators , and especially with the added benefit of nitrogen oxide reduction , which allows glass plants to meet emission restrictions , oxy-fuel is cost effective without the need to reduce CO2 emissions . Oxy-fuel combustion also reduces CO2 release at the glass plant location , although this may be offset by CO2 production due to electric power generation which is necessary to produce oxygen for the combustion process . Oxy-fuel combustion may also be cost effective in the incineration of low BTU value hazardous waste fuels . Oxy-fuel combustion is often combined with staged combustion for nitrogen oxide reduction , since pure oxygen can stabilize combustion characteristics of a flame .", "Efficient Dynamics EfficientDynamics is a set of technologies that are defined by BMW in its products to maximise performance , reduce CO2 emissions and reduce fuel consumption . Common rail injection for diesel engines . Stop start engine brake regeneration air vent control electric power steering", "Carbon offset A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .", "European Union Emission Trading Scheme The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .", "Aquifer thermal energy storage Aquifer thermal energy storage ( ATES ) is the storage and recovery of thermal energy in the subsurface . ATES is applied to provide heating and cooling to buildings . Storage and recovery of thermal energy is achieved by extraction and injection of groundwater from aquifers using groundwater wells . Systems commonly operate in a seasonal mode . The groundwater that is extracted in summer , is used for cooling by transferring heat from the building to the groundwater by means of a heat exchanger . Subsequently , the heated groundwater is injected back into the aquifer , which creates a storage of heated groundwater . In wintertime , the flow direction is reversed such that the heated groundwater is extracted and can be used for heating ( often in combination with a heat pump ) . Therefore , operating an ATES system uses the subsurface as a temporal storage to buffer seasonal variations in heating and cooling demand . When replacing traditional fossil fuel dependent heating and cooling systems , ATES can serve as a cost-effective technology to reduce the primary energy consumption of a building and the associated CO2 emissions . In 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen , Denmark , many countries and regions have made targets for global climate protection . The European Union also set a target to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , increase use of sustainable energy and improve energy efficiency . For this target , ATES can actually contribute significantly , as about 40 % of global energy consumption is done by buildings , and is mainly for heating and cooling . Therefore , the development of ATES has been paid a lot of attention and the number of ATES has increased dramatically , especially in Europe . For example , in the Netherlands , it was estimated that about 20,000 ATES systems could be achieved by 2020 . This can yield a CO2 emission reduction of about 11 % , for the target of the Netherlands . Besides the Netherlands , Belgium , Germany , Turkey , and Sweden are also increasing the application of ATES . ATES can be applied worldwide , as long as the climatic conditions and geohydrological conditions are right . As ATES systems cumulate in urban areas optimisation of subsurface space requires attention in areas with suitable conditions .", "Electricity sector in Italy The electricity sector in Italy describes the production , sale , and use of electrical power in Italy . The country 's total electricity consumption was 297.3 TWh in 2013 , of which 278.8 TWh ( 93.7 % ) was produced domestically ( the remaining 6.3 % was imported ) . According to its national energy plan , Italy plans to increase renewable power generation from all renewable sources to 26 % of all electricity produced by 2020 , covering 17 % of its total energy consumption . In 2014 , 38.2 % of the national electric energy consumption came from renewable sources ( in 2005 this value was 15.4 % ) , covering 16.2 % of the total energy consumption of the country ( 5.3 % in 2005 ) . Solar energy production alone accounted for almost 9 % of the total electric consumption in the country in 2014 , making Italy the country with the highest contribution from solar energy in the world . Italy has abandoned nuclear power following a referendum in the wake of the 1986 Chernobyl disaster , and nuclear power in Italy has never been greater than a few percent of total power generation . Italy has a high share of electricity in the total final energy consumption . The share of primary energy dedicated to electricity production is above 35 % , and grew steadily since the 1970s . Emissions of carbon dioxide per capita in 2007 were 7.4 tons , below the EU27 average of 7.9 tons CO2 . Emission change 1990/2007 was 10 % increase .", "Hydrogen Energy California Hydrogen Energy California ( HECA ) was an alternative energy , hydrogen power project in development with support from the U.S. Department of Energy in Kern County , California . The facility proposed to convert coal and refinery waste into an impure hydrogen fuel that would be used to generate electricity and fertilizer . HECA was supposed to capture ninety percent of its carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emissions to theoretically minimize greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and inject it , ironically , for enhanced oil recovery . If it had become fully operational , HECA would have generated nearly 300MW of clean electricity and will produce one million tons of locally manufactured , low-carbon fertilizer . But , most of the electricity produced by HECA would have been consumed by the different processes at the plant . On March 4 , 2016 , the California Energy Commission ordered the HECA application to be terminated . HECA would have produced over 500 tons of criteria air pollutants . This air pollution would have been added to an area that already has the worst air pollution in the entire United States . The facility was to be located on 542 acres of prime farmland in western Kern County , about 7 mi west of Bakersfield and 1.5 mi northwest of the unincorporated community of Tupman . The site is near the Elk Hills Oil Field where the captured CO2 was to be used for enhanced oil recovery by Occidental of Elk Hills , Inc. . HECA would have employed an expected 2,000 union workers to construct the facility and would have created approximately 200 permanent jobs . HECA was a project of SCS Energy LLC , an independent developer of clean power . HECA was cofunded by the U.S. Department of Energy 's Office of Fossil Energy and administered by the National Energy Technology Laboratory . The HECA project was awarded a $ 408 million grant by the U.S. Department of Energy under Clean Coal Power Initiative Round 3 .", "Zero carbon housing Zero Carbon Housing and Zero Energy Housing are terms used interchangeably to define single family dwellings with a very high energy efficiency rating . Zero Energy Housing requires a very low amount of energy to provide the daily needs and functions for the family occupying the home . A zero carbon home has a yearly net carbon footprint of zero . The carbon footprint is the total measure of all greenhouse gas emissions generated or produced directly or indirectly by activities in the home such as heating the home or running an appliance , personal activities such as driving a car , broader services such as the use of public transportation or air travel , and individual consumption of food and other products . A home 's carbon footprint consists of the sum of two parts , the primary footprint and the secondary footprint , expressed in units of metric tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent ( CO2e ) . The primary carbon footprint is a measure of the CO2 emissions from the direct consumption of fossil fuels for energy consumption and transportation . The secondary carbon footprint is the measure of indirect CO2 emissions related to the manufacturing process of products used in the home and eventual decomposition of products . Examples of the parts that make up the secondary carbon footprint are the manufacturing of clothes , cars , and furnishings , as well as recreational activities by the inhabitants . The calculation of the carbon footprint becomes detailed when considering secondary factors . Secondary factors involve the home 's occupant lifestyle such as diet , foods are consumed ( example organic vs. non organic ) , frequency of yearly air travel , commuting mileage to and from work , school , etc. , use of public transportation , and number , type , and use of private vehicles . Secondary factors also include fashion or type of clothes purchased and worn , frequency of recycling , recreational activities and use of financial and other services throughout a given year . The frequency of airline flights in a year is considered due to the amount of fuel consumption and other energy usage and emissions generated by one flight . A person that travels frequently may have a significantly bigger carbon footprint than someone who flies once a year for a vacation . The emissions for an individual flight are calculated by using the greater circle method . First , the distance between airports is determined . Then calculations are completed to account for indirect distances and by an emissions factor in relation to the type of flight ( international or a short flight , and what class seating the person is in ) . Another contributing factor to a person 's carbon footprint is their personal vehicle which includes the type of car driven , the efficiency or miles per gallon ( MPG ) rating , and the amount of miles driven each year . The frequency of public transportation used by an individual , miles traveled on public transportation and the type of public transportation used such as bus , train , or subway contributes to their carbon footprint as well . Other factors , as trivial as they might seem , are included in the calculation of a person 's carbon foot print to include things such as the type of diet . A vegetarian compared to a person that eats a lot of red meat will have a lower carbon footprint . All factors being the same except diet , a vegetarian secondary carbon footprint averages three metric tonnes of CO2 , one tonne less than the individual who consumes meat . Other factors include the purchase of local and / or organically grown produce vs. imported items , the latest clothes fashions vs. more conventional purchases , buying individually packaged products vs. buying in bulk , recycling activities , and the types of recreation such as carbon-free activities like hiking and cycling or carbon-intensive activities like skydiving or boating .", "Direct carbon fuel cell A Direct Carbon Fuel Cell ( DCFC ) is a fuel cell that uses a carbon rich material as a fuel such as bio-mass or coal . The cell produces energy by combining carbon and oxygen , which releases carbon dioxide as a by-product . It also called coal fuel cells ( CFCs ) , carbon-air fuel cells ( CAFCs ) , direct carbon/coal fuel cells ( DCFCs ) , and DC-SOFC . The total reaction of the cell is C + O2 → CO2 . The process in half cell notation : Anode : C + 2 O2 − → CO2 + 4 e − Cathode : O2 + 4 e − → 2 O2 − Despite this release of carbon dioxide , the direct carbon fuel cell is more environmentally friendly than traditional carbon burning techniques . Due to its higher efficiency , it requires less carbon to produce the same amount of energy . Also , because pure carbon dioxide is emitted , carbon capture techniques are much cheaper than for conventional power stations . Utilized carbon can be in the form of coal , coke , char , or a non-fossilized source of carbon . At least four types of DCFC exist : The first one is based on the Solid oxide fuel cell ( SOFC ) concept . Overall reaction in the solid oxide electrolyte based DCFC C + O2 → CO2 . Anode reaction <Direct electrochemical oxidation path> C + 2O2 − → CO2 + 4e − C + O2 − → CO + 2e − <Indirect electrochemical oxidation path> CO + O2 − → CO2 + 2e − <Boudouard reaction:indirect chemical reaction path> C + CO2 → 2CO Cathode reaction O2 + 4e − → 2O2 − The second one is molten hydroxides fuel cell . William W. Jacques obtained an US Patent 555,511 in this type of fuel cell in 1896 . Prototypes have been demonstrated by the research group , SARA , Inc. . The third one is based on the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell ( MCFC ) concept . William W. Jacques obtained a Canadian patent in this type of fuel cell in 1897 . It has been developed further at the Lawrence Livermore Laboratory . The fourth is a molten tin anode solid oxide fuel cell design , which utilizes molten tin and tin oxide as an inter stage reaction between oxidation of the carbon dissolving in the anode and reduction of oxygen at the solid oxide cathode .", "Low rolling resistance tire Low rolling resistance tires minimize wasted energy as a tire rolls , thereby decreasing required rolling effort -- and in the case of automotive applications , improving vehicle fuel efficiency . Approximately 5 -- 15 % of the fuel consumed by a typical car may be used to overcome rolling resistance . A 2003 California Energy Commission ( CEC ) preliminary study estimated that adoption of low-rolling resistance tires could save 1.5 -- 4.5 % of all gasoline consumption , but that current data were also insufficient to compare safety and other characteristics . A database of much more complete data will be released by the CEC pending completion of an ongoing study . A U.S National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ( NHTSA ) study in 2009 , if 2 % of the replacement tires would reduce their rolling resistance by 5 % , there would be 7.9 million gallons fuel and 76,000 metric tons of CO2 saved annually .", "Expo 2017 Expo 2017 is an International Exposition scheduled to take place between June 10 and September 10 , 2017 in Astana , Kazakhstan . The expo 's theme is `` Future Energy '' , and aims to create a global debate between countries , nongovernmental organizations , companies and the general public on the crucial question : `` how do we ensure safe and sustainable access to energy for all while reducing CO2 emissions ? ''", "Climate change mitigation scenarios Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "Tire-derived fuel Tire-derived fuel ( TDF ) is composed of shredded scrap tires . Tires may be mixed with coal or other fuels , such as wood or chemical wastes , to be burned in concrete kilns , power plants , or paper mills . An EPA test program concluded that , with the exception of zinc emissions , potential emissions from TDF are not expected to be very much different from other conventional fossil fuels , as long as combustion occurs in a well-designed , well-operated and well-maintained combustion device .", "Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "Exhaust heat recovery system In transportation , an exhaust heat recovery system turns thermal losses in the exhaust pipe into energy . This technology seems to be more and more of interest by car and heavy-duty vehicle manufacturers as an efficient way to save fuel and reduce vehicles ' CO2 emissions . This technology can be used either on a hybrid vehicle or a conventional one : it produces either electric energy for batteries or mechanical energy reintroduced on the crankshaft .", "Energy and Environmental Research Center The Energy and Environmental Research Center ( EERC ) in Grand Forks , North Dakota , United States is a research , development , demonstration , and commercialization facility for energy and environment technologies development . The center is a nonprofit division of the University of North Dakota . The center was founded in 1951 as the Robertson Lignite Research Laboratory , a federal facility under the United States Bureau of Mines . It became a federal energy technology center under the United States Department of Energy in 1977 and was defederalized in 1983 . The center employs approximately 210 employees . The EERC conducts research , development , demonstration , and commercialization activities involving zero-emissions coal conversion ; CO2 capture and sequestration ; energy and water sustainability ; hydrogen and fuel cells ; advanced air emission control technologies , emphasizing SOx , NOx , air toxics , fine particulate , CO2 , and mercury control ; renewable energy ; wind energy ; water management ; flood prevention ; global climate change ; waste utilization ; energy efficiency ; and contaminant cleanup . The EERC is located on more than 15 acre of land on the southeast corner of the UND campus in Grand Forks , North Dakota , and houses 254000 sqft of laboratories , fabrication facilities , technology demonstration facilities , and offices . The EERC has a current contract portfolio of over $ 208.4 million and the EERC 's estimated regional economic impact is $ 78.1 million . Since 1987 , the EERC has had more than 1,315 clients in 50 states and 52 countries .", "Climate change in Massachusetts Formet Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick has signed into law three global warming and energy-related bills that will promote advanced biofuels , support the growth of the clean energy technology industry , and cut the emissions of greenhouse gases within the state . The Clean Energy Biofuels Act , signed in late July , exempts cellulosic ethanol from the state 's gasoline tax , but only if the ethanol achieves a 60 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions relative to gasoline . The act also requires all diesel motor fuels and all No. 2 fuel oil sold for heating to include at least 2 % `` substitute fuel '' by July 2010 , where substitute fuel is defined as a fuel derived from renewable non-food biomass that achieves at least a 50 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions . The requirement for both motor diesel fuel and heating oil increases by a percentage point per year until 2013 , after which it holds steady 5 % . The act also allows the state to expand the requirement to other forms of fuel oil , and it requires the state to work to establish a low-carbon fuel standard under the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative . In early August of 2008 , Governor Patrick signed two additional bills : the Green Jobs Act and the Global Warming Solutions Act . The Green Jobs Act will support the growth of a clean energy technology industry within the state , backed by $ 68 million in funding over 5 years . The Global Warming Solutions Act requires a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the state to 10 % -25 % below 1990 levels by 2020 and to 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . Under the act , the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection will carry the burdens of determining the baseline level of emissions in 1990 and creating a plan to meet the future emissions limits , including the establishment of interim limits for 2030 and 2040", "EcoBlue EcoBlue is the marketing name for a range of diesel engines from Ford Motor Company . The EcoBlue engines were developed by Ford engineering teams in the U.K. and Germany , and are expected to succeed the Duratorq diesel engines , offering optimised fuel efficiency and reduced CO2 and NOX emissions . An initial 2.0-litre variant will be offered with 105 PS , 130 PS and 170 PS in commercial vehicle applications . This engine architecture is capable of delivering more than 200 PS , and will later feature with such power outputs in Ford passenger cars , alongside a 1.5 litre variant .", "Gouda Wind Facility Gouda Wind Farm is a wind-farm just outside the town of Gouda in the Western Cape province of South Africa that at 138MW is one of the largest wind-farms in Southern Africa . The project cost R2 .7 billion ( US$ 199 million ) and was brought online in early September 2015 . At the time of its completion it was the largest wind-farm in the Western Cape . It is capable of powering 200 000 households per year or 400 gigawatt hours of electricity . It is estimated that power generated from Gouda Wind Farm will avoid the emission of 406 million metric tons of CO2 per year of equivalent power produced from a coal fired power plant . It is owned in partnership between the South African renewable energy and engineering firm Aveng and Spanish renewable energy company Acciona Energia . It is located along the R44 34 km from the town of Porterville or 115 km north east of Cape Town , just outside of Gouda .", "Premium efficiency As part of a concerted effort worldwide to reduce energy consumption , CO2 emissions and the impact of industrial operations on the environment , various regulatory authorities in many countries have introduced , or are planning , legislation to encourage the manufacture and use of higher efficiency motors . This article looks at the development of the premium efficiency standard ( IE3 ) and premium efficiency motors ( PEMs ) and associated environmental , legal and energy-related topics .", "Coptodon spongotroktis Coptodon spongotroktis is a critically endangered species of fish in the cichlid family . It is endemic to Lake Bermin in Cameroon . It is threatened by pollution and sedimentation from human activities , and potentially also by large emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the lake 's bottom ( compare Lake Nyos ) , although Bermin is too shallow to contain very high amounts of this gas .", "Coptodon imbriferna Coptodon imbriferna is a critically endangered species of fish in the cichlid family . It is endemic to Lake Bermin in Cameroon . It is threatened by pollution and sedimentation from human activities , and potentially also by large emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the lake 's bottom ( compare Lake Nyos ) , although Bermin is too shallow to contain very high amounts of this gas .", "Coptodon gutturosa Coptodon gutturosa is a critically endangered species of fish in the cichlid family . It is endemic to Lake Bermin in Cameroon . It is threatened by pollution and sedimentation from human activities , and potentially also by large emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the lake 's bottom ( compare Lake Nyos ) , although Bermin is too shallow to contain very high amounts of this gas ." ]

[ "California California ( -LSB- kælᵻˈfɔːrnjə , _ - ni.ə -RSB- , ) is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area . Located on the western ( Pacific Ocean ) coast of the U.S. , California is bordered by the other U.S. states of Oregon , Nevada , and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California . The state capital is Sacramento . Los Angeles is California 's most populous city , and the country 's second largest after New York City . The Greater Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nation 's second - and fifth-most populous urban regions , respectively . California also has the nation 's most populous county , Los Angeles County , and its largest county by area , San Bernardino County . California 's diverse geography ranges from the Pacific Coast in the west to the Sierra Nevada mountain range in the east ; and from the redwood -- Douglas fir forests in the northwest to the Mojave Desert in the southeast . The Central Valley , a major agricultural area , dominates the state 's center . Though California is well-known for its warm Mediterranean climate , the large size of the state means it can vary from moist temperate rainforest in the north , to arid desert in the interior , as well as snowy alpine in the mountains . What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries . The Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony . The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its successful war for independence , but was ceded to the United States in 1848 after the Mexican -- American War . The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California , and admitted as the 31st state on September 9 , 1850 . The California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes , with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom . If it were a country , California would be the 6th largest economy in the world and the 35th most populous . It is also regarded as a global trendsetter in both popular culture and politics , and is the origin of the film industry , the hippie counterculture , the Internet , and the personal computer , among others . Fifty-eight percent of the state 's economy is centered on finance , government , real estate services , technology , and professional , scientific and technical business services . The San Francisco Bay Area has the nation 's highest median household income by metropolitan area , and is the headquarters of three of the world 's largest 40 firms by revenue , Chevron , Apple , and McKesson . Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the state 's economy , California 's agriculture industry has the highest output of any U.S. state .", "San Joaquin Valley The San Joaquin Valley -LSB- ˌsæn_hwɑːˈkiːn -RSB- is the area of the Central Valley of the U.S. state of California that lies south of the Sacramento -- San Joaquin River Delta and is drained by the San Joaquin River . It comprises seven Northern California counties -- all of Kings County ; a majority of Fresno , Merced , Stanislaus counties ; segments of Madera and Tulare counties -- and all of Kern County , in Southern California . Although a majority of the valley is rural , it does contain urban cities such as Fresno , Bakersfield , Stockton , Modesto , Turlock , Porterville , Visalia , Merced , and Hanford .", "Western United States The Western United States , commonly referred to as the American West , the Far West , or simply the West , traditionally refers to the region comprising the westernmost states of the United States . Because European settlement in the U.S. expanded westward after its founding , the meaning of the West has evolved over time . Prior to about 1800 , the crest of the Appalachian Mountains was seen as the western frontier . Since then , the frontier generally moved westward and eventually lands west of the Mississippi River came to be referred to as the West . Though no consensus exists , even among experts , for the definition of the West as a region , the U.S. Census Bureau 's definition of the 13 westernmost states includes the Rocky Mountains and the Great Basin to the West Coast , and the outlying states of Hawaii and Alaska . The West contains several major biomes . It is known for arid to semi-arid plateaus and plains , particularly in the American Southwest -- forested mountains , including the major ranges of the American Sierra Nevada and Rocky Mountains -- the massive coastal shoreline of the American Pacific Coast -- and the rainforests of the Pacific Northwest ." ]

[ "2010–13 Southern United States and Mexico drought The 2010 -- 2013 Southern United States and Mexico drought was a severe to extreme drought plaguing the US South , including parts of Texas , Oklahoma , Kansas , Colorado , New Mexico , Arizona , Louisiana , Arkansas , Mississippi , Alabama , Georgia , South Carolina , and North Carolina , as well as large parts of Mexico . The worst effects have been in Texas , where near-record drought has parched the state since January 2011 . Texas suffered an estimated $ 7.62 billion in crop and livestock losses , surpassing its record loss of $ 4.1 billion in 2006 . In Texas , combined with the rest of the South , at least $ 10 billion in agricultural losses were recorded in 2011 . In 2010 -- 11 , Texas experienced its driest August -- July ( 12-month ) period on record . The drought began due to a strong La Niña developing by the summer of 2010 which brings below average rainfall to the southern United States , the effects of the La Niña could be noticed immediately as much of the south receives important rainfall during the summer , and this was the driest summer for Texas and Georgia in the 21st century thus far , and much of the south received record low rainfall . Throughout 2011 , the drought was confined to the Deep South as the mid-south received flooding due to severe weather and tornadoes . However , the drought continued and intensified in the Deep South as Texas saw 2011 be its second-driest year on record , Oklahoma saw its fourth-driest , and Georgia saw its seventh-driest year on record . The winter of 2011 -- 12 was one of the driest winters on record for the eastern and central United States . In the spring of 2012 , the drought made a massive expansion from the Deep South to the Midwest , Mid south , Great Plains , and Ohio valley . At its peak in August 2012 the drought covered approximately 81 % of the United States . Throughout the winter of 2012 -- 13 , heavy rain and snow brought relief to the drought in the southern and eastern United States , even causing severe flooding . By March 2013 , the eastern United States was drought-free , effectively ending the 2010 -- 13 southern U.S. drought . Drought continued on the Great Plains until 2014 . However , drought developed in the western United States in 2013 and still exists today . The 2011 drought was the worst one-year drought in Texas since 1895 . The U.S. Drought Monitor reports that Lubbock , Texas has experienced the nation 's worst average level of drought since the beginning of 2011 . McAllen , Harlingen , Brownsville and Corpus Christi also ranked among the nine U.S. cities most affected by extreme drought .", "Chico Martinez Creek Chico Martinez Creek , formerly Arroyo Chico Martinez is a stream with its source located in the Temblor Range in Kern County , California near to the San Luis Obispo County boundary . Its source is located 10.7 miles north of Soda Lake , California in the middle of the Carrizo Plain . The creek runs generally east and northeast to terminate just east of the South Belridge Oil Field . In years of heavy rainfall it may have been a tributary to the Kern River between Buena Vista Lake and Tulare Lake .", "Geography of Texas The geography of Texas is diverse and far reaching in scope . Occupying about 7 % of the total water and land area of the U.S. , it is the second largest state after Alaska , and is the southernmost part of the Great Plains , which end in the south against the folded Sierra Madre Oriental of Mexico . Texas is in the south-central part of the United States of America , and is considered to form part of the U.S. South and also part of the U.S. Southwest . By residents , the state is generally divided into North Texas , East Texas , Central Texas , South Texas , West Texas ( and sometimes the Panhandle ) , but according to the Texas Almanac , Texas has four major physical regions : Gulf Coastal Plains , Interior Lowlands , Great Plains , and Basin and Range Province . This has been cited as the difference between human geography and physical geography , although the fact that Texas was granted the prerogative to divide into as many as five U.S. states may be a historical motive for Texans defining their state as containing exactly five regions . Some regions in Texas are more associated with the Northeast than the Southwest ( primarily East Texas , Central Texas , and North Texas ) , while other regions share more similarities with the Eastwest ( primarily far West Texas and South Texas ) . The upper Panhandle is considered by many to have more in common with parts of the plains Midwest than either the South or Southwest . The size of Texas prohibits easy categorization of the entire state wholly in any recognized region of the United States , and even cultural diversity among regions of the state make it difficult to treat Texas as a region in its own right .", "Historic desertification Historic desertification is the study of the desert-forming process from a historic perspective . It was presumed in the past that the main causes of desertification lay in overuse of the land resulting in impoverishment of the soil , reduced vegetation cover , increased risk of drought and the resulting wind erosion . However recent projects to regreen deserts have not met with the success envisaged , and cast doubts on this theory . Research suggests that it is extreme events rather than drought caused by low annual prcipitation , that do the most damage . Heavy downpours resulting in flash floods wash away sediment and there seems to have been an increased number of extreme events in the Levant at the end of the Byzantine period . The decline of settlements in the desert belt at this time may have been caused by these extreme events rather than a reduction in annual precipitation .", "Drought in Canada Prolonged , large-area droughts are among Canada 's costliest natural disasters having major impacts on a wide range of sectors including agriculture , forestry , industry , municipalities , recreation , human health , society and ecosystems . They frequently stress water availability by depleting soil moisture , reducing stream flows , lowering lake and reservoir levels , and diminishing groundwater supplies . This ultimately affects several economic activities including for example , decreased agricultural production , less hydro-electric power generation , and increased freshwater transportation costs . Droughts also create major environmental hazards such as reduced water quality , wetland loss , soil erosion and degradation , and ecological habitat destruction . Although most regions of Canada have experienced drought , many of the southern regions of the Canadian Prairies and interior British Columbia are most susceptible . During the past two centuries , at least 40 droughts have occurred in western Canada with multi-year episodes being observed in the 1890s , 1910s , 1930s , 1960s , 1980s , and the early 2000s . Droughts in southern Ontario/Quebec are usually shorter , smaller in area , less frequent , and less intense . Nonetheless , there have been some major drought occurrences there as well during the 20th century . Droughts in the Atlantic Provinces occur even less frequently . Droughts are less of a concern for northern Canada mainly due to their lower population densities . However , increased frequencies of forest fires during drought years can have serious economic impacts . Rarely has drought been as serious or extensive as the recent 1999-2004 episode . This was the worst drought for at least a hundred years in parts of the Canadian Prairies . Well below normal precipitation was reported in areas of Alberta and Saskatchewan for more than four consecutive years extending from autumn 1999 to spring 2004 . No single year on record between Medicine Hat , Kindersley , and Saskatoon was drier than in 2001 . The years 2001 and 2002 may have also brought the first coast-to-coast droughts on record , and were rare as they struck areas less accustomed to dealing with droughts including parts of Atlantic Canada and the northern agricultural prairies ( see Figure 1 ) . Canada 's Gross Domestic Product fell $ 5.8 billion for 2001 and 2002 . In addition , previously reliable water supplies such as streams , wetlands , reservoirs , and groundwater were placed under stress and often failed . For example , the number of natural Prairie ponds in May 2002 was the lowest on record while in 2001 , Great Lakes-St . Lawrence water levels plunged to their lowest point in more than 30 years , thereby significantly increasing marine transportation costs . In British Columbia and Manitoba , hydro-electric generation was curtailed , necessitating additional purchases of power from neighboring jurisdictions . In 2002 , the incidence of forest fires in Alberta increased to five times the ten-year average while in summer 2003 , populated regions of interior British Columbia were stricken by drought-enhanced fires . Long-lasting impacts include soil degradation by wind erosion and deterioration of grasslands that could take decades and longer to recover . High surface temperatures intensify droughts by enhancing evapotranspiration in summer , and increasing sublimation and melting of the snowpack during winter . During the 20th century , mean annual air temperature has increased by around 1 ° C over southern Canada with the greatest warming in the west and the largest rates during winter and spring . Over the same period , annual precipitation has significantly increased over most of southern Canada with the exception of southern Alberta and Saskatchewan . Coincident with the large increases in spring temperature , the 1980s to the present have been associated with rapid reductions in snow cover during the second half of the snow season . Over the last 30 to 50 years , average stream flow has decreased in many parts of Canada with significant reductions in the south . Great Lakes ' water levels have shown substantial variability during the 20th century with no evidence of a long-term trend . Lower levels coincided with the droughts of the 1930s , early 1960s , and the recent 1999-2001 dry period . Over the Prairies , the numbers and water levels of wetlands have shown no clear trend over the last 40 to 50 years . Indices used to measure drought show considerable decadal-scale variability with no long-term trends discernible in any portion of the country . Most southern regions of Canada , however , experienced drought conditions during the late 1990s to early 2000s . The worst and most prolonged Canadian Prairie-wide droughts during the instrumental period occurred in the early part of the 20th century ( 1920s and 1930s ) . Paleo studies over the southwestern Canadian Prairies using tree ring chronologies dating back to 1597 indicate that the 20th century lacked the prolonged droughts of the 18th and 19th Centuries when droughts were evident for decades at a time .", "2017 South Sudan famine Since the early months of 2017 , parts of South Sudan have been experiencing a famine following several years of instability in the country 's food supply caused by war and drought . The famine , largely focused in the northern part of the country , has been estimated to affect almost five million people ( about 50 % of the South Sudanese population ) , with food shortages expected to spread by the middle of the year .", "Morney Plains Station Morney Plains Station most commonly referred to as Morney Plains is a pastoral lease that operates as a cattle station in south west Queensland . It is situated about 104 km west of Windorah and 232 km east of Birdsville in the channel country close to the border with South Australia . The property is currently owned by S. Kidman & Co. and occupies an area of 6240 km2 with a carrying capacity of 14,000 head . The traditional owners of the area the Karuwali have lived in for tens of thousands of years . The lease was first taken up by pioneer and pastoralist John Costello in the late 1860s or early 1870s . William Barker bought Morney Plains in 1876 along with the 1,000 head of cattle it was stocked with from the Collins brothers . The property was owned by Weir and Scott in 1881 when it was visited by a journalist who described it as splendid country with hardly any grass on it simply to want for sufficient rainfall . The writer had been riding in a southerly direction along the Diamantina River and had described the area near the station as being lightly timbered stony country with large areas of saltbush and cotton bush . In 1887 the homestead was washed away following exceptionally heavy rains in the area and the heaviest flooding known at the time . In 1927 the property was acquired by Ernest Castine for # 27,500 . Castine bought the property at auction from Coles Brothers Limited following the death of Thomas Kidman . The property occupied an area of 908 sqmi and was stocked with 7,500 head of cattle and 200 horses and well watered by over four artesian bores . Airmail delivery to remote properties in outback South Australia , New South Wales and Queensland commenced in 1949 . Morney Plains along with other remote properties including Mungerannie , Clifton Hills , Glengyle , Davenport Downs , Mulka , Mount Leonard , Durrie , Cordillo Downs , Tanbar Station , Durham Downs , Nappa Merrie , Lake Pure and Naryilco were also on the route . Craig Lasker and Nikki Smith have managed the property since 2000 after short stints at Ruby Plains Station and then Mooraberree Station , an outstation at Morney Plains . Drought struck in 2001 and continued through 2002 with the herd being reduced from 13,000 to 3,000 head of cattle . In 2003 a heavy downpour caused more damage than relief and later the same year the homestead burnt down killing the couples two children . Despite the tragedy the couple stayed at Morney Plains and were still managing it in 2012 . In 2013 , the station was struck by drought again requiring water to be piped from a bore to the homestead once the water in the dams had run dry .", "Colorado low A Colorado low is a low pressure that forms in southeastern Colorado or northeastern New Mexico , typically in the winter . After forming , the system moves across the Great Plains . Colorado lows produce heavy wintry precipitation , and have a general east to northeast movement , impacting regions as far north as Winnipeg and as far east as the Atlantic coast . If upper level conditions are right , the jet stream can push the low farther south , bringing wintry precipitation as far as Texas . When pushed this far south , the system is often referred to as a `` blue norther '' . On the more typical track , a Colorado low can be similar to an Alberta clipper . Winter Colorado lows are responsible for a majority of the snow that the Midwest receives ; however , summer systems can trigger vast , long-lasting thunderstorms . Spring and early summer Colorado low cyclogenesis can precipitate significant `` syoptically evident '' tornado outbreaks over the Great Plains and Midwest .", "Tasmanian ferns Tasmania is home to ` Australia 's largest cool temperate rainforests ... Most of Tasmania 's rainforests occur in the North-West and throughout the North East highlands . Cool temperate rainforests typically have a heavy rainfall , cool climate , favor high altitudes and have a limited availability of light .", "Bouteloua gracilis Bouteloua gracilis ( blue grama ) is a long-lived , warm-season ( C4 ) perennial grass , native to North America . It is most commonly found from Alberta , Canada , east to Manitoba and south across the Rocky Mountains , Great Plains , and U.S. Midwest states , onto the northern Mexican Plateau in Mexico . Blue grama accounts for most of the net primary productivity in the shortgrass prairie of the central and southern Great Plains . It is a green or greyish , low-growing , drought-tolerant grass with limited maintenance .", "Climate of Sydney The climate of Sydney is humid subtropical ( Köppen Cfa ) , shifting from mild and cool in winter to warm and hot in the summer , with no extreme seasonal differences as the weather is moderated by proximity to the ocean . More contrasting temperatures are recorded in the inland western suburbs . Rainfall is spread evenly throughout the year , though it is generally highest between February and June . Precipitation varies across the region , with areas adjacent to the coast being the wettest . Sydney has 103.9 clear days annually , with the monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 53 % in January to 72 % in August . The city receives around 20 thunderstorms per year . Sydney 's heat is usually dry when temperatures soar over 35 C . In some hot days , low pressure troughs would increase humidity and southerly busters would decrease temperatures . In late autumn and winter , east coast lows can bring large amounts of rainfall . Sydney experiences an urban heat island effect , making certain parts of the city more vulnerable to extreme heat , particularly the west . Efforts have been introduced to investigate and mitigate this heat effect , including increasing shade from tree canopies , adding rooftop gardens to high rise structures and changing pavement colour . The El Niño Southern Oscillation plays an important role in determining Sydney 's weather patterns : drought and bushfire on the one hand , and storms and flooding on the other . Sydney is prone to heat waves and drought , which have become more common in recent years .", "Climate of Australia Australia 's climate is governed largely by its size and by the hot , sinking air of the subtropical high pressure belt . This moves north and south with the seasons , so that the rainfall pattern over Australia is highly seasonal . Australia 's rainfall is the lowest of all continents except Antarctica . But it is variable , with frequent droughts lasting several seasons -- thought to be caused in part by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation . The climate varies widely due to its large geographical size , but by far the largest part of Australia is desert or semi-arid . Only the south-east and south-west corners have a temperate climate and moderately fertile soil . The northern part of the country has a tropical climate , varied between tropical rainforests , grasslands and part dessert . Because Australia is a small continent , separated from polar regions by the Southern Ocean , it is not subject to the movements of frigid polar air that sweep over Northern Hemisphere continents during winter . Consequently , its winter is relatively mild , so that there is n't the great contrast between summer and winter temperatures there is in the northern continents . Yet in many parts of the country , seasonal highs and lows can be considerable : temperatures have ranged from above 50 C to well below zero . Nonetheless , minimum temperatures are moderated . The El Niño-Southern Oscillation is associated with seasonal abnormality in many areas in the world . Australia is one of the continents most affected and experiences extensive droughts alongside considerable wet periods . Occasionally a dust storm will blanket a region and there are reports of the occasional tornado . Tropical cyclones , heat waves , bushfires and frosts in the country are also associated with the Southern Oscillation . Rising levels of salinity and desertification in some areas is ravaging the landscape . Climate change in Australia is a highly contentious issue . Temperatures in the country have risen following an increasing trend of global warming between the years of 1910 to 2004 by approximately 0.7 ° C. Overnight minimum temperatures have warmed more rapidly than daytime maximum temperatures in recent years . The late-20th century warming has been largely attributed to the increased greenhouse effect . According to the Bureau of Meteorology , 80 % of the land has less than 600 mm of rainfall per year and 50 % has even less than 300 mm . As a whole , Australia has a very low annual average rainfall of 419 mm .", "Climate of Peshawar The Peshawar is situated near the eastern end of the Khyber Pass and sits mainly on the Iranian plateau along with the rest of the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa . Peshawar is literally a frontier city of South-Central Asia and was historically part of the Silk Road . The Valley of Peshawar is covered with consolidated deposits of silt , sands and gravel of recent geological times . The flood Plains/Zones are the areas between Kabul River and Budni Nala . The meander flood plain extends from Warsak in the Northwest towards Southeast in the upper Northern half of the district . The Kabul river enters the district in the Northwest . On entering the Peshawar Plain , the Kabul River is divided into several channels . Its two main channels are the Adizai River Eastward flows along the boundary with Charsadda District . Another channel branching from the right bank of the Naguman River is the Shah Alam , which again merges with Naguman River further in the East . In general the sub-soil strata is composed of gravels , boulders , and sands overlain by silts and clays . Sand , gravel and boulders are important aquifer extends to a depth of about 200 ft. As further confined water bearing aquifer occurs at depths greater than 400 ft. Winter in Peshawar starts from mid November to the end of March . Summer months are May to September . The mean maximum temperature in summer is over 40 C and the mean minimum temperature is 25 C . The mean minimum temperature during winter is 4 C and maximum is 18.35 C. Peshawar is not situated in the monsoon region , unlike the other northern parts of Pakistan . But occasionally monsoon currents make it as far as Peshawar causing downpours . This can be witnessed in the erratic monsoon of 2015 when the monsoon moisture was going well into eastern Afghanistan . The winter rainfall due to western disturbances shows a higher record during the months of February and April . The highest winter rainfall has been recorded in March , while the highest summer rainfall in the month of August . The average winter rainfall is higher than that of the summer . Based on a 30-year record , the average 30-year annual precipitation has been recorded as 400 mm . The relative humidity varies from 46 % in June to 76 % in August . Peshawar 's environment has suffered tremendously due to an ever increasing population , unplanned growth and a poor regulatory framework . Air and noise pollution is a significant issue in several parts of the city , and the water quality , once considered to be exceptionally good , is also fast deteriorating . In addition the city has lost 2700 acre of agriculture land during the two decades ( 1965 -- 85 ) . This in the addition to 400 acre of vacant land that has been also eaten up by expending urban functions . In the same period , the land under parks and green space has shrunk from 163 to .", "Garfagnana The Garfagnana is a historical and geographical region of central Italy , today part of the province of Lucca , in Tuscany . It is the upper valley or basin of the river Serchio , and thus lies between the Northern Apennines ' main ridge to the north-east and the Alpi Apuane to the west . It has heavy rainfall and is densely wooded . The principal towns are Castelnuovo di Garfagnana and Barga .", "2016 São Paulo flood and mudslide Intense flooding and mudslides struck São Paulo ( city ) and São Paulo ( state ) , Brazil , following heavy rain and killed at least 21 . The downpour in São Paulo and the surrounding areas set new records for rainfall levels for the month of March and left cities covered in up to a meter of slowly draining mud and flood water . The rain occurred after months of drought .", "Africa: The Serengeti Africa : The Serengeti is a 70mm American documentary film released in 1994 to IMAX theaters . It is narrated by Academy Award-nominated actor James Earl Jones , and directed by George Casey . It was shot on location in Tanzania and Kenya . The film features nature cinematography during a year at East Africa 's Serengeti plain . The Serengeti is a huge area of grassland in Tanzania . Once a year , in time of drought , animals travel north in order to survive . This `` great migration '' , an event in which millions of wildebeests , zebras , and antelope travel several hundred miles across the plain , while lions and other dangers await them along the way , is considered one of the great wonders of the world . Hans Zimmer , the Academy Award-winning composer of the The Lion King , contributed to the film 's soundtrack . Casey followed up with another nature documentary , this time on the other side of the globe , called Alaska : Spirit of the Wild .", "Laramie Plains The Laramie Plains is an arid highland at an elevation of approx . 8000 ft in south central Wyoming in the United States . The plains extend along the upper basin of the Laramie River on the east side of the Medicine Bow Range . The city of Laramie is the largest community in the valley . The plains are separated from the Great Plains to the east by the Laramie Mountains , a spur of the Front Range that extends northward from Larimer County , Colorado west of Cheyenne . The high altitude of the region makes for a cold climate and a relatively short growing season . Unsuitable to most cultivation , the plains have historically been used for livestock raising , primarily of sheep and cattle .", "Galatas Palace The Galatas Palace is a Minoan site on Crete found in the early 1990s . The East Wing is the best preserved part of the building , while the West and South wings have been extensively damaged . Excavations have continued the North wing of the building , which is proving to be more promising . The archaeological site is considered by its excavator to be a Minoan palace .", "Ovče Pole Ovče Pole ( Овче Поле , meaning : Plain of sheep ) is a plain situated around the flow of Sveti Nikole 's River , which is a tributary to the Bregalnica river , in the east-central part of Republic of Macedonia . The climate of the plain is characterized by hot and dry summers and temperately cold winters , with occasional sharp lows . The highest registered temperature in the plain was 44.0 C and the lowest registered temperature was -23.0 C. Strong winds from the north-west , north , south-east are specific for this region and are present for most of the year , this being the reason the area to be called `` the windiest place on the Balkans '' . The Ovče Pole plain is one of the driest areas in Europe and is plagued by frequent drought periods . The yearly average of rainfall is in the 400-500 ml/m2 range . The average elevation of the plain is 200 -- 400 m , and the highest place is Gjurište , with an elevation of 856m above sea level . In the region of Alin Dol of the river Mavrovica , in 1981 , an artificial dam was built . Its water is used for the water supply of the city of Sveti Nikole .", "Huff 'n' Puff Huff - 'n' Puff is one of the longest continuously held hot air balloon festivals in North America , having been held every year since 1976 . It is held each second weekend of September in Topeka , Kansas by the Great Plains Balloon Club . The festival is located at Tinman Circle on the east side of Lake Shawnee , and weather permitting there are two flight launches each day : a morning flight at 6:00 am and an evening flight at 6:00 pm followed by a Balloon Glow at 7:30 pm . Approximately 30 balloon crews , mostly from the region around Topeka , participate each year .", "Prosopis tamarugo Prosopis tamarugo , commonly known as the tamarugo , is a species of flowering tree in the pea family , Fabaceae , subfamilia Mimosoideae . It is only found in northern Chile , particularly in the Pampa del Tamarugal , some 70 km east of the city of Iquique . This bushy tree apparently grows without the benefit of rainfall , and it is thought obtains some water from dew . Studies indicate it is a Phreatophyte - having deep roots that tap into ground water supplies . It also participates in hydraulic redistribution moving water from deeper levels to the upper and also reversing the process in times of severe drought Scattered stands of the trees have been cut down for firewood . The trees grow on saline soils that do not allow for other trees . The species is a valuable source of charcoal and lumber and the leaves and fruits are also food for goats . It has been planted in Spain .", "Hauraki Plains The Hauraki Plains are a geographical feature and non-administrative area located in the northern North Island of New Zealand , at the lower ( northern ) end of the Thames Valley . They are located 75 kilometres south-east of Auckland , at the foot of the Coromandel Peninsula and occupy the southern portion of a rift valley bounded on the north-west by the Hunua Ranges , to the east by the Coromandel and Kaimai Ranges and the west by a series of undulating hills which separate the plains from the much larger plains of the Waikato River . Broadly , the northern and southern parts of the Hauraki Plains are administered by the Hauraki District and the Matamata-Piako District respectively . The alluvial plains have been built up by sediment deposited by the Piako and Waihou Rivers , which flow north to reach the sea at the Firth of Thames , and earlier by the ancestral Waikato River . The resulting land is flat , peat-heavy , and partly swampy which has been converted into excellent land for dairy farming . Economically , the dairy farming is the leading primary industry , supported by other grassland farming . More recently , tourism in the Hauraki Plains region has been growing and the Hauraki Rail Trail , part of the New Zealand Cycle Trail , has been constructed in the Hauraki Plains . The largest town fully within the Plains is Ngatea , with a smaller settlement of Turua . The larger town of Paeroa is located on the eastern edge of the Hauraki Plains . While there is no defined geographical southern boundary to the Hauraki Plains , this is generally taken as been a line between the towns of Te Aroha and Morrinsville , approximately following State Highway 26 .", "Messara Plain The Messara Plain or simply Messara is an illuvial plain in southern Crete , stretching about 50 km west-to-east and 7 km north-to-south , making it the largest plain in Crete . On a hill at its west end are the ruins of Phaestus , near the middle are the ruins of the ancient city of Gortys . Since 1500 BC the plain has grown up to 6 km due to a buildup of illuvial sediment . Clays from Messara have been found to be the source of significant amounts of Minoan pottery ; soil and rock types from the fringes of Messara , particularly the foothills of the Asterousia Mountains at the south and the foothills to the north within the Psiloritis Mountains . In the Messara , olive trees , vineyards and horticultural crops are grown here . Part of the products grown here are placed on the domestic market . Α substantial part of the produced olive oil is then exported to European markets . The Messara Plain is also home to the indigenous Messara horse .", "Drought in Spain Droughts in Spain mainly happen in the south east . These droughts are usually confined to summer , with hot , dry weather for an extended period . However , droughts can vary in their characteristics . All types of drought cause issues across all sectors , with impacts extending to the ecosystem , agriculture and the economy of the whole country in severe cases of drought . The south east usually suffers most , as it has the lowest average precipitation per year , which is even lower in a drought . The drought , along with high winds and fallen cables , is being looked at as a prime causal factor in the massive forest fires . In 2012 Spain experienced the driest period since the 1940s , with rainfall decreased by up to 75 % .", "Midwestern United States The Midwestern United States , also referred to as the American Midwest or simply the Midwest , is one of the four geographic regions defined by the United States Census Bureau , occupying the northern central part of the United States of America . It was officially named the North Central region by the Census Bureau until 1984 . Although the region is often defined in a number of ways , the Census Bureau 's definition consists of 12 states in the north central United States : Illinois , Indiana , Iowa , Kansas , Michigan , Minnesota , Missouri , Nebraska , North Dakota , Ohio , South Dakota , and Wisconsin . Illinois is the most populous of the states and North Dakota the least . A 2012 report from the United States Census put the population of the Midwest at 65,377,684 . The Midwest is divided by the Census Bureau into two divisions . The East North Central Division includes Illinois , Indiana , Michigan , Ohio and Wisconsin , all of which are also part of the Great Lakes region . The West North Central Division includes Iowa , Kansas , Minnesota , Missouri , North Dakota , Nebraska , and South Dakota , several of which are located at least partly , within the Great Plains region . Major rivers in the region include , from east to west , the Ohio River , the Upper Mississippi River , and the Missouri River . The region generally lies on the broad Interior Plain between the states occupying the Appalachian Mountain range and the states occupying the Rocky Mountain range . Chicago is the most populated city in the American Midwest and the third most populous in the entire country . Other large Midwest cities include ( in order by population ) : Indianapolis , Columbus , Detroit , Milwaukee , Kansas City , Omaha , Minneapolis , Cleveland , Wichita and St. Louis . Chicago and its suburbs form the largest metropolitan statistical area with 9.8 million people , followed by Metro Detroit , Minneapolis -- St. Paul , Greater St. Louis , Greater Cleveland , Greater Cincinnati ( without the Kentucky portion ) , Kansas City metro area , and the Columbus metro area .", "Upper Hammonds Plains, Nova Scotia Upper Hammonds Plains ( 2011 population : 1,840 ) is a Canadian suburban community located in Nova Scotia 's Halifax Regional Municipality . The community is situated along Pockwock Road and is considered one of the most historic communities for Black Nova Scotians . There were 330 residents who identified themselves as having black ancestry in the 2006 census . The community is named after the Governor of Nova Scotia Sir Andrew Hamond , 1st Baronet . Its border is defined by the Government of Nova Scotia and it is adjacent to Hammonds Plains in the east and south , Upper Tantallon in the south , Head of St. Margarets Bay and Mount Uniacke in the west , and Mount Uniacke and Upper Sackville in the north .", "Climate change in Australia Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .", "Dembel (woreda) Dembel is one of the woredas in the Somali Region of Ethiopia . Part of the Shinile Zone , Dembel is bordered on the west by Shinile , on the north by Ayesha , and on the east and south by the Jijiga Zone . Towns in Dembel include Arebi , Biyo Behay , Dembel , Dure , Harmukale , and Smekeb . Inhabitants of this woreda have engaged in crop farming since 1965 ; however , there has been a great decline in crop production from 1989 to 2001 . That was primarily caused by clan conflicts and aggravated by severe droughts . Between 35-45 % of the inhabitants are pastoralists , while 55-65 % raise cereals ( mostly sorghum ) as well as raise livestock .", "Schinia simplex Schinia simplex is a moth of the Noctuidae family . It is found in the western Great Plains from North Dakota to New Mexico . The wingspan is about 30 mm . Larvae have been recorded on Ipomoea leptophylla .", "Euxoa comosa Euxoa comosa is a moth of the Noctuidae family . It is found in western North America , except the Pacific coast , ranging east through the northern Great Plains , and in the Hudsonian zone to the Atlantic Ocean . It is found in every province and territory of Canada , except Nunavut . The wingspan is about 32 mm . Larvae have been recorded on Secale cereale .", "Lake Numalla Lake Numalla is located in the Mulga Lands bioregion of Western Queensland , Australia . The area has a very dry climate , with unpredictable low rainfall ( 450mm-650mm per year ) . Lake Numalla is freshwater while nearby Lake Wyara is saline . These provide significant waterbird habitats at times of drought and for migrating waders which travel across inland Australia .200 bird species have been recorded in the park . The lake is part of Currawinya National Park and is a site listed under the Ramsar Convention .", "Second Great Migration (African American) In the context of the 20th-century history of the United States , the Second Great Migration was the migration of more than five million African Americans from the South to the North , Midwest and West . It took place from 1941 , through World War II , and lasted until 1970 . It was much larger and of a different character than the first Great Migration ( 1910 -- 1940 ) . In the Second Great Migration , more than five million African Americans moved to cities in states in the North , Midwest and West , including California , where Los Angeles , Oakland , Richmond , and Long Beach offered skilled jobs in the defense industry . Most of these migrants were already urban laborers who came from the cities of the South . In addition , African Americans were still treated with discrimination in parts of the country , and many sought to escape this ." ]

[ "Earth Earth ( from Eorðe -LSB- Γαῖα , Gaia -RSB- Terra ) , otherwise known as the World or the Globe , is the third planet from the Sun and the only object in the Universe known to harbor life . It is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest of the four terrestrial planets . According to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence , Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago . Earth 's gravity interacts with other objects in space , especially the Sun and the Moon , Earth 's only natural satellite . During one orbit around the Sun , Earth rotates about its axis over 365 times ; thus , an Earth year is about 365.26 days long . Earth 's axis of rotation is tilted , producing seasonal variations on the planet 's surface . The gravitational interaction between the Earth and Moon causes ocean tides , stabilizes the Earth 's orientation on its axis , and gradually slows its rotation . Earth 's lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years . About 71 % of Earth 's surface is covered with water , mostly by its oceans . The remaining 29 % is land consisting of continents and islands that together have many lakes , rivers and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere . The majority of Earth 's polar regions are covered in ice , including the Antarctic ice sheet and the sea ice of the Arctic ice pack . Earth 's interior remains active with a solid iron inner core , a liquid outer core that generates the Earth 's magnetic field , and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics . Within the first billion years of Earth 's history , life appeared in the oceans and began to affect the Earth 's atmosphere and surface , leading to the proliferation of aerobic and anaerobic organisms . Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as much as 4.1 billion years ago . Since then , the combination of Earth 's distance from the Sun , physical properties , and geological history have allowed life to evolve and thrive . In the history of the Earth , biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion , occasionally punctuated by mass extinction events . Over 99 % of all species that ever lived on Earth are extinct . Estimates of the number of species on Earth today vary widely ; most species have not been described . Over 7.4 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and minerals for their survival . Humans have developed diverse societies and cultures ; politically , the world has about 200 sovereign states .", "Precipitation In meteorology , precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity . The main forms of precipitation include drizzle , rain , sleet , snow , graupel and hail . Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor , so that the water condenses and `` precipitates '' . Thus , fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions , because the water vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate . Two processes , possibly acting together , can lead to air becoming saturated : cooling the air or adding water vapor to the air . Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud . Short , intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called `` showers . '' Moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain . This process is typically active when freezing rain is occurring . A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain and serves as the foci for forcing and rising air . Provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content , the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds , namely stratus and cumulonimbus . Eventually , the cloud droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops and descend toward the Earth where they will freeze on contact with exposed objects . Where relatively warm water bodies are present , for example due to water evaporation from lakes , lake-effect snowfall becomes a concern downwind of the warm lakes within the cold cyclonic flow around the backside of extratropical cyclones . Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy . Thundersnow is possible within a cyclone 's comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands . In mountainous areas , heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation . On the leeward side of mountains , desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating . The movement of the monsoon trough , or intertropical convergence zone , brings rainy seasons to savannah climes . Precipitation is a major component of the water cycle , and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet . Approximately 505000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year ; 398000 km3 of it over the oceans and 107000 km3 over land . Given the Earth 's surface area , that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 mm , but over land it is only 715 mm . Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes . Precipitation may occur on other celestial bodies , e.g. when it gets cold , Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost , rather than rain or snow .", "Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station The Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station is a United States scientific research station at the South Pole , the southernmost place on the Earth . The station is located on the high plateau of Antarctica at an elevation of 2,835 metres ( 9,301 feet ) above sea level and is administered by the Division of Polar Programs within the National Science Foundation under the United States Antarctic Program ( USAP ) . The original Amundsen -- Scott Station was built by Navy Seabees for the Federal government of the United States during November 1956 , as a part of its commitment to the scientific goals of the International Geophysical Year ( IGY ) , an international effort lasting from January 1957 through June 1958 , to study , among other things , the geophysics of the polar regions of Earth . Before November 1956 , there was no permanent human structure at the South Pole , and very little human presence in the interior of Antarctica at all . The few scientific stations in Antarctica were located on and near its seacoast . The station has been continuously occupied since it was built . The Amundsen -- Scott Station has been rebuilt , demolished , expanded , and upgraded several times since 1956 . Since the Amundsen -- Scott Station is located at the South Pole , it is at the only place on the land surface of the Earth where the Sun is continuously up for six months and then continuously down for six months . ( The only other such place is at the North Pole , on the sea ice in the middle of the Arctic Ocean . ) Thus , during each year , this station experiences one extremely long `` day '' and one extremely long `` night '' . During the six-month `` day '' , the angle of elevation of the Sun above the horizon varies continuously . The Sun rises on the September equinox , reaches its maximum angle above the horizon on the summer solstice in the Southern Hemisphere , around December 20 , and sets on the March equinox . During the six-month `` night '' , it gets extremely cold at the South Pole , with air temperatures sometimes dropping below -73 ° C . This is also the time of the year when blizzards , sometimes with gale-force winds , strike the Amundsen -- Scott Station . The continuous period of darkness and dry atmosphere make the station an excellent place from which to make astronomical observations , although the Moon is up for two weeks of every 27.3 days . The number of scientific researchers and members of the support staff housed at the Amundsen -- Scott Station has always varied seasonally , with a peak population of about 200 in the summer operational season from October to February . In recent years the winter-time population has been around 50 people .", "Winter storm A winter storm is an event in which varieties of precipitation are formed that only occur at low temperatures , such as snow or sleet , or a rainstorm where ground temperatures are low enough to allow ice to form ( i.e. freezing rain ) . In temperate continental climates , these storms are not necessarily restricted to the winter season , but may occur in the late autumn and early spring as well . Very rarely , they may form in summer , though it would have to be an abnormally cold summer , such as the summer of 1816 in the Northeast United States of America .", "Climate Climate is the statistics of weather , usually over a 30-year interval . It is measured by assessing the patterns of variation in temperature , humidity , atmospheric pressure , wind , precipitation , atmospheric particle count and other meteorological variables in a given region over long periods of time . Climate differs from weather , in that weather only describes the short-term conditions of these variables in a given region . A region 's climate is generated by the climate system , which has five components : atmosphere , hydrosphere , cryosphere , lithosphere , and biosphere . The climate of a location is affected by its latitude , terrain , and altitude , as well as nearby water bodies and their currents . Climates can be classified according to the average and the typical ranges of different variables , most commonly temperature and precipitation . The most commonly used classification scheme was the Köppen climate classification . The Thornthwaite system , in use since 1948 , incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it . The Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region . Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates . Since direct observations of climate are not available before the 19th century , paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables that include non-biotic evidence such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores , and biotic evidence such as tree rings and coral . Climate models are mathematical models of past , present and future climates . Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from a variety of factors ; recent warming is discussed in global warming . Global warming results in redistributions . For example , `` a 3 ° C change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300 -- 400 km in latitude ( in the temperate zone ) or 500 m in elevation . Therefore , species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones '' ." ]

[ "High-temperature operating life High-temperature operating life ( HTOL ) is a reliability test applied to integrated circuits ( ICs ) to determine their intrinsic reliability . This test stresses the IC at an elevated temperature , high voltage and dynamic operation for a predefined period of time . The IC is usually monitored under stress and tested at intermediate intervals . This reliability stress test is sometimes referred to as a `` lifetime test '' , `` device life test '' or `` extended burn in test '' and is used to trigger potential failure modes and assess IC lifetime . There are several types of HTOL : AEC Documents . JEDEC Standards . Mil standards .", "Corona poling Corona poling is a technique in optoelectronics . Corona discharge is a partial breakdown of air , usually at atmospheric pressure , and is initiated by a discharge in an inhomogeneous electric field ( see Figure 1 ) . Corona discharge has been used to pole films of electro-optic materials to enhance their electro-optic properties . Although corona poling can be performed at room temperature , poling at elevated temperature has several advantages . For example , raising the temperature in a polymer guest-host system close to its glass-rubber transition temperature before poling increases the mobility of the guest molecules and allows rotation to occur during poling . If during poling the temperature is lowered well below the transition temperature , the guest molecules are fixed in their new orientation . Category : Optoelectronics", "Mountain resort A mountain resort is a place to holiday or vacation located in a mountainous area . The term includes ski resorts , where winter sports , including skiing , snowboarding , ice climbing and ice skating are practiced , as well as places where summer activities such as mountain biking , mountain boarding , and hiking are pursued . In hot climates hill and mountain resorts are visited for the cooler temperatures at higher elevations .", "Lower flammable limit Lower flammability limit ( LFL ) , usually expressed in volume per cent , is the lower end of the concentration range over which a flammable mixture of gas or vapour in air can be ignited at a given temperature and pressure . The flammability range is delineated by the upper and lower flammability limits . Outside this range of air/vapor mixtures , the mixture can not be ignited ( unless the temperature and pressure are increased ) . The LFL decreases with increasing temperature ; thus , a mixture that is below its LFL at a given temperature may be ignitable if heated sufficiently . For liquids , the LFL is typically close to the saturated vapor concentration at the flash point , however , due to differences in the liquid properties , the relationship of LFL to flash point ( which is also dependent on the test apparatus ) is not fixed and some spread in the data usually exists . The of a mixture can be evaluated using the Le Chatelier mixing rule , if the of the components are known : Where is the lower flammability of the mixture , is the lower flammability of the - th component of the mixture , and is the molar fraction of the - th component of the mixture .", "List of cities in Russia by average winter temperature The following table lists the average winter temperature in the 25 largest cities in Russia . Population and rank are from the All-Russian census of 2002 . Average winter temperatures are from the references cited on each line .", "Scale of temperature Scale of temperature is a way to measure temperature quantitatively . Empirical scales measure the quantity of heat in a system in relation to a fixed parameter , a thermometer . They are not absolute measures , that is why scales vary . Absolute temperature is thermodynamic temperature because it is directly related to thermodynamics . It is the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics that leads to a formal definition of thermodynamic temperature .", "Climate of Cebu The Climate of Cebu is a tropical wet and dry climate . There are two seasons in Cebu - the wet season and the dry season . Cebu has three different climates , based on the distribution of rainfall , with the most prevalent ones being Am and Af and a very minor area of Aw . Based on temperature , the warmest months of the year are March through October ; the winter monsoon brings cooler air from November to February . May is the warmest month , and January , the coolest . All typically tropical temperature at sea level or low-elevation have a temperature range over the year is less than three degrees Celsius ( 5.4 degree F ) , and annual rainfall exceeds 1,500 millimetres ( 60 in ) .", "Climate of Ecuador The climate of Ecuador varies by region , due to differences in elevation and , to a degree , in proximity to the equator . The coastal lowlands in the western part of Ecuador are typically warm with temperatures in the region of 25 ° C. Coastal areas are affected by ocean currents and between January and April are hot and rainy . The weather in Quito is consistent with that of a subtropical highland climate . The city has barely any cool air since it is close to the equator . The average temperature during the day is 66 F , which generally falls to an average of 50 F at night . The average temperature annually is 64 F . There are only really two obvious seasons in the city : dry and wet . The dry season ( summer ) runs from June to September and the wet season ( winter ) is from October to May . As most of Ecuador is in the southern hemisphere , June to September is considered to be winter , and winter is generally the dry season in warm climates . Spring , summer , and fall are generally the `` wet seasons '' while winter is the dry ( with the exception of the first month of fall being dry ) .", "Temperature (disambiguation) Temperature is a physical property of a system that underlies the common notions of hot and cold . Closely related are : Thermodynamic temperature Color temperature Effective temperature Normal human body temperature The term may also refer to : Noise temperature , a measure of the noise of an electronic component . Temperature ( game theory ) , a measure of the value of a game to its players . Temperature ( meat ) , or doneness , a description of how thoroughly cooked a cut of meat is Fever , pyrexia , or having a temperature , the elevation of the body temperature .", "Airport reference temperature Airport reference temperature is defined as the monthly mean of average daily temperature ( Ta ) for the hottest month of the year plus one-third the difference of this temperature ( Ta ) and the monthly mean of the maximum daily temperature ( Tm ) for the same month of the year . Thus airport reference temperature is", "Mount Logan Mount Logan -LSB- ˈloʊgən -RSB- is the highest mountain in Canada and the second-highest peak in North America , after Denali . The mountain was named after Sir William Edmond Logan , a Canadian geologist and founder of the Geological Survey of Canada ( GSC ) . Mount Logan is located within Kluane National Park Reserve in southwestern Yukon , less than 40 km north of the Yukon/Alaska border . Mount Logan is the source of the Hubbard and Logan Glaciers . Logan is believed to have the largest base circumference of any non-volcanic mountain on Earth ( a large number of shield volcanoes are much larger in size and mass ) , including a massif with eleven peaks over 5000 m. Due to active tectonic uplifting , Mount Logan is still rising in height . Before 1992 , the exact elevation of Mount Logan was unknown and measurements ranged from 5959 to . In May 1992 , a GSC expedition climbed Mount Logan and fixed the current height of 5959 m using GPS . Temperatures are extremely low on and near Mount Logan . On the 5,000 m high plateau , air temperature hovers around -45 C in the winter and reaches near freezing in summer with the median temperature for the year around -27 C. Minimal snow melt leads to a significant ice cap , reaching almost 300 m in certain spots .", "List of cities by temperature This is a list of cities by average temperature ( monthly and yearly ) . The temperatures listed are averages of the daily highs and lows . Thus , the actual daytime temperature in a given month will be 2 to higher than the temperature listed here , depending on how large the difference between daily highs and lows is .", "Renland Renland is a peninsula in eastern Greenland . It is a part of the Sermersooq municipality . Despite its proximity to the coast Renland has an ice cap climate with cold and bitter winters and very low high temperatures in the summer .", "Climate of Mexico The climate of Mexico is highly varied . The Tropic of Cancer effectively divides the country into temperate and tropical zones . Land north of the twenty-fourth parallel experiences cooler temperatures during the winter months . South of the twenty-fourth parallel , temperatures are fairly constant year round and vary solely as a function of elevation . The north of the country generally receives less precipitation than the south .", "Climate of North Dakota North Dakota 's climate is typical of a continental climate with cold winters and warm-hot summers . The state 's location in the Upper Midwest allows it to experience some of the widest variety of weather in the United States , and each of the four seasons has its own distinct characteristics . The eastern half of the state has a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfb ) with warm to hot , somewhat humid summers and cold , windy winters , while the western half has a semi-arid climate ( Köppen climate classification BSk ) with less precipitation and less humidity but similar temperature profiles . The areas east of the Missouri River get slightly colder winters , while those west of the stream get higher summer daytime temperatures . In general , the diurnal temperature difference is prone to be more significant in the west due to higher elevation and less humidity .", "Hypsometry Hypsometry ( from Greek ὕψος , hupsos , `` height '' and μέτρον , metron , `` measure '' ) is the measurement of land elevation relative to sea level . Bathymetry is the underwater equivalent . A hypsometer is an instrument used in hypsometry , which estimates the elevation by boiling water -- water boils at different temperatures depending on the air pressure , and thus altitude . On Earth , the elevations can take on either positive or negative ( below sea level ) values , and are bimodal due to the contrast between the continents and oceans . On other planets within this solar system , elevations are typically unimodal , owing to the lack of oceans on those bodies .", "Sol-air temperature Sol-air temperature ( Tsol-air ) is a variable used to calculate cooling load of a building and determine the total heat gain through exterior surfaces . It is an improvement over : Where : = rate of heat transfer -LSB- W -RSB- = heat transfer surface area -LSB- m ² -RSB- = heat transfer coefficient for radiation ( long wave ) and convection -LSB- W/m ² K -RSB- = outdoor surroundings ' temperature -LSB- ° C -RSB- = outside surface temperature -LSB- ° C -RSB- The above equation only takes into account the temperature differences and ignores two important parameters , being 1 ) solar radiative flux ; and 2 ) infrared exchanges from the sky . The concept of Tsol-air was thus introduced to enable these parameters to be included within an improved calculation . The lower formula results : Where : = solar radiation absorptivity ( surface solar absorptance or the inverse of the solar reflectance of a material ) -LSB- - -RSB- = global solar irradiance ( i.e. total solar radiation incident on the surface ) -LSB- W/m ² -RSB- = extra infrared radiation due to difference between the external air temperature and the apparent sky temperature . This can be written as -LSB- W/m ² -RSB- The product just found can now be used to calculate the amount of heat transfer per unit area , as below : An equivalent , and more useful equation for the net heat loss across the whole construction is : Where : = construction U-value , according to ISO 6946 -LSB- W/m ² K -RSB- . = indoor temperature -LSB- ° C -RSB- = difference between outside dry-bulb air temperature and sky mean radiant temperature -LSB- ° C -RSB- = Form factor between the element and the sky -LSB- - -RSB- = 1 for an unshaded horizontal roof = 0,5 for an unshaded vertical wall = external radiative heat transfer coefficient -LSB- W/m ² K -RSB- By expanding the above equation through substituting the following heat loss equation is derived : The above equation is used for opaque facades in , and renders intermediate calculation of unnecessary . The main advantage of this latter approach is that it avoids the need for a different outdoor temperature node for each facade . Thus , the solution scheme is kept simple , and the solar and sky radiation terms from all facades can be aggregated and distributed to internal temperature nodes as gains/losses .", "Exhaust gas temperature gauge An exhaust gas temperature gauge ( EGT gauge ) is a meter used to monitor the exhaust gas temperature of an internal combustion engine in conjunction with a thermocouple-type pyrometer . EGT gauges are found in certain cars and aeroplanes . By monitoring EGT , the driver or pilot can get an idea of the vehicle 's air-fuel ratio . At a stoichiometric air-fuel ratio , the exhaust gas temperature is different from that in a lean or rich air-fuel ratio . At rich air-fuel ratio , the exhaust gas temperature either increases or decreases depending on the fuel . High temperatures ( typically above 1600 F ) can be an indicator of dangerous conditions that can lead to catastrophic engine failure .", "Medical thermometer A medical thermometer is used for measuring human or animal body temperature . The tip of the thermometer is inserted into the mouth under the tongue ( oral or sub-lingual temperature ) , under the armpit ( axillary temperature ) , or into the rectum via the anus ( rectal temperature ) .", "Noise temperature In electronics , noise temperature is one way of expressing the level of available noise power introduced by a component or source . The power spectral density of the noise is expressed in terms of the temperature ( in kelvins ) that would produce that level of Johnson -- Nyquist noise , thus : where : is the power ( in watts ) is the total bandwidth ( Hz ) over which that noise power is measured is the Boltzmann constant ( 1.381 × 10 − 23 J/K , joules per kelvin ) is the noise temperature ( K ) Thus the noise temperature is proportional to the power spectral density of the noise , . That is the power that would be absorbed from the component or source by a matched load . Noise temperature is generally a function of frequency , unlike that of an ideal resistor which is simply equal to the actual temperature of the resistor at all frequencies .", "Thioacetone Thioacetone is an organosulfur compound with the chemical formula ( CH3 ) 2CS . It is a lightly studied compound . The compound has been isolated as an orange or brown liquid at low temperatures . Above -20 ° C , thioacetone readily converts to a polymer and a trimer .", "Climate of Rajasthan The Climate of Rajasthan , India is generally arid or semi-arid and features fairly hot temperatures over the year with extreme temperatures in both summer and winter .", "Climate of Serbia The Serbian climate is between a continental climate in the north , with cold winters , and hot , humid summers with well distributed rainfall patterns , and a more Adriatic climate in the south with hot , dry summers and autumns and rank daily average relatively cold winters with heavy inland snowfall . Differences in elevation , proximity to the Adriatic Sea and large river basins , as well as exposure to the winds account for climate differences . Northern Serbia possesses typical continental climate , with air masses from northern and western Europe which shape its climatic profile . South and South-west Serbia is subject to Mediterranean influences . However , the Dinaric Alps and other mountain ranges contribute to the cooling down of most of the warm air masses . Winters are quite harsh in Raška ( region ) because of the mountains which encircle the plateau . Mediterranean micro-regions exist throughout southern Serbia , in Zlatibor and the Pčinja District around valley and river Pčinja . The average annual air temperature for the period 1961 -- 90 for the area with an altitude of up to 300 m is 10.9 ° C . The areas with an altitude of 300 to have an average annual temperature of around 10.0 ° C , and over 1000 m of altitude around 6.0 ° C . The lowest recorded temperature in Serbia was -39.5 ° C ( January 13 , 1985 , Karajukića Bunari in Pešter ) , and the highest was 44.9 C ( July 24 , 2007 , Smederevska Palanka ) .", "Ice VII Ice VII is a cubic crystalline form of ice . It can be formed from liquid water above 3 GPa ( 30,000 atmospheres ) by lowering its temperature to room temperature , or by decompressing heavy water ( D2O ) ice VI below 95 K. Ordinary water ice is known as ice Ih , ( in the Bridgman nomenclature ) . Different types of ice , from ice II to ice XVI , have been created in the laboratory at different temperatures and pressures . Ice VII is metastable over a wide range of temperatures and pressures and transforms into low-density amorphous ice ( LDA ) above 120K . Ice VII has a triple point with liquid water and ice VI at 355 K and 2.216 GPa , with the melt line extending to at least 715 K and 10 GPa . It can also be created by increasing the pressure on ice VI at ambient temperature . Like the majority of ice phases ( including ice Ih ) , the hydrogen atom positions are disordered . In addition , the oxygen atoms are disordered over multiple sites . The structure of ice VII comprises a hydrogen bond framework in the form of two interpenetrating ( but non-bonded ) sublattices . Hydrogen pass through the center of the water hexamers and thus do not connect the two lattices . Ice VII has a density of about 1.65 g cm − 3 ( at 2.5 GPa and 25 ° C ) , which is less than twice the cubic ice density as the intra-network O -- O distances are 8 % longer ( at 0.1 MPa ) to allow for interpenetration . The cubic unit cell has a side length of 3.3501 Å ( for D2O , at 2.6 GPa and 22 ° C ) and contains two water molecules . Ice VII is the only disordered phase of ice that can be ordered by simple cooling , and it forms ( ordered ) ice VIII below 273 K up to ~ 8 GPa . Above this pressure , the VII -- VIII transition temperature drops rapidly , reaching 0 K at ~ 60 GPa . Thus , ice VII has the largest stability field of all of the molecular phases of ice . The cubic oxygen sub-lattices that form the backbone of the ice VII structure persist to pressures of at least 128 GPa ; this pressure is substantially higher than that at which water loses its molecular character entirely , forming ice X . In high pressure ices , protonic diffusion ( movement of protons around the oxygen lattice ) dominates molecular diffusion , an effect which has been measured directly . Scientists hypothesize that ice VII may comprise the ocean floor of Titan as well as extrasolar planets ( such as Gliese 436 b and GJ 1214 b ) that are largely made of water .", "Climate of North Carolina North Carolina 's climate varies from the Atlantic coast in the east to the Appalachian Mountain range in the west . The mountains often act as a `` shield '' , blocking low temperatures and storms from the Midwest from entering the Piedmont of North Carolina . Most of the state has a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen climate classification Cfa ) , except in the higher elevations of the Appalachians which have a subtropical highland climate ( Köppen Cfb ) . For most areas in the state , the temperatures in July during the daytime are approximately 90 F . In January the average temperatures range near 50 F. ( However , a polar vortex or `` cold blast '' can significantly bring down average temperatures , seen in the winters of 2014 and 2015 . )", "Geothermal heat pump A geothermal heat pump or ground source heat pump ( GSHP ) is a central heating and/or cooling system that transfers heat to or from the ground . It uses the earth as a heat source ( in the winter ) or a heat sink ( in the summer ) . This design takes advantage of the moderate temperatures in the ground to boost efficiency and reduce the operational costs of heating and cooling systems , and may be combined with solar heating to form a geosolar system with even greater efficiency . They are also known by other names , including geoexchange , earth-coupled , earth energy systems . The engineering and scientific communities prefer the terms `` geoexchange '' or `` ground source heat pumps '' to avoid confusion with traditional geothermal power , which uses a high temperature heat source to generate electricity . Ground source heat pumps harvest heat absorbed at the Earth 's surface from solar energy . The temperature in the ground below 6 m is roughly equal to the mean annual air temperature at that latitude at the surface . Depending on latitude , the temperature beneath the upper 6 m of Earth 's surface maintains a nearly constant temperature between 10 and 16 ° C ( 50 and 60 ° F ) , if the temperature is undisturbed by the presence of a heat pump . Like a refrigerator or air conditioner , these systems use a heat pump to force the transfer of heat from the ground . Heat pumps can transfer heat from a cool space to a warm space , against the natural direction of flow , or they can enhance the natural flow of heat from a warm area to a cool one . The core of the heat pump is a loop of refrigerant pumped through a vapor-compression refrigeration cycle that moves heat . Air-source heat pumps are typically more efficient at heating than pure electric heaters , even when extracting heat from cold winter air , although efficiencies begin dropping significantly as outside air temperatures drop below 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) . A ground source heat pump exchanges heat with the ground . This is much more energy-efficient because underground temperatures are more stable than air temperatures through the year . Seasonal variations drop off with depth and disappear below 7 m to 12 m due to thermal inertia . Like a cave , the shallow ground temperature is warmer than the air above during the winter and cooler than the air in the summer . A ground source heat pump extracts ground heat in the winter ( for heating ) and transfers heat back into the ground in the summer ( for cooling ) . Some systems are designed to operate in one mode only , heating or cooling , depending on climate . Geothermal pump systems reach fairly high coefficient of performance ( CoP ) , 3 to 6 , on the coldest of winter nights , compared to 1.75 -- 2.5 for air-source heat pumps on cool days . Ground source heat pumps ( GSHPs ) are among the most energy efficient technologies for providing HVAC and water heating . Setup costs are higher than for conventional systems , but the difference is usually returned in energy savings in 3 to 10 years , and even shorter lengths of time with federal , state and utility tax credits and incentives . Geothermal heat pump systems are reasonably warranted by manufacturers , and their working life is estimated at 25 years for inside components and 50 + years for the ground loop . As of 2004 , there are over one million units installed worldwide providing 12 GW of thermal capacity , with an annual growth rate of 10 % .", "Simon–Glatzel equation The Simon -- Glatzel equation is an empirical correlation describing the pressure dependence of the melting temperature of a solid . The pressure dependence of the melting temperature is small for small pressure changes because the volume change during fusion or melting is rather small . However , at very high pressures higher melting temperatures are generally observed as the liquid usually occupies a larger volume than the solid making melting more thermodynamically unfavorable at elevated pressure . If the liquid has a smaller volume than the solid ( as for ice and liquid water ) a higher pressure leads to a lower melting point .", "Recoil temperature In laser cooling , the Boltzmann constant times the recoil temperature is equal to the recoil energy deposited in a single atom initially at rest by the spontaneous emission of a single photon . The recoil temperature is , since the photon 's momentum is ( here is the wavevector of the light , is the mass of an atom , is Boltzmann 's constant and is Planck 's constant ) . The recoil temperature for the D2 lines of alkali atoms is typically on the order of 1 μK , and thus lower than the Doppler temperature . An example of a process where the recoil temperature can be reached is Sisyphus cooling .", "Molten salt Molten salt is salt which is solid at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) but enters the liquid phase due to elevated temperature . A salt that is normally liquid even at STP is usually called a room temperature ionic liquid , although technically molten salts are a class of ionic liquids .", "Hot water reset Hot water reset is an energy-saving automatic control algorithm for hot water boilers that are typically fired with fuel oil or natural gas . A hot water reset control loop measures the outside air temperature ; this information is used to estimate demand or heating load as the outdoor temperature varies . The supply hot water temperature is modulated up and down range in an inverse linear ratio to outside air temperature . The typical range for conventional boilers is to vary the supply water temperature from as the outside temperature varies from .", "Hampson–Linde cycle The Hampson -- Linde cycle is used in the liquefaction of gases , especially for air separation . William Hampson and Carl von Linde independently filed for patent of the cycle in 1895 . Hampson-Linde systems introduced regenerative cooling , a positive-feedback cooling system . The heat exchanger arrangement permits an absolute temperature difference ( e.g. J-T cooling for air ) to go beyond a single stage of cooling , and reach the low temperatures required to liquefy `` fixed '' gasses . The Hampson-Linde cycle differs from the Siemens cycle only in the expansion step . Where the Siemens cycle has the gas do external work to reduce its temperature , the Hampson-Linde cycle relies solely on the Joule-Thomson effect . This has the advantage that the cold side needs no moving parts .", "Jones Dole equation The Jones Dole equation or Jones Dole expression describes the relationship between the viscosity of an aqueous salt solution and the concentration of salt within the solution ( at a fixed temperature and pressure ) . The Jones Dole equation is written as : where n ( aq ) is the viscosity of the aqueous salt solution ( at a fixed temperature and pressure ) nl * ( l ) is the viscosity of water at the same temperature and pressure A is a coefficient that describes the impact of charge-charge interactions on the viscosity of a solution ( it is usually positive ) C is the concentration of the salt B is a coefficient which characterises the ion-solvent interactions at a defined temperature and pressure . It is interpreted as a measure of the structure forming and structure-breaking capacity of an ion in solution ." ]

[ "Climate change adaptation Climate change adaptation is a response to global warming and climate change , that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological systems to relatively sudden change and thus offset the effects of global warming . Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon , global warming and its effects will last many years , and adaptation will be necessary to the resulting changes in climate . Adaptation is especially important in developing countries since those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of global warming . That is , the capacity and potential for humans to adapt ( called adaptive capacity ) is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations , and developing countries generally have less capacity to adapt ( Schneider et al. , 2007 ) . Furthermore , the degree of adaptation correlates to the situational focus on environmental issues . Therefore , adaptation requires the situational assessment of sensitivity and vulnerability to environmental impacts . Adaptive capacity is closely linked to social and economic development ( IPCC , 2007 ) . The economic costs of adaptation to climate change are likely to cost billions of dollars annually for the next several decades , though the amount of money needed is unknown . Donor countries promised an annual $ 100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change . However , while the fund was set up during COP16 in Cancún , concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming . The adaptation challenge grows with the magnitude and the rate of climate change . Another response to climate change , known as climate change mitigation ( Verbruggen , 2007 ) is to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and/or enhance the removal of these gases from the atmosphere ( through carbon sinks ) . Even the most effective reductions in emissions , however , would not prevent further climate change impacts , making the need for adaptation unavoidable ( Klein et al. , 2007 ) . In a literature assessment , Klein et al. ( 2007 ) assessed options for adaptation . They concluded , with very high confidence , that in the absence of mitigation efforts , the effects of climate change would reach such a magnitude as to make adaptation impossible for some natural ecosystems . Others are concerned that climate adaptation programs might interfere with the existing development programs and thus lead to unintended consequences for vulnerable groups . For human systems , the economic and social costs of unmitigated climate change would be very high .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Effects of global warming The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "Mitigation of global warming in Australia Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .", "Economics of global warming The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "Effects of global warming on Australia Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .", "Regional effects of global warming Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming is a book by the Danish statistician and political scientist Bjørn Lomborg . The book is a sequel to The Skeptical Environmentalist ( first published in Danish in 1998 ) , which in English translation brought the author to world attention . Lomborg argues that many of the elaborate and expensive actions being considered to stop global warming will cost hundreds of billions of dollars without the same return on investment , often are based on emotional rather than strictly scientific assumptions , and may have very little impact on the world 's temperature for centuries . Lomborg concludes that a limited carbon tax is needed in the First World as well as subsidies from the First World to the Third World to help fight ongoing humanitarian crises .", "Global warming game A global warming game , also known as a climate game or a climate change game , is a type of serious game . As a serious game , it attempts to simulate and explore real life issues to educate players through an interactive experience . The issues particular to a global warming video game are usually energy efficiency and the implementation of green technology as ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and thus counteract global warming . Global warming games also include more traditional board games , video games , as well as other varieties .", "Global warming taxes ", "Extinction risk from global warming The extinction risk of global warming is the risk of species becoming extinct due to the effects of global warming .", "Business action on climate change Business action on climate change includes a range of activities relating to global warming , and to influencing political decisions on global-warming-related regulation , such as the Kyoto Protocol . Major multinationals have played and to some extent continue to play a significant role in the politics of global warming , especially in the United States , through lobbying of government and funding of global warming skeptics . Business also plays a key role in the mitigation of global warming , through decisions to invest in researching and implementing new energy technologies and energy efficiency measures . ( See also individual and political action on climate change . )", "Global warming (disambiguation) Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .", "An Appeal to Reason An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .", "Thermal Credits Thermal credits is a new holistic concept which corresponds to the percentage of the climate impact saving obtained through mitigation and adaptation measures applied against global warming , taking as reference the global temperature rise projected in a given time scale . Thermal credits are measured in percentages of global warming reduction in a given time .", "Global warming in Norway Global warming in Norway discusses global warming issues in Norway .", "Global warming in Luxembourg Global warming in Luxembourg discuss the global warming issues in Luxembourg .", "Economics of climate change mitigation This article is about the economics of climate change mitigation . Mitigation of climate change involves actions that are designed to limit the amount of long-term climate change ( Fisher et al. . , 2007:225 ) . Mitigation may be achieved through the reduction of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions or through the enhancement of sinks that absorb GHGs , for example forests .", "Carbon price Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .", "Global warming hiatus A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "Climatic adaptation Climate adaptation refers to specific adaptations in a living organism that develop in response to changes in climate and habitat . Such adaptations could include physical changes , such as skin or fur color and composition changes , or the adaptations could be behavioral , such as burrowing into the ground or spending more time in water . These are not necessarily permanently expressed traits , instead encompassing the potential for the individual to adapt to certain environments . The change in the environment triggers a change in behavior which would not have been present had the organism not been exposed to that specific stimuli . Climate adaptation is constrained by the genetic variability of the species in question .", "Technological Innovation for Climate Change Mitigation ", "Global warming in Belgium Global warming in Belgium describes the global warming related issues in Belgium .", "Effects of global warming on South Asia ", "Climate change mitigation scenarios Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "Earth's energy budget Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .", "Pollution haven hypothesis The pollution haven hypothesis posits that , when large industrialized nations seek to set up factories or offices abroad , they will often look for the cheapest option in terms of resources and labor that offers the land and material access they require . However , this often comes at the cost of environmentally sound practices . Developing nations with cheap resources and labor tend to have less stringent environmental regulations , and conversely , nations with stricter environmental regulations become more expensive for companies as a result of the costs associated with meeting these standards . Thus , companies that choose to physically invest in foreign countries tend to ( re ) locate to the countries with the lowest environmental standards or weakest enforcement .", "Global warming in Russia Global warming in Russia describes the global warming related issues in Russia . This includes climate politics , contribution to global warming and the influence of global warming on Russia . In 2009 Russia was ready to reduce emissions 20 -- 25 % from its 1990 emission levels by the year 2020 .", "Greenhouse effect The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "Anti-greenhouse effect The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar to the greenhouse effect , but with the opposite consequence of cooling the surface temperature of a planet . If gases in the atmosphere of a planet have a lesser transmittance for inbound radiation ( for instance , solar rays in the Solar System ) than for outbound radiation ( typically thermal radiation of the planet 's surface in the infrared domain ) , the surface temperature at which inbound and outbound heat fluxes are at equilibrium is lower .", "Climate system Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "Efficient energy use Efficient energy use , sometimes simply called energy efficiency , is the goal to reduce the amount of energy required to provide products and services . For example , insulating a home allows a building to use less heating and cooling energy to achieve and maintain a comfortable temperature . Installing fluorescent lights , LED lights or natural skylights reduces the amount of energy required to attain the same level of illumination compared with using traditional incandescent light bulbs . Improvements in energy efficiency are generally achieved by adopting a more efficient technology or production process or by application of commonly accepted methods to reduce energy losses . There are many motivations to improve energy efficiency . Reducing energy use reduces energy costs and may result in a financial cost saving to consumers if the energy savings offset any additional costs of implementing an energy efficient technology . Reducing energy use is also seen as a solution to the problem of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . According to the International Energy Agency , improved energy efficiency in buildings , industrial processes and transportation could reduce the world 's energy needs in 2050 by one third , and help control global emissions of greenhouse gases . Energy efficiency and renewable energy are said to be the twin pillars of sustainable energy policy and are high priorities in the sustainable energy hierarchy . In many countries energy efficiency is also seen to have a national security benefit because it can be used to reduce the level of energy imports from foreign countries and may slow down the rate at which domestic energy resources are depleted .", "Peter Taylor (environmentalist) Peter Taylor ( b. 24 Jan 1948 ) is a UK environmentalist with a long track record of public activism and scholarship on issues ranging from nuclear safety , ocean pollution , biodiversity strategies , renewable energy and climate change . His recent work on global warming has been questioned by environmentalists . His 2009 book Chill : a reassessment of global warming theory argued that most of the recent documented warming is caused by peaking natural cycles , that there is also a potential for global cooling and that adaptation not mitigation should be a priority . His views received widespread coverage in the media -- with front page on the Daily Express , and articles in the online versions of The Mail , The Times and an Al Jazeera video .", "Hurricane Katrina and global warming The tremendous destruction caused by recent Atlantic Ocean tropical cyclones , such as Hurricanes Katrina , Wilma , and Sandy caused a substantial upsurge in interest in the subject of global warming by news media and the wider public , and concerns that global climatic change may have played a significant role in those events . Time Magazine , for example , published an article titled , `` Is Global Warming Fueling Katrina ? '' -- however , the article itself addressed hurricanes in general , rather than Katrina specifically , and was inconclusive . Shortly after the hurricane , former Boston Globe reporter Ross Gelbspan wrote an op-ed piece for the Globe titled , `` Katrina 's Real Name '' , declaring that the hurricane 's `` real name is global warming . '' Gelbspan went on to assert : `` Although Katrina began as a relatively small hurricane that glanced off south Florida , it was supercharged with extraordinary intensity by the relatively blistering sea surface temperatures in the Gulf of Mexico . '' Gelbspan did not single out Katrina from other recent storms in that regard ; in the article he went on to attribute other major weather events over the preceding year to global warming , including a blizzard in Los Angeles , high winds in Scandinavia , wildfires in Spain , and a drought centered in Missouri . Britain 's then deputy prime minister , John Prescott , has linked Katrina with global warming , and statements made shortly after the hurricane by Germany 's environment minister , Jürgen Trittin , indicate he believes that global warming is responsible for an increase in the frequency of destructive natural events . Kerry Emanuel had recently published a paper in the journal Nature that found a good correlation between hurricane intensity and sea surface temperatures . Some journalists have claimed Emanuel 's paper concludes that the recent increase in intense Atlantic storms is due to global warming , but Emanuel stated that `` it would be absurd to attribute the Katrina disaster to global warming '' . The Internet blog RealClimate has written that `` there is no way to prove that Katrina either was , or was not , affected by global warming '' ." ]

[ "Ocean acidification Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Seawater is slightly basic ( meaning pH > 7 ) , and the process in question is a shift towards pH-neutral conditions rather than a transition to acidic conditions ( pH < 7 ) . Ocean alkalinity is not changed by the process , or may increase over long time periods due to carbonate dissolution . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the carbon dioxide from human activity released into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes . To achieve chemical equilibrium , some of it reacts with the water to form carbonic acid . Some of these extra carbonic acid molecules react with a water molecule to give a bicarbonate ion and a hydronium ion , thus increasing ocean acidity ( H + ion concentration ) . Between 1751 and 1996 surface ocean pH is estimated to have decreased from approximately 8.25 to 8.14 , representing an increase of almost 35 % in H + ion concentration in the world 's oceans . Earth System Models project that within the last decade ocean acidity exceeded historical analogues and in combination with other ocean biogeochemical changes could undermine the functioning of marine ecosystems and disrupt the provision of many goods and services associated with the ocean . Increasing acidity is thought to have a range of potentially harmful consequences for marine organisms , such as depressing metabolic rates and immune responses in some organisms , and causing coral bleaching . By increasing the presence of free hydrogen ions , each molecule of carbonic acid that forms in the oceans ultimately results in the conversion of two carbonate ions into bicarbonate ions . This net decrease in the amount of carbonate ions available makes it more difficult for marine calcifying organisms , such as coral and some plankton , to form biogenic calcium carbonate , and such structures become vulnerable to dissolution . Ongoing acidification of the oceans threatens food chains connected with the oceans . As members of the InterAcademy Panel , 105 science academies have issued a statement on ocean acidification recommending that by 2050 , global emissions be reduced by at least 50 % compared to the 1990 level . While ongoing ocean acidification is anthropogenic in origin , it has occurred previously in Earth 's history . The most notable example is the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , which occurred approximately 56 million years ago . For reasons that are currently uncertain , massive amounts of carbon entered the ocean and atmosphere , and led to the dissolution of carbonate sediments in all ocean basins . Ocean acidification has been called the `` evil twin of global warming '' and `` the other problem '' .", "Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "Pollution Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change . Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy , such as noise , heat or light . Pollutants , the components of pollution , can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants . Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Oceanic carbon cycle The oceans contain around 36,000 gigatons of carbon , mostly in the form of bicarbonate ion ( over 90 % , with most of the remainder being carbonate ) . At the surface of the oceans towards the poles , seawater becomes cooler and more carbonic acid is formed as CO2 becomes more soluble . This is coupled to the ocean 's thermohaline circulation which transports dense surface water into the ocean 's interior ( see the entry on the solubility pump ) . Although the deep ocean contains much more dissolved inorganic carbon than the surface ocean , the concentration is only 15 % higher in the deep ocean as compared to the surface ocean due to the higher volume of the deep ocean . In upper ocean areas of high biological productivity , organisms convert reduced carbon to tissues , or carbonates to hard body parts such as shells and tests . These are , respectively , oxidized ( soft-tissue pump ) and redissolved ( carbonate pump ) at lower average levels of the ocean than those at which they formed , resulting in a downward flow of carbon ( see entry on the biological pump ) . The flux or absorption of carbon dioxide into the world 's oceans is influenced by the presence of widespread viruses within ocean water , that infect many species of bacteria . The resulting bacterial deaths spawn a sequence of events that lead to greatly enlarged respiration of carbon dioxide , enhancing the role of the oceans as a carbon sink . The balance of dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) : dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) : particle organic carbon is about 2000:38:1 . The CaCO3 counter pump increases the partial pressure of CO2 in the ocean , thus leading to higher outgasing of carbon dioxide . Higher ocean temperatures lead to stronger layering , thus less mixing and less capacity for thermohaline circulation to bring carbon into lower ocean layers . The weathering of silicate rock ( see carbonate-silicate cycle ) . Carbonic acid reacts with weathered rock to produce bicarbonate ions . The bicarbonate ions produced are carried to the ocean , where they are used to make marine carbonates . Unlike dissolved CO2 in equilibrium or tissues , which decay , weathering does not move the carbon into a reservoir from which it can readily return to the atmosphere . Much remains to be learned about the cycling of carbon in the deep ocean . For example , a recent discovery is that larvacean mucus houses ( commonly known as `` sinkers '' ) are created in such large numbers that they can deliver as much carbon to the deep ocean as has been previously detected by sediment traps . Because of their size and composition , these houses are rarely collected in such traps , so most biogeochemical analyses have erroneously ignored them . The amount of dissolved inorganic carbon in the ocean is significantly higher in the deep layer ( below 300 m depth ) . This is caused by the solubility pump and the biological pump .", "NYC: Tornado Terror NYC : Tornado Terror is a 2008 Canadian made for TV disaster film . It stars Nicole de Boer , Sebastian Spence , and Jerry Wasserman . It premiered on Syfy on October 4 , 2008 , and is directed by Tibor Takács . The film is about global warming which causes the upper and lower atmosphere to separate so that their different movements generate huge electrical charges which causes huge electrical tornadoes to drop on New York City causing destruction and loss of life . Dr. Cassie Lawrence tries to stop the twisters as chaos ensues . NASA ignores the mayor who recommends following Dr. Lawrence 's advice and use silver iodide on the atmosphere instead , which makes things worse , so it is down to our heroes to use a rebel scientist with his own makeshift rockets to use dry ice ( frozen CO2 ) . The problem is solved , but before the film ends , the same storm effects begin in Paris .", "Global Census of Marine Life on Seamounts Global Census of Marine Life on Seamounts ( commonly CenSeam ) is a global scientific initiative , launched in 2005 , that is designed to expand the knowledge base of marine life at seamounts . Seamounts are underwater mountains , not necessarily volcanic in origin , which often form subsurface archipelagoes and are found throughout the world 's ocean basins , with almost half in the Pacific . There are estimated to be as many as 100,000 seamounts at least one kilometer in height , and more if lower rises are included . However , they have not been explored very much -- in fact , only about half of one percent have been sampled -- and almost every expedition to a seamount discovers new species and new information . There is evidence that seamounts can host concentrations of biologic diversity , each with its own unique local ecosystem ; they seem to affect oceanic currents , resulting among other things in local concentration of plankton which in turn attracts species that graze on it , and indeed are probably a significant overall factor in biogeography of the oceans . They also may serve as way stations in the migration of whales and other pelagic species . Despite being poorly studied , they are heavily targeted by commercial fishing , including dredging . In addition they are of interest to potential seabed mining . The overall goal of CenSeam is `` to determine the role of seamounts in the biogeography , biodiversity , productivity , and evolution of marine organisms , and to evaluate the effects of human exploitation on seamounts . '' To this effect , the group organizes and contributes to various research efforts about seamount biodiversity . Specifically , the project aims to act as a standardized scaffold for future studies and samplings , citing inefficiency and incompatibility between individual research efforts in the past . To give a scale of their mission , there are an estimated 100,000 seamounts in the ocean , but only 350 of them have been sampled , and only about 100 sampled thoroughly . Although sampling all 100,000 seamounts is infeasible , major seamounts can be sampled in such a way . CenSeam is a subdivision of the Census of Marine Life program . Organisationally , the components of CenSeam consist of a secretariat ( Malcolm Clark , Mireille Consalvey , Ashley Rowden and Karen Stocks ) which is hosted by the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research in Wellington , New Zealand ; an international steering committee ; a taxonomic advisory panel ; and two working groups , Data Analysis and Standardisation . In 2008 CenSeam began collaborating with the International Seabed Authority to study effects of seabed mining on seamount ecosystems .", "Great Oxygenation Event The Great Oxygenation Event ( GOE , also called the Oxygen Catastrophe , Oxygen Crisis , Oxygen Holocaust , Oxygen Revolution , or Great Oxidation ) was the biologically induced appearance of dioxygen ( O2 ) in Earth 's atmosphere . Although geological , isotopic , and chemical evidence suggest that this major environmental change happened around 2.45 billion years ago ( 2.45 Ga ) , ( during the Siderian period ) the actual causes and the exact date of the event are not clear . The current geochemical and biomarker evidence for the development of oxygenic photosynthesis before the Great Oxidation Event has been mostly inconclusive . Oceanic cyanobacteria , which evolved into multicellular forms more than 2.3 billion years ago ( approximately 200 million years before the GOE ) , are believed to have become the first microbes to produce oxygen by photosynthesis . Before the GOE , any free oxygen they produced was chemically captured by dissolved iron or organic matter . The GOE was the point in time when these oxygen sinks became saturated , at which point oxygen , produced by the cyanobacteria , was free to escape into the atmosphere . The increased production of oxygen set Earth 's original atmosphere off balance . Free oxygen is toxic to obligate anaerobic organisms , and the rising concentrations may have destroyed most such organisms at the time . Cyanobacteria were therefore responsible for one of the most significant extinction events in Earth 's history . Besides marine cyanobacteria , there is also evidence of cyanobacteria on land . A spike in chromium contained in ancient rock deposits formed underwater shows they had accumulated chromium washed off from continental shelves . Chromium is not easily dissolved and its release from rocks would have required the presence of a powerful acid . One such acid , sulfuric acid , might have been created through bacterial reactions with pyrite . Mats of oxygen-producing cyanobacteria can produce a thin layer , one or two millimeters thick , of oxygenated water in an otherwise anoxic environment even under thick ice , and before oxygen started accumulating in the atmosphere , these organisms would already be adapted to oxygen . Additionally , the free oxygen would have reacted with atmospheric methane , a greenhouse gas , greatly reducing its concentration and triggering the Huronian glaciation , possibly the longest episode of glaciation in Earth 's history and called snowball Earth . Eventually , the evolution of aerobic organisms that consumed oxygen established an equilibrium in its availability . Free oxygen has been an important constituent of the atmosphere ever since .", "Recycled fuel Fuel made of residues as CO2 produced by using a primary fuel . For example , CO2 pollution in the atmosphere , produced by petrol burning or other sources , can be extracted to produce fuel through an artificial photosynthesis based in nanotechnology , which helps to mitigate pollution , climate change and energy issues .", "Soil guideline value Soil Guideline Values ( SGVs ) are figures which are used in non-statutory technical guidance for assessors carrying out risk assessments to determine whether land is considered ` contaminated ' under United Kingdom law , that is `` land which appears to ... be in such a condition , by reason of substances in , on or under the land , that ( a ) significant harm is being caused or there is a significant possibility of such harm being caused ... '' This guidance stipulates three stages in such risk assessments : Preliminary qualitative assessment including development of conceptual site model Generic Quantitative Risk Assessment ( GQRA ) Detailed Quantitative Risk Assessment ( DQRA ) Soil Guideline Values are used in the second stage , GQRA , to determine whether harm caused by long-term exposure to a given soil concentration of chemicals may present an unacceptable risk to human health in some generic land-use scenario . The SGVs are therefore conservative estimates for a given scenario . Exceedance of a SGV does not confirm that there is a ` significant possibility of significant harm ' , merely that the possibility exists and therefore more detailed , site-specific investigation of contaminants present , pathways and receptors is required .", "Burkholderia endofungorum Burkholderia endofungorum is a gram-negative , catalase and oxidase-positive , motile bacterium which is able to grow under aerobic and microaerophilic conditions without CO2 atmosphere , from the genus of Burkholderia and the family of Burkholderiaceae .", "Parathyroid adenoma A parathyroid adenoma is a benign tumor of the parathyroid gland . It generally causes hyperparathyroidism ; there are very few reports of parathyroid adenomas that were not associated with hyperparathyroidism . A human being usually has four parathyroid glands located on the back surface of the thyroid in the neck . The parathyroids secrete parathyroid hormone ( PTH ) , which increases the concentration of calcium in the blood by inducing the bones to release calcium into the blood and the kidneys to reabsorb it from the urine into the blood . When a parathyroid adenoma causes hyperparathyroidism , more parathyroid hormone is secreted , causing the calcium concentration of the blood to rise , resulting in hypercalcemia .", "Evaporite Evaporite ( -LSB- pronᵻˈvæpəraɪt -RSB- ) is a name for a water-soluble mineral sediment that results from concentration and crystallization by evaporation from an aqueous solution . There are two types of evaporite deposits : marine , which can also be described as ocean deposits , and non-marine , which are found in standing bodies of water such as lakes . Evaporites are considered sedimentary rocks and are formed by chemical sediments .", "Future of Earth The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .", "Ethanol from coal Ethanol from coal is the ethanol produced using coal as its carbon source . The anaerobic bacterium Clostridium ljungdahlii produces ethanol and acetic acid from CO , CO2 , and H2 in synthesis gas . Early studies with C. ljungdahlii showed that relatively high concentrations of ethanol were produced . This process involves three main steps : Gasification : Thermal gasification at temperatures of up to 2,200 ° F in a reducing , very low oxygen atmosphere transforms organic materials into simple CO , CO2 and H2 gases . Fermentation : The acetogenic C. ljungdahlii convert the carbon monoxide into ethanol . Distillation : Ethanol is separated from hydrogen and water .", "Hope Canal The East Demerara Water Conservancy-Northern Relief Channel , better known locally as the Hope Canal , is one of Guyana 's largest drainage projects . During periods of extended rainfalls , the water level in the EDWC tends to rise above the maximum safe storage level . This excess volume of water in the conservancy causes an increase in lateral pressure acting on the earthen embankment . This will eventually create failure ; which will result in catastrophic floods , causing damages to both Agricultural and Residential areas . In the year 2005 , there was a breach in the embankment which resulted in floods to almost the entire East Coast of Demerara . This was caused by the excess water in the EDWC . The EDWC NRC ( Hope Canal ) project was designed in response to this great 2005 floods . This canal serves as a medium to release excess water from the EDWC directly to the Atlantic Ocean , during periods of extended rainfall in order to prevent overtopping of conservancy embankment . Construction of the Northern Relief Channel and Associated Drainage Structures Started on May 4 , 2011 and concluded on November 9 , 2013", "Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument The Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument is a group of unorganized , mostly unincorporated United States Pacific Island territories managed by the Fish and Wildlife Service of the United States Department of the Interior and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the United States Department of Commerce . These remote refuges are `` the most widespread collection of marine - and terrestrial-life protected areas on the planet under a single country 's jurisdiction '' . They protect many endemic species including corals , fish , shellfish , marine mammals , seabirds , water birds , land birds , insects , and vegetation not found elsewhere .", "Mesopause The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .", "Plastiki The Plastiki is a 60 ft catamaran made out of 12,500 reclaimed plastic bottles and other recycled PET plastic and waste products . The craft was built using cradle to cradle design philosophies and features many renewable energy systems , including solar panels , wind and trailing propeller turbines , and bicycle generators . The frame was designed by Australian naval architect Andrew Dovell . The boat 's name is a play on the 1947 Kon-Tiki raft used to sail across the Pacific by Norwegian explorer Thor Heyerdahl , and its voyage roughly followed the same route . On March 20 , 2010 , the sailing vessel set off from San Francisco , California to cross the Pacific Ocean with a crew of six : British skipper Jo Royle , co-skipper David Thompson , expedition diver Olav Heyerdahl , filmmakers Max Jourdan and Vern Moen , and expedition leader David de Rothschild . The expedition projected landfall in Sydney , Australia and included plans to visit several sites en route of ecological importance or which were susceptible to environmental issues caused by global warming , for instance the current sea level rise , ocean acidification and marine pollution . Plastiki arrived in Sydney Harbour on July 26 , 2010 , accompanied by a small flotilla of boats . Shortly afterwards , it was towed to the Australian National Maritime Museum in Darling Harbour , where it was on display until late August .", "Abyssal plain An abyssal plain is an underwater plain on the deep ocean floor , usually found at depths between 3000 m and 6000 m. Lying generally between the foot of a continental rise and a mid-ocean ridge , abyssal plains cover more than 50 % of the Earth 's surface . They are among the flattest , smoothest and least explored regions on Earth . Abyssal plains are key geologic elements of oceanic basins ( the other elements being an elevated mid-ocean ridge and flanking abyssal hills ) . In addition to these elements , active oceanic basins ( those that are associated with a moving plate tectonic boundary ) also typically include an oceanic trench and a subduction zone . Abyssal plains were not recognized as distinct physiographic features of the sea floor until the late 1940s and , until very recently , none had been studied on a systematic basis . They are poorly preserved in the sedimentary record , because they tend to be consumed by the subduction process . The creation of the abyssal plain is the end result of spreading of the seafloor ( plate tectonics ) and melting of the lower oceanic crust . Magma rises from above the asthenosphere ( a layer of the upper mantle ) and as this basaltic material reaches the surface at mid-ocean ridges it forms new oceanic crust . This is constantly pulled sideways by spreading of the seafloor . Abyssal plains result from the blanketing of an originally uneven surface of oceanic crust by fine-grained sediments , mainly clay and silt . Much of this sediment is deposited by turbidity currents that have been channelled from the continental margins along submarine canyons down into deeper water . The remainder of the sediment is composed chiefly of pelagic sediments . Metallic nodules are common in some areas of the plains , with varying concentrations of metals , including manganese , iron , nickel , cobalt , and copper . These nodules may provide a significant resource for future mining ventures . Owing in part to their vast size , abyssal plains are currently believed to be a major reservoir of biodiversity . The abyss also exerts significant influence upon ocean carbon cycling , dissolution of calcium carbonate , and atmospheric CO2 concentrations over timescales of 100 -- 1000 years . The structure and function of abyssal ecosystems are strongly influenced by the rate of flux of food to the seafloor and the composition of the material that settles . Factors such as climate change , fishing practices , and ocean fertilization are expected to have a substantial effect on patterns of primary production in the euphotic zone . This will undoubtedly impact the flux of organic material to the abyss in a similar manner and thus have a profound effect on the structure , function and diversity of abyssal ecosystems ." ]

[ "Water scarcity Water scarcity is the lack of sufficient available water resources to meet water needs within a region . It affects every continent and around 2.8 billion people around the world at least one month out of every year . More than 1.2 billion people lack access to clean drinking water . Water scarcity involves water shortage , water stress or deficits , and water crisis . The relatively new concept of water stress is difficulty in obtaining sources of fresh water for use during a period of time ; it may result in further depletion and deterioration of available water resources . Water shortages may be caused by climate change , such as altered weather-patterns ( including droughts or floods ) , increased pollution , and increased human demand and overuse of water . The term water crisis labels a situation where the available potable , unpolluted water within a region is less than that region 's demand . Two converging phenomena drive water scarcity : growing freshwater use and depletion of usable freshwater resources . Water scarcity can result from two mechanisms : physical ( absolute ) water scarcity economic water scarcity Physical water scarcity results from inadequate natural water resources to supply a region 's demand , and economic water scarcity results from poor management of the sufficient available water resources . According to the United Nations Development Programme , the latter is found more often to be the cause of countries or regions experiencing water scarcity , as most countries or regions have enough water to meet household , industrial , agricultural , and environmental needs , but lack the means to provide it in an accessible manner . Many countries and governments aim to reduce water scarcity . The UN recognizes the importance of reducing the number of people without sustainable access to clean water and sanitation . The Millennium Development Goals within the United Nations Millennium Declaration aimed by 2015 to `` halve the proportion of people who are unable to reach or to afford safe drinking water . ''", "Conservation biology Conservation biology is the management of nature and of Earth 's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species , their habitats , and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions . It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on natural and social sciences , and the practice of natural resource management . The conservation ethic is based on the findings of conservation biology .", "Extinction risk from global warming The extinction risk of global warming is the risk of species becoming extinct due to the effects of global warming .", "Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event The Cretaceous -- Paleogene ( K -- Pg ) extinction event , also known as the Cretaceous -- Tertiary ( K -- T ) extinction , was a mass extinction of some three-quarters of the plant and animal species on Earth that occurred over a geologically short period of time approximately 65 million years ago . With the exception of some ectothermic species like the leatherback sea turtle and crocodiles , no tetrapods weighing more than 25 kg survived . It marked the end of the Cretaceous period and with it , the entire Mesozoic Era , opening the Cenozoic Era that continues today . In the geologic record , the K -- Pg event is marked by a thin layer of sediment called the K -- Pg boundary , which can be found throughout the world in marine and terrestrial rocks . The boundary clay shows high levels of the metal iridium , which is rare in the Earth 's crust but abundant in asteroids . As originally proposed in 1980 by a team of scientists led by Luis Alvarez , it is now generally thought that the K -- Pg extinction was caused by a massive comet or asteroid impact , estimated to be 10 km wide , 66 million years ago and its catastrophic effects on the global environment , including a lingering impact winter that made it impossible for plants and plankton to carry out photosynthesis . The impact hypothesis , also known as the Alvarez hypothesis , was bolstered by the discovery of the 180 km Chicxulub crater in the Gulf of Mexico in the early 1990s , which provided conclusive evidence that the K -- Pg boundary clay represented debris from an asteroid impact . The fact that the extinctions occurred at the same time as the impact provides strong situational evidence that the K -- Pg extinction was caused by the asteroid . It was possibly accelerated by the creation of the Deccan Traps . However , some scientists maintain the extinction was caused or exacerbated by other factors , such as volcanic eruptions , climate change , or sea level change , separately or together . A wide range of species perished in the K -- Pg extinction . The best-known victims are the non-avian dinosaurs . However , the extinction also destroyed a plethora of other terrestrial organisms , including certain mammals , pterosaurs , birds , lizards , insects , and plants . In the oceans , the K -- Pg extinction killed off plesiosaurs and the giant marine lizards ( Mosasauridae ) and devastated fish , sharks , mollusks ( especially ammonites , which became extinct ) and many species of plankton . It is estimated that 75 % or more of all species on Earth vanished . Yet the devastation caused by the extinction also provided evolutionary opportunities . In the wake of the extinction , many groups underwent remarkable adaptive radiations -- a sudden and prolific divergence into new forms and species within the disrupted and emptied ecological niches resulting from the event . Mammals in particular diversified in the Paleogene , producing new forms such as horses , whales , bats , and primates . Birds , fish and perhaps lizards also radiated ." ]

[ "Pinctada margaritifera Pinctada margaritifera , commonly known as the black-lip pearl oyster , is a species of pearl oyster , a saltwater clam , a marine bivalve mollusk in the family Pteriidae . This species is common in the Indo-Pacific within tropical coral reefs . The ability of P. margaritifera to produce pearls means that the species is a valuable resource to humans . The oysters are harvested wild from coral reefs and are also commonly grown in aquaculture , both primarily taking place in the Indo-Pacific region .", "Acropora Acropora is a genus of small polyp stony coral in the phylum Cnidaria . Some of its species are known as table coral , elkhorn coral , and staghorn coral . Over 149 species are described . Acropora species are some of the major reef corals responsible for building the immense calcium carbonate substructure that supports the thin living skin of a reef .", "Thomas J. Goreau Thomas J. Goreau ( Tom Goreau , * in Jamaica ) is a biogeochemist and marine biologist ; son of Thomas F. Goreau and Nora I. Goreau . After studying in Jamaican primary and secondary schools , he earned degrees in planetary physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , in planetary astronomy at the California Institute of Technology , and in biogeochemistry at Harvard University ( Ph.D. ) . With his parents he researched the coral reefs of Jamaica , and continues to conduct research on the impacts of global climate change , pollution , and new diseases in reefs all across the Caribbean , Indian Ocean , and Pacific . His current work focuses on coral reef restoration , fisheries restoration , shore line protection , renewable energy , community based coral reef management , mariculture , soil metabolism , and stabilization of global carbon dioxide . He was formerly Senior Scientific Affairs Officer at the United Nations Centre for Science and Technology for Development . He is currently President of the Global Coral Reef Alliance .", "Bar Reef The Bar Reef is a system of coral reefs just offshore from Sri Lanka 's Kalpitiya peninsula . It has the greatest biodiversity of any coral reef in the waters around India and is one of the few pristine coral reef systems in Sri Lanka . It is a complex of reefs which stretch parallel to the coast from the northern end of the Kalpitiya peninsula to the islands which separate Portugal Bay from the Gulf of Mannar . It has high ecological , biological and aesthetic significance , being home to 156 species of coral and 283 species of fish . The Bar Reef was declared a marine sanctuary in 1992 . The reserve covers 306.7 km2 .", "Elphinstone Reef Elphinstone Reef ( also known as Sha'ab Abu Hamra ) is a standalone reef in the Egyptian Red Sea situated about 30 kilometers north from the town of Marsa Alam in Egypt . The coral community in this reef is primarily composed of soft corals such as Dendronephthya species .", "Maui Ocean Center The Maui Ocean Center is an aquarium and oceanography center located in Maalaea , Hawaii on the island of Maui . Opened on March 18 , 1998 by Coral World International , the 3 acre facility is the largest tropical reef aquarium in the Western Hemisphere . It includes exhibits on coral reef habitats , sea turtles , sharks , and humpback whales , among others . It is the largest public aquarium on Maui , and undertakes projects to grow artificial coral reefs to later introduce to the wild , due to the recent rapid decline in coral populations in Hawaii due to heavy tourism and global warming .", "Tylerichthys Tylerichthys is an extinct genus of prehistoric surgeonfish that lived in a coral reef during the Lutetian epoch of what is now Monte Bolca , Italy .", "Tubbataha Reef The Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park ( Bahurang Tubbataha ) is a protected area of the Philippines located in the middle of the Sulu Sea . The marine and bird sanctuary consists of two huge atolls ( named the North Atoll and South Atoll ) and the smaller Jessie Beazley Reef covering a total area of 97030 ha . It is located 150 km southeast of Puerto Princesa City , the capital of Palawan province . The uninhabited islands and reefs are part of the island municipality of Cagayancillo , Palawan , located roughly 130 km to the northeast of the reef . In December 1993 , the UNESCO declared the Tubbataha Reefs National Park as a World Heritage Site as a unique example of an atoll reef with a very high density of marine species ; the North Islet serving as a nesting site for birds and marine turtles . The site is an excellent example of a pristine coral reef with a spectacular 100-m perpendicular wall , extensive lagoons and two coral islands . In 1999 , Ramsar listed Tubbataha as one of the Wetlands of International Importance . In 2008 , the reef was nominated at the New 7 Wonders of Nature . The national park and the rest of the Philippine archipelago is part of the Coral Triangle , recognized as a center of marine biodiversity containing 75 % of the described coral species and 40 % of the world 's reef fish . The area is under a grave threat due to overfishing and destructive fishing practices . Research of scientists visiting the reefs since the 1980s revealed that the Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park contains no less than 600 fish species , 360 coral species , 11 shark species , 13 dolphin and whale species , and 100 bird species . The reefs also serve as a nesting ground for Hawksbill and Green sea turtles .", "Flinders Reef Flinders Reef is a small isolated reef near Moreton Island , 5 km north-east of Cape Moreton in South East Queensland , Australia . It has the highest number of coral species of any subtropical reef system along Australia 's east coast and is the nearest true coral reef to Brisbane . Flinders Reef is one of Queensland 's most popular dive sites . The reef is protected within the Moreton Bay Marine Park and is monitored by the Reef Check conservation program . There is a second Flinders Reef in the Coral Sea 120 nmi north-east of Townsville . A weather station there is monitored by the Australian Government . A third Flinders Reef exists offshore from the town of 1770 .", "Porolithon Porolithon is a genus of red alga comprising 15 species . The Porolithon are the primary reef building algae . When coral reefs reach sea level , the corals break under the high energy impact of the waves , while the coralline red algae , primarily Porolithon , continuing building and cementing the reef structure .", "Acroporidae Acroporidae is a family of small polyped stony corals in the phylum Cnidaria . The name is derived from the Greek `` akron '' meaning `` summit '' and refers to the presence of a corallite at the tip of each branch of coral . They are commonly known as staghorn corals and are grown in aquaria by reef hobbyists .", "Pulley Ridge Pulley Ridge is a mesophotic coral reef system off the shores of the continental United States . The reef lies 100 miles west of the Tortugas Ecological Reserve and stretches north about 60 miles at depths ranging from 60 -- 80 meters . Pulley Ridge was originally discovered in 1950 during a dredging operation conducted by an academic group from Texas . While well known to fishermen , this remarkable habitat remained undiscovered by scientists until 1999 when the U.S. Geological Survey ( USGS ) and graduate students from the University of South Florida happened upon it . This reef system , like other mesophotic ecosystems , is inhabited by photosynthesizing corals and algae that are adapted to low-light environments . It is habitat for numerous species of bottom fish including Epinephelus morio ( red grouper ) spawning area . `` Although deeper-water corals form reefs in the dark of ocean depths , Pulley Ridge is the deepest photosynthetic coral reef that we know of today , '' said Robert Halley , former US Geological Survey marine geologist . '' Other reefs lie about 46 meters below sea level . Once established on the seabed , the corals help create hard bottom habitat that becomes home to a diverse community of algae and animals that includes some species that are unique to these communities , and others species that are also found in shallower reef habitats . Understanding the factors that determine where mesophotic reefs are located and distances over which species living within such environments disperse and therefore ` connect ' populations are of great interest to marine scientists and resource managers alike . Despite this interest , the deep depths of such reefs hinders both their discovery and their exploration . Coral reefs struggle to survive in the world today . `` In the past 10 years the world has lost 25 % of the known living coral reefs '' . Coral reefs are particularly damaged by `` ... climate change , over fishing and coastal pollution '' . Scientists hope that through the exploration of Pulley Ridge , they can gain new insight of how reefs function in order to better preserve other reefs .", "Mopsella Mopsella is a genus of corals in the family Melithaeidae . Members of the genus are commonly known as sea fans . They are found in the tropical parts of the Indo-Pacific region growing on coral reefs and reef slopes , often in deep water . The type species is Mopsella textiformis .", "Mussa angulosa Mussa angulosa , the spiny flower coral or large flower coral , is a species of stony coral in the family Mussidae . It occurs on reefs in shallow waters in the Caribbean Sea , the Bahamas and the Gulf of Mexico .", "Atergatis subdentatus Atergatis subdentatus , also known as the red reef crab , dark-finger coral crab or eyed coral crab , is a species of crab in the family Xanthidae .", "Meiacanthus phaeus Meiacanthus phaeus is a species of combtooth blenny found in coral reefs in the western Pacific ocean .", "Melithaea ochracea Melithaea ochracea is a species of colonial soft coral in the family Melithaeidae , commonly known as knotted fan coral . It grows in tree-like fans on coral reefs in the South China Sea . It is used in the jewellery industry under the name red spongy coral .", "Halysites Halysites ( meaning chain coral ) is an extinct genus of tabulate coral . Colonies range from less than one to tens of centimeters in diameter , and they fed upon plankton . These tabulate corals lived from Ordovician to Silurian ( from 449.5 to 412.3 Ma ) . Fossils of Halysites species have been found in the sediments of Canada , United States , Poland and Australia .", "Kimbe Bay Kimbe Bay is a large bay in West New Britain Province , off the northern coast of New Britain , Papua New Guinea , at . Kimbe Bay is an important biodiversity hotspot . 60 percent of the coral species of the entire Indo-Pacific region live here . Kimbe Bay is the home of more than 860 coral reef fish species . Because of a massive die-off of coral worldwide due to pollution , human activities , and global warming , Kimbe Bay has become increasingly important , since it is seen as one of the last holdouts for coral should the degradation continue . Efforts are currently underway to limit the human impact on the bay . Due to its beauty it is also a popular diving site .", "Praealticus bilineatus Praealticus bilineatus is a species of combtooth blenny found in coral reefs in the western Pacific ocean .", "Zhongzhou Reef Zhongzhou Reef ( ; Bãi Bàn Than ) is a small coral reef within the Tizard Bank of the Spratly Islands . It lies 5 km east of ROC-occupied Taiping Island , 5 km west of Vietnamese-occupied Sand Cay , and has an exposed area of approximately 0.2 ha during high tide , and 0.6 ha during low tide . It consists of an accumulation of seashells , sand , coral reefs and debris which forms a circular coral reef plate , surrounding the reef under the water , with a diameter of approximately 1.3 km . The reef is currently controlled by Taiwan ( ROC ) , under the administration of Cijin District , Kaohsiung . It is also claimed by PRC , Vietnam and the Philippines . As many as 51 species of migratory birds inhabit the reef for short stays . The surrounding waters contain a rich marine ecosystem with plentiful staghorn coral . Shellfish species such as Harpago chiragra and Cassis cornuta can be found on the reef , and the surrounding waters contain various common tropical fish and coral reef fish . The reef geology is not suitable for plant growth . The reef has no groundwater source . Though currently uninhabited by humans , the ROC Coast Guard sends regular patrols via M8 speedboats from nearby Taiping Island . These patrols circle the reef , in addition to landing , making inspections and carrying out ecological surveys .", "Eusmilia Eusmilia is a genus of stony coral ( Scleractinia ) in the family Meandrinidae . It is a monotypic genus : the only species is Eusmilia fastigiata , the smooth flower coral . It is found on reefs in the Caribbean area .", "Mycetophyllia Mycetophyllia is a genus of stony corals in the family Mussidae , commonly known as ridged cactus corals . Members of this genus are native to the Caribbean area . They are zooxanthellate species and are sometimes kept in reef aquaria .", "Maro Reef Maro Reef ( Hawaiian : Nalukākala - `` surf that arrives in combers '' ) is a largely submerged coral atoll located in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands . It was discovered in 1820 by Captain Joseph Allen of the ship Maro , after whose ship the reef was named . With a total area of 747 sqmi , it is the largest coral reef in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands . It contains 37 species of stony coral . Unlike most atolls , the coral extends out from the center like spokes on a wheel . Located about 850 mi northwest of Honolulu , Hawaii , Maro Reef contains about 1 acre of dry land which itself can be submerged depending on the tides . Some scientists believe that it `` may be on the verge of drowning '' because the reefs are detached and are vulnerable to strong storm waves . USNS Mission San Miguel ( T-AO-129 ) ran aground on the reef , while running at full speed and in ballast , and sank on October 8 , 1957 .", "Priolepis nocturna Priolepis nocturna , the Blackbarred reefgoby , is a species of goby native to the Indian Ocean and the western Pacific Ocean where it occurs at depths of from 8 to on coral reefs . It inhabits crevices in the reef . This species can reach a length of 3.9 cm SL .", "Cirripectes alboapicalis Cirripectes alboapicalis is a species of combtooth blenny found in coral reefs in the Pacific ocean . This species reaches a maximum length of 15.5 cm .", "Oplopomus Oplopomus is a genus of gobies found in coral reefs of the Indo-Pacific region . It contains two species .", "Salarias luctuosus Salarias luctuosus is a species of combtooth blenny found in coral reefs in the northwest Pacific ocean . This species reaches a length of 5 cm SL .", "Coral trout The coral trout , leopard coral grouper , or leopard coral trout ( Plectropomus leopardus ) is a species of fish in the Serranidae family . Native to the western Pacific Ocean , its natural habitat includes open seas and coral reefs . Coral trout are piscivorous ; juveniles mostly eat crustaceans , especially prawns , and adults feed upon a variety of reef fish , particularly damselfish . Coral trout are the favourite target fish for all sectors of the fishery because they are a good food fish and command high market prices locally and overseas . The total commercial catch of coral trout was reported at over 1500 tonnes in 1998 .", "Salarias sibogai Salarias sibogai is a species of combtooth blenny found in coral reefs in the western central Pacific ocean .", "Scolymia lacera Scolymia lacera , the fleshy disk coral , is a species of stony coral in the family Mussidae . It occurs on reefs in shallow waters in the Caribbean Sea , the Gulf of Mexico , the Bahamas , Bermuda and southern Florida .", "Turbinaria irregularis Turbinaria irregularis , commonly known as disc coral , is a species of colonial stony coral in the family Dendrophylliidae . It is native to the Indo-Pacific region and is rated as a least-concern species . It is a zooxanthellate coral that houses symbiont dinoflagellates in its tissues . It was described by Bernard in 1896 and is found at depths of 5 to in shallow rocky areas and reefs ." ]

[ "Sun The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System . It is a nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma , with internal convective motion that generates a magnetic field via a dynamo process . It is by far the most important source of energy for life on Earth . Its diameter is about 109 times that of Earth , and its mass is about 330,000 times that of Earth , accounting for about 99.86 % of the total mass of the Solar System . About three quarters of the Sun 's mass consists of hydrogen ( ~ 73 % ) ; the rest is mostly helium ( ~ 25 % ) , with much smaller quantities of heavier elements , including oxygen , carbon , neon , and iron . The Sun is a G-type main-sequence star ( G2V ) based on its spectral class . As such , it is informally referred to as a yellow dwarf . It formed approximately 4.6 billionAll numbers in this article are short scale . One billion is 109 , or 1,000,000,000 . years ago from the gravitational collapse of matter within a region of a large molecular cloud . Most of this matter gathered in the center , whereas the rest flattened into an orbiting disk that became the Solar System . The central mass became so hot and dense that it eventually initiated nuclear fusion in its core . It is thought that almost all stars form by this process . The Sun is roughly middle-aged ; it has not changed dramatically for more than four billion years , and will remain fairly stable for more than another five billion years . After hydrogen fusion in its core has diminished to the point at which it is no longer in hydrostatic equilibrium , the core of the Sun will experience a marked increase in density and temperature while its outer layers expand to eventually become a red giant . It is calculated that the Sun will become sufficiently large to engulf the current orbits of Mercury and Venus , and render Earth uninhabitable . The enormous effect of the Sun on Earth has been recognized since prehistoric times , and the Sun has been regarded by some cultures as a deity . The synodic rotation of Earth and its orbit around the Sun are the basis of the solar calendar , which is the predominant calendar in use today .", "Attribution of recent climate change Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "Atlantic Ocean The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the world 's oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 km2 . It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earth 's surface and about 29 percent of its water surface area . It separates the `` Old World '' from the `` New World '' . The Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated , S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east , and the Americas to the west . As one component of the interconnected global ocean , it is connected in the north to the Arctic Ocean , to the Pacific Ocean in the southwest , the Indian Ocean in the southeast , and the Southern Ocean in the south ( other definitions describe the Atlantic as extending southward to Antarctica ) . The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean at about 8 ° N. Scientific explorations of the Atlantic include the Challenger expedition , the German Meteor expedition , Columbia University 's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory and the United States Navy Hydrographic Office .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Weather Weather is the state of the atmosphere , to the degree that it is hot or cold , wet or dry , calm or stormy , clear or cloudy . Most weather phenomena occur in the lowest level of the atmosphere , the troposphere , just below the stratosphere . Weather refers to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity , whereas climate is the term for the averaging of atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time . When used without qualification , `` weather '' is generally understood to mean the weather of Earth . Weather is driven by air pressure , temperature and moisture differences between one place and another . These differences can occur due to the sun 's angle at any particular spot , which varies with latitude . The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the largest scale atmospheric circulations : the Hadley Cell , the Ferrel Cell , the Polar Cell , and the jet stream . Weather systems in the mid-latitudes , such as extratropical cyclones , are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow . Because the Earth 's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane , sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of the year . On Earth 's surface , temperatures usually range ± 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F to 100 ° F ) annually . Over thousands of years , changes in Earth 's orbit can affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth , thus influencing long-term climate and global climate change . Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences . Higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes as most atmospheric heating is due to contact with the Earth 's surface while radiative losses to space are mostly constant . Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location . The Earth 's weather system is a chaotic system ; as a result , small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large effects on the system as a whole . Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout history , and there is evidence that human activities such as agriculture and industry have modified weather patterns . Studying how the weather works on other planets has been helpful in understanding how weather works on Earth . A famous landmark in the Solar System , Jupiter 's Great Red Spot , is an anticyclonic storm known to have existed for at least 300 years . However , weather is not limited to planetary bodies . A star 's corona is constantly being lost to space , creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System . The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind .", "Gliese 1132 b Gliese 1132 b ( often shortened to GJ 1132 b ) is an exoplanet orbiting a red dwarf star ( Gliese 1132 ) 39 light years ( 12 parsecs ) from Earth , in the constellation Vela . The planet is considered uninhabitable but cool enough to possess an atmosphere . Gliese 1132 b was discovered by the MEarth-South array in Chile . It has been called `` one of the most important planets ever discovered beyond the Solar System '' : Due to its relative proximity to Earth , telescopes should be able to determine the composition of its atmosphere , the speed of its winds and the color of its sunsets . This is due in part to the small diameter of its parent star ( 21 % that of the Sun ) , which increases the effect on the star 's light of its transits . The planet 's diameter is approximately 20 % larger than that of the Earth and its mass is estimated at 1.6 times that of Earth , implying that it has an Earth-like rocky composition . Gliese 1132 b orbits its star every 1.6 days at a distance of 1.4 million miles . The planet receives 19 times more stellar radiation than Earth . The temperature of the top of its atmosphere is estimated at 500 F . The planet is estimated to be hotter than Venus , as higher temperatures may prevail near the surface . ( cf. Atmosphere of Venus , Colonization of Venus ) It is possible that one side of the planet is cooler , because it is presumed to be tidally locked due to its proximity to its star ; however , under most circumstances where an atmosphere is thick , it would be able to transfer heat to the far side . In April 2017 , an atmosphere was confirmed around Gliese 1132 b . It is the most Earth-like exoplanet to date that is known to have an atmosphere .", "Granule (solar physics) Granules on the photosphere of the Sun are caused by convection currents ( thermal columns , Bénard cells ) of plasma within the Sun 's convective zone . The grainy appearance of the solar photosphere is produced by the tops of these convective cells and is called granulation . The rising part of the granules is located in the center where the plasma is hotter . The outer edge of the granules is darker due to the cooler descending plasma . ( The terms darker and cooler are strictly by comparison to the brighter , hotter plasma . ) In addition to the visible appearance , which would be explained by convective motion , Doppler shift measurements of the light from individual granules provides evidence for the convective nature of the granules . A typical granule has a diameter on the order of 1,500 kilometers and lasts 8 to 20 minutes before dissipating . At any one time , the Sun 's surface is covered by about 4 million granules . Below the photosphere is a layer of `` supergranules '' up to 30,000 kilometers in diameter with lifespans of up to 24 hours .", "Milutin Milanković Milutin Milanković ( Милутин Миланковић , pronounced -LSB- milǔtin milǎːnkɔʋitɕ -RSB- 28 May 1879 -- 12 December 1958 ) was a Serbian mathematician , astronomer , climatologist , geophysicist , civil engineer , doctor of technology , university professor and popularizer of science . Milanković gave two fundamental contributions to global science . The first contribution is the `` Canon of the Earth 's Insolation '' , which characterizes the climates of all the planets of the Solar system . The second contribution is the explanation of Earth 's long-term climate changes caused by changes in the position of the Earth in comparison to the Sun , now known as Milankovitch cycles . This explained the ice ages occurring in the geological past of the Earth , as well as the climate changes on the Earth which can be expected in the future . He founded planetary climatology by calculating temperatures of the upper layers of the Earth 's atmosphere as well as the temperature conditions on planets of the inner Solar system , Mercury , Venus , Mars , and the Moon , as well as the depth of the atmosphere of the outer planets . He demonstrated the interrelatedness of celestial mechanics and the Earth sciences , and enabled consistent transition from celestial mechanics to the Earth sciences and transformation of descriptive sciences into exact ones .", "Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment ( SORCE ) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measures incoming X-ray , ultraviolet , visible , near-infrared , and total solar radiation . These measurements specifically address long-term climate change , natural variability and enhanced climate prediction , and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation . These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun , its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind . The SORCE spacecraft launched on January 25 , 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) with precise measurements of solar radiation . SORCE measures the Sun 's output using radiometers , spectrometers , photodiodes , detectors , and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory . The SORCE satellite orbits the Earth accumulating solar data . Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun 's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter . Data obtained by the SORCE experiment can be used to model the Sun 's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun 's radiation on the Earth 's atmosphere and climate . Flying in a 645 km , 40 degree orbit , SORCE is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Colorado . It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements . SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 nm to 2000 nm , accounting for 95 % of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance . SORCE carries four instruments including the Total Irradiance Monitor ( TIM ) , Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment ( SOLSTICE ) , Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SIM ) , and the XUV Photometer System ( XPS ) .", "Solar eclipse of September 10, 1923 A total solar eclipse occurred on September 10 , 1923 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . The path of totality crossed the Pacific Ocean , northwestern and northern Mexico , Yucatan peninsula , Belize . The eclipse was over 90 % in Los Angeles , San Diego and Santa Barbara in the Southern California coast .", "Solar eclipse of August 10, 1980 An annular solar eclipse occurred on August 10 , 1980 centred over the Pacific Ocean . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . An annular solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is smaller than the Sun 's , blocking most of the Sun 's light and causing the Sun to look like an annulus ( ring ) . An annular eclipse appears as a partial eclipse over a region of the Earth thousands of kilometres wide .", "HD 162826 HD 162826 ( HR 6669 ) is a star located in the constellation of Hercules and is located about 110 ly from Earth . With an apparent magnitude of 6.46 , the star can be found with binoculars or a low-power telescope by reference to nearby Vega in the constellation Lyra . It is 15 % more massive than the Sun , with a slightly hotter surface temperature . It has no known planets ; the current state of knowledge excludes `` hot Jupiters '' and suggests that a more distant Jupiter is unlikely , but terrestrial planets are possible . The star 's spectra had been under observation previously . The star is considered to be a stellar sibling of the Sun . Solar siblings are those stars that formed from the same gas cloud and in the same star cluster ; the term was introduced in 2009 . The Sun is a G2V star with a temperature of 5778 K and is 4.6 billion years old .", "Solar eclipse of October 10, 1912 A total solar eclipse occurred on October 10 , 1912 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide .", "Mesopause The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .", "HD 177809 HD 177809 is a 6th magnitude star in the constellation Lyra , approximately 700 light years away from Earth . It is a red giant star of the spectral type M2III , meaning it possesses a surface temperature of under 3,500 kelvins . In comparison to our Sun , it is much larger and brighter , but its surface is cooler .", "Solar eclipse of September 21, 1941 A total solar eclipse occurred on September 21 , 1941 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . The path of totality crossed southern Asia , and ended in the Pacific ocean .", "Winter Winter is the coldest season of the year in polar and temperate climates , between autumn and spring . Winter is caused by the axis of the Earth in that hemisphere being oriented away from the Sun . Different cultures define different dates as the start of winter , and some use a definition based on weather . When it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere , it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere , and vice versa . In many regions , winter is associated with snow and freezing temperatures . The moment of winter solstice is when the sun 's elevation with respect to the North or South Pole is at its most negative value ( that is , the sun is at its farthest below the horizon as measured from the pole ) , meaning this day will have the shortest day and the longest night . The earliest sunset and latest sunrise dates outside the polar regions differ from the date of the winter solstice , however , and these depend on latitude , due to the variation in the solar day throughout the year caused by the Earth 's elliptical orbit ( see earliest and latest sunrise and sunset ) .", "Solar eclipse of July 2, 2019 A total solar eclipse will occur on July 2 , 2019 with a magnitude of 1.0459 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . Totality will be visible from the southern Pacific Ocean east of New Zealand to the Coquimbo Region in Chile and Argentina at sunset , with the maximum of 4 minutes 32 seconds visible from the Pacific Ocean .", "Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .", "Climate engineering Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .", "Solar eclipse of April 6, 1875 A total solar eclipse occurred on April 6 , 1875 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . Totality was visible on the southern tip of Africa , across the Indian ocean , and across southeastern Asia .", "Future of Earth The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .", "Upper-atmospheric models Upper-atmospheric models are simulations of the Earth 's atmosphere between 20 and 100 km ( 65,000 and 328,000 feet ) that comprises the stratosphere , mesosphere , and the lower thermosphere . Whereas most climate models simulate a region of the Earth 's atmosphere from the surface to the stratopause , there also exist numerical models which simulate the wind , temperature and composition of the Earth 's tenuous upper atmosphere , from the mesosphere to the exosphere , including the ionosphere . This region is affected strongly by the 11 year Solar cycle through variations in solar UV/EUV/Xray radiation and solar wind leading to high latitude particle precipitation and aurora . It has been proposed that these phenomena may have an effect on the lower atmosphere , and should therefore be included in simulations of climate change . For this reason there has been a drive in recent years to create whole atmosphere models to investigate whether or not this is the case .", "Global warming hiatus A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "Solar eclipse of August 29, 1867 A total solar eclipse occurred on August 29 , 1867 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . Totality occurred across central Argentina and the southern Atlantic ocean .", "Solar eclipse of April 19, 2004 A partial solar eclipse took place on Monday , 19 April 2004 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon 's shadow misses the Earth . It was largely visible over the south Atlantic Ocean and north shores of Antarctica , most prominently the Antarctic Peninsula . The eclipse was deep enough to be seen from a large portion of southern Africa , with over 50 % totality at Cape Town , South Africa at approximately 4:10 PM . However , the eclipse remained visible to cities such as Harare , Maseru , Durban , and Bloemfontein , although to a much lesser extent . The greatest eclipse of the Sun took place over a nigh inaccessible strip of ocean off the Antarctic coast ; the maximum point displayed 73.5 % totality , as compared to Cape Town 's 51 % totality .", "Solar eclipse of January 26, 2009 An annular solar eclipse occurred on January 26 , 2009 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . An annular solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is smaller than the Sun 's , blocking most of the Sun 's light and causing the Sun to look like an annulus ( ring ) . An annular eclipse appears as a partial eclipse over a region of the Earth thousands of kilometres wide . It had a magnitude of 0.92 and was visible from a narrow corridor beginning in the south Atlantic Ocean and sweeping eastward 900 km south of Africa , slowly curving northeast through the Indian Ocean . Its first landfall was in the Cocos Islands followed by southern Sumatra and western Java . It continued somewhat more easterly across central Borneo , across the northwestern edge of Celebes , then ending just before Mindanao , Philippines .", "The Cloud Mystery The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish . This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .", "Solar eclipse of November 10, 1920 A partial solar eclipse occurred on November 10 , 1920 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon 's shadow misses the Earth .", "Kepler-452 Kepler-452 is a G-type main-sequence star located about 1400 light-years away from Earth in the constellation of Cygnus . It has a similar temperature to that of the Sun , but it is 20 percent brighter , 3.7 percent more massive and is 11 percent larger . It is approximately six billion years old , 1.5 billion years older than the Sun and also has a much higher metallicity . Thus , Kepler-452 can be considered a solar twin , however its age pushes it more back towards the `` solar analog '' criteria .", "Solar eclipse of September 10, 1942 A partial solar eclipse occurred on September 10 , 1942 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon 's shadow misses the Earth .", "Solar eclipse of January 31, 1870 A partial solar eclipse occurred on January 31 , 1870 during summer . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A partial solar eclipse occurs in the polar regions of the Earth when the center of the Moon 's shadow misses the Earth . It was the first of four eclipses that took place that year , the first three were partial , the next occurred on June 28 , 1870 , a part of it occurred in the same area on an ocean as the previous eclipse . It was part of solar saros 148 .", "Solar eclipse of August 17, 1803 An annular solar eclipse occurred on August 17 , 1803 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . An annular solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is smaller than the Sun 's , blocking most of the Sun 's light and causing the Sun to look like an annulus ( ring ) . An annular eclipse appears as a partial eclipse over a region of the Earth thousands of kilometres wide . The eclipse was visible in Africa , Asia , Europe , Indonesia and Indian Ocean , while the annularity was visible in northern Africa , Middle East , and Indian Ocean .", "Solar eclipse of February 21, 1803 A total solar eclipse occurred on February 21 , 1803 . A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun , thereby totally or partly obscuring the image of the Sun for a viewer on Earth . A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon 's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun 's , blocking all direct sunlight , turning day into darkness . Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth 's surface , with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide . The eclipse was visible in Pacific Ocean and Central America , while the totality was seen in Mexico .", "IPCC First Assessment Report The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "Urban heat island An urban heat island ( UHI ) is an urban area or metropolitan area that is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas due to human activities . The temperature difference usually is larger at night than during the day , and is most apparent when winds are weak . UHI is most noticeable during the summer and winter . The main cause of the urban heat island effect is from the modification of land surfaces . Waste heat generated by energy usage is a secondary contributor . As a population center grows , it tends to expand its area and increase its average temperature . The less-used term heat island refers to any area , populated or not , which is consistently hotter than the surrounding area . Monthly rainfall is greater downwind of cities , partially due to the UHI . Increases in heat within urban centers increases the length of growing seasons , and decreases the occurrence of weak tornadoes . The UHI decreases air quality by increasing the production of pollutants such as ozone , and decreases water quality as warmer waters flow into area streams and put stress on their ecosystems . Not all cities have a distinct urban heat island . Mitigation of the urban heat island effect can be accomplished through the use of green roofs and the use of lighter-colored surfaces in urban areas , which reflect more sunlight and absorb less heat . There are concerns raised about possible contribution from urban heat islands to global warming . Research on China and India indicates that urban heat island effect contributes to climate warming by about 30 % . On the other hand , one 1999 comparison between urban and rural areas proposed that the urban heat island effects have little influence on global mean temperature trends . Many studies reveal increases in the severity of the effect with the progress of climate change ." ]

[ "Soon and Baliunas controversy The Soon and Baliunas controversy involved the publication in 2003 of a review study written by aerospace engineer Willie Soon and astronomer Sallie Baliunas in the journal Climate Research , which was quickly taken up by the G.W. Bush administration as a basis for amending the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was strongly criticized by numerous scientists for its methodology and for its misuse of data from previously published studies , prompting concerns about the peer review process of the paper . The controversy resulted in the resignation of half of the editors of the journal and in the admission by its publisher Otto Kinne that the paper should not have been published as it was .", "Climatic Research Unit email controversy The Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( also known as `` Climategate '' ) began in November 2009 with the hacking of a server at the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) by an external attacker , copying thousands of emails and computer files , the Climatic Research Unit documents , to various internet locations several weeks before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change . The story was first broken by climate change denialists with columnist James Delingpole popularising the term `` Climategate '' to describe the controversy . Several people considered climate change `` skeptics '' argued that the emails showed global warming was a scientific conspiracy , that scientists manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics . The CRU rejected this , saying the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas . The mainstream media picked up the story as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009 . Because of the timing , scientists , policy makers and public relations experts said that the release of emails was a smear campaign intended to undermine the climate conference . In response to the controversy , the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) , the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) and the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) released statements supporting the scientific consensus that the Earth 's mean surface temperature had been rising for decades , with the AAAS concluding , `` based on multiple lines of scientific evidence that global climate change caused by human activities is now underway ... it is a growing threat to society . '' Eight committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . However , the reports called on the scientists to avoid any such allegations in the future by taking steps to regain public confidence in their work , for example by opening up access to their supporting data , processing methods and software , and by promptly honouring freedom of information requests . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged throughout the investigations ." ]

[ "Annual Review of Environment and Resources Annual Review of Environment and Resources is an annual peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Annual Reviews , Inc. . It covers environmental science and engineering , ecology , conservation science , water assets , energy resources , atmosphere , oceans , climate change , agriculture , livestock , natural resource management and global change . The journal was established in 1976 as Annual Review of Energy and renamed Annual Review of Energy and the Environment in 1991 , before receiving its current title in 2003 . The editors-in-chief are Ashok Gadgil of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and Thomas P. Tomich of University of California , Davis . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2012 impact factor of 4.968 .", "Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .", "Attorney General of Virginia's climate science investigation The Attorney General of Virginia 's climate science investigation was a `` Civil Investigative Demand '' initiated in April 2010 by Virginia Attorney General Ken Cuccinelli for a wide range of records held by the University of Virginia related to five grant applications for research work by a leading climate scientist Michael E. Mann , who was an assistant professor at the university from 1999 to 2005 . The demand was issued under the Virginia Fraud Against Taxpayers Act in connection with claims by Cuccinnelli that Mann had possibly violated state fraud laws in relation to five research grants , by allegedly manipulating data . No evidence of wrongdoing was presented to support the claim . Mann 's earlier work had been targeted by climate change skeptics in the hockey stick controversy , and allegations against him were renewed in late 2009 in the Climatic Research Unit email controversy but found to be groundless in a series of investigations . Widespread concerns were raised by University of Virginia 's faculty and numerous scientists and science organizations that Cuccinelli 's actions posed a threat to academic freedom , and would have a chilling effect on research in the state . The university filed a court petition and the judge dismissed Cuccinelli 's demand on the grounds that no justification had been shown for the investigation . Cuccinelli tried to re-open his case by issuing a revised subpoena , and appealed the case to the Virginia Supreme Court . The case was defended by the university , and the court ruled that Cuccinelli did not have the authority to make these demands . The outcome was hailed as a victory for academic freedom .", "Open peer review Open peer review ( also called `` public peer review '' , `` transparent peer review '' ) denotes several , closely related forms of scholarly peer review . Out of over a hundred definitions/forms , a few can be mentioned : Open-identity or attributed peer review ( as opposed to anonymous peer review ) Open-disclosure or public peer review , where the peer review contents are publicly available Open-invitation or post-publication peer review , where anyone interested can contribute to the peer review process . Can also be a continuous process after publication .", "Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .", "Climate Dynamics Climate Dynamics is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Springer Science + Business Media . It covers all aspects of the dynamics of global climate systems , including analytical and numerical modeling research on the structure and behavior of the atmosphere , oceans , cryosphere , biomass , and land surface as interacting components of the dynamics of global climate . The journal also publishes reviews and papers emphasizing an integrated view of the physical and biogeochemical processes governing climate and climate change .", "Climatic Change (journal) Climatic Change is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Springer Science + Business Media covering cross-disciplinary work on all aspects of climate change and variability . It was established in 1978 and the editors-in-chief are Michael Oppenheimer ( Princeton University ) and Gary Yohe ( Wesleyan University ) .", "Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility ( PEER ) is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit , environmental protection organization of local , state , and national government natural resource and environmental professionals . PEER serves as a resource to potential government whistleblowers , allowing them to anonymously expose environmental wrongdoings and assisting them in redressing agency retaliation . Founded in 1996 , PEER operates primarily by investigating claims from public employees about government environmental misconduct . Because whistleblowers often face direct retaliation from the offending agencies , PEER encourages employees to act through the organization to reveal government environmental misdeeds . Once a claim is made , PEER investigates it , often using Freedom of Information Act requests . The organization then can choose to take a number of actions , including press releases or lawsuits . PEER also serves to provide legal services to whistleblowers who find themselves the target of agency retaliation . As of January 2011 , PEER is formally affiliated with Climate Science Legal Defense Fund . not-for-profit organization established in 2011 to protect scientific research and researchers of climate science from think tanks and legal foundations that have taken legal action against scientific institutions and individual scientists .", "The Independent Review The Independent Review , A Journal of Political Economy is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal covering political economy and the critical analysis of government policy . It is published by The Independent Institute , a libertarian think tank in the United States . The journal was established in 1996 .", "Sham peer review Sham peer review or malicious peer review is a name given to the abuse of a medical peer review process to attack a doctor for personal or other non-medical reasons . The American Medical Association conducted an investigation of medical peer review in 2007 and concluded that while it is easy to allege misconduct and 15 % of surveyed physicians indicated that they were aware of peer review misuse or abuse , cases of malicious peer review able to be proven through the legal system are rare .", "CCRC The abbreviation CCRC may refer to : Capital College and Research Centre CCRC , a Canadian Christian music record chart City of Cambridge Rowing Club , a rowing club in Cambridge , England ClearCase Remote Client , a feature of IBM Rational ClearCase Climate Change Research Centre , an Australian research initiative focussing on climate change Continuing Care Retirement Communities Criminal Cases Review Commission , an investigative body that reviews possible miscarriages of justice in England , Wales and Northern Ireland Scottish Criminal Cases Review Commission , a similar investigative body that reviews possible miscarriages of justice in Scotland", "IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies . It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report . The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''", "Nature Climate Change Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group covering all aspects of research on global warming , especially its effects . It was established in 2011 . Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal 's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal had a 2015 impact factor of 17.184 .", "Climate Change Authority The Climate Change Authority is an Australian statutory agency established under the Climate Change Authority Act 2011 . It began operations on 1 July 2012 . Its role is to review various climate change policies , including the Carbon Farming Initiative and National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting system , and to advise the Australian Government and Parliament on other matters as requested . The Authority has no legislative or executive powers , which remain with the Government and Parliament of the day . The Authority is presently undertaking a Special Review into Australia 's policies and targets for reducing emissions in the context of its international commitments and those of other countries . The Special Review is due to be completed by 30 June 2016 . The Authority has a Board comprising a Chair and eight permanent members : Dr Wendy Craik ( Chair ) , Stuart Allinson ( Acting Chair ) , Kate Carnell AO , Professor David Karoly , Professor John Quiggin , Professor Clive Hamilton , The Hon. John Sharp , Dr Alan Finkel and Danny Price . A tenth member , Andrew Macintosh , sits as an associate member until the conclusion of the Special Review . Dr Finkel is an ex officio member of the Authority as Australia 's Chief Scientist , replacing the former Chief Scientist Ian Chubb . The original Chair of the Authority was former Reserve Bank of Australia Governor and Treasury Secretary , Bernie Fraser . He resigned from the position in September 2015 . The agency is based in Melbourne where it has the advantage of being able to work closely with the Productivity Commission . The agency was allocated A$ 6.2 million in the 2012-13 financial year . The Australian Government , under Liberal leadership , is in the process of abolishing the Climate Change Authority , a move which has been heavily criticised .", "Peer review (disambiguation) Peer review may refer to : Clinical audit , a systematic review of healthcare against an explicit standard Clinical peer review , the process by which health care professionals evaluate each other 's clinical performance Medical peer review , the process of refereeing healthcare practitioner decisions Peer review , the scholarly process of screening papers or grant applications Peer Review , a DLC for Portal 2 Peer Review ( magazine ) , an academic magazine Physician peer review , the process by which physicians evaluate each other to promote better quality of care Scholarly peer review , the process of refereeing scholarly papers Sham peer review , the process of pseudo-review done for political purposes , often in healthcare Software peer review in software development Technical peer review in systems engineering More at : Category : Peer review", "Center for Scientific Review The Center for Scientific Review ( CSR ) is the portal for United States National Institutes of Health ( NIH ) grant applications and their review for scientific merit . The CSR organizes the peer review groups or study sections that evaluate the majority ( 70 % ) of the research grant applications sent to NIH . It also receives all grant applications for NIH , as well as for some other components of the United States Department of Health and Human Services ( DHHS ) . Since 1946 , its mission has remained clear and timely : to see that NIH grant applications receive fair , independent , expert , and timely reviews -- free from inappropriate influences -- so NIH can fund the most promising research . CSR receives nearly 80,000 applications a year and recruits over 18,000 external experts to review its portion of them in its study sections , which often meet three times during the year . Additional scientists serve on other NIH advisory councils , which provide a second level of peer review and make funding recommendations based on priorities set by the United States Congress , DHHS , and the public .", "Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''", "Freedom of Information requests to the Climatic Research Unit Freedom of Information requests to the Climatic Research Unit featured in press discussions of disputes over access to data from instrumental temperature records , particularly during the Climatic Research Unit email controversy which began in November 2009 . The UK Freedom of Information Act ( FOIA ) came into effect in 2005 , and FOI requests were made to the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) for the raw data from weather stations used in developing instrumental temperature record datasets , for copies of agreements under which the raw data was obtained from meteorology institutions , and also for email correspondence relating to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report . In many cases the raw data which CRU had obtained from National Meteorological Organisations was subject to restrictions on redistribution : on 12 August 2009 CRU announced that they were seeking permission to waive these restrictions , and on 24 November 2009 the university stated that over 95 % of the CRU climate data set had already been available for several years , with the remainder to be released when permissions were obtained . In a decision announced on 27 July 2011 the Information Commissioner 's Office ( ICO ) required release of raw data even though permissions had not been obtained or in one instance had been refused , and on 27 July 2011 CRU announced release of the raw instrumental data not already in the public domain , with the exception of Poland which was outside the area covered by the FOIA request . A 2008 FOI request by David Holland for emails discussing work on the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report was refused by the university . In November 2009 he alleged that CRU emails posted online discussed deleting the emails he had requested : in January 2010 the Deputy Information Commissioner told a journalist that this indicated an offence under section 77 of the FOIA , but prosecution was time-barred by statute of limitations . Newspapers misrepresented this as a decision in relation to raw data , and the issue was discussed by the House of Commons Science and Technology Select Committee inquiry , which found there had been a lack of openness . The ICO decision published on 7 July 2010 stated that this potential offence had not been investigated as it was time-barred . As Holland was content not to proceed with his complaint against the university , no further action was needed , but the ICO would `` consider whether further action is appropriate to secure future compliance . '' In September 2011 the ICO issued new guidance to universities . This described exceptions and exemptions to protect research , including allowance for internal exchange of views between academics and researchers free from external scrutiny , as well as commending actively disclosing information when it is in the public interest .", "Interdisciplinary peer review Interdisciplinary Peer Review ( IPR ) is a specific term applied to a peer review process with an additional focus outside of the area of the author 's subject of expertise . Disciplines such as Telecommunications , Political Science , Engineering , and Medicine require specific subject matter expertise , however , they still cross multiple disciplines and may require review from many alternate functional areas to achieve maximum perspective to prevent duplication or improper publication . Reviews of this nature may also cross cultures , race , and other demographics to gain perspective .", "Stern Review The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change is a 700-page report released for the Government of the United Kingdom on 30 October 2006 by economist Nicholas Stern , chair of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment at the London School of Economics ( LSE ) and also chair of the Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy ( CCCEP ) at Leeds University and LSE . The report discusses the effect of global warming on the world economy . Although not the first economic report on climate change , it is significant as the largest and most widely known and discussed report of its kind . The Review states that climate change is the greatest and widest-ranging market failure ever seen , presenting a unique challenge for economics . The Review provides prescriptions including environmental taxes to minimise the economic and social disruptions . The Stern Review 's main conclusion is that the benefits of strong , early action on climate change far outweigh the costs of not acting . The Review points to the potential impacts of climate change on water resources , food production , health , and the environment . According to the Review , without action , the overall costs of climate change will be equivalent to losing at least 5 % of global gross domestic product ( GDP ) each year , now and forever . Including a wider range of risks and impacts could increase this to 20 % of GDP or more , also indefinitely . Stern believes that 5 -- 6 degrees of temperature increase is `` a real possibility . '' The Review proposes that one percent of global GDP per annum is required to be invested to avoid the worst effects of climate change . In June 2008 , Stern increased the estimate for the annual cost of achieving stabilisation between 500 and 550 ppm CO2e to 2 % of GDP to account for faster than expected climate change . There has been a mixed reaction to the Stern Review from economists . Several economists have been critical of the Review , for example , a paper by Byatt et al. ( 2006 ) describes the Review as `` deeply flawed '' . Some economists ( such as Brad DeLong and John Quiggin ) have supported the Review . Others have criticised aspects of Review 's analysis , but argued that some of its conclusions might still be justified based on other grounds , e.g. , see papers by Martin Weitzman ( 2007 ) and Dieter Helm ( 2008 ) .", "Scholarly peer review Scholarly peer review ( also known as refereeing ) is the process of subjecting an author 's scholarly work , research , or ideas to the scrutiny of others who are experts in the same field , before a paper describing this work is published in a journal or as a book . The peer review helps the publisher ( that is , the editor-in-chief or the editorial board ) decide whether the work should be accepted , considered acceptable with revisions , or rejected . Peer review requires a community of experts in a given ( and often narrowly defined ) field , who are qualified and able to perform reasonably impartial review . Impartial review , especially of work in less narrowly defined or inter-disciplinary fields , may be difficult to accomplish , and the significance ( good or bad ) of an idea may never be widely appreciated among its contemporaries . Peer review is generally considered necessary to academic quality and is used in most major scientific journals , but it does by no means prevent publication of all invalid research . Traditionally , peer reviewers have been anonymous , but there is currently a significant amount of open peer review , where the comments are visible to readers , generally with the identities of the peer reviewers disclosed as well .", "Extended peer review Extended peer review is the process of including people and groups with experience beyond that of working academics in the processes of assuring the quality of research . If conducted systematically , this can lead to more reliable , or applicable , results than a peer review process conducted purely by academics .", "Anonymous peer review Anonymous peer review may refer to : An anonymous scholarly peer review ( as opposed to an open one ) Any form of peer review that has some form of anonymity", "Garnaut Climate Change Review Professor Ross Garnaut led two climate change reviews , the first commencing in 2007 and the second in 2010 . The first Garnaut Climate Change Review was a study by Professor Ross Garnaut , commissioned by then Opposition Leader , Kevin Rudd and by the Australian State and Territory Governments on 30 April 2007 . After the election on 24 November 2007 , Prime Minister of Australia Kevin Rudd confirmed the participation of the Commonwealth Government in the Review . The Review examined the impacts of climate change on the Australian economy , and recommended medium to long-term policies and policy frameworks to improve the prospects for sustainable prosperity . Some observers have remarked that the Garnaut Review would be Australia 's version of the Stern Review . A number of forums were held around Australia to engage the public on various issues relating to the Review . The Secretariat to support the Review was based in the Victorian Department of Premier and Cabinet . The final report of the Garnaut Review was delivered on 30 September 2008 .", "Macur Review The Macur Review is an independent review established by the British government in 2012 to review the Waterhouse inquiry . Its remit was set as follows : `` To review the scope of the Waterhouse Inquiry , and whether any specific allegations of child abuse falling within the terms of reference were not investigated by the Inquiry , and to make recommendations to the Secretary of State for Justice and the Secretary of State for Wales . '' It is chaired by Lady Justice Macur DBE .", "William Cheung (scientist) William Cheung is a marine biologist , well known for his research on the impacts of climate change on marine ecosystems and fisheries . He currently works as director of science of the Nereus Program and is also an associate professor at the University of British Columbia , as well as Leader at the UBC Changing Ocean Research Unit . He has published over 150 peer-reviewed publications , including papers in leading international journals .", "Climate Research (journal) Climate Research is a small peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Inter-Research Science Center that was established in 1990 . Its founder and long time publisher was marine biologist Otto Kinne . Outside the climate research community , the journal is mostly known for its 2003 publication of a controversial and now discredited climate change article . Three volumes , each typically containing half a dozen articles , are published each year . Each of its 12 editors therefore handles an average of less than 2 articles a year . Climate Research covers all aspects of the interactions of climate with organisms , ecosystems , and human societies . In 2006 , a special issue of the journal , titled `` Advances in Applying Climate Prediction to Agriculture '' , was published under open access .", "Climate of the Past Climate of the Past is an open-access peer-reviewed scientific journal publishing research within Earth science .", "Peer Review (magazine) Peer Review is a quarterly magazine published by the Association of American Colleges and Universities that reports `` emerging trends and key debates in undergraduate liberal education '' . It was established in early 2000 and the editor-in-chief is Shelley Johnson Carey . The magazine is based in Washington DC .", "Science Review Board The Science Advisory Board is a United States group of independent scientists selected by the Administrator of the EPA to advise on the scientific and technical aspects of environmental problems and issues and who , at the request of the Administrator , review the scientific aspects of any reports or other written products prepared by the agency . Congress established the Board when it enacted the Environmental Research , Development , and Demonstration Authorization Act of 1978 ( P.L. 95-477 ) .", "Commission for Independent Research and Information on Radioactivity The Commission for Independent Research and Information on Radioactivity ( actual name , Commission de Recherche et d'Information Indépendantes sur la Radioactivité , or CRIIRAD ) is a French NGO which specializes in the analysis of radioactivity in the environment . It was created in the aftermath of the Chernobyl catastrophe on April 26 , 1986 . It revendicates `` being independent from nuclear exploitants , the state and all political parties '' . The CRIIRAD has an analysis laboratory , equipped for identification of radioactive contamination ( food , water , etc. ) , which has been delivered the technical qualification certificate by the Health minister . It operates both in France and abroad , and is funded by its investigations ( more than a thousand studies since its creation ) and its memberships ' adhesions . As all other French NGOs , it is regulated by the 1901 law on non-profit organizations . Among other studies by the CRIIRAD , its investigations on the contamination of the French territory following the 1986 Chernobyl catastrophe are the most known , although it also studied the consequences of the Marcoule nuclear power plant , the Fukushima I nuclear accidents , and published an atlas of radioactive contamination in Europe and France .", "Arctic Climate Impact Assessment The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks ." ]

[ "Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "Climate change mitigation Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .", "Planetary boundaries Planetary boundaries is the central concept in an Earth system framework proposed by a group of Earth system and environmental scientists led by Johan Rockström from the Stockholm Resilience Centre and Will Steffen from the Australian National University . In 2009 , the group proposed a framework of `` planetary boundaries '' designed to define a `` safe operating space for humanity '' for the international community , including governments at all levels , international organizations , civil society , the scientific community and the private sector , as a precondition for sustainable development . This framework is based on scientific research that indicates that since the Industrial Revolution , human actions have gradually become the main driver of global environmental change . The scientists assert that once human activity has passed certain thresholds or tipping points , defined as `` planetary boundaries '' , there is a risk of `` irreversible and abrupt environmental change '' . The group identified nine Earth system processes which have boundaries that , to the extent that they are not crossed , mark the safe zone for the planet . However , because of human activities some of these dangerous boundaries have already been crossed , while others are in imminent danger of being crossed . Rockström and Steffen collaborated with 26 leading academics , including Nobel laureate Paul Crutzen , Goddard Institute for Space Studies climate scientist James Hansen and the German Chancellor 's chief climate adviser Hans Joachim Schellnhuber . The group identified nine `` planetary life support systems '' essential for human survival , and attempted to quantify just how far seven of these systems have been pushed already . They then estimated how much further we can go before our own survival is threatened ; beyond these boundaries there is a risk of `` irreversible and abrupt environmental change '' which could make Earth less habitable . Estimates indicate that three of these boundaries -- climate change , biodiversity loss , and the biogeochemical flow boundary -- appear to have been crossed . The boundaries are `` rough , first estimates only , surrounded by large uncertainties and knowledge gaps '' that interact in ways that are complex and not well understood . Boundaries can help identify where there is room and define a `` safe space for human development '' , which is an improvement on approaches which aim at just minimizing human impacts on the planet . The 2009 report was presented to the General Assembly of the Club of Rome in Amsterdam . An edited summary of the report was subsequently published as the featured article in a special edition of Nature . Nature also published critical commentary from leading academics they invited to comment on each of the seven planetary boundaries which had been quantified , including comments from Nobel laureate Mario J. Molina and biologist Cristián Samper . In 2015 , a second paper was published in Science updating the Planetary Boundaries concept . The findings were presented at the World Economic Forum in Davos , January 2015 .", "Tipping points in the climate system A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible." ]

[ "The Greening of Planet Earth The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .", "Global warming in Russia Global warming in Russia describes the global warming related issues in Russia . This includes climate politics , contribution to global warming and the influence of global warming on Russia . In 2009 Russia was ready to reduce emissions 20 -- 25 % from its 1990 emission levels by the year 2020 .", "Catastrophe: Risk and Response Catastrophe : Risk and Response is a 2004 nonfiction book by Judge Richard Posner , in which Posner advocates the use of a cost -- benefit framework to address potential major disasters such as runaway global warming and planet-obliterating asteroids .", "Effects of global warming on oceans Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .", "Global Warming: The Signs and The Science Global Warming : The Signs and The Science is a 2005 documentary film on global warming made by ETV , the PBS affiliate in South Carolina , and hosted by Alanis Morissette . The documentary examines the science behind global warming and pulls together segments filmed in the United States , Asia and South America and shows how people in these different locales are responding in different ways to the challenges of global warming to show some of the ways that the world can respond .", "John Lawrence Daly John L. Daly ( 31 March 1943 -- 29 January 2004 ) was an Australian teacher and self-declared `` Greenhouse skeptic . '' He was known for speaking out publicly against what he called the `` Global Warming scare , '' and authored the book The greenhouse trap : Why the greenhouse effect will not end life on earth , published in 1989 by Bantam Books . Since his death his website , Still Waiting for Greenhouse is maintained by Jerry Brennan , though updates slowed considerably after Daly 's death and stopped completely in 2008 . Daly investigated various studies by scientists which appear to support global warming scenarios and raised objections to them . For example , he denied that the average sea level is rising , on the basis the ` Isle of the Dead ' mean ocean level benchmark .", "Cool Globes: Hot Ideas for a Cooler Planet Cool Globes : Hot Ideas for a Cooler Planet is a public art project dedicated to increasing awareness of global warming . A nonprofit corporation , `` Cool Globes : Hot Ideas for a Cooler Planet '' sponsored a Chicago public art exhibit of 125 5 ft globes decorated with solutions to global warming , placed in Grant Park near the Field Museum of Natural History , the Shedd Aquarium , and along the lakefront bike path during the summer of 2007 . The project is similar to the popular `` Cows on Parade '' exhibit of 1999 , but with a social conscience . The Cool Globes adopts the idea of Berlin 's town mascot ; the entailing United Buddy Bears exhibitions are very different from all other urban events . The bears were created by the German artists Klaus and Eva Herlitz . The idea and the philosophy behind the United Buddy Bears exhibitions are unique : with its international approach and its symbolism , this synthesis of the arts globally promotes tolerance , international understanding and a peaceful coexistence .", "Storm World In his book Storm World : Hurricanes , Politics , and the Battle over Global Warming , Chris Mooney discusses tensions between two different approaches to analyzing global warming and its effect on hurricanes .", "Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "Duncan Wingham Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "Everything's Cool Everything 's Cool may refer to : `` Everything 's Cool '' ( song ) , a song from the Pop Will Eat Itself album Dos Dedos Mis Amigos Everything 's Cool ( film ) , a 2007 documentary film that examines the divide between scientists and the general populace on the topic of global warming", "Retreat of glaciers since 1850 The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .", "Global warming in Tuvalu Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .", "Project Earth (TV series) Project Earth is a 2008 reality TV series , hosted by Kevin O'Leary , Jennifer L. Languell , and Mocean Melvin , on the Discovery Channel in which several groups of scientists experiment with radical ideas to slow and/or stop global warming using geoengineering methods .", "Ocean heat content Oceanic heat content ( OHC ) is the heat stored in the ocean . Oceanography and climatology are the science branches which study ocean heat content . Changes in the ocean heat content play an important role in the sea level rise , because of thermal expansion . It is with high confidence that ocean warming accounts for 90 % of the energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2010 .", "Everything's Cool (film) Everything 's Cool is a 2007 documentary film that examines the divide between scientists and the general populace on the topic of global warming . Director Dan Gold said of the motivation for the film that `` I 'm optimistic that finally the message that this is real , that human beings are the cause of the most recent warming trend , and that it 's an important issue , that message is actually reaching America . On the other hand ... if that message was fully understood , we would be moving a lot faster to slow this down and to reverse this course . '' The documentary was shown at the Sundance film festival in January 2007 and at the San Francisco International Film Festival in May 2007 . The directors also took Blue Vinyl , a film about plastic pollution , to Sundance in 2002 . It was shown on CBC in Canada as part of the Passionate Eye series . The New York Times called it `` a breezy polemic about the politics of global warming ... -LSB- that -RSB- adopts a cheerful comic tone to avoid scaring audiences . '' The LA Times said that `` With wit and passion , Gold and Helfand marshal a plethora of data and developments yet never lose their narrative thread . '' . The New York Sun was less favourable , calling it `` the best movie I 've ever seen about global warming for kids in junior high school , but it 's the most annoying movie about global warming I 've ever seen for adults . ''", "Politics of global warming The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .", "Deglaciation Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .", "Future sea level The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "Arctic methane emissions Arctic methane release is the release of methane from seas and soils in permafrost regions of the Arctic . While a long-term natural process , it is exacerbated by global warming . This results in a positive feedback effect , as methane is itself a powerful greenhouse gas . The Arctic region is one of the many natural sources of the greenhouse gas methane . Global warming accelerates its release , due to both release of methane from existing stores , and from methanogenesis in rotting biomass . Large quantities of methane are stored in the Arctic in natural gas deposits , permafrost , and as undersea clathrates . Permafrost and clathrates degrade on warming , thus large releases of methane from these sources may arise as a result of global warming . Other sources of methane include submarine taliks , river transport , ice complex retreat , submarine permafrost and decaying gas hydrate deposits . Concentrations in the Arctic atmosphere are higher by 8 -- 10 % than that in the Antarctic atmosphere . During cold glacier epochs , this gradient decreases to practically insignificant levels . Land ecosystems are considered the main sources of this asymmetry , although it has been suggested that `` the role of the Arctic Ocean is significantly underestimated . '' Soil temperature and moisture levels have been found to be significant variables in soil methane fluxes in tundra environments .", "Global warming hiatus A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "Keep Cool Keep Cool may refer to : Keep Cool ( film ) , a 1997 Chinese black comedy directed by Zhang Yimou Keep Cool ( board game ) , a German-made global warming board game", "The Real Global Warming Disaster The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .", "Crimes of the Hot `` Crimes of the Hot '' is the eighth episode in the fourth production season of the American animated television series Futurama . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 10 , 2002 . The episode was written by Aaron Ehasz and directed by Peter Avanzino . Al Gore guest stars as his own preserved head in a jar , his second appearance in the series . The episode tackles the topic of global warming as the Planet Express crew is sent to retrieve Earth 's yearly ice supply in order to keep the planet cool . When they are unable to retrieve the ice , the Earth is forced to search for other ways to solve their global warming problem . In 2003 , the episode was nominated for an Environmental Media Award .", "David Steinman You may also be looking for David B. Steinman , builder of bridges . David Steinman is an environmentalist , journalist , consumer health advocate , publisher and author . His major books include Diet for a Poisoned Planet ( 1990 , 2007 ) , The Safe Shopper 's Bible ( 1995 ) , Living Healthy in a Toxic World ( 1996 ) , and Safe Trip to Eden : Ten Steps to Save the Planet Earth from Global Warming Meltdown ( 2007 ) , which introduces a concept he calls Green Patriotism .", "Antarctica cooling controversy An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .", "Global Catastrophic Risks (book) Global Catastrophic Risks ( 2011 ) is a non-fiction book edited by philosopher Nick Bostrom and astronomer Milan M. Ćirković . The book is about issues such as asteroid impacts , gamma-ray bursts , Earth-based natural catastrophes , nuclear war , terrorism , global warming , biological weapons , totalitarianism , advanced nanotechnology , artificial general intelligence , and social collapse . The book also addresses overarching issues such as policy responses and methods for predicting and managing catastrophes .", "Global warming in Luxembourg Global warming in Luxembourg discuss the global warming issues in Luxembourg .", "1,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene 1,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene ( HFO-1234ze ) is a hydrofluoroolefin . It was developed as a `` fourth generation '' refrigerant to replace R-134a and as a blowing agent for foam and aerosol applications . The use of R-134a is being phased out because of its high global-warming potential . HFO-1234ze has zero ozone-depletion potential ( ODP = 0 ) and a very low global-warming potential ( GWP < 1 ) , even lower than CO2 ." ]

[ "Coral Corals are marine invertebrates in the class Anthozoa of phylum Cnidaria . They typically live in compact colonies of many identical individual polyps . The group includes the important reef builders that inhabit tropical oceans and secrete calcium carbonate to form a hard skeleton . A coral `` group '' is a colony of myriad genetically identical polyps . Each polyp is a sac-like animal typically only a few millimeters in diameter and a few centimeters in length . A set of tentacles surround a central mouth opening . An exoskeleton is excreted near the base . Over many generations , the colony thus creates a large skeleton that is characteristic of the species . Individual heads grow by asexual reproduction of polyps . Corals also breed sexually by spawning : polyps of the same species release gametes simultaneously over a period of one to several nights around a full moon . Although some corals can catch small fish and plankton using stinging cells on their tentacles , most corals obtain the majority of their energy and nutrients from photosynthetic unicellular dinoflagellates in the genus Symbiodinium that live within their tissues . These are commonly known as zooxanthellae and the corals that contain them are zooxanthellate corals . Such corals require sunlight and grow in clear , shallow water , typically at depths shallower than 60 m. Corals are major contributors to the physical structure of the coral reefs that develop in tropical and subtropical waters , such as the enormous Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Queensland , Australia . Other corals do not rely on zooxanthellae and can live in much deeper water , with the cold-water genus Lophelia surviving as deep as 3000 m . Some have been found on the Darwin Mounds , north-west of Cape Wrath , Scotland . Corals have also been found as far north as off the coast of Washington State and the Aleutian Islands .", "Great Salt Lake The Great Salt Lake , located in the northern part of the U.S. state of Utah , is the largest salt water lake in the Western Hemisphere , and the eighth-largest terminal lake in the world . In an average year the lake covers an area of around 1700 sqmi , but the lake 's size fluctuates substantially due to its shallowness . For instance , in 1963 it reached its lowest recorded size at 950 square miles ( 2,460 km ² ) , but in 1988 the surface area was at the historic high of 3300 sqmi . In terms of surface area , it is the largest lake in the United States that is not part of the Great Lakes region . The lake is the largest remnant of Lake Bonneville , a prehistoric pluvial lake that once covered much of western Utah . The three major tributaries to the lake , the Jordan , Weber , and Bear rivers together deposit around 1.1 million tons of minerals in the lake each year . As it is endorheic ( has no outlet besides evaporation ) , it has very high salinity , far saltier than seawater , which makes swimming similar to floating , and its mineral content is steadily increasing . Its shallow , warm waters cause frequent , sometimes heavy lake-effect snows from late fall through spring . Although it has been called `` America 's Dead Sea '' , the lake provides habitat for millions of native birds , brine shrimp , shorebirds , and waterfowl , including the largest staging population of Wilson 's phalarope in the world .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Goode Crossing, Virginia Goode Crossing is an unincorporated community in Powhatan County , in the U.S. state of Virginia . Goode Crossing is a populated place in Powhatan County , VA with an elevation of 187 ft above sea level . This place is also known as Goodes Crossing .", "Lešane, Suva Reka Lešane ( Лешане , Leshan ) is a settlement in the Suva Reka municipality in south Kosovo . It is located in the Prizrenski Podgor region . It lies 374 m above sea level . It has an ethnic Albanian majority , and Serbian minority ; in the 1991 census , it had 2381 inhabitants . The smaller settlement of Topličane has been registered with Lešane in the censuses ( The 1981 data shows only Lešane data ) .", "Sea Around Us (organization) The Sea Around Us is an international research initiative and a member of the Global Fisheries Cluster at the University of British Columbia . The Sea Around Us assesses the impact of fisheries on the marine ecosystems of the world and offers mitigating solutions to a range of stakeholders . To achieve this , the Sea Around Us presents fisheries and fisheries-related data at spatial scales that have ecological and policy relevance , such as by Exclusive Economic Zones , High Seas areas , or Large Marine Ecosystems . All spatialized data are visualized either graphically or mapped , and all data can be downloaded . Global fisheries catches from 1950 to the present are available , under explicit consideration of coral reefs , seamounts , estuaries and other critical habitats of fish and marine invertebrates . The data presented , which are all freely available , are meant to support studies of global fisheries trends and the development of sustainable , ecosystem-based fisheries policies . In the early 2000s , members of the Sea Around Us uncovered that China was overestimating its catches and showed that , when such distortions were removed from overall fisheries catches , global fisheries were actually declining since the late 1980s . The Sea Around Us also showed that the biomass of large fish in the North Atlantic is one-tenth of what it was only a century ago . Aquaculture , according to another study with members from the Project , can not be expected to compensate for overfishing but is instead likely to exacerbate the problem due to the reliance on wild fish for fishmeal . In other words , without serious long-term planning , the oceans might get a lot worse before they get better . In 2016 , members of the Sea Around Us , using reconstructed global catch data that combine officially reported landings data with comprehensive estimates of unreported landings and discards , documented that , from 1950-2010 , global catches were around 50 % higher than reported data suggest . Furthermore , total catches seem to be declining faster from their peak catch in the mid-1990s than reported data would suggest . The good news is that the discrepancy between reported data and estimated total catches is decreasing in more recent years , meaning that the comprehensiveness of data reported by countries seems to be improving . All this information was compiled in the Global Atlas of Marine Fisheries , a 520-page book published in October 2016 by Island Press . The Sea Around Us also communicates to broad audiences to convey the urgency to : Reduce excess fishing capacity ( much of which is being ` exported ' to developing countries ) . Eliminate damaging subsidies and create extensive networks of marine protected areas . Reconsider the current model of carnivorous aquaculture . Refocus fisheries to the small-scale sectors that are crucial to national food security concerns in developing countries . The Sea Around Us was initiated in collaboration with The Pew Charitable Trusts in 1999 , and in 2014 , Sea Around Us began a collaboration with The Paul G. Allen Family Foundation and its executive arm , Vulcan Inc. , to provide African and Asian countries with more accurate and comprehensive fisheries data , and to redesign and revamp the Sea Around Us website .", "Resource calendar The resource calendar is the timetable that shows how material and labor are consumed during the course of a project . . This data might be at activity or project level .", "OpenCorporates OpenCorporates is a website which shares data on corporate entities as open data under the share-alike attribution Open Database License . It was created by Chris Taggart and Rob McKinnon , under the auspices of their company , Chrinon Ltd , and launched on 20 December 2010 . It has the aims of creating a URL with such data for every corporate entity in the world , importing government data relating to companies and matching it to specific companies . The site also shows groups of companies which are legally part of the same conglomerate . Basic company information is available as open data in XML or JSON format . The OpenCorporates Advisory Board exists to advise OpenCorporates on policy , practice and principles , and to ensure that OpenCorporates remains true to its central mission of the opening of company data for the public good . It 's formed by three members actually : David Eaves , Kaitlin Lee and Andrew Stott . The same team also operate OpenCharities , compiling data on registered charities .", "Link control Link control may refer to : Data link layer , also known as data link control ( DLC ) High-Level Data Link Control ( HDLC ) Synchronous Data Link Control ( SDLC )", "Mukhaestate Mukhaestate is a village located in the west part of Georgia , Kobuleti municipality in the Adjarian region ( an autonomous region ) . Village is situated at 60 metres above the sea level . In the village is a small river , which called Achkva . According to the data of 2014 , 1 837 people live in the village . During the 15th-16th century Mukhaestate was the main residence place for nobleman from Guria region . Mukhaestate is 36.9 kilometers north of Batumi and approximately 315 km west of the nation 's capital Tbilisi . The mountainous area is good for subtropical species .", "Cholame, California Cholame -LSB- ʃəˈlæm -RSB- is an unincorporated community in San Luis Obispo County , California , USA . It sits within a mile of the San Andreas Rift Zone fault line at an elevation of 1157 ft above sea level and is located at . Cholame is reached via State Route 41 , just southwest of the junction of Route 46 . Rainfall data from a nearby ranch shows that the area around Cholame only receives about eight to nine inches ( 200 -- 230 mm ) of rain in a normal year . Cholame is locally pronounced `` show-LAM . ''", "Mung (computer term) Mung or munge is computer jargon for a series of potentially destructive or irrevocable changes to a piece of data or a file . It is sometimes used for vague data transformation steps that are not yet clear to the speaker . Common munging operations include removing punctuation or html tags , data parsing , filtering , and transformation . The term was coined in 1958 in the Tech Model Railroad Club at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . In 1960 the backronym `` Mash Until No Good '' was created to describe Mung , and a while after it was revised to `` Mung Until No Good '' , making it one of the first recursive acronyms . It lived on as a recursive command in the editing language TECO . It differs from the very similar term munge , because munging usually implies destruction of data , while mungeing usually implies modifying data in order to create protection related to that data . Munging may also describe the constructive operation of tying together systems and interfaces that were not specifically designed to interoperate . Munging can also describe the processing or filtering of raw data into another form . As the `` no good '' part of the acronym implies , munging often involves irrevocable destruction of data . Hence in the early text-adventure game Zork , also known as Dungeon , the user could mung an object and thereby destroy it ( making it impossible to finish the game if the object was an important item ) .", "Object storage Object storage ( also known as object-based storage ) is a computer data storage architecture that manages data as objects , as opposed to other storage architectures like file systems which manage data as a file hierarchy and block storage which manages data as blocks within sectors and tracks . Each object typically includes the data itself , a variable amount of metadata , and a globally unique identifier . Object storage can be implemented at multiple levels , including the device level ( object storage device ) , the system level , and the interface level . In each case , object storage seeks to enable capabilities not addressed by other storage architectures , like interfaces that can be directly programmable by the application , a namespace that can span multiple instances of physical hardware , and data management functions like data replication and data distribution at object-level granularity . Object storage systems allow retention of massive amounts of unstructured data . Object storage is used for purposes such as storing photos on Facebook , songs on Spotify , or files in online collaboration services , such as Dropbox .", "Atlantic Data Base for Exchange Processes at the Deep Sea Floor The Atlantic Data Base for Exchange Processes at the Deep Sea Floor ( ADEPD ) was a marine research project funded by the EU from 1998 to 2000 as part of MAST III ( Marine Science and Technology Programme ) . The project was coordinated by Prof. Dr. Karin Lochte at the Leibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research , Warnemünde with contributions of ten European partners and one institute from the US . Aim of the ADEPD project was to build up a joint data base for deep sea biological and geochemical data from a variety of sources and to conduct a preliminary geographical analysis of these data . Emphasis was on the North Atlantic , since from this area most data are available and it is the most perturbed deep sea region due to human activities . 1775 published and unpublished data sets were collected in two years . This was the first project which has compiled a data base from existing deep sea data , long-term archived and accessible to the scientific community . Evaluation of the data collection showed that data are clustered in some well investigated areas of the Atlantic , but large regions are devoid of data like the Mid Atlantic Ridge , parts of the South Atlantic and Southern Ocean . In particular biological data from the deep sea are much more scarce than geochemical ones , since many biological data from past investigations are not accessible in a suitable form at present . Most deep sea research projects did not carry out geochemical and biological studies at the same lcoations . Therefor , statistical comparisons between biological and geochemical data are still difficult despite the high total amount of data gathered . Different methods employed for the determination of one variable further complicate the matter . One of the major achievements of ADEP was to convert different measurements to common units . This allowed to investigate relationships between different chemical measurements , groups of organisms and turnover rates . Two very different approaches to estimate the total turnover of organic carbon or oxygen ( respiration ) at the deep sea floor gave very similar results . Regional differences in both assessments point to methodological shortcomings by one or the other method and to gaps in data coverage . While estimates agreed well in central Atlantic regions , fairly large discrepancies were found at the continental margins . This indicated that there was still insufficient knowledge about transport processes and biological turnover of organic carbon along continental margins . The following recommendations for future research were given on the basis of the ADEPD results : It is most important to secure deep sea biological data from so far inaccessible sources and to collate them in a data information system which guarantees long-term stewardship and public access . Biological and geochemical studies were mostly carried out separately which seems to be a systematic , scientific pattern and poses a problem in deep sea research . Interdisciplinary studies are essential to better understand of deep sea processes . The largest differences in estimates of oxygen fluxes at the sea floor are found at continental margins which export large amounts of organic carbon to the deep sea . The knowledge of transport and biological utilization at the continental margins need further attention .", "NotesPeek NotesPeek is a utility that allows navigation and display of the complete contents of Lotus Notes database files . It breaks out the database components in a tree structure , while also providing access to both low level and high level database components . It can show data and settings that otherwise can not accessed . NotesPeek was written by Ned Batchelder , who wrote it for his own use . He was later the project leader for Domino Designer .", "Hamburg Rules The Hamburg Rules are a set of rules governing the international shipment of goods , resulting from the United Nations International Convention on the Carriage of Goods by Sea adopted in Hamburg on 31 March 1978 . The Convention was an attempt to form a uniform legal base for the transportation of goods on oceangoing ships . A driving force behind the convention was the attempt of developing countries ' to level the playing field . It came into force on 1 November 1992 .", "Good Daddy Being A Good Daddy , also called Good Daddy , The Daddy I Like or Because I Like You ( the literal translation from Korean ) , was a South Korean reality variety show . Originally having been just a Chuseok show , it became a permanent weekly show after favourable reviews of its pilot episode .", "Orphan Bird The Orphan Bird ( Orphanay , Rafanay ) is a legendary bird from Medieval bestiaries . It had a peacock 's neck , an eagle 's beak , a swan 's feet , and a crane 's body . It would lay its eggs in the sea . The good eggs would float , while the bad eggs would sink . This is also an episode name in the popular show Survivor .", "Saja (river) The Saja is a river in the autonomous community of Cantabria , northern Spain . It flows into the Cantabric sea . Part of its course is inside the Saja-Besaya Natural Park The Saja 's source is at 1,700 meters above sea level and it flows rapidly through a steep V-shaped basin during the first kilometers . Past the village of Fresneda the valley starts to open up and it develops a wide alluvial plain in the Cabuerniga valley . Regarding the ecologic conservation of the river , it is good from the source to the Santa Lucía bridge , from when it begins to show important alterations , and being catalogued as moderately conserved . Down the confluence with the Besaya the alterations are already serious or very serious , being catalogued as badly conserved .", "Chaghcharan Chaghcharān ( -LSB- tʃægtʃæˈrɑːn -RSB- چغچران ) , also called Chakhcheran , and formerly known as Āhangarān آهنګران ) , ( آهنگران , is a town and district in central Afghanistan , which serves as the capital of Ghor Province . It is located on the southern side of the Hari River , at an altitude of 2,230 m above sea level . In 2014 , the Government of Afghanistan formally changed the name of this town to Firuzkoh . Chaghcharan is linked by a 380-kilometre-long highway with Herat to the west and is about the same distance from Kabul to the east and is also served by Chaghcharan Airport . It has a population of about 15,000 who are mostly Dari speakers . However the recent data showed a population of 31,266 ( in 2015 ) . it has 1 districts and a total land area of 2,614 Hectares . The total number of dwellings in this city are 3,474 .", "Dingli Dingli ( Ħad-Dingli ) is a village in the Northern Region of Malta , with a population of 3,608 as of March 2014 . It is 13 km from the capital Valletta and two kilometers ( 2 km ) from the nearest town , Rabat . The village lies on a plateau some 250 metres above sea level , which is one of the highest points of Malta . The area provides not only open sea views over the tiny , uninhabited isle of Filfla , but is also a good vantage point over Malta . From the cliffs there are also views of the nearby Buskett Gardens and Verdala Palace .", "Unemployment in Turkey Unemployment in Turkey measured by the Office of National Statistics show unemployment in Turkey at 3 647 000 ( 12.7 % ) as of December 2017 . Though unemployment is a general problem for the whole world , the degree of unemployment in Turkey is especially high in respect to the other countries in the region at the same economic level . In the year 2017 , the data on `` youth unemployment '' , which indicates unemployment between 15 and 25 according to the data of the Turkish Statistical Institute ( TUİK ) , showed a worse performance than the general unemployment rate and increased by 4.8 percentage points to 24 percent .", "Link level Link level : In the hierarchical structure of a primary or secondary station , the conceptual level of control or data processing logic that controls the data link . Note : Link-level functions provide an interface between the station high-level logic and the data link . Link-level functions include ( a ) transmit bit injection and receive bit extraction , ( b ) address and control field interpretation , ( c ) command response generation , transmission and interpretation , and ( d ) frame check sequence computation and interpretation .", "Good Morning World Good Morning World is a satirical television show posing as a fictional morning show called `` Good Morning World '' . It stars ( and was also created by ) Peter Oldring and Pat Kelly , as hosts Andy Peppers and Allister Coulter . The show , which airs on Fridays at 8:30 pm ET/PT on The Comedy Network , serves as a recap of the previous week of webisodes , available to view at thecomedynetwork.ca In an interview with newteevee.com , co-creator and star Peter Oldring revealed that the show is entirely improvised .", "Bøn Station Bøn Station lies on the Trunk Line in Eidsvoll municipality , Norway , and was opened as a stop in 1858 . The station lies 62.24 kilometres from Oslo S and is 134 metres above sea level . The station building was built in 1884 . The buildings at the station are important , with the station building ( 1874 ) and the goods house ( 1853 ) at Bøn the only original buildings remaining on the Trunk Line . In January 2009 , the goods house at Bøn burnt down .", "Princetown Princetown is a villageDespite its name , Princetown is not classed as a town today -- it is not included in the County Council 's list of the 29 towns in Devon : in the Dartmoor national park in the English county of Devon . It is the principal settlement of the civil parish of Dartmoor Forest . The village has its origins in 1785 , when Sir Thomas Tyrwhitt , Secretary to the Prince of Wales , leased a large area of moorland from the Duchy of Cornwall estate , hoping to convert it into good farmland . He encouraged people to live in the area and suggested that a prison be built there . He called the settlement Princetown after the Prince of Wales . Princetown is the site of Dartmoor Prison . At around 1,430 feet ( 435 m ) above sea level , it is the highest settlement on the moor , and one of the highest in the United Kingdom . It is also the largest settlement located on the high moor . The Princetown Railway , closed in 1956 , was also the highest railway line in England : its Princetown terminus was also 1,430 feet above sea level .", "Hello Good Morning (disambiguation) `` Hello Good Morning '' ' is a song by Dirty Money Hello Good Morning may also refer to : Hello Good Morning , TV show Golden Bell Awards : 1990 -- 99 winners list Hello Good Morning ( Nick MacKenzie song )", "Chrysler Citadel The Chrysler Citadel was a concept car created by Chrysler . It was shown at the 2000 Washington DC Auto Show . The Citadel was a hybrid with good performance and the inspiration for the production-model Pacifica . The Citadel name was later used for a trim level on the 2011 Dodge Durango .", "Lee Nelson's Well Good Show Lee Nelson 's Well Good Show was a British comedy sketch show , written and presented by Simon Brodkin , and produced by Avalon Television for BBC Three . It featured Brodkin hosting a studio based show as his comedy character Lee Nelson , a happy-go-lucky chav , and also featured television sketches of Brodkin 's other comedy characters .", "Carriage of Goods By Sea Act 1992 The Carriage of Goods By Sea Act 1992 is a UK Statute that repeals the Bills of Lading Act 1855 and makes new provisions .", "Base level The base level of a river or stream is the lowest point to which it can flow , often referred to as the ` mouth of the river ' . For large rivers , sea level is usually the base level , but a large river or lake is likewise the base level for tributary streams . All rivers and streams erode toward sea level , which is also known as the `` ultimate base level . '' A rather rare exception can be seen in the Jordan River , for which the base level is the Dead Sea , 417 m below modern sea level . If a river is dammed , a new base level ( the level of the reservoir ) replaces the ultimate base level . As a result , the stream 's base level is raised . Consequently , this reduces the stream 's velocity , leads to deposition , and a reduction of the gradient upstream from the reservoir . Base level is also significant for subsurface drainage . A low base level is a prerequisite for the formation of karst topography , a network of sinkholes and caverns that can develop as slightly acidic groundwater enlarges joints ( by solution ) in limestone rock . Often this network of underground drainage feeds back to surface drainage along the edges of larger rivers , which are the effective base level . When the source of a stream is very high relative to its base level ( high stream gradient ) , erosion proceeds rapidly due to the energy of the rapidly moving water and the topography becomes rugged , and it is considered a young stream ( geologically speaking ) . When erosion has acted for a long geologic time , wearing down the high points and making a small difference between the source and the base level of a stream ( low stream gradient ) , then the stream is called mature . Mature stream valleys have gentle slopes , rounded higher points and meandering courses . A very hard layer of rock can form a temporary base level , until it is cut through . For example , Lockport dolomite has created a temporary base level for the Niagara River . Eventually this will be cut through as Niagara Falls recedes , and Lake Erie will be drained to near the lower base level of Lake Ontario . Movements of land can greatly affect base levels . As an illustration , the uplift of the Colorado Plateau , combined with the opening of the Gulf of California to the sea , established sea level as the base level for the Colorado River and led to the ( geologically ) rapid erosion that resulted in the Grand Canyon . The many meanders of the Kentucky River show that it was a mature stream with little relief . Uplift of the central Kentucky area rejuvenated the stream , causing it to cut a deep canyon , but preserving the meanders that indicate the stream existed prior to the uplift . Other geologic processes can affect base levels . In the Finger Lakes of New York , Ice age glaciation greatly deepened the lake valleys and rejuvenated tributary streams . These streams have deep ravines and often waterfalls where hard rock layers slow erosion ; they are said to be hanging valleys . Sea level can also change ( primarily due to the formation or melting of continental ice sheets ) , and raise or lower the final base level for coastal rivers . Along the east coast of North America , river valleys extend out onto the continental shelf , indicating a time when erosion was possible due to the lower base level of a lower sea level in the past . Today many of these same rivers end in bays , indicating that sea level has risen in recent geologic time . This is referred to as a drowned coastline .", "Castel Sant'Angelo (Licata) Castel Sant ` Angelo , also known as Forte Sant ` Angelo , is a fort in Licata , Sicily . It was originally built as a watchtower in the 1580s , and was expanded into a fort between 1615 and 1640 . Today , the fort is in good condition and is open to the public . Castel Sant ` Angelo is located on the top of Monte Sant ` Angelo , a hill 130 m above sea level , overlooking the city to the north and its harbour to the south . Several archaeological sites , including remains of a Hellenistic settlement , can be found in the area .", "Permanent Forces of the Empire Beyond the Seas Medal The Permanent Forces of the Empire Beyond the Seas Medal is a long service and good conduct medal , instituted for award to other ranks of the Permanent Forces of the Dominions and Colonies of the British Empire . The medal , also known as the Permanent Overseas Forces Long Service and Good Conduct Medal , was established in 1910 as a single common award to supersede the several local versions of the Army Long Service and Good Conduct Medal which were being awarded by the various territories . Along with the Army Long Service and Good Conduct Medal , the Permanent Forces of the Empire Beyond the Seas Medal was , in turn , superseded in 1930 by the Medal for Long Service and Good Conduct ( Military ) , which once again had various territorial versions .", "Microphallus turgidus Microphallus turgidus is a widespread and locally common undescribed flatworm parasite in New Zealand lakes and streams . Multilocus allozyme genotype data show that Microphallus turgidus is a single outbred species with high levels of gene flow among South Island populations . Microphallus turgidus '' is commonly found in the abdominal muscles of grass shrimp .", "Kolmogorov structure function In 1973 Kolmogorov proposed a non-probabilistic approach to statistics and model selection . Let each datum be a finite binary string and a model be finite sets of binary strings . Consider model classes consisting of models of given maximal Kolmogorov complexity . The Kolmogorov structure function of an individual data string expresses the relation between the complexity level constraint on a model class and the least log-cardinality of a model in the class containing the data . The structure function determines all stochastic properties of the individual data string : for every constrained model class it determines the individual best-fitting model in the class irrespective of whether the true model is in the model class considered or not . In the classical case we talk about a set of data with a probability distribution , and the properties are those of the expectations . In contrast , here we deal with individual data strings and the properties of the individual string focussed on . In this setting , a property holds with certainty rather than with high probability as in the classical case . The Kolmogorov structure function precisely quantify the goodness-of-fit of an individual model with respect to individual data . The Kolmogorov structure function is used in the algorithmic information theory , also known as the theory of Kolmogorov complexity , for describing the structure of a string by use of models of increasing complexity ." ]

[ "Earth Earth ( from Eorðe -LSB- Γαῖα , Gaia -RSB- Terra ) , otherwise known as the World or the Globe , is the third planet from the Sun and the only object in the Universe known to harbor life . It is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest of the four terrestrial planets . According to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence , Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago . Earth 's gravity interacts with other objects in space , especially the Sun and the Moon , Earth 's only natural satellite . During one orbit around the Sun , Earth rotates about its axis over 365 times ; thus , an Earth year is about 365.26 days long . Earth 's axis of rotation is tilted , producing seasonal variations on the planet 's surface . The gravitational interaction between the Earth and Moon causes ocean tides , stabilizes the Earth 's orientation on its axis , and gradually slows its rotation . Earth 's lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years . About 71 % of Earth 's surface is covered with water , mostly by its oceans . The remaining 29 % is land consisting of continents and islands that together have many lakes , rivers and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere . The majority of Earth 's polar regions are covered in ice , including the Antarctic ice sheet and the sea ice of the Arctic ice pack . Earth 's interior remains active with a solid iron inner core , a liquid outer core that generates the Earth 's magnetic field , and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics . Within the first billion years of Earth 's history , life appeared in the oceans and began to affect the Earth 's atmosphere and surface , leading to the proliferation of aerobic and anaerobic organisms . Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as much as 4.1 billion years ago . Since then , the combination of Earth 's distance from the Sun , physical properties , and geological history have allowed life to evolve and thrive . In the history of the Earth , biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion , occasionally punctuated by mass extinction events . Over 99 % of all species that ever lived on Earth are extinct . Estimates of the number of species on Earth today vary widely ; most species have not been described . Over 7.4 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and minerals for their survival . Humans have developed diverse societies and cultures ; politically , the world has about 200 sovereign states .", "Sea ice Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Polar ice packs (disambiguation) Polar ice packs may refer to : Sea ice Arctic ice pack Antarctic sea ice", "Arctic The Arctic ( -LSB- ˈɑrktɪk -RSB- or -LSB- ˈɑrtɪk -RSB- ) is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth . The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean , adjacent seas , and parts of Alaska ( United States ) , Canada , Finland , Greenland ( Denmark ) , Iceland , Norway , Russia and Sweden . Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover , with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra . Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places . The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth 's ecosystems . For example , the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions . In recent years , Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming . Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice , zooplankton and phytoplankton , fish and marine mammals , birds , land animals , plants and human societies . Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic .", "Drift ice Drift ice is any sea ice other than fast ice , the latter being attached ( `` fastened '' ) to the shoreline or other fixed objects ( shoals , grounded icebergs , etc. ) . Drift ice is carried along by winds and sea currents , hence its name . When drift ice is driven together into a large single mass ( > 70 % coverage ) , it is called pack ice . Wind and currents can pile up that ice to form ridges up to several metres in height . These represent a challenge for icebreakers and offshore structures operating in cold oceans and seas . Drift ice consists of floes , individual pieces of sea ice 20 m or more across . There are names for various floe sizes : small -- 20 m to 100 m ; medium -- 100 m to 500 m ; big -- 500 m to 2000 m ; vast -- 2 km to 10 km ; and giant -- more than 10 km . Seasonal ice drift in the Sea of Okhotsk by the northern coast of Hokkaidō , Japan has become a tourist attraction of this area with harsh climate , and is one of the 100 Soundscapes of Japan . The Sea of Okhotsk is the southernmost area in the Northern hemisphere where drift ice may be observed . Drift ice affects : Security of navigation Climatic impact ( see Polar ice packs ) Geological impact Biosphere influence ( see Ecology of sea ice ) The two major ice packs are the Arctic ice pack and the Antarctic ice pack . The most important areas of pack ice are the polar ice packs formed from seawater in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs significantly change their size during seasonal changes of the year . Because of vast amounts of water added to or removed from the oceans and atmosphere , the behavior of polar ice packs has a significant impact on global changes in climate .", "Brine pool A brine pool is a large area of brine on the ocean basin . These pools are bodies of water that have a salinity three to eight times greater than the surrounding ocean . For deep-sea brine pools , the source of the salt is the dissolution of large salt deposits through salt tectonics . The brine often contains high concentrations of methane , providing energy to chemosynthetic animals that live near the pool . These creatures are often extremophiles . Brine pools are also known to exist on the Antarctic Shelf where the source of brine is salt excluded during formation of sea ice . Deep-sea and Antarctic brine pools can be toxic to marine animals .", "Pine Island Glacier Pine Island Glacier ( PIG ) is a large ice stream glacier , and the fastest melting glacier in Antarctica , responsible for about 25 % of Antarctica 's ice loss . The glacier ice streams flow west-northwest along the south side of the Hudson Mountains into Pine Island Bay , Amundsen Sea , Antarctica . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from surveys and United States Navy ( USN ) air photos , 1960 -- 66 , and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) in association with Pine Island Bay . The area drained by Pine Island Glacier comprises about 10 % of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . Satellite measurements have shown that the Pine Island Glacier Basin has a greater net contribution of ice to the sea than any other ice drainage basin in the world and this has increased due to recent acceleration of the ice stream . The ice stream is extremely remote , with the nearest continually occupied research station at Rothera , nearly 1300 km away . The area is not claimed by any nations and the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any new claims while it is in force .", "Icing (nautical) Icing on ships is a serious hazard where cold temperatures ( below about -10 C ) combined with high wind speed ( typically force 8 or above on the Beaufort scale ) result in spray blown off the sea freezing immediately on contact with the ship . If not frequently knocked off , the ice can soon build up on the ship 's superstructure to a sufficient weight to cause the ship to capsize . It is typically a problem in Arctic and Antarctic seas , but can also occur in other seas such as the Gulf of Saint Lawrence , the Sea of Japan , the Baltic Sea , and very rarely , the North Sea .", "Deglaciation Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .", "Past sea level Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .", "Polaribacter franzmannii Polaribacter franzmannii is a species of gas vacuolate polar marine bacteria . It was first isolated from sea ice and water from the Arctic and the Antarctic . Its type strain is ATCC 700399 .", "Polaribacter filamentus Polaribacter filamentus is a species of gas vacuolate polar marine bacteria . It was first isolated from sea ice and water from the Arctic and the Antarctic . Its type strain is ATCC 700397 .", "Greenland Sea The Greenland Sea is a body of water that borders Greenland to the west , the Svalbard archipelago to the east , Fram Strait and the Arctic Ocean to the north , and the Norwegian Sea and Iceland to the south . The Greenland Sea is often defined as part of the Arctic Ocean , sometimes as part of the Atlantic Ocean . However , definitions of the Arctic Ocean and its seas tend to be imprecise or arbitrary . In general usage the term `` Arctic Ocean '' would exclude the Greenland Sea . In oceanographic studies the Greenland Sea is considered part of the Nordic Seas , along with the Norwegian Sea . The Nordic Seas are the main connection between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans and , as such , could be of great significance in a possible shutdown of thermohaline circulation . In oceanography the Arctic Ocean and Nordic Seas are often referred to collectively as the `` Arctic Mediterranean Sea '' , a marginal sea of the Atlantic . The sea has Arctic climate with regular northern winds and temperatures rarely rising above 0 ° C . It previously contained the Odden ice tongue ( or Odden ) area , which extended eastward from the main East Greenland ice edge in the vicinity of 72 -- 74 ° N during the winter and acted as a key winter ice formation area in the Arctic . The West Ice forms in winter in the Greenland Sea , north of Iceland , between Greenland and Jan Mayen island . It is a major breeding ground of harp seal and hooded seal that has been used for seal hunting for more than 200 years .", "Lincoln Sea Lincoln Sea is a body of water in the Arctic Ocean , stretching from Cape Columbia , Canada , in the west to Cape Morris Jesup , Greenland , in the east . The northern limit is defined as the great circle line between those two headlands . It is covered with sea ice throughout the year , the thickest sea ice in the Arctic Ocean , which can be up to 15 m thick . Water depths range from 100 m to 300 m. Water and ice from Lincoln Sea empty into Robeson Channel , the northernmost part of Nares Strait , most of the time . The sea was named after Robert Todd Lincoln , then United States Secretary of War , on Adolphus W. Greely 's 1881 -- 1884 Arctic expedition into Lady Franklin Bay . Alert , the northernmost station of Canada , is the only populated place on the shore of Lincoln Sea . The body of water to the east of Lincoln Sea ( east of Cape Morris Jesup ) is Wandel Sea .", "Polaribacter irgensii Polaribacter irgensii is a species of gas vacuolate polar marine bacteria . It was first isolated from sea ice and water from the Arctic and the Antarctic . Its type strain is ATCC 700398 .", "Jezek Glacier Jezek Glacier is a glacier on the southeast side of Platform Spur , flowing northeast into Emmanuel Glacier in the Royal Society Range of Victoria Land , Antarctica . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 1992 after Kenneth C. Jezek , a geophysicist with the Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , 1983 -- 89 ; in 12 visits to the Arctic and Antarctic he conducted geophysical surveys using remote sensing techniques on measurement and properties of terrestrial ice and sea ice with work at Dome Charlie , the Ross Ice Shelf and the Weddell Sea . From 1989 he was Director of the Byrd Polar Research Center .", "Lead (sea ice) A lead ( -LSB- ˈliːd -RSB- ) is a large fracture within an expanse of sea ice , defining a linear area of open water that can be used for navigation purposes . Leads vary in width from meters to hundreds of meters . As is the case for polynyas ( another sea ice feature involving open water ) , leads allow the direct interaction between the atmosphere and the ocean , and are important for Arctic sea ice ecology . Additionally it has been lately found that ice leads contribute significantly to the amount of mercury deposited onto surface and leaked into the ocean . If the air is cold enough ( typically in the winter ) , the water within a lead quickly refreezes , such that in many cases , leads are partly or entirely covered by a thin layer of new ice .", "Sympagic ecology A sympagic environment is one where water exists mostly as a solid , ice , such as a polar ice cap or glacier . Solid sea ice is permeated with channels filled with salty brine . These briny channels and the sea ice itself have its ecology , referred to as `` sympagic ecology '' . Residents of temperate or tropical climates often assume , mistakenly , that ice and snow are devoid of life . In fact , a number of varieties of algae such as diatoms engage in photosynthesis in arctic and alpine regions of Earth . Other energy sources include Aeolian dust and pollen swept in from other regions . These ecosystems also include bacteria and fungi , as well as animals like flatworms and crustaceans . A number of sympagic worm species are commonly called ice worms . Additionally , the ocean has abundant plankton , and prolific algal blooms occur in the polar regions each summer as well as in high mountain lakes , bringing nutrients to those parts of the ice in contact with the water . In the spring , krill can scrape off the green lawn of ice algae from the underside of the pack ice .", "Joseph Adhémar Joseph Alphonse Adhémar ( 1797 -- 1862 ) was a French mathematician . He was the first to suggest that ice ages were controlled by astronomical forces in his 1842 book Revolutions of the Sea . The Earth 's orbit is elliptical , with the Sun at one focus ; lines drawn through the summer and winter solstice ; and the spring and autumn equinox ; intersect with the sun at right angles . The Earth is closest to the Sun ( perihelion ) near the northern hemisphere winter solstice . The earth moves faster through its orbit when closer to the sun . Hence , the period from the northern hemisphere 's autumn equinox to winter and spring is shorter by around seven days than the period from spring to summer to autumn ; the reverse is true in the southern hemisphere . Hence , northern hemisphere winter is shorter . Because of this , Adhemar reasoned that because the southern hemisphere had more hours of darkness in winter , it must be cooling , and attributed the Antarctic ice sheet to this . Adhemar knew of the 22,000 year cycle of precession of the equinoxes , and theorised that the ice ages occurred in this cycle . One immediate objection to the theory was that the total insolation during a year does not vary at all during the precessional cycle , only its seasonal distribution . Another was that the timing was wrong ; however this could not be tested by observations available at the time . Adhemar 's theory was further developed , first by James Croll and later by Milutin Milanković . Adhemar predicted the Antarctic ice sheet and theorised about its thickness by comparing the depths of the Arctic and circum-Antarctic oceans . Finding the Antarctic oceans deeper ( the measurements he used may not have been fully representative ) and attributing this to the gravitational attraction of the Antarctic ice sheet , he postulated a truly enormous ice sheet approximately 90 km thick .", "Weddell Sea The Weddell Sea is part of the Southern Ocean and contains the Weddell Gyre . Its land boundaries are defined by the bay formed from the coasts of Coats Land and the Antarctic Peninsula . The easternmost point is Cape Norvegia at Princess Martha Coast , Queen Maud Land . To the east of Cape Norvegia is the King Haakon VII Sea . Much of the southern part of the sea is covered by a permanent , massive ice shelf field , the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf ( not pack ice ) . The sea is contained within the two overlapping Antarctic territorial claims of Argentina , ( Argentine Antarctica ) and Britain ( British Antarctic Territory ) , and also resides partially within the territorial claim of Chile ( Antarctic Chilean Territory ) . At its widest the sea is around 2,000 km across , and its area is around 2.8 e6km2 . Various ice shelves , including the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf , fringe the Weddell sea . Some of the ice shelves on the east side of the Antarctic Peninsula , which formerly covered roughly 3900 sqmi of the Weddell Sea , had completely disappeared by 2002 ; see . Whilst a dramatic event , the area that disappeared was far smaller than the total area of ice shelf that remains . The Weddell Sea has been deemed by scientists to have the clearest water of any sea . Dutch researchers from the German Alfred Wegener Institute , on finding a Secchi disc visible at a depth of 262 ft on 13 October 1986 , ascertained that the clarity corresponded to that of distilled water . In his 1950 book The White Continent , historian Thomas R. Henry writes : He continues for an entire chapter , relating myths of the green-haired merman sighted in the sea 's icy waters , the inability of crews to navigate a path to the coast until 1949 , and treacherous `` flash freezes '' that left ships , such as Ernest Shackleton 's Endurance , at the mercy of the ice floes .", "Geography of Antarctica The geography of Antarctica is dominated by its south polar location and , thus , by ice . The Antarctic continent , located in the Earth 's southern hemisphere , is centered asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle . It is washed by the Southern ( or Antarctic ) Ocean or , depending on definition , the southern Pacific , Atlantic , and Indian Oceans . It has an area of more than 14 million km ² . Some 98 % of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet , the world 's largest ice sheet and also its largest reservoir of fresh water . Averaging at least 1.6 km thick , the ice is so massive that it has depressed the continental bedrock in some areas more than 2.5 km below sea level ; subglacial lakes of liquid water also occur ( e.g. , Lake Vostok ) . Ice shelves and rises populate the ice sheet on the periphery .", "Barents Sea Opening The Barents Sea Opening ( BSO ) is an oceanographic term for the Western Barents Sea , the sea area between Bear Island in the south of Svalbard and the northern extremity of Norway through which a water mass of Atlantic origin flows into the Arctic Ocean . The inflow of relative warm water into the Arctic Ocean occurs not only through the Barents Sea Opening , but also through Fram Strait which is much deeper . The internal energy entering the colder waters has an influence on the atmosphere and the sea ice above and therefore possibly on the global climate .", "Extreme points of Antarctica The tallest mountain in Antarctica is Mount Vinson rising 4,892 metres ( 16,050 feet ) above sea level . The lowest point in Antarctica is within the Bentley Subglacial Trench , which reaches 2,555 metres below sea level . This is also the lowest place on Earth not covered by ocean ( although it is covered by ice ) . The lowest accessible point in Antarctica is the shore of Deep Lake , Vestfold Hills , which is 50 m beneath sea level . The point on land farthest from any coastline on the Antarctic Continent is located at . This is also known as the South Pole of inaccessibility . Antarctica is the southernmost land mass on Earth . The Geographical South Pole lies on the Polar Plateau at . It is here that the southernmost human habitation on Earth is located : Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station ( U.S. Administered Base ) . Vostok Station is the most isolated research base on the continent ( located at ) , and it is situated over the southernmost lake in the world , Lake Vostok , a subglacial lake 4,000 metres ( 13,000 feet ) under the surface of the ice where the station sits . Formerly administrated by the Soviets , it is now operated by Russia . The southernmost volcano on the planet -- Mount Erebus -- is in Antarctica on the world 's southernmost island reachable from the sea : Ross Island . The southernmost island is Berkner Island . It is embedded in the ice shelf , fully covered by ice and fully below sea level . The Ross Sea is the southernmost sea in the world , with its southernmost extremity ( Gould Coast ) at the foot of the Horlick Mountains approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) from the Geographic South Pole . However , this area is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf . The southernmost open sea is also part of Ross Sea , namely Bay of Whales at 78 ° 30 'S , at the edge of Ross Ice Shelf . The northernmost extremity of the Antarctic mainland ( without nearshore islands ) is Prime Head , at the northern tip of the Trinity Peninsula at . The Antarctic Peninsula is the largest contiguous part of the continent projecting north of the Antarctic Circle and thus has many of the continent 's research bases . Prime Head is 609 mi ( 980 km ) from Cape Horn . The northernmost research base on the mainland is Esperanza Base .", "Ice mélange Ice mélange refers to a mixture of sea ice types , icebergs , and snow without a clearly defined floe that forms from shearing and fracture at the ice front . Ice mélange is commonly the result of an ice calving event where ice breaks off the edge of a glacier . Ice mélange affects many of the Earth 's processes including glacier calving , ocean wave generation and frequency , generation of seismic waves , atmosphere and ocean interactions , and tidewater glacier systems . Ice mélange is possibly the largest granular material on Earth , and is quasi-2-dimensional", "West Svartisen Ice-cap The West Svartisen Ice-cap is an ice cap glacier , occupying 201 km2 of the coastal area of central Norway , just inside the Arctic Circle . Most of the glacier is around 1000 metres above sea level on a high plateau . The ice-cap owes its existence to the high snowfall rates in the region , rather than the cold temperatures , similar to other glacier close by such as the Jostedalsbreen glacier . The surface on the top of the plateau feeds many outlet glaciers , including the Engabreen glacier . The status of the glacier is unknown , although some of the outlet glaciers are advancing and gaining ice mass .", "Radio Ice Cherenkov Experiment Radio Ice Cerenkov Experiment ( RICE ) is an experiment designed to detect the Cherenkov emission in the radio regime of the electromagnetic spectrum from the interaction of high energy neutrinos ( greater than 1 PeV ) with the Antarctic ice cap . The goals of this experiment are to determine the potential of the radio-detection technique for measuring the high energy cosmic neutrino flux , determining the sources of this flux , and measuring neutrino-nucleon cross sections at energies above those accessible with existing accelerators . Such an experiment also has sensitivity to neutrinos from gamma ray bursts , as well as highly ionizing charged particles ( monopoles , e.g. ) traversing the Antarctic icecap .", "Methane clathrate Methane clathrate ( CH4 · 5.75 H2O ) or ( 4CH4 · 23H2O ) , also called methane hydrate , hydromethane , methane ice , fire ice , natural gas hydrate , or gas hydrate , is a solid clathrate compound ( more specifically , a clathrate hydrate ) in which a large amount of methane is trapped within a crystal structure of water , forming a solid similar to ice . Originally thought to occur only in the outer regions of the Solar System , where temperatures are low and water ice is common , significant deposits of methane clathrate have been found under sediments on the ocean floors of the Earth . Methane clathrates are common constituents of the shallow marine geosphere and they occur in deep sedimentary structures and form outcrops on the ocean floor . Methane hydrates are believed to form by migration of gas from deep along geological faults , followed by precipitation or crystallization , on contact of the rising gas stream with cold sea water . In 2008 , research on Antarctic Vostok and EPICA Dome C ice cores revealed that methane clathrates were also present in deep Antarctic ice cores and record a history of atmospheric methane concentrations , dating to 800,000 years ago . The ice-core methane clathrate record is a primary source of data for global warming research , along with oxygen and carbon dioxide .", "Climate variability Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.", "Amundsen Sea The Amundsen Sea , an arm of the Southern Ocean off Marie Byrd Land in western Antarctica , lies between Cape Flying Fish ( the northwestern tip of Thurston Island ) to the east and Cape Dart on Siple Island to the west . Cape Flying Fish marks the boundary between the Amundsen Sea and the Bellingshausen Sea . West of Cape Dart there is no named marginal sea of the Southern Ocean between the Amundsen and Ross Seas . The Norwegian expedition of 1928 -- 1929 under Captain Nils Larsen named the body of water for the Norwegian polar explorer Roald Amundsen while exploring this area in February 1929 . The sea is mostly ice-covered , and the Thwaites Ice Tongue protrudes into it . The ice sheet which drains into the Amundsen Sea averages about 3 km in thickness ; roughly the size of the state of Texas , this area is known as the Amundsen Sea Embayment ( ASE ) ; it forms one of the three major ice-drainage basins of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet .", "List of drainage basins by area The list of drainage basins by area identifies basins ( also known as watersheds or catchments ) , sorted by area , which drain to oceans , mediterranean seas , rivers , lakes and other water bodies . All basins larger than 400000 km2 are included as well as selected smaller basins . It includes drainage basins which do not flow to the ocean ( endorheic basins ) . It includes oceanic sea drainage basins which have hydrologically coherent areas ( oceanic seas are set by IHO convention ) . The oceans drain approximately 83 % of the land in the world . The other 17 % -- an area larger than the basin of the Arctic Ocean -- drains to internal endorheic basins . Note that there are substantial areas of the world that do not `` drain '' in the commonly understood sense . In Arctic deserts much of the snowfall sublimates directly into the air and does not melt into flowing water , while in equatorial deserts precipitation may evaporate before joining any substantial water course . However , these areas can still be included in topographically defined basins if one considers the hypothetical flow of water ( or ice ) , and thus nutrients or pollutants , over the surface of the ground ( or ice sheet ) ; this is the approach taken here . For example , the Antarctic ice sheet can be divided into basins , and most of Libya is included in the Mediterranean Sea basin even though almost no water from the interior actually reaches the sea .", "Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf The Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf , also known as Ronne-Filchner Ice Shelf , is an Antarctic ice shelf bordering the Weddell Sea .", "East Siberian Sea The East Siberian Sea ( Russian : -LSB- Восто́чно - Сиби́рское мо́ре , r = Vostochno-Sibirskoye more -RSB- ) is a marginal sea in the Arctic Ocean . It is located between the Arctic Cape to the north , the coast of Siberia to the south , the New Siberian Islands to the west and Cape Billings , close to Chukotka , and Wrangel Island to the east . This sea borders on the Laptev Sea to the west and the Chukchi Sea to the east . This sea is one of the least studied in the Arctic area . It is characterized by severe climate , low water salinity , and a scarcity of flora , fauna and human population , as well as shallow depths ( mostly less than 50 m ) , slow sea currents , low tides ( below 25 cm ) , frequent fogs , especially in summer , and an abundance of ice fields which fully melt only in August -- September . The sea shores were inhabited for thousands of years by indigenous tribes of Yukaghirs , Chukchi and then Evens and Evenks , which were engaged in fishing , hunting and reindeer husbandry . They were then absorbed by Yakuts and later by Russians . Major industrial activities in the area are mining and navigation within the Northern Sea Route ; commercial fishing is poorly developed . The largest city and port is Pevek , the northernmost city of mainland Russia .", "Ice shelf An ice shelf is a thick floating platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface . Ice shelves are only found in Antarctica , Greenland , Canada and the Russian Arctic . The boundary between the floating ice shelf and the grounded ( resting on bedrock ) ice that feeds it is called the grounding line . The thickness of ice shelves ranges from about 100 to 1000 meters . In contrast , sea ice is formed on water , is much thinner ( typically less than 3m ) , and forms throughout the Arctic Ocean . It also is found in the Southern Ocean around the continent of Antarctica . Ice shelves are principally driven by gravity-driven pressure from the grounded ice . That flow continually moves ice from the grounding line to the seaward front of the shelf . The primary mechanism of mass loss from ice shelves was thought to have been iceberg calving , in which a chunk of ice breaks off from the seaward front of the shelf . A study by NASA and university researchers - published in the June 14 , 2013 issue of Science - found however that ocean waters melting the undersides of Antarctic ice shelves are responsible for most of the continent 's ice shelf mass loss . Typically , a shelf front will extend forward for years or decades between major calving events . Snow accumulation on the upper surface and melting from the lower surface are also important to the mass balance of an ice shelf . Ice may also accrete onto the underside of the shelf . The density contrast between glacial ice , which is denser than normal ice , and liquid water means that only about 1/9 of the floating ice is above the ocean surface . The world 's largest ice shelves are the Ross Ice Shelf and the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in Antarctica . The term captured ice shelf has been used for the ice over a subglacial lake , such as Lake Vostok .", "Arctic dipole anomaly The Arctic dipole anomaly is a pressure pattern characterized by high pressure on the arctic regions of North America , and a low pressure on the Eurasia region . This pattern sometimes replaces the Arctic oscillation and the North Atlantic Oscillation . It was observed for the first time in the first decade of 2000s and is perhaps linked to recent climate change . The Arctic dipole lets more southern winds into the Arctic ocean resulting in more ice melting . The summer 2007 event played an important role in the record low sea ice extent which was recorded in September . The Arctic dipole has also been linked to changes in arctic circulation patterns that cause drier winters in Northern Europe , but much wetter winters in Southern Europe and colder winters in East Asia , Europe and the eastern half of North America ." ]

[ "Effects of global warming The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "Global warming hiatus A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "Global warming in Antarctica The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Bioseparation of 1,3-propanediol Bioseparation of 1,3-propanediol is a biochemical process for production of 1,3-propanediol ( PDO ) . PDO is an organic compound with many commercial applications . Conventionally , PDO is produced from crude oil products such as propylene or ethylene oxide . In recent years , however , companies such as DuPont are investing in the biological production of PDO using renewable feedstocks such as corn .", "Aprutino Pescarese Aprutino Pescarese PDO is a Protected Designation of Origin ( PDO ) olive oil , produced in the Province of Pescara , in the Abruzzo Regione . It is among the first group of Italian extra virgin olive oils to gain the PDO .", "Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "Campus carbon neutrality All across the world , colleges and universities are looking to a sustainable future by working to become carbon neutral . Universities are taking responsibility for their environmental impact and are working to neutralize those effects . To become carbon neutral , universities are working to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases , cut their use of energy , use more renewable energy , and emphasize the importance of sustainable energy sources . Universities that have committed to becoming carbon neutral have recognized the threat of global warming and are therefore committing to reverse the trend .", "PDO Handball Team Salerno PDO Handball Team Salerno , also known as Jomi Salerno due to sponsorship reasons , is a women 's handball club from Salerno in Italia . Jomi Salerno competes in the Serie A.", "Polydioxanone Polydioxanone ( PDO , PDS ) or poly-p-dioxanone is a colorless , crystalline , biodegradable synthetic polymer .", "Sabina (oil) Sabina is a Protected Designation of Origin ( PDO ) that applies to the extra virgin olive oil produced in the Sabina region . This area approximately covers the territory originally occupied by the ancient Sabines tribe in the Province of Rome and the Province of Rieti . It is considered to be the first Italian PDO to gain the status , later being followed by Aprutino Pescarese , Brisighella , Collina di Brindisi and Canino .", "Compact Disc bronzing Compact Disc bronzing , or CD bronzing , is a specific variant of disc rot , a type of corrosion that affects the reflective layer of CDs and renders them unreadable over time . The phenomenon was first reported by John McKelvey in the September/October 1994 issue of American Record Guide . Affected discs show an uneven brownish discoloring that usually starts at the edge of the disc and slowly works its way toward the center . The top or label layer is affected before the bottom layer . The disc becomes progressively darker over time ; tracks at the end of the disc show an increasing number of disc-read errors before becoming unplayable . CD bronzing seems to occur mostly with audio CDs manufactured by Philips and Dupont Optical ( PDO ) at its plant in Blackburn , Lancashire , UK , between the years 1988 and 1993 . Most , but not all , of these discs have `` Made in U.K. by PDO '' etched into them ( see image ) . Discs manufactured by PDO in other countries do not seem to be affected . A similar , if considerably less widespread problem occurred with discs manufactured by Optical Media Storage ( Opti.Me.S ) in Italy . The problem is also prevalent with many discs that were manufactured by Nimbus during the late 1980s to the mid 1990s . PDO acknowledged that the problem was due to a manufacturing error on its part , but it gave different explanations for the problem . The most widely acknowledged explanation is that the lacquer used to coat the discs was not resistant to the sulfur content of the paper in the booklets , which led to the corrosion of the aluminium layer of the disc , even though PDO later said it was because `` a silver coating had been used on its discs instead of the standard gold . '' Peter Copeland of the British Library Sound Archive confirmed that silver instead of aluminium in the reflective layer of the CD would react with sulfur compounds in the sleeves , forming silver sulfate , which has a bronze colour . A combination of the two factors seems likely because , as Barbara Hirsch of the University of California points out , the oxidation could only have occurred if the protective lacquer did not seal the metal film and substrate well enough . There are also isolated reports of CD discolouring with discs from other pressing plants , but these do not seem to be as widespread and may be due to other reasons than the manufacturing error that occurred at PDO . In particular , colour changes that occur along with the visible disintegration of the data layer ( i.e. holes ) are not typical of CD bronzing , but should be considered CD rot . PDO also manufactured CDs that have an even yellowish-golden tint . This is due to a yellow dye in the disc and is unrelated to the bronzing effect . As bronzing is a progressive effect that can not be stopped , any PDO-manufactured CDs that are not yet showing any signs of bronzing by now are very likely safe .", "Portable Distributed Objects Portable Distributed Objects ( PDO ) is an application programming interface ( API ) for creating object-oriented code that can be executed remotely on a network of computers . It was created by NeXT Computer , Inc. using their OpenStep system , whose use of Objective-C made the package very easy to write . It was characterized by its very light weight and high speed in comparison to similar systems such as CORBA . Versions of PDO were available for Solaris , HP-UX and all versions of the OPENSTEP system . A version that worked with Microsoft OLE was also available called D'OLE , allowing distributed code written using PDO on any platform to be presented on Microsoft systems as if they were local OLE objects . PDO was one of a number of distributed object systems created in the early 1990s , a design model where `` front end '' applications on GUI-based microcomputers would call code running on mainframe and minicomputers for their processing and data storage . Microsoft was evolving OLE into the Component Object Model ( COM ) and a similar distributed version called DCOM , IBM had their System Object Model ( SOM/DSOM ) , Sun Microsystems was promoting their Distributed Objects Everywhere , and there were a host of smaller players as well . With the exception of the limited functionality in COM , most of these systems were extremely heavyweight , tended to be very large and slow , and often were very difficult to use . PDO , on the other hand , relied on a small number of features in the Objective-C runtime to handle both portability as well as distribution . The key feature was the language 's support for a `` second chance '' method in all classes ; if a method call on an object failed because the object did n't support it ( normally not allowed in most languages due to strong typing ) , the runtime would then bundle the message into a compact format and pass it back into the object 's forwardInvocation method . The normal behavior for forwardInvocation was to return an error , including details taken from the message ( the `` invocation '' ) . PDO instead supplied a number of new objects with forwardInvocation methods that passed the invocation object to another machine on the network , with various versions to support different networks and platforms . Calling methods on remote objects was almost invisible ; after some network setup ( a few lines typically ) PDO objects were instantiated locally and called the same way as any other object on the system . The PDO object then forwarded the invocation to the remote computer for processing and unbundled the results when they were returned . In comparison with CORBA , PDO programs were typically 1/10 or less in size ; it was common for NeXT staffers to write into magazines showing how to re-implement a multi-page CORBA article in perhaps 15 lines of code . From a programming standpoint , there was nearly nothing as easy to use as PDO . However , PDO was also reliant entirely on Objective-C to function . This was a price most were unwilling to pay , as at the time C++ was more widely used and the effort to shift codebases to an entirely new language and paradigm was considered too onerous . PDO never saw much use , and NeXT 's emphasis shifted to its new WebObjects framework in 1995 . PDO continues to be used by Mac OS X programmers as a method for interprocess and interapplication communication , and for communication between networked applications that only need compatibility with other Mac OS X applications . In addition to the OS X platform , there is GNUstep , which has its own implementation of Distributed Objects .", "PDOS PDOS was a multiuser multitaking operating system , written in assembly language developed in the early 1980s by the Eyring Research Institute for the Texas Instruments TMS9900 processor , and later ported to the Motorola 68000 processor . At the time its speed , accuracy and power made it ideal for process control . It was used in system development for education and industrial uses . Eyring also sold application programs ( e.g. a statistics package ) for the operating system .", "Oman Oil and Gas Exhibition Centre Oman Oil and Gas Exhibition Centre is a museum , located on Seih Al Maleh Street , Al-Qurum , Muscat , Oman . The museum was established 1995 as a donation from Petroleum Development Oman ( PDO ) . The museum is an interactive journey exploring the discovery , extraction and use of fossil fuels in Oman . Adjacent to the centre is the PDO Planetarium , built in 2000 .", "Maghead (PHP) `` Maghead '' is a database framework , written in PHP , which includes libraries for object-relational mapping , database layer abstracting , sharding ... etc. . It provides a bunch of generators that can generate static code from the model schemas . Queries are generated at compile time , therefore the runtime cost is reduced . The performance almost close to hand written query code with plain PDO statement .", "Bruzio Bruzio olive oil is a Protected Designation of Origin ( PDO ) product , as of European regulation Reg . CEE 2081/92 and Reg . CE n. 1065/97 .", "List of Italian products with protected designation of origin This is a list of Italian Protected Designation of Origin ( PDO ) , Protected Geographical Indication ( PGI ) as defined in the Council Regulation CE 510/2006 . : 138 Italian PDOs or D.O.P. ( Denominazione Origine Protetta ) 83 Italian PGIs or I.G.P. ( Indicazione Geografica Protetta ) 2 Traditional Specialty Guaranteed ( TSG ) : mozzarella and pizza napoletana Official data of the Italian Ministry of Agriculture updated on 15 February 2011 and of the Quality policies page on the Europa.eu website .", "Global Strategic Trends Programme The Global Strategic Trends Programme was established in 2001 to research and understand potential trends that shape and inform the future strategic context . It is undertaken at the Development , Concepts and Doctrine Centre ( DCDC ) which is under the UK 's Joint Forces Command and based in Shrivenham , Wiltshire . One of the main findings of `` Global Strategic Trends out to 2040 '' is that the era out to 2040 will be a time of transition , characterised by instability both in the relations between states , and in the relations between groups within states . During this timeframe significant global trends will include ; climate change , rapid population growth , resource scarcity , a resurgence in ideology and a shift in global power from West to East . The struggle to establish an effective system of global governance , is likely to be a central theme of the era .", "Climate change in Argentina According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .", "Beurre Rose Beurre Rose is a cultured milk butter produced in Luxembourg under the Marque nationale of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg , and has PDO classification in Europe , which it received in 2000 .", "Serpa cheese Serpa cheese is a type of cheese from Serpa , Alentejo , Portugal . It has a Protected designation of origin ( PDO ) and is listed on the Ark of Taste .", "Pecorino Toscano Pecorino Toscano ( Tuscan pecorino ) is a firm-textured ewe 's milk cheese produced in Tuscany . Since 1996 it has enjoyed protected designation of origin ( PDO ) status .", "What's Trending What 's Trending is daily , live , interactive television show hosted by Shira Lazar that appears on YouTube covering the trending videos and personalities on YouTube .", "Roncal cheese Roncal ( Erronkariko gazta in Basque ) is a hard , creamy sheep milk cheese . It is made in one of seven villages in the Valle de Roncal of Spain . Roncal enjoys PDO status .", "2052: A Global Forecast for the Next Forty Years 2052 -- A Global Forecast for the Next Forty Years is a 2012 book describing trends in global development . It is written by Jørgen Randers and is a follow-up to The Limits to Growth , which in 1972 was the first worldwide report by the Club of Rome . It differs in three ways from the previous report . First , it does not describe an impending disaster scenario , but shows only trends . Secondly , it is to be read in the light of experience since 1972 , namely , that all of humanity has responded to the report , but with a delay of 20 to 40 years . Thirdly , it offers not only future scenarios , it makes concrete proposals on how the individual should respond to emerging developments . Randers repeatedly points out that he does not want to predict specific events , only general trends .", "Petroleum Development Oman Petroleum Development Oman ( PDO ) is the major oil exploration and production company in the Sultanate of Oman . It accounts for about 70 % of the country 's crude oil production and nearly all of its natural gas supply . The Company is owned by the Government of Oman ( which has a 60 % interest ) , the Shell Group ( which has a 34 % interest ) , Total ( which has a 4 % interest ) and Partex ( which has a 2 % interest ) . Gas fields and processing plants are operated by PDO exclusively on behalf of the Government .", "Bryndza Podhalańska Bryndza Podhalańska is a Polish variety of the soft cheese Bryndza , from the Podhale region , it is made from sheep 's milk . It has a geographical indication under EU law , with PDO status .", "Fahud Fahud is a permanent oil camp and oil field in the middle of the central plain area of Oman , named after the nearby Jebel Fahud believed to mean `` Leopard Mountain '' from the time when wild leopards used to roam the area . The main oil camp is owned by Petroleum Development Oman ( PDO ) , the national oil company . Oil operations commenced in 1954 when a PDO survey party arrived at the jebel and began surveying it . The first well at Jebel Fahud was completed at 12,235 feet in May 1957 . Unfortunately , it was a dry hole except for a very small quantity of gas and oil . Three of the PDO partners decided to withdraw from the Omani concession , leaving Shell ( 85 % ) and Partex ( 15 % ) to take it over and resume exploration . Only a few hundred yards from the original test well site , a second test well was sunk at Fahud and , in 1964 , found oil in commercial quantities . Today , Fahud is the central base of PDO 's operations in the interior of Oman ; the company 's main offices are in Mina Al Fahal in Muscat . Many contracting companies also have camps for their workers and equipment at Fahud . Some meteorological data : 1 June 2008 at 15 pm local hour it was recorded 54.5 degrees Celsius , a new record for Fahud .", "Trend Records Trend Records was a post-World War II United States jazz record label . Trend 's back catalogue was purchased by Albert Marx , an authority on jazz music and entrepreneur who founded Discovery Records in 1948 , and much of its material was reissued in the 1980s . Among those who recorded for Trend are Van Alexander , Robert Conti , Shelly Manne , Clare Fischer , Warm Dust , Dick Berk , Matt Dennis and Ray Linn .", "Gerald Celente Gerald Celente ( born November 29 , 1946 ) is an American trend forecaster , publisher of the Trends Journal , business consultant and author who makes predictions about the global financial markets and other events of historical importance . Celente has described himself as a `` political atheist '' and `` citizen of the world '' . He has appeared as a guest on media outlets such as CNN , The Oprah Winfrey Show , The Today Show , Good Morning America , CBS Morning News , The Glenn Beck Show , NBC Nightly News , The Alex Jones Show , Coast to Coast AM and Russia Today .", "Beurre d'Ardenne Beurre d'Ardenne is a type of cow 's milk Butter made in the Ardennes of Belgium . As a traditional product of the area it received Belgian appellation d'origine by Royal decree in 1984 , and received European PDO status in 1996 .", "National Intelligence Council The National Intelligence Council ( NIC ) is the center for midterm and long-term strategic thinking within the United States Intelligence Community ( IC ) . It was formed in 1979 . According to its official website : It leads the IC 's effort to produce National Intelligence Estimates and other documents ; It supports ( and reports to ) the Director of National Intelligence ; It serves as a focal point for policymakers ' questions ; It contributes to the effort to allocate IC resources in response to policy changes ; and It communicates with experts in academia and the private sector to broaden the IC 's perspective ; The NIC 's goal is to provide policymakers with the best information : unvarnished , unbiased and without regard to whether the analytic judgments conform to current U.S. policy . One of the NICs most important analytical projects is a Global Trends report produced for the incoming US president . The report is delivered to the incoming president between Election Day and Inauguration Day , and it assesses critical drivers and scenarios for global trends with an approximate time horizon of fifteen years . The Global Trends analysis provides a basis for long-range strategic policy assessment for the White House and the intelligence community . The NIC 's most recent Global Trends report , `` Global Trends 2035 : Paradox of Progress '' was released in January 2017 . On February 2 , 2007 , the Office of the Director of National Intelligence , and the National Intelligence Council released the National Intelligence Estimate ( NIE ) -- ` Prospects for Iraq 's Stability : A Challenging Road Ahead ' Unclassified Key Judgments '' .", "Montasio Montasio is a mountain cheese made from cow 's milk produced in northeastern Italy in the regions of Friuli-Venezia Giulia and Veneto . It was awarded a ( PDO ) protected designation of origin in 1986 .", "MySQLi The MySQLi Extension ( MySQL Improved ) is a relational database driver used in the PHP programming language to provide an interface with MySQL databases . There are three main API options when considering connecting to a MySQL database server : PHP 's MySQL Extension PHP 's MySQLi Extension PHP Data Objects ( PDO ) The PHP code consists of a core , with optional extensions to the core functionality . PHP 's MySQL-related extensions , such as the MySQLi extension , and the MySQL extension , are implemented using the PHP extension framework . An extension typically exposes an API to the PHP programmer , to allow its facilities to be used programmatically . However , some extensions which use the PHP extension framework do not expose an API to the PHP programmer . The PDO MySQL driver extension , for example , does not expose an API to the PHP programmer , but provides an interface to the PDO layer above it . MySQLi is an improved version of the older PHP MySQL driver , offering various benefits . The developers of the PHP programming language recommend using MySQLi when dealing with MySQL server versions 4.1.3 and newer ( takes advantage of new functionality ) .", "Valle d'Aosta Fromadzo Valle d'Aosta Fromadzo or Vallée d'Aoste Fromadzo is an Italian cow 's milk cheese produced in the Aosta Valley , one of the region 's specialties . It has a protected designation of origin , or PDO status ." ]

[ "Australia Australia ( -LSB- əˈstreɪliə -RSB- , -LSB- ɒ - -RSB- , -LSB- - ljə -RSB- ) , officially the Commonwealth of Australia , is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent , the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands . It is the world 's sixth-largest country by total area . The neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea , Indonesia and East Timor to the north ; the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east ; and New Zealand to the south-east . Australia 's capital is Canberra , and its largest urban area is Sydney . For about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century , Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians , who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups . After the European discovery of the continent by Dutch explorers in 1606 , Australia 's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain in 1770 and initially settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788 . The population grew steadily in subsequent decades , and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored and an additional five self-governing crown colonies established . On 1 January 1901 , the six colonies federated , forming the Commonwealth of Australia . Australia has since maintained a stable liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states and several territories . The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard . Australia has the world 's 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income ( IMF ) . With the second-highest human development index globally , the country ranks highly in quality of life , health , education , economic freedom , and civil liberties and political rights . Australia is a member of the United Nations , G20 , Commonwealth of Nations , ANZUS , Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ( OECD ) , World Trade Organization , Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation , and the Pacific Islands Forum ." ]

[ "Cold inflation pressure Cold inflation pressure is the inflation pressure of tires before the car is driven and the tires warmed up . Recommended cold inflation pressure is displayed on the owner 's manual and on the placard ( or sticker ) attached to the vehicle door edge , pillar , glovebox door or fuel filler flap . Drivers are encouraged to make sure their tires are adequately inflated , as suboptimal tire pressure can greatly reduce fuel economy , increase emissions , increased wear on the edges of the tire surface , and can lead to premature failure of the tire . Excessive pressure , on the other hand , may lead to impact-breaks , decrease braking performance , and cause uneven wear ( i.e. greater wear on the center part of the tire surface ) . Tire pressure is commonly measured in psi in the imperial and US customary systems , bar , which is deprecated but accepted for use with SI or the kilopascal ( kPa ) , which is an SI unit . Ambient temperature affects the cold tire pressure . Absolute cold tire pressure ( gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure ) varies directly with the absolute temperature , measured in kelvins . From physics , the ideal gas law states that PV = nRT where P is absolute pressure , T is absolute temperature ( Kelvin ) , V is the volume ( assumed to be relatively constant in the case of a tire ) , and nR is constant for a given number of molecules of gas . To understand this , assume the tire was filled when it was 300 kelvin ( 80 degrees Fahrenheit ) . If the temperature varies 10 % , i.e. by 30 kelvin ( also 30 Celsius degrees or 54 Fahrenheit degrees ) , the pressure varies 10 % . So if the tire was filled at 80F to 32 psi ( or 47 psi absolute when we add atmospheric pressure ) , the change would be 4.7 psi for this 30 Celsius degree change , or .16 psi per Celsius degree or .1 psi per Fahrenheit degree or 1 psi for every 10 Fahrenheit degrees . Using SI units , that would be 1.1 kPa per kelvin . Hence , for a tire filled to 32 psi , the approximation usually made is that within the range of normal atmospheric temperatures and pressures : Tire pressure increases 1 psi for each 10 Fahrenheit degree increase in temperature , or conversely decreases 1 psi for each 10 Fahrenheit degree decrease in temperature and in SI units , tire pressure increases 1.1 kPa for each 1 Celsius degree increase in temperature , or conversely decreases 1.1 kPa for each 1 Celsius degree decrease in temperature . For tires that need inflation greater than 32psi it might be easier to use a Rule of Thumb of 2 % pressure change for a change of 10 degrees Fahrenheit . From the table below , one can see that these are only approximations .", "Raster data A raster data structure is based on a ( usually rectangular , square-based ) tessellation of the 2D plane into cells . In the example the cells of tessellation A is overlaid on the point pattern B resulting in an array C of quadrant counts representing the number of points in each cell . For purposes of visualization a lookup table has been used to color each of the cells in an image D . Here are the numbers as a simple vector in row/column order : 1 3 0 0 1 12 8 0 1 4 3 3 0 2 0 2 1 7 4 1 5 4 2 2 0 3 1 2 2 2 2 3 0 5 1 9 3 3 3 4 5 0 8 0 2 4 3 2 8 4 3 2 2 7 2 3 2 10 1 5 2 1 3 7 Finally , here is a run-length encoded representation of the raster , which has 55 positions : values : 1 3 0 1 12 8 0 1 4 3 ... lengths : 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 ... This process clearly results in a loss of information , from the real-valued coordinates of the points , through the integer cell counts , to the ordinal colors , but there are also gains : The data structure is usually more compact , The raster is easy to visualize , and It can be related to other rasters provided the locations and resolutions are properly conflated .", "Bockstein homomorphism In homological algebra , the Bockstein homomorphism , introduced by , is a connecting homomorphism associated with a short exact sequence 0 → P → Q → R → 0 of abelian groups , when they are introduced as coefficients into a chain complex C , and which appears in the homology groups as a homomorphism reducing degree by one , β : Hi ( C , R ) → Hi − 1 ( C , P ) . To be more precise , C should be a complex of free , or at least torsion-free , abelian groups , and the homology is of the complexes formed by tensor product with C ( some flat module condition should enter ) . The construction of β is by the usual argument ( snake lemma ) . A similar construction applies to cohomology groups , this time increasing degree by one . Thus we have β : Hi ( C , R ) → Hi + 1 ( C , P ) . The Bockstein homomorphism β of the coefficient sequence 0 → Z/pZ → Z/p2Z → Z/pZ → 0 is used as one of the generators of the Steenrod algebra . This Bockstein homomorphism has the two properties ββ = 0 if p > 2 β ( a ∪ b ) = β ( a ) ∪ b + ( -1 ) dim a a ∪ β ( b ) in other words it is a superderivation acting on the cohomology mod p of a space .", "Homogeneous polynomial In mathematics , a homogeneous polynomial is a polynomial whose nonzero terms all have the same degree . For example , is a homogeneous polynomial of degree 5 , in two variables ; the sum of the exponents in each term is always 5 . The polynomial is not homogeneous , because the sum of exponents does not match from term to term . A polynomial is homogeneous if and only if it defines a homogeneous function . An algebraic form , or simply form , is a function defined by a homogeneous polynomial . A binary form is a form in two variables . A form is also a function defined on a vector space , which may be expressed as a homogeneous function of the coordinates over any basis . A polynomial of degree 0 is always homogeneous ; it is simply an element of the field or ring of the coefficients , usually called a constant or a scalar . A form of degree 1 is a linear form . A form of degree 2 is a quadratic form . In geometry , the Euclidean distance is the square root of a quadratic form . Homogeneous polynomials are ubiquitous in mathematics and physics . They play a fundamental role in algebraic geometry , as a projective algebraic variety is defined as the set of the common zeros of a set of homogeneous polynomials .", "Online degree An online degree is an academic degree ( usually a college degree , but sometimes the term includes high school diplomas and non-degree certificate programs ) that can be earned primarily or entirely through the use of an Internet-connected computer , rather than attending college in a traditional campus setting . Improvements in technology , the increasing use of the Internet worldwide , and the need for people to have flexible school schedules while they are working have led to a proliferation of online colleges that award associate , bachelor 's , master 's , and doctoral degrees .", "Temperature record of the past 1000 years For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .", "Yield strength anomaly In materials science , the yield strength anomaly refers to unusual materials wherein the yield strength ( i.e. , the stress necessary to initiate plastic yielding ) increases with temperature . For the vast majority of materials the yield strength decreases with increasing temperature . Precipitation hardening superalloys exhibit yield strength anomaly over a considerable temperature range . For these materials , the yield strength shows little variation between room temperature and several hundred degrees Celsius . Eventually , a maximum yield strength is reached . For ordered intermetallics , this is usually the case at roughly 50 % of the absolute melting temperature . For even higher temperatures , the yield strength decreases and , eventually , drops to zero when reaching the melting temperature , where the solid material transforms into a fluid . The yield strength anomaly is exploited in the design of gas turbines and jet engines that operate at high temperatures , where the materials used are selected based on their paramount yield and creep resistance . Superalloys can withstand high temperature loads far beyond the capabilities of steels .", "Bachelor of Arts and Science Bachelor of Arts and Science ( B.A.S. or B.A. & Sc . or B.A.Sc . ) is an undergraduate bachelor 's degree conferred by a small number of American universities and a fair number of universities in other English-speaking countries ( including Canada and Australia ) . Generally , to receive a B.A.S. degree , a student would need to complete the general requirements for a bachelor 's degree and also the requirements for two different academic majors ( or academic minors ) -- one that usually leads to a B.A. degree and one that usually leads to a B.S. degree . In the United States , the degree is meant to be a four-year degree , but many students will take five years to complete the program . Technically speaking , it is not an example of a double degree , as universities only confer a single degree .", "Frequency partition of a graph In graph theory , a discipline within mathematics , the frequency partition of a graph ( simple graph ) is a partition of its vertices grouped by their degree . For example , the degree sequence of the left-hand graph below is ( 3 , 3 , 3 , 2 , 2 , 1 ) and its frequency partition is 6 = 3 + 2 + 1 . This indicates that it has 3 vertices with some degree , 2 vertices with some other degree , and 1 vertex with a third degree . The degree sequence of the bipartite graph in the middle below is ( 3 , 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 , 1 , 1 , 1 ) and its frequency partition is 9 = 5 + 3 + 1 . The degree sequence of the right-hand graph below is ( 3 , 3 , 3 , 3 , 3 , 3 , 2 ) and its frequency partition is 7 = 6 + 1 . In general , there are many non-isomorphic graphs with a given frequency partition . A graph and its complement have the same frequency partition . For any partition p = f1 + f2 + ... + fk of an integer p > 1 , other than p = 1 + 1 + 1 + ... + 1 , there is at least one ( connected ) simple graph having this partition as its frequency partition . Frequency partitions of various graph families are completely identifieds ; frequency partitions of many families of graphs are not identified .", "Trigonometric constants expressed in real radicals Exact algebraic expressions for trigonometric values are sometimes useful , mainly for simplifying solutions into radical forms which allow further simplification . All trigonometric numbers -- sines or cosines of rational multiples of 360 ° -- are algebraic numbers ( solutions of polynomial equations with integer coefficients ) ; moreover they may be expressed in terms of radicals of complex numbers ; but not all of these are expressible in terms of real radicals . When they are , they are expressible more specifically in terms of square roots . All values of the sines , cosines , and tangents of angles at 3 ° increments are expressible in term of square roots , using identities -- the half-angle identity , the double-angle identity , and the angle addition/subtraction identity -- and using values for 0 ° , 30 ° , 36 ° , and 45 ° . For an angle of an integer number of degrees that is not a multiple 3 ° , the values of sine , cosine , and tangent can not be expressed in terms of real radicals . Note that 1 ° = radians . According to Niven 's theorem , the only rational values of the sine function for which the argument is a rational number of degrees are 0 , , 1 , − , and − 1 . According to Baker 's theorem , if the value of a sine , a cosine or a tangent is algebraic , then either the angle is rational number of degrees , or the angle is a transcendental number of degrees . That is , if the angle is an algebraic , but non-rational , number of degrees , the trigonometric functions all have transcendental values .", "Bachelor of Letters Bachelor of Letters ( B.Litt . or Litt.B. ; Latin Baccalaureus Litterarum or Litterarum Baccalaureus ) is a second undergraduate university degree in which students specialize in an area of study relevant to their own personal , professional or academic development . This area of study may have been touched on in a prior undergraduate degree but not studied in depth , or may never have been formally taught to the student . The degree is less often awarded now than in previous centuries , and is , at the current time , only awarded by two universities in Australia .", "High (computability) In computability theory , a Turing degree -LSB- X -RSB- is high if it is computable in 0 ′ , and the Turing jump -LSB- X ′ -RSB- is 0 ′ ′ , which is the greatest possible degree in terms of Turing reducibility for the jump of a set which is computable in 0 ′ ( Soare 1987:71 ) . Similarly , a degree is high n if its n'th jump is the ( n +1 ) ` st jump of 0 . Even more generally , a degree d is generalized high n if its n'th jump is the n'th jump of the join of d with 0 ′ .", "Albert algebra In mathematics , an Albert algebra is a 27-dimensional exceptional Jordan algebra . They are named after Abraham Adrian Albert , who pioneered the study of non-associative algebras , usually working over the real numbers . Over the real numbers , there are three such Jordan algebras up to isomorphism . One of them , which was first mentioned by and studied by , is the set of 3 × 3 self-adjoint matrices over the octonions , equipped with the binary operation where denotes matrix multiplication . Another is defined the same way , but using split octonions instead of octonions . The final is constructed from the non-split octonions using a different standard involution . Over any algebraically closed field , there is just one Albert algebra , and its automorphism group G is the simple split group of type F4 . ( For example , the complexifications of the three Albert algebras over the real numbers are isomorphic Albert algebras over the complex numbers . ) Because of this , for a general field F , the Albert algebras are classified by the Galois cohomology group H1 ( F , G ) . The Kantor -- Koecher -- Tits construction applied to an Albert algebra gives a form of the E7 Lie algebra . The split Albert algebra is used in a construction of a 56-dimensional structurable algebra whose automorphism group has identity component the simply-connected algebraic group of type E6 . The space of cohomological invariants of Albert algebras a field F ( of characteristic not 2 ) with coefficients in Z/2Z is a free module over the cohomology ring of F with a basis 1 , f3 , f5 , of degrees 0 , 3 , 5 . The cohomological invariants with 3-torsion coefficients have a basis 1 , g3 of degrees 0 , 3 . The invariants f3 and g3 are the primary components of the Rost invariant .", "Entropy of fusion The entropy of fusion is the increase in entropy when melting a substance . This is almost always positive since the degree of disorder increases in the transition from an organized crystalline solid to the disorganized structure of a liquid ; the only known exception is helium . It is denoted as ? Sfus and normally expressed in J mol − 1 K − 1 A natural process such as a phase transition will occur when the associated change in the Gibbs free energy is negative . , where is the enthalpy or heat of fusion . Since this is a thermodynamic equation , the symbol T refers to the absolute thermodynamic temperature , measured in kelvins ( K ) . Equilibrium occurs when the temperature is equal to the melting point so that , and the entropy of fusion is the heat of fusion divided by the melting point .", "Helimagnetism Helimagnetism is an incommensurate form of magnetic ordering that results from the competition between Ferromagnetic and Antiferromagnetic exchange interactions , and is typically only observed at liquid helium temperatures . Spins of neighbouring magnetic moments arrange themselves in a spiral or helical pattern , with a characteristic turn angle of somewhere between 0 and 180 degrees . It is possible to view Ferromagnetism and Antiferromagnetism as Helimagnetic structures with characteristic turn angles of 0 and 180 degrees respectively . Helimagnetic order breaks spatial inversion symmetry , as it can be either left-handed or right-handed in nature . Category : Magnetic ordering Category : Liquid helium", "Carryover cooking Carryover cooking ( sometimes referred to as resting ) is the phenomenon that food retains heat and continues to cook even after being removed from the source of heat . Carryover cooking is often used as a finishing step in preparation of foods that are roasted or grilled , and must be accounted for in recipes as it can increase the internal temperature of foods by temperatures between 5 and 25 degrees Fahrenheit ( 3 -- 14 ° C ) . The larger and denser the object being heated , the greater the amount of temperature increase due to carryover cooking . Resting , when used as a synonym for carryover cooking , also refers to the process of allowing the liquids in meats to redistribute through the food over a 5 - to 20-minute period . This allows for a more flavorful and juicy finished product .", "Niven's theorem In mathematics , Niven 's theorem , named after Ivan Niven , states that the only rational values of θ in the interval 0 ° ≤ θ ≤ 90 ° for which the sine of θ degrees is also a rational number are : In radians , one would require that 0 ≤ x ≤ / 2 , that x / be rational , and that sin x be rational . The conclusion is then that the only such values are sin 0 = 0 , sin / 6 = 1/2 , and sin / 2 = 1 . The theorem appears as Corollary 3.12 in Niven 's book on irrational numbers . The theorem extends to the other trigonometric functions as well . For rational values of θ , the only rational values of the sine or cosine are 0 , ± 1/2 , and ± 1 ; the only rational values of the secant or cosecant are ± 1 and ± 2 ; and the only rational values of the tangent or cotangent are 0 and ± 1 .", "Thorny skate The thorny skate ( Amblyraja radiata ) is a species of fish in Rajidae family . It mainly lives near the bottom of the coastline of North Atlantic Ocean in depths ranging from 20 to 1000 metres and temperatures from 1 to 10 degrees Celsius . It was also located in Lake Melville , near Goose Bay , Labrador . Rivers empty into the lake and the lake bottom is mostly made up of sand . Thorny skates have been caught in this lake in the 1980s by ice fishermen when outside temperatures were -30 degrees C.", "Larson–Miller Parameter The Larson -- Miller parameter is a means of predicting the lifetime of material vs. time and temperature using a correlative approach based on the Arrhenius rate equation . The value of the parameter is usually expressed as LMP = T ( C + log t ) , where C is a material specific constant , often approximated as 20 , t is the time in hours , and T is the temperature in kelvins . Creep-stress rupture data for high-temperature creep-resistant alloys are often plotted as log stress to rupture versus a combination of log time to rupture and temperature . One of the most common time -- temperature parameters used to present this kind of data is the Larson -- Miller ( L.M. ) parameter , which in generalized form is where T = temperature , K or ° R , = stress-rupture time , h , C = constant , usually of order 20 . According to the L.M. parameter , at a given stress level the log time to stress rupture plus a constant of the order of 20 multiplied by the temperature in kelvins or degrees Rankine remains constant for a given material .", "Bob Lazar Robert Scott Lazar ( -LSB- ləˈzɑr -RSB- born January 26 , 1959 ) claims to have worked on reverse engineering extraterrestrial technology at a site called S-4 , near the Area 51 test facility , and that the UFOs use gravity wave propulsion . This is powered by the , at the time , undiscovered element 115 . He further claims to have read US government briefing documents that describe alien involvement in human affairs over the past 10,000 years . He runs a scientific supply company . Universities from which he claimed to hold degrees show no record of him .", "Graduate entry A graduate entry degree is term used for an academic degree that denotes a minimum 3-4 year bachelor 's degree . It is most commonly used to refer to first professional degree programs . This term first developed in Australia and the UK to refer to medical , dental , and law degrees that used to be available to students directly out of high school , but now have educational business and corporations have changed structure and requirements to require a degree first before admission would be considered .", "Bachelor of Film and Television Bachelor of Film and Television ( usually BF&TV or BFTV ) is an undergraduate bachelor 's degree awarded to students who have studied elements of Filmmaking and Television production at a three-year accredited university , or a four-year accredited college . This degree is a relatively new degree program offered mainly in Australia and differs from most degrees by its practical focus . Many universities offer Film and Television as a single unit , or series of units ( major ) study in a Bachelor of Arts , Bachelor of Fine Arts or Bachelor of Communications . Increasingly , colleges in Ontario granted degree-granting status , are delivering professional baccalaureate degrees combining practice and theory . Sheridan College , ( Oakville , Ontario ) will be launching a Bachelor of Film and TV in September 2014 . The degree usually consists of study in areas of Scriptwriting , Film and Television Directing , Animation , Sound , Cinematography , Lighting and Typography .", "Progress toward degree The progress toward degree rule , commonly referred to as the 40-60-80 rule , is a piece of National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) legislation designed to increase retention and graduation rates of NCAA Division I student athletes . The legislation , that took effect for first time freshmen in 2003 , states that by the beginning of the student-athlete 's third year of college enrollment , they must have completed 40 % of the classes required toward a specific degree . This rate of progress toward a specific degree must continue so that by the beginning of the student-athlete 's fourth year , they must have completed 60 % and by the beginning of their fifth year , they must have completed 80 % of their required coursework toward a specific degree . This legislation , part of many academically oriented rules the NCAA has put into place over the past 20 years , was written in response to several calls for reform of `` big time '' college athletics including , most notably , the Knight Commission . Category : National Collegiate Athletic Association", "Critical relative humidity The critical relative humidity ( CRH ) of a salt is defined as the relative humidity of the surrounding atmosphere ( at a certain temperature ) at which the material begins to absorb moisture from the atmosphere and below which it will not absorb atmospheric moisture . When the humidity of the atmosphere is equal to ( or is greater than ) the critical relative humidity of a sample of salt , the sample will take up water until all of the salt is dissolved to yield a saturated solution . All water-soluble salts and mixtures have characteristic critical humidities ; it is a unique material property . The critical relative humidity of most salts decreases with increasing temperature . For instance , the critical relative humidity of ammonium nitrate decreases 22 % with a temperature from 0 ° C to 40 ° C ( 32 ° F to 104 ° F ) . The critical relative humidity of several fertilizer salts is given in table 1 : Table 1 : Critical relative humidities of pure salts at 30 ° C. Mixtures of salts usually have lower critical humidities than either of the constituents . Fertilizers that contain Urea as an ingredient usually exhibit a much lower Critical Relative Humidity than Fertilizers without Urea.Table 2 shows CRH data for two-component mixtures : Table 2 : Critical relative humidities of mixtures of salts at 30 ° C ( values are percent relative humidity ) . As shown , the effect of salt mixing is most dramatic in the case of ammonium nitrate with urea . This mixture has an extremely low critical relative humidity and can therefore only be used in liquid fertilisers ( so called UAN-solutions ) .", "Tire load sensitivity Tire load sensitivity describes the behaviour of tires under load . Conventional pneumatic tires do not behave as classical friction theory would suggest . The load sensitivity of most real tires in their typical operating range is such that the coefficient of friction decreases as the vertical load , Fz , increases . The maximum lateral force that can be developed does increase as the vertical load increases , but at a diminishing rate . Coulomb friction theory says that the maximum horizontal force developed should be proportional to the vertical load on the tire . In practice , the maximum horizontal force Fy that can be generated is proportional , roughly , to the vertical load Fz raised to the power of somewhere between 0.7 and 0.9 , typically . Production car tires typically develop this maximum lateral force , or cornering force , at a slip angle of 6-10 degrees , although this angle increases as the vertical load on the tire increases . Formula 1 car tires may reach a peak sideforce at 3 degrees", "Degree of a polynomial The degree of a polynomial is the highest degree of its terms when the polynomial is expressed in its canonical form consisting of a linear combination of monomials . The degree of a term is the sum of the exponents of the variables that appear in it . The term order has been used as a synonym of degree but , nowadays , may refer to several other concepts ( see order of a polynomial ) . For example , the polynomial has three terms . ( Notice , this polynomial can also be expressed as . ) The first term has a degree of 5 ( the sum of the powers 2 and 3 ) , the second term has a degree of 1 , and the last term has a degree of 0 . Therefore , the polynomial has a degree of 5 which is the highest degree of any term . To determine the degree of a polynomial that is not in standard form ( for example ) , one has to put it first in standard form by expanding the products ( by distributivity ) and combining the like terms ; for example is of degree 1 , even though each summand has degree 2 . However , this is not needed when the polynomial is expressed as a product of polynomials in standard form , because the degree of a product is the sum of the degrees of the factors .", "George Harris (cricketer, born 1906) George Cecil Harris ( 3 March 1906 -- 18 November 1994 ) was an English cricketer who played four first-class matches for Worcestershire in 1925 . He did little , bowling only 31 overs in total and taking only two wickets . Both of these came in the first innings of a match against Derbyshire ; his victims were Jim Hutchinson and James Horsley . With the bat he was hopeless , his career scores being 0 , 0 * , 4 , 0 * , 1 * , 0 , 1 and 0 . He claimed only one catch , to dismiss Harry Howell of Warwickshire . Harris was born in Droitwich , Worcestershire ; he died at the age of 86 in Worcester .", "Polynomial identity ring In mathematics , in the subfield of ring theory , a ring R is a polynomial identity ring if there is , for some N > 0 , an element P other than 0 of the free algebra , Z < X1 , X2 , ... , XN > , over the ring of integers in N variables X1 , X2 , ... , XN such that for all N-tuples r1 , r2 , ... , rN taken from R it happens that Strictly the Xi here are `` non-commuting indeterminates '' , and so `` polynomial identity '' is a slight abuse of language , since `` polynomial '' here stands for what is usually called a `` non-commutative polynomial '' . The abbreviation PI-ring is common . More generally , the free algebra over any ring S may be used , and gives the concept of PI-algebra . If the degree of the polynomial P is defined in the usual way , the polynomial P is called monic if at least one of its terms of highest degree has coefficient equal to 1 . Every commutative ring is a PI-ring , satisfying the polynomial identity XY - YX = 0 . Therefore , PI-rings are usually taken as close generalizations of commutative rings . If the ring has characteristic p different from zero then it satisfies the polynomial identity pX = 0 . To exclude such examples , sometimes it is defined that PI-rings must satisfy a monic polynomial identity .", "PESEL PESEL ( Polish Powszechny Elektroniczny System Ewidencji Ludności , Universal Electronic System for Registration of the Population ) is the national identification number used in Poland since 1979 . It always has 11 digits , identifies just one person and can not be changed to another one ( except some specific situations such as gender reassignment ) . The PESEL number is mandatory for all permanent residents of Poland and for temporary residents living in Poland for over 2 months . After the 1st March 2015 , applicants for Polish passport without a PESEL number will need to apply for PESEL prior to passport application . Otherwise , without a PESEL number , passport application and fingerprints can not be taken . The PESEL was the system designed by the communist government ( during PRL ) to trace a personal information about every citizen . It is a direct offshoot from the previous system , MAGISTER ( an acronym spelling out the word ` Master ' , like a master 's degree ) , which was designed to trace and record data about everyone with a university degree . PESEL number has the form of YYMMDDZZZXQ , where YYMMDD is the date of birth ( with century encoded in month field ) , ZZZX is the personal identification number , where X codes sex ( even number for females , odd number for males ) and Q is a check digit , which is used to verify whether a given PESEL is correct or not . Having a PESEL in the form of ABCDEF GHIJK , one can check the validity of the number by computing the following expression : A * 1 + B * 3 + C * 7 + D * 9 + E * 1 + F * 3 + G * 7 + H * 9 + I * 1 + J * 3 Then the last digit of the result should be subtracted from 10 . If the result of the last operation is not equal to the last digit of a given PESEL , the PESEL is incorrect . This system works reliably well for catching one-digit mistakes and digit swaps . Checking validity of PESEL : 44051401358 ( number 8 , the last digit , is the check digit for this PESEL ) : 1 * 4 + 3 * 4 + 7 * 0 + 9 * 5 + 1 * 1 + 3 * 4 + 7 * 0 + 9 * 1 + 1 * 3 + 3 * 5 = 101 Getting the last digit of the result ( 101 modulo 10 ) : 101/10 = 10 remainder 1 In order to get the check digit one need to take the 10s complement of the number . It is 0 if the modulo result is 0 , and it is 5 when the modulo is equal to 5 , otherwise it means the modulo result has to be subtracted from 10 . 10 - 1 = 9 9 is not equal to the last digit of PESEL , which is 8 , so the PESEL contains errors .", "Ten-year man A ten-year man was a category of mature student at the University of Cambridge . Under the University 's statutes of 1570 , a man over twenty-four could proceed to a BD degree ten years after matriculation without first gaining a BA degree or a MA degree . The device was not used much until the second decade of the nineteenth century . It was abolished in the mid-nineteenth-century university reforms , after criticism that it had become a route to a Cambridge degree which required no formal test of the man 's ability . However , although it was impossible to enroll as a ten-year man after 1858 , those who were already enrolled remained members of the university , meaning that , in actual fact , ten-year men did not become extinct until 1900 . The ten-year route to a degree was used both by men who had already been ordained as clergy , but who wanted to increase their status by taking a degree , and also by laymen who aspired to be ordained but who were not , usually for financial reasons , able to take a degree in the regular way . Although the ten-year BD was criticised for its lack of appropriate oversight and inadequate means of assessment , it should not be assumed that all those who enrolled for it were men of low academic abilities : most were merely from backgrounds to poor to allow them to go to university at the usual age . Scholars among them include Thomas Hartwell Horne , Cornelius Bayley , Joseph Bosworth , John Hellins and William Scoresby .", "Minimal polynomial Minimal polynomial may refer to either of two closely related concepts : Minimal polynomial ( linear algebra ) , the monic polynomial p ( x ) of least degree such that p ( A ) = 0 for a square matrix A Minimal polynomial ( field theory ) , the monic polynomial p ( x ) over a field F of least degree such that p = 0 , for an algebraic element α over a field F", "Doctor Medicinae (Danish and Norwegian degree) Doctor Medicinae , also spelled Doctor Medicinæ and abbreviated Dr. Med. , is a doctoral degree ( a research doctorate ) in medicine awarded by universities in Denmark and formerly in Norway . The degree can only be obtained by physicians . It is regarded as a higher doctorate and is the equivalent of the British Doctor of Medical Science ( Med.Sc.D . ) . Dr. Med . ( dr.med . ) is now by law a higher degree than the Ph.D. ( ph.d.-graden ) . A Dr.Med . degree requires a cand.med . degree ( 6 -- 7 years of studies ) or equivalent , a substantial body of research ( usually in the form of published articles ) and public defence of a dissertation . Until the 19th century , the licentiate degree was also a prerequisite for obtaining the Dr.Med . Today , the recently introduced Danish Ph.D. degree ( officially the successor and equivalent of the former licentiate degree ) is sometimes obtained before the Dr.Med . degree . According to the Danish Agency for International Education , `` mature researchers may obtain the traditional higher Danish doctoral degree ( doktorgrad ) , usually after a minimum of 5 -- 8 years of individual and original research ( following a candidatus degree -LSB- ... -RSB- or a ph.d. degree in the relevant field of study ) and public defence of a dissertation . '' The Dr.Med . degree is seldom obtained before the age of 40 ." ]

[ "Habitat destruction Habitat destruction is the process in which natural habitat is rendered unable to support the species present . In this process , the organisms that previously used the site are displaced or destroyed , reducing biodiversity . Habitat destruction by human activity is mainly for the purpose of harvesting natural resources for industry production and urbanization . Clearing habitats for agriculture is the principal cause of habitat destruction . Other important causes of habitat destruction include mining , logging , trawling and urban sprawl . Habitat destruction is currently ranked as the primary cause of species extinction worldwide . It is a process of natural environmental change that may be caused by habitat fragmentation , geological processes , climate change or by human activities such as the introduction of invasive species , ecosystem nutrient depletion , and other human activities The terms habitat loss and habitat reduction are also used in a wider sense , including loss of habitat from other factors , such as water and noise pollution .", "Climate change policy of the United States Global climate change was first addressed in United States policy beginning in the early 1960s . The Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) defines climate change as `` any significant change in the measures of climate lasting for an extended period of time . '' Essentially , climate change includes major changes in temperature , precipitation , or wind patterns , as well as other effects , that occur over several decades or longer . Climate change policy in the US has transformed rapidly over the past twenty years and is being developed at both the state and federal level . The politics of global warming and climate change have polarized certain political parties and other organizations . This article focuses on climate change policy within the United States , as well as exploring the positions of various parties and the influences on policy making and environmental justice repercussions .", "Sustainability In ecology , sustainability ( from sustain and ability ) is the property of biological systems to remain diverse and productive indefinite #Adjective . Long-lived and healthy wetlands and forests are examples of sustainable biological systems . In more general terms , sustainability is the endurance of systems and processes . The organizing principle for sustainability is sustainable development , which includes the four interconnected domains : ecology , economics , politics and culture . Sustainability science is the study of sustainable development and environmental science . Sustainability can also be defined as a socio-ecological process characterized by the pursuit of a common ideal . An ideal is by definition unattainable in a given time and space . However , by persistently and dynamically approaching it , the process results in a sustainable system . Healthy ecosystems and environments are necessary to the survival of humans and other organisms . Ways of reducing negative human impact are environmentally-friendly chemical engineering , environmental resources management and environmental protection . Information is gained from green chemistry , earth science , environmental science and conservation biology . Ecological economics studies the fields of academic research that aim to address human economies and natural ecosystems . Moving towards sustainability is also a social challenge that entails international and national law , urban planning and transport , local and individual lifestyles and ethical consumerism . Ways of living more sustainably can take many forms from reorganizing living conditions ( e.g. , ecovillages , eco-municipalities and sustainable cities ) , reappraising economic sectors ( permaculture , green building , sustainable agriculture ) , or work practices ( sustainable architecture ) , using science to develop new technologies ( green technologies , renewable energy and sustainable fission and fusion power ) , or designing systems in a flexible and reversible manner , and adjusting individual lifestyles that conserve natural resources . `` The term ` sustainability ' should be viewed as humanity 's target goal of human-ecosystem equilibrium ( homeostasis ) , while ` sustainable development ' refers to the holistic approach and temporal processes that lead us to the end point of sustainability . '' ( 305 ) Despite the increased popularity of the use of the term `` sustainability '' , the possibility that human societies will achieve environmental sustainability has been , and continues to be , questioned -- in light of environmental degradation , climate change , overconsumption , population growth and societies ' pursuit of unlimited economic growth in a closed system .", "List of ecoregions in North America (CEC) This list of ecoregions of North America provides an overview of North American ecoregions designated by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation ( CEC ) in its North American Environmental Atlas . It should not be confused with Wikipedia articles based on the classification system developed by the World Wildlife Fund , such as List of ecoregions ( WWF ) and Lists of ecoregions by country . The commission was established in 1994 by the member states of Canada , Mexico , and the United States to address regional environmental concerns under the North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation ( NAAEC ) , the environmental side accord to the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) . The Commission 's 1997 report , Ecological Regions of North America , provides a framework that may be used by government agencies , non-governmental organizations , and academic researchers as a basis for risk analysis , resource management , and environmental study of the continent 's ecosystems . Ecoregions may be identified by similarities in geology , physiography , vegetation , climate soils , land use , wildlife distributions , and hydrology . The classification system has four levels . Only the first three levels are shown on this list . `` Level I '' divides North America into 15 broad ecoregions . `` Level II '' subdivides the continent into 52 smaller ecoregions . `` Level III '' subdivides those regions again into 182 ecoregions . `` Level IV '' is a further subdivision of Level III ecoregions . Level IV mapping is still underway but is complete across most of the United States . For an example of Level IV data , see List of ecoregions in Oregon and the associated articles ." ]

[ "Energy in Finland Energy in Finland describes energy and electricity production , consumption and import in Finland . Energy policy of Finland describes the politics of Finland related to energy . Electricity sector in Finland is the main article of electricity in Finland . Finland lacks domestic sources of fossil energy and must import substantial amounts of petroleum , natural gas , and other energy resources , including uranium for nuclear power . Energy consumption in Finland per capita is the highest in European Union . Reasons for this include industries with high energy consumption ( half of energy is consumed by industry ) , high standards of living , cold climate ( 25 % of consumption is used in heating ) and long distances ( 16 % of consumption is used in transport ) .", "Soyo (Paraguay) Soyo is a thick soup of meat crushed in a mortar , seasoned with several spices and vegetables . It is a meal that is always found in the traditional Paraguayan cooking and as all the others , has an important caloric value . Although it was previously considered as a meal only eaten by the people of scarce resources , it has become extraordinarily popular in every social stratum in Paraguay .", "Energy in Ireland Energy in Ireland describes energy and electricity production , consumption and importing in the Republic of Ireland . The Department of Communications , Climate Change and Natural Resources ( Irish : An Roinn Cumarsáide , Athrú Aeráide agus Achmhainní Nádúrtha ) is a department of the Government of Ireland that is responsible for the telecommunications and broadcasting sectors and regulates , protects and develops the natural resources of Ireland . The head of the department is the Minister for Communications , Climate Change and Natural Resources who is assisted by one Minister of State . The Department of Communications , Climate Change and Natural Resources oversees the formulation and implementation of policies concerning Ireland 's coal , gas , peat , oil , electricity and renewable energy supply . The department strives to protect Ireland 's energy supply , generation , security , affordability and sustainability , and to ensure that Ireland complies with international energy and climate change policies .", "Adele Morris Adele Cecile Morris ( born August 14 , 1963 ) is a senior fellow and policy director for Climate and Energy Economics at the Brookings Institution . Her expertise and interests include the economics of policies related to climate change , energy , natural resources , tax policy , and public finance . She was an unpaid advisor to the Hillary for America campaign .", "Making Sweden an Oil-Free Society In 2005 the government of Sweden appointed a commission to draw up a comprehensive programme to reduce Sweden 's dependence on petroleum , natural gas and other ` fossil raw materials ' by 2020 . In June 2006 ( less than three months before the 2006 general election ) the commission issued its report , entitled Making Sweden an Oil-Free Society ( På väg mot ett oljefritt Sverige ) . The report cited four reasons to reduce oil dependence : The impact of oil prices on Swedish economic growth and employment The link between oil , peace and security throughout the world The great potential to use Sweden 's own clean renewable energy resources in place of oil The threat of climate change resulting from the extensive burning of fossil fuels As of 2005 , oil supplies provided about 32 % of the country 's energy supply , with nuclear power and hydroelectricity providing much of the remainder . Although the report did not propose to end the use of oil entirely , the 2020 date was suggested as a marker on a continuing process of the `` oil phase-out in Sweden '' . Following defeat of the incumbent government coalition in the 2006 general election , the proposals were not included in the energy policy or in any law . `` Sweden 's energy policy , in both the short and the long term , is to safeguard the supply of electricity and other forms of energy on terms that are competitive with the rest of the world . It is intended to create the right conditions for efficient use of energy and a cost efficient Swedish supply of energy , with minimum adverse effect on health , the environment or climate , and assisting the move towards an ecologically sustainable society . ''", "Nautilus Institute for Security and Sustainability The Nautilus Institute for Security and Sustainability is a public policy think tank founded in 1992 . The Institute convenes scholars and practitioners who conduct research to address interconnected global problems such as threats of nuclear war , urban and energy insecurity , and climate change in the Asia Pacific region . The Institute has been mentioned in stories in media such as the Financial Times , Foreign Policy , Radio Australia , and others .", "Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol The Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol ( AWG-KP ) is one of the two negotiating tracks established under the Bali Road Map at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 's 13th Conference of the Parties ( COP13 ) in Bali in 2007 . The other one is the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action ( AWG-LCA ) . Category : Climate change policy", "Council On Energy, Environment and Water The Council on Energy , Environment and Water , commonly known as CEEW , is a Delhi-based not-for-profit policy research institution . Some of CEEW 's research areas include resource efficiency and security ; water resources ; renewable energy ; sustainability finance ; energy-trade-climate linkages ; integrated energy , environment and water plans ; and climate geoengineering governance . The think-tank advises the Indian government .", "Bjørn Lomborg Bjørn Lomborg ( -LSB- bjɶɐ̯n ˈlʌmbɒˀw -RSB- ; born 6 January 1965 ) is a Danish author and adjunct professor at the Copenhagen Business School as well as President of the Copenhagen Consensus Center . He is former director of the Danish government 's Environmental Assessment Institute ( EAI ) in Copenhagen . He became internationally known for his best-selling and controversial book , The Skeptical Environmentalist ( 2001 ) , in which he argues that many of the costly measures and actions adopted by scientists and policy makers to meet the challenges of global warming will ultimately have minimal impact on the world 's rising temperature . In 2002 , Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus , a project-based conference where prominent economists sought to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methods based on the theory of welfare economics . In 2009 , Business Insider cited Lomborg as one of `` The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics '' . While Lomborg campaigned against the Kyoto Protocol and other measures to cut carbon emissions in the short-term , he argued for adaptation to short-term temperature rises , and for spending money on research and development for longer-term environmental solutions . His issue is not with the reality of climate change , but rather with the economic and political approaches being taken ( or not taken ) to meet the challenges of that climate change . He is a strong advocate for focusing attention and resources on what he perceives as far more pressing world problems , such as AIDS , malaria and malnutrition . In his critique of the 2012 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development , Lomborg stated : `` Global warming is by no means our main environmental threat . '' In 2011 and 2012 , Lomborg was named a Top 100 Global Thinker by Foreign Policy `` for looking more right than ever on the politics of climate change '' .", "Skeptical Science Skeptical Science ( occasionally abbreviated SkS ) is a climate science blog and information resource created in 2007 by Australian cognitive scientist John Cook . In addition to publishing articles on current events relating to climate science and climate policy , the site maintains a large database of articles analyzing the merit of arguments commonly put forth by those who oppose the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change .", "Agonistic behaviour Agonistic behaviour is any social behaviour related to fighting . The term has broader meaning than aggressive behaviour because it includes threats , displays , retreats , placation , and conciliation . The term was coined by Scott and Fredericson in 1951 . Agonistic behaviour is seen in many animal species because resources including food , shelter , and mates are often limited . Some forms of agonistic behaviour are between contestants who are competing for access to the same resources , such as food or mates . Other times , it involves tests of strength or threat display that make animals look large and more physically fit , a display that may allow it to gain the resource before an actual battle takes place . Although agonistic behaviour varies among species , agonistic interaction consists of three kinds of behaviours : threat , aggression , and submission . These three behaviours are functionally and physiologically interrelated with aggressive behaviour yet fall outside the narrow definition of aggressive behaviour . While any one of these divisions of behaviours may be seen alone in an interaction between two animals , they normally occur in sequence from start to end . Depending on the availability and importance of a resource , behaviours can range from a fight to the death or a much safer ritualistic behaviour , though ritualistic or display behaviours are the most common form of agonistic behaviours .", "Thailand Development Research Institute The Thailand Development Research Institute ( TDRI ) is a non-profit non-government Thai policy think tank focused on social and economic development issues . The institute has six major research programs : Human resources and social development ; international economic relations ; macroeconomic policy ; natural resources and environment ; science and technology development ; and sectoral economics . TDRI was established as a public policy research institute in 1984 . Its legal form is that of a private non-profit foundation . It provides technical analysis ( mostly , but not entirely , in economic areas ) to various public agencies to help formulate policies to support long-term economic and social development in Thailand . In line with this central objective , it is mandated to : Conduct policy research Network extensively with other institutions and individuals engaged in policy research , both in Thailand and abroad Disseminate its research results to ensure maximum impact on policy-making", "Nations: A Simulation Game in International Politics Nations : A Simulation Game in International Politics is a case study available from the Georgetown University Institute for the Study of Diplomacy . In the game , students are divided into countries , and they compete against other by trading resources and making treaties . The game takes place on the fictional continent of Lostralia . The students are provided with rules . Each country has resources and secrets . Each country has a series of problems that they must solve and a certain amount of resources that they must get .", "Shunsuke Managi Shunsuke Managi is the Distinguished Professor of Technology and Policy & Director of Urban Institute at the Kyushu University , Japan . He has been awarded several national research grants on topics such as urbanization , transportation , energy , climate change , sustainability , urbanization , and population change . He is an editor of Environmental Economic and Policy Studies and on the editorial board for six journals including Resource and Energy Economics , a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and is the author of `` Technology , Natural Resources and Economic Growth : Improving the Environment for a Greener Future '' , published by Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd , and editor of `` The Routledge Handbook of Environmental Economics in Asia '' . 。", "Green industrial policy Green industrial policy ( GIP ) is strategic government policy that attempts to accelerate the development and growth of green industries to transition towards a low-carbon economy . Natural scientists warn that immediate action must be taken to lower greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the effects of climate change . Social scientists argue that the mitigation of climate change requires state intervention and governance reform . Thus , governments use GIP to address the economic , political , and environmental issues of climate change . GIP is conducive to sustainable economic , institutional , and technological transformation . It goes beyond the free market economic structure to address market failures and commitment problems that hinder sustainable investment . Effective GIP builds political support for carbon regulation which is necessary to transition towards a low-carbon economy . Several governments use different types of GIP that lead to various outcomes . GIP and industrial policy are similar , although GIP has unique challenges and goals . GIP faces the particular challenge of reconciling economic and environmental issues . It deals with a high uncertainty of green investment profitability . Furthermore , it addresses the reluctance of industry to invest in green development , and it helps current governments influence future climate policy . GIP offers opportunities for energy transition to renewables and a low-carbon economy . A large challenge for climate policy is a lack of industry and public support . GIP creates benefits that attract support for sustainability . It can create strategic niche management and generate a `` green spiral '' , or a process of feedback that combines industrial interests with climate policy . GIP can protect employees in emerging and declining industries , which leads to political support for other climate policy . Carbon pricing , sustainable energy transitions , and decreases in greenhouse gas emissions have higher chances of success as political support increases . GIP faces many risks . Some risks include poor government choices about which industries to support ; political capture of economic policy ; wasted resources ; ineffective action to combat climate change ; poor policy design that lacks policy objectives and exit strategies ; trade disputes ; and coordination failure . Strategic steps can be taken to manage the risks of GIP . Some include public and private sector communication , transparency , and accountability ; policy with clear objectives , evaluation techniques and exit strategies ; policy learning and policy experimentation ; green rent management ; strong institutions ; and a free press . Governments in various countries , states , provinces , territories , and cities use different types of green industrial policy . Distinct policy instruments lead to several outcomes . Examples include sunrise and sunset policies , subsidies , research and development , local content requirements , feed-in tariffs , tax credits , export restrictions , consumer mandates , green public procurement rules , and renewable portfolio standards .", "Environmental issues in Haiti Environmental issues in Haiti include a severe deforestation problem , overpopulation , a lack of sanitation , natural disasters , and food insecurity . A major reason for these environmental issues is that there is not sufficient protection or management of the country 's natural resources . Other environmental issues , such as decreases in precipitation and more severe natural disasters , will likely arise in Haiti as a result of climate change . Experts agree that Haiti needs to adopt new policies to address both the issues that already exist and to prepare for the effects of climate change .", "500-channel universe The term `` 500-channel universe '' was coined in 1992 by cable TV executive John Malone to describe a future media environment where a vast number of TV channels would be available , by eliminating the need for broadcast radio channels as a scarce resource .", "Intraspecific competition Intraspecific competition is an interaction in population ecology , whereby members of the same species compete for limited resources . This leads to a reduction in fitness for both individuals . By contrast , interspecific competition occurs when members of different species compete for a shared resource . Members of the same species have very similar resources requirements whereas different species have a smaller contested resource overlap , resulting in intraspecific competition generally being a stronger force than interspecific competition . Individuals can compete for food , water , space , light , mates or any other resource which is required for survival or reproduction . The resource must be limited for competition to occur ; if every member of the species can obtain a sufficient amount of every resource then individuals do not compete and the population grows exponentially . Exponential growth is very rare in nature because resources are finite and so not every individual in a population can survive , leading to intraspecific competition for the scarce resources . When resources are limited , an increase in population size reduces the quantity of resources available for each individual , reducing the per capita fitness in the population . As a result , the growth rate of a population slows as intraspecific competition becomes more intense , making it a negatively density dependent process . The falling population growth rate as population increases can be modeled effectively with the logistic growth model . The rate of change of population density eventually falls to zero , the point ecologists have termed the carrying capacity ( K ) . The carrying capacity of a population is the maximum number of individuals that can live in a population stably ; numbers larger than this will suffer a negative population growth until eventually reaching the carrying capacity , whereas populations smaller than the carrying capacity will grow until they reach it . Intraspecific competition does n't just involve direct interactions between members of the same species ( such as male deer locking horns when competing for mates ) but can also include indirect interactions where an individual depletes a shared resource ( such as a grizzly bear catching a salmon that can then no longer be eaten by bears at different points along a river ) . The way in which resources are partitioned by organisms also varies and can be split into scramble and contest competition . Scramble competition involves a relatively even distribution of resources among a population as all individuals exploit a common resource pool . In contrast , contest competition is the uneven distribution of resources and occurs when hierarchies in a population influence the amount of resource each individual receives . Organisms in the most prized territories or at the top of the hierarchies obtain a sufficient quantity of the resources , whereas individuals without a territory do n't obtain any of the resource .", "Climate ethics Climate ethics is an area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change ( also known as global warming ) , and concepts such as climate justice . Human-induced climate change raises many profound ethical questions , yet many believe that these ethical issues have not been addressed adequately in climate change policy debates or in the scientific and economic literature on climate change ; and that , consequently , ethical questions are being overlooked or obscured in climate negotiations , policies and discussions . It has been pointed out that those most responsible for climate change are not the same people as those most vulnerable to its effects . Terms such as climate justice and ecological justice ( ` eco justice ' ) are used worldwide , and have been adopted by various groups .", "Water resources management in Colombia There is a long and well established framework for water resources management in Colombia . The Environment Ministry and up to 33 Regional Authorities ( the first one was created in 1954 ) , are in charge of water resources management and policies at the national and regional and watershed level , respectively . Other sectoral ministries are in charge of water demand for energy , water supply and sanitation and water for irrigation . Water resources availability per capita in Colombia was 45,408 cubic meters in 2007 , way above the world 's average of 8,209 in the same year and is particularly prone to flooding and landslides . Climate Change is expected to highly affect highland Andean ecosystems , especially moorlands , due to increase in temperatures and aquifer-based freshwater supplies in insular and coastal areas due to sea level increases and saline intrusion . Despite the developed legal and institutional framework for water resources management in Colombia , many challenges remain , including : ( i ) the consideration of water as an abundant resource affect the implementation of certain policies ; ( ii ) fragmentation on water resources management responsibilities and lack of a consistent national strategy ; ( iii ) some lack of coordination between the Environmental Ministry and the Regional Authorities ; ( iv ) lack of capacities at the regional level ; ( v ) governability challenges due to social and environmental issues such as deforestation , illegal crops , urban sprawl ... etc. .", "Cultural heritage management Cultural heritage management ( CHM ) is the vocation and practice of managing cultural heritage . It is a branch of cultural resources management ( CRM ) , although it also draws on the practices of cultural conservation , restoration , museology , archaeology , history and architecture . While the term cultural heritage is generally used in Europe , in the USA the term cultural resources is in more general use specifically referring to cultural heritage resources . CHM has traditionally been concerned with the identification , interpretation , maintenance , and preservation of significant cultural sites and physical heritage assets , although intangible aspects of heritage , such as traditional skills , cultures and languages are also considered . The subject typically receives most attention , and resources , in the face of threat , where the focus is often upon rescue or salvage archaeology . Possible threats include urban development , large-scale agriculture , mining activity , looting , erosion or unsustainable visitor numbers . The public face of CHM , and a significant source of income to support continued management of heritage , is the interpretation and presentation to the public , where it is an important aspect of tourism . Communicating with government and the public is therefore a key competence .", "Software security assurance Software security assurance is a process that helps design and implement software that protects the data and resources contained in and controlled by that software . Software is itself a resource and thus must be afforded appropriate Escrito . ASIC ( disambiguation ) Since the number of threats specifically targeting software is increasing , the security of our software that we produce or procure must be assured . `` Dependence on information technology makes software assurance a key element of business continuity , national security , and homeland security . ''", "Free good A free good is a good that is not scarce , and therefore is available without limits . A free good is available in as great a quantity as desired with zero opportunity cost to society . A good that is made available at zero price is not necessarily a free good . For example , a shop might give away its stock in its promotion , but producing these goods would still have required the use of scarce resources . Examples of free goods are ideas and works that are reproducible at zero cost , or almost zero cost . For example , if someone invents a new device , many people could copy this invention , with no danger of this `` resource '' running out . Other examples include computer programs and web pages . Earlier schools of economic thought proposed a third type of free good : resources that are scarce but so abundant in nature that there is enough for everyone to have as much as they want . Examples in textbooks included seawater and air . Intellectual property laws such as copyrights and patents have the effect of converting some intangible goods to scarce goods . Even though these works are free goods by definition and can be reproduced at minimal cost , the production of these works does require scarce resources , such as skilled labour . Thus these laws are used to give exclusive rights to the creators , in order to encourage resources to be appropriately allocated to these activities . Many post scarcity futurists theorize that advanced nanotechnology with the ability to turn any kind of material automatically into any other combination of equal mass will make all goods essentially free goods , since all raw materials and manufacturing time will become perfectly interchangeable .", "Medieval Warm Period The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .", "Ministry of the Environment (Estonia) The Ministry of the Environment ( Keskkonnaministeerium ) is a government ministry of Estonia responsible for the issue of policies regarding climate , mineral resources , environmental awareness , fisheries and hunting in Estonia . The current Minister of the Environment is Marko Pomerants .", "Lifestyle drug Lifestyle drug is an imprecise term commonly applied to medications which treat non -- life-threatening and non-painful conditions such as baldness , wrinkles , erectile dysfunction , or acne , which the speaker perceives as either not medical problems at all or as minor medical conditions relative to others . It is sometimes intended as a pejorative , bearing the implication that the scarce medical research resources allocated to develop such drugs were spent frivolously when they could have been better spent researching cures for more serious medical conditions . Proponents , however , point out that improving the patient 's subjective quality of life has always been a primary concern of medicine , and argue that these drugs are doing just that . It finds broad use in both media and scholarly journals .", "Countermeasure (computer) In computer security a countermeasure is an action , device , procedure , or technique that reduces a threat , a vulnerability , or an attack by eliminating or preventing it , by minimizing the harm it can cause , or by discovering and reporting it so that corrective action can be taken . The definition is as IETF RFC 2828 that is the same as CNSS Instruction No. 4009 dated 26 April 2010 by Committee on National Security Systems of United States of America . According to the Glossary by InfosecToday , the meaning of countermeasure is : The deployment of a set of security services to protect against a security threat . A synonym is security control . In telecommunications , communication countermeasures are defined as security services as part of OSI Reference model by ITU-T X. 800 Recommendation . X. 800 and ISO ISO 7498-2 ( Information processing systems -- Open systems interconnection -- Basic Reference Model -- Part 2 : Security architecture are technically aligned . The following picture explain the relationships between these concepts and terms : + - - - - - - - - - - - - + + - - - - + + - - - - - - - - - - - + | An Attack : | | Counter - | | A System Resource : | | i.e. , A Threat Action | | measure | | Target of the Attack | | + ---------- + | | | | + ----------------- + | | | Attacker | < ================== | | < ========= | | | | i.e. , | Passive | | | | | Vulnerability | | | | A Threat | < ================= > | | < ======== > | | | | Agent | or Active | | | | + ------- | | | ------- + | | + ---------- + Attack | | | | VVV | | | | | | Threat Consequences | + - - - - - - - - - - - - + + - - - - + + - - - - - - - - - - - + A resource ( both physical or logical ) can have one or more vulnerabilities that can be exploited by a threat agent in a threat action . The result can potentially compromises the confidentiality , integrity or availability properties of resources ( potentially different that the vulnerable one ) of the organization and others involved parties ( customers , suppliers ) . The so-called CIA triad is the basis of information security . The attack can be active when it attempts to alter system resources or affect their operation : so it compromises integrity or availability . A `` passive attack '' attempts to learn or make use of information from the system but does not affect system resources : so it compromises confidentiality . A threat is a potential for violation of security , which exists when there is a circumstance , capability , action , or event that could breach security and cause harm . That is , a threat is a possible danger that might exploit a vulnerability . A threat can be either `` intentional '' ( i.e. , intelligent ; e.g. , an individual cracker or a criminal organization ) or `` accidental '' ( e.g. , the possibility of a computer malfunctioning , or the possibility of an `` act of God '' such as an earthquake , a fire , or a tornado ) . A set of policies concerned with information security management , the information security management systems ( ISMS ) , has been developed to manage , according to risk management principles , the countermeasures in order to accomplish to a security strategy set up following rules and regulations applicable in a country .", "Intersubjective psychoanalysis The term `` intersubjectivity '' was introduced to psychoanalysis by George Atwood and Robert Stolorow ( 1984 ) , who consider it a `` meta-theory '' of psychoanalysis . Intersubjective psychoanalysis suggests that all interactions must be considered contextually ; interactions between the patient/analyst or child/parent can not be seen as separate from each other , but rather must be considered always as mutually influencing each other . This philosophical concept dates back to `` German Idealism '' and phenomenology .", "Major Land Resource Areas In United States conservation policy , Major Land Resource Areas ( MLRA ) are geographically associated land resource units delineated by the Natural Resources Conservation Service and characterized by a particular pattern that combines soils , water , climate , vegetation , land use , and type of farming . There are 204 MLRAs in the United States , ranging in size from less than 500000 acres to more than 60 e6acre .", "Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity Environmental conditions play a key role in defining the function and distribution of plants , in combination with other factors . Changes in long term environmental conditions that can be collectively coined climate change are known to have had enormous impacts on current plant diversity patterns ; further impacts are expected in the future . It is predicted that climate change will remain one of the major drivers of biodiversity patterns in the future .", "China's peaceful rise `` China 's peaceful rise '' or sometimes referred to as China 's `` peaceful development '' was an official policy in China under the leadership of Hu Jintao . The term was implemented to rebut against the `` China threat theory . '' Historically , China was regarded as a less aggressive empire . As China emerged as a great political , economic and military power , China wanted to assure other countries that its rise will not be a threat to peace and security . China implements this policy by internally harmonizing China 's society and externally , promoting a peaceful international environment . It seeks to characterize China as a responsible world leader , emphasizes soft power , and vows that China is committed to its own internal issues and improving the welfare of its own people before interfering with world affairs . The term suggests that China seeks to avoid unnecessary international confrontation . The term proved controversial because the word ` rise ' could fuel perceptions that China is a threat to the established order , so since 2004 the term China 's peaceful development has been used by the Chinese leadership .", "Threatening government officials of the United States Threatening government officials of the United States is a serious crime under federal law . Threatening the President of the United States is also a serious crime and a Class E felony under , punishable by up to 5 years of imprisonment , that is investigated by the United States Secret Service . Threatening other officials is a Class C or D felony , usually carrying maximum penalties of 5 or 10 years under , and other statutes , that is investigated by the Federal Bureau of Investigation . When national boundaries are transcended by such a threat , it is considered a terrorist threat . When a threat is made against a judge , it can be considered obstruction of justice . Threatening federal officials ' family members is also a federal crime ; in enacting the law , the Committee on the Judiciary stated that `` Clearly it is a proper Federal function to respond to terrorists and other criminals who seek to influence the making of Federal policies and interfere with the administration of justice by attacking close relatives of those entrusted with these tasks . '' There are three elements of the offense of making an illegal threat : ( i ) there must be a transmission in interstate commerce ; ( ii ) there must be a communication containing the threat ; ( iii ) and the threat must be a threat to injure the person of another . Threats can also sometimes be punished under the statutes criminalizing assaulting , resisting , or impeding certain United States Government officers or employees or assassinating , kidnapping , and assaulting government officials of the United States . United States Sentencing Guidelines take a number of factors into consideration in determining the recommended penalty , including evidence of the person 's intent to carry out the threat ; disruption to the government function ; and the possibility of inciting others to violence . There is also a 6-level official victim enhancement , which makes the recommended penalty , per the sentencing table , approximately double that which would apply if an ordinary citizen were the victim . There can be many motives for making threats , including political motives or a desire to frame someone else for making the threat . The person 's intent can greatly affect the sentence . In determining what constitutes a true threat , the courts hold that what must be proved is that a reasonable recipient of the communication would consider it a threat under the circumstances . Thus , a statement to a judge that `` You and your family are going to die '' would be regarded as a true threat , even if the defendant claimed that he meant it as a literal , biological truth . If a threat is made to multiple individuals , it may be considered to be outside of the guidelines heartland , and therefore to warrant an enhancement ." ]

[ "Jupiter Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System . It is a giant planet with a mass one-thousandth that of the Sun , but two and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined . Jupiter and Saturn are gas giants ; the other two giant planets , Uranus and Neptune are ice giants . Jupiter has been known to astronomers since antiquity . The Romans named it after their god Jupiter . When viewed from Earth , Jupiter can reach an apparent magnitude of − 2.94 , bright enough for its reflected light to cast shadows , and making it on average the third-brightest object in the night sky after the Moon and Venus . Jupiter is primarily composed of hydrogen with a quarter of its mass being helium , though helium comprises only about a tenth of the number of molecules . It may also have a rocky core of heavier elements , but like the other giant planets , Jupiter lacks a well-defined solid surface . Because of its rapid rotation , the planet 's shape is that of an oblate spheroid ( it has a slight but noticeable bulge around the equator ) . The outer atmosphere is visibly segregated into several bands at different latitudes , resulting in turbulence and storms along their interacting boundaries . A prominent result is the Great Red Spot , a giant storm that is known to have existed since at least the 17th century when it was first seen by telescope . Surrounding Jupiter is a faint planetary ring system and a powerful magnetosphere . Jupiter has at least 67 moons , including the four large Galilean moons discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610 . Ganymede , the largest of these , has a diameter greater than that of the planet Mercury . Jupiter has been explored on several occasions by robotic spacecraft , most notably during the early Pioneer and Voyager flyby missions and later by the Galileo orbiter . In late February 2007 , Jupiter was visited by the New Horizons probe , which used Jupiter 's gravity to increase its speed and bend its trajectory en route to Pluto . The latest probe to visit the planet is Juno , which entered into orbit around Jupiter on July 4 , 2016 . Future targets for exploration in the Jupiter system include the probable ice-covered liquid ocean of its moon Europa .", "Mars Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System , after Mercury . Named after the Roman god of war , it is often referred to as the `` Red Planet '' because the iron oxide prevalent on its surface gives it a reddish appearance . Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin atmosphere , having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the valleys , deserts , and polar ice caps of Earth . The rotational period and seasonal cycles of Mars are likewise similar to those of Earth , as is the tilt that produces the seasons . Mars is the site of Olympus Mons , the largest volcano and second-highest known mountain in the Solar System , and of Valles Marineris , one of the largest canyons in the Solar System . The smooth Borealis basin in the northern hemisphere covers 40 % of the planet and may be a giant impact feature . Mars has two moons , Phobos and Deimos , which are small and irregularly shaped . These may be captured asteroids , similar to 5261 Eureka , a Mars trojan . There are ongoing investigations assessing the past habitability potential of Mars , as well as the possibility of extant life . Future astrobiology missions are planned , including the Mars 2020 and ExoMars rovers . Liquid water can not exist on the surface of Mars due to low atmospheric pressure , which is about that of the Earth 's , except at the lowest elevations for short periods . The two polar ice caps appear to be made largely of water . The volume of water ice in the south polar ice cap , if melted , would be sufficient to cover the entire planetary surface to a depth of 11 m . In November 2016 , NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars . The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior . Mars can easily be seen from Earth with the naked eye , as can its reddish coloring . Its apparent magnitude reaches − 2.91 , which is surpassed only by Jupiter , Venus , the Moon , and the Sun . Optical ground-based telescopes are typically limited to resolving features about 300 km across when Earth and Mars are closest because of Earth 's atmosphere ." ]

[ "Jupiter trojan The Jupiter trojans , commonly called Trojan asteroids or just Trojans , are a large group of asteroids that share the orbit of the planet Jupiter around the Sun . Relative to Jupiter , each Trojan librates around one of Jupiter 's two stable Lagrangian points , , lying 60 ° ahead of the planet in its orbit , and , 60 ° behind . Jupiter trojans are distributed in two elongated , curved regions around these Lagrangian points with an average semi-major axis of about 5.2 AU . The first Jupiter trojan discovered , 588 Achilles , was spotted in 1906 by German astronomer Max Wolf . A total of 6,178 Jupiter trojans have been found . By convention they are each named after a mythological figure from the Trojan War , hence the name `` Trojan '' . The total number of Jupiter trojans larger than 1 km in diameter is believed to be about , approximately equal to the number of asteroids larger than 1 km in the asteroid belt . Like main-belt asteroids , Jupiter trojans form families . Jupiter trojans are dark bodies with reddish , featureless spectra . No firm evidence of the presence of water , or any other specific compound on their surface has been obtained , but it is thought that they are coated in tholins , organic polymers formed by the Sun 's radiation . The Jupiter trojans ' densities ( as measured by studying binaries or rotational lightcurves ) vary from 0.8 to 2.5 g · cm − 3 . Jupiter trojans are thought to have been captured into their orbits during the early stages of the Solar System 's formation or slightly later , during the migration of giant planets . The term `` trojan '' has come to be used more generally to refer to other small Solar System bodies with similar relationships to larger bodies : for example , there are both Mars trojans and Neptune trojans , and Saturn has trojan moons . NASA has announced the discovery of an Earth trojan . The term `` Trojan asteroid '' is normally understood to specifically mean the Jupiter trojans because the first Trojans were discovered near Jupiter 's orbit and Jupiter currently has by far the most known Trojans .", "Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism The Kelvin -- Helmholtz mechanism is an astronomical process that occurs when the surface of a star or a planet cools . The cooling causes the pressure to drop , and the star or planet shrinks as a result . This compression , in turn , heats the core of the star/planet . This mechanism is evident on Jupiter and Saturn and on brown dwarfs whose central temperatures are not high enough to undergo nuclear fusion . It is estimated that Jupiter radiates more energy through this mechanism than it receives from the Sun , but Saturn might not . The latter process causes Jupiter to shrink at a rate of two centimetres each year . The mechanism was originally proposed by Kelvin and Helmholtz in the late 19th century to explain the source of energy of the Sun . By the mid-19th century , conservation of energy had been accepted , and one consequence of this law of physics is that the Sun must have some energy source to continue to shine . Because nuclear reactions were unknown , the main candidate for the source of solar energy was gravitational contraction . However , it soon was recognized by Sir Arthur Eddington and others that the total amount of energy available through this mechanism only allowed the Sun to shine for millions of years rather than the billions of years that the geological and biological evidence suggested for the age of the Earth . ( Kelvin himself had argued that the Earth was millions , not billions , of years old . ) The true source of the Sun 's energy remained uncertain until the 1930s , when it was shown by Hans Bethe to be nuclear fusion .", "Transit of Mars A transit of Mars across the Sun from another planet takes place when the planet Mars passes between the Sun and the planet . Transit of Mars from Jupiter Transit of Mars from Saturn Transit of Mars from Uranus Transit of Mars from Neptune", "7 Iris 7 Iris is a large main-belt asteroid orbiting the Sun between Mars and Jupiter . It is the fourth-brightest object in the asteroid belt . It is classified as an S-type asteroid , meaning that it has a stony composition .", "580 Selene 580 Selene is a minor planet orbiting the Sun in the asteroid belt . The name Selene is that of an ancient Greek goddess of the Moon . This body orbits the Sun nearly midway between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter . The orbital eccentricity is slightly lower than that of Mars . Based on its light curve , Selene has an estimated rotation period of 0.3947 ± 0.0004 days , or just under 9.5 hours . During each rotation , the apparent magnitude varies by 0.27 . The approximate diameter of this asteroid is 46 km . ( Some sources list a diameter of up to 56 km . ) The albedo is about 7 % , comparable to that of the Earth 's Moon .", "HD 191760 HD 191760 is a star system in the constellation Telescopium . It is a yellow subgiant -- a star that is cooling and expanding off the main sequence -- of spectral type G3IV/V . Estimated to be just over four billion years old , it is slightly ( 1.1 to 1.3 times ) as massive as the Sun , and is 2.69 times as luminous and has around 1.62 times its radius . Using the ESO-HARPS instrument , it was found to have a brown dwarf around 38 times as massive as Jupiter orbiting at an average distance of 1.35 AU in a period of 505 days . This is an unusual distance from the star and has been termed the ` brown dwarf desert ' .", "HD 65216 b HD 65216 b is an extrasolar planet located approximately 116 light-years away in the constellation of Carina , orbiting the star HD 65216 . This planet was discovered by the Geneva Extrasolar Planet Search Team in 2003 . Like most planet candidates so far , it was detected with the radial velocity method . The planet has a minimum mass about 20 % more than Jupiter . Since the discovery method gives only the minimum mass , its true mass is probably slightly greater . The planet orbits the star in a very eccentric orbit . The mean distance from the star is slightly less than that of Mars from the Sun , but at periastron the planet is a fifth closer to the star than Earth from the Sun and at apoastron it is over twice as far .", "HD 114729 b HD 114729 b is an extrasolar planet approximately 114 light years away in the constellation of Centaurus . This planet is probably slightly less massive than Jupiter . It is an `` eccentric Jupiter '' meaning that it does not orbit very near the star like the famous 51 Pegasi b but further out and its orbit is very oval-shaped . The mean distance from the star is 2.11 AU , about twice the Earth 's distance from the Sun . At periastron , the planet is only 1.43 AU from the star ( comparable to the distance of Mars from the Sun ) , and at apoastron , the orbital distance is 2.72 AU ( inner asteroid belt ) .", "HD 162826 HD 162826 ( HR 6669 ) is a star located in the constellation of Hercules and is located about 110 ly from Earth . With an apparent magnitude of 6.46 , the star can be found with binoculars or a low-power telescope by reference to nearby Vega in the constellation Lyra . It is 15 % more massive than the Sun , with a slightly hotter surface temperature . It has no known planets ; the current state of knowledge excludes `` hot Jupiters '' and suggests that a more distant Jupiter is unlikely , but terrestrial planets are possible . The star 's spectra had been under observation previously . The star is considered to be a stellar sibling of the Sun . Solar siblings are those stars that formed from the same gas cloud and in the same star cluster ; the term was introduced in 2009 . The Sun is a G2V star with a temperature of 5778 K and is 4.6 billion years old .", "Fifth planet Fifth planet may refer to : Jupiter , the fifth planet from the Sun in the Solar system Fifth planet ( hypothetical ) , any of various hypothetical planets thought to have existed Fifth Planet ( novel ) , a science fiction novel by Fred and Geoffrey Hoyle Planet V , a scientific proposal in 2002 for a destroyed fifth planet Mars , the fifth planet from Earth in the Ptolemaic geocentric model Ceres ( dwarf planet ) , the dwarf planet orbiting between Mars and Jupiter in the asteroid belt", "WASP-43 WASP-43 is a K-type star in the Sextans constellation . It is about half the size of the Sun , and has approximately half the mass . WASP-43 has one known planet in orbit , a Hot Jupiter called WASP-43b . At the time of publishing of WASP-43b 's discovery on April 15 , 2011 , the planet was the most closely orbiting Hot Jupiter discovered . The small orbit of WASP-43b is thought to be caused by WASP-43 's unusually low mass . WASP-43 was first observed between January and May 2009 by the SuperWASP project , and was found to be cooler and slightly richer in metals than the Sun . WASP-43 has also been found to be an active star that rotates at a high velocity .", "614 Pia 614 Pia is a minor planet orbiting the Sun between Mars and Jupiter in the asteroid belt . August Kopff discovered 614 Pia on October 11 , 1906 at Heidelberg , Germany .", "Shutdown of thermohaline circulation A shutdown or slowdown of the thermohaline circulation is an effect of global warming on a major ocean circulation . Data from 2010 NASA suggested that the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation has not slowed down , but may have actually sped up slightly in the recent past . However , this has been superseded by a 2015 study that suggests ` that the Gulf Stream has weakened by 15-20 % '", "HD 205739 HD 205739 is a yellow-white dwarf ( spectral type F7 V ) . It is about 108 parsecs away from the Sun . A Jupiter-like planet has recently been detected in a Mercury-like eccentric orbit around this star . There is a trend in the results which may point to an additional companion further from its star .", "HD 130322 b HD 130322 b is an exoplanet with a minimum mass slightly more than that of Jupiter . It orbits the star in a very close orbit distance being only a quarter that of Mercury from the Sun . It is thus a so-called `` hot Jupiter '' . The planet orbits the star every 10 days 17 hours in a very circular orbit .", "Transit of Earth A transit of Earth across the sun from another planet takes place when the planet Earth passes between the sun and the planet . Transit of Earth from Mars Transit of Earth from Jupiter Transit of Earth from Saturn Transit of Earth from Uranus Transit of Earth from Neptune", "Peter Taylor (environmentalist) Peter Taylor ( b. 24 Jan 1948 ) is a UK environmentalist with a long track record of public activism and scholarship on issues ranging from nuclear safety , ocean pollution , biodiversity strategies , renewable energy and climate change . His recent work on global warming has been questioned by environmentalists . His 2009 book Chill : a reassessment of global warming theory argued that most of the recent documented warming is caused by peaking natural cycles , that there is also a potential for global cooling and that adaptation not mitigation should be a priority . His views received widespread coverage in the media -- with front page on the Daily Express , and articles in the online versions of The Mail , The Times and an Al Jazeera video .", "HD 80606 b HD 80606 b ( also Struve 1341 B b or HIP 45982 b ) is an eccentric and hot Jupiter 190 light-years from the Sun in the constellation of Ursa Major . HD 80606 b was discovered orbiting the star Struve 1341 B in April 2001 by a team led by Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz . With a mass 4 times that of Jupiter , it is a gas giant . Because the planet transits the host star its radius can be determined using the transit method and was found to be slightly smaller than Jupiter 's . Its density is slightly less than Earth 's . It has an extremely eccentric orbit like a comet , with its orbit taking it very close to its star and then back out very far away from it every 111 days .", "HD 147513 b HD 147513 b is an exoplanet approximately 42 light-years away in the constellation of Scorpius . It is at least 21 % more massive than Jupiter . But unlike Jupiter , it orbits the star much closer , mean distance being only a third more than Earth 's distance from the Sun . Its orbit is also eccentric ; at periastron , it is closer to itse star than Earth is from the Sun , whereas at apastron , it is further from its star than Mars to the Sun , finding itself on the outer edge of the habitable zone .", "Grand tack hypothesis In planetary astronomy , the grand tack hypothesis proposes that after its formation at 3.5 AU , Jupiter migrated inward to 1.5 AU , before reversing course due to capturing Saturn in an orbital resonance , eventually halting near its current orbit at 5.2 AU . The reversal of Jupiter 's migration is likened to the path of a sailboat changing directions ( tacking ) as it travels against the wind . The planetesimal disk is truncated at 1.0 AU by Jupiter 's migration , limiting the material available to form Mars . Jupiter twice crosses the asteroid belt , scattering asteroids outward then inward . The resulting asteroid belt has a small mass , a wide range of inclinations and eccentricities , and a population originating from both inside and outside Jupiter 's original orbit . Debris produced by collisions among planetesimals swept ahead of Jupiter may have driven an early generation of planets into the sun .", "List of asteroids in astrology Asteroids in astrology are used by some astrologers in a similar way to the planets . Asteroids are planetoids that orbit the Sun between Mars and Jupiter , and are not to be confused with centaurs or trans-Neptunian objects . The asteroids are relatively new to astrology , having only been discovered in the 19th century . However , some of them ( especially the largest of them ) , are believed by some astrologers to influence human affairs . Still though , they are often ignored within mainstream systems of astrology , especially in more traditional astrology systems like Vedic astrology or Hellenistic astrology . Their use has become significant to a few Western astrologers yet still only a minority of astrologers use the asteroids in chart interpretation .", "HD 121504 b HD 121504 b is an exoplanet that is likely to be slightly less massive than Jupiter . Although the radial velocity method that was used to detect the planet can only measure the minimum mass of the planet , it is very unlikely that its true mass would be much higher . HD 121504 b orbits the star at a distance of about one third of Earth 's distance from the Sun , and has a slightly eccentric orbit .", "HD 148427 b HD 148427 b is a gas giant extrasolar planet which orbits the K-type subgiant star HD 148427 , located approximately 193 light years away in the constellation Ophiuchus . This planet has a minimum mass slightly less than Jupiter and orbits slightly closer to the star than Earth to the Sun . The orbital revolution takes 331.5 days or 0.9076 years . This planet was discovered on August 12 , 2009 by radial velocity method .", "HD 210277 b HD 210277 b is an extrasolar planet orbiting the star HD 210277 . It was discovered in September 1998 by the California and Carnegie Planet Search team using the highly successful radial velocity method . The planet is at least 24 % more massive than Jupiter . The mean distance of the planet from the star is slightly more than Earth 's distance from the Sun . However , the orbit is very eccentric , so at periastron this distance is almost halved , and at apastron it is as distant as Mars is from the Sun . In 2000 , a group of scientists proposed , based on preliminary data from the Hipparcos astrometrical satellite , that the planet would have an inclination of 175.8 ° and a true mass of 18 times Jupiter making it a brown dwarf instead of a planet . However these measurements were later proved useful only for upper limits of inclination . If the planet orbits in the same plane as the claimed circumstellar disk , which seems a plausible assumption , it would have an inclination of 40 ° and an absolute mass of 2.2 times Jupiter , however later observations failed to confirm the disk 's existence .", "Earth trojan An Earth trojan is an asteroid that orbits the Sun in the vicinity of the Earth -- Sun Lagrangian points ( leading 60 ° ) and ( trailing 60 ° ) , thus having an orbit similar to Earth 's . Only one Earth trojan has so far been discovered . The name trojan was first used in 1906 for the Jupiter trojans , the asteroids that were observed near the Lagrangian points of Jupiter 's orbit .", "Cooling down Cooling down ( the prescribed event of which is called a cool down , cooldown , or cool-down ; or warm down , in allusion to use in combination with warm up ) is an easy exercise , done after a more intense activity , to allow the body to gradually transition to a resting or near-resting state . Depending on the intensity of the exercise , cooling down can involve a slow jog or walk . With lower intensities stretching can be used . Cooling down allows the heart rate to return to its resting rate . Anecdotally cooling down may reduce dizziness for professional or serious athletes and vocal performers after strenuous workouts . Studies are currently inconclusive as to whether the process actually reduces delayed-onset muscle soreness and muscle soreness not caused by lactate production during intense exercise . Some have shown a weak correlation : however , the majority of recent studies discount the relationship . One study has shown that athletes who perform an appropriate cool-down are less likely to become injured .", "Volcanic winter A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .", "Griqua family The Griqua asteroids are a group of asteroids in the main belt orbiting the Sun between 3.1 and 3.27 AU . Asteroids in this group have eccentricities greater than 0.35 . The group derives its name from the asteroid 1362 Griqua . These asteroids are at a 2:1 resonance with Jupiter 's orbit . As such , their orbits are unstable ; gradually perturbed over thousands of years until their orbits intersect with that of Mars or Jupiter .", "WASP-44 WASP-44 is a G-type star in constellation Cetus that has the Jupiter-size planet WASP-44b in orbit . The star is slightly less massive and slightly smaller than the Sun ; it is also slightly cooler , but is more metal-rich . The star was observed by SuperWASP , an organization in search of planets , starting in 2009 ; manual follow-up observations used WASP-44 's spectrum and measurements of its radial velocity led to the discovery of the transiting planet WASP-44b . The planet and its star were presented along with WASP-45b and WASP-46b on May 17 , 2011 by a team of scientists testing the idea that Hot Jupiters tend to have circular orbits , an assumption that is made when the orbital eccentricity of such planets are not well-constrained .", "HD 4208 b The extrasolar planet , designated as HD 4208 b , was discovered by the California and Carnegie Planet Search team using the Keck telescope . The planet is probably somewhat less massive than Jupiter , although only its minimum mass is known . Its orbital distance is 1.67 AU , slightly further than Mars and its eccentricity is low .", "Polar climate The polar climate regions are characterized by a lack of warm summers . Every month in a polar climate has an average temperature of less than 10 C. Regions with polar climate cover more than 20 % of the Earth . The sun shines for long hours in the summer , and for many fewer hours in the winter . A polar climate results in treeless tundra , glaciers , or a permanent or semi-permanent layer of ice . It has cool summers and very cold winters .", "Wolf 424 Wolf 424 is a binary star system comprising two red dwarf stars at a distance of approximately 14.2 light years from the Sun . It is located in the constellation Virgo , between the stars ε Virginis and ο Virginis . The close binary nature of this star was discovered by Dutch American astronomer Dirk Reuyl in 1941 , based upon an elongation of the star found in photographs . The two stars in the Wolf 424 system orbit about each other with a semi-major axis of 4.1 AU and an eccentricity of 0.3 . The stars have an orbital period of 15.5 years and have a combined apparent magnitude of about 12.5 . Wolf 424A is a cool main sequence red dwarf star of approximately 0.14 solar masses ( 147 Jupiters ) and a radius of 0.17 solar radii . Its companion , Wolf 424B , is a cool main sequence red dwarf star of approximately 0.13 solar masses ( 136 Jupiters ) and a radius of 0.14 solar radii . They are two of the dimmest known objects within 15 light years of the Sun . In 1967 , it was discovered that both are flare stars that undergo random increases in luminosity . The system has been designated FL Virginis , and may experience sunspot activity . The stars may undergo variation in the level of flare activity over periods lasting several years ." ]

[ "Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "Patrick Michaels Patrick J. ( `` Pat '' ) Michaels ( born February 15 , 1950 ) is an American climatologist . Michaels is a senior fellow in environmental studies at the Cato Institute . Until 2007 he was research professor of environmental sciences at the University of Virginia , where he had worked from 1980 . A self-described skeptic on the issue of global warming , he is a past president of the American Association of State Climatologists . He has written a number of books and papers on climate change , including Sound and Fury : The Science and Politics of Global Warming ( 1992 ) , The Satanic Gases ( 2000 ) , and Meltdown : The Predictable Distortion of Global Warming by Scientists , Politicians , and the Media ( 2004 ) . He 's also the co-author of Climate of Extremes : Global Warming Science They Do n't Want You to Know ( 2009 ) . Michaels ' viewpoint , as argued in a 2002 article in the journal Climate Research , is that the planet will see `` a warming range of 1.3 -- 3.0 ° C , with a central value of 1.9 ° C '' for the 1990 to 2100 period ( an analysis far smaller than the IPCC 's average predictions ) .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "GWG GWG is a three letter acronym that can stand for : Girls with guns Girls with glasses Game-winning goal , in sports Global warming gases ( greenhouse gases ) Games with Gold , an Xbox Live promotion Goodwill Gang", "Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "IPCC First Assessment Report The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "Greenhouse debt Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences", "Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .", "Bell nozzle The Bell-shaped or Contour nozzle is probably the most commonly used shaped rocket engine nozzle . It has a high angle expansion section ( 20 to 50 degrees ) right behind the nozzle throat ; this is followed by a gradual reversal of nozzle contour slope so that the nozzle exit the divergence angle is small , usually less than a 10 degree half angle . Ideally a nozzle is wished to direct all of the gases generated in the combustion chamber and accelerated by the throat to leave the nozzle traveling straight out the nozzle . That means the momentum of the gases are axial , imparting the maximum thrust to the rocket . In fact , there are some non-axial components to the momentum . In terms of a momentum vector , there is an angle between the axis of the rocket engine and the gas flow . As a result , the thrust is lowered by varying amounts . The Bell or Contour shape is designed to impart a large angle expansion for the gases right after the throat . The nozzle is then curved back in to give a nearly straight flow of gas out the nozzle opening . The contour used is rather complex . The large expansion section near the throat causes expansion shock waves . The reversal of the slope to bring the exit to near zero degrees causes compression shock waves . A properly designed nozzle will have these two sets of shock waves coincide and cancel each other out . In this way , the bell is a compromise between the two extremes of the conical nozzle since it minimizes weight while maximizing performance . The most important design issue is to contour the nozzle to avoid oblique shocks and maximize performance . In his classic textbook , George P. Sutton credits Dr. G. V. R. Rao with working out the mathematics of the optimal bell nozzle design in 1955 , while working at Rocketdyne .", "Warm antibody autoimmune hemolytic anemia Warm antibody autoimmune hemolytic anemia ( WAIHA ) is the most common form of autoimmune hemolytic anemia . About half of the cases are of unknown cause , with the other half attributable to a predisposing condition or medications being taken . Contrary to cold autoimmune hemolytic anemia ( e.g. , cold agglutinin disease and paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria ) which happens in cold temperature ( 28 -- 31 ° C ) , WAIHA happens in body temperature .", "Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.", "Half-normal distribution In probability theory and statistics , the half-normal distribution is a special case of the folded normal distribution . Let follow an ordinary normal distribution , , then follows a half-normal distribution . Thus , the half-normal distribution is a fold at the mean of an ordinary normal distribution with mean zero .", "Solar radiation management Solar radiation management ( SRM ) projects are a type of climate engineering which seek to reflect sunlight and thus reduce global warming . Proposed examples include the creation of stratospheric sulfate aerosols . Their principal advantages as an approach to climate engineering is the speed with which they can be deployed and become fully active , their potential low financial cost , and the reversibility of their direct climatic effects . Solar radiation management projects could , for example , be used as a temporary response while levels of greenhouse gases can be brought under control by mitigation and greenhouse gas removal techniques . They would not reduce greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere , and thus do not address problems such as ocean acidification caused by excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) .", "The Hype about Hydrogen The Hype about Hydrogen : Fact and Fiction in the Race to Save the Climate is a book by Joseph J. Romm , published in 2004 by Island Press and updated in 2005 . The book has been translated into German as Der Wasserstoff-Boom . Romm is an expert on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . Over 200 publications , including Scientific American , Forbes magazine and The New York Times , have cited this book . The book was named one of the best science and technology books of 2004 by Library Journal . The thrust of the book is that hydrogen is not economically feasible to use for transportation , nor will its use reduce global warming , because of the cost and greenhouse gases generated during production , the low energy content per volume and weight of the container , the cost of the fuel cells , and the cost of the infrastructure . The author argues that a major effort to introduce hydrogen cars before 2030 would actually undermine efforts to reduce emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide .", "Half-transitive graph In the mathematical field of graph theory , a half-transitive graph is a graph that is both vertex-transitive and edge-transitive , but not symmetric . In other words , a graph is half-transitive if its automorphism group acts transitively upon both its vertices and its edges , but not on ordered pairs of linked vertices . Every connected symmetric graph must be vertex-transitive and edge-transitive , and the converse is true for graphs of odd degree , so that half-transitive graphs of odd degree do not exist . However , there do exist half-transitive graphs of even degree . The smallest half-transitive graph is the Holt graph , with degree 4 and 27 vertices .", "Margo T. Oge Margo T. Oge ( born 1949 ) is an American engineer and environmental regulator who served as the Director of the Environmental Protection Agency 's Office of Radiation and Indoor Air from 1990 to 1994 and Director of the Office of Transportation and Air Quality from 1994 to 2012 . Beginning in 2009 , Oge lead the EPA team that authored the 2010-2016 and the 2017-2025 Light-Duty Vehicle Greenhouse Gas Emissions Standards . By 2025 , these rules require automakers to half the greenhouse gas emissions of cars and light duty trucks while doubling fuel economy . These rules were the US federal government 's first regulatory actions to reduce greenhouse gases .", "Ogoni languages The Ogoni languages , or Kegboid languages , are the five languages of the Ogoni people of Rivers State , Nigeria . They fall into two clusters , with a limited degree of mutual intelligibility between members of each cluster . However , the Ogoni think of them as separate languages . The Eastern languages are Khana and Tẹẹ , with about half a million or so speakers , and Gokana , with about half that number . The Western languages are Eleme , with about 70,000 speakers , and Baan , with about a quarter that number .", "Half-truth A partial-truth is a deceptive statement that includes some element of truth . The statement might be partly true , the statement may be totally true but only part of the whole truth , or it may use some deceptive element , such as improper punctuation , or double meaning , especially if the intent is to deceive , evade , blame or misrepresent the truth .", "Agricultural emissions research levy The agricultural emissions research levy was a controversial tax proposal in New Zealand . It was first proposed in 2003 and would collect an estimated $ 8.4 million annually from livestock farmers ( out of an estimated annual $ 50 -- 125 million in costs to the public which is caused by farm animals ' emissions of greenhouse gases such as methane ) , and which would have been used to fund research on the livestock industry 's emissions of greenhouse gases , to further the nation 's compliance with the Kyoto Protocol .", "Greenhouse gas inventory Greenhouse gas inventories are a type of emission inventory that are developed for a variety of reasons . Scientists use inventories of natural and anthropogenic ( human-caused ) emissions as tools when developing atmospheric models . Policy makers use inventories to develop strategies and policies for emissions reductions and to track the progress of those policies . And , regulatory agencies and corporations rely on inventories to establish compliance records with allowable emission rates . Businesses , the public , and other interest groups use inventories to better understand the sources and trends in emissions . Unlike some other air emission inventories , greenhouse gas inventories include not only emissions from source categories , but also removals by carbon sinks . These removals are typically referred to as carbon sequestration . Greenhouse gas inventories , typically use Global warming potential ( GWP ) values to combine emissions of various greenhouse gases into a single weighted value of emissions . Some of the key examples of greenhouse gas inventories include : All Annex I countries are required to report annual emissions and sinks of greenhouse gases under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) National governments that are Parties to the UNFCCC and/or the Kyoto Protocol are required to submit annual inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks . The Kyoto Protocol includes additional requirements for national inventory systems , inventory reporting , and annual inventory review for determining compliance with Articles 5 and 8 of the Protocol . Project developers under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol prepare inventories as part of their project baselines . Corporation and other entities can prepare greenhouse gas inventories to track progress towards meeting an emission reduction goal . Scientific efforts aimed at understanding detail of total net carbon exchange . Example : Project Vulcan - a comprehensive US inventory of fossil-fuel greenhouse gas emissions .", "Vincent R. Gray __ NOTOC __ Vincent Richard Gray ( born 24 March 1922 ) is a New Zealand-based chemist , and a founder of the New Zealand Climate Science Coalition . Born in London on 24 March 1922 , Gray was awarded a PhD in physical chemistry by the University of Cambridge after studies on incendiary bomb fluids made from aluminium soaps . In New Zealand , he was the first Director of Building Research and later , Chief Chemist of the Coal Research Association . He has also published many articles and reports , seven in peer-reviewed journals . After retirement , he had four and a half years in China and when he returned became a critic of the claim that climate was harmed by human emissions of greenhouse gases . He has commented on every publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , with 1,898 comments on the 2007 Report . He has published critical studies on all of the reports including a book `` The Greenhouse Delusion : A Critique of ` Climate Change 2001 ' '' . He has published `` Confessions of a Climate Sceptic '' He is sceptical of the anthropogenic global warming : `` The two main `` scientific '' claims of the IPCC are the claim that `` the globe is warming '' and `` Increases in carbon dioxide emissions are responsible '' . Evidence for both of these claims is fatally flawed . '' Gray has called for the IPCC to be abolished , claiming it is `` fundamentally corrupt '' due to his conclusion that for significant parts of the work of the IPCC , the data collection and scientific methods employed are unsound and that the IPCC resists all efforts to try to discuss or rectify these problems . Gray was featured on the Australian Broadcasting Corporation program Counterpoint in a debate entitled `` Nine Lies about Global Warming '' , and was interviewed in a featured story in the New Zealand Herald as a `` prominent '' global warming skeptic . In 2002 , Gray also published a book , The Greenhouse Delusion : A Critique of `` Climate Change 2001 '' . In it , Gray argues `` that the quality and reliability of the IPCC 's measurements are poor , the system of determining how much weight should be attributed to different influences on the earth 's temperature is faulty , and the validity of evidence derived from computer modeling is questionable . ''", "Wallace rule of nines The Wallace rule of nines is a tool used in pre-hospital and emergency medicine to estimate the total body surface area ( BSA ) affected by a burn . In addition to determining burn severity , the measurement of burn surface area is important for estimating patients ' fluid requirements and determining hospital admission criteria . The rule of nines was devised by Pulaski and Tennison in 1947 , and published by AB Wallace in 1951 . To the estimate body surface area of a burn , the rule of nines assigns BSA values to each major body part : This allows the emergency medical provider to obtain a quick estimate of how much body surface area is burned . For example , if a patient 's entire back ( 18 % ) and entire left leg ( 18 % ) are burned , about 36 % of the patient 's BSA is affected . The BSAs assigned to each body part refer to the entire body part . So , for example , if half of a patient 's left leg were burned , it would be assigned a BSA value of 9 % ( half the total surface area of the leg ) . Thus , if a patient 's entire back ( 18 % ) , but only half of their left leg ( 9 % ) was burned , the amount of BSA affected would be 27 % .", "The Greenhouse Conspiracy The Greenhouse Conspiracy is a documentary film broadcast by Channel 4 in the United Kingdom on 12 August 1990 , as part of the Equinox series , which criticised the theory of global warming and asserted that scientists critical of global warming theory were denied funding . It is one of the earliest instances of the suggestion of a conspiracy to promote false claims supporting global warming . Although the title of the program implied the existence of a conspiracy , when interviewed on the program Patrick Michaels played down the idea , saying , `` It may not quite add up to a conspiracy , but certainly a coalition of interests has promoted the greenhouse theory : scientists have needed funds , the media a story , and governments a worthy cause '' .", "Median The median is the value separating the higher half of a data sample , a population , or a probability distribution , from the lower half . In simple terms , it may be thought of as the `` middle '' value of a data set . For example , in the data set -LCB- 1 , 3 , 3 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 -RCB- , the median is 6 , the fourth number in the sample . The median is a commonly used measure of the properties of a data set in statistics and probability theory . The basic advantage of the median in describing data compared to the mean ( often simply described as the `` average '' ) is that it is not skewed so much by extremely large or small values , and so it may give a better idea of a ` typical ' value . For example , in understanding statistics like household income or assets which vary greatly , a mean may be skewed by a small number of extremely high or low values . Median income , for example , may be a better way to suggest what a ` typical ' income is . Because of this , the median is of central importance in robust statistics , as it is the most resistant statistic , having a breakdown point of 50 % : so long as no more than half the data are contaminated , the median will not give an arbitrarily large or small result .", "Half-life of knowledge The half-life of knowledge or half-life of facts is the amount of time that has to elapse before half of the knowledge or facts in a particular area is superseded or shown to be untrue . These coined terms belong to the field of quantitative analysis of science known as scientometrics . These ideas of half-life applied to different fields differ from the concept of half-life in physics in that there is no guarantee that the knowledge or facts in areas of study are declining exponentially . It is unclear that there is any way to establish what constitutes `` knowledge '' in a particular area , as opposed to mere opinion or theory . Because scientific knowledge is growing by a factor of ten every 50 years , this means that half of what scientists may have known about a particular subject will be wrong or obsolete in 45 years . An engineering degree went from having a half life of 35 years in ca. 1930 to about 10 years in 1960 . Donald Hebb estimated the half-life of psychology to be five years .", "North Korea Cold Current The North Korea Cold Current ( NKCC ) is a cold water oceanic current in the Sea of Japan ( East Sea of Korea ) that flows southward from near Vladivostok along the coastline of the eastern Korean Peninsula . It is a branch of the Liman Current from the Sea of Okhotsk and has a flow rate of about a half knot . The NKCC meets the northward flowing East Korean Warm Current at latitude 37 -- 38 ° N , causing the flow to separate from the peninsula . At about latitude 40 ° N , the NKCC meets the Tsushima Warm Current .", "Fluorinated gases Fluorinated gases ( F-gases ) are man-made gases that can stay in the atmosphere for centuries and contribute to a global greenhouse effect . There are four types : hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) and nitrogen trifluoride ( NF3 ) .", "Environment of Malaysia The environment of Malaysia refers to the biotas and geologies that constitute the natural environment of this Southeast Asian nation . Malaysia 's ecology is megadiverse , with a biodiverse range of flora and fauna found in various ecoregions throughout the country . Tropical rainforests encompass between 59 % to 70 % of Malaysia 's total land area , of which 11.6 % is pristine . Malaysia has the world 's fifth largest mangrove area , which totals over a half a million hectares ( over 1.2 million acres ) . Human intervention poses a significant threat to the natural environment of this country . Agriculture , forestry and urbanisation contribute to the destruction of forests , mangroves and other thriving ecosystems in the country . Ecosystems and landscapes are dramatically altered by human development , including the construction of roads and damming of rivers . Geographical phenomena , such as landslides and flooding in the Klang Valley , along with haze , stem from widespread deforestation . Subtle climate change occurs as a direct result of air pollution and the greenhouse effect , which in turn is caused by the emission of greenhouse gases . Low-lying areas near the coastline of Sabah and Sarawak are under threat from current sea level rise . The environment is the subject of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment at the federal level . The Department of Wildlife and National Parks is responsible for the preservation of flora and fauna in Malaysia . Several environmental organisations have been established to raise awareness regarding the environmental issues in Malaysia .", "Probable error In statistics , probable error defines the half-range of an interval about a central point for the distribution , such that half of the values from the distribution will lie within the interval and half outside . Thus it is equivalent to half the interquartile range , or the median absolute deviation . The probable error can also be expressed as a multiple of the standard deviation σ , ( where the multiplying factor 0.6745 derives from the normal distribution , see details ) , which requires that at least the second statistical moment of the distribution should exist , whereas the other definition does not . One use of the term probable error in statistics is as the name for the scale parameter of the Cauchy distribution .", "Hemiparesis Hemiparesis is unilateral paresis , that is , weakness of the entire left or right side of the body ( hemi - #Prefix means `` half '' ) . Hemiplegia is , in its most severe form , complete paralysis of half of the body . Hemiparesis and hemiplegia can be caused by different medical conditions , including congenital causes , trauma , tumors , or stroke .", "Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases The Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases , created in 1985 , was an advisory body for the review of studies into the greenhouse effect . The group was created by the International Council of Scientific Unions , the United Nations Environment Programme , and the World Meteorological Organization to follow up on the recommendations of the International conference of the Assessment of the role of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts , held at Villach , Austria , in October 1985 . The seven-member panel included Swedish meteorologist Bert Bolin and Canadian climatologist Kenneth Hare . The group held its last meeting in 1990 . It was gradually replaced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .", "Amazon Tall Tower Observatory The Amazon Tall Tower Observatory or ATTO ( in Portuguese : Observatório de Torre Alta da Amazônia ) is a scientific research tower in the Amazon rainforest with a height of 325 m . The site is distant from any human presence , about 150 kilometres northeast of Manaus . The measurement tower is a joint project between Germany and Brazil coordinated by the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry , the Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry , the Brazilian National Institute of Amazonian Research , INPA ( Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia ) , and the University of the State of Amazonas , UEA ( Universidade do Estado do Amazonas ) . The tower , South America 's tallest structure , is used to study the climate in the largely untouched rainforest surrounding it . It measures greenhouse gases , aerosols and weather data and provides information about a roughly 100 square kilometer area around the tower . The joint project is dedicated to the exploration of the rainforest biosphere and how it responds to global warming . ATTO 's counterpart `` ZOTTO '' ( Zotino Tall Tower Observation Facility ) is located in the Siberian Taiga . The project was launched in 2009 . Building of the tower began in 2014 and was completed in 2015 . The cost of 8.4 million Euros was shared about equally by the German and Brazil partners . According to a press release from the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research ( BMBF ) , ATTO will allow `` climate observations at different altitudes of the atmosphere , which will deliver completely new and so far not achievable results of the measurements on the greenhouse gases and the complex interactions between the land surface and the atmosphere . '' German and Brazilian scientists are now able to do research in a forest area `` far from disturbances caused by human influences '' . Furthermore , the measuring tower will contribute to gather and assess `` climate-relevant chemical and physical processes over the Amazon '' and thus create new principles for climate protection '' .", "Mitigation of global warming in Australia Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .", "Barani flip A Barani ( barani ) flip is an aerial maneuver consisting of a front flip and a 180 degree turn ( half twist ) . This trick is performed in number of sports including but not limited to dancing , gymnastics , cheerleading , trampoline , cliff diving , aggressive inline skating , and freerunning . A barani is an aerial somersault flip , used as a trick for flyers , dancers and snowboarders . It is used as an official move in gymnastics , tumbling , and freerunning . The 180 degree turn is carried out usually halfway through the frontflip . The reason why it is used in so many sports is that it converts a regular frontflip ( during which one can not see the ground or water for the landing ) into a move in which one turns in time so that the last half of the flip is done in the same way as a backflip ( during which one can see the ground or water ) . It therefore allows for greater control of the landing . In gymnastics , some coaches describe a Barani as a roundoff without hands or , mostly on beam , a front somersault with a half twist . This is a superficial treatment of the skill , and not the proper way to teach the skill . Many gymnasts twist their round-offs and cartwheels in the direction opposite to their natural twisting direction . When taught as a no-hands round-off , the gymnast has a high probability of learning to twist in the wrong direction while rotating forwards , which will cause trouble with multiple twisting skills later . It is named after Italian circus acrobat and tumbler Alfonso Baroni , who performed the trick around 1881 .", "Latvian constitutional referendum, 2008 A constitutional referendum to amend the constitution of Latvia in order to allow one-tenth of the total registered electorate to initiate a popular referendum to dissolve the Latvian parliament was held in Latvia on 2 August 2008 . The referendum on this issue was triggered when the Government of Latvia voted against an opposition motion to adopt this change to the constitution , which resulted in a referendum in Latvia by law . President Valdis Zatlers and the left-wing opposition were in favour of the referendum , while the government was against it , arguing that it would cause even more instability in a country which has seen 13 governments in the 18 years since independence . At least half of the total registered electorate ( i.e. more than 757,607 ) had to approve the referendum proposal in order for it to be valid . Preliminary results indicated that an overwhelming 96 % of voters had voted in favour of the amendment , although only about 40 % of the electorate voted in favour , which means the referendum is invalid . It is expected that the strong result , while failing to directly change the constitution , might press politicians to adopt a similar measure nonetheless . If passed , the amendment would have represented the first time in an EU country that voters would have been able to dissolve their national parliament - a right traditionally reserved for the head of state ." ]

[ "Joseph Stiglitz Joseph Eugene Stiglitz ( born February 9 , 1943 ) is an American economist and a professor at Columbia University . He is a recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences ( 2001 ) and the John Bates Clark Medal ( 1979 ) . He is a former senior vice president and chief economist of the World Bank and is a former member and chairman of the ( US president 's ) Council of Economic Advisers . He is known for his support of Georgist public finance theory and for his critical view of the management of globalization , of laissez-faire economists ( whom he calls `` free market fundamentalists '' ) , and of international institutions such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank . In 2000 , Stiglitz founded the Initiative for Policy Dialogue ( IPD ) , a think tank on international development based at Columbia University . He has been a member of the Columbia faculty since 2001 , and received that university 's highest academic rank ( university professor ) in 2003 . He was the founding chair of the university 's Committee on Global Thought . He also chairs the University of Manchester 's Brooks World Poverty Institute . He is a member of the Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences . In 2009 , the President of the United Nations General Assembly Miguel d'Escoto Brockmann , appointed Stiglitz as the chairman of the U.N. Commission on Reforms of the International Monetary and Financial System , where he oversaw suggested proposals and commissioned a report on reforming the international monetary and financial system . He served as chair of the international Commission on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress , appointed by President Sarkozy of France , which issued its report in 2010 , Mismeasuring our Lives : Why GDP does n't add up , and currently serves as co-chair of its successor , the High Level Expert Group on the Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress . From 2011 to 2014 , Stiglitz was president of the International Economic Association ( IEA ) . He presided over the organization of the IEA triennial world congress held near the Dead Sea in Jordan in June 2014 . Stiglitz has received more than 40 honorary degrees , including from Harvard , Oxford , and Cambridge Universities and been decorated by several governments including Korea , Colombia , Ecuador , and most recently France , where he was appointed a member of the Legion of Honor , order Officer . Based on academic citations , Stiglitz is the 4th most influential economist in the world today , and in 2011 he was named by Time magazine as one of the 100 most influential people in the world . Stiglitz 's work focuses on income distribution from a Georgist perspective , asset risk management , corporate governance , and international trade . He is the author of several books , the latest being The Great Divide : Unequal Societies and What We Can Do About Them ( 2015 ) , Rewriting the Rules of the American Economy : An Agenda for Growth and Shared Prosperity ( 2015 ) , and Creating a Learning Society : A New Approach to Growth Development and Social Progress ( 2014 ) .", "William Nordhaus William Dawbney `` Bill '' Nordhaus ( born May 31 , 1941 ) is an economist and Sterling Professor of Economics at Yale University , best known for his work in economic modeling and climate change .", "Leonid Hurwicz Leonid `` Leo '' Hurwicz ( August 21 , 1917 -- June 24 , 2008 ) was a Polish American economist and mathematician . He originated incentive compatibility and mechanism design , which show how desired outcomes are achieved in economics , social science and political science . Hurwicz shared the 2007 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences ( with Eric Maskin and Roger Myerson ) for work on mechanism design . To date , Leonid Hurwicz is the oldest Nobel Laureate , having received the prize at the age of 90 . Hurwicz was educated and grew up in Poland , and became a refugee in the United States after Hitler invaded Poland in 1939 . In 1941 , Hurwicz worked as a research assistant for Paul Samuelson at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Oskar Lange at the University of Chicago . He was a research associate for the Cowles Commission between 1942 and 1946 . In 1946 he became an associate professor of economics at Iowa State College . Hurwicz joined the University of Minnesota in 1951 , becoming Curtis L. Carlson Regents Professor of Economics in 1989 . He was Regents ' Professor of Economics ( Emeritus ) at the University of Minnesota when he died in 2008 . Hurwicz was among the first economists to recognize the value of game theory and was a pioneer in its application . Interactions of individuals and institutions , markets and trade are analyzed and understood today using the models Hurwicz developed .", "Paul Samuelson Paul Anthony Samuelson ( May 15 , 1915 -- December 13 , 2009 ) was an American economist and the first American to win the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences . The Swedish Royal Academies stated , when awarding the prize in 1970 , that he `` has done more than any other contemporary economist to raise the level of scientific analysis in economic theory '' . Economic historian Randall E. Parker calls him the `` Father of Modern Economics '' , and The New York Times considered him to be the `` foremost academic economist of the 20th century '' . Samuelson was likely the most influential economist of the later 20th century . In 1996 , when he was awarded the National Medal of Science , considered America 's top science honor , President Bill Clinton commended Samuelson for his `` fundamental contributions to economic science '' for over 60 years . Samuelson considered Mathematics to be the natural language for economists and contributed significantly to the mathematical foundations of economics with his book Foundations of Economic Analysis . He was author of the best-selling economics textbook of all time : Economics : An Introductory Analysis , first published in 1948 . It was the second American textbook to explain the principles of Keynesian economics and how to think about economics , and the first one to be successful , and is now in its 19th edition , having sold nearly 4 million copies in 40 languages , including Russian , French , Greek , Slovak , Chinese , Portuguese , German , Spanish , Polish , Japanese , Czech , Vietnamese , Hungarian , Indonesian , Swedish , Croatian , Dutch , Turkish , Hebrew , Italian , and Arabic . James Poterba , former head of MIT 's Department of Economics , noted that by his book , Samuelson `` leaves an immense legacy , as a researcher and a teacher , as one of the giants on whose shoulders every contemporary economist stands '' . He entered the University of Chicago at age 16 , during the depths of the Great Depression , and received his PhD in economics from Harvard . After graduating , he became an assistant professor of economics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) when he was 25 years of age and a full professor at age 32 . In 1966 , he was named Institute Professor , MIT 's highest faculty honor . He spent his career at MIT where he was instrumental in turning its Department of Economics into a world-renowned institution by attracting other noted economists to join the faculty , including Robert M. Solow , Franco Modigliani , Robert C. Merton , Joseph E. Stiglitz , and Paul Krugman , all of whom went on to win Nobel Prizes . He served as an advisor to Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson , and was a consultant to the United States Treasury , the Bureau of the Budget and the President 's Council of Economic Advisers . Samuelson wrote a weekly column for Newsweek magazine along with Chicago School economist Milton Friedman , where they represented opposing sides : Samuelson , as a self described `` Cafeteria Keynesian '' , took the Keynesian perspective but adapted it accepting what he felt was good . By contrast Friedman represented the monetarist perspective . Samuelson died on December 13 , 2009 , at the age of 94 ." ]

[ "List of Nobel laureates affiliated with Johns Hopkins University The Nobel Prizes are awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences , the Karolinska Institute , and the Norwegian Nobel Committee to individuals who make outstanding contributions in the fields of chemistry , physics , literature , peace , and physiology or medicine . They were established by the 1895 will of Alfred Nobel , which dictates that the awards should be administered by the Nobel Foundation . Another prize , the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences , was established in 1968 by the Sveriges Riksbank , the central bank of Sweden , for contributors to the field of economics . Each prize is awarded by a separate committee : the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awards the Prizes in Physics , Chemistry , and Economics , the Karolinska Institute awards the Prize in Physiology or Medicine , and the Norwegian Nobel Committee awards the Prize in Peace . Each recipient receives a medal , a diploma and a cash prize that has varied throughout the years . In 1901 , the winners of the first Nobel Prizes were given 150,782 SEK , which is equal to 7,731,004 SEK in December 2007 . In 2008 , the winners were awarded a prize amount of 10,000,000 SEK . The awards are presented in Stockholm in an annual ceremony on December 10 , the anniversary of Nobel 's death . As of 2011 , there have been 36 Nobel laureates affiliated with Johns Hopkins University . Johns Hopkins considers laureates who attended the university as undergraduate students , graduate students or were members of the faculty as affiliated laureates . Woodrow Wilson , who received his Ph.D. from Johns Hopkins in 1886 , was the first Johns Hopkins-affiliated laureate , winning the Nobel Peace Prize in 1919 . Four Nobel Prizes were shared by Johns Hopkins laureates : George Minot and George Whipple won the 1934 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine , Joseph Erlanger and Herbert Spencer Gasser won the 1944 Nobel Prize in Physiology in Medicine , Daniel Nathans and Hamilton O. Smith won the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine , and David H. Hubel and Torsten N. Wiesel won the 1981 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . Eighteen Johns Hopkins laureates have won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine , more than any other category . Twenty-four laureates were members of the Johns Hopkins faculty , five laureates received their Ph.D. at Johns Hopkins , eight laureates received their M.D. at Johns Hopkins , and two laureates , Francis Peyton Rous and Martin Rodbell , received their undergraduate degrees at Johns Hopkins .", "Duty (economics) In economics , a duty is a kind of tax levied by a state . It is often associated with customs , in which context they are also known as tariffs or dues . The term is often used to describe a tax on certain items purchased abroad . Properly , a duty differs from a tax in being levied on specific commodities , financial transactions , estates , etc. rather than on individuals . Duties may be import duties , excise duties , stamp duties , death or succession duties , etc. ; but not such direct impositions as personal income taxes .", "Kaunas Free Economic Zone The Kaunas Free Economic Zone ( FEZ ) is a free economic zone near Kaunas , Lithuania . It is a 534 hectare industrial development area which offers favorable and smaller taxes for the investors that invest at least 1 million euros . The investors are mostly foreign companies , as more than 70 % of total investments in Kaunas FEZ are Foreign Direct Investments ( FDI ) . The Kaunas Free Economic zone was established on 22 October 1996 in Kaunas district , near the motorways A6 and A1 .", "List of Nobel laureates affiliated with the University of California, Berkeley This List of Nobel laureates affiliated with the University of California , Berkeley shows the faculty members and researchers as well as graduates and attendees ( excluding honorary degrees and auditors ) of the University of California , Berkeley , who were awarded the Nobel Prize and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences . The Nobel Prizes , established by the 1895 will of Alfred Nobel , are awarded to individuals who make outstanding contributions in the fields of Chemistry , Literature , Peace , Physics , and Physiology or Medicine . An associated prize , the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel , was instituted by Sweden 's central bank in 1968 and first awarded in 1969 . , 91 Nobel laureates have been associated with UC Berkeley . Linus Pauling is the only UC Berkeley-affiliated Nobel laureate ( Visiting Lecturer in Physics and Chemistry , 1929 -- 1934 ) to win two Nobel prizes : He won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954 and the Nobel Peace Prize in 1962 ; since this is a list of laureates , not prizes , he is counted only once . Many Nobel laureate have held lectureships such as the Charles M. and Martha Hitchcock Lectures at UC Berkeley . For instance , Alexander R. Todd , Nobel laureate in Chemistry ( 1957 ) , was Charles M. and Martha Hitchcock Lecturer in 1957 . Such visiting professorships/lectureships are in fact awards/honors/recognition instead of an actual affiliation with the university , and thus will not be counted in this list . Giving lectures at the university is not an indication of affiliation ; the lecturer has to be officially employed ( even with a `` visiting '' title ) by the university to be counted . Those Nobel laureates who have spent only one summer session at UC Berkeley are also not counted in this list . For instance , George Wald , Nobel laureate in Physiology or Medicine ( 1967 ) , was visiting Professor of Biochemistry in Summer 1956 , and James Heckman , Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economics ( 2000 ) , was a visitor in Summer 1974 ; both are excluded from this list . The Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory was established by Ernest Lawrence in 1931 . It was called the Radiation Laboratory and grew into a semi-autonomous lab at UC Berkeley . Shortly after Lawrence died in 1958 , the lab was renamed as the Ernest O. Lawrence Radiation Laboratory . Generally , the lab staff are counted as members of the UC Berkeley physics department until Lawrence 's death in 1958 . In this list , those Nobel laureates who were associated with the lab by the end of 1958 are included . Those who were affiliated only with the lab ( and not with the UC Berkeley physics department ) after January 1 , 1959 are not counted . For instance , Richard E. Taylor , Nobel laureate in Physics ( 1990 ) , was a postdoctoral researcher at the lab in 1961 -- 1962 ; he is excluded from this list .", "Special economic zones of China Special economic zones of China ( SEZs ) are special economic zones located in mainland China . The government of China gives SEZs special ( more free market-oriented ) economic policies and flexible governmental measures . This allows SEZs to utilize an economic management system that is more attractive for foreign and domestic firms to do business in than the rest of mainland China . In SEZs , '' ... foreign and domestic trade and investment are conducted without the authorization of the Chinese central government in Beijing . '' SEZs offer `` tax and business incentives to attract foreign investment and technology '' .", "In the Heart of the Country In the Heart of the Country ( 1977 ) is an early novel by South African-born Nobel laureate J. M. Coetzee . The book is notable for being one of Coetzee 's more experimental novels and is narrated through 266 numbered paragraphs rather than chapters .", "SEEPZ Santacruz Electronics Export Processing Zone ( SEEPZ ) is a Special Economic Zone in Mumbai , India . Situated in the Andheri East area , it is subjected to liberal economic laws as compared to the rest of India to promote rapid economic growth using tax and business incentives and attract foreign investment and technology . Seepz was created in 1973 and was seen as export processing zone . Since then many other SEZ 's have been created in rest of India . SEEPZ mainly houses Electronic Hardware Manufacturing Companies , Software Companies and jewellery exporters of India . More than 40 percent of India 's total jewelry exports ( $ 2,222.31 million ) out of $ 5,210.69 million during year 2006-2007 came from units within SEEPZ . Despite its name , it is not located near the suburb of Santacruz , rather it is located closer to Andheri that lies further north .", "Carbon pricing in Australia A carbon pricing scheme in Australia , commonly dubbed by its critics as a `` carbon tax '' , was introduced by the Gillard Labor Government in 2011 as the Clean Energy Act 2011 which came into effect on 1 July 2012 . It was in operation until it was repealed on 17 July 2014 , and backdated to 1 July 2014 . In its place the Abbott Government set up the Emission Reduction Fund in December 2014 . As a result of being in place for such a short time , regulated organisations responded in a rather tepid and informal manner , with very few investments in emissions reductions being made . The 2011 scheme required entities which emit over 25,000 tonnes per year of carbon dioxide equivalent greenhouse gases and which were not in the transport or agriculture sectors to obtain emissions permits , called carbon units . Carbon units were either purchased from the government or issued free as part of industry assistance measures . The Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency stated that in June 2013 only 260 entities were subject to the scheme , of which approximately 185 were liable to pay for carbon units under the carbon price scheme . The carbon price was part of a broad energy reform package called the Clean Energy Futures Plan , which aimed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in Australia by 5 % below 2000 levels by 2020 and 80 % below 2000 levels by 2050 . The plan set out to achieve these targets by encouraging Australia 's largest emitters to increase energy efficiency and invest in sustainable energy . The scheme was administered by the Clean Energy Regulator . Compensation to industry and households was funded by the revenue derived from the charge . As part of the scheme , personal income tax was reduced for those earning less than $ 80,000 per year and the tax-free threshold was increased from $ 6,000 to $ 18,200 . Initially the price of a permit for one tonne of carbon was fixed at $ 23 for the 2012 -- 13 financial year , with unlimited permits being available from the government . The fixed price rose to $ 24.15 for 2013 -- 14 . The government had announced that the scheme was part of a transition to an emissions trading scheme in 2014 -- 15 , where the available permits will be limited in line with a pollution cap . The scheme primarily applied to electricity generators and industrial sectors . It did not apply to road transport and agriculture . Domestic aviation did not face the carbon price scheme per se , but was subject to an additional fuel excise levy of approximately 6 cents per litre . In February 2012 , the Sydney Morning Herald reported that Clean Energy Future carbon price scheme had not deterred new investment in the coal industry , as spending on exploration had increased by 62 % in 2010-2011 , more than any other mineral commodity . The government agency Geoscience Australia reported that investment in coal prospecting reached $ 520 million in 2010-2011 . Falls in carbon emissions were observed following implementation of this policy . It was noted that emissions from sectors subject to the pricing mechanism were 1.0 % lower and nine months after the introduction of the pricing scheme , Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions from electricity generation had fallen to a 10-year low , with coal generation down 11 % from 2008 to 2009 . However , attribution of these trends to carbon pricing have been disputed , with Frontier Economics claiming trends are largely explained by factors unrelated to the carbon tax . Electricity demand had been falling and in 2012 was at the lowest level seen since 2006 in the National Electricity Market .", "Green industrial policy Green industrial policy ( GIP ) is strategic government policy that attempts to accelerate the development and growth of green industries to transition towards a low-carbon economy . Natural scientists warn that immediate action must be taken to lower greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the effects of climate change . Social scientists argue that the mitigation of climate change requires state intervention and governance reform . Thus , governments use GIP to address the economic , political , and environmental issues of climate change . GIP is conducive to sustainable economic , institutional , and technological transformation . It goes beyond the free market economic structure to address market failures and commitment problems that hinder sustainable investment . Effective GIP builds political support for carbon regulation which is necessary to transition towards a low-carbon economy . Several governments use different types of GIP that lead to various outcomes . GIP and industrial policy are similar , although GIP has unique challenges and goals . GIP faces the particular challenge of reconciling economic and environmental issues . It deals with a high uncertainty of green investment profitability . Furthermore , it addresses the reluctance of industry to invest in green development , and it helps current governments influence future climate policy . GIP offers opportunities for energy transition to renewables and a low-carbon economy . A large challenge for climate policy is a lack of industry and public support . GIP creates benefits that attract support for sustainability . It can create strategic niche management and generate a `` green spiral '' , or a process of feedback that combines industrial interests with climate policy . GIP can protect employees in emerging and declining industries , which leads to political support for other climate policy . Carbon pricing , sustainable energy transitions , and decreases in greenhouse gas emissions have higher chances of success as political support increases . GIP faces many risks . Some risks include poor government choices about which industries to support ; political capture of economic policy ; wasted resources ; ineffective action to combat climate change ; poor policy design that lacks policy objectives and exit strategies ; trade disputes ; and coordination failure . Strategic steps can be taken to manage the risks of GIP . Some include public and private sector communication , transparency , and accountability ; policy with clear objectives , evaluation techniques and exit strategies ; policy learning and policy experimentation ; green rent management ; strong institutions ; and a free press . Governments in various countries , states , provinces , territories , and cities use different types of green industrial policy . Distinct policy instruments lead to several outcomes . Examples include sunrise and sunset policies , subsidies , research and development , local content requirements , feed-in tariffs , tax credits , export restrictions , consumer mandates , green public procurement rules , and renewable portfolio standards .", "FNZ (company) FNZ is a fintech company specialising in providing investment platforms to major financial institutions in the financial services and wealth management sectors . It provides technology to life insurance companies , banks , asset managers and discretionary wealth managers to deliver wealth management services in the three main distribution channels : independent financial advisers ( IFAs ) , direct customers and the workplace . FNZ provides end-to-end technology , including investment front office , tax wrappers and investment back office under a software as a service delivery model . This technology is combined with back office dealing , settlement and administration services as either sub-custodian or third party administrator . FNZ has delivered investment platform solutions to financial companies in the UK , Hong Kong , Australia and NZ .", "1968 in Afghanistan __ NOTOC __ See also : 1967 in Afghanistan and 1969 in Afghanistan . In domestic affairs the year is marked by a thorough overhaul of the judicial system by the new Supreme Court ; this involves reorganizing the powers and functions of the lower courts in line with the requirements of the constitution . In economic affairs the policies laid down in 1967 for encouraging investors in the private sector by substantial inducements - tax holidays , free import of capital goods , and protective tariffs -- are continued . Government investment is again directed to the completion of projects begun under the second development plan and to the encouragement of heavy industry . The emphasis is again on consolidation rather than on beginning new projects , and on the gradual replacement of foreign aid by increased exploitation of national resources .", "Ministry of Economic Affairs and Finance (Iran) The Ministry of Economic Affairs and Finance 's function are : acting as the state treasury , public finance , economic and financial policy making , implementing tax policies , in charge of foreign direct investment , directing the banking network and commercial insurance institutes , regulating the financial markets of the country , see also : Securities and Exchange Organization ( SEO ) & Central Bank of Iran . Most of the policy making organizations and institutes in the field of trade in goods and services are affiliated to the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Finance .", "SymTorrent SymTorrent is a free GPL-licensed open source BitTorrent client for Nokia Series 60 Symbian phones made by researchers of Budapest University of Technology and Economics . Written in Symbian C++ , rather than Open C/C + + , the client is rather basic and does not support many of the features advanced clients like µTorrent have . It is still able to download BitTorrent files and is supported on the Symbian S60v5 touchscreen phones ( particularly Sony Ericsson Satio ) .", "James Mirrlees Sir James Alexander Mirrlees ( born 5 July 1936 ) is a Scottish economist and winner of the 1996 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences . He was knighted in 1998 . Born in Minnigaff , Kirkcudbrightshire , Mirrlees was educated at the University of Edinburgh ( MA in Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in 1957 ) and Trinity College , Cambridge ( Mathematical Tripos and PhD in 1963 with thesis title Optimum Planning for a Dynamic Economy , supervised by Richard Stone ) . He was a very active student debater . One contemporary , Quentin Skinner , has suggested that Mirrlees was a member of the Cambridge Apostles along with fellow Nobel Laureate Amartya Sen during the period . Between 1968 and 1976 , Mirrlees was a visiting professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology three times . He was also a visiting professor at the University of California , Berkeley ( 1986 ) and Yale University ( 1989 ) . He taught at both Oxford University ( 1968 -- 1995 ) and University of Cambridge ( 1963 -- 1968 and 1995 -- ) . During his time at Oxford , he published papers on economic models for which he would eventually be awarded his Nobel Prize . The papers centred on asymmetric information , which determines the extent to which they should affect the optimal rate of saving in an economy . Among other results , he demonstrated the principles of `` moral hazard '' and `` optimal income taxation '' discussed in the books of William Vickrey . The methodology has since become the standard in the field . Mirrlees and Vickrey shared the 1996 Nobel Prize for Economics `` for their fundamental contributions to the economic theory of incentives under asymmetric information '' . Mirrlees is also co-creator , with MIT Professor Peter A. Diamond of the Diamond -- Mirrlees efficiency theorem , which was developed in 1971 . Mirrlees is emeritus Professor of Political Economy at the University of Cambridge and a Fellow of Trinity College , Cambridge . He spends several months a year at the University of Melbourne , Australia . He is currently the Distinguished Professor-at-Large of the Chinese University of Hong Kong as well as University of Macau . In 2009 , he was appointed Founding Master of the Morningside College of the Chinese University of Hong Kong . Mirrlees is a member of Scotland 's Council of Economic Advisers . He also led the Mirrlees Review , a review of the UK tax system by the Institute for Fiscal Studies . His Ph.D. students have included eminent academics and policy makers like professor Franklin Allen , Sir Partha Dasgupta , professor Huw Dixon , professor Hyun-Song Shin , Lord Nicholas Stern , professor Anthony Venables , Sir John Vickers , and professor Zhang Weiying . Mirrlees is an atheist . `` At 35 no longer Christian , atheist rather ''", "Private foundation (United States) Until 1969 , the term private foundation was not defined in the United States Internal Revenue Code . Since then , every U.S. charity that qualifies under Section 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) of the Internal Revenue Service Code as tax-exempt is a `` private foundation '' unless it demonstrates to the IRS that it falls into another category . Private foundations in the United States are generally subject to a 1 % or 2 % excise tax on net investment income . According to the Foundation Center , a private foundation is a nongovernmental , nonprofit organization , which has a principal fund managed by its own trustees or directors . Hopkins ( 2013 ) listed four characteristics that make up a private foundation : It is a charitable organization and thus subject to the rules applicable to charities generally ; Its financial support came from one source , usually an individual , family , or company ; Its annual expenditures are funded out of earnings from investment assets , rather than from an ongoing flow of contributions ; It makes grants to other organizations for charitable purposes , rather than to its own programs .", "Quality investing Quality investing is an investment strategy based on a set of clearly defined fundamental criteria that seeks to identify companies with outstanding quality characteristics . The quality assessment is made based on soft ( e.g. management credibility ) and hard criteria ( e.g. balance sheet stability ) . Quality investing supports best overall rather than best-in-class approach .", "Growthworks GrowthWorks Capital Ltd is a Canadian venture capital firm investing in early stage technology companies . GrowthWorks has $ 170 million of assets under management across three funds : Working Opportunity Fund Venture Series , Working Opportunity Fund Commercialization Series and the Atlantic Venture Fund . Founded in 1992 , the Working Opportunity Fund has invested $ 600 million in 130 BC technology companies . The GrowthWorks management team has won the CVCA Deal of the Year award 3 times ( Layer 7 - 2013 , Galleon Energy -- 2007 , HotHaus Technologies - 2000 ) . The reinstatement of the 15 % federal Labour Sponsored Venture Capital tax credit in Budget 2016 ( plus the existing Provincial tax credits ) , will be beneficial to GrowthWorks . In 2013 it was reported that the fund had liquidity problems .", "Tax protester arguments Tax protester arguments are arguments made by people , primarily in the United States , who contend that tax laws are unconstitutional or otherwise invalid . Tax protester arguments are typically based on an asserted belief that their government is acting outside of its legal authority when imposing such taxes . The label `` tax protester '' should be distinguished from `` tax resister '' , an individual who refuses to pay tax on moral rather than legal grounds . In the United States , tax protester arguments are generally directed to the U.S. federal income tax .", "Patrizia Genovesi Patrizia Genovesi is an Italian photographer and video artist . She was born in 1962 in Milan . Genovesi leverages suggestions from other arts as well as from technology , thanks to a scientific education coupled with studies of drawing and painting from the Italian tradition , music execution and composition , and other abilities like screenwriting with cinema director Mario Monicelli , writing with Domenico Starnone , and theater direction with Argentinian Renzo Casali . Genovesi teaches Photography at the Free University of Cinema in Roma . Genovesi 's photographs of Nobel Prize laureates , including Rita Levi-Montalcini , John Nash , Richard Ernst , Robert Mundell , and Frank Wilczeck have been published by the Nobel Prize Organization . Her portrait of Mrs. Levi-Montalcini was exhibited in Kamienna Gora , Poland , during the celebrations for the embryologist Viktor Hamburger , a primary collaborator of the Italian Nobel Prize laureate . Her portraits of photographer Leonard Freed are part of the permanent collection of the Musée de la Photographie in Charleroi , Belgium .", "Dale W. Jorgenson Dale Weldeau Jorgenson ( born May 7 , 1933 , in Bozeman , Montana ) is the Samuel W. Morris University Professor at Harvard University , teaching in the Department of Economics and John F. Kennedy School of Government . He served as Chairman of the Department of Economics from 1994 to 1997 . Jorgenson has been honored with membership in the American Philosophical Society ( 1998 ) , the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences ( 1989 ) , the U.S. National Academy of Sciences ( 1978 ) , and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences ( 1969 ) . He was elected to Fellowship in the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( 1982 ) , the American Statistical Association ( 1965 ) , and the Econometric Society ( 1964 ) . He was awarded honorary doctorates by the Faculty of Social Sciences at Uppsala University ( 1991 ) , the University of Oslo ( 1991 ) , Keio University ( 2003 ) , the University of Mannheim ( 2004 ) , the University of Rome ( 2006 ) , the Stockholm School of Economics ( 2007 ) , the Chinese University of Hong Kong ( 2007 ) , and Kansai University ( 2009 ) . Jorgenson served as President of the American Economic Association in 2000 and was named a Distinguished Fellow of the Association in 2001 . He was a Founding Member of the Board on Science , Technology , and Economic Policy of the National Research Council in 1991 and served as Chairman of the Board from 1998 to 2006 . He also served as Chairman of Section 54 , Economic Sciences , of the National Academy of Sciences from 2000 to 2003 and was President of the Econometric Society in 1987 and President of the American Economic Association in 2000 . Currently he is a Vice President of the Society for Economic Measurement ( SEM ) . Jorgenson received the prestigious John Bates Clark Medal of the American Economic Association in 1971 . This Medal is awarded every two years to an economist under forty for excellence in economic research . The citation for this award reads in part : Dale Jorgenson has left his mark with great distinction on pure economic theory ( with , for example , his work on the growth of a dual economy ) ; and equally on statistical method ( with , for example , his development of estimation methods for rational distributed lags ) . But he is preeminently a master of the territory between economics and statistics , where both have to be applied to the study of concrete problems . His prolonged exploration of the determinants of investment spending , whatever its ultimate lessons , will certainly long stand as one of the finest examples in the marriage of theory and practice in economics . He was also an advocate for a carbon tax on greenhouse gas emissions as a means of reducing global warming when he testified before congress in 1997 . His research has also been used to advocate for the FairTax , a tax reform proposal in the United States to replace all federal payroll and income taxes ( both corporate and personal ) with a national retail sales tax and monthly tax rebate to households of citizens and legal resident aliens . However , Jorgenson supports a tax plan of his own design , which he calls Efficient Taxation of Income , described in his book Investment , Vol . 3 : Lifting the Burden : Tax Reform , the Cost of Capital , and U.S. Economic Growth . The approach would introduce different tax rates for property-type income and earned income from work .", "Maskin Maskin may refer to A certain molecule in biochemistry , for which you are advised to look at Dictyate #Biochemistry mechanism . Aaron Maskin , an Israeli stage actor and recipient of the Israel Prize . Eric Maskin , a 2007 Nobel laureate in Economics . Maskin is also the Swedish , Danish and Norwegian word for Machine ." ]

[ "Tibetan calendar The Tibetan calendar is a lunisolar calendar , that is , the Tibetan year is composed of either 12 or 13 lunar months , each beginning and ending with a new moon . A thirteenth month is added every two or three years , so that an average Tibetan year is equal to the solar year . The Tibetan New Year celebration is Losar . According to almanacs the year starts with the third Hor month . There were many different traditions in Tibet to fix the beginning of the year . The dates of Mongolian calendar are all the same with it .", "Year A year is the orbital period of the Earth moving in its orbit around the Sun . Due to the Earth 's axial tilt , the course of a year sees the passing of the seasons , marked by changes in weather , the hours of daylight , and , consequently , vegetation and soil fertility . In temperate and subpolar regions around the globe , four seasons are generally recognized : spring , summer , autumn and winter . In tropical and subtropical regions several geographical sectors do not present defined seasons ; but in the seasonal tropics , the annual wet and dry seasons are recognized and tracked . A calendar year is an approximation of the number of days of the Earth 's orbital period as counted in a given calendar . The Gregorian , or modern , calendar , presents its calendar year to be either a common year of 365 days or a leap year of 366 days , as do the Julian calendars ; see below . For the Gregorian calendar the average length of the calendar year ( the mean year ) across the complete leap cycle of 400 years is 365.2425 days . The ISO standard ISO 80000-3 , Annex C , supports the symbol `` a '' ( for Latin annus ) to represent a year of either 365 or 366 days . In English , the abbreviations `` y '' and `` yr '' are commonly used . In astronomy , the Julian year is a unit of time ; it is defined as 365.25 days of exactly seconds ( SI base unit ) , totalling exactly seconds in the Julian astronomical year . The word `` year '' is also used for periods loosely associated with , but not identical to , the calendar or astronomical year , such as the seasonal year , the fiscal year , the academic year , etc. . Similarly , `` year '' can mean the orbital period of any planet : for example , a Martian year or a Venusian year are examples of the time a planet takes to transit one complete orbit . The term can also be used in reference to any long period or cycle , such as the Great Year .", "Orbital resonance In celestial mechanics , an orbital resonance occurs when orbiting bodies exert a regular , periodic gravitational influence on each other , usually because their orbital periods are related by a ratio of small integers . Most commonly this relationship is found for a pair of objects . The physics principle behind orbital resonance is similar in concept to pushing a child on a swing , where the orbit and the swing both have a natural frequency , and the other body doing the `` pushing '' will act in periodic repetition to have a cumulative effect on the motion . Orbital resonances greatly enhance the mutual gravitational influence of the bodies , i.e. , their ability to alter or constrain each other 's orbits . In most cases , this results in an unstable interaction , in which the bodies exchange momentum and shift orbits until the resonance no longer exists . Under some circumstances , a resonant system can be stable and self-correcting , so that the bodies remain in resonance . Examples are the 1:2:4 resonance of Jupiter 's moons Ganymede , Europa and Io , and the 2:3 resonance between Pluto and Neptune . Unstable resonances with Saturn 's inner moons give rise to gaps in the rings of Saturn . The special case of 1:1 resonance ( between bodies with similar orbital radii ) causes large Solar System bodies to eject most other bodies sharing their orbits ; this is part of the much more extensive process of clearing the neighbourhood , an effect that is used in the current definition of a planet . A binary resonance ratio in this article should be interpreted as the completed in the same time interval , rather than as the , which would be the inverse ratio . Thus the 2:3 ratio above means Pluto completes two orbits in the time it takes Neptune to complete three . In the case of resonance relationships between three or more bodies , either type of ratio may be used ( in such cases the smallest whole-integer ratio sequences are not necessarily reversals of each other ) and the type of ratio will be specified .", "Jupiter trojan The Jupiter trojans , commonly called Trojan asteroids or just Trojans , are a large group of asteroids that share the orbit of the planet Jupiter around the Sun . Relative to Jupiter , each Trojan librates around one of Jupiter 's two stable Lagrangian points , , lying 60 ° ahead of the planet in its orbit , and , 60 ° behind . Jupiter trojans are distributed in two elongated , curved regions around these Lagrangian points with an average semi-major axis of about 5.2 AU . The first Jupiter trojan discovered , 588 Achilles , was spotted in 1906 by German astronomer Max Wolf . A total of 6,178 Jupiter trojans have been found . By convention they are each named after a mythological figure from the Trojan War , hence the name `` Trojan '' . The total number of Jupiter trojans larger than 1 km in diameter is believed to be about , approximately equal to the number of asteroids larger than 1 km in the asteroid belt . Like main-belt asteroids , Jupiter trojans form families . Jupiter trojans are dark bodies with reddish , featureless spectra . No firm evidence of the presence of water , or any other specific compound on their surface has been obtained , but it is thought that they are coated in tholins , organic polymers formed by the Sun 's radiation . The Jupiter trojans ' densities ( as measured by studying binaries or rotational lightcurves ) vary from 0.8 to 2.5 g · cm − 3 . Jupiter trojans are thought to have been captured into their orbits during the early stages of the Solar System 's formation or slightly later , during the migration of giant planets . The term `` trojan '' has come to be used more generally to refer to other small Solar System bodies with similar relationships to larger bodies : for example , there are both Mars trojans and Neptune trojans , and Saturn has trojan moons . NASA has announced the discovery of an Earth trojan . The term `` Trojan asteroid '' is normally understood to specifically mean the Jupiter trojans because the first Trojans were discovered near Jupiter 's orbit and Jupiter currently has by far the most known Trojans .", "Saturn Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second-largest in the Solar System , after Jupiter . It is a gas giant with an average radius about nine times that of Earth . Although it has only one-eighth the average density of Earth , with its larger volume Saturn is just over 95 times more massive . Saturn is named after the Roman god of agriculture ; its astronomical symbol represents the god 's sickle . Saturn 's interior is probably composed of a core of iron -- nickel and rock ( silicon and oxygen compounds ) . This core is surrounded by a deep layer of metallic hydrogen , an intermediate layer of liquid hydrogen and liquid helium , and finally outside the Frenkel line a gaseous outer layer . Saturn has a pale yellow hue due to ammonia crystals in its upper atmosphere . Electrical current within the metallic hydrogen layer is thought to give rise to Saturn 's planetary magnetic field , which is weaker than Earth 's , but has a magnetic moment 580 times that of Earth due to Saturn 's larger size . Saturn 's magnetic field strength is around one-twentieth of Jupiter 's . The outer atmosphere is generally bland and lacking in contrast , although long-lived features can appear . Wind speeds on Saturn can reach 1800 km/h , higher than on Jupiter , but not as high as those on Neptune . Saturn has a prominent ring system that consists of nine continuous main rings and three discontinuous arcs and that is composed mostly of ice particles with a smaller amount of rocky debris and dust . Sixty-two moons are known to orbit Saturn , of which fifty-three are officially named . This does not include the hundreds of moonlets comprising the rings . Titan , Saturn 's largest moon , and the second-largest in the Solar System , is larger than the planet Mercury , although less massive , and is the only moon in the Solar System to have a substantial atmosphere ." ]

[ "Saturn Cycling Team The Saturn Cycling Team was an American cycling team that existed from 1992 to 2003 . It was managed by Tom Schuler and sponsored by the Saturn Corporation .", "Grand Tour program The Grand Tour was a NASA program that would have sent two groups of robotic probes to all the planets of the outer Solar System . It called for four spacecraft , two of which would visit Jupiter , Saturn , and Pluto , while the other two would visit Jupiter , Uranus , and Neptune . The enormous cost of the project , around $ 1 billion , led to its cancellation and replacement with Mariner Jupiter-Saturn , which became the Voyager program .", "HD 169830 b HD 169830 b is an extrasolar planet three times the mass of Jupiter . Due to its high mass , it is most likely a gas giant planet , akin to Jupiter and Saturn in the Solar System . This planet at 0.8 AU is slightly farther out than Venus is in the Solar System , orbiting around its star every 262 days .", "Jumping-Jupiter scenario The jumping-Jupiter scenario specifies an evolution of giant-planet migration described by the Nice model , in which an ice giant ( Uranus , Neptune , or an additional Neptune-mass planet ) is scattered inward by Saturn and outward by Jupiter , causing the step-wise separation of their orbits . The jumping-Jupiter scenario was proposed by Ramon Brasser , Alessandro Morbidelli , Rodney Gomes , Kleomenis Tsiganis , and Harold Levison after their studies revealed that the smooth divergent migration of Jupiter and Saturn resulted in an inner Solar System significantly different from the current Solar System . The sweeping of secular resonances through the inner Solar System during the migration excited the eccentricities of the terrestrial planets beyond current values and left an asteroid belt with an excessive ratio of high - to low-inclination objects . The step-wise separation of Jupiter and Saturn described in the jumping-Jupiter scenario can allow these resonances to quickly cross the inner Solar System without altering orbits excessively , although the terrestrial planets remain sensitive to its passage . The jumping-Jupiter scenario also results in a number of other differences with the original Nice model . The fraction of lunar impactors from the core of the asteroid belt during the Late Heavy Bombardment is significantly reduced , most of the Jupiter trojans are captured during Jupiter 's encounters with the ice giant , as are Jupiter 's irregular satellites . In the jumping-Jupiter scenario , the likelihood of preserving four giant planets on orbits resembling their current ones appears to increase if the early Solar System originally contained an additional ice giant , which was later ejected by Jupiter into interstellar space . However , this remains an atypical result , as is the preservation of the current orbits of the terrestrial planets .", "Pioneer 11 Pioneer 11 ( also known as Pioneer G ) is a 259 kg robotic space probe launched by NASA on April 6 , 1973 to study the asteroid belt , the environment around Jupiter and Saturn , solar wind , cosmic rays , and eventually the far reaches of the Solar System and heliosphere . It was the first probe to encounter Saturn and the second to fly through the asteroid belt and by Jupiter . Due to power constraints and the vast distance to the probe , last contact with the spacecraft was on September 30 , 1995 .", "52872 Okyrhoe 52872 Okyrhoe ( -LSB- əˈkɪroʊ.iː -RSB- from ) is a centaur orbiting in the outer Solar System between Jupiter and Saturn . It was discovered on September 19 , 1998 , by Spacewatch .", "Outline of Saturn The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Saturn : Saturn -- sixth planet from the Sun and the second-largest in the Solar System , after Jupiter . It is a gas giant with an average radius about nine times that of Earth . Although only one-eighth the average density of Earth , with its larger volume Saturn is just over 95 times more massive . Saturn is named after the Roman god of agriculture ; its astronomical symbol represents the god 's sickle .", "Outline of Jupiter The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Jupiter : Jupiter -- fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System . It is a giant planet with a mass one-thousandth that of the Sun , but two and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined . Jupiter is a gas giant , along with Saturn , with the other two giant planets , Uranus and Neptune , being ice giants . Jupiter was known to astronomers of ancient times . The Romans named it after their god Jupiter . When viewed from Earth , Jupiter can reach an apparent magnitude of − 2.94 , bright enough for its reflected light to cast shadows , and making it on average the third-brightest object in the night sky after the Moon and Venus .", "Titan (moon) Titan is the largest moon of Saturn . It is the only moon known to have a dense atmosphere , and the only object in space other than Earth where clear evidence of stable bodies of surface liquid has been found . Titan is the sixth ellipsoidal moon from Saturn . Frequently described as a planet-like moon , Titan is 50 % larger than Earth 's Moon , and it is 80 % more massive . It is the second-largest moon in the Solar System , after Jupiter 's moon Ganymede , and is larger than the smallest planet , Mercury , but only 40 % as massive . Discovered in 1655 by the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens , Titan was the first known moon of Saturn , and the sixth known planetary satellite ( after Earth 's Moon and the four Galilean moons of Jupiter ) . Titan orbits Saturn at 20 Saturn radii . From Titan 's surface , Saturn subtends an arc of 5.09 degrees and would appear 11.4 times larger in the sky than the Moon from Earth . Titan is primarily composed of water ice and rocky material . Much as with Venus before the Space Age , the dense opaque atmosphere prevented understanding of Titan 's surface until new information from the Cassini -- Huygens mission in 2004 , including the discovery of liquid hydrocarbon lakes in Titan 's polar regions . The geologically young surface is generally smooth , with few impact craters , although mountains and several possible cryovolcanoes have been found . The atmosphere of Titan is largely nitrogen ; minor components lead to the formation of methane and ethane clouds and nitrogen-rich organic smog . The climate -- including wind and rain -- creates surface features similar to those of Earth , such as dunes , rivers , lakes , seas ( probably of liquid methane and ethane ) , and deltas , and is dominated by seasonal weather patterns as on Earth . With its liquids ( both surface and subsurface ) and robust nitrogen atmosphere , Titan 's methane cycle is analogous to Earth 's water cycle , at the much lower temperature of about 94 K.", "2015 BZ509 2015 BZ509 is a retrograde co-orbital asteroid of Jupiter . The orbit of 2015 BZ509 is retrograde , or in the opposite direction of most Solar System objects . As of February 2017 its period was 11.65 years and its orbit had an eccentricity of 0.38 and an inclination of 163 degrees . Its period is close to the 11.86-year period of Jupiter . During one Jovian year , Jupiter moves 360 ° around the sun whereas 2015 BZ509 moves 366.3 ° in the opposite direction . The eccentricity of its orbit allows 2015 BZ509 to alternately pass inside and outside of Jupiter 's orbit at its closest approaches of 176 million kilometers . Each time it passes near Jupiter its orbital elements , including its period , are slightly altered . Over thousands of years the angle between the position of the asteroid and its perihelion minus the angle between Jupiter and the asteroid 's perihelion tends to oscillate around zero with a period of about 660 years and an amplitude of about 125 ° , although sometimes this difference slips by a whole 360 ° . Perturbations from Jupiter maintain the stability of this orbit over millions of years . Simulations show that it has been in its co-orbital relation with Jupiter for at least a million years and will continue for at least another million years . It is somewhat of a mystery how this asteroid ( or comet ) got into this orbit , but it is thought that at some time in the distant past it was put into an orbit resembling its present orbit by an interaction with Saturn , and then its orbit was perturbed into the state it is in today . Likewise , in the far future it may eventually get close enough to Saturn to be expelled from its present co-orbital relation with Jupiter .", "Giana Roberge Giana Roberge ( born December 16 , 1970 in New Hampshire ) is an American female road cycle racer from who after retiring from professional cycling in 1999 due to a heart condition , began another successful career as a team director , leading the Saturn Women 's road team to become one of the most successful teams in the world . In 2003 , she returned to cycle racing and has now competed in every major women 's one-day and stage race in the world . On August 5 , 2005 , Roberge was inducted into the International Cycling Hall of Fame in Utica , New York . Roberge was honoured for both her racing career and her contribution to the sport as the Director of the Saturn Women 's Cycling Team and the president and owner of Team Speed Queen .", "111P/Helin–Roman–Crockett 111P/Helin -- Roman -- Crockett is a periodic comet in the Solar System . It was discovered by Eleanor and Ron Helin on 5 January 1989 from images obtained on the 3rd and 4th of that month . It is a Jupiter family comet known for extremely close approaches to Jupiter being a Quasi-Hilda comet . During these approaches , it actually orbits Jupiter . The last such approach was in 1976 , the next will be in 2071 . The Jovian orbits are highly elliptical and subject to intense Solar perturbation at apojove which eventually pulls the comet out of Jovian orbit for the cycle to begin anew . Simulations predict such a cycle is unstable , the object will either be captured into an encounter orbit ( e.g. Shoemaker-Levy 9 ) or expelled into a new orbit which does not have periodic approaches . This implies that 111P 's orbit is recent within the past few thousand years . It fits the definition of an Encke-type comet with ( TJupiter > 3 ; a < aJupiter ) .", "1999 LE31 is a damocloid centaur discovered on June 12 , 1999 . It is both a Jupiter and Saturn-crossing minor planet . spends most of its orbit located in the outer Solar System between Jupiter and Uranus , and like all centaurs , has an unstable orbit caused by the gravitational influence of the giant planets . Due to this , it must have originated from elsewhere , most likely outside Neptune . Of over half a million known minor planets , is one of about 60 that has a retrograde orbit . is approximately 16.8 km in diameter . It came to perihelion ( closest approach to the Sun ) in December 1998 . It was last observed in 2000 , and will next come to perihelion in February 2022 .", "Solar eclipses on Saturn Solar eclipses on Saturn occur when the natural satellites of Saturn pass in front of the Sun as seen from Saturn . For bodies which appear smaller in angular diameter than the Sun , the proper term would be a transit . For bodies which are larger than the apparent size of the Sun , the proper term would be an occultation . Seven of Saturn 's satellites -- Janus , Mimas , Enceladus , Tethys , Rhea , Dione and Titan -- are large enough and near enough to eclipse or occult the Sun , or in other words to cast an umbra on Saturn . Most of the more distant satellites , besides being tiny , have orbits that are strongly inclined to the plane of Saturn 's orbit , and would rarely be seen to transit . At this distance , the sun covers only about 3 arcminutes in the sky of Saturn . In comparison , the seven major moons of Saturn have angular diameters of 5 -- 10 ' ( Mimas ) , 5 -- 9 ' ( Enceladus ) , 10 -- 15 ' ( Tethys ) , 10 -- 12 ' ( Dione ) , 8 -- 11 ' ( Rhea ) , 14 -- 15 ' ( Titan ) , and 1 -- 2 ' ( Iapetus ) . Iapetus is Saturn 's third largest moon , but is too far away to completely eclipse the sun . Janus , a very close moon to Saturn , has an angular diameter of about 7 ' , meaning that it can fully cover the sun . Unlike Jupiter , Saturn has a moderate axial tilt of 26.7 degrees . This means that solar eclipses on Saturn are much more rare than solar eclipses on Jupiter . Category : Solar eclipses by planet Category : Saturn", "V354 Cephei V354 Cephei is a red supergiant star located within the Milky Way . It is an irregular variable located approximately 9,000 light-years away from the Sun , and is currently considered one of the largest known stars , with a radius estimate of 1520 solar radius . If it were placed in the center of the Solar System , it would extend to between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn .", "Integrated Software for Imagers and Spectrometers Integrated Software for Imagers and Spectrometers , also abbreviated to Isis , is a specialized software package developed by the USGS to process images and spectra collected by current and past NASA planetary missions sent to Earth 's Moon , Mars , Jupiter , Saturn , and other solar system bodies .", "Discovery and exploration of the Solar System Discovery and exploration of the Solar System is observation , visitation , and increase in knowledge and understanding of Earth 's `` cosmic neighborhood '' . This includes the Sun , Earth and the Moon , the major planets including Mercury , Venus , Mars , Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus , and Neptune , their satellites , as well as smaller bodies including comets , asteroids , and dust .", "List of largest lakes and seas in the Solar System Following are the largest lakes and seas on various worlds in the Solar System . Listed are single bodies of water or other liquid on or near the surface of a solid body ( terrestrial planet , planetoid , or moon ) . All objects in this list are expected to be round , hence anything that is part of a belt or disc is expected to be a dwarf planet . Cold surface oceans or lakes are found on two worlds , Earth and Saturn 's moon Titan . Lava lakes are found on Earth and Jupiter 's moon Io . Subsurface oceans or seas occur on the other Galilean moons of Jupiter , Saturn 's moons Titan and Enceladus , and are suspected on the some of Saturn 's other moons , the asteroid Ceres , the larger trans-Neptunian objects , and ice planets in planetary systems . Recent analysis of the interior of Ganymede , taking into account the effects of salt , suggests that it and some of the other icy bodies may not have a single interior global ocean but several stacked ones , separated by different phases of ice , with the lowest liquid layer adjacent to the rocky mantle below . __ TOC __", "Goldstone Solar System Radar The Goldstone Solar System Radar , or GSSR , is a large radar system used for investigating objects in the Solar system . Located in the desert near Barstow , California , it comprises a 500-kW X-band ( 8500 MHz ) transmitter and a low-noise receiver on the 70-m DSS 14 antenna at the Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex . It has been used to investigate Mercury , Venus , Mars , the asteroids , and moons of Jupiter and Saturn . The most comparable facility is the radar at Arecibo Observatory .", "List of missions to the outer planets A total of nine spacecraft have been launched on missions that involve visits to the outer planets ; all nine missions involve encounters with Jupiter , with four spacecraft also visiting Saturn . One spacecraft , Voyager 2 , also visited Uranus and Neptune . The nine missions include two ; Ulysses and New Horizons , whose primary objectives are not related to the outer planets , but which flew past Jupiter to gain gravity assists en route to a polar orbit around the Sun , and Pluto -- at the time of its launch considered an outer planet -- respectively . Cassini -- Huygens also flew past Jupiter for a gravity assist on its mission to explore Saturn . Only three of the missions to the outer planets have been orbiters : Galileo orbited Jupiter for eight years , while Cassini has been in orbit of Saturn since 2004 and Juno around Jupiter since 2016 .", "Jupiter mass Jupiter mass ( or ) is the unit of mass equal to the total mass of the planet Jupiter ( , 317.83 Earth mass ; one Earth mass equals 0.00315 Jupiter masses ) . Jupiter mass is used to describe masses of the gas giants , such as the outer planets and extrasolar planets . It is also used in describing brown dwarfs . The most massive exoplanets are typically described in terms of Jupiter masses as this provides a convenient scale for comparison . A Jupiter-mass planet at an orbital distance of 1 AU from a Sun-like star causes an amplitude shift of 28 m/s , which is detectable with current technology . The most readily detectable planets through radial velocity measurements have high mass and close orbits . This produces a selection effect for planets of Jupiter mass . Likewise , Jupiter mass or higher planets are more likely to be detected through other means , such as transits or microlensing . A planet with a Jupiter mass might not have the same dimensions . The theoretical minimum mass a star can have , and still undergo hydrogen-1 fusion at the core , is estimated to be about 75 times the mass of Jupiter , while fusion of deuterium can occur at masses as low as 13 Jupiters . In the Solar System , the masses of the outer planets can be listed in Jupiter mass . The other gas giants are far less massive than Jupiter . Jupiter -- 1.000 Saturn -- 0.299 Uranus -- 0.046 Neptune -- 0.054 One Jupiter mass can be converted to related units : 25,839 Lunar mass 317.83 Earth mass 0.0009546 Solar mass In comparison , one Solar mass is equivalent to : 27,068,500 Lunar mass 332,946 Earth mass 1,047.56 Jupiter mass Jupiter comprises roughly three-quarters of the mass of the solar system excluding the Sun .", "Saturn A-2 Studied with the Saturn A-1 in 1959 , the Saturn A-2 was deemed more powerful than the Saturn I rocket , consisting of a first stage , which actually flew on the Saturn IB , a second stage which contains four S-3 engines that flew on the Jupiter IRBM and a Centaur high-energy liquid-fueled third stage .", "Titan Saturn System Mission Titan Saturn System Mission ( TSSM ) was a joint NASA -- ESA proposal for an exploration of Saturn and its moons Titan and Enceladus , where many complex phenomena were revealed by Cassini . With an estimated NASA cost of $ 2.5 billion ( FY07 ) , TSSM was proposed to launch in 2020 , get gravity assists from Earth and Venus , and arrive at the Saturn system in 2029 . The 4-year prime mission would include a two-year Saturn tour , a 2-month Titan aero-sampling phase , and a 20-month Titan orbit phase . In 2009 , a mission to Jupiter and its moons was given priority over Titan Saturn System Mission , although TSSM will continue to be studied for a later launch date .", "Kronos (spacecraft) Kronos is a proposed mission to Saturn . It is aimed at detailed study of the chemical composition of the Saturn 's atmosphere , gravity and magnetic fields . The proposal consists of the solar-powered carrier spacecraft , two atmospheric probes and ( possibly ) two small probes for the close-up imaging of the Saturnian rings . Kronos was proposed as a part of collaboration between NASA and ESA . After the launch at some date after 2015 and several flybys of Venus , Earth and Jupiter , Kronos would arrive at Saturn . The cruise time depends on chosen trajectory and is from 6 to 17 years . In the vicinity of Saturn two atmospheric probes are to be released , entering the atmosphere of Saturn and obtaining information on chemical composition ( including isotopic ratios ) , temperature , wind speeds and cloud structure to pressures down to 10 bar . Two rings probes , if implemented , would also be released in order to provide images of ring particles from a very close distance ( a few kilometers ) . The carrier spacecraft is proposed to fly by Saturn at a close distance obtaining precision information on the gravitational and magnetic fields of Saturn as well as on the atmospheric circulation and deep composition of the atmosphere . The carrier spacecraft design closely follows that of Juno orbiter of Jupiter including solar panels . The proposed design of the descend probes will be similar to that of the Galileo 's atmospheric Entry Probe . The mission will be generally based on the existing technology .", "Cykranosh Cykranosh is the fictional name for the planet Saturn in the Cthulhu Mythos . Cykranosh is the creation of Clark Ashton Smith and is part of his Hyperborean cycle . It also the setting for his short story `` The Door to Saturn '' ( 1932 ) .", "Outline of Uranus The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical Uranus -- seventh planet from the Sun . It has the third-largest planetary radius and fourth-largest planetary mass in the Solar System . Uranus is similar in composition to Neptune , and both have different bulk chemical composition from that of the larger gas giants Jupiter and Saturn . For this reason , scientists often classify Uranus and Neptune as `` ice giants '' to distinguish them from the gas giants . Uranus 's atmosphere is similar to Jupiter 's and Saturn 's in its primary composition of hydrogen and helium , but it contains more `` ices '' such as water , ammonia , and methane , along with traces of other hydrocarbons . It is the coldest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System , with a minimum temperature of 49 K , and has a complex , layered cloud structure with water thought to make up the lowest clouds and methane the uppermost layer of clouds . The interior of Uranus is mainly composed of ice and rock .", "Michele Dougherty Michele Karen Dougherty FRS ( born 1962 ) is a Professor of Space Physics at Imperial College London . She is leading unmanned exploratory missions to Saturn and Jupiter and is Principal Investigator for J-MAG - a magnetometer for the JUpiter ICy moons Explorer ( JUICE ) of the European Space Agencies ( ESA ) due for launch June 2022 .", "Solar cycle 16 Solar cycle 16 was the sixteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.1 years , beginning in August 1923 and ending in September 1933 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 130.2 ( April 1928 ) , and the starting minimum was 9.4 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 16 to 17 , there were a total of 568 days with no sunspots . Newspaper reports during this period note effects on telegraph systems , but also ( in March 1924 , January 1926 , October 1926 , and October 1927 ) on radio transmission .", "KY Cygni KY Cygni is a red supergiant of spectral class M3 .5 Ia located in the constellation Cygnus . It is one of the largest stars known , Its value is very poorly known , Its estimated size is 1420 solar radius or ( up to 2850 solar radius by some estimates ) . If It is placed at the center of the Solar System , it would extend past the orbit of Jupiter ( or Saturn ) . And it 's also one of the most luminous , with about 300,000 or more times the Sun 's luminosity . It is approximately 5,000 light-years away .", "Giant planet A giant planet is any massive planet . They are usually primarily composed of low-boiling-point materials ( gases or ices ) , rather than rock or other solid matter , but massive solid planets can also exist . There are four known giant planets in the Solar System : Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus and Neptune . Many extrasolar giant planets have been identified orbiting other stars . Giant planets are also sometimes called jovian planets , after Jupiter . They are also sometimes known as gas giants . However , many astronomers apply the latter term only to Jupiter and Saturn , classifying Uranus and Neptune , which have different compositions , as ice giants . Both names are potentially misleading : all of the giant planets consist primarily of fluids above their critical points , where distinct gas and liquid phases do not exist . The principal components are hydrogen and helium in the case of Jupiter and Saturn , and water , ammonia and methane in the case of Uranus and Neptune . The defining differences between a very low-mass brown dwarf and a gas giant are debated . One school of thought is based on formation ; the other , on the physics of the interior . Part of the debate concerns whether `` brown dwarfs '' must , by definition , have experienced nuclear fusion at some point in their history .", "Cassini–Huygens Cassini -- Huygens is an unmanned spacecraft sent to the planet Saturn . It is a Flagship-class NASA -- ESA -- ASI robotic spacecraft . Cassini is the fourth space probe to visit Saturn and the first to enter orbit . It has studied the planet and its many natural satellites since arriving there in 2004 . Development of Cassini began in the 1980s . Its design includes a Saturn orbiter ( Cassini ) and a lander ( Huygens ) for the moon Titan . The two spacecraft are named after astronomers Giovanni Cassini and Christiaan Huygens . The spacecraft was launched on October 15 , 1997 , aboard a Titan IVB/Centaur and entered orbit around Saturn on July 1 , 2004 , after an interplanetary voyage that included flybys of Earth , Venus , and Jupiter . On December 25 , 2004 , Huygens separated from the orbiter , and it landed on Saturn 's moon Titan on January 14 , 2005 . It successfully returned data to Earth , using the orbiter as a relay . This was the first landing ever accomplished in the outer Solar System . Cassini continued to study the Saturn system in the following years , and continues to operate . Due to a dwindling fuel supply , however , the spacecraft has entered the Grand Finale phase of its mission . A number of risky passes through the gap between Saturn and its inner ring are planned in order to maximize Cassini science returns before the orbiter is intentionally destroyed by diving into Saturn 's atmosphere on September 15 , 2017 . This planned deorbit is necessary to mitigate the risk of the spacecraft eventually colliding with and contaminating one of Saturn 's moons .", "Solar cycle 21 Solar cycle 21 was the 21st solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.5 years , beginning in March 1976 and ending in September 1986 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 232.9 , in December 1979 , and the starting minimum was 17.8 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 21 to 22 , there were a total of 273 days with no sunspots . The largest solar flare of this cycle ( X15 ) occurred on July 11 , 1978 ." ]

[ "New Deal The New Deal was a series of programs , including , most notably , Social Security , that were enacted in the United States between 1933 and 1938 , and a few that came later . They included both laws passed by Congress as well as presidential executive orders during the first term ( 1933 -- 37 ) of the Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt . The programs were in response to the Great Depression , and they focused on what historians refer to as the `` 3 Rs '' , Relief , Recovery , and Reform : relief for the unemployed and poor , recovery of the economy to normal levels , and reform of the financial system to prevent a repeat depression . The New Deal produced a political realignment , making the Democratic Party the majority ( as well as the party that held the White House for seven out of nine Presidential terms from 1933 to 1969 ) , with its base in liberal ideas , the South , traditional Democrats , big city machines , and the newly empowered labor unions and ethnic minorities . The Republicans were split , with conservatives opposing the entire New Deal as an enemy of business and growth , and liberals accepting some of it and promising to make it more efficient . The realignment crystallized into the New Deal Coalition that dominated most presidential elections into the 1960s , while the opposing conservative coalition largely controlled Congress from 1939 to 1964 . By 1936 the term `` liberal '' typically was used for supporters of the New Deal , and `` conservative '' for its opponents . From 1934 to 1938 , Roosevelt was assisted in his endeavours by a `` pro-spender '' majority in Congress ( drawn from two-party , competitive , non-machine , Progressive , and Left party districts ) . As noted by Alexander Hicks , `` Roosevelt , backed by rare , non-Southern Democrat majorities -- 270 non-Southern Democrat representatives and 71 non-Southern Democrat senators -- spelled Second New Deal reform . '' In the 1938 midterm elections , however , Roosevelt and his liberal supporters lost control of Congress to the bipartisan conservative coalition . Many historians distinguish between a `` First New Deal '' ( 1933 -- 34 ) and a `` Second New Deal '' ( 1935 -- 38 ) , with the second one more liberal and more controversial . The `` First New Deal '' ( 1933 -- 34 ) dealt with the pressing banking crises through the Emergency Banking Act and the 1933 Banking Act . The Federal Emergency Relief Administration provided $ 500 million ( $ today ) for relief operations by states and cities , while the short-lived Civil Works Administration ( CWA ) gave localities money to operate make-work projects in 1933 -- 34 . The Securities Act of 1933 was enacted to prevent a repeated stock market crash . The controversial work of the National Recovery Administration was also part of the First New Deal . The `` Second New Deal '' in 1935 -- 38 included the Wagner Act to protect labor organizing , the Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) relief program ( which made the federal government by far the largest single employer in the nation ) , the Social Security Act , and new programs to aid tenant farmers and migrant workers . The final major items of New Deal legislation were the creation of the United States Housing Authority and Farm Security Administration ( FSA ) , both in 1937 , and the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 , which set maximum hours and minimum wages for most categories of workers . The FSA was also one of the oversight authorities of the Puerto Rico Reconstruction Administration which administered relief efforts to Puerto Rican citizens affected by the Great Depression . The economic downturn of 1937 -- 38 , and the bitter split between the AFL and CIO labor unions led to major Republican gains in Congress in 1938 . Conservative Republicans and Democrats in Congress joined in the informal Conservative Coalition . By 1942 -- 43 they shut down relief programs such as the WPA and Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) and blocked major liberal proposals . Roosevelt himself turned his attention to the war effort , and won reelection in 1940 and 1944 . The Supreme Court declared the National Recovery Administration ( NRA ) and the first version of the Agricultural Adjustment Act ( AAA ) unconstitutional , however the AAA was rewritten and then upheld . As the first Republican president elected after Franklin D. Roosevelt , Dwight D. Eisenhower ( 1953 -- 61 ) left the New Deal largely intact , even expanding it in some areas . In the 1960s , Lyndon B. Johnson 's Great Society used the New Deal as inspiration for a dramatic expansion of liberal programs , which Republican Richard M. Nixon generally retained . After 1974 , however , the call for deregulation of the economy gained bipartisan support . The New Deal regulation of banking ( Glass -- Steagall Act ) was suspended in the 1990s . Many New Deal programs remain active , with some still operating under the original names , including the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation ( FDIC ) , the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation ( FCIC ) , the Federal Housing Administration ( FHA ) , and the Tennessee Valley Authority ( TVA ) . The largest programs still in existence today are the Social Security System and the Securities and Exchange Commission ( SEC ) .", "Mad (magazine) Mad is an American humor magazine founded in 1952 by editor Harvey Kurtzman and publisher William Gaines , launched as a comic book before it became a magazine . It was widely imitated and influential , affecting satirical media as well as the cultural landscape of the 20th century , with editor Al Feldstein increasing readership to more than two million during its 1974 circulation peak . As of January 2017 , Mad has published 544 regular issues , as well as hundreds of reprint `` Specials , '' original material paperbacks , compilation books and other print projects . The magazine is the last surviving title from the EC Comics line , offering satire on all aspects of life and popular culture , politics , entertainment , and public figures . Its format is divided into a number of recurring segments such as TV and movie parodies , as well as freeform articles . Mads mascot , Alfred E. Neuman , is typically the focal point of the magazine 's cover , with his face often replacing that of a celebrity or character who is lampooned within the issue .", "Self-publishing Self-publishing is the publication of any book or other media by its author without the involvement of an established publisher . A self-published physical book is said to have been privately printed . The author is in control of the entire process including , for a book , the design of the cover and interior , formats , price , distribution , marketing , and public relations . The authors can do it all themselves or may outsource some or all the work to companies which offer these services . Self-publishing is not limited to physical books . E-books , pamphlets , brochures , websites , and other media are commonly self-published .", "Google Google is an American multinational technology company specializing in Internet-related services and products . These include online advertising technologies , search , cloud computing , software , and hardware . Google was founded in 1998 by Larry Page and Sergey Brin while they were Ph.D. students at Stanford University , in California . Together , they own about 14 percent of its shares , and control 56 percent of the stockholder voting power through supervoting stock . They incorporated Google as a privately held company on September 4 , 1998 . An initial public offering ( IPO ) took place on August 19 , 2004 , and Google moved to its new headquarters in Mountain View , California , nicknamed the Googleplex . In August 2015 , Google announced plans to reorganize its various interests as a conglomerate called Alphabet Inc. . Google , Alphabet 's leading subsidiary , will continue to be the umbrella company for Alphabet 's Internet interests . Upon completion of the restructure , Sundar Pichai became CEO of Google , replacing Larry Page , who became CEO of Alphabet . Rapid growth since incorporation has triggered a chain of products , acquisitions , and partnerships beyond Google 's core search engine ( Google Search ) . It offers services designed for work and productivity ( Google Docs , Sheets and Slides ) , email ( Gmail/Inbox ) , scheduling and time management ( Google Calendar ) , cloud storage ( Google Drive ) , social networking ( Google + ) , instant messaging and video chat ( Google Allo/Duo/Hangouts ) , language translation ( Google Translate ) , mapping and turn-by-turn navigation ( Google Maps ) , video sharing ( YouTube ) , notetaking ( Google Keep ) , and photo organizing and editing ( Google Photos ) . The company leads the development of the Android mobile operating system , the Google Chrome web browser , and Chrome OS , a lightweight operating system based on the Chrome browser . Google has moved increasingly into hardware ; from 2010 to 2015 , it partnered with major electronics manufacturers in the production of its Nexus devices , and in October 2016 , it released multiple hardware products ( including the Google Pixel smartphone , Home smart speaker , Wifi mesh wireless router , and Daydream View virtual reality headset ) . The new hardware chief , Rick Osterloh , stated : `` a lot of the innovation that we want to do now ends up requiring controlling the end-to-end user experience '' . Google has also experimented with becoming an Internet carrier . In February 2010 , it announced Google Fiber , a fiber-optic infrastructure that was installed in Kansas City ; in April 2015 , it launched Project Fi in the United States , combining Wi-Fi and cellular networks from different providers ; and in 2016 , it announced the Google Station initiative to make public Wi-Fi around the world , which had already been deployed in India . Alexa , a company that monitors commercial web traffic , lists Google.com as the most visited website in the world . Several other Google services also figure in the top 100 most visited websites , including YouTube and Blogger . Google has been the second most valuable brand in the world for 4 consecutive years , but has received significant criticism involving issues such as privacy concerns , tax avoidance , antitrust , censorship , and search neutrality . Google 's mission statement , from the outset , was `` to organize the world 's information and make it universally accessible and useful '' , and its unofficial slogan was `` Do n't be evil '' . In October 2015 , the motto was replaced in the Alphabet corporate code of conduct by the phrase `` Do the right thing '' ." ]

[ "Puzzle jug A puzzle jug is a puzzle in the form of a jug , popular in the 18th and 19th centuries . Puzzle jugs of varying quality were popular in homes and taverns . An inscription typically challenges the drinker to consume the contents without spilling them , which , because the neck of the jug is perforated , is impossible to do conventionally . The solution to the puzzle is that the jug has a hidden tube , one end of which is the spout . The tube usually runs around the rim and then down the handle , with its other opening inside the jug and near the bottom . To solve the puzzle , the drinker must suck from the spout end of the tube . To make the puzzle more interesting , it was common to provide a number of additional holes along the tube , which must be closed off before the contents could be sucked . Some jugs even have a hidden hole to make the challenge still more confounding .", "Semantic analysis (compilers) Semantic analysis , also context sensitive analysis , is a process in compiler construction , usually after parsing , to gather necessary semantic information from the source code . It usually includes type checking , or makes sure a variable is declared before use which is impossible to describe in Extended Backus -- Naur Form and thus not easily detected during parsing .", "History of writing The history of writing is the development of expressing language by letters or other marks , and the study and description of this development . In the history of how systems of representation of language through graphic means have evolved in different human civilizations , more complete writing systems were preceded by proto-writing , systems of ideographic or early mnemonic symbols . True writing , in which the content of a linguistic utterance is encoded so that another reader can reconstruct , with a fair degree of accuracy , the exact utterance written downwriting usually does not convey the tone of the utterance . is a later development . It is distinguished from proto-writing which typically avoids encoding grammatical words and affixes , making it more difficult or impossible to reconstruct the exact meaning intended by the writer unless a great deal of context is already known in advance . One of the earliest forms of written expression is cuneiform .", "Maja Vukoces Maja Vukoces is a mountain in northern Albania in the Prokletije with a height of 2,450 m. Like others in the range , it too has a steep , rocky summit . It is even more difficult to climb it at winter when the snow and ice make the route to the peak and summit impossible to reach .", "Judicial districts of Spain In Spain , a judicial district ( Partido judicial ) is a territorial unit for the administration of justice , composed of one or more municipalities bordering and within the same province . Among the municipalities that make up the judicial parties , one of them , usually the largest or highest number of contentious matters occur , it is called head of judicial party . In this head is the seat of one or more courts of first instance and instruction . Leading the rest of municipalities of the administrative area are the magistrates ' courts .", "Software Architectural Style A software architectural style is characterized by a set of features that make the software architecture uniquely identifiable . Software architectural styles generally provide a high level direction for solutions unlike software patterns which are focused on solving one or more specific problems . A software architectural style usually consists of one or more software patterns . Category : Software architecture", "Dazzle (fabric) Dazzle is a type of polyester fabric that is widely used in making clothes like basketball uniforms , football uniforms , rugby ball uniforms and casual clothing because it absorbs moisture quickly . It is a lightweight fabric that allows air to circulate easily around the body . Dazzle fabric is distinguished by the pattern of tiny holes in the weave of the material . Often made of synthetic fibers as well as cotton/synthetic blends , dazzle wear is usually sleek and shiny . To the touch , dazzle is soft and somewhat silky , although it is far more sturdy than silk . Dazzle fabric is also used in some other applications , baby carriages and car seats are sometimes lined with dazzle fabric , and decorators have even incorporated dazzle fabric into window treatments such as swags and drapery panels . Dazzle fabric does not stain very easily . Laundering a garment that is made of dazzle fabric on the normal cycle is usually sufficient to keep the garment in top condition . Air-drying or a few minutes in a dryer will usually produce a crisp and wrinkle free look . Dazzle fabric holds its shape very well and requires only basic maintenance . Compared to other fabrics , dazzle is even more durable than denim because of the tightly woven polyester fibers , which make it nearly impossible to tear . Category : Woven fabrics Category : Sports uniforms", "Rib fracture A rib fracture is a break or fracture in one or more of the bones making up the rib cage . Fractures of the first and second ribs may be more likely to be associated with head and facial injuries than other rib fractures . The middle ribs are the ones most commonly fractured . Fractures usually occur from direct blows or from indirect crushing injuries . A rib fracture has the complication of potentially causing a pulmonary contusion . Rib fractures are usually quite painful because the ribs have to move to allow for breathing . When several ribs are broken in several places a flail chest results , and the detached bone sections will move separately from the rest of the chest .", "Tail recursive parser In computer science , tail recursive parsers are a derivation from the more common recursive descent parsers . Tail recursive parsers are commonly used to parse left recursive grammars . They use a smaller amount of stack space than regular recursive descent parsers . They are also easy to write . Typical recursive descent parsers make parsing left recursive grammars impossible ( because of an infinite loop problem ) . Tail recursive parsers use a node reparenting technique that makes this allowable .", "Michael Hordern on stage, screen and radio Michael Hordern ( 1911 -- 1995 ) was an English actor whose career spanned seven decades . He made more than 160 film appearances , usually in supporting character roles , and appeared in over 100 theatrical productions , most of them Shakespeare .", "Lapel Lapels are the folded flaps of cloth on the front of a jacket or coat , and are most commonly found on formal clothing and suit jackets . Usually they are formed by folding over the front edges of the jacket or coat and sewing them to the collar , an extra piece of fabric around the back of the neck . There are three basic forms of lapels : notched , peaked and shawl . Notched lapels , the most common , are usually seen on business suits . Peaked lapels are more formal , and nearly always used on double breasted jackets , but it also frequently appears on single breasted ones . Shawl lapels are usually carried by dinner jackets , mess jackets and tuxedos .", "List of mutual-fund families in the United States The following is a limited list of mutual-fund families in the United States . A family of mutual funds is a group of funds that are marketed under one or more brand names , usually having the same distributor ( the company which handles selling and redeeming shares of the fund in transactions with investors ) , and investment advisor ( which is usually a corporate cousin of the distributor ) . There are several hundred families of registered mutual funds in the United States , some with a single fund and others offering dozens . Many fund families are units of a larger financial services company such as an asset manager , bank , stock brokerage , or insurance company . Additionally , multiple funds in a family can be part of the same corporate structure ; that is , one underlying corporation or business trust may divide itself into more than one fund , each of which issues shares separately . __ TOC __", "Ses Païsses Ses Païsses is a Bronze Age talayotic settlement on the southeastern outskirts of Artà in northeastern Majorca . It is one of the most important and best-preserved prehistoric sites in the Balearic Islands , although it is largely overgrown with woodland , mainly Quercus ilex ( holm oak ) , making it impossible to see the site as a whole .", "Omo tuo Omo tuo is a Ghanaian staple food made with rice . The rice is usually cooked with more water than usual to make it softer . It is then beaten a little to make it smooth and shaped into sizable balls . It 's English designation is thus `` Rice Balls . '' It is usually served with tasty soup made of groundnut or palmnuts . It 's a Ghanaian delicacy enjoyed by all people groups most notably Akans , who coined its name .", "Masood Rana Masood Rana ( Urdu : مسعود رانا ) ( June 9 , 1938 - October 4 , 1995 ) was a Pakistani playback singer . He began his singing career in 1962 with the film Inqalab and became one of the top male singers in both Urdu and Punjabi films for more than three decades . He sang in the highest number of films and was a very busy film singer until his death in 1995 .", "Airport Business Area, Saskatoon Airport Business Area is an industrial park located in the North Industrial SDA Suburban Development Area of Saskatoon , Saskatchewan . Industrial parks are usually located close to transport facilities , especially where more than one transport modalities coincide . The Idylwyld Drive North , Sk Hwy 11 Louis Riel Trail , and Sk Hwy 12 concurrency are all accessed directly from the Airport Business Area . The Saskatoon John G. Diefenbaker International Airport is north of the Airport Business Area . Circle Drive marks the southern boundary , with access to SK Hwy 14 and Sk Hwy 16 , the Yellowhead Trans Canada .", "Discrete Ordinates Method In the theory of radiative transfer , of either thermal or neutron radiation , a position and direction-dependent intensity function is usually sought for the description of the radiation field . The intensity field can in principle be solved from the integrodifferential radiative transfer equation ( RTE ) , but an exact solution is usually impossible and even in the case of geometrically simple systems can contain unusual special functions such as the Chandrasekhar functions . The method of discrete ordinates , or the Sn method , is one way to approximately solve the RTE by discretizing both the xyz-domain and the angular variables that specify the direction of radiation .", "Embedded analytics Embedded analytics is the technology designed to make data analysis and business intelligence more accessible by all kinds of application or user .", "Categories of rallies Rallying makes up the majority of the `` grassroots '' of amateur motorsport , especially in the United Kingdom . Motor Clubs will usually run one or more rallies each year . Rallies fall into many categories each with different rules and aimed at different skill levels . The two basic categories are special stage rallies and road rallies .", "Equichordal point In geometry , an equichordal point is a point defined relative to a convex plane curve such that all chords passing through the point are equal in length . Two common figures with equichordal points are the circle and the limaçon . It is impossible for a curve to have more than one equichordal point .", "Pureland origami Pureland origami is a style of origami invented by the British paperfolder John Smith that is limited to using only mountain and valley folds . The aim of pureland origami is to make origami easier for inexperienced folders and those who have impaired motor skills . This means that many , but not all , of the more complicated processes that are common in regular origami are impossible ; and so alternative manipulations have been developed to create similar effects ." ]

[ "Deep hypothermic circulatory arrest Deep hypothermic circulatory arrest ( DHCA ) is a surgical technique that involves cooling the body to temperatures below 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) , and stopping blood circulation and brain function for up to one hour . It is used when blood circulation to the brain must be stopped because of delicate surgery within the brain , or because of surgery on large blood vessels that lead to or from the brain . DHCA is a form of carefully managed clinical death in which heartbeat and all brain activity cease . At normal body temperature of 37 ° C only several minutes of stopped blood circulation causes changes within the brain leading to permanent damage after circulation is restored . Reducing body temperature extends the time interval that such stoppage can be survived . At a brain temperature of 14 ° C , blood circulation can be safely stopped for 30 to 40 minutes . There is an increased incidence of brain injury at times longer than 40 minutes , but sometimes circulatory arrest for up to 60 minutes is used if life-saving surgery requires it . Infants tolerate longer periods of DHCA than adults . Applications of DHCA include repairs of the aortic arch , repairs to head and neck great vessels , repair of large cerebral aneurysms , repair of cerebral arteriovenous malformations , pulmonary thromboendarterectomy , and resection of tumors that have invaded the vena cava .", "Global storm activity of 2009 Global storm activity of 2009 profiles the major worldwide storms , including blizzards , ice storms , and other winter events , from January 1 , 2009 to December 31 , 2009 . Wintery storms are events in which the dominant varieties of precipitation are forms that only occur at cold temperatures , such as snow or sleet , or a rainstorm where ground temperatures are cold enough to allow ice to form ( i.e. freezing rain ) . It may be marked by strong wind , thunder and lightning ( a thunderstorm ) , heavy precipitation , such as ice ( ice storm ) , or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere ( as in a dust storm , snowstorm , hailstorm , etc. ) . Summer storms including flooding , severe thunderstorms and extratropical cyclones ( which can occur in summer or winter ) are also included in this list to a certain extent . As this occurred a heat wave and/or unforeseen monsoon weather also hit parts of Australia in 2009 and 2010 . Victoria , the scene of horrific bushfires the year before , had a far colder summer , with hot weather arriving more than a month later than usual in 2009 . August 17 saw a dust storm at Laguna Mar Chiquita as a major drought hit Argentina , and flooding and hailstorms hit southeastern Australia and Queensland in March 2010 . The lack of winter precipitation in parts of China , however , contributed to a severe drought in the southwest . Bolivia , Venezuela , Mali , Mauritania , Morocco and Spain have also seen periods of drought in 2009 and 2010 . On between May 12 and 26 , both Mauritania , the Sénégal River Area and neighbouring parts of both Senegal and Mali faced both a drought and famine in 2010 . A storm ( from Proto-Germanic * sturmaz `` noise , tumult '' ) is any disturbed state of an astronomical body 's atmosphere , especially affecting its surface , and strongly implying severe weather . Storms are created when a centre of low pressure develops , with a system of high pressure surrounding it . This combination of opposing forces can create winds and result in the formation of storm clouds , such as the cumulonimbus . Small , localized areas of low pressure can form from hot air rising off hot ground , resulting in smaller meteorological disturbances such as dust devils and whirlwinds .", "2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels." ]

[ "Early March 2015 United States winter storm The Early March 2015 United States winter storm was a significant snow and ice storm that plowed through much of the United States , bringing 1 -- 2 ft of snow and record cold temperatures behind it . The storm actually occurred in two phases , with the latter bringing the cold temperatures behind it in its wake . Record cold temperatures even spread down to as far as northern Florida .", "Cold fusion (disambiguation) Cold fusion ( low-energy nuclear reaction or LENR ) is a hypothesized type of nuclear reaction that would occur at or near room temperature , originally put forward by electrochemists Fleischmann and Pons . Cold fusion may also refer to :", "Work hardening Work hardening , also known as strain hardening or cold working , is the strengthening of a metal by plastic deformation . This strengthening occurs because of dislocation movements and dislocation generation within the crystal structure of the material . Many non-brittle metals with a reasonably high melting point as well as several polymers can be strengthened in this fashion . Alloys not amenable to heat treatment , including low-carbon steel , are often work-hardened . Some materials can not be work-hardened at low temperatures , such as indium , however others can only be strengthened via work hardening , such as pure copper and aluminum . Work hardening may be desirable or undesirable depending on the context . An example of undesirable work hardening is during machining when early passes of a cutter inadvertently work-harden the workpiece surface , causing damage to the cutter during the later passes . Certain alloys are more prone to this than others ; superalloys such as Inconel require machining strategies that take it into account . An example of desirable work hardening is that which occurs in metalworking processes that intentionally induce plastic deformation to exact a shape change . These processes are known as cold working or cold forming processes . They are characterized by shaping the workpiece at a temperature below its recrystallization temperature , usually at ambient temperature . Cold forming techniques are usually classified into four major groups : squeezing , bending , drawing , and shearing . Applications include the heading of bolts and cap screws and the finishing of cold rolled steel . In cold forming , metal is formed at high speed and high pressure using tool steel or carbide dies . The cold working of the metal increasing the hardness , yield strength , and tensile strength .", "Climate of Pakistan Pakistan recorded one of the highest temperatures in the world -- 53.5 ° C -- on 26 May 2010 , the hottest temperature ever recorded in Pakistan , but also the hottest reliably measured temperature ever recorded on the continent of Asia . As Pakistan is located on a great landmass north of the Tropic of Cancer ( between latitudes 25 ° and 36 ° N ) , it has a continental type of climate characterized by extreme variations of temperature , both seasonally and daily . Very high altitudes modify the climate in the cold , snow-covered northern mountains ; temperatures on the Balochistan Plateau are somewhat higher . Along the coastal strip , the climate is modified by sea breezes . In the rest of the country , temperatures reach great heights in the summer ; the mean temperature during June is 38 ° F in the plains , the highest temperatures can exceed 47 ° C . In the summer , hot winds called Loo blow across the plains during the day . Trees shed their leaves to avoid loss of moisture . The dry , hot weather is broken occasionally by dust storms and thunderstorms that temporarily lower the temperature . Evenings are cool ; the diurnal variation in temperature may be as much as 11C to 17C . Winters are cold , with minimum mean temperatures in Punjab of about 4 ° C in January , and sub-zero temperatures in the far north and Balochistan . The monsoon and the Western Disturbance are the two main factors which alter the weather over Pakistan ; otherwise , Continental air prevails for rest of the year . Following are the main factors that influence the weather over Pakistan . Western Disturbances mostly occur during the winter months and cause light to moderate showers in southern parts of the country while moderate to heavy showers with heavy snowfall in the northern parts of the country . These westerly waves are robbed of most of the moisture by the time they reach Pakistan . Fog occurs during the winter season and remains for weeks in upper Sindh , central Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab . Southwest Monsoon occurs in summer from the month of June till September in almost whole Pakistan excluding western Balochistan , FATA , Chitral and Gilgit -- Baltistan . Monsoon rains bring much awaited relief from the scorching summer heat . These monsoon rains are quite heavy by nature and can cause significant flooding , even severe flooding if they interact with westerly waves in the upper parts of the country . Tropical Storms usually form during the summer months from late April till June and then from late September till November . They affect the coastal localities of the country . Dust storms occur during summer months with peak in May and June , They are locally known as Andhi . These dust storms are quite violent . Dust storms during the early summer indicates the arrival of the monsoons while dust storms in the autumn indicate the arrival of winter . Heat waves occur during May and June , especially in southern Punjab , central Balochistan and interior Sindh . Thunderstorms most commonly occur in northern Punjab , Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Azad Kashmir . Continental air prevails during the period when there is no precipitation in the country . Pakistan has four seasons : a cool , dry winter from December through February ; a hot , dry spring from March through May ; the summer rainy season , or southwest monsoon period , from June through September ; and the retreating monsoon period of October and November . The onset and duration of these seasons vary somewhat according to location . The climate in the capital city of Islamabad varies from an average daily low of 2 ° C in January to an average daily high of 38 ° C in June . Half of the annual rainfall occurs in July and August , averaging about 255 millimeters in each of those two months . The remainder of the year has significantly less rain , amounting to about fifty millimeters per month . Hailstorms are common in the spring . Pakistan 's largest city , Karachi , which is also the country 's industrial center , is more humid than Islamabad but gets less rain . Only July and August average more than twenty-five millimeters of rain in the Karachi area ; the remaining months are exceedingly dry . The temperature is also more uniform in Karachi than in Islamabad , ranging from an average daily low of 13 ° C during winter evenings to an average daily high of 34 ° C on summer days . Although the summer temperatures do not get as high as those in Punjab , the high humidity causes the residents a great deal of discomfort . In Islamabad , there are cold winds from the north of Pakistan .", "Selective inverted sink The selective inverted sink or SIS is a device used by farmers to protect plants from frost , developed by Uruguayan Rafael Guarga in the late 1990s . The sink is actually a large fan housed in a chimney-like structure , and works by defeating surface temperature inversion . Cold air is denser than warm air , and will pool at ground level during calm weather . This lowers the surface temperature , even if the ambient temperature is higher . Vents near the base of the chimney allow cold surface air to be pulled up through the chimney , creating a suction effect that draws warmer air down to surface level . The SIS is more efficient than typical ground-heaters , and is widely used to combat frost .", "Hubbing Hubbing is a metalworking process that is used to make dies . It is a cold-working process , which means that it occurs well below the melting temperature of the metal being worked .", "Hypothermia Hypothermia is reduced body temperature that happens when a body dissipates more heat than it absorbs . In humans , it is defined as a body core temperature below 35.0 C. Symptoms depend on the temperature . In mild hypothermia there is shivering and mental confusion . In moderate hypothermia shivering stops and confusion increases . In severe hypothermia there may be paradoxical undressing , in which a person removes his or her clothing , as well as an increased risk of the heart stopping . Hypothermia has two main types of causes . It classically occurs from exposure to extreme cold . It may also occur from any condition that decreases heat production or increases heat loss . Commonly this includes alcohol intoxication but may also include low blood sugar , anorexia , and advanced age , among others . Body temperature is usually maintained near a constant level of 36.5 -- through thermoregulation . Efforts to increase body temperature involve shivering , increased voluntary activity , and putting on warmer clothing . Hypothermia may be diagnosed based on either a person 's symptoms in the presence of risk factors or by measuring a person 's core temperature . The treatment of mild hypothermia involves warm drinks , warm clothing and physical activity . In those with moderate hypothermia heating blankets and warmed intravenous fluids are recommended . People with moderate or severe hypothermia should be moved gently . In severe hypothermia extracorporeal membrane oxygenation ( ECMO ) or cardiopulmonary bypass may be useful . In those without a pulse cardiopulmonary resuscitation ( CPR ) is indicated along with the above measures . Rewarming is typically continued until a person 's temperature is greater than 32 C . If there is no improvement at this point or the blood potassium level is greater than 12 mmol/liter at any time resuscitation may be discontinued . Hypothermia is the cause of at least 1500 deaths a year in the United States . It is more common in older people and males . One of the lowest documented body temperatures from which someone with accidental hypothermia has survived is 13.0 C in a near-drowning of a 7-year-old girl in Sweden . Survival after more than six hours of CPR has been described . In those in whom ECMO or bypass is used survival is around 50 % . Deaths due to hypothermia have played an important role in many wars . The term is from Greek ὑπο , ypo , meaning `` under '' , and θερμία , thermía , meaning `` heat '' . The opposite of hypothermia is hyperthermia , an increased body temperature due to failed thermoregulation .", "Climate of Missouri Missouri generally has a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfa ) , with cool to cold winters and long , hot summers . In the southern part of the state , particularly in the Bootheel , the climate borders on a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen Cfa ) . Because of its location in the interior United States , Missouri often experiences extremes in temperatures . Lacking either large mountains or oceans nearby to moderate its temperature , its climate is alternately influenced by air from the cold Arctic and the hot and humid Gulf of Mexico .", "Famines in Czech lands This article discusses historical famines that have occurred in the area of today 's Czech Republic . Various known famines occurred throughout Czech lands between 1272 and 1847 . Excessive rain , cold temperatures , hail , warfare , and disease are the main causes of famines in Czech lands .", "Carnot cycle The Carnot cycle is a theoretical thermodynamic cycle proposed by Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot in 1824 and expanded upon by others in the 1830s and 1840s . It provides an upper limit on the efficiency that any classical thermodynamic engine can achieve during the conversion of heat into work , or conversely , the efficiency of a refrigeration system in creating a temperature difference ( e.g. refrigeration ) by the application of work to the system . It is not an actual thermodynamic cycle but is a theoretical construct . Every single thermodynamic system exists in a particular state . When a system is taken through a series of different states and finally returned to its initial state , a thermodynamic cycle is said to have occurred . In the process of going through this cycle , the system may perform work on its surroundings , thereby acting as a heat engine . A system undergoing a Carnot cycle is called a Carnot heat engine , although such a `` perfect '' engine is only a theoretical construct and can not be built in practice . However , a microscopic Carnot heat engine has been designed and run . Essentially , there are two systems at temperatures Th and Tc ( hot and cold respectively ) , which are so large that their temperatures are practically unaffected by a single cycle . As such , they are called `` heat reservoirs '' . Since the cycle is reversible , there is no generation of entropy during the cycle ; entropy is conserved . During the cycle , an arbitrary amount of entropy ΔS is extracted from the hot reservoir , and deposited in the cold reservoir . Since there is no volume change in either reservoir , they do no work , and during the cycle , an amount of energy ThΔS is extracted from the hot reservoir and a smaller amount of energy TcΔS is deposited in the cold reservoir . The difference in the two energies ( Th-Tc ) ΔS is equal to the work done by the engine .", "Neutron temperature The neutron detection temperature , also called the neutron energy , indicates a free neutron 's kinetic energy , usually given in electron volts . The term temperature is used , since hot , thermal and cold neutrons are moderated in a medium with a certain temperature . The neutron energy distribution is then adopted to the Maxwellian distribution known for thermal motion . Qualitatively , the higher the temperature , the higher the kinetic energy of the free neutrons . The momentum and wavelength of the neutron are related through the De Broglie relation . The large wavelength of slow neutrons allows for the large cross section .", "Cold War (1953–62) The Cold War ( 1953 -- 1962 ) discusses the period within the Cold War from the death of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in 1953 to the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 . Following the death of Stalin unrest occurred in the Eastern Bloc , while there was a calming of international tensions , the evidence of which can be seen in the signing of the Austrian State Treaty reuniting Austria , and the Geneva Accords ending fighting in Indochina . However , this `` thaw '' was only partial with an expensive arms race continuing during the period .", "Piranguinho Piranguinho is a municipality in the state of Minas Gerais in the Southeast region of Brazil . It lies on the Sapucaí river valley , with mild to moderate temperatures during the year .", "Climate of Moscow Moscow has a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfb ) with warm , sometimes hot , somewhat humid summers and long , cold winters . Typical high temperatures in the warm months of June , July and August are around 23 ° C , but during heat waves , which can occur anytime from May to September , daytime temperature highs often top 30 ° C for sometimes one or two weeks . In the winter , temperatures normally drop to approximately -10 ° C , though there can be periods of warmth with temperatures rising above 0 ° C. Summer lasts from mid-May to the beginning of September . Winter lasts from the beginning of November to the end of March .", "November 2014 North American cold wave The November 2014 North American cold wave was an extreme weather event that occurred across most of Canada and the contiguous United States , including parts of the Western United States up to western California . One of the first events of the winter , the cold wave was caused by the northward movement of an extremely powerful bomb cyclone associated with Typhoon Nuri 's remnant , which shifted the jet stream far northward , creating an omega block pattern . This allowed a piece of the polar vortex to advance southward into the Central and Eastern United States , bringing record-cold temperatures to much of the region . In contrast , Alaska experienced above-average temperatures . This was the worst cold wave that the North American region had experienced since an earlier cold wave in early 2014 . The cold wave was expected to last for a few weeks , extending at least until American Thanksgiving . Although the Omega Block broke down on November 20 , due to a powerful storm moving into the Gulf of Alaska , frigid conditions continued to persist across much of the United States . There was also concern among some meteorologists that another cold wave or abnormally cold trend might persist throughout the winter of 2014 -- 15 , the chances of which were `` above average . '' On November 23 , a warming trend primarily in the Eastern United States brought an end to the cold wave ; however , below-average temperatures were forecast to return to the Midwest by November 24 . Despite the development of a second cold wave , it ended on December 6 , when a ridge of high pressure brought above-average temperatures to the region , especially in the Central United States .", "Thermotime switch A thermotime switch , or TTS , is a sensor used to control the cold start enrichment process in some older fuel injection systems . An extra injector is placed in the inlet manifold designed to feed all of the cylinders , and whilst the other injectors have flow rates controlled by pulse duration , the cold start injector stays on during the initial cold starting procedure . This duration is controlled by the thermotime switch , which is a bimetallic strip based device placed in the water jacket or in the case of an air-cooled engine , in the engine/timing case . When an engine first starts , the coolant temperature is cold and the bimetallic strip is closed , which in turn supplies the cold start injector with current . A small heater coil is built into the thermotime switch , which effectively gives a timed output to the cold start injector with the timing duration dependent on the temperature of the engine . If the engine is started whilst warm the bimetallic strip remains open due to the higher temperature , meaning the cold start routine is not entered .", "Climate of Puerto Rico The climate of Puerto Rico falls into the tropical climatic zone . Temperatures are moderate year round , averaging near 80 F in lower elevations and 70 F in the mountains . Easterly trade winds pass across the island year round . Puerto Rico has a rainy season which stretches from April into November . The mountains of the Cordillera Central are the main cause of the variations in the temperature and rainfall that occur over very short distances . The mountains can also cause wide variation in local wind speed and direction due to their sheltering and channeling effects adding to the climatic variation . About a quarter of the annual rainfall for Puerto Rico , on average , occurs during tropical cyclones , which are more frequent during La Niña events .", "Climate of Paraguay The climate of Paraguay consists of a subtropical climate in the Paraneña region and a tropical climate in the Chaco . The Paraneña region has a humid climate , with abundant precipitation throughout the year and only moderate seasonal changes in temperature . During the Southern Hemisphere 's summer , which corresponds to the northern winter , the dominant influence on the climate is the warm sirocco winds blowing out of the northeast . During the winter , the dominant wind is the cold pampero from the South Atlantic , which blows across Argentina and is deflected northeastward by the Andes in the southern part of that country . Because of the lack of topographic barriers within Paraguay , these opposite prevailing winds bring about abrupt and irregular changes in the usually moderate weather . Winds are generally brisk . Velocities of 160 kph have been reported in southern locations , and the town of Encarnación was once leveled by a tornado .", "Cold brew Cold brew refers to a beverage brewed in cold or room-temperature water . It may refer to : Cold brew coffee Cold brew tea", "Pinch analysis Pinch analysis is a methodology for minimising energy consumption of chemical processes by calculating thermodynamically feasible energy targets ( or minimum energy consumption ) and achieving them by optimising heat recovery systems , energy supply methods and process operating conditions . It is also known as process integration , heat integration , energy integration or pinch technology . The process data is represented as a set of energy flows , or streams , as a function of heat load ( kW ) against temperature ( deg C ) . These data are combined for all the streams in the plant to give composite curves , one for all hot streams ( releasing heat ) and one for all cold streams ( requiring heat ) . The point of closest approach between the hot and cold composite curves is the pinch point ( or just pinch ) with a hot stream pinch temperature and a cold stream pinch temperature . This is where the design is most constrained . Hence , by finding this point and starting the design there , the energy targets can be achieved using heat exchangers to recover heat between hot and cold streams in two separate systems , one for temperatures above pinch temperatures and one for temperatures below pinch temperatures . In practice , during the pinch analysis of an existing design , often cross-pinch exchanges of heat are found between a hot stream with its temperature above the pinch and a cold stream below the pinch . Removal of those exchangers by alternative matching makes the process reach its energy target .", "2011 Dalbandin earthquake The 2011 Dalbandin earthquake occurred on with a moment magnitude of Mw 7.2 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI ( Strong ) . The shock occurred in a sparsely populated area of Balochistan , caused moderate damage , three deaths and some injuries .", "Compaction Compaction may refer to : Soil compaction , for mechanically induced compaction near the ground surface Compaction ( geology ) , part of the process of lithification involving mechanical dewatering of a sediment by progressive loading under several km of geomaterial Waste compaction , related to garbage Cold compaction , powder compaction at low temperatures Data compaction , related to computers Curve-fitting compaction Compactor , a device that performs compaction Compaction , a cellular differentiation process during early embryogenesis , which occurs during the cleavage stage of human embryogenesis", "Sudestada Sudestada ( Southeast blow ) is the Spanish name for a climatic phenomenon common to the Río de la Plata ( an estuary formed by the combination of the Uruguay River and the Paraná River on the southeastern coastline of South America ) and its surrounding region . The phenomenon consists of a sudden rotation of cold southern winds to the south-east . This change , while moderating the cold temperatures , loads the air masses with oceanic humidity , bringing heavy rain and rough seas in the coastal regions . The air circulation also increases the intensity of the winds . The Sudestada is most likely to happen between July and October .", "Capping inversion A capping inversion is an elevated inversion layer that caps a convective boundary layer . The boundary layer is the part of the atmosphere which is closest to the ground . Normally , the sun heats the ground , which in turn heats the air just above it . Thermals form when this warm air rises into the cold air ( warm air is less dense than cold air ) , a process described by convection . A convective layer such as this has the potential for cloud formation , since condensation occurs as the warm air rises and cools . An inversion occurs when the normal temperature ( warm air below , cold air above ) profile is reversed , creating a stable configuration of dense , cold air sitting below lighter , warm air . An elevated inversion layer is thus a region of warm air above a region of cold air , but higher in the atmosphere ( generally not touching the surface ) . A capping inversion occurs when there is a boundary layer with a normal temperature profile ( warm air rising into cooler air ) and the layer above that is an inversion layer ( cooler air below warm air ) . Cloud formation from the lower layer is `` capped '' by the inversion layer . If the capping inversion layer or `` cap '' is too strong ( too close to the surface ) , it will prevent thunderstorms from developing . A strong cap can result in foggy conditions . However , if the air at the surface is unstable enough , strong updrafts can be forced through the capping inversion . This selective process of only allowing the strongest updrafts to form thunderstorms often results in outbreaks of severe weather .", "Climate of Grand Forks, North Dakota The Climate of Grand Forks , North Dakota is a warm summer continental ( Köppen Dfb ) typical of cities located in the Great Plains , with four very distinct seasons and great variation in temperatures over very short periods of time . The city 's climate is characterized by long , cold winters with moderate snowfall and warm summers which are typically humid .", "Cold-energy battery A cold-energy battery utilizes the properties of an advanced phase-change material ( PCM ) to maintain temperature . As with a standard electrical battery , a Cold Energy Battery stores energy and releases depending on the energy demand on it . It can then be recharged by placing in an temperature environment conducive to the phase change properties of the PCM .", "Cryogenic hardening Cryogenic hardening is a cryogenic treatment process where the material is cooled to approximately − 185 C , usually using liquid nitrogen . It can have a profound effect on the mechanical properties of certain steels , provided their composition and prior heat treatment are such that they retain some austenite at room temperature . It is designed to increase the amount of martensite in the steel 's crystal structure , increasing its strength and hardness , sometimes at the cost of toughness . Presently this treatment is being practiced over tool steels , high-carbon , and high-chromium steels to obtain excellent wear resistance . Recent research shows that there is precipitation of fine carbides ( eta carbides ) in the matrix during this treatment which imparts very high wear resistance to the steels . The transformation from austenite to martensite is mostly accomplished through quenching , but in general it is driven farther and farther toward completion as temperature decreases . In higher-alloy steels such as austenitic stainless steel , the onset of transformation can require temperatures much lower than room temperature . More commonly , an incomplete transformation occurs in the initial quench , so that cryogenic treatments merely enhance the effects of prior quenching . However , since martensite is a non-equilibrium phase on the iron-iron carbide phase diagram , it has not been shown that warming the part after the cryogenic treatment results in the re-transformation of the induced martensite back to austenite or to ferrite plus cementite , negating the hardening effect . The transformation between these phases is instantaneous and not dependent upon diffusion , and also that this treatment causes more complete hardening rather than moderating extreme hardness , both of which make the term `` cryogenic tempering '' technically incorrect . Hardening need not be due to martensitic transformation , but can also be accomplished by cold work at cryogenic temperatures . The defects introduced by plastic deformation at these low temperatures are often quite different from the dislocations that usually form at room temperature , and produce materials changes that in some ways resemble the effects of shock hardening . While this process is more effective than traditional cold work , it serves mainly as a theoretical test bed for more economical processes such as explosive forging . Many alloys that do not undergo martensitic transformation have been subjected to the same treatments as steels -- that is , cooled with no provisions for cold work . If any benefit is seen from such a process , one plausible explanation is that thermal expansion causes minor but permanent deformation of the material .", "Flexible-fuel vehicles in the United States Flexible-fuel vehicles in the United States are the second largest flex-fuel fleet in the world after Brazil , and there were about 17.4 million flex-fuel cars and light trucks in operation by the end of 2014 . Despite the growing fleet of E85 flex-fuel vehicles , actual use of ethanol fuel is limited due to the lack of E85 refueling infrastructure and also because many American flex-fuel car owners were not aware they owned an E85 flex-fuel vehicle . Flex-fuel vehicles are common in the Midwest , where corn is a major crop and is the primary feedstock for ethanol fuel production . Also the U.S. government has been using flex-fuel vehicles for many years . U.S. flex-fuel vehicles are optimized to run on a maximum blend of 15 % gasoline with 85 % anhydrous ethanol ( called E85 fuel ) . This limit in the ethanol content is set to reduce ethanol emissions at low temperatures and to avoid cold starting problems during cold weather , at temperatures lower than 11 C . The alcohol content is reduced during the winter in regions where temperatures fall below 0 ° C to a winter blend of E70 .", "Cold rubber Cold rubber , or cold polymerized rubber , is synthetic rubber ( especially , SBR and NBR ) emulsion polymerized at a relatively low temperature . The polymerizing temperature is approximately 5 ℃ in the case of SBR and 5 ∼ 10 ℃ in the case of NBR . Since rubber molecule types have a smaller number of branches than hot rubber polymerized at high temperature ( 50 ℃ ) and are characterized by good stereoregularity , cold rubber has superior processability as well as the ability to produce vulcanized materials with good tensile strength , expansion and aging resistance , and flex resistance . Except some SBR and NBR used for special purposes , most SBR and NBR available in the market are considered cold rubber . Category : Rubber Category : Elastomers", "Inversion (meteorology) In meteorology , an inversion is a deviation from the normal change of an atmospheric property with altitude . It almost always refers to a `` temperature inversion '' , i.e. an increase in temperature with height , or to the layer ( `` inversion layer '' ) within which such an increase occurs . An inversion can lead to pollution such as smog being trapped close to the ground , with possible adverse effects on health . An inversion can also suppress convection by acting as a `` cap '' . If this cap is broken for any of several reasons , convection of any moisture present can then erupt into violent thunderstorms . Temperature inversion can notoriously result in freezing rain in cold climates .", "Weld line In manufacturing , the Weld line or Knit line or Meld line is the line where two flow fronts meet when there is the inability of two or more flow fronts to `` knit '' together , or `` weld '' , during the molding process . These lines usually occur around holes or obstructions and cause locally weak areas in the molded part . Knit lines are considered molding defects , and occur when the mold or/and material temperatures are set too low : thus the materials will be cold when they meet , so that they do not bond perfectly . This can cause a weak area in the part which can cause breakage when the part is under stress . There are many Computer Aided Engineering tools that are available that can predict where these areas could occur .", "Ice rink An ice rink ( or ice skating rink ) is a frozen body of water and/or hardened chemicals where people can ice skate or play winter sports . Besides recreational ice skating , some of its uses include ice hockey , bandy , rink bandy , ringette , broomball , speed skating , figure skating , ice stock sport and curling as well as exhibitions , contests and ice shows . There are two types of rinks in prevalent use today : natural , where freezing occurs from cold ambient temperatures , and artificial ( or mechanically frozen ) , where a coolant produces cold temperatures in the surface below the water , causing the water to freeze . There are also synthetic ice rinks where skating surfaces are made out of plastics ." ]

[ "Climate Climate is the statistics of weather , usually over a 30-year interval . It is measured by assessing the patterns of variation in temperature , humidity , atmospheric pressure , wind , precipitation , atmospheric particle count and other meteorological variables in a given region over long periods of time . Climate differs from weather , in that weather only describes the short-term conditions of these variables in a given region . A region 's climate is generated by the climate system , which has five components : atmosphere , hydrosphere , cryosphere , lithosphere , and biosphere . The climate of a location is affected by its latitude , terrain , and altitude , as well as nearby water bodies and their currents . Climates can be classified according to the average and the typical ranges of different variables , most commonly temperature and precipitation . The most commonly used classification scheme was the Köppen climate classification . The Thornthwaite system , in use since 1948 , incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it . The Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region . Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates . Since direct observations of climate are not available before the 19th century , paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables that include non-biotic evidence such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores , and biotic evidence such as tree rings and coral . Climate models are mathematical models of past , present and future climates . Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from a variety of factors ; recent warming is discussed in global warming . Global warming results in redistributions . For example , `` a 3 ° C change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300 -- 400 km in latitude ( in the temperate zone ) or 500 m in elevation . Therefore , species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones '' .", "Greenhouse gas A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "Carbon cycle The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere , pedosphere , geosphere , hydrosphere , and atmosphere of the Earth . Carbon is the main component of biological compounds as well as a major component of many minerals such as limestone . Along with the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle , the carbon cycle comprises a sequence of events that are key to make Earth capable of sustaining life . It describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled and reused throughout the biosphere , as well as long-term processes of carbon sequestration to and release from carbon sinks . The global carbon budget is the balance of the exchanges ( incomes and losses ) of carbon between the carbon reservoirs or between one specific loop ( e.g. , atmosphere and biosphere ) of the carbon cycle . An examination of the carbon budget of a pool or reservoir can provide information about whether the pool or reservoir is functioning as a source or sink for carbon dioxide . The carbon cycle was initially discovered by Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier , and popularized by Humphry Davy .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Polar forests of the Cretaceous Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "Climate change and potatoes Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .", "Atmospheric methane Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "Global warming potential Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "Methanotroph Methanotrophs ( sometimes called methanophiles ) are prokaryotes that metabolize methane as their only source of carbon and energy . They can grow aerobically or anaerobically and require single-carbon compounds to survive . These Methanotrophs are currently being modified to absorb methane from the atmosphere , because methane released into the atmosphere contributes to greenhouse gasses , which heat up the earth and cause global warming .", "Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "Revelle factor The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .", "Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "Global cooling Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme The International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ( IGBP ) was a research programme that studies the phenomenon of global change . It closed in 2015 The International Council of Scientific Unions , a coordinating body of national science organizations , launched IGBP in 1987 . It looked at the total Earth system , the changes that are occurring , and the manner in which changes are influenced by human actions . IGBP aimed to describe and understand how the physical , chemical and biological processes regulate the Earth system . It also seeks to increase knowledge of how humans are influencing the global processes , such as the carbon cycle , nitrogen cycle , sulfur cycle , water cycle and phosphorus cycle . `` It delivers scientific knowledge to help human societies develop in harmony with Earth 's environment . '' IGBP research is organised around six projects representing the Earth system - land , atmosphere , ocean and where they meet ( land-atmosphere , land-ocean . atmosphere-ocean ) and two further projects looking at the Earth system as a whole : Past Global Changes ( PAGES ) which looks at palaeoclimate , and the Analysis , Integration and Modelling of the Earth System ( AIMES ) , which helps set the agenda for Earth system models . Plus four joint projects - carbon , water , human health and food security - with the other three international global-change programmes . In 2004 , IGBP published a landmark synthesis , Global Change and the Earth System ( Steffen et al ) . The synthesis stated that humanity was now the main driver of change at the planetary scale and that Earth is now operating in a `` no analogue '' state . Measurements of Earth system processes , past and present , have led to the conclusion that the planet has moved well outside the range of natural variability in the last half million years at least . Sybil Seitzinger is the Executive Director .", "Carbonate–silicate cycle The carbonate -- silicate geochemical cycle describes the transformation of silicate rocks to carbonate rocks by weathering and sedimentation at Earth 's surface and the transformation of carbonate rocks back into silicates by metamorphism and magmatism . It plays a large part in the carbon cycle , since the equilibrium point of the carbonate-silicate cycle dictates the pace of carbon release from the lithosphere . The carbonate-silicate cycle involves several chemical reactions that occur in different environments . In the atmosphere , gaseous carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) dissolves in rainwater , forming natural carbonic acid ( H2CO3 ) . This weak acid weathers silicate rocks on continents , slowly dissolving the rock and releasing aqueous minerals through the chemical reaction CaSiO3 ( s ) ( wollastonite ) + 2CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) → Ca + 2HCO ( aq ) ( bicarbonate ) + SiO2 ( aq ) ( dissolved silica ) . These dissolved minerals are eventually carried by water to the ocean , where they are used by living organisms such as foraminifera , radiolarians , coccolithopores , and diatoms to create shells of CaCO3 ( calcite ) or SiO2 ( opal ) through the reactions Ca2 + ( aq ) + 2HCO3 → CaCO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) + H2O ( l ) ( for calcite precipitation ) and SiO2 ( aq ) → SiO2 ( s ) ( for opal precipitation ) . When these organisms die , many shells are remineralized but some shells fall all the way to the sea floor and are buried . The cycle is completed when the sea floor is subducted and carbonate minerals recombine with silicate minerals under temperatures above 300 ° C to reform calcium silicates and release gaseous CO2 through volcanism ( CaCO3 ( s ) + SiO2 ( s ) → CaSiO3 ( s ) + CO2 ( g ) ) . The carbonate-silicate cycle impacts the global carbon cycle , as carbon dioxide is removed from the Earth 's surface through the burial of weathered minerals in deep ocean sediments and returned to the atmosphere through metamorphism and volcanism . However , this process is far from being a closed loop . In Earth history generally the formation of carbonates significantly outpaces the formation of silicates , effectively removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Because carbon dioxide is a potent greenhouse gas , the carbonate-silicate cycle is suspected to initiate ice ages by creating a negative feedback on the global temperature with a typical time scale of a few million years that is capable of countering water vapor and carbon dioxide short-term positive feedback on global temperature . The carbonate-silicate cycle equilibrium point is shifted on Venus due to surface temperatures above 300 ° C , which favor the formation of calcium silicates over weathering . Thus , Venus has a high-density carbon-dioxide atmosphere .", "Proxy (climate) In the study of past climates ( `` paleoclimatology '' ) , climate proxies are preserved physical characteristics of the past that stand in for direct meteorological measurements and enable scientists to reconstruct the climatic conditions over a longer fraction of the Earth 's history . Reliable global records of climate only began in the 1880s , and proxies provide the only means for scientists to determine climatic patterns before record-keeping began . Examples of proxies include ice cores , tree rings , sub-fossil pollen , boreholes , corals , lake and ocean sediments , and carbonate speleothems . The character of deposition or rate of growth of the proxies ' material has been influenced by the climatic conditions of the time in which they were laid down or grew . Chemical traces produced by climatic changes , such as quantities of particular isotopes , can be recovered from proxies . Some proxies , such as gas bubbles trapped in ice , enable traces of the ancient atmosphere to be recovered and measured directly to provide a history of fluctuations in the composition of the Earth 's atmosphere . To produce the most precise results , systematic cross-verification between proxy indicators is necessary for accuracy in readings and record-keeping . Proxies can be combined to produce temperature reconstructions longer than the instrumental temperature record and can inform discussions of global warming . The distribution of proxy records , just like the instrumental record , is not at all uniform , with more records in the northern hemisphere .", "Global warming hiatus A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "Guy Stewart Callendar Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''", "Sea surface temperature Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans . Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .", "Planetary equilibrium temperature The planetary equilibrium temperature is a theoretical temperature that a planet would be at when considered simply as if it were a black body being heated only by its parent star . In this model , the presence or absence of an atmosphere ( and therefore any greenhouse effect ) is not considered , and one treats the theoretical black body temperature as if it came from an idealized surface of the planet . Other authors use different names for this concept , such as equivalent blackbody temperature of a planet , or the effective radiation emission temperature of the planet . Similar concepts include the global mean temperature , global radiative equilibrium , and global-mean surface air temperature , which includes the effects of global warming .", "Greenhouse gas removal Greenhouse gas removal projects are a type of climate engineering that seek to remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere , and thus they tackle the root cause of global warming . These techniques either directly remove greenhouse gases , or alternatively seek to influence natural processes to remove greenhouse gases indirectly . The discipline overlaps with carbon capture and storage and carbon sequestration , and some projects listed may not be considered to be geoengineering by all commentators , instead being described as mitigation .", "Climate change mitigation scenarios Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "Stratopause The stratopause ( formerly Mesopeak ) is the level of the atmosphere which is the boundary between two layers : the stratosphere and the mesosphere . In the stratosphere the temperature increases with altitude , and the stratopause is the region where a maximum in the temperature occurs . This atmospheric feature is not only associated with Earth : it occurs on any other planet or moon that has an atmosphere as well . On Earth , the stratopause is 50 to high above the Earth 's surface . The atmospheric pressure is around 1/1000 of the pressure at sea level . The temperature in the stratopause is -15 degrees Celsius ( 5 degrees Fahrenheit ) .", "Mitigation of global warming in Australia Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .", "Satellite temperature measurements The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .", "The Carbon War The Carbon War : Global Warming and the End of the Oil Era is a 1999 book by former oil geologist Jeremy Leggett about global warming .", "Landfill gas Landfill gas is a complex mix of different gases created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill . Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane , with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide . Trace amounts of other volatile organic compounds comprise the remainder ( < 1 % ) . These trace gases include a large array of species , mainly simple hydrocarbons . Landfill gases have an influence on climate change . The major components are CO2 and methane , both of which are greenhouse gas . In terms of global warming potential , methane is over 25 times more detrimental to the atmosphere than carbon dioxide . Landfills are the third largest source of methane in the US .", "Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "Total Carbon Column Observing Network The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .", "Black carbon Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .", "Charles David Keeling Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .", "Terraforming of Venus The terraforming of Venus is the hypothetical process of engineering the global environment of the planet Venus in such a way as to make it suitable for human habitation . Terraforming Venus was first seriously proposed by the astronomer Carl Sagan in 1961 , although fictional treatments , such as The Big Rain by Poul Anderson , preceded it . Adjustments to the existing environment of Venus to support human life would require at least three major changes to the planet . These three changes are closely interrelated , because Venus 's extreme temperature is due to the greenhouse effect caused by its dense carbon-dioxide atmosphere : Reducing Venus 's surface temperature of 462 C. Eliminating most of the planet 's dense 9.2 MPa carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide atmosphere , via removal or conversion to some other form . Addition of breathable oxygen to the atmosphere .", "Eyes on the Earth Eyes on the Earth ( EoE ) is computer visualization software created by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ( JPL ) to visualize a number of NASA 's Earth orbiting spacecraft in-situ and the data they collect on the Earth itself . Originally released as a Unity web player interactive , it has undergone a number of iterations including the mobile app `` Earth Now '' . It lets users monitor earth 's vital signs , such as sea level height , atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration and Antarctic ozone . Trace the movement of water around the globe using the gravity map from NASA 's GRACE satellites . Spot volcanic eruptions and forest fires using the carbon monoxide vital sign . Check out the hottest and coldest locations on Earth with the global surface temperature map.It also displays the location of all of NASA 's operating Earth-observing missions in real time and lets you compare them in size to a scientist or a school bus .", "Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project Deep Earth Carbon Degassing ( DECADE ) project is an initiative to unite scientists around the world to make tangible advances towards quantifying the amount of carbon outgassed from the Earth 's deep interior ( core , mantle , crust ) into the surface environment ( e.g. biosphere , hydrosphere , cryosphere , atmosphere ) through naturally occurring processes . DECADE is an initiative within the Deep Carbon Observatory ( DCO ) . Volcanoes are the main pathway in which deeply-sourced volatiles , including carbon , are transferred from the Earth 's interior to the surface environment . An additional , though less well understood pathway includes along faults and fractures within the Earth 's crust , often referred to as tectonic degassing . When the DCO was first formed in 2009 estimates of global carbon flux from volcanic regions ranged from 65 to 540 Mt/yr , and constraints on global tectonic degassing were virtually unknown . The order of magnitude uncertainty in current volcanic/tectonic carbon outgassing makes answering fundamental questions about the global carbon budget virtually impossible . In particular , one fundamental unknown is if carbon transferred to the Earth 's interior via subduction is efficiently recycled back to the Earth 's mantle lithosphere , crust and surface environment through volcanic and tectonic degassing , or if significant quantities of carbon are being subducted into the deep mantle . Because significant quantities of mantle carbon are also released through Mid-Ocean Ridge volcanism , if carbon inputs and outputs at subduction zone settings are in balance , then the net effect will be an imbalance in the global carbon budget , with carbon being preferentially removed from the Earth 's deep interior and redistributed to more shallow reservoirs including the mantle lithosphere , crust , hydrosphere and atmosphere . The implications of this may mean that carbon concentrations in the surface environment are increasing over Earth 's history , which has significant implications for climate change . Findings from the DECADE project will increase our understanding of the way carbon cycles through deep Earth , and patterns in volcanic emissions data could potentially alert scientists to an impending eruption .", "Greening Earth Society The Greening Earth Society , now defunct , was a public relations organization which promoted the idea that there is considerable scientific doubt about the effects of climate change and increased levels of carbon dioxide . The Society published the World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels of the Cato Institute . It was a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association , with which it shared an office and many staff members . It has been called a `` front group created by the coal industry '' and an `` industry front '' . Fred Palmer , a Society staffer , is a registered lobbyist for Peabody Energy , a coal company . Although the Greening Earth Society was generally skeptical of the impact of climate change , it acknowledged some degree of global warming as real : `` Fact # 1 . The rate of global warming during the past several decades has been about 0.18 ° C per decade '' . Note that the actual increase in the global surface temperature during the 100 years ending in 2005 was 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C.", "Atmospheric Infrared Sounder The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder ( AIRS ) is one of six instruments flying on board NASA 's Aqua satellite , launched on May 4 , 2002 . The instrument is designed to support climate research and improve weather forecasting . Working in combination with its partner microwave instrument , the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit ( AMSU-A ) , AIRS observes the global water and energy cycles , climate variation and trends , and the response of the climate system to increased greenhouse gases . AIRS uses infrared technology to create three-dimensional maps of air and surface temperature , water vapor , and cloud properties . AIRS can also measure trace greenhouse gases such as ozone , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , and methane . AIRS and AMSU-A share the Aqua satellite with the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) , Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) , and the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-EOS ( AMSR-E ) . Aqua is part of NASA 's `` A-train , '' a series of high-inclination , Sun-synchronous satellites in low Earth orbit designed to make long-term global observations of the land surface , biosphere , solid Earth , atmosphere , and ocean . AIRS data is free and available to the public through the Goddard Earth Sciences Data Information and Services Center . NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena , California , manages AIRS for NASA 's Science Mission Directorate in Washington , D.C." ]

[ "Shutdown of thermohaline circulation A shutdown or slowdown of the thermohaline circulation is an effect of global warming on a major ocean circulation . Data from 2010 NASA suggested that the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation has not slowed down , but may have actually sped up slightly in the recent past . However , this has been superseded by a 2015 study that suggests ` that the Gulf Stream has weakened by 15-20 % '", "Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "Greenland ice sheet The Greenland ice sheet ( Grønlands indlandsis , Sermersuaq ) is a vast body of ice covering 1710000 km ² , roughly 80 % of the surface of Greenland . It is the second largest ice body in the world , after the Antarctic ice sheet . The ice sheet is almost 2400 km long in a north-south direction , and its greatest width is 1100 km at a latitude of 77 ° N , near its northern margin . The mean altitude of the ice is 2135 m . The thickness is generally more than 2 km and over 3 km at its thickest point . It is not the only ice mass of Greenland -- isolated glaciers and small ice caps cover between 76000 and around the periphery . If the entire 2850000 km3 of ice were to melt , it would lead to a global sea level rise of 7.2 m . The Greenland Ice Sheet is sometimes referred to under the term inland ice , or its Danish equivalent , indlandsis . It is also sometimes referred to as an ice cap .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Konrad Steffen Konrad `` Koni '' Steffen ( born 1952 ) is a glaciologist and the former director of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder , a position he held from 2005 until he took office as the director of the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest , Snow and Landscape Research on July 1 , 2012 . He is known for his research into Arctic sea ice and the glaciers of Greenland , and how they are affected by global warming . He has often traveled to Greenland to study these glaciers firsthand ; for example , when studying Petermann Glacier for three weeks in 2004 , Steffen did so from a camp set up 4,000 feet up the flanks of the glacier 's ice cap . He also operates a network of 20 weather stations on the Greenland ice sheet , the first of which , Swiss Camp , he established in 1990 . He has argued that due to this ice sheet melting faster than anticipated , sea levels could rise by about 3 feet by 2100 , considerably higher than the IPCC 's upper limit of 59 cm , and that Greenland might lose all its ice in 10,000 years , but Antarctica would take considerably longer , since it is so much bigger .", "Frederikshaab Glacier Frederikshaab Glacier is a glacier on the southwest coast of Greenland in the Sermersooq municipality . It flows from Greenland 's ice sheet and at its mouth melts into various ponds and channels that empty into Davis Strait . The nearest major town is Paamiut , roughly 110 km to the south , although some smaller settlements are closer . Category : Glaciers of Greenland", "Effects of global warming on oceans Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society .", "List of glaciers in Glacier National Park (U.S.) There are at least 35 named glaciers in Glacier National Park ( U.S. ) . In 1850 , the area now comprising the national park had 150 glaciers . There are 25 active glaciers remaining in the park today . Since the ice ages stopped 10,000 years ago , there have been many slight climate shifts causing periods of glacier growth or melt-back . The glaciers are currently being studied to see the effect of global warming It is estimated that if current warming trends continue , there will be no glaciers left in the park by 2030 .", "Retreat of glaciers since 1850 The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .", "Ritacuba Blanco Ritacuba Blanco is the highest peak of Cordillera Oriental , in the Andes Mountains of Colombia . It 's also named Ritak ` uwa , an ancient name from the U'wa indigenous people that live in the lowlands of the National Park Sierra Nevada del Cocuy y Güicán , where the Ritacuba Blanco is located . The summit is accessible from the west via the town of El Cocuy , the village of Güicán and the hamlet of Las Cabañas . The hike is fairly easy , but weather is not reliable , and a glacier must be crossed . Because of global warming , its glacier is melting at very high rates , backing down 25 linear mts per year ; same is happening at amazing speeds to all other snow-covered tropical mountains in Colombia . In 1950 , Ritacuba Blanco 's glacier extended down to 4,500 m above sea level ; in January 2007 its lowest point was at 4,800 m above sea level . If this melting rate continues , the glacier is expected to disappear before 2025 .", "Sea surface temperature Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans . Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .", "Shafat Glacier The Shafat Glacier is a 14 km long glacier in the north eastern Himalayan Range situated 85 km south from Kargil and 294 km east from Srinagar on the right side of Kargil Zanskar Road in the state of Jammu and Kashmir . The Shafat Glacier gives rise to the two mountain peaks of Nun and Kun which have the elevation of more than 6800 meters , and it provides a base to climb these mountain peaks . It lies at an average elevation of 4400 meters . The melt waters add to the flow of the Suru River which is a tributary of the Indus River . The Shafat Glacier is a broken , ice falling glacier melting at an alarming rate due to the Global warming ,", "West Spitsbergen Current The West Spitsbergen Current ( WSC ) is a warm , salty current that runs poleward just west of Spitsbergen , ( formerly called West Spitsbergen ) , in the Arctic Ocean . The WSC branches off the Norwegian Atlantic Current in the Norwegian Sea . The WSC is of importance because it drives warm and salty Atlantic Water into the interior Arctic . The warm and salty WSC flows north through the eastern side of Fram Strait , while the East Greenland Current ( EGC ) flows south through the western side of Fram Strait . The EGC is characterized by being very cold and low in salinity , but above all else it is a major exporter of Arctic sea ice . Thus , the EGC combined with the warm WSC makes the Fram Strait the northernmost ocean area having ice-free conditions throughout the year in all of the global ocean .", "Regional effects of global warming Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "Hurricane Katrina and global warming The tremendous destruction caused by recent Atlantic Ocean tropical cyclones , such as Hurricanes Katrina , Wilma , and Sandy caused a substantial upsurge in interest in the subject of global warming by news media and the wider public , and concerns that global climatic change may have played a significant role in those events . Time Magazine , for example , published an article titled , `` Is Global Warming Fueling Katrina ? '' -- however , the article itself addressed hurricanes in general , rather than Katrina specifically , and was inconclusive . Shortly after the hurricane , former Boston Globe reporter Ross Gelbspan wrote an op-ed piece for the Globe titled , `` Katrina 's Real Name '' , declaring that the hurricane 's `` real name is global warming . '' Gelbspan went on to assert : `` Although Katrina began as a relatively small hurricane that glanced off south Florida , it was supercharged with extraordinary intensity by the relatively blistering sea surface temperatures in the Gulf of Mexico . '' Gelbspan did not single out Katrina from other recent storms in that regard ; in the article he went on to attribute other major weather events over the preceding year to global warming , including a blizzard in Los Angeles , high winds in Scandinavia , wildfires in Spain , and a drought centered in Missouri . Britain 's then deputy prime minister , John Prescott , has linked Katrina with global warming , and statements made shortly after the hurricane by Germany 's environment minister , Jürgen Trittin , indicate he believes that global warming is responsible for an increase in the frequency of destructive natural events . Kerry Emanuel had recently published a paper in the journal Nature that found a good correlation between hurricane intensity and sea surface temperatures . Some journalists have claimed Emanuel 's paper concludes that the recent increase in intense Atlantic storms is due to global warming , but Emanuel stated that `` it would be absurd to attribute the Katrina disaster to global warming '' . The Internet blog RealClimate has written that `` there is no way to prove that Katrina either was , or was not , affected by global warming '' .", "Greenland Brewhouse Greenland Brewhouse was Greenland 's first brewery . It was located in Narsaq in Southern Greenland and was founded in December 2004 . The beer was brewed from water derived from melted icebergs . Melt water was collected from icebergs and transported to the brewery by local fishermen on their fishing boats . Greenland Brewhouse pioneered ` ice beer ' , brewed from 2000-year-old natural Arctic ice harvested from glaciers . Prior to 1954 , alcohol sales were heavily restricted in Greenland , thus home brewing presented problems .", "Cryoconite Cryoconite is powdery windblown dust made of a combination of small rock particles , soot and microbes which is deposited and builds up on snow , glaciers , or ice caps . The darkening , especially from small amounts of soot , absorbs solar radiation melting the snow or ice beneath the deposit , and sometimes creating a cryoconite hole . Cryoconite may contain dust from far away continental deserts or farmland , particles from volcanic eruptions or power plant emissions , and soot . It was first described and named by Nils A. E. Nordenskiöld when he traveled on Greenland 's icecap in 1870 . During summer , cryoconite holes frequently contain liquid water and thus provide a niche for cold-adapted microorganisms like bacteria , algae and animals like rotifers and tardigrades to thrive . Cryoconite typically settles and concentrates at the bottom of these holes creating a noticeable dark mass . Soot decreases the reflectivity , or albedo of ice , increasing absorption of heat . Cryoconite is constantly being added to snow and ice formations along with snow . It is buried within the snow or ice , but as the snow or ice melts increasing amounts of dark material is exposed on the surface , accelerating melting .", "Mingyong Glacier Mingyong Glacier is located in the Yunnan Province , People 's Republic of China , The glacier retreated 200 meters ( 656 feet ) in four years . The region has also seen a rising tree line and these events are believed to be associated with global warming . The glacier is sacred to the local peoples . The glacier is fed by snows which fall on 6,740 m ( 22,107 ft ) Mount Meili , also known as the Meili Snow Mountain . Glaciers in China 's Tibetan region are melting at 7 percent annually . At 28.5 degrees north and an elevation of 2,700 meters ( 8,858 ft ) , the glacier is located at the lowest latitude and elevation of any glacier in China .", "First Light (Stead novel) First Light is a young adult science fiction and mystery novel by Rebecca Stead , first published in 2007 . The novel follows Peter , who is in Greenland with his father and mother for research on global warming , and Thea , who lives in Gracehope , an underground colony located below Greenland . First Light explains how global warming is melting Gracehope and Peter and Thea 's attempt to persuade the people to leave . The novel addresses the effects of global warming as a theme . Stead began writing the novel in 2002 , but her first draft was confusing and unorganized . To help her , she met editor Wendy Lamb who advised her to meet with a small group of people who would help critique the novel . After three years of work , Stead finished the second draft and met with Lamb who once again helped make improvements and later published the novel . Reviewers praised the description of Gracehope and main characters , as well as the performances of Coleen Marlo and David Ackroyd who voiced Thea and Peter in a subsequent audiobook publication of First Light .", "Karale Glacier The Karale Glacier is one of the major glaciers in the area north of Kuummiit , Greenland . Category : Glaciers of Greenland", "List of glaciers in Greenland This is a list of glaciers in Greenland . Details on the size and flow of some of the major Greenlandic glaciers are listed by Eric Rignot and Pannir Kanagaratnam ( 2006 )", "Sandy Glacier Caves The Sandy Glacier Caves are a system of glacier caves within the ice of Sandy Glacier on Mount Hood , Oregon . They are thought to be the largest glacier caves in the lower 48 states of the U.S.A. Surveys done in 2011 and 2012 have measured the system at over 1 mile in length . The caves formed from internal glacial melting . As melting continues , the caves grow larger with entrances to the caves receding up the glacier 's slope . Eventually it is predicted the caves will be completely gone within 7 to 10 years once the interior melting has reached the surface of the glacier . During early summer , all three surveyed caves within the glacier are connected through perennial ice and are called the Snow Dragon Glacier Cave System . By late summer , the perennial ice melts away leaving only the disconnected glacier caves that have been individually named Snow Dragon , Pure Imagination , and Frozen Minotaur Caves . In 2013 , a fourth glacier cave was discovered on the Sandy Glacier , but so far it has not been explored .", "Machoi Glacier The Machoi Glacier is a 9 kilometer long glacier in the north eastern Himalayan Range situated 8 kilometers east from Sonamarg on the right side of NH 1D at Zojila in the state of Jammu and Kashmir . It lies at an average elevation of 4800 meters . The highest peak named after the glacier is the Machoi Peak that lies at the eastern end of the glacier , at an elevation of 5458 meters . The glacier is the source of the Sind River that flows westwards , and the Dras river that flows eastwards . Machoi , like many other Himalayan glaciers has been melting at alarming rates due to Global warming .", "Antarctic ice sheet The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .", "Retrogradation Retrogradation is the landward change in position of the front of a river delta with time . This occurs when the mass balance of sediment into the delta is such that the volume of incoming sediment is less than the volume of the delta that is lost through subsidence , sea-level rise , and/or erosion . As a result , retrogradation is most common : during periods of sea-level rise which results in marine transgression . This can occur during major periods of global warming and the melting of continental ice sheets . with extremely low sediment input .", "Accumulation zone On a glacier , the accumulation zone is the area above the firn line , where snowfall accumulates and exceeds the losses from ablation , ( melting , evaporation , and sublimation ) . The annual Glacier equilibrium line separates the accumulation and ablation zone annually . The accumulation zone is also defined as the part of a glacier 's surface , usually at higher elevations , on which there is net accumulation of snow , which subsequently turns into firn and then glacier ice . Part of the glacier where snow builds up and turns to ice moves outward from there .", "Exodus (Bertagna novel) Exodus is a science fiction novel written for teens to young adults by Julie Bertagna , published in August 2002 . The story is set on an island faced with the problem of a rising sea level , caused by melting ice caps and other forms of global warming . Mara must think of a way to save herself , the other villagers and , most importantly , the world . The book was short-listed for the Whitbread Children 's Book of the Year in 2002 . Exodus is part of a trilogy ; the sequel to the book is Zenith , published in 2007 , followed by Aurora , published in 2011 . Julie Bertagna was inspired to write this book in 1999 , when she learned of two South Pacific Islands being engulfed by the sea as a result of global warming , forcing the people to find higher land . Bertagna started to investigate into the topic of global warming and the stories inspired her to write Exodus and its sequel Zenith . The purpose of the book is to inform young readers about global warming and convince them that something must be done about it .", "Antarctic sea ice Antarctic sea ice is the sea ice of the Southern Ocean . It extends far north in winter and retreats almost to the coastline each summer . Sea ice is frozen seawater that is usually less than a few meters thick . This is in contrast to ice shelves , which are formed by glaciers , float in the sea , and are up to a kilometer thick . There are two subdivisions of sea ice : fast ice , which is attached to land ; and ice floes , which are not . Sea ice in the Southern Ocean melts from the bottom instead of from the surface like Arctic ice because it is covered in snow . As a result , melt ponds are rarely observed . On average , Antarctic sea ice is younger , thinner , warmer , saltier , and more mobile than Arctic sea ice . Due to its inaccessibility , it is not as well-studied as Arctic ice .", "Adam Yamaguchi Adam Yamaguchi ( Los Angeles , California ) is an American television correspondent and producer . He is best known for producing the Vanguard series on Current TV , a former cable network founded by former US Vice President Al Gore . He earned economics and communications degrees at UCLA , where he served as editor-in-chief of the Daily Bruin newspaper . He then worked at Fox Sports , CNN and TV Asahi Japan , also freelancing for a number of agencies , where he traveled the world in pursuit of stories . He has covered the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster , the 2000 presidential election and subsequent debacle , and the September 11 attacks . He has also focused abroad to the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq , indigenous cultures deep in the Amazon , Argentina 's economic collapse , the Inuit whale hunt , Japanese suicide , Korean defectors , Global Warming , AIDS in Cuba , free press in the Middle East , and the HIV/AIDS epidemic in India . While producing a series of reports on global warming and other environmental issues , he recently traveled to Colombia and Bolivia to produce a series on coca cultivation and changing attitudes toward U.S. policy in the region . A recent edition of the series Vanguard included an in-depth look at the Northern Mariana Islands and Saipan with the collapse of its largest industry , the manufacturing of clothing . Another Vanguard documentary featured a look at Japan 's impending population collapse . In the Vanguard series , he also examines glacier melt in Greenland .", "Outwash fan An outwash fan is a fan-shaped body of sediments deposited by braided streams from a melting glacier . Sediment locked within the ice of the glacier , gets transported by the streams of meltwater , and deposits on the outwash plain , at the terminus of the glacier . The outwash , the sediment transported and deposited by the meltwater and that makes up the fan , is usually poorly sorted due to the short distance traveled before being deposited .", "Fluvio-glacial Fluvio refers to things related to rivers and glacial refers to something that is of ice . Fluvio-glacial refers to the meltwater created when a glacier melts . Fluvio-glacial processes can occur on the surface and within the glacier . The deposits that happen within the glacier are revealed after the entire glacier melts or partially retreats . Fluvio-glacial landforms and erosional surfaces include : outwash plains , kames , kame terraces , kettle holes , eskers , varves , and proglacial lakes .", "Thwaites Glacier Thwaites Glacier is an unusually broad and fast Antarctic glacier flowing into Pine Island Bay , part of the Amundsen Sea , east of Mount Murphy , on the Walgreen Coast of Marie Byrd Land . Its surface speeds exceed 2 km/yr near its grounding line , and its fastest flowing grounded ice is centred between 50 and 100 km east of Mount Murphy . It was named by ACAN after Fredrik T. Thwaites , a glacial geologist , geomorphologist and professor emeritus at the University of Wisconsin -- Madison . Thwaites Glacier drains into West Antarctica 's Amundsen Sea and is closely watched for its potential to raise sea levels . Along with Pine Island Glacier , Thwaites Glacier has been described as part of the `` weak underbelly '' of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet , due to its apparent vulnerability to significant retreat . This hypothesis is based on both theoretical studies of the stability of marine ice sheets and recent observations of large changes on both of these glaciers . In recent years , the flow of both of these glaciers have accelerated , their surfaces lowered , and the grounding lines retreated .", "Touming Mengke Glacier The Mengke glacier is one of China 's largest glaciers . The glacier is 10.1 km long . It covers 21.9 sqkm . It is located in the Qilian Mountain range , in Subei County . The New York Times profiled the glacier 's retreat as symbolic of the dangers of global warming .", "Glaciers of Bhutan The glaciers of Bhutan , which covered about 10 percent of the total surface area in the 1980s , are an important renewable source of water for Bhutan 's rivers . Fed by fresh snow each winter and slow melting in the summer , the glaciers bring millions of litres of fresh water to Bhutan and downriver areas each year . Glacial melt also adds to monsoon-swollen rivers which may be a contributing factor to flooding . Where glacial movement temporary blocks riverflows , downstream areas may be threatened by glacial lake outburst flood ( `` GLOFs '' ) . Although GLOFs are not a new phenomenon in Bhutan , their frequency has risen in the past three decades . Significant GLOFs occurred in 1957 , 1960 , 1968 and 1994 , devastating lives and property downstream . According to the Bhutan Department of Energy however , the majority of rivers in Bhutan are more susceptible to fluctuation with changing rainfall patterns than to flooding directly attributable to glacier or snow melt .", "Angaangaq Lyberth Angaangaq Lyberth is a politician from Greenland . He has been quoted on the effects of global warming in Greenland . He has represented Arctic peoples in the United Nations General Assembly , and frequently speaks before governments and universities .", "Greenland (2011 play) Greenland is a play by the British playwrights Moira Buffini , Penelope Skinner , Matt Charman and Jack Thorne on global warming and its effects , named after the island of Greenland . It premiered at the Lyttelton auditorium of the Royal National Theatre in London from 27 January to 2 April 2011 , directed by Bijan Sheibani and with a cast including Lyndsey Marshal ." ]

[ "Fossil fuel Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms , containing energy originating in ancient photosynthesis . The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years , and sometimes exceeds 650 million years . Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include petroleum , coal , and natural gas . Other commonly used derivatives include kerosene and propane . Fossil fuels range from volatile materials with low carbon to hydrogen ratios like methane , to liquids like petroleum , to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon , like anthracite coal . Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields either alone , associated with oil , or in the form of methane clathrates . The theory that fossil fuels formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth 's crust over millions of years was first introduced by Georgius Agricola in 1556 and later by Mikhail Lomonosov in the 18th century . The Energy Information Administration estimates that in 2007 the primary sources of energy consisted of petroleum 36.0 % , coal 27.4 % , natural gas 23.0 % , amounting to an 86.4 % share for fossil fuels in primary energy consumption in the world . Non-fossil sources in 2006 included nuclear 8.5 % , hydroelectric 6.3 % , and others ( geothermal , solar , tidal , wind , wood , waste ) amounting to 0.9 % . World energy consumption was growing about 2.3 % per year . Although fossil fuels are continually being formed via natural processes , they are generally considered to be non-renewable resources because they take millions of years to form and the known viable reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being made . The use of fossil fuels raises serious environmental concerns . The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes ( 21.3 gigatonnes ) of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) per year . It is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount , so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year . Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that increases radiative forcing and contributes to global warming . A global movement towards the generation of renewable energy is underway to help reduce global greenhouse gas emissions .", "Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "Greenhouse gas A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Airborne fraction The airborne fraction is a scaling factor defined as the ratio of the annual increase in atmospheric to the emissions from anthropogenic sources . It represents the proportion of human emitted that remains in the atmosphere . The fraction averages about 45 % , meaning that approximately half the human-emitted is absorbed by ocean and land surfaces . There is some evidence for a recent increase in airborne fraction , which would imply a faster increase in atmospheric for a given rate of human fossil-fuel burning . However , other sources suggest that the `` fraction of carbon dioxide has not increased either during the past 150 years or during the most recent five decades '' . Changes in carbon sinks can affect the airborne fraction .", "Atmospheric methane Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "Carbon emission trading Carbon emissions trading is a form of emissions trading that specifically targets carbon dioxide ( calculated in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent or tCO2e ) and it currently constitutes the bulk of emissions trading . This form of permit trading is a common method countries utilize in order to meet their obligations specified by the Kyoto Protocol ; namely the reduction of carbon emissions in an attempt to reduce ( mitigate ) future climate change . Under Carbon trading , a country having more emissions of carbon is able to purchase the right to emit more and the country having less emission trades the right to emit carbon to other countries . More carbon emitting countries , by this way try to keep the limit of carbon emission specified to them .", "Carbon profiling Carbon profiling is a mathematical process that calculates how much carbon dioxide is put into the atmosphere per m2 of space in a building over one year . The analysis is in two parts which are then added together to produce an overall figure which is termed the ` Carbon Profile ' : operational carbon emissions embodied carbon emissions . Embodied carbon emissions relate to the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from creating and maintaining the materials that form the building e.g. the carbon dioxide released from the baking of bricks or smelting or iron . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured as Embodied Carbon Efficiency ( ECE ) , measured as kg of CO2/m2/year . Occupational Carbon Emissions relate to the amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from the direct use of energy to run the building e.g. the heating or electricity used by the building over the year . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured in BER 's ( Building Emission Rate ) in kg of / m2/year . The BER is a United Kingdom government accepted unit of measurement that comes from an approved calculation process called sBEM ( Simplified Building Emission Model ) The purpose of Carbon Profiling is to provide a method of analyzing and comparing both operational and embodied carbon emissions at the same time . With this information it is then possible to allocate a projects resources in such a way to minimize the total amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through the use of a given piece of space . A secondary benefit is that having quantified the Carbon Profiling of different buildings it is then possible to make comparisons and rank buildings in term of their performance . This allows investors and occupiers to identify which building are good and bad carbon investments . Simon Sturgis and Gareth Roberts of Sturgis Associates in the United Kingdom originally developed ` Carbon Profiling ' in December 2007 .", "Atmosphere An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .", "List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .", "Biocapacity The biocapacity or biological capacity of an ecosystem is an estimate of its production of certain biological materials such as natural resources , and its absorption and filtering of other materials such as carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . `` Useful biological materials '' are defined as those demanded by the human economy . Biological capacity available per person ( or per capita ) : There were 12 billion hectares of biologically productive land and water on this planet in 2008 . Dividing by the number of people alive in that year , 6.7 billion , gives 1.8 global hectares per person . This assumes that no land is set aside for other species that consume the same biological material as humans .", "Carbon credit A carbon credit is a generic term for any tradable certificate or permit representing the right to emit one tonne of carbon dioxide or the mass of another greenhouse gas with a carbon dioxide equivalent ( tCO2e ) equivalent to one tonne of carbon dioxide . Carbon credits and carbon markets are a component of national and international attempts to mitigate the growth in concentrations of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . One carbon credit is equal to one tonne of carbon dioxide , or in some markets , carbon dioxide equivalent gases . Carbon trading is an application of an emissions trading approach . Greenhouse gas emissions are capped and then markets are used to allocate the emissions among the group of regulated sources . The goal is to allow market mechanisms to drive industrial and commercial processes in the direction of low emissions or less carbon intensive approaches than those used when there is no cost to emitting carbon dioxide and other GHGs into the atmosphere . Since GHG mitigation projects generate credits , this approach can be used to finance carbon reduction schemes between trading partners and around the world . There are also many companies that sell carbon credits to commercial and individual customers who are interested in lowering their carbon footprint on a voluntary basis . These carbon offsetters purchase the credits from an investment fund or a carbon development company that has aggregated the credits from individual projects . Buyers and sellers can also use an exchange platform to trade , which is like a stock exchange for carbon credits . The quality of the credits is based in part on the validation process and sophistication of the fund or development company that acted as the sponsor to the carbon project . This is reflected in their price ; voluntary units typically have less value than the units sold through the rigorously validated Clean Development Mechanism .", "Carbon dioxide removal Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .", "Carbon footprint A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .", "Black carbon Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .", "Carbon monitoring Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .", "Contribution to global warming by Australia Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .", "Carbon sequestration Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .", "Environmental issue Environmental issues are harmful trouble effects of human activity on the biophysical environment . Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on individual , organizational or governmental levels , for the benefit of both the environment and humans . Environmentalism , a social and environmental movement , addresses environmental issues through advocacy , education and activism . The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) in the atmosphere has already exceeded 400 parts per million ( NOAA ) ( with total `` long-term '' GHG exceeding 455 parts per million ) . ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Report ) This level is considered a tipping point . `` The amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is already above the threshold that can potentially cause dangerous climate change . We are already at risk of many areas of pollution ... It 's not next year or next decade , it 's now . '' Report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) : Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem , and this is a problem that is on going every day . By year 2050 , the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion people , thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people ( Living Blue Planet 24 ) . The human effects on Earth can be seen in many different ways . A main one is the temperature rise , and according to the report '' Our Changing Climate '' , the global warming that has been going on for the past 50 years is primarily due to human activities ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) . Since 1895 , the U.S. average temperature has increased from 1.3 ° F to 1.9 ° F , with most of the increase taken place since around year 1970 ( Walsh , et al. 20 ) .", "Global Carbon Project The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .", "Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .", "Carbon diet A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "Air pollution Air pollution occurs when harmful substances including particulates and biological molecules are introduced into Earth 's atmosphere . It may cause diseases , allergies or death in humans ; it may also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops , and may damage the natural or built environment . Human activity and natural processes can both generate air pollution . Indoor air pollution and poor urban air quality are listed as two of the world 's worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World 's Worst Polluted Places report . According to the 2014 WHO report , air pollution in 2012 caused the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide , an estimate roughly matched by the International Energy Agency .", "Climate system Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "Greenhouse effect The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "Deforestation and climate change Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth's atmosphere The following articles relate to Carbon dioxide accumulation in Earth 's atmosphere : Carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere Global warming Greenhouse effect", "Estuarine acidification Estuarine acidification is a decrease in the pH of coastal marine ecosystems , specifically those of estuaries . pH change in estuaries is more complicated than in the open ocean due to direct impacts from land run-off and coastal current dynamics . Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the absorption of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere ( 0.1 units over the last century ) . The ocean absorbs 30-40 % of all CO2 emitted to the atmosphere ; this increase in aqueous carbon dioxide causes a decline in the pH of the ocean surface . As carbon dioxide combines with water , it releases protons ( hydrogen ions ) , based on the following equation : CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ HCO3 + H + ↔ CO3 + 2 H +", "The Green Initiative The Green Initiative has as its main objective the offsetting of Greenhouse gases emitted by human activities that can range from complex industrial production processes to simply driving a car , with reforestation projects in riparian areas that need to be recovered . The trees planted will absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and provide , as well as environmental benefits , such as water and air quality preservation , and biodiversity protection .", "CO2 fertilization effect The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "Cement kiln Cement kilns are used for the pyroprocessing stage of manufacture of Portland and other types of hydraulic cement , in which calcium carbonate reacts with silica-bearing minerals to form a mixture of calcium silicates . Over a billion tonnes of cement are made per year , and cement kilns are the heart of this production process : their capacity usually defines the capacity of the cement plant . As the main energy-consuming and greenhouse-gas -- emitting stage of cement manufacture , improvement of kiln efficiency has been the central concern of cement manufacturing technology .", "Keeling Curve The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .", "Effects of global warming The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "Carbon neutrality Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .", "Carbon cycle re-balancing The carbon cycle is the process by which carbon is exchanged between the four reservoirs of carbon : the biosphere , the earth , the air and water . Exchanges take place in several ways , including respiration , transpiration , combustion , and decomposition . The carbon balance , or carbon budget , is the balance of exchange between the four reservoirs . Debate about 're - balancing the carbon cycle ' arises from a concern that use of fossil fuels , which has accelerated since the start of the industrial revolution , has caused carbon to accumulate in the atmosphere . Levels of CO2 in the atmosphere are estimated to have risen from 280 ppm to almost 400 ppm since 1800 and this is linked to global warming . It is therefore argued that the carbon cycle should be re-balanced by reducing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere . ` Carbon cycle re-balancing ' is a useful name for a group of environmental policies listed below . The name gives a specific reason for adopting these policies . Related names , including pleas for sustainable development and participation in the green movement are politics-based rather than science-based . Carbon offset - for example by photosynthesis ( e.g. in new forests ) Carbon capture and storage - extraction of CO2 and placing it underground or underwater Carbon capture and transformation - extraction of CO2 and reacting it with hydrogen via renewable energy electrolysis to create methane as an energy store/carrier . Low to neutral cycle Sustainable energy - a shift from fossil fuels energy to wind power and solar power Nuclear power - as an alternative to fossil fuels Sustainable design - to reduce inputs and outputs of energy Sustainable transport - to reduce reliance on fossil fuels Burning domestic refuse to generate power can be promoted as a recycling , and therefore sustainable , policy . But from a carbon cycle re-balancing standpoint it is better to compost as much domestic refuse as possible ." ]

[ "El Niño–Southern Oscillation El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .", "El Niño El Niño -LSB- ɛl_ˈniːnjoʊ -RSB- ( -LSB- el ˈniɲo -RSB- ) is the warm phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation ( commonly called ENSO ) and is associated with a band of warm ocean water that develops in the central and east-central equatorial Pacific ( between approximately the International Date Line and 120 ° W ) , including off the Pacific coast of South America . El Niño Southern Oscillation refers to the cycle of warm and cold temperatures , as measured by sea surface temperature , SST , of the tropical central and eastern Pacific Ocean . El Niño is accompanied by high air pressure in the western Pacific and low air pressure in the eastern Pacific . The cool phase of ENSO is called `` La Niña '' with SST in the eastern Pacific below average and air pressures high in the eastern and low in western Pacific . The ENSO cycle , both El Niño and La Niña , cause global changes of both temperatures and rainfall . Developing countries that are dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are usually most affected . In American Spanish , the capitalized term `` El Niño '' refers to `` the little boy '' , so named because the pool of warm water in the Pacific near South America is often at its warmest around Christmas . The original name , `` El Niño de Navidad '' , traces its origin centuries back to Peruvian fisherman , who named the weather phenomenon in reference to the newborn Christ . `` La Niña '' , chosen as the ` opposite ' of El Niño , literally translates to `` the little girl '' .", "La Niña La Niña ( -LSB- lɑːˈniːnjə -RSB- , -LSB- la ˈniɲa -RSB- ) is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon that is the counterpart of El Niño as part of the broader El Niño -- Southern Oscillation climate pattern . The name La Niña originates from Spanish , meaning `` the little girl '' , analogous to El Niño meaning `` the little boy '' . It has also in the past been called anti-El Niño , and El Viejo ( meaning `` the old man '' ) . During a period of La Niña , the sea surface temperature across the equatorial Eastern Central Pacific Ocean will be lower than normal by 3 to 5 ° C . In the United States , an appearance of La Niña persists for at least five months . It has extensive effects on the weather in North America , even affecting the Atlantic Hurricane Season ." ]

[ "Sarah Barlondo Sarah Barlondo is a French actress . She plays the role of Aranza in the Mexican television series Un Refugio para el Amor . She also appeared in the series La Fuerza del Destino , Ni contigo ni sin ti and Esperanza del Corazón .", "Sabine Moussier Sabine Moussier ( -LSB- saˈβine muˈsjer -RSB- ; born Diana Sabine Moussier August 23 , 1966 in Leverkusen , North Rhine-Westphalia , West Germany ) is a German-Mexican actress who is best known for her villainous roles in Televisa 's telenovelas , such as El privilegio de amar , Entre el amor y el odio , La madrastra , Amar sin límites , Piel de otoño , Amor sin maquillaje , Las tontas no van al cielo , Mi pecado , Abismo de pasión , La malquerida y Que te perdone Dios . She starred as the protagonist in Ni contigo ni sin ti .", "Ni Zhiqin Ni Zhiqin ( ; born 14 April 1942 in Quanzhou ) often referred to as Ni Chih-Chin , is a retired Chinese high jumper . He is known for breaking the world record with 2.29 m on 8 November 1970 in Changsha , but because PR China was not a member of the International Association of Athletics Federations at the time , his record was never ratified .", "Ame no Hi ni wa Ame no Naka o Kaze no Hi ni wa Kaze no Naka o `` Ame no Hi ni wa Ame no Naka o Kaze no Hi ni wa Kaze no Naka o '' ( 雨の日には 雨の中を 風の日には 風の中を , In the Rain When It 's Rainy , In the Wind When It 's Windy ) , is the twenty-eighth single and second collaboration single released by J-Pop singer Hitomi Shimatani . It is set to be released on June 25 , 2008 , and restricted to a CD-only format . It was released on the same day as a solo single from Hitomi , entitled Wake You Up/Ame no Hi ni wa Ame no Naka o Kaze no Hi ni wa Kaze no Naka o/Marvelous , which contains the tracks Wake You Up and Marvelous , which are not included on this single . However , it will not contain Amaoto , a b-side which will be included on this version of the single . This single will also contain bonus rap and duet versions of the title track , and the jacket artwork is said to be based on the book , Ame no Hi ni Wa .", "Ni Por La Razón, Ni Por La Fuerza Ni por la razón , ni por la fuerza is a double album compilation of the Chilean band Los Prisioneros launched in 1996 . Consists of almost all songs from the band , also includes new songs , both ancient and contemporary . It is considered by many critics as the best compilation album of the group . The disc name parodies the Chilean patriotic theme , in token of their full contradiction . On the album cover can be seen Jorge González Ríos , Claudio Narea and Miguel Tapia as the heroes of the motherland .", "Polar amplification Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .", "Ni ke Dre Ni ke Dre , Νι και Ντρε ( el ) is an anonymous Greek sousta . The meter is .", "Wake You Up/Ame no Hi ni wa Ame no Naka o Kaze no Hi ni wa Kaze no Naka o/Marvelous Wake You Up/Ame no Hi ni wa Ame no Naka o Kaze no Hi ni wa Kaze no Naka o/Marvelous ( 雨の日には 雨の中を 風の日には 風の中を , in the rain when it 's rainy , in the wind when it 's windy ) , is twenty-eighth single released by J-Pop singer Hitomi Shimatani . Released on June 25 , 2008 , it is only available in a CD+DVD format . It was released the same day as an additional collaboration single with Mitsuo Aida , Ame no Hi ni wa Ame no Naka wo Kaze no Hi ni wa Kaze no Naka wo , whose title and track listing differ slightly from this single 's ( and exclude the tracks Marvelous and Wake You Up ) and thus is considered a separate single . Wake You Up had been announced as the theme song for the 2008 Japanese television drama series K-tai Investigator 7 . The DVD is known to contain the music videos for all three title tracks . This information is subject to change at the moment .", "Atmospheric circulation Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air , and together with ocean circulation is the means by which thermal energy is redistributed on the surface of the Earth . The Earth 's atmospheric circulation varies from year to year , but the large scale structure of its circulation remains fairly constant . The smaller scale weather systems -- mid-latitude depressions , or tropical convective cells -- occur `` randomly '' , and long range weather predictions of those can not be made beyond ten days in practice , or a month in theory ( see Chaos theory and Butterfly effect ) . The Earth 's weather is a consequence of its illumination by the Sun , and the laws of thermodynamics . The atmospheric circulation can be viewed as a heat engine driven by the Sun 's energy , and whose energy sink , ultimately , is the blackness of space . The work produced by that engine causes the motion of the masses of air and in that process it redistributes the energy absorbed by the Earth 's surface near the tropics to space and incidentally to the latitudes nearer the poles . The large scale atmospheric circulation `` cells '' shift polewards in warmer periods ( for example , interglacials compared to glacials ) , but remain largely constant as they are , fundamentally , a property of the Earth 's size , rotation rate , heating and atmospheric depth , all of which change little . Over very long time periods ( hundreds of millions of years ) , a tectonic uplift can significantly alter their major elements , such as the jet stream , and plate tectonics may shift ocean currents . During the extremely hot climates of the Mesozoic , a third desert belt may have existed at the Equator .", "Mictomagnetism Mictomagnetism is a spin system in which various exchange interactions are mixed . It is observed in several kinds of alloys , including Cu-Mn , Fe-Al and Ni-Mn alloys . Cooled in zero magnetic field , these materials have low remanence and coercivity . Cooled in a magnetic field , they have much larger remanence and the hysteresis loop is shifted in the direction opposite to the field ( an effect similar to exchange bias ) .", "Ni Kuang Ni Cong ( born 30 May 1935 ) , courtesy name Yiming , better known by his pen name Ni Kuang ( also romanised Ngai Hong , I Kuang and Yi Kuang ) , is a Hong Kong-American novelist and screenwriter . He has written over 300 Chinese-language wuxia and science fiction novels , and more than 400 film scripts .", "Larry R. Johnson Larry R. Johnson was a noted meteorologist .", "Heat transfer efficiency ", "Nickel(II) nitrate Nickel nitrate is the inorganic compound Ni ( NO3 ) 2 or any hydrate thereof . The anhydrous form is not commonly encountered , thus `` nickel nitrate '' usually refers to nickel ( II ) nitrate hexahydrate . The formula for this species is written in two ways . Ni ( NO3 ) 2.6 H2O and , more descriptively -LSB- Ni ( H2O ) 6 -RSB- ( NO3 ) 2 . The latter formula indicates that the nickel ( II ) center is surrounded by six water molecules in this hydrated salt . In the hexahydrate , the nitrate anions are not bonded to nickel . Also known are three other hydrates : Ni ( NO3 ) 2.9 H2O , Ni ( NO3 ) 2.4 H2O , and Ni ( NO3 ) 2.2 H2O . Anhydrous Ni ( NO3 ) 2 is also known . It is prepared by the reaction of nickel oxide with nitric acid : NiO + 2 HNO3 + 5 H2O → Ni ( NO3 ) 2.6 H2O The anhydrous nickel nitrate is typically not prepared by the heating the hydrates . Rather is generated by reaction of hydrates with dinitrogen pentoxide or of nickel carbonyl with dinitrogen tetroxide : Ni ( CO ) 4 + 2 N2O4 → Ni ( NO3 ) 2 + 2 NO + 4 CO The hydrated nitrate is often used as a precursor to supported nickel catalysts .", "Physical properties of greenhouse gases ", "NIS Nis , Niš , NiS or NIS may refer to :", "O (Eiko Shimamiya album) O is the first full-length album from Eiko Shimamiya , it includes the hit single Higurashi no Naku Koro ni ( opening from the same-titled anime ) . A limited edition with a DVD including the music video of Higurashi no Naku Koro ni is available . The album charted for five weeks on the Oricon charts and sold 10,000 copies .", "Milluni Peak Milluni Peak , also known as or Pico Milluni ( composed of Spanish pico peak and Aymara milluni , millu light brown , reddish , fair-haired , dark chestnut , - ni suffix to indicate ownership , `` the brown one '' ) , is a mountain in the Andes , about 5,483 m ( 17,989 ft ) high , located in the Cordillera Real of Bolivia in the La Paz Department , Pedro Domingo Murillo Province , El Alto Municipality . It is situated south of Wayna Potosí and northeast of El Alto and La Paz .", "2014–16 El Niño event The 2014 -- 16 El Niño was a warming of the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean that resulted in unusually warm waters developing between the coast of South America and the International Date Line . These unusually warm waters influenced the world 's weather in a number of ways , which in turn significantly affected various parts of the world . These included drought conditions in Venezuela , Australia and a number of Pacific islands while significant flooding was also recorded . During the event more tropical cyclones than normal occurred within the Pacific Ocean , while fewer than normal occurred in the Atlantic Ocean .", "Luni Luni and homophones Lo ( o ) ni may refer to :", "Orders of magnitude (temperature) ", "2010–12 La Niña event The 2010 -- 12 La Niña event was one of the strongest on record . It caused Australia to experience its wettest September on record in 2010 , and its second-wettest year on record in 2010 . It also led to an unusual intensification of the Leeuwin Current , the 2010 Pakistan floods , the 2010 -- 11 Queensland floods , and the 2011 East Africa drought . It also helped keep the average global temperature below recent trends , leading to 2011 tying with 1997 for the 14th-warmest year on record .", "Global warming in Turkey ", "Soqosoqo ni Vakavulewa ni Taukei The Soqosoqo ni Vakavulewa ni Taukei ( SVT ) , occasionally known in English as Fijian Political Party , was a party which dominated politics in the 1990s and was the mainstay of coalition governments from 1992 to 1999 .", "Nickel(II) precatalysts Nickel ( II ) precatalysts are a type of catalyst used in organic reactions . Many transformations are catalyzed by nickel in organometallic chemistry and in organic synthesis . Many of these transformations invoke a low valent ( generally Ni ( 0 ) ) species as the active catalyst . Unfortunately , unlike its counterpart , Pd ( 0 ) , Ni ( 0 ) catalysts are predominantly confined to the glovebox due to their high instability to air and water , with the most common Ni ( 0 ) catalyst being Ni ( cod ) 2 . Additionally , Ni ( cod ) 2 is more expensive than many Ni ( II ) salts and the quality varies significantly amongst suppliers . To make nickel catalysis more accessible and amenable to synthesis and industrial purposes , the use of air-stable Ni ( II ) precursors has emerged as an important development in this area of research . This page describes the more commonly employed nickel ( II ) precatalysts , their synthesis for those not commercially available , and the methods for their reduction to Ni ( 0 ) complexes .", "Multiphase heat transfer ", "Climate change (general concept) Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.", "Sea surface temperature Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans . Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .", "Ni Ni Ni Ni ( born 8 August 1988 ) is a Chinese actress . She rose to fame playing the role of Yu Mo in the 2011 film The Flowers of War , directed by Zhang Yimou . Ni Ni was chosen as the one of the New Four Dan Actresses in 2013 .", "Adaptation to global warming in Australia ", "NI NI or Ni may refer to :", "Sun-Ni law Sun-Ni 's Law ( or Sun and Ni 's Law , also known as memory-bounded speedup ) , is a memory-bounded speedup model which states that as computing power increases the corresponding increase in problem size is constrained by the system 's memory capacity . In general , as a system grows in computational power , the problems run on the system increase in size . Analogous to Amdahl 's law , which says that the problem size remains constant as system sizes grow , and Gustafson 's law , which proposes that the problem size should scale but be bound by a fixed amount of time , Sun-Ni 's Law states the problem size should scale but be bound by the memory capacity of the system . Sun-Ni 's Law was initially proposed by Xian-He Sun and Lionel Ni at the Proceedings of IEEE Supercomputing Conference 1990 . With the increasing disparity between CPU speed and memory data access latency , application execution time often depends on the memory speed of the system . As predicted by Sun and Ni , data access has become the premier performance bottleneck for high-end computing . From this fact one can see the intuition behind Sun-Ni 's Law , as system resources increase , applications are often bottlenecked by memory speed and bandwidth , thus an application can achieve a larger speedup by utilizing all the memory capacity in the system . Sun-Ni 's Law can be applied to different layers of a memory hierarchy system , from L1 cache to main memory . Through its memory-bounded function , W = G ( M ) , it reveals the trade-off between computing and memory in algorithm and system architecture design . All three speedup models , Sun-Ni , Gustafson , and Amdahl , provide a metric to analyze speedup for Parallel computing . Amdahl 's law focuses on the time reduction for a given fixed-size problem . Amdahl 's law states that the sequential portion of the problem ( algorithm ) limits the total speedup that can be achieved as system resources increase . Gustafson 's law suggests that it is beneficial to build a large-scale parallel system as the speedup can grow linearly with the system size if the problem size is scaled up to maintain a fixed execution time . Yet as memory access latency often becomes the dominant factor in an application 's execution time , applications may not scale up to meet the time bound constraint . Sun-Ni 's Law , instead of constraining the problem size by time , constrains the problem by the memory capacity of the system , or in other words bounds based on memory . Sun-Ni 's Law is a generalization of Amdahl 's Law and Gustafson 's Law . When the memory-bounded function G ( M ) = 1 , it resolves to Amdahl 's law , when the memory-bounded function G ( M ) = m , the number of processors , it resolves to Gustafson 's Law ." ]

[ "Satellite temperature measurements The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .", "European Southern Observatory The European Southern Observatory ( ESO , formally : European Organization for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere ; Organisation Européenne pour des Recherches Astronomiques dans l'Hémisphere Austral ) is a 16-nation intergovernmental research organization for ground-based astronomy . Created in 1962 , ESO has provided astronomers with state-of-the-art research facilities and access to the southern sky . The organisation employs about 730 staff members and receives annual member state contributions of approximately $ 131 million . Its observatories are located in northern Chile . ESO has built and operated some of the largest and most technologically advanced telescopes . These include the New Technology Telescope , an early pioneer in the use of active optics , and the Very Large Telescope ( VLT ) , which consists of four individual telescopes , each with a primary mirror 8.2 metre across , and four smaller auxiliary telescopes . The Atacama Large Millimeter Array observes the universe in the millimetre and submillimetre wavelength ranges , and is the world 's largest ground-based astronomy project to date . It was completed in March 2013 in an international collaboration by Europe ( represented by ESO ) , North America , East Asia and Chile . Currently under construction is the European Extremely Large Telescope . It will use a 39.3-metre-diameter segmented mirror , and become the world 's largest optical reflecting telescope when operational in 2024 . Its light-gathering power will allow detailed studies of planets around other stars , the first objects in the universe , supermassive black holes , and the nature and distribution of the dark matter and dark energy which dominate the universe . ESO 's observing facilities have made astronomical discoveries and produced several astronomical catalogues . Its findings include the discovery of the most distant gamma-ray burst and evidence for a black hole at the centre of the Milky Way . In 2004 , the VLT allowed astronomers to obtain the first picture of an extrasolar planet ( 2M1207b ) orbiting a brown dwarf 173 light-years away . The High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher ( HARPS ) instrument installed in another ESO telescope led to the discovery of extrasolar planets , including Gliese 581c -- one of the smallest planets seen outside the solar system .", "Infrared Infrared radiation , or simply infrared or IR , is electromagnetic radiation ( EMR ) with longer wavelengths than those of visible light , and is therefore invisible , although it is sometimes loosely called infrared light . It extends from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers ( frequency 430 THz ) , to 1000000 nm ( 300 GHz ) ( although people can see infrared up to at least 1050 nm in experiments ) . Most of the thermal radiation emitted by objects near room temperature is infrared . Like all EMR , IR carries radiant energy , and behaves both like a wave and like its quantum particle , the photon . Infrared was discovered in 1800 by astronomer Sir William Herschel , who discovered a type of invisible radiation in the spectrum lower in energy than red light , by means of its effect on a thermometer . Slightly more than half of the total energy from the Sun was eventually found to arrive on Earth in the form of infrared . The balance between absorbed and emitted infrared radiation has a critical effect on Earth 's climate . Infrared radiation is emitted or absorbed by molecules when they change their rotational-vibrational movements . It excites vibrational modes in a molecule through a change in the dipole moment , making it a useful frequency range for study of these energy states for molecules of the proper symmetry . Infrared spectroscopy examines absorption and transmission of photons in the infrared range . Infrared radiation is used in industrial , scientific , and medical applications . Night-vision devices using active near-infrared illumination allow people or animals to be observed without the observer being detected . Infrared astronomy uses sensor-equipped telescopes to penetrate dusty regions of space such as molecular clouds , detect objects such as planets , and to view highly red-shifted objects from the early days of the universe . Infrared thermal-imaging cameras are used to detect heat loss in insulated systems , to observe changing blood flow in the skin , and to detect overheating of electrical apparatus . Thermal-infrared imaging is used extensively for military and civilian purposes . Military applications include target acquisition , surveillance , night vision , homing , and tracking . Humans at normal body temperature radiate chiefly at wavelengths around 10 μm ( micrometers ) . Non-military uses include thermal efficiency analysis , environmental monitoring , industrial facility inspections , remote temperature sensing , short-ranged wireless communication , spectroscopy , and weather forecasting ." ]

[ "Stokes line A Stokes line is the radiation of particular wavelengths present in the line spectra associated with fluorescence and the Raman scattering . Stokes lines are of longer wavelength than that of the exciting radiation responsible for the fluorescence or Raman effect . Stokes lines are named after Sir George Gabriel Stokes . The energy of the scattered radiation is less than the incident radiation for the Stokes line , and the energy of the scattered radiation is more than the incident radiation for the anti-Stokes line . The energy increase or decrease from the excitation is related to the vibrational energy spacing in the ground electronic state of the molecule , and therefore the wavenumber of the Stokes and anti-Stokes lines are a direct measure of the vibrational energies of the molecule . The probability of an anti-Stokes transition is much less than that of a Stokes transition , since at room temperature the majority of molecules present are in the lowest vibrational level .", "Far-infrared astronomy Far-infrared astronomy is the branch of astronomy and astrophysics that deals with objects visible in far-infrared radiation ( extending from 30 µm towards submillimeter wavelengths around 450 µm ) . In the far-infrared , stars are not especially bright , but we can see emission from very cold matter ( 140 Kelvins or less ) that is not seen at shorter wavelengths . Huge , cold clouds of gas and dust in our own galaxy , as well as in nearby galaxies , glow in far-infrared light . This is due to thermal radiation of interstellar dust contained in molecular clouds . In some of these clouds , new stars are just beginning to form . Far-infrared observations can detect these protostars long before they `` turn on '' visibly by sensing the heat they radiate as they contract . The center of our galaxy also shines brightly in the far-infrared : These emissions are from dust in circumstellar shells around numerous old red giant stars . These stars heat up the dust and cause it to glow brightly in the infrared . The Bolocam Galactic Plane Survey mapped the galaxy for the first time in the far-infrared . Except for the plane of our own galaxy , the brightest far-infrared object in the sky is central region of a galaxy called Messier 82 . The nucleus of M82 radiates as much energy in the far-infrared as all of the stars in our galaxy combined . This far-infrared energy comes from dust heated by a source that is hidden from view . The central regions of most galaxies shine very brightly in the far-infrared . Many galaxies ( `` active galaxies '' ) have active nuclei hidden in dense regions of dust . Others , called starburst galaxies , have an extremely high number of newly forming stars heating interstellar dust clouds . These galaxies , far outshine all others galaxies in the far-infrared . The Earth 's atmosphere is opaque over most of the far-infrared , so that ground-based observations are limited to submillimetre wavelengths using high-altitude telescopes such as the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope , the Caltech Submillimeter Observatory , and the Submillimeter Array . Most far-infrared astronomy is performed by satellites such as the Herschel Space Observatory , Spitzer , IRAS , and ISO . Upper-atmosphere observations are also possible , as conducted by the airborne SOFIA telescope . On 22 January 2014 , ESA scientists reported the detection , for the first definitive time , of water vapor on the dwarf planet , Ceres , largest object in the asteroid belt . The detection was made by using the far-infrared abilities of the Herschel Space Observatory . The finding is unexpected because comets , not asteroids , are typically considered to `` sprout jets and plumes '' . According to one of the scientists , `` The lines are becoming more and more blurred between comets and asteroids . ''", "Welsbach seeding Welsbach seeding is a proposed climate engineering method , involving seeding the stratosphere with small ( 10 to 100 micron ) metal oxide particles ( thorium dioxide , Aluminium oxide ) . The purpose of the Welsbach seeding would be to '' ( reduce ) atmospheric warming due to the greenhouse effect resulting from a greenhouse gases layer '' , by converting radiative energy at near-infrared wavelengths into radiation at far-infrared wavelengths , permitting some of the converted radiation to escape into space , thus cooling the atmosphere . The seeding as described would be performed by airplanes at altitudes between 7 and 13 kilometres .", "Micro-spectrophotometry Microspectrophotometry is the measure of the spectra of microscopic samples using different wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation ( e.g. ultraviolet , visible and near infrared , etc. ) It is accomplished with microspectrophotometers , cytospectrophotometers , microfluorometers , Raman microspectrophotometers , etc. . A microspectrophotometer can be configured to measure transmittance , absorbance , reflectance , light polarization , fluorescence ( or other types of luminescence such as photoluminescence ) of sample areas less than a micrometer in diameter through a modified optical microscope .", "Astronomical Netherlands Satellite The Astronomical Netherlands Satellite ( ANS ; also known as Astronomische Nederlandse Satelliet ) was a space-based X-ray and ultraviolet telescope . It was launched into Earth orbit on 30 August 1974 at 14:07:39 UTC in a Scout rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base , United States . The mission ran for 20 months until June 1976 , and was jointly funded by the Netherlands Institute for Space Research ( NIVR ) and NASA . ANS was the first Dutch satellite , and the Main Belt asteroid 9996 ANS was named after it . The telescope had an initial orbit of with a periapsis of 266 km , an apoapsis of 1176 km , with inclination 98.0 ° and eccentricity 0.064048 , giving it a period of 99.2 minutes . The orbit was sun-synchronous , and the attitude of the spacecraft could be controlled through reaction wheels . The momentum stored in the reaction wheels throughout the orbit was regularly dumped via magnetic coils that interacted with the Earth 's magnetic field . The satellite also had two masses that were released shortly after orbit injection , to remove most of the satellite 's angular momentum induced by the launcher . The attitude could be measured by a variety of techniques , including solar sensors , horizon sensors , star sensors and a magnetometer . ANS could measure X-ray photons in the energy range 2 to 30 keV , with a 60 cm2 detector , and was used to find the positions of galactic and extragalactic X-ray sources . It also measured their spectra , and looked at their variations over time . It discovered X-ray bursts , and also detected X-rays from Capella . ANS also observed in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum , with a 22 cm ( 260 cm2 ) Cassegrain telescope . The wavelengths of the observed photons were between 150 and 330 nm , with the detector split into five channels with central wavelengths of 155 , 180 , 220 , 250 and 330 nm . At these frequencies it took over 18,000 measurements of around 400 objects .", "Infrared Science Archive The Infrared Science Archive ( IRSA ) curates the science products of NASA 's infrared and submillimeter projects , such as the Spitzer Space Telescope , the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer ( WISE ) , the Infrared Astronomical Satellite ( IRAS ) , and the Two Micron All-Sky Survey ( 2MASS ) . IRSA also serves data from infrared and submillimeter European Space Agency missions with NASA participation , including the Infrared Space Observatory ( ISO ) , Planck , and the Herschel Space Observatory . , IRSA provides access to more than 20 billion astronomical measurements , including all-sky coverage in 20 bands , spanning wavelengths from 1 micron to 10 millimeters . Approximately 10 % of all refereed astronomical journal articles cite data sets curated by IRSA . IRSA is part of the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center ( IPAC ) and is located on the campus of the California Institute of Technology . It is one of NASA 's Astrophysics Data Centers , along with the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center ( HEASARC ) and the Barbara A. Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes ( MAST ) .", "Molecular physics Molecular physics is the study of the physical properties of molecules , the chemical bonds between atoms as well as the molecular dynamics . Its most important experimental techniques are the various types of spectroscopy ; scattering is also used . The field is closely related to atomic physics and overlaps greatly with theoretical chemistry , physical chemistry and chemical physics . In addition to the electronic excitation states which are known from atoms , molecules exhibit rotational and vibrational modes whose energy levels are quantized . The smallest energy differences exist between different rotational states : pure rotational spectra are in the far infrared region ( about 30 - 150 µm wavelength ) of the electromagnetic spectrum . Vibrational spectra are in the near infrared ( about 1 - 5 µm ) and spectra resulting from electronic transitions are mostly in the visible and ultraviolet regions . From measuring rotational and vibrational spectra properties of molecules like the distance between the nuclei can be specifically calculated . One important aspect of molecular physics is that the essential atomic orbital theory in the field of atomic physics expands to the molecular orbital theory .", "NIRSpec (Near-Infrared Spectrograph) The NIRSpec ( Near-Infrared Spectrograph ) is one of the four scientific instruments which will be flown on the James Webb Space Telescope ( JWST ) . The JWST is the follow-on mission to the Hubble Space Telescope ( HST ) and is developed to receive more information about the origins of the universe by observing infrared light from the first stars and galaxies . In comparison to HST , its instruments will allow looking further back in time and will study the so-called Dark Ages during which the universe was opaque , about 150 to 800 million years after the Big Bang . The NIRSpec instrument is a multi-object spectrograph and is capable of simultaneously measuring the near-infrared spectrum of up to 100 objects like stars or galaxies with low , medium and high spectral resolutions . The observations are performed in a 3 arcmin × 3 arcmin field of view over the wavelength range from 0.6 µm to 5.0 µm . It also features a set of slits and an aperture for high contrast spectroscopy of individual sources , as well as an integral-field unit ( IFU ) for 3D spectroscopy . The instrument is a contribution of the European Space Agency ( ESA ) and is built by Astrium together with a group of European subcontractors .", "MIRI (Mid-Infrared Instrument) MIRI , or Mid-Infrared Instrument , is an instrument on the planned James Webb Space Telescope . MIRI is a camera and a spectrograph that observes mid infrared radiation from 5 microns to 28 microns . It also has coronagraphs , especially for observing exoplanets . Whereas most of the other instruments on Webb can see from the start of Near-infrared , or even as short as orange visible light , MIRI can see longer wavelength light where the other instruments leave off . MIRI uses silicon arrays doped with Arsenic to make observations at these wavelengths . The imager is designed for wide views but the spectrograph has a smaller view . Because it views the longer wavelengths it needs to be cooler than the other instruments ( see Infrared astronomy ) , and it has an additional cooling system . The cooling system for MIRI includes a Pulse Tube precooler and a Joule-Thomson Loop heat exchanger . This allows MIRI to be cooled down to 7 kelvin during operations in space .", "Far infrared Far infrared ( FIR ) is a region in the infrared spectrum of electromagnetic radiation . Far infrared is often defined as any radiation with a wavelength of 15 micrometers ( µm ) to 1 mm ( corresponding to a range of about 20 THz to 300 GHz ) , which places far infrared radiation within the CIE IR-B and IR-C bands . Different sources use different boundaries for the far infrared spectrum ; for example , astronomers sometimes define far infrared as wavelengths between 25 µm and 350 µm . Visible light includes radiation with wavelengths between 400 nm and 700 nm , meaning that far infrared photons have less energy than visible light photons .", "Mars aircraft A Mars aircraft is a vehicle for flying in the atmosphere of Mars . So far , Mars lander entry , descent , and landing systems have passed through the atmosphere . Aircraft may provide in situ measurements of the atmosphere of Mars , as well as additional observations over extended areas . A long-term goal is to develop piloted Mars aircraft . Compared to Earth , the air is thinner at the surface ( less than 1 % ) but the gravity is lower ( less than 40 % ) . Also , the major component of Mars air , CO2 gas , is denser than Earth air for a given pressure .", "Quantum efficiency The term quantum efficiency ( QE ) may apply to incident photon to converted electron ( IPCE ) ratio , of a photosensitive device or it may refer to the TMR effect of a Magnetic Tunnel Junction . This article deals with the term as a measurement of a device 's electrical sensitivity to light . In a charge-coupled device ( CCD ) it is the percentage of photons hitting the device 's photoreactive surface that produce charge carriers . It is measured in electrons per photon or amps per watt . Since the energy of a photon is inversely proportional to its wavelength , QE is often measured over a range of different wavelengths to characterize a device 's efficiency at each photon energy level . The QE for photons with energy below the band gap is zero . Photographic film typically has a QE of much less than 10 % , while CCDs can have a QE of well over 90 % at some wavelengths .", "Gould Belt Survey The Gould Belt Survey is an astronomical research project led by the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics , with the participation of several other institutions . The astronomers use observations and data captured by the Spitzer Space Telescope and other telescopes to create a complete picture of the star forming regions within an approximately 1600 lightyear radius centered on the Solar System . These regions are partly or completely clouded by interstellar dust and therefore can not be observed by telescopes using visible light , like the Hubble Space Telescope . The Gould Belt survey team uses a variety of telescopes and observatories to study multiple aspects of star formation . The Spitzer Space Telescope provides imagery and observations made in the infrared spectrum , while for example the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope provides images from the submillimeter wavelength region of the spectrum . The Herschel Space Observatory telescope provided observation data between the far infrared and the sub-millimeter wavelengths , effectively covering wavelengths between the observational capabilities of the Spitzer and the Maxwell telescopes .", "Ultraviolet astronomy Ultraviolet astronomy is the observation of electromagnetic radiation at ultraviolet wavelengths between approximately 10 and 320 nanometres ; shorter wavelengths -- higher energy photons -- are studied by X-ray astronomy and gamma ray astronomy . An ultraviolet light is not visible to the human eye . Light at these wavelengths is absorbed by the Earth 's atmosphere , so observations at these wavelengths must be performed from the upper atmosphere or from space .", "Infrared cirrus Infrared cirrus are filamentary structures seen in infrared light . The name is given because the structures are cloud-like in appearance . These structures were first detected by the Infrared Astronomy Satellite at wavelengths of 60 and 100 micrometres .", "Luminous infrared galaxy Luminous Infrared Galaxies or ( LIRGs ) are galaxies with luminosities , the measurement of brightness , above . LIRGs are more abundant than starburst galaxies , Seyfert galaxies and quasi-stellar objects at comparable luminosity . Infrared galaxies emit more energy in the infrared than at all other wavelengths combined . A LIRG 's luminosity is 100 billion times that of our sun . Galaxies with luminosities above , are Ultra-Luminous Infrared Galaxies ( ULIRGs ) . Many of the LIRGs and ULIRGs are showing interactions and disruptions . Many of these types of galaxies spawn about 100 new stars a year as compared to ours which spawn one a year ; this creates the high level of luminosity . More luminous than ULIRGs are the Hyper-Luminous Infrared Galaxies , HLIRG . The most luminous class are the Extremely Luminous Infrared Galaxies , ELIRG .", "Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer ( WISE ) is a NASA infrared-wavelength astronomical space telescope launched in December 2009 , and placed in hibernation in February 2011 when its transmitter turned off . It was re-activated in 2013 . WISE discovered thousands of minor planets and numerous star clusters . Its observations also supported the discovery of the first Y Dwarf and Earth trojan asteroid . WISE performed an all-sky astronomical survey with images in 3.4 , 4.6 , 12 and 22 μm wavelength range bands , over ten months using a 40 cm diameter infrared telescope in Earth orbit . After its hydrogen coolant depleted , a four-month mission extension called NEOWISE was conducted to search for near-Earth objects such as comets and asteroids using its remaining capability . The All-Sky data including processed images , source catalogs and raw data , was released to the public on March 14 , 2012 , and is available at the Infrared Science Archive . In August 2013 , NASA announced it would reactivate the WISE telescope for a new three-year mission to search for asteroids that could collide with Earth . Science operations and data processing for WISE and NEOWISE take place at the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena .", "Spitzer Infrared Nearby Galaxies Survey The Spitzer Infrared Nearby Galaxies Survey ( SINGS ) was a survey of 75 galaxies using the Spitzer Space Telescope , carried out between 2003 and 2006 . One of the telescope 's six Legacy Science Projects , SINGS collected a comprehensive set of spectroscopic data in the infrared region , which , in conjunction with measurements at other wavelengths , was intended to provide insights into star formation and other processes occurring within these galaxies .", "MOS-1 (satellite) Marine Observation Satellite 1 ( MOS-1 ) , also known as Momo-1 , was Japan 's first Earth observation satellite . It was launched on 19 February 1987 on a N-II rocket from Tanegashima Space Center and was operated by the National Space Development Agency of Japan . It has three instruments : `` Multi-Spectral Electronic Self-Scanning Radiometer ( MESSR ) '' which offers 50m resolution in two visible and two infra-red spectral bands over two 100 km swathes ; `` Visible and Thermal Infrared Radiometer ( VTIR ) '' which has a much lower resolution in one visible and three IR bands over a 1500 km swathe ; `` Micro Scanning Radiometer ( MSR ) '' which measures microwave emission in the 23 GHz and 31 GHz bands . Its NORAD ID is 17527 ; it is in a polar orbit at roughly 900 km altitude , but has not been active since November 1995 .", "Arctic Satellite Composite Project The Arctic Satellite Composite Project , a grant funded by the Arctic Sciences division of the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) , is a project dedicated to developing satellite composite images , of various wavelengths , over the Arctic polar region of the globe . The project , based out of the Space Science and Engineering Center ( SSEC ) at the University of Wisconsin , is headed by Principal Investigator ( PI ) Dr. Matthew Lazzara , with assistance from co-PI Shelley Knuth . Since the project 's inception in 2007 , composite images in the infrared , water vapor , short-wave , and long-wave wavelengths have been generated over the region . The images are produced every three hours , on the synoptic hour . To generate the composite images , swaths of satellite images from geo-stationary and polar-orbiting satellites are collected within + / - 50 minutes of the top of the hour , and `` spliced '' together to form one image of the entire region . The images are centered at the North Pole , and extend as far south as 45 ° . The images have a resolution of 5 km . The Arctic satellite composites have already been used in their earliest form to support studies of Arctic pollution . They have been used operationally to support the polar study using aircraft , remote sensing , surface measurements and models of climate , chemistry , aerosols and transport ( POLARCAT ) , and Arctic research of the composition of the troposphere from aircraft and satellites ( ARCTAS ) campaigns during the International Polar Year . Future work on the generation of the satellite composite imagery will include visible composite generation as well as hourly composite generation . It is anticipated this work will be completed in 2010 .", "Laser Direct Infrared (LDIR) Imaging Laser Direct Infrared ( LDIR ) Imaging is an infrared microscopy architecture that utilizes a tunable Quantum Cascade Laser ( QCL ) as the IR source . This new reflectance-based architecture eliminates coherence artifacts typically associated with QCLs . It also allows the acquisition of large-area , high-definition IR images as well as high signal-to-noise point spectra . Extending this architecture using Attenuated Total Reflectance ( ATR ) allows the acquisition of high fidelity spectra from features less than 10 μm in size . The application of LDIR to stain-free biochemical imaging has recently been reported , with the authors citing the speed of LDIR imaging as an advantage over traditional IR imaging architectures .", "Infrared heater An infrared heater or heat lamp is a body with a higher temperature which transfers energy to a body with a lower temperature through electromagnetic radiation . Depending on the temperature of the emitting body , the wavelength of the peak of the infrared radiation ranges from to 1 mm . No contact or medium between the two bodies is needed for the energy transfer . Infrared heaters can be operated in vacuum or atmosphere . One classification of infrared heaters is by the wavelength bands of infrared emission . Short wave or near infrared for the range from to , these emitters are also named bright because still some visible light is emitted ; Medium infrared for the range between and ; Far infrared or dark emitters for everything above .", "Great Observatories program NASA 's series of Great Observatories satellites are four large , powerful space-based astronomical telescopes . Each of the four missions was designed to examine a specific wavelength/energy region of the electromagnetic spectrum ( gamma rays , X-rays , visible and ultraviolet light , infrared light ) using very different technologies . Dr. Charles Pellerin , NASA 's Director , Astrophysics invented and developed the program . The four Great Observatories were launched between 1990 and 2003 , and three remain operational as of 2017 .", "A1689-zD1 A1689-zD1 is a galaxy in the Virgo constellation cluster . It was a candidate for the most distant and therefore earliest observed galaxy discovered , based on a photometric redshift . If the redshift , z ~ 7.6 , is correct , it would explain why the galaxy 's faint light reaches us at infrared wavelengths . It could only be observed with Hubble Space Telescope 's Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer ( NICMOS ) and the Spitzer Space Telescope 's Infrared Array Camera exploiting the natural phenomenon of gravitational lensing : the galaxy cluster Abell 1689 , which lies between Earth and A1689-zD1 , at a distance of 2.2 billion light-years from us , functions as a natural `` magnifying glass '' for the light from the far more distant galaxy which lies directly behind it , at 700 million years after the Big Bang , as seen from Earth .", "Staring array A staring array , staring-plane array , focal-plane array ( FPA ) , or focal-plane is an image sensing device consisting of an array ( typically rectangular ) of light-sensing pixels at the focal plane of a lens . FPAs are used most commonly for imaging purposes ( e.g. taking pictures or video imagery ) , but can also be used for non-imaging purposes such as spectrometry , lidar , and wave-front sensing . In radio astronomy , the focal-plane array ( FPA ) is an array at the focus of a radio telescope . At optical and infrared wavelengths it can refer to a variety of imaging device types , but in common usage it refers to two-dimensional devices that are sensitive in the infrared spectrum . Devices sensitive in other spectra are usually referred to by other terms , such as CCD ( charge-coupled device ) and CMOS image sensor in the visible spectrum . FPAs operate by detecting photons at particular wavelengths and then generating an electrical charge , voltage , or resistance in relation to the number of photons detected at each pixel . This charge , voltage , or resistance is then measured , digitized , and used to construct an image of the object , scene , or phenomenon that emitted the photons . Applications for infrared FPAs include missile or related weapons guidance sensors , infrared astronomy , manufacturing inspection , thermal imaging for firefighting , medical imaging , and infrared phenomenology ( such as observing combustion , weapon impact , rocket motor ignition and other events that are interesting in the infrared spectrum ) .", "Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope The Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope ( WFIRST ) is a future infrared space observatory that was recommended in 2010 by United States National Research Council Decadal Survey committee as the top priority for the next decade of astronomy . On February 17 , 2016 , WFIRST was formally designated as a mission by NASA . WFIRST is based on an existing 2.4 m wide field-of-view telescope and will carry two scientific instruments . The Wide-Field Instrument is a 288-megapixel multi-band near-infrared camera , providing a sharpness of images comparable to that achieved by the Hubble Space Telescope over 100 times the area . The Coronagraphic Instrument is a high contrast small field of view camera and spectrometer covering visible and near-infrared wavelengths using novel starlight-suppression technology . The design of WFIRST is based on one of the proposed designs for the Joint Dark Energy Mission between NASA and DOE . WFIRST adds some extra capabilities to the original JDEM proposal , including a search for extra-solar planets using gravitational microlensing . In its present incarnation ( 2015 ) , a large fraction of its primary mission will be focused on probing the expansion history of the Universe and the growth of cosmic structure with multiple methods in overlapping redshift ranges , with the goal of precisely measuring the effects of dark energy , the consistency of General Relativity , and the curvature of spacetime .", "X-ray filter An X-ray filter is a material placed in front of an X-ray source in order to reduce the intensity of particular wavelengths from its spectrum and selectively alter the distribution of X-ray wavelengths within a given beam . When X-rays hit matter , part of the incoming beam is transmitted through the material and part of it is absorbed by the material . The amount absorbed is dependent on the material 's mass absorption coefficient and tends to decrease for incident photons of greater energy . True absorption occurs when X-rays of sufficient energy cause electron energy level transitions in the atoms of the absorbing material . The energy from these X-rays are used to excite the atoms and do not continue past the material ( thus being `` filtered '' out ) . Because of this , despite the general trend of decreased absorption at higher energy wavelengths , there are periodic spikes in the absorption characteristics of any given material corresponding to each of the atomic energy level transitions . These spikes are called absorption edges . The result is that every material preferentially filters out x-rays corresponding to and slightly above their electron energy levels , while generally allowing X-rays with energies slightly less than these levels to transmit through relatively unscathed . Therefore , it is possible to selectively fine tune which wavelengths of x-rays are present in a beam by matching materials with particular absorption characteristics to different X-ray source spectra .", "Spectrofluorometer A spectrofluorometer is an instrument which takes advantage of fluorescent properties of some compounds in order to provide information regarding their concentration and chemical environment in a sample . A certain excitation wavelength is selected , and the emission is observed either at a single wavelength , or a scan is performed to record the intensity versus wavelength , also called an emission spectra . See Fluorescence spectroscopy", "Optical spectrometer An optical spectrometer ( spectrophotometer , spectrograph or spectroscope ) is an instrument used to measure properties of light over a specific portion of the electromagnetic spectrum , typically used in spectroscopic analysis to identify materials . The variable measured is most often the light 's intensity but could also , for instance , be the polarization state . The independent variable is usually the wavelength of the light or a unit directly proportional to the photon energy , such as reciprocal centimeters or electron volts , which has a reciprocal relationship to wavelength . A spectrometer is used in spectroscopy for producing spectral lines and measuring their wavelengths and intensities . Spectrometers may also operate over a wide range of non-optical wavelengths , from gamma rays and X-rays into the far infrared . If the instrument is designed to measure the spectrum in absolute units rather than relative units , then it is typically called a spectrophotometer . The majority of spectrophotometers are used in spectral regions near the visible spectrum . In general , any particular instrument will operate over a small portion of this total range because of the different techniques used to measure different portions of the spectrum . Below optical frequencies ( that is , at microwave and radio frequencies ) , the spectrum analyzer is a closely related electronic device . Spectrometers are used in many fields . For example , they are used in astronomy to analyze the radiation from astronomical objects and deduce chemical composition . The spectrometer uses a prism or a grating to spread the light from a distant object into a spectrum . This allows astronomers to detect many of the chemical elements by their characteristic spectral fingerprints . If the object is glowing by itself , it will show spectral lines caused by the glowing gas itself . These lines are named for the elements which cause them , such as the hydrogen alpha , beta , and gamma lines . Chemical compounds may also be identified by absorption . Typically these are dark bands in specific locations in the spectrum caused by energy being absorbed as light from other objects passes through a gas cloud . Much of our knowledge of the chemical makeup of the universe comes from spectra .", "Gamma-ray spectrometer A gamma-ray spectrometer ( GRS ) is an instrument for measuring the distribution ( or spectrum -- see figure ) of the intensity of gamma radiation versus the energy of each photon . The study and analysis of gamma-ray spectra for scientific and technical use is called gamma spectroscopy , and gamma-ray spectrometers are the instruments which observe and collect such data . Because the energy of each photon of EM radiation is proportional to its frequency , gamma rays have sufficient energy that they are typically observed by counting individual photons .", "Infrared atmospheric sounding interferometer The infrared atmospheric sounding interferometer ( IASI ) is a Fourier transform spectrometer based on the Michelson interferometer , associated with an integrated imaging system ( IIS ) . As part of the payload of the MetOp series of polar-orbiting meteorological satellites , there are currently two IASI instruments in operation : on MetOp-A ( launched 19 October 2006 ) and on Met-Op B ( launched 17 September 2012 ) with the third due for launch in 2018 . IASI is a nadir-viewing instrument recording infrared emission spectra from 645 to 2760 cm − 1 at 0.25 cm − 1 resolution ( 0.5 cm − 1 after apodisation ) . Although primarily intended to provide information in near real-time on atmospheric temperature and water vapour to support weather forecasting , the concentrations of various trace gases can also be retrieved from the spectra .", "Clementine (spacecraft) Clementine ( officially called the Deep Space Program Science Experiment ( DSPSE ) ) was a joint space project between the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization ( BMDO , previously the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization , or SDIO ) and NASA . Launched on January 25 , 1994 , the objective of the mission was to test sensors and spacecraft components under extended exposure to the space environment and to make scientific observations of the Moon and the near-Earth asteroid 1620 Geographos . The Geographos observations were not made due to a malfunction in the spacecraft . The lunar observations made included imaging at various wavelengths in the visible as well as in ultraviolet and infrared , laser ranging altimetry , gravimetry , and charged particle measurements . These observations were for the purposes of obtaining multi-spectral imaging of the entire lunar surface , assessing the surface mineralogy of the Moon , obtaining altimetry from 60N to 60S latitude , and obtaining gravity data for the near side . There were also plans to image and determine the size , shape , rotational characteristics , surface properties , and cratering statistics of Geographos . Clementine carried seven distinct experiments on-board : a UV/Visible Camera , a Near Infrared Camera , a Long Wavelength Infrared Camera , a High Resolution Camera , two Star Tracker Cameras , a Laser Altimeter , and a Charged Particle Telescope . The S-band transponder was used for communications , tracking , and the gravimetry experiment . The project was named Clementine after the song `` Oh My Darling , Clementine '' as the spacecraft would be `` lost and gone forever '' following its mission ." ]

[ "Climatic Research Unit documents Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''", "Hockey stick controversy In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Climate change in Argentina According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .", "Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "Tris-buffered saline Tris-buffered saline ( abbreviated TBS ) is a buffer used in some biochemical techniques to maintain the pH within a relatively narrow range . Tris ( with HCl ) has a slightly alkaline buffering capacity in the 7 -- 9.2 range . Tris has a pKa of 8.06 at 25 ° C . The pKa declines approximately 0.03 units per degree Celsius rise in temperature . This can lead to relatively dramatic pH shifts when there are shifts in solution temperature .", "John Christy John Raymond Christy is a climate scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) whose chief interests are satellite remote sensing of global climate and global climate change . He is best known , jointly with Roy Spencer , for the first successful development of a satellite temperature record .", "Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Program The Global Temperature-Salinity Profile Program ( GTSPP ) is a cooperative international project that seeks to develop and maintain a global ocean Temperature-Salinity resource with up-to-date and high quality data .", "Global warming in Antarctica The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .", "List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "Richard A. Muller Richard A. Muller ( born January 6 , 1944 ) is an American physicist and professor of physics at the University of California , Berkeley . He is also a faculty senior scientist at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory . Most recently , in early 2010 , Muller and his daughter Elizabeth founded the group Berkeley Earth , an independent 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit aimed at addressing some of the major concerns of the climate change sceptics , in particular the global surface temperature record .", "Decline in amphibian populations The decline in amphibian populations is an ongoing mass extinction of amphibian species worldwide . Since the 1980s , decreases in amphibian populations , including population crashes and mass localized extinctions , have been observed in locations all over the world . These declines are known as one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity , and several causes are believed to be involved , including disease , habitat destruction and modification , exploitation , pollution , pesticide use , introduced species , and ultraviolet-B radiation ( UV-B ) . However , many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood , and the topic is currently a subject of much ongoing research . Calculations based on extinction rates suggest that the current extinction rate of amphibians could be 211 times greater than the background extinction rate and the estimate goes up to 25,000 -- 45,000 times if endangered species are also included in the computation . Although scientists began observing reduced populations of several European amphibian species already in the 1950s , awareness of the phenomenon as a global problem and its subsequent classification as a modern-day mass extinction only dates from the 1980s . By 1993 , more than 500 species of frogs and salamanders present on all five continents were in decline . Today , the phenomenon of declining amphibian populations affects thousands of species in all types of ecosystems and is thus recognized as one of the most severe examples of the Holocene extinction , with severe implications for global biodiversity .", "Climatic Research Unit The Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) is a component of the University of East Anglia and is one of the leading institutions concerned with the study of natural and anthropogenic climate change . With a staff of some thirty research scientists and students , the CRU has contributed to the development of a number of the data sets widely used in climate research , including one of the global temperature records used to monitor the state of the climate system , as well as statistical software packages and climate models .", "Global Young Academy The Global Young Academy is an international society of young scientists .", "Global warming hiatus A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "Global recession A global recession is recession that affects many countries around the world -- that is , a period of global economic slowdown or declining economic output .", "Locust coqui The locust coqui or coqui martillito ( Eleutherodactylus locustus ) is a species of frog in the Eleutherodactylidae family endemic to Puerto Rico . Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests . E. locustus has suffered a population decline of more than 80 % due to introduced predators and amphibian chytrid disease . Scientists believe amphibian chytrid disease may be exacerbated by climate change - warmer temperatures in dry , moist habitats , causing stress that may lead to greater susceptibility to the disease .", "EDGE of Existence programme The EDGE of Existence programme is a research and conservation initiative that focuses on species deemed to be the world 's most Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered ( EDGE ) . Developed by the Zoological Society of London ( ZSL ) , the programme aims to raise awareness of the world 's EDGE species , implement targeted research and conservation actions to halt their decline , and to train in-country scientists ( called EDGE Fellows ) to protect them now and in the future .", "UAH satellite temperature dataset The UAH satellite temperature dataset , developed at the University of Alabama in Huntsville , infers the temperature of various atmospheric layers from satellite measurements of radiance . It was the first global temperature datasets developed from satellite information and has been used as a tool for research into surface and atmospheric temperature changes . The dataset is published by John Christy et al. and formerly jointly with Roy Spencer .", "Algor mortis Algor mortis ( Latin : algor -- coldness ; mortis -- of death ) , the second stage of death , is the change in body temperature post mortem , until the ambient temperature is matched . This is generally a steady decline , although if the ambient temperature is above the body temperature ( such as in a hot desert ) , the change in temperature will be positive , as the ( relatively ) cooler body acclimates to the warmer environment . External factors can have a significant influence . Algor mortis also occurs when the body dies . This was first used by DOWLER in 1849 .", "Global Energy Prize The Global Energy Prize is an international award which recognises outstanding scientific innovations and solutions in global energy research and its concurrent environmental challenges . Since its inception by a group of Russian scientists in 2002 , the Global Energy Prize has grown to become a recognised global energy award . The Global Energy Prize is awarded annually in St Petersburg , Russia , at the Saint Petersburg International Economic Forum by the President of the Russian Federation . Each laureate receives , amongst others , a commemorative medal and a prize of 1.3 million USD ( 33 million RUB ) . In 2016 the Prize fund amounted to 39 million RUB . The award process is overseen by the Global Energy Prize International Award Committee , which consists of 20 scientists from 13 countries and is chaired by renowned British scientist Rodney John Allam . The Global Energy Prize is managed by the Global Energy Association with the support of three leading Russian energy companies : JSC Gazprom , JSC Surgutneftegaz and JSC Federal Grid Company UES .", "Tasman Outflow The Tasman Outflow is the most recently discovered of the world ocean 's major ocean currents . The existence of the outflow was published by scientists of the Australian CSIRO 's Division of Marine and Atmospheric Research team in August 2007 , interpreting salinity and temperature data captured from 1950 to 2002 . The deepwater current passes at an average depth of 800 -- 1,000 metres from the Pacific Ocean outside Tasmania 's southern shores into the Southern Ocean that encircles Antarctica , the vast ` flywheel ' that stabilizes global distribution of heat .", "Mounir Laroussi Mounir Laroussi , is a Tunisian-American scientist . He is known for his work in plasma science , especially low temperature plasmas and their biomedical applications .", "Remote Sensing Systems Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) is a private research company founded in 1974 by Frank Wentz . It processes microwave data from a variety of NASA satellites . Most of their research is supported by the Earth Science Enterprise program . The company is based in Santa Rosa , California . They are a widely cited source of data , on the satellite temperature record . Their data is one source of evidence for global warming . Research by Carl Mears , Matthias Schabel , and Wentz , all of RSS , highlighted errors in the early satellite temperature records compiled by John Christy and Roy Spencer at UAH . The UAH data had previously showed no significant temperature trend , bringing the derived satellite data into closer agreement with surface temperature trends , radiosonde data and computer models . The UAH data is now closer to the RSS data but differences remain , for example the Lower Troposphere global average trend since 1979 , RSS currently have +0.133 K/decade while UAH have 0.140 K/decade , while the mid troposphere difference is even more marked at 0.079 K/decade and 0.052 K/decade respectively . However , in a recent online YouTube video , Dr. Carl Mears , a senior scientist with the team behind the satellite data , explained how he believes his data set needed correction . I would have to say that the surface data seems that it 's more accurate , because a number of groups analyze the surface data , including some who set out to prove the other ones wrong , and they all get more or less the same answer .", "Hugo Nutini Hugo G. Nutini ( 1929-2013 ) was an Italian-born Chilean and subsequently American professor of Anthropology . In 1965 he became involved in Project Camelot , an academic research project funded by the United States military through the Special Operations Research Office to train in counter-insurgency techniques . Nutini made a personal visit to Chile and while there discussed Project Camelot with a number of social scientists . However , as Gabriel Gayamarti claimed , he doctored documentation as regards Project Camelot in a crude way in the hope of hiding the military involvement . His amateurish fraud as soon discovered . Also the Norwegian sociologist was in Chile . He had been given the original documents , which he circulated amongst the social scientists that Nutini had tried to dupe . This caused a scandal which led to Nutine being banned from entry to Chile as a `` politically undesirable individual '' .", "Eric Cole (scientist) Eric Cole served as chief technology officer at McAfee and chief scientist at Lockheed Martin Corporation . He is the author of several books , including Advanced Persistent Threat , Hackers Beware , Hiding in Plain Sight , Network Security Bible 2nd Edition , and Insider Threat . He holds over 20 patents . He graduated from New York Institute of Technology .", "World Association of Young Scientists The World Association of Young Scientists ( WAYS ; formerly World Academy of Young Scientists ) is a global network of young scientists established in 2004 , in partnership with UNESCO and ICSU . It provides a Web 2.0 platform for scientific exchange , thereby linking individuals and existing networks with a regional or disciplinary focus .", "Save the Planet Save the Planet is a minor political party in Australia . The environmentalist party aims to avoid global warming by returning average global temperatures to pre-industrial levels as quickly as possible . The party also aims to create a world that is environmentally and socially sustainable without inequality .", "Cyclododecahexaene Cyclododecahexaene or -LSB- 12 -RSB- annulene ( C12H12 ) is a member of a series of annulenes with some interest in organic chemistry with regard to the study of aromaticity These compounds are in general unstable due to their antiaromaticity and built-up of steric strain . On the other hand the di-anion with 14 electrons is a Hückel aromat and more stable . According to in silico experiments the tri-trans isomer is expected to be the most stable , followed by the 1,7-ditrans and the all cis-isomers ( +1 kcal/mol ) and by the 1,5-ditrans isomer ( +5 kcal/mol ) . The first -LSB- 12 -RSB- annulene with sym-tri-trans configuration was synthesized in 1970 from a tricyclic precursor by photolysis at low temperatures . On heating the compound rearranges to a bicyclic -LSB- 6,4,0 -RSB- isomer . Reducing the compound at low temperatures allowed analysis of the dianion by proton NMR with the inner protons resonating at - 4.5 ppm relative to TMS , evidence of an aromatic diamagnetic ring current . In one study the 1,7-ditrans isomer is generated at low temperatures in THF by dehydrohalogenation of a hexabromocyclododecane with potassium tert-butoxide . Reduction of this compound at low temperature with caesium metal leads first to the radical anion and then to the dianion . The chemical shift for the internal protons in this compound is with +0.2 ppm much more modest than in the tri-trans isomer . Heating the radical ion solution to room temperature leads to loss of one equivalent of hydrogen and formation of the heptalene radical anion .", "Thermal Credits Thermal credits is a new holistic concept which corresponds to the percentage of the climate impact saving obtained through mitigation and adaptation measures applied against global warming , taking as reference the global temperature rise projected in a given time scale . Thermal credits are measured in percentages of global warming reduction in a given time .", "Six's thermometer Six 's thermometer is a registering thermometer which can record the maximum and minimum temperatures reached over a period of time , for example 24 hours . It is used to record the extremes of temperature at a location , for instance in meteorology and horticulture . It was invented by a British scientist James Six , born in Canterbury , in 1780 ; the same basic design remains in use . It is also commonly known as a maximum -- minimum , minimum -- maximum , maxima -- minima or minima -- maxima thermometer , of which it is the earliest practical design . The thermometer indicates the current temperature , and the highest and lowest temperatures since last reset .", "Global Peace Agency The Global Peace Agency ( GPA ) is a fictional law enforcement organization in the . The organization first appeared in the series OMAC by Jack Kirby , set outside the DC Universe . GPA agents are nameless and faceless , using a `` cosmetic spray to hide -LSB- their -RSB- features '' because they supposedly `` represent all nations . '' The Global Peace Agency was brought into the DC Universe proper in Final Crisis # 7 ( March 2009 ) .", "Seita Emori Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .", "His Grace Gives Notice (novel) His Grace Gives Notice is a 1922 comedy novel by Lady Laura Troubridge . A butler tries to hide the fact that he has recently inherited a title and an estate so that he can continue to romance the daughter of the house where he is in service .", "Effects of global warming on oceans Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society ." ]

[ "Carbon tax A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .", "Climate change mitigation Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .", "Emissions trading Emissions trading or cap and trade is a government-mandated , market-based approach to controlling pollution by providing economic incentives for achieving reductions in the emissions of pollutants . In contrast to command-and-control environmental regulations such as best available technology ( BAT ) standards and government subsidies , cap and trade ( CAT ) schemes are a type of flexible environmental regulation that allows organizations to decide how best to meet policy targets . Various countries , states and groups of companies have adopted such trading systems , notably for mitigating climate change . A central authority ( usually a governmental body ) allocates or sells a limited number of permits to discharge specific quantities of a specific pollutant per time period . Polluters are required to hold permits in amount equal to their emissions . Polluters that want to increase their emissions must buy permits from others willing to sell them . Financial derivatives of permits can also be traded on secondary markets . In theory , polluters who can reduce emissions most cheaply will do so , achieving the emission reduction at the lowest cost to society . Cap and trade is meant to provide the private sector with the flexibility required to reduce emissions while stimulating technological innovation and economic growth . There are active trading programs in several air pollutants . For greenhouse gases , which cause climate change , permit units are often called carbon credits . The largest greenhouse gases trading program is the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , which trades primarily in European Union Allowances ( EUAs ) ; the Californian scheme trades in California Carbon Allowances , the New Zealand scheme in New Zealand Units and the Australian scheme in Australian Units . The United States has a national market to reduce acid rain and several regional markets in nitrogen oxides .", "Sustainable development Sustainable development is the organizing principle for meeting human development goals while at the same time sustaining the ability of natural systems to provide the natural resources and ecosystem services upon which the economy and society depends . The desirable end result is a state of society where living conditions and resource use continue to meet human needs without undermining the integrity and stability of the natural systems . While the modern concept of sustainable development is derived mostly from the 1987 Brundtland Report , it is also rooted in earlier ideas about sustainable forest management and twentieth century environmental concerns . As the concept developed , it has shifted to focus more on economic development , social development and environmental protection for future generations . It has been suggested that `` the term ` sustainability ' should be viewed as humanity 's target goal of human-ecosystem equilibrium ( homeostasis ) , while ` sustainable development ' refers to the holistic approach and temporal processes that lead us to the end point of sustainability '' . The concept of sustainable development has been -- and still is -- subject to criticism . What , exactly , is to be sustained in sustainable development ? It has been argued that there is no such thing as a sustainable use of a non-renewable resource , since any positive rate of exploitation will eventually lead to the exhaustion of Earth 's finite stock ; this perspective renders the Industrial Revolution as a whole unsustainable . It has also been argued that the meaning of the concept has opportunistically been stretched from ` conservation management ' to ` economic development ' , and that the Brundtland Report promoted nothing but a business as usual strategy for world development , with an ambiguous and insubstantial concept attached as a public relations slogan ( see below ) ." ]

[ "Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy The Wuppertal Institute for Climate , Environment and Energy is a German research institution that explores and develops models , strategies and instruments to support sustainable development at local , national and international level . Sustainability research at the Wuppertal Institute focuses on ecology and its relation to economy and society . Special emphasis is put on analysing and supporting technological and social innovations that decouple prosperity of economic growth from the use of natural resources .", "Agriculture in Djibouti Agriculture is the third economic activity in Djibouti . Agriculture makes up 3 percent of the wider economy value . Djibouti depends on imports in most foods . Climatic conditions and poor soils limit farm output , and domestic food production meets about 15 % of demand . 10 % of the Djiboutian workforce are employed in agriculture .", "Debate over China's economic responsibilities for climate change mitigation This article documents the debate over China 's economic responsibilities for climate change mitigation and mitigation of climate change in China . Both internationally and within the People 's Republic of China , there has been an ongoing debate over China 's responsibilities , particularly since 2006 , when China surpassed the US as the country with the highest emissions rate for the main atmospheric gas in global warming , carbon dioxide ( CO2 )", "AERS AERS may refer to : Advanced Economic Research Systems Alaska Educational Radio System , a broadcaster in Alaska All Electricity from Renewable Sources projects , including The Climate Reality Project Applied Energy Recovery Systems Applied Educational Research Scheme , a programme funded by the Scottish Executive Education Department and the Scottish Higher Education Funding Council Atlantic Estuarine Research Society Adverse Event Reporting System", "China's Circular Economy A Circular Economy is an alternative way countries manage their resources , where instead of using products in the traditional linear make , use , dispose method resources are used for their maximum utility through out its life cycle and regenerated in a cyclical pattern minimizing waste . They strive to create economic development through environmental and resource protection . The ideas of a circular economy were officially adopted by China in 2002 , when the 16th National Congress of the Communist Party of China legislated it as a national endeavour , though various sustainability initiatives were implemented in the previous decades starting in 1973 . China adopted the circular economy due to the environmental damage and resource depletion that was occurring from going through its industrialization process . China is currently a world leader in the production of resources , where it produces 46 % of the worlds aluminum , 50 % of steel and 60 % of cement , while it has consumed more raw materials than all the countries a part of the Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development ( OECD ) combined . In 2014 , China created 3.2 billion tones of industrial solid waste , where 2 billion tones were recovered using recycling , incineration , reusing and composting . By 2025 , China is anticipated to produce up to one quarter of the worlds municipal solid waste . China is constantly introducing new legislation to improve the effectiveness of their circular economy and sustainability initiatives . Every five years the Chinese Government introduces a new five year plan , with different sustainability goals and economic growth targets the country would like to achieve . China is currently on its 13th Five-Year Plan , which was legislated on March 15 , 2016 . Other legislation that have been implemented in the last decade , which have been important in the development of China 's circular economy are The Law for the Promotion of the Circular Economy , Circular Economy Development Strategies and Action Plan , and the 12th Five-Year plan . China is also active in developing policy aimed at establishing more sustainability practices and economic growth in future decades , with targets for the year 2020 and beyond . Circular economies can be implemented on a corporate ( micro ) , inter-firm ( meso ) and societal level ( macro ) . Corporate level implementation refers to initiatives related to the Eco-design of manufacturing plants , such as cleaner production and Environmental Management Systems ( EMS ) that are meant to reduce the production of harmful by-products . Inter-firm initiatives at the meso level are the implementation of Eco-industrial parks ( EIPs ) , where industrial plants are constructed in close proximity and capitalize on the trading of industrial by-products , ultimately reducing waste . Societal level initiatives refers to the development of Eco-cities and Eco-provinces , which aims to address the social concerns with both production and consumption of products that pollute . China has various means of measuring the performance of their circular economy initiatives in regional and industrial park areas , being material flow analysis ( MFA ) , life cycle analysis ( LCA ) , CO2 emissions and economic returns . These performance indicators are helpful in measuring the effectiveness of the governments initiatives , though they are not the most efficient . The idea of introducing an emergy indicator system has been debated , where it is capable of measuring the performance of resource generation and product dimensions , using accounting indices and ratios .", "Nicholas C. Yannelis Nicholas C. Yannelis ( Νικόλαoς Γιανvέλης born 1953 ) is the Henry B. Tippie Research Professor of Economics , and Applied Mathematics and Computation at the University of Iowa . He is an emeritus Commerce Distinguished Alumni Professor of Economics at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . Also he was the Sir Johns Hicks Professor of Economics at the University of Manchester . His research includes the study of equilibrium concepts in games and economies with asymmetric information ; equilibrium in infinite dimensional commodity spaces ; equilibrium in games and economies with discontinuous preferences ; and equilibrium theory and implementation under ambiguity . He has also done works in pure mathematics .", "1973 Soviet economic reform The 1973 Soviet economic reform was an economic reform initiated by Alexei Kosygin , the Chairman of the Council of Ministers . During Leonid Brezhnev 's rule of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ( USSR ) the Soviet economy began to stagnate ; this period is referred to by some historians as the Era of Stagnation . After the failed 1965 reform Kosygin initiated another reform in 1973 to enhance the powers and functions of the regional planners by establishing associations . The reform was never fully implemented , and members of the Soviet leadership complained that the reform had not even been fully implemented by the time of the 1979 reform .", "350.org 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "Terry Barker Terry Barker is a British economist and Director of the Cambridge Centre for Climate Change Mitigation Research ( 4CMR ) part of the Department of Land Economy , University of Cambridge . He is also a member of the Tyndall Centre , the Chairman of Cambridge Econometrics ( a company he co-founded in 1985 ) , and chairman of the Cambridge Trust for New Thinking in Economics , which is a charitable organisation with a mission to promote new approaches to solving economic problems .", "Margarita Starkevičiūtė Margarita Starkevičiūtė is a member of EU advisory boards on financial markets and digital economy . From 2004-2009 she was a Member of the European Parliament ( MEP ) for the Liberal and Centre Union ; part of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe . At present came back to academia : teaching - macroeconomic analysis at the Faculty of Economics at Vilnius University , performing research on managing of imbalances , global governance reform , EU economic policy and financial markets at the International Business School of Vilnius University , external academic expert for European Parliamentary Research Services , member of Lithuania 's economists association . PhD thesis ( 2001 ) . `` Strategy of Long-Term Economic Growth in Transition and its Implementation in Lithuania '' . The subject of research is the growth and strategy of economic policy . The aim is to evaluate the development of economy in transition and applying modern growth model , to define the determinants and sources of long -- term economic growth and to outline government economic policy strategy facilitating the growth of economy . Research interests . Growth , global governance , financial economics , behavioral economics , creative industries . Teaching interests . Economic policy and investment management , financial markets and investments , management of changes . 2004-2009 , Member of the European Parliament , ALDE political group , Economic and Monetary Affairs Committee , Budget Committee , Budgetary Control Committee , Delegation for relations with Japan , Delegation for relations with Australia and New Zealand , Delegation for relations with Iran .", "New Economy Movement in the United States Not to be confused with the term New Economy The New Economy Movement in the United States is a group of organizations that are attempting to restructure the current economic system . The movement prioritizes human well-being over economic growth . Its primary goal is to localize the economy in an attempt to spread wealth and promote sustainable business practices . The New Economy movement challenges both neoclassical and Keynesian economics to include theories of ecological economics , solidarity economy , commons , degrowth , systems thinking and Buddhist economics . The movement promotes more public ownership of the economy through organizational structures such as cooperatives , and state-owned banks . The goal of these changes is to remove or alleviate harmful environmental and social impacts of capitalism through alternative economic as well as political practices . A principal leader of the movement is Gar Alperowitz , a distinguished political economist and activist . Alperovitz and others promote the democratizing ownership of businesses and the economy as a means to achieve a sustainable , fair , and equal society .", "Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment The Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment is a research institute at the London School of Economics and Political Science founded in May 2008 . The centre is a partner of the Grantham Institute for Climate Change at Imperial College and acts as an umbrella body for LSE 's overall research contributions to the field of climate change and its impact on the environment . Furthermore , the institute oversees the activities of the Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy ( CCCEP ) , a partnership between LSE and the University of Leeds . Both Grantham research centres are sponsored through the Grantham Foundation for the Protection of the Environment , established by Hannelore and Jeremy Grantham in 1997 . The combined investments totalling approximately # 24 million is recognised as one of the largest private contributions to climate change research . CCCEP is funded independently by the ESRC . The institute is currently chaired by Lord Nicholas Stern of Brentford , former Chief Economist of the World Bank and author of the widely known Stern Review . The purpose of the Institute is to increase knowledge and understanding on climate change and the environment ; promote better informed decision-making ; and educate and train new generations of researchers through its undergraduate and postgraduate programmes . The institute 's main research activities are divided into five different areas : 1 . Global response strategies 2 . Green growth 3 . Practical aspects of climate policy 4 . Adaptation and development 5 . Resource security The research of the institute is characterised by its interdisciplinary nature and brings together international expertise on economics , finance , geography , the environment , international development and political economy , as the centre 's academic staff comprise a broad range of disciplines , including physicists , climatologists , economists , statisticians , political scientists and various other social scientists . In September 2015 , the institute hosted the Open Energy Modelling Initiative workshop .", "Climate Challenge Climate Challenge is a Flash-based global warming game produced by the BBC and developed by Red Redemption . Players manage the economy and resources of the ` European Nations ' as its president , while reducing emissions of to combat climate change and managing crises . Climate Challenge is an environmental serious game , designed to give players an understanding of the science behind climate change , as well as the options available to policy makers and the difficulties in their implementation .", "Global Journal of Emerging Market Economies The Global Journal of Emerging Market Economies is a refereed academic journal that aims to provide basic reference material for policy-makers , business executives and researchers interested in issues relating to the economic prospects and performance of emerging market economies . The journal covers the following broad areas : Global Financial Crisis and the Impact on Emerging Market Economies , Economic Development and Inclusive Growth , Climate Change and Energy , Infrastructure Development and Public Private Partnerships , Capital Flows to and from Emerging Market Economies , Regional Cooperation , Trade and Investment and Development of National and Regional Financial Markets . The Journal is published in association with the Emerging Markets Forum , in Washington DC and publishes selected papers from their annual global meetings . The journal is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics ( COPE ) .", "Reliance damages Reliance damages is the measure of compensation given to a person who suffered an economic harm for acting in reliance on a party who failed to fulfill their obligation .", "Vyacheslav Baburin Vyacheslav Leonidovich Baburin ( born 31 May 1951 ) -- Soviet and Russian economic geographer and regional scientist , educator , made a significant contribution to understanding of dynamic aspects in economic geography , particularly examining innovation cycles in Russian social and economic system . One of the leading Russian researchers of interaction between society and environment ( effects of climate change on socio-economic development of countries and regions , assessment of damage from natural disasters , impact on society of time zones reduction , influence of mountain environment on economy , the cycles of forestry development , etc. . )", "Kharkiv National University of Economics Simon Kuznets Kharkiv National University of Economics is the largest economic higher educational and research institution in Eastern Ukraine . Established in 1912 , since 2013 the University is named after Simon Kuznets , its noted alumnus . KhNUE provides a full range of undergraduate and postgraduate educational programs implementing multistage training , retraining and upgrading of qualification in 26 specialties in economy and business , management , public administration , informatics and cybernetics , computer sciences , publishing business and printing industry , tourism .", "Ernesto Screpanti Ernesto Screpanti ( born 1948 , Rome ) is a professor of Political Economy at the University of Siena . He worked on the `` rethinking Marxism '' research programme , in the attempt to update Marxist analysis by bringing it in line with the reality of contemporary capitalism , on the one hand , and to liberate Marxism from any residue of Hegelian metaphysics , Kantian ethics and economic determinism , on the other .", "Ifo Business Climate Index The Ifo Business Climate Index is a closely followed leading indicator for economic activity in Germany prepared by the Ifo Institute for Economic Research in Munich , Germany .", "Global Climate Network The Global Climate Network ( GCN ) is an alliance of influential think tanks and research institutes in different countries that collaborate on research into climate change policy and whose stated aim is to help address the political blockages to ambitious action to tackle global warming . The Network has members in nine countries worldwide , including the USA , China , India , UK , Australia , Brazil , Norway , South Africa and Nigeria . Its Secretariat is housed at the Institute for Public Policy Research in London , UK . GCN members are engaged jointly in a programme of research projects , the results of which each member feeds into policy making at the domestic and international levels . Collectively , members of the Global Climate Network are committed to a vision of a prosperous and secure world in which greenhouse gas emissions have been reduced to a level that is no longer harmful to the climate system . Working together , the Network construct a narrative for action on climate change that is concerned with human and economic progress as well as environmental wellbeing . The Network 's patrons are Dr Rajendra Pachauri , chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and director-general of the Energy and Resources Institute in India ; John Podesta , former Chief of Staff to President Bill Clinton and director of Center for American Progress , and Lord Christopher Patten of Barnes , former European Commissioner for External Affairs .", "John A. Laitner John A. `` Skip '' Laitner ( born August 23 , 1947 ) is an American-born economist , author and lecturer . He focuses on developing a more robust technology and behavioral characterization of energy efficiency resources for use in energy and climate economic policy models . Laitner currently serves as a Senior Fellow ( formerly Director of Economic and Social Analysis ) for the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy ( ACEEE ) . He now leads a team of consultants , the Economic and Human Dimensions Research Associates based in Tucson , Arizona . Author of more than 280 reports , journal articles , and book chapters , Laitner has more than 40 years of involvement in the environmental , energy and economic policy arenas . His expertise includes benefit-cost assessments , behavioral assessments , resource costs and constraints , and the net employment and macroeconomic impacts of energy and climate policy scenarios . His most immediate research , building on the work of Robert U. Ayres and Benjamin Warr , is to examine the links between energy inefficiency and a productive economy . In a new book chapter , Laitner provides a time series dataset that suggests the United States may be only 14 percent energy efficient , and that it is this level of inefficiency which may constrain the future development of a more robust economy .", "Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .", "Bachelor of Political Economy The Bachelor of Political Economy is a three-year academic degree in the social sciences encompassing both economics and political science courses . Typical mandatory courses for the degree include , but are not limited to : microeconomics , macroeconomics , history of economic thought and political economy .", "Andrew Simms Andrew Simms is an author , analyst and co-director of the New Weather Institute . He is a research associate with the Centre for Global Political Economy at the University of Sussex and Fellow at the New Economics Foundation . He also served as Policy Director for ten years , Communications Director , and established the Climate Change Programme for the foundation . He co-authored The Green New Deal and co-founded the Green New Deal Group , the climate campaign onehundredmonths.org and cooperative think tank the New Weather Institute . He was a Principal Speaker of the Green Party . A political economist and environmentalist , Simms studied at the London School of Economics for a master 's degree in development and international political economy , and has written a number of reports on climate change , globalisation and localisation , development issues , debt ( conventional and ecological debt ) , finance and banking , corporate accountability , genetic engineering and food security . He coined the term ` clone towns ' to describe the economic and homogenising effects of chain retailers on town centres . Simms advocates the notion of ` ecological debt ' as an illustration of the degree to which economies operate beyond environmental thresholds , and initiated the annual marking of the day when the world is estimated to enter ` overshoot ' .", "NICTA NICTA ( previously known as National ICT Australia Ltd ) was Australia 's Information and Communications Technology ( ICT ) Research Centre of Excellence . The term `` Centre of Excellence '' is common marketing terminology used by some Australian government organisations for titles of science research groups . NICTA 's role is to pursue potentially economically significant ICT related research for the Australian economy . NICTA was structured around groups focused primarily on pure research and the implementation of those ideas within business teams . NICTA merged with CSIRO in July 2016 .", "Karen R. Polenske Karen Rosel Polenske ( born March 20 , 1937 ) is an American regional economist specialized in energy , environmental , and infrastructure analyses , and input-output accounts and models , particularly at the subnational scale . She is currently the Peter de Florez Professor of Regional Political Economy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) . Polenske received her undergraduate degree in Home Economics from the Oregon State University in 1959 . She holds a master in Public Administration and Economics from Syracuse University and a PhD in Economics from Harvard University , where she was in charge of the regional work at the Harvard Economic Research Project . Working with Wassily W. Leontief , she directed one of the most extensive multiregional input-output research studies of the U.S. economy in history . She has been director of the multiregional planning research team at MIT since 1972 . She is also past President of the International Input-Output Association . Polenske has been an advisor to international agencies , including the United Nations Development Programme , Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , and the World Bank , as well as an economic consultant to the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis , Department of Commerce , Department of Justice , and the U.S. Army Corp of Engineers .", "Ministry of Economy and Planning The Ministry of Economy and Planning is one of the governmental bodies of Saudi Arabia and part of the cabinet . The ministry has the function of developing and implementing five-year plans which reflect the long-term economical targets of the country .", "Woods Hole Research Center The Woods Hole Research Center ( WHRC ) is a scientific research organization that studies climate change , land use change , soils , wetlands , and forests . WHRC was named the world 's top climate change think tank for 2013 , 2014 , and 2015 by the International Center for Climate Governance . The Center conducts research throughout the Amazon , the Arctic , central Africa , and North America . WHRC collaborates with a wide variety of partners to understand the causes and impacts of climate change and to implement more science-based policies .", "Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change The Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change ( MCC ) conducts research and fosters dialogue about how the global commons , such as the atmosphere and the oceans , might be used and shared by many yet nevertheless be protected . A main theme is the compatibility of economic growth with sustainable development and climate protection .", "Climate Code Red Climate Code Red : The Case for Emergency Action is a 2008 book which presents scientific evidence that the global warming crisis is worse than official reports and national governments have so far indicated . The book argues that we are facing a `` sustainability emergency '' that requires a clear break from business-as-usual politics . The authors explain that emergency action to address climate change is not so much a radical idea as an indispensable course we must embark upon . Climate Code Red draws heavily on the work of a large number of climate scientists , including James E. Hansen . The key themes of Climate Code Red are : `` Our goal is a safe-climate future -- we have no right to bargain away species or human lives . '' `` We are facing rapid warming impacts : the danger is immediate , not just in the future . '' `` For a safe climate future , we must take action now to stop emissions and to cool the earth . '' `` Plan a large-scale transition to a post-carbon economy and society . '' `` Recognise a climate and sustainability emergency , because we need to move at a pace far beyond business and politics as usual '' . Co-author David Spratt is a Melbourne businessman , climate-policy analyst , and co-founder of the Carbon Equity network . Co-author Philip Sutton is convener of the Greenleap Strategic Institute and Assistant Convenor of the Climate Emergency Network . The book was launched by the Governor of Victoria , Professor David de Kretser in Parliament House in Melbourne , Victoria , on July 17 , 2008 .", "Ebonya Washington Ebonya L. Washington is Henry Kohn Professor of Economics at Yale University . She is also a National Bureau of Economic Research Faculty Research Fellow in the Programs on Political Economy and the Economics of Children . Her research focuses on the political economy of low-income and minority constituents and the processes through which low-income Americans meet their financial needs . Several of her papers have been discussed in the popular press .", "J. K. Gibson-Graham J.K. Gibson-Graham is a pen name shared by feminist economic geographers Julie Graham and Katherine Gibson . Their first book The End of Capitalism ( as we knew it ) was published in 1996 , followed by A Postcapitalist Politics in 2006 . Julie Graham died on April 4 , 2010 from complications from cancer . Katherine Gibson is currently professor at the Institute of Culture and Society , University of Western Sydney . The two women also founded The Community Economies Research Network ( CERN ) and the Community Economies Collective ( CEC ) , `` international collaborative networks of researchers who share an interest in theorizing , discussing , representing and ultimately enacting new visions of economy . ''" ]

[ "Sea surface temperature Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans . Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .", "Troposphere The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth 's atmosphere , and is also where nearly all weather takes place . It contains approximately 75 % of the atmosphere 's mass and 99 % of the total mass of water vapor and aerosols . The average depths of the troposphere are 20 km in the tropics , 17 km in the mid latitudes , and 7 km in the polar regions in winter . The lowest part of the troposphere , where friction with the Earth 's surface influences air flow , is the planetary boundary layer . This layer is typically a few hundred meters to 2 km deep depending on the landform and time of day . Atop the troposphere is the tropopause , which is the border between the troposphere and stratosphere . The tropopause is an inversion layer , where the air temperature ceases to decrease with height and remains constant through its thickness . The word troposphere derives from the for `` turn , turn toward , trope '' and '' - sphere '' ( as in , the Earth ) , reflecting the fact that rotational turbulent mixing plays an important role in the troposphere 's structure and behaviour . Most of the phenomena associated with day-to-day weather occur in the troposphere .", "Uranus Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun . It has the third-largest planetary radius and fourth-largest planetary mass in the Solar System . Uranus is similar in composition to Neptune , and both have different bulk chemical composition from that of the larger gas giants Jupiter and Saturn . For this reason , scientists often classify Uranus and Neptune as `` ice giants '' to distinguish them from the gas giants . Uranus 's atmosphere is similar to Jupiter 's and Saturn 's in its primary composition of hydrogen and helium , but it contains more `` ices '' such as water , ammonia , and methane , along with traces of other hydrocarbons . It is the coldest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System , with a minimum temperature of 49 K , and has a complex , layered cloud structure with water thought to make up the lowest clouds and methane the uppermost layer of clouds . The interior of Uranus is mainly composed of ices and rock . Uranus is the only planet whose name is derived from a figure from Greek mythology , from the Latinised version of the Greek god of the sky Ouranos . Like the other giant planets , Uranus has a ring system , a magnetosphere , and numerous moons . The Uranian system has a unique configuration among those of the planets because its axis of rotation is tilted sideways , nearly into the plane of its solar orbit . Its north and south poles , therefore , lie where most other planets have their equators . In 1986 , images from Voyager 2 showed Uranus as an almost featureless planet in visible light , without the cloud bands or storms associated with the other giant planets . Observations from Earth have shown seasonal change and increased weather activity as Uranus approached its equinox in 2007 . Wind speeds can reach 250 m/s .", "Atmosphere of Jupiter The atmosphere of Jupiter is the largest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System . It is mostly made of molecular hydrogen and helium in roughly solar proportions ; other chemical compounds are present only in small amounts and include methane , ammonia , hydrogen sulfide and water . Although water is thought to reside deep in the atmosphere , its directly measured concentration is very low . The nitrogen , sulfur , and noble gas abundances in Jupiter 's atmosphere exceed solar values by a factor of about three . The atmosphere of Jupiter lacks a clear lower boundary and gradually transitions into the liquid interior of the planet . From lowest to highest , the atmospheric layers are the troposphere , stratosphere , thermosphere and exosphere . Each layer has characteristic temperature gradients . The lowest layer , the troposphere , has a complicated system of clouds and hazes , comprising layers of ammonia , ammonium hydrosulfide and water . The upper ammonia clouds visible at Jupiter 's surface are organized in a dozen zonal bands parallel to the equator and are bounded by powerful zonal atmospheric flows ( winds ) known as jets . The bands alternate in color : the dark bands are called belts , while light ones are called zones . Zones , which are colder than belts , correspond to upwellings , while belts mark descending air . The zones ' lighter color is believed to result from ammonia ice ; what gives the belts their darker colors is uncertain . The origins of the banded structure and jets are not well understood , though a `` shallow model '' and a `` deep model '' exist . The Jovian atmosphere shows a wide range of active phenomena , including band instabilities , vortices ( cyclones and anticyclones ) , storms and lightning . The vortices reveal themselves as large red , white or brown spots ( ovals ) . The largest two spots are the Great Red Spot ( GRS ) and Oval BA , which is also red . These two and most of the other large spots are anticyclonic . Smaller anticyclones tend to be white . Vortices are thought to be relatively shallow structures with depths not exceeding several hundred kilometers . Located in the southern hemisphere , the GRS is the largest known vortex in the Solar System . It could engulf two or three Earths and has existed for at least three hundred years . Oval BA , south of GRS , is a red spot a third the size of GRS that formed in 2000 from the merging of three white ovals . Jupiter has powerful storms , often accompanied by lightning strikes . The storms are a result of moist convection in the atmosphere connected to the evaporation and condensation of water . They are sites of strong upward motion of the air , which leads to the formation of bright and dense clouds . The storms form mainly in belt regions . The lightning strikes on Jupiter are hundreds of times more powerful than those seen on Earth . However , there are so few , that the amount of lightning activity is comparable to Earth ." ]

[ "Jet standard atmosphere Jet Standard Atmosphere is often used by jet manufactures . It assumes a mean sea level temperature of +15 C . The temperature then lapses 2 C per 1000 ft to infinity . There is no Tropopause in the jet standard atmosphere . In the standard atmosphere , the Tropopause is the height at which the temperature stops decreasing . It is also the end of the Troposphere and start of the Stratosphere .", "Idealized greenhouse model The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .", "Walker circulation The Walker circulation , also known as the Walker cell , is a conceptual model of the air flow in the tropics in the lower atmosphere ( troposphere ) . According to this model , parcels of air follow a closed circulation in the zonal and vertical directions . This circulation , which is roughly consistent with observations , is caused by differences in heat distribution between ocean and land . It was discovered by Gilbert Walker . In addition to motions in the zonal and vertical direction the tropical atmosphere also has considerable motion in the meridional direction as part of , for example , the Hadley Circulation . The term `` Walker circulation '' was coined in 1969 by the Norwegian-American meteorologist Jacob Bjerknes .", "Lime kiln A lime kiln is a kiln used for the calcination of limestone ( calcium carbonate ) to produce the form of lime called quicklime ( calcium oxide ) . The chemical equation for this reaction is CaCO3 + heat → CaO + CO2 This reaction takes place at 900 ° C ( 1650 ° F ; at which temperature the partial pressure of CO2 is 1 atmosphere ) , but a temperature around 1000 ° C ( 1800 ° F ; at which temperature the partial pressure of CO2 is 3.8 atmospheres ) is usually used to make the reaction proceed quickly . Excessive temperature is avoided because it produces unreactive , `` dead-burned '' lime . Slaked lime ( calcium hydroxide ) can be formed by mixing water with quicklime .", "Mesopause The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .", "Stratosphere The stratosphere ( -LSB- ˈstrætəˌsfɪər , _ - toʊ - -RSB- ) is the second major layer of Earth 's atmosphere , just above the troposphere , and below the mesosphere . About 20 % of the atmosphere 's mass is contained in the stratosphere . The stratosphere is stratified in temperature , with warmer layers higher and cooler layers closer to the Earth . The increase of temperature with altitude is a result of the absorption of the Sun 's ultraviolet radiation by the ozone . This is in contrast to the troposphere , near the Earth 's surface , where temperatures decreases with altitude . The border between the troposphere and stratosphere , the tropopause , marks where this temperature inversion begins . Near the equator , the stratosphere starts at 18 km ; at mid latitudes , it starts at 10 - and ends at 50 km ; at the poles , it starts at about 8 km . Temperatures vary within the stratosphere with the seasons , in particular with the polar night ( winter ) . The greatest variation of temperature takes place over the poles in the lower stratosphere ; those variations are largely steady at lower latitudes and higher altitudes .", "Lifted index The lifted index ( LI ) is the temperature difference between the environment Te ( p ) and an air parcel lifted adiabatically Tp ( p ) at a given pressure height in the troposphere ( lowest layer where most weather occurs ) of the atmosphere , usually 500 hPa ( mb ) . The temperature is measured in Celsius . When the value is positive , the atmosphere ( at the respective height ) is stable and when the value is negative , the atmosphere is unstable .", "Atmospheric temperature Atmospheric temperature is a measure of temperature at different levels of the Earth 's atmosphere . It is governed by many factors , including incoming solar radiation , humidity and altitude . When discussing surface temperature , the annual atmospheric temperature range at any geographical location depends largely upon the type of biome , as measured by the Köppen climate classification .", "Atmosphere of Uranus The atmosphere of Uranus is composed primarily of hydrogen and helium . At depth it is significantly enriched in volatiles ( dubbed `` ices '' ) such as water , ammonia and methane . The opposite is true for the upper atmosphere , which contains very few gases heavier than hydrogen and helium due to its low temperature . Uranus 's atmosphere is the coldest of all the planets , with its temperature reaching as low as 49 K. The Uranian atmosphere can be divided into three main layers : the troposphere , between altitudes of − 300 and 50 km and pressures from 100 to 0.1 bar ; the stratosphere , spanning altitudes between 50 and 4000 km and pressures of between and the hot thermosphere ( and exosphere ) extending from an altitude of 4,000 km to several Uranian radii from the nominal surface at 1 bar pressure . Unlike Earth 's , Uranus 's atmosphere has no mesosphere . The troposphere hosts four cloud layers : methane clouds at about 1.2 bar , hydrogen sulfide and ammonia clouds at 3 -- 10 bar , ammonium hydrosulfide clouds at 20 -- 40 bar , and finally water clouds below 50 bar . Only the upper two cloud layers have been observed directly -- the deeper clouds remain speculative . Above the clouds lie several tenuous layers of photochemical haze . Discrete bright tropospheric clouds are rare on Uranus , probably due to sluggish convection in the planet 's interior . Nevertheless , observations of such clouds were used to measure the planet 's zonal winds , which are remarkably fast with speeds up to 240 m/s . Little is known about the Uranian atmosphere as to date only one spacecraft , Voyager 2 , which passed by the planet in 1986 , has studied it in detail . No other missions to Uranus are currently scheduled .", "Climate sensitivity Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .", "Microwave Sounding Unit temperature measurements Microwave Sounding Unit temperature measurements refers to temperature measurement using the Microwave Sounding Unit instrument and is one of several methods of measuring Earth atmospheric temperature from satellites. Microwave measurements have been obtained from the troposphere since 1979, when they were included within NOAA weather satellites, starting with TIROS-N. By comparison, the usable balloon (radiosonde) record begins in 1958 but has less geographic coverage and is less uniform. Microwave brightness measurements do not directly measure temperature. They measure radiances in various wavelength bands, which must then be mathematically inverted to obtain indirect inferences of temperature. The resulting temperature profiles depend on details of the methods that are used to obtain temperatures from radiances. As a result, different groups that have analyzed the satellite data have obtained different temperature trends. Among these groups are Remote Sensing Systems (RSS) and the University of Alabama in Huntsville (UAH). The satellite series is not fully homogeneous – the record is constructed from a series of satellites with similar but not identical instrumentation. The sensors deteriorate over time, and corrections are necessary for satellite drift in orbit. Particularly large differences between reconstructed temperature series occur at the few times when there is little temporal overlap between successive satellites, making intercalibration difficult.", "Sprite (lightning) Sprites are large-scale electrical discharges that occur high above thunderstorm clouds , or cumulonimbus , giving rise to a quite varied range of visual shapes flickering in the night sky . They are triggered by the discharges of positive lightning between an underlying thundercloud and the ground . Sprites appear as luminous reddish-orange flashes . They often occur in clusters within atmosphere above the troposphere at an altitude range of 50 - . Sporadic visual reports of sprites go back at least to 1886 , but they were first photographed on July 6 , 1989 by scientists from the University of Minnesota and have subsequently been captured in video recordings many thousands of times . Sprites are sometimes inaccurately called upper-atmospheric lightning . However , sprites are cold plasma phenomena that lack the hot channel temperatures of tropospheric lightning , so they are more akin to fluorescent tube discharges than to lightning discharges .", "The Street Scene The Street Scene is a basic model for epic theater set forth by Bertolt Brecht . It makes use of a simple , `` natural '' incident , such as could be seen on any street corner : an eyewitness demonstrating to a collection of people how a traffic accident took place . `` The bystanders may not have observed what happened , or they may simply not agree with him , may ` see things a different way ' ; the point is that the demonstrator acts the behavior of driver or victim both in such a way that the bystanders are able to form an opinion about the incident . '' This model is set forth as the most primitive type of epic theater to be easily understood by the reader or listener .", "Atmospheric focusing Atmospheric focusing is a phenomenon occurring when a large shock wave is produced in the atmosphere , as in a nuclear explosion or large extraterrestrial object impact . The shock wave is refracted horizontally by density variations in the atmosphere so that it can have impacts in localized areas much further away than the theoretical extent of its blast effect . In large bombs , some effects may thus be found hundreds of kilometers from the blast site ( such as in the case of the Tsar Bomba test , where damage was caused up to approximately 1,000 km away ) . This effect operates similarly to the patterns made by sunlight on the bottom of a pool , the difference is that the light is bent at the contact point with the water while the shock wave is distorted by density variations ( e.g. due to temperature variations ) in the atmosphere . Variations of wind can cause a similar effect . This will disperse the shock wave at some places and focus it at others . For powerful shock waves this can cause damage farther than expected ; the shock wave energy density will decrease beyond expected values based on uniform geometry falloff for weak shock or acoustic waves , as expected at large distances ) . Category : Shock waves Category : Nuclear weapons", "Anticyclogenesis Anticyclogenesis is the development or strengthening of anticyclonic circulation in the atmosphere . It is the opposite of anticyclolysis , and has a cyclonic equivalent -- cyclogenesis . Anticyclones are alternatively referred to as high pressure systems . High pressure areas form due to downward motion through the troposphere , the atmospheric layer where weather occurs . Preferred areas within a synoptic flow pattern in higher levels of the troposphere are beneath the western side of troughs . On weather maps , these areas show converging winds ( isotachs ) , also known as confluence , or converging height lines near or above the level of non-divergence , which is near the 500 hPa pressure surface about midway up through the troposphere . On weather maps , high pressure centers are associated with the letter H. On constant pressure upper level charts , it is located within the highest height line contour .", "Atmosphere of Venus The atmosphere of Venus is the layer of gases surrounding Venus . It is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and is much denser and hotter than that of Earth . The temperature at the surface is 740 K ( 467 ° C , 872 ° F ) , and the pressure is 93 bar ( 9.3 MPa ) , roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . The Venusian atmosphere supports opaque clouds made of sulfuric acid , making optical Earth-based and orbital observation of the surface impossible . Information about the topography has been obtained exclusively by radar imaging . Aside from carbon dioxide , the other main component is nitrogen . Other chemical compounds are present only in trace amounts . Mikhail Lomonosov was the first person to hypothesize the existence of an atmosphere on Venus based on his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 in a small observatory near his house in Saint Petersburg , Russia . Aside from the very surface layers , the atmosphere is in a state of vigorous circulation . The upper layer of troposphere exhibits a phenomenon of super-rotation , in which the atmosphere circles the planet in just four Earth days , much faster than the planet 's sidereal day of 243 days . The winds supporting super-rotation blow at a speed of 100 m/s ( ~ 360 km/h or 220 mph ) or more . Winds move at up to 60 times the speed of the planet 's rotation , while Earth 's fastest winds are only 10 % to 20 % rotation speed . On the other hand , the wind speed becomes increasingly slower as the elevation from the surface decreases , with the breeze barely reaching the speed of 10 km/h ( 2.8 m/s ) on the surface . Near the poles are anticyclonic structures called polar vortices . Each vortex is double-eyed and shows a characteristic S-shaped pattern of clouds . Above there is an intermediate layer of mesosphere which separates the troposphere from the thermosphere . The thermosphere is also characterized by strong circulation , but very different in its nature - the gases heated and partially ionized by sunlight in the sunlit hemisphere migrate to the dark hemisphere where they recombine and downwell . Unlike Earth , Venus lacks a magnetic field . Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind . This ionised layer excludes the solar magnetic field , giving Venus a distinct magnetic environment . This is considered Venus 's induced magnetosphere . Lighter gases , including water vapour , are continuously blown away by the solar wind through the induced magnetotail . It is speculated that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of the Earth with liquid water on the surface . A runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and subsequent rise of the levels of other greenhouse gases . Despite the harsh conditions on the surface , the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth , making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the Solar System , even more so than the surface of Mars . Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air ( 21 % oxygen , 78 % nitrogen ) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth , the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization . On January 29 , 2013 , ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to `` the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions . ''", "Stratopause The stratopause ( formerly Mesopeak ) is the level of the atmosphere which is the boundary between two layers : the stratosphere and the mesosphere . In the stratosphere the temperature increases with altitude , and the stratopause is the region where a maximum in the temperature occurs . This atmospheric feature is not only associated with Earth : it occurs on any other planet or moon that has an atmosphere as well . On Earth , the stratopause is 50 to high above the Earth 's surface . The atmospheric pressure is around 1/1000 of the pressure at sea level . The temperature in the stratopause is -15 degrees Celsius ( 5 degrees Fahrenheit ) .", "Tropospheric propagation Tropospheric propagation describes electromagnetic propagation in relation to the troposphere . The service area from a VHF or UHF radio transmitter extends to just beyond the optical horizon , at which point signals start to rapidly reduce in strength . Viewers living in such a `` deep fringe '' reception area will notice that during certain conditions , weak signals normally masked by noise increase in signal strength to allow quality reception . Such conditions are related to the current state of the troposphere . Tropospheric propagated signals travel in the part of the atmosphere adjacent to the surface and extending to some 25,000 feet ( 7,620 m ) . Such signals are thus directly affected by weather conditions extending over some hundreds of miles . During very settled , warm anticyclonic weather ( i.e. , high pressure ) , usually weak signals from distant transmitters improve in strength . Another symptom during such conditions may be interference to the local transmitter resulting in co-channel interference , usually horizontal lines or an extra floating picture with analog broadcasts and break-up with digital broadcasts . A settled high-pressure system gives the characteristic conditions for enhanced tropospheric propagation , in particular favouring signals which travel along the prevailing isobar pattern ( rather than across it ) . Such weather conditions can occur at any time , but generally the summer and autumn months are the best periods . In certain favourable locations , enhanced tropospheric propagation may enable reception of ultra high frequency ( UHF ) TV signals up to 1,000 mi or more . The observable characteristics of such high-pressure systems are usually clear , cloudless days with little or no wind . At sunset the upper air cools , as does the surface temperature , but at different rates . This produces a boundary or temperature gradient , which allows an inversion level to form -- a similar effect occurs at sunrise . The inversion is capable of allowing very high frequency ( VHF ) and UHF signal propagation well beyond the normal radio horizon distance . The inversion effectively reduces sky wave radiation from a transmitter -- normally VHF and UHF signals travel on into space when they reach the horizon , the refractive index of the ionosphere preventing signal return . With temperature inversion , however , the signal is to a large extent refracted over the horizon rather than continuing along a direct path into outer space . Fog also produces good tropospheric results , again due to inversion effects . Fog occurs during high-pressure weather , and if such conditions result in a large belt of fog with clear sky above , there will be heating of the upper fog level and thus an inversion . This situation often arises towards night fall , continues overnight and clears with the sunrise over a period of around 4 -- 5 hours .", "BluOnyx BluOnyx is a brand of Mobile Content Server introduced in December 2006 by LSI Inc ( formerly Agere Systems ) . The first prototype models of the BluOnyx were demonstrated at the 2007 Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas with mass distribution expected later in the year . The purpose of the device is to store digital media away from the computer , creating a single place where many users with different mobile devices can connect . The device utilizes software which is `` pushed '' directly onto the phones , rather than have the device connected to a computer .", "Weather Weather is the state of the atmosphere , to the degree that it is hot or cold , wet or dry , calm or stormy , clear or cloudy . Most weather phenomena occur in the lowest level of the atmosphere , the troposphere , just below the stratosphere . Weather refers to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity , whereas climate is the term for the averaging of atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time . When used without qualification , `` weather '' is generally understood to mean the weather of Earth . Weather is driven by air pressure , temperature and moisture differences between one place and another . These differences can occur due to the sun 's angle at any particular spot , which varies with latitude . The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the largest scale atmospheric circulations : the Hadley Cell , the Ferrel Cell , the Polar Cell , and the jet stream . Weather systems in the mid-latitudes , such as extratropical cyclones , are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow . Because the Earth 's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane , sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of the year . On Earth 's surface , temperatures usually range ± 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F to 100 ° F ) annually . Over thousands of years , changes in Earth 's orbit can affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth , thus influencing long-term climate and global climate change . Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences . Higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes as most atmospheric heating is due to contact with the Earth 's surface while radiative losses to space are mostly constant . Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location . The Earth 's weather system is a chaotic system ; as a result , small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large effects on the system as a whole . Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout history , and there is evidence that human activities such as agriculture and industry have modified weather patterns . Studying how the weather works on other planets has been helpful in understanding how weather works on Earth . A famous landmark in the Solar System , Jupiter 's Great Red Spot , is an anticyclonic storm known to have existed for at least 300 years . However , weather is not limited to planetary bodies . A star 's corona is constantly being lost to space , creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System . The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind .", "Low-pressure area A low-pressure area , low , or depression is a region where the topographic map is atmospheric pressure is lower than that of surrounding locations . Low-pressure systems form under areas of wind divergence that occur in the upper levels of the troposphere . The formation process of a low-pressure area is known as cyclogenesis . Within the field of meteorology , atmospheric divergence aloft occurs in two areas . The first area is on the east side of upper troughs , which form half of a Rossby wave within the Westerlies ( a trough with large wavelength that extends through the troposphere ) . A second area of wind divergence aloft occurs ahead of embedded shortwave troughs , which are of smaller wavelength . Diverging winds aloft ahead of these troughs cause atmospheric lift within the troposphere below , which lowers surface pressures as upward motion partially counteracts the force of gravity . Thermal lows form due to localized heating caused by greater sunshine over deserts and other land masses . Since localized areas of warm air are less dense than their surroundings , this warmer air rises , which lowers atmospheric pressure near that portion of the Earth 's surface . Large-scale thermal lows over continents help drive monsoon circulations . Low-pressure areas can also form due to organized thunderstorm activity over warm water . When this occurs over the tropics in concert with the Intertropical Convergence Zone , it is known as a monsoon trough . Monsoon troughs reach their northerly extent in August and their southerly extent in February . When a convective low acquires a well-hot circulation in the tropics it is termed a tropical cyclone . Tropical cyclones can form during any month of the year globally , but can occur in either the northern or southern hemisphere during November . Atmospheric lift will also generally produce cloud cover through adiabatic cooling once the air becomes saturated as it rises , although the low-pressure area typically brings cloudy skies , which act to minimize diurnal temperature extremes . Since clouds reflect sunlight , incoming shortwave solar radiation decreases , which causes lower temperatures during the day . At night the absorptive effect of clouds on outgoing longwave radiation , such as heat energy from the surface , allows for warmer diurnal low temperatures in all seasons . The stronger the area of low pressure , the stronger the winds experienced in its vicinity . Globally , low-pressure systems are most frequently located over the Tibetan Plateau and in the lee of the Rocky mountains . In Europe ( particularly in the United Kingdom ) , recurring low-pressure weather systems are typically known as `` depressions '' .", "Planetary equilibrium temperature The planetary equilibrium temperature is a theoretical temperature that a planet would be at when considered simply as if it were a black body being heated only by its parent star . In this model , the presence or absence of an atmosphere ( and therefore any greenhouse effect ) is not considered , and one treats the theoretical black body temperature as if it came from an idealized surface of the planet . Other authors use different names for this concept , such as equivalent blackbody temperature of a planet , or the effective radiation emission temperature of the planet . Similar concepts include the global mean temperature , global radiative equilibrium , and global-mean surface air temperature , which includes the effects of global warming .", "Life on Venus The speculation of life currently existing on Venus decreased significantly since the early 1960s , when spacecraft began studying Venus and it became clear that the conditions on Venus are extreme compared to those on Earth . The fact that Venus is located closer to the Sun than Earth , raising temperatures on the surface to nearly 735 K , the atmospheric pressure is 90 times that of Earth , and the extreme impact of the greenhouse effect , make water-based life as we know it unlikely on the surface of the planet . However , a few scientists have speculated that thermoacidophilic extremophile microorganisms might exist in the lower-temperature , acidic upper layers of the Venusian atmosphere .", "Satellite temperature measurements The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .", "Upper-atmospheric lightning Upper-atmospheric lightning or ionospheric lightning are terms sometimes used by researchers to refer to a family of short-lived electrical-breakdown phenomena that occur well above the altitudes of normal lightning and storm clouds . Upper-atmospheric lightning is believed to be electrically induced forms of luminous plasma . The preferred usage is transient luminous event ( TLE ) , because the various types of electrical-discharge phenomena in the upper atmosphere lack several characteristics of the more familiar tropospheric lightning .", "Hubbard model The Hubbard model is an approximate model used , especially in solid state physics , to describe the transition between conducting and insulating systems . The Hubbard model , named after John Hubbard , is the simplest model of interacting particles in a lattice , with only two terms in the Hamiltonian ( see example below ) : a kinetic term allowing for tunneling ( ` hopping ' ) of particles between sites of the lattice and a potential term consisting of an on-site interaction . The particles can either be fermions , as in Hubbard 's original work , or bosons , when the model is referred to as either the ` Bose -- Hubbard model ' or the ` boson Hubbard model ' . The Hubbard model is a good approximation for particles in a periodic potential at sufficiently low temperatures that all the particles are in the lowest Bloch band , as long as any long-range interactions between the particles can be ignored . If interactions between particles on different sites of the lattice are included , the model is often referred to as the ` extended Hubbard model ' . The model was originally proposed ( in 1963 ) to describe electrons in solids and has since been the focus of particular interest as a model for high-temperature superconductivity . More recently , the Bose -- Hubbard model has been used to describe the behavior of ultracold atoms trapped in optical lattices . Recent ultracold atom experiments have also realised the original , fermionic Hubbard model in the hope that such experiments could yield its phase diagram . For electrons in a solid , the Hubbard model can be considered as an improvement on the tight-binding model , which includes only the hopping term . For strong interactions , it can give qualitatively different behavior from the tight-binding model , and correctly predicts the existence of so-called Mott insulators , which are prevented from becoming conducting by the strong repulsion between the particles .", "Anticyclone An anticyclone ( that is , opposite to a cyclone ) is a weather phenomenon defined by the United States National Weather Service 's glossary as `` a large-scale circulation of winds around a central region of high atmospheric pressure , clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere , counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere '' . Effects of surface-based anticyclones include clearing skies as well as cooler , drier air . Fog can also form overnight within a region of higher pressure . Mid-tropospheric systems , such as the subtropical ridge , deflect tropical cyclones around their periphery and cause a temperature inversion inhibiting free convection near their center , building up surface-based haze under their base . Anticyclones aloft can form within warm core lows such as tropical cyclones , due to descending cool air from the backside of upper troughs such as polar highs , or from large scale sinking such as the subtropical ridge .", "Remote Sensing Systems Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) is a private research company founded in 1974 by Frank Wentz . It processes microwave data from a variety of NASA satellites . Most of their research is supported by the Earth Science Enterprise program . The company is based in Santa Rosa , California . They are a widely cited source of data , on the satellite temperature record . Their data is one source of evidence for global warming . Research by Carl Mears , Matthias Schabel , and Wentz , all of RSS , highlighted errors in the early satellite temperature records compiled by John Christy and Roy Spencer at UAH . The UAH data had previously showed no significant temperature trend , bringing the derived satellite data into closer agreement with surface temperature trends , radiosonde data and computer models . The UAH data is now closer to the RSS data but differences remain , for example the Lower Troposphere global average trend since 1979 , RSS currently have +0.133 K/decade while UAH have 0.140 K/decade , while the mid troposphere difference is even more marked at 0.079 K/decade and 0.052 K/decade respectively . However , in a recent online YouTube video , Dr. Carl Mears , a senior scientist with the team behind the satellite data , explained how he believes his data set needed correction . I would have to say that the surface data seems that it 's more accurate , because a number of groups analyze the surface data , including some who set out to prove the other ones wrong , and they all get more or less the same answer .", "Cloud In meteorology , a cloud is an aerosol comprising a visible mass of minute liquid droplets , frozen crystals , or particles suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of a planetary body . The droplets and crystals may be made of water or various chemicals . On Earth , clouds are formed as a result of saturation of the air when it is cooled to its dew point , or when it gains sufficient moisture ( usually in the form of water vapor ) from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the ambient temperature . They are seen in the Earth 's homosphere ( which includes the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere ) . Nephology is the science of clouds which is undertaken in the cloud physics branch of meteorology . There are two systems of naming clouds in their respective layers of the atmosphere ; Latin in the troposphere and mostly alpha-numeric above the troposphere . Cloud types in the troposphere , the atmospheric layer closest to Earth 's surface , have Latin names due to the universal adaptation of Luke Howard 's nomenclature . Formally proposed in 1802 , it became the basis of a modern international system that classifies clouds into five physical forms and three altitude levels ( formerly known as étages ) . These physical types , in approximate ascending order of convective activity , include stratiform sheets , cirriform wisps and patches , stratocumuliform layers ( mainly structured as rolls , ripples , and patches ) , cumuliform heaps , and very large cumulonimbiform heaps that often show complex structure . The physical forms are cross-classified by the altitude levels to produce ten basic genus-types , most of which can be divided into species , and subdivided into varieties . Two cirriform clouds that form higher up in the stratosphere and mesosphere have common names for their main types , but are sub-classified alpha-numerically . They are relatively uncommon and are mostly seen in the polar regions of Earth . Clouds have been observed in the atmospheres of other planets and moons in the Solar System and beyond . However , due to their different temperature characteristics , they are often composed of other substances such as methane , ammonia , and sulfuric acid as well as water . Homospheric types determined by cross-classification of forms and levels . '' Homospheric types include the ten tropospheric genera and two additional major types above the troposphere . The cumulus genus includes three variants as defined by vertical size .", "COSPAR international reference atmosphere The COSPAR International Reference Atmosphere ( CIRA ) is an empirical model of the atmosphere of Earth . It consists of a set of tables of average air pressures , altitudes and temperatures . The CIRA models are developed by the Committee on Space Research ( COSPAR ) and have been important for the planning of spaceflight .", "Thaw (weather) January thaw is a term applied to a thaw or rise in temperature in mid-winter found in mid-latitude North America . Sinusoidal estimates of expected temperatures , for northern locales , usually place the lowest temperatures around January 23 and the highest around July 24 , and provide fairly accurate estimates of temperature expectations . Actual average temperatures in North America usually significantly differ twice over the course of the year : Mid-autumn temperatures tend to be warmer than predicted by the sinusoidal model , creating the impression of extended summer warmth known as Indian summer . For five days around January 25 , temperatures are usually significantly warmer than predicted by the sinusoidal estimate , and also warmer than neighboring temperatures on both sides . During this `` thaw '' period , usually lasting for about a week , temperatures are generally about 6 ° C ( 10 ° F ) above normal . This varies from year to year , and temperatures fluctuate enough that such a rise in late-January temperature would be unremarkable ; what is remarkable ( and unexplained ) is the tendency for such rises to occur more commonly in late January than in mid-January or early February , which sinusoidal estimates have to be slightly warmer . In some regions ( such as northern Canada ) this phenomenon will not be manifest as a `` thaw '' in the technical sense , since temperatures will remain below freezing . The January thaw is believed to be a weather singularity . A possible physical mechanism for such phenomena was offered in the 1950s by E.G. Bowen : he suggested that some `` calendaricities '' ( as he called them ) might be explicable in terms of meteoric particles from cometary orbits acting as ice nuclei in terrestrial clouds ; his theory then received some support from several sources . However , Bowen 's ideas later fell out of favour with the development of atmospheric dynamic modelling techniques , although one of his rainfall peaks does seem to correspond with the date of the January thaw . Data analysis has not found statistically significant support for the supposed January thaw . The authors of this study state that `` the effects of sampling in finite climate records are wholly adequate to account for the existence of January thaw ` features ' in northeastern U.S. temperature data . ''", "Lipid microdomain Lipid microdomains are formed when lipids undergo lateral phase separations yielding stable coexisting lamellar domains . These phase separations can be induced by changes in temperature , pressure , ionic strength or by the addition of divalent cations or proteins . The question of whether such lipid microdomains observed in model lipid systems also exist in biomembranes had motivated considerable research efforts . Lipid domains are not readily isolated and examined as unique species , in contrast to the examples of lateral heterogeneity . One can disrupt the membrane and demonstrate a heterogeneous range of composition in the population of the resulting vesicles or fragments . Electron microscopy can also be used to demonstrate lateral inhomogeneities in biomembranes . Often , lateral heterogeneity has been inferred from biophysical techniques where the observed signal indicates multiple populations rather than the expected homogenous population . An example of this is the measurement of the diffusion coefficient of a fluorescent lipid analogue in soybean protoplasts . Membrane microheterogeneity is sometimes inferred from the behavior of enzymes , where the enzymatic activity does not appear to be correlated with the average lipid physical state exhibited by the bulk of the membrane . Often , the methods suggest regions with different lipid fluidity , as would be expected of coexisting gel and liquid crystalline phases within the biomembrane . This is also the conclusion of a series of studies where differential effects of perturbation caused by cis and trans fatty acids are interpreted in terms of preferential partitioning of the two liquid crystalline and gel-like domains ." ]

[ "Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems ." ]

[ "Past sea level Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .", "Last Glacial Maximum The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE . Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .", "Copenhagen Diagnosis The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "Sea level Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location . Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming . The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .", "Deglaciation Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .", "Quaternary glaciation The Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , is a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events during the Quaternary period from 2.58 Ma ( million years ago ) to present . During this period , ice sheets expanded , notably from out of Antarctica and Greenland , and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere ( for example , the Laurentide ice sheet ) . The major effects of the ice age are erosion and deposition of material over large parts of the continents , modification of river systems , creation of millions of lakes , changes in sea level , development of pluvial lakes far from the ice margins , isostatic adjustment of the crust , and abnormal winds . It affected oceans , flooding , and biological communities . The ice sheets themselves , by raising the albedo , affect a major feedback on climate cooling .", "Marine transgression A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .", "Konrad Steffen Konrad `` Koni '' Steffen ( born 1952 ) is a glaciologist and the former director of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder , a position he held from 2005 until he took office as the director of the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest , Snow and Landscape Research on July 1 , 2012 . He is known for his research into Arctic sea ice and the glaciers of Greenland , and how they are affected by global warming . He has often traveled to Greenland to study these glaciers firsthand ; for example , when studying Petermann Glacier for three weeks in 2004 , Steffen did so from a camp set up 4,000 feet up the flanks of the glacier 's ice cap . He also operates a network of 20 weather stations on the Greenland ice sheet , the first of which , Swiss Camp , he established in 1990 . He has argued that due to this ice sheet melting faster than anticipated , sea levels could rise by about 3 feet by 2100 , considerably higher than the IPCC 's upper limit of 59 cm , and that Greenland might lose all its ice in 10,000 years , but Antarctica would take considerably longer , since it is so much bigger .", "Meltwater pulse 1B Meltwater pulse 1B ( MWP1b ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of either rapid or just accelerated post-glacial sea level rise that occurred at the beginning of the Holocene and after the end of the Younger Dryas . Meltwater pulse 1B is also known as catastrophic rise event 2 ( CRE2 ) in the Caribbean Sea . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwaterpulse19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1A , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of proposed rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .", "Ice-sheet dynamics Ice sheet dynamics describe the motion within large bodies of ice , such those currently on Greenland and Antarctica . Ice motion is dominated by the movement of glaciers , whose gravity-driven activity is controlled by two main variable factors : the temperature and strength of their bases . A number of processes alter these two factors , resulting in cyclic surges of activity interspersed with longer periods of inactivity , on both hourly and centennial time scales . Ice-sheet dynamics are of interest in modelling future sea level rise . __ TOC __", "Extreme points of Antarctica The tallest mountain in Antarctica is Mount Vinson rising 4,892 metres ( 16,050 feet ) above sea level . The lowest point in Antarctica is within the Bentley Subglacial Trench , which reaches 2,555 metres below sea level . This is also the lowest place on Earth not covered by ocean ( although it is covered by ice ) . The lowest accessible point in Antarctica is the shore of Deep Lake , Vestfold Hills , which is 50 m beneath sea level . The point on land farthest from any coastline on the Antarctic Continent is located at . This is also known as the South Pole of inaccessibility . Antarctica is the southernmost land mass on Earth . The Geographical South Pole lies on the Polar Plateau at . It is here that the southernmost human habitation on Earth is located : Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station ( U.S. Administered Base ) . Vostok Station is the most isolated research base on the continent ( located at ) , and it is situated over the southernmost lake in the world , Lake Vostok , a subglacial lake 4,000 metres ( 13,000 feet ) under the surface of the ice where the station sits . Formerly administrated by the Soviets , it is now operated by Russia . The southernmost volcano on the planet -- Mount Erebus -- is in Antarctica on the world 's southernmost island reachable from the sea : Ross Island . The southernmost island is Berkner Island . It is embedded in the ice shelf , fully covered by ice and fully below sea level . The Ross Sea is the southernmost sea in the world , with its southernmost extremity ( Gould Coast ) at the foot of the Horlick Mountains approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) from the Geographic South Pole . However , this area is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf . The southernmost open sea is also part of Ross Sea , namely Bay of Whales at 78 ° 30 'S , at the edge of Ross Ice Shelf . The northernmost extremity of the Antarctic mainland ( without nearshore islands ) is Prime Head , at the northern tip of the Trinity Peninsula at . The Antarctic Peninsula is the largest contiguous part of the continent projecting north of the Antarctic Circle and thus has many of the continent 's research bases . Prime Head is 609 mi ( 980 km ) from Cape Horn . The northernmost research base on the mainland is Esperanza Base .", "Metres above sea level Redirected here : feet above sea level ; AMSL means `` above mean sea level '' , and may be used for heights specified in any units . Metres above mean sea level ( MAMSL ) or simply metres above sea level ( MASL or m a.s.l. ) is a standard metric measurement in metres of the elevation or altitude of a location in reference to a historic mean sea level . Mean sea levels are affected by climate change and other factors and change over time . For this and other reasons , recorded measurements of elevation above sea level might differ from the actual elevation of a given location over sea level at a given moment .", "Climate change in the Arctic The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "Global Relief Model ", "Jones Ice Shelf Jones Ice Shelf was the ice shelf occupying the Jones Channel , between the Arrowsmith Peninsula and Blaiklock Island , on the west coast of Graham Land , Antarctica . It was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee in 1981 in association with the channel . The shelf was stable between 1947 and 1969 , rising from 3 to above sea level as it blocked the channel . It started to retreat in the 1970s and by 2003 had completely disappeared .", "Greenland Sea The Greenland Sea is a body of water that borders Greenland to the west , the Svalbard archipelago to the east , Fram Strait and the Arctic Ocean to the north , and the Norwegian Sea and Iceland to the south . The Greenland Sea is often defined as part of the Arctic Ocean , sometimes as part of the Atlantic Ocean . However , definitions of the Arctic Ocean and its seas tend to be imprecise or arbitrary . In general usage the term `` Arctic Ocean '' would exclude the Greenland Sea . In oceanographic studies the Greenland Sea is considered part of the Nordic Seas , along with the Norwegian Sea . The Nordic Seas are the main connection between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans and , as such , could be of great significance in a possible shutdown of thermohaline circulation . In oceanography the Arctic Ocean and Nordic Seas are often referred to collectively as the `` Arctic Mediterranean Sea '' , a marginal sea of the Atlantic . The sea has Arctic climate with regular northern winds and temperatures rarely rising above 0 ° C . It previously contained the Odden ice tongue ( or Odden ) area , which extended eastward from the main East Greenland ice edge in the vicinity of 72 -- 74 ° N during the winter and acted as a key winter ice formation area in the Arctic . The West Ice forms in winter in the Greenland Sea , north of Iceland , between Greenland and Jan Mayen island . It is a major breeding ground of harp seal and hooded seal that has been used for seal hunting for more than 200 years .", "Besh Barmag Mountain Besh Barmag ( Beş Barmaq ) literally translated as Five Finger Mountain , is in Siazan District of Azerbaijan , not far from the Caspian Sea . It rises to 382 m above the sea level overlooking the Baku-Quba Highway . The mountain is a solid rock and is one of the most famous mountains in the Caucasus , known for its mythical stories . It is a sacred place for regular visitation by pilgrims . Tide marks on the mount attest to meltwater inundation from the northern glacial ice caps and date back to the end of the last ice age . The tidelines confirm the theory of a Holocene outflow of meltwater from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea , rather than a direct incursion of sea water into the Black Sea as a result of global sea level rise . Estimates of the increase in Caspian Sea level height are between + 20 and 30 meters .", "James O'Brien (oceanographer) James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''", "North Ice North Ice was a research station of the British North Greenland Expedition ( 1952 to 1954 ) on the inland ice of Greenland . The coordinates of the station were , at an altitude of 2341 m above sea level . The British North Greenland Expedition was led by Commander James Simpson RN . The station recorded the lowest temperature ever in North America with -66.1 C on 9 January 1954 . The name of the station contrasts to the former British South Ice station in Antarctica .", "Ice age An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .", "Global warming taxes ", "Effects of global warming The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "Antarctic Plate The Antarctic Plate is a tectonic plate containing the continent of Antarctica and extending outward under the surrounding oceans . After breakup from Gondwana ( the southern part of the supercontinent Pangea ) , the Antarctic plate began moving the continent of Antarctica south to its present isolated location causing the continent to develop a much colder climate . The Antarctic Plate is bounded almost entirely by extensional mid-ocean ridge systems . The adjoining plates are the Nazca Plate , the South American Plate , the African Plate , the Indo-Australian Plate , the Pacific Plate , and , across a transform boundary , the Scotia Plate . The Antarctic plate has an area of about 60,900,000 km2 . It is the Earth 's fifth largest plate . The Antarctic plate 's movement is estimated to be at least 1 cm per year towards the Atlantic Ocean .", "Canadian Arctic Archipelago The Canadian Arctic Archipelago , also known as the Arctic Archipelago , is a group of islands north of the Canadian mainland . Situated in the northern extremity of North America and covering about 1424500 km2 , this group of 36,563 islands in the Arctic Sea comprises much of the territory of Northern Canada -- most of Nunavut and part of the Northwest Territories . The Canadian Arctic Archipelago is showing some effects of global warming , with some computer estimates determining that melting there will contribute 3.5 cm to the rise in sea levels by 2100 .", "Mediterranean–Dead Sea Canal The Mediterranean -- Dead Sea canal ( MDSC ) is a proposed project to dig a canal from the Mediterranean Sea to the Dead Sea , taking advantage of the 400-metre difference in water level between the seas . It is not to be confused with the Red Sea -- Dead Sea Water Conveyance . The project could correct the drop in the level of the Dead Sea observed in recent years . The canal could also be used to generate hydroelectric power because of surface difference and maybe by salinity gradient power , and desalinate water by reverse osmosis .", "Arctic geoengineering Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .", "Antarctic sea ice Antarctic sea ice is the sea ice of the Southern Ocean . It extends far north in winter and retreats almost to the coastline each summer . Sea ice is frozen seawater that is usually less than a few meters thick . This is in contrast to ice shelves , which are formed by glaciers , float in the sea , and are up to a kilometer thick . There are two subdivisions of sea ice : fast ice , which is attached to land ; and ice floes , which are not . Sea ice in the Southern Ocean melts from the bottom instead of from the surface like Arctic ice because it is covered in snow . As a result , melt ponds are rarely observed . On average , Antarctic sea ice is younger , thinner , warmer , saltier , and more mobile than Arctic sea ice . Due to its inaccessibility , it is not as well-studied as Arctic ice .", "Intimating ", "Undulation of the geoid Undulation of the geoid is the mathematical process of determining the height in metres above the geoid ( relative to the mean sea level ) from the height provided by the GPS system which uses the ( WGS84 ) ellipsoid as reference . In maps and common use the height over the mean sea level is used to indicate the height of elevations while the ellipsoidal height results from the restrictions that apply for the GPS system . The process of the undulation is not standardised , as different countries use different mean sea levels as reference but mostly refers to the EGM96 geoid . Calculating the undulation factor is mathematically challenging . This is why many handheld GPS receivers have built-in undulation lookup tables to determine the height above sea level . The deviation between the ellipsoidal height and the orthometric height can be calculated by Likewise , the deviation between the ellipsoidal height and the normal height can be calculated by", "Physical properties of greenhouse gases ", "75th meridian west The meridian 75 ° west of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean , North America , the Atlantic Ocean , the Caribbean Sea , South America , the Pacific Ocean , the Southern Ocean , and Antarctica to the South Pole . The mean solar time of this meridian is the base for the Eastern Time Zone ( UTC-5 during standard time ) . Stations belonging to the American Weather Service begin submitting weather reports when the mean solar time of this meridian is 8:00 am . Report collection ends 30 -- 40 minutes later and the data is used to create the day 's weather forecast . The 75th meridian west forms a great circle with the 105th meridian east .", "Orders of magnitude (temperature) " ]

[ "Post-glacial rebound Post-glacial rebound ( also called either isostatic rebound or crustal rebound ) is the rise of land masses that were depressed by the huge weight of ice sheets during the last glacial period , through a process known as isostatic depression . Post-glacial rebound and isostatic depression are different parts of a process known as either glacial isostasy , glacial isostatic adjustment , or glacioisostasy . Glacioisostasy is the solid Earth deformation associated with changes in ice mass distribution . The most obvious and direct effects of post-glacial rebound are readily apparent in parts of Northern Eurasia , Northern America , Patagonia , and Antarctica . However , through processes known as ocean siphoning and continental levering , the effects of post-glacial rebound on sea level are felt globally far from the locations of current and former ice sheets .", "Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "Antarctica Antarctica ( UK English -LSB- ænˈtɑːktɪkə -RSB- or -LSB- ænˈtɑːtɪkə -RSB- , US English -LSB- æntˈɑːrktɪkə -RSB- ) is Earth 's southernmost continent . It contains the geographic South Pole and is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere , almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle , and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean . At 14000000 km2 , it is the fifth-largest continent . For comparison , Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia . About 98 % of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages 1.9 km in thickness , which extends to all but the northernmost reaches of the Antarctic Peninsula . Antarctica , on average , is the coldest , driest , and windiest continent , and has the highest average elevation of all the continents . Antarctica is a desert , with annual precipitation of only 200 mm ( 8 in ) along the coast and far less inland . The temperature in Antarctica has reached − 89.2 ° C ( − 128.6 ° F ) , though the average for the third quarter ( the coldest part of the year ) is − 63 ° C ( − 81 ° F ) . Anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at the research stations scattered across the continent . Organisms native to Antarctica include many types of algae , bacteria , fungi , plants , protista , and certain animals , such as mites , nematodes , penguins , seals and tardigrades . Vegetation , where it occurs , is tundra . Although myths and speculation about a Terra Australis ( `` Southern Land '' ) date back to antiquity , Antarctica is noted as the last region on Earth in recorded history to be discovered and colonised by humans , being only first sighted in 1820 by the Russian expedition of Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on Vostok and Mirny , who sighted the Fimbul ice shelf . The continent , however , remained largely neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment , lack of easily accessible resources , and isolation . In 1895 , the first confirmed landing was conducted by a team of Norwegians . Antarctica is a de facto condominium , governed by parties to the Antarctic Treaty System that have consulting status . Twelve countries signed the Antarctic Treaty in 1959 , and thirty-eight have signed it since then . The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining , prohibits nuclear explosions and nuclear waste disposal , supports scientific research , and protects the continent 's ecozone . Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists from many nations ." ]

[ "Metamood Metamood is a term used by psychologists to refers to an individual 's awareness of their emotions . It can be described as being caught up in any emotion and then becoming aware that you are being swept away by it . Being able to pull back in the midst of an emotion and in that moment recognize what you are feeling is a phenomenal skill . Also , it is a difficult one to acquire because quite often , emotions can be disguised by another .", "Drift ice Drift ice is any sea ice other than fast ice , the latter being attached ( `` fastened '' ) to the shoreline or other fixed objects ( shoals , grounded icebergs , etc. ) . Drift ice is carried along by winds and sea currents , hence its name . When drift ice is driven together into a large single mass ( > 70 % coverage ) , it is called pack ice . Wind and currents can pile up that ice to form ridges up to several metres in height . These represent a challenge for icebreakers and offshore structures operating in cold oceans and seas . Drift ice consists of floes , individual pieces of sea ice 20 m or more across . There are names for various floe sizes : small -- 20 m to 100 m ; medium -- 100 m to 500 m ; big -- 500 m to 2000 m ; vast -- 2 km to 10 km ; and giant -- more than 10 km . Seasonal ice drift in the Sea of Okhotsk by the northern coast of Hokkaidō , Japan has become a tourist attraction of this area with harsh climate , and is one of the 100 Soundscapes of Japan . The Sea of Okhotsk is the southernmost area in the Northern hemisphere where drift ice may be observed . Drift ice affects : Security of navigation Climatic impact ( see Polar ice packs ) Geological impact Biosphere influence ( see Ecology of sea ice ) The two major ice packs are the Arctic ice pack and the Antarctic ice pack . The most important areas of pack ice are the polar ice packs formed from seawater in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs significantly change their size during seasonal changes of the year . Because of vast amounts of water added to or removed from the oceans and atmosphere , the behavior of polar ice packs has a significant impact on global changes in climate .", "Bradley Land Bradley Land was the name Frederick Cook gave to a mass of land which he claimed to have seen between and during a 1909 expedition . He described it as two masses of land with a break , a strait , or an indentation between . The land was named for John R. Bradley , who had sponsored Cook 's expedition . Cook published two photographs of the land and described it thus : `` The lower coast resembled Heiberg Island , with mountains and high valleys . The upper coast I estimated as being about one thousand feet high , flat , and covered with a thin sheet ice . '' It is now known there is no land at that location and Cook 's observations were based on either a misidentification of sea ice or an outright fabrication . Cook 's Inuit companions reported that the photographs were actually taken near the coast of Axel Heiberg Island .", "Champlain Sea The Champlain Sea was a temporary inlet of the Atlantic Ocean , created by the retreating glaciers during the close of the last ice age . The Sea once included lands in what are now the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario , as well as parts of the American states of New York and Vermont . The mass of ice from the continental ice sheets had depressed the rock beneath it over millennia . At the end of the last ice age , while the rock was still depressed , the Saint Lawrence and Ottawa River valleys , as well as modern Lake Champlain , were below sea level and flooded with rising worldwide sea levels , once the ice no longer prevented the ocean from flowing into the region . As the land gradually rose again , in the process known as isostatic rebound , the sea coast gradually retreated to its current location . The sea lasted from about 13,000 years ago to about 10,000 years ago and was continuously shrinking during that time , since the rebounding continent was slowly rising above sea level . At its peak , the sea extended inland as far south as Lake Champlain and somewhat farther west than the city of Ottawa , Ontario , and farther up the Ottawa River past Pembroke . The remaining glaciers fed the sea during that time , making it more brackish than typical seawater . It is estimated that the sea was as much as 150 m above the level of today 's Saint Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers . The best evidence of this former sea is the vast clay plain deposited along the Ottawa and St. Lawrence Rivers . This resulted in distinctive forest types , and large wetlands . Other modern evidence of the sea can be seen in the form of whale fossils , ( belugas , fin whales , and bowhead whales ) and marine shells that have been found near the cities of Ottawa , Ontario , and Montreal , Quebec . There are also fossils of oceanic fish such as capelin . The Sea also left ancient raised shorelines in the former coastal regions , and the Leda clay deposits in areas of deeper water . The northern shore of the lake was in southern Quebec where outcrops of the Canadian shield form the Eardley Escarpment . This escarpment still has distinctive plants that may date back to the sea . The Eardley Escarpment is known locally as the Gatineau Hills ; part of the Mattawa fault at the southeastern edge of the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben , in Eastern Ontario and the Outaouais region of Quebec , more commonly known as the Ottawa Valley .", "Last Glacial Maximum The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE . Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .", "Sea level equation The sea level equation ( SLE ) is the linear , integral equation that describes the sea-level variations associated with the Glacial Isostatic Adjustement ( GIA ) . The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888 , when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean sea level , and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of the ocean tides . In the words of Wu and Peltier , the solution of the SLE yields the space -- and time -- dependent change of ocean bathymetry which is required to keep the gravitational potential of the sea surface constant for a specific deglaciation chronology and viscoelastic earth model . The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as Mitrovica & Peltier , Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi . In its simplest form , the SLE reads where is the sea -- level change , is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth 's center of mass , and is vertical displacement . In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow : where is colatitude and is longitude , is time , and are the densities of ice and water , respectively , is the reference surface gravity , is the sea -- level Green 's function ( dependent upon the and viscoelastic load -- deformation coefficients - LDCs ) , is the ice thickness variation , represents the eustatic term ( i.e. the ocean -- averaged value of ) , and denote spatio-temporal convolutions over the ice - and ocean-covered regions , and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation .", "Tuya A tuya is a type of distinctive , flat-topped , steep-sided volcano formed when lava erupts through a thick glacier or ice sheet . They are somewhat rare worldwide , being confined to regions which were covered by glaciers and had active volcanism during the same period . Lava that erupts under a glacier cools very quickly and can not travel far , so it piles up into a steep-sided hill . If the eruption continues long enough , it either melts all the ice or emerges through the top of the ice and then creates normal-looking lava flows that make a flat cap on top of the hill . Discovering and dating the lava flows in a tuya has proven useful in reconstructing past glacial ice extents and thicknesses .", "Climate of Antarctica The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth . Antarctica 's lowest air temperature record was set on 21 July 1983 , with − 89.2 C at Vostok Station . Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures , down to − 93.2 C at the cloud free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010 . It is also extremely dry ( technically a desert ) , averaging 166 mm of precipitation per year . On most parts of the continent the snow rarely melts and is eventually compressed to become the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet . Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent , because of the katabatic winds . Most of Antarctica has an ice cap climate ( Köppen EF ) with very cold , generally extremely dry weather .", "Ice sheet An ice sheet is a mass of glacier ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50000 km2 , thus also known as continental glacier . The only current ice sheets are in Antarctica and Greenland ; during the last glacial period at Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) the Laurentide ice sheet covered much of North America , the Weichselian ice sheet covered northern Europe and the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered southern South America . Ice sheets are bigger than ice shelves or alpine glaciers . Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are termed an ice cap . An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery . Although the surface is cold , the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to geothermal heat . In places , melting occurs and the melt-water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly . This process produces fast-flowing channels in the ice sheet -- these are ice streams . The present-day polar ice sheets are relatively young in geological terms . The Antarctic Ice Sheet first formed as a small ice cap ( maybe several ) in the early Oligocene , but retreating and advancing many times until the Pliocene , when it came to occupy almost all of Antarctica . The Greenland ice sheet did not develop at all until the late Pliocene , but apparently developed very rapidly with the first continental glaciation . This had the unusual effect of allowing fossils of plants that once grew on present-day Greenland to be much better preserved than with the slowly forming Antarctic ice sheet .", "Extreme points of Antarctica The tallest mountain in Antarctica is Mount Vinson rising 4,892 metres ( 16,050 feet ) above sea level . The lowest point in Antarctica is within the Bentley Subglacial Trench , which reaches 2,555 metres below sea level . This is also the lowest place on Earth not covered by ocean ( although it is covered by ice ) . The lowest accessible point in Antarctica is the shore of Deep Lake , Vestfold Hills , which is 50 m beneath sea level . The point on land farthest from any coastline on the Antarctic Continent is located at . This is also known as the South Pole of inaccessibility . Antarctica is the southernmost land mass on Earth . The Geographical South Pole lies on the Polar Plateau at . It is here that the southernmost human habitation on Earth is located : Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station ( U.S. Administered Base ) . Vostok Station is the most isolated research base on the continent ( located at ) , and it is situated over the southernmost lake in the world , Lake Vostok , a subglacial lake 4,000 metres ( 13,000 feet ) under the surface of the ice where the station sits . Formerly administrated by the Soviets , it is now operated by Russia . The southernmost volcano on the planet -- Mount Erebus -- is in Antarctica on the world 's southernmost island reachable from the sea : Ross Island . The southernmost island is Berkner Island . It is embedded in the ice shelf , fully covered by ice and fully below sea level . The Ross Sea is the southernmost sea in the world , with its southernmost extremity ( Gould Coast ) at the foot of the Horlick Mountains approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) from the Geographic South Pole . However , this area is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf . The southernmost open sea is also part of Ross Sea , namely Bay of Whales at 78 ° 30 'S , at the edge of Ross Ice Shelf . The northernmost extremity of the Antarctic mainland ( without nearshore islands ) is Prime Head , at the northern tip of the Trinity Peninsula at . The Antarctic Peninsula is the largest contiguous part of the continent projecting north of the Antarctic Circle and thus has many of the continent 's research bases . Prime Head is 609 mi ( 980 km ) from Cape Horn . The northernmost research base on the mainland is Esperanza Base .", "Arctic Ocean The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world 's five major oceans . The International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) recognizes it as an ocean , although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea , classifying it a mediterranean sea or an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean . Alternatively , the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean . Located mostly in the Arctic north polar region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere , the Arctic Ocean is almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America . It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter . The Arctic Ocean 's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes ; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans , due to low evaporation , heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams , and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities . The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50 % . The US National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years .", "Subglacial lake A subglacial lake is a lake under a glacier , typically an ice cap or ice sheet . There are many such lakes , with Lake Vostok in Antarctica being by far the largest known at present .", "Bay of Whales The Bay of Whales was a natural ice harbor , or iceport , indenting the front of Ross Ice Shelf just north of Roosevelt Island , Antarctica . It is the southernmost point of open ocean not only of the Ross Sea , but worldwide . The Ross Sea extends much further south -- as far as the Gould Coast , some 320 km from the South Pole -- but most of that area is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf rather than open sea .", "Joseph Adhémar Joseph Alphonse Adhémar ( 1797 -- 1862 ) was a French mathematician . He was the first to suggest that ice ages were controlled by astronomical forces in his 1842 book Revolutions of the Sea . The Earth 's orbit is elliptical , with the Sun at one focus ; lines drawn through the summer and winter solstice ; and the spring and autumn equinox ; intersect with the sun at right angles . The Earth is closest to the Sun ( perihelion ) near the northern hemisphere winter solstice . The earth moves faster through its orbit when closer to the sun . Hence , the period from the northern hemisphere 's autumn equinox to winter and spring is shorter by around seven days than the period from spring to summer to autumn ; the reverse is true in the southern hemisphere . Hence , northern hemisphere winter is shorter . Because of this , Adhemar reasoned that because the southern hemisphere had more hours of darkness in winter , it must be cooling , and attributed the Antarctic ice sheet to this . Adhemar knew of the 22,000 year cycle of precession of the equinoxes , and theorised that the ice ages occurred in this cycle . One immediate objection to the theory was that the total insolation during a year does not vary at all during the precessional cycle , only its seasonal distribution . Another was that the timing was wrong ; however this could not be tested by observations available at the time . Adhemar 's theory was further developed , first by James Croll and later by Milutin Milanković . Adhemar predicted the Antarctic ice sheet and theorised about its thickness by comparing the depths of the Arctic and circum-Antarctic oceans . Finding the Antarctic oceans deeper ( the measurements he used may not have been fully representative ) and attributing this to the gravitational attraction of the Antarctic ice sheet , he postulated a truly enormous ice sheet approximately 90 km thick .", "Gulliver Nunatak Gulliver Nunatak is a nunatak with a flat , ice-free summit , 575 m high , at the north side of Adie Inlet , on the east coast of Graham Land , Antarctica . It was charted by the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey ( FIDS ) and photographed from the air by the Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition ( RARE ) in 1947 . It was named by the FIDS for the fictional character in Jonathan Swift 's Gulliver 's Travels , because when viewed from the southeast its appearance is suggestive of a man lying on his back with his head toward the south .", "ICESat-2 ICESat-2 ( Ice , Cloud , and land Elevation Satellite 2 ) , part of NASA 's Earth Observing System , is a planned satellite mission for measuring ice sheet elevation , sea ice freeboard as well as land topography and vegetation characteristics . ICESat-2 is a planned follow-on to the ICESat mission . It will be launched in 2018 from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California into a near-circular , near-polar orbit with an altitude of approximately 496 km . It is being designed to operate for 3 years , and will carry enough propellant for 7 years . The ICESat-2 mission is designed to provide elevation data needed to determine ice sheet mass balance as well as vegetation canopy information . It will provide topography measurements of cities , lakes and reservoirs , oceans and land surfaces around the globe , in addition to the polar-specific coverage . The ICESat-2 project is being managed by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center . The sole instrument is being designed and built by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center , and the bus is being provided by Orbital ATK . The satellite will launch on a Delta II rocket provided by United Launch Alliance .", "Halley Research Station Halley Research Station , run by the British Antarctic Survey ( BAS ) , is a scientific research station on the Brunt Ice Shelf floating on the Weddell Sea in Antarctica . As with the German Neumayer-Station III it is built on an ice shelf floating on the sea , versus being on solid land on the continent of Antarctica . Because the ice shelf is slowly moving towards the open ocean it will eventually calve off creating a drifting iceberg . In 2002 , the BAS realized there was a calving event that would destroy Halley V , so a competition was undertaken to design a replacement station . The current base structure , the Halley VI , is notable for being the world 's first fully relocatable research station , and is distinguishable by its colourful modular structure that is built upon huge hydraulic skis . It is a British research facility dedicated to the study of the Earth 's atmosphere . Measurements from Halley led to the discovery of the ozone hole in 1985 .", "Decree of Dionysopolis The Decree of Dionysopolis was written around 48 BC by the citizens of Dionysopolis ( today 's Balchik , on the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria ) to Akornion , who traveled far away in a diplomatic mission to meet somebody 's farther in Argedauon . The decree , a fragmentary marble inscription , is located in the National Historical Museum in Sofia .", "Tidal force The tidal force is a force that is the secondary effect of the force of gravity ; it is responsible for the phenomenon of tides . It arises because the gravitational force exerted by one body on another is not constant across it : the nearest side is attracted more strongly than the farthest side . Thus , the tidal force is differential . Consider the gravitational attraction of the Moon on the oceans nearest to the Moon , the solid Earth and the oceans farthest from the Moon . There is a mutual attraction between the Moon and the solid Earth , which can be considered to act on its centre of mass . However , the near oceans are more strongly attracted and , especially since they are fluid , they approach the Moon slightly , causing a high tide . The far oceans are attracted less . The attraction on the far-side oceans could be expected to cause a low tide , but since the solid Earth is attracted ( accelerated ) more strongly towards the moon , there is a relative acceleration of those waters in the outwards direction . Viewing the Earth as a whole , we see that all its mass experiences a mutual attraction with that of the Moon , but the near oceans more so than the far oceans , leading to a separation of the two . In a more general usage in celestial mechanics , the expression `` tidal force '' can refer to a situation in which a body or material ( for example , tidal water ) is mainly under the gravitational influence of a second body ( for example , the Earth ) , but is also perturbed by the gravitational effects of a third body ( for example , the Moon ) . The perturbing force is sometimes in such cases called a tidal force ( for example , the perturbing force on the Moon ) : it is the difference between the force exerted by the third body on the second and the force exerted by the third body on the first .", "Ocean surface topography The ocean surface has highs and lows , similar to the hills and valleys of Earth 's land surface depicted on a topographic map . These variations , called ocean surface topography ( or sea surface topography ) , also dynamic topography , are mapped using direct ( usually satellite-based ) or indirect measurements of sea surface height relative to Earth 's geoid . Earth 's geoid is a calculated surface of equal gravitational potential energy and represents the shape the sea surface would be if the ocean were not in motion . The main purpose of measuring ocean surface topography is to understand the large-scale circulation of the ocean . On a daily basis , SSH is most obviously affected by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun acting on the Earth . Over longer timescales , SSH is influenced by ocean circulation . Typically , SSH anomalies resulting from these forces differ from the mean by less than ± 1 m at the global scale . Other influences include temperature , salinity , tides , waves , and the loading of atmospheric pressure . The slowest and largest variations are due to changes in the Earth 's gravitational field ( geoid ) due to the rearrangement of continents , formation of sea mounts and other redistribution of rock . Since the Earth 's gravitational field is relatively stable on decadal to centennial timescales , ocean circulation plays a more significant role in the observed variation of SSH . Across the seasonal cycle changes in patterns of warming , cooling and surface wind forcing affect circulation and influence SSH . Variations in SSH can be measured by satellite altimetry ( e.g. TOPEX/Poseidon ) and used to calculate determine sea level rise and properties such as ocean heat storage .", "East Antarctic Ice Sheet The East Antarctic Ice Sheet ( EAIS ) is one of two large ice sheets in Antarctica , and the largest on the entire planet . The EAIS lies between 45 ° west and 168 ° east longitudinally . The EAIS is considerably larger in area and mass than the West Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) . It is separated from the WAIS by the Transantarctic Mountains . The EAIS rests upon a large land mass , contrary to that of the WAIS , which rests mainly on bedrock below sea level . The EAIS is also home to the thickest ice on the frozen white continent , at 15,700 ft ( 4,800 m ) . More well known , however , is that the EAIS is home to the geographic South Pole as well as of the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station .", "Quaternary glaciation The Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , is a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events during the Quaternary period from 2.58 Ma ( million years ago ) to present . During this period , ice sheets expanded , notably from out of Antarctica and Greenland , and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere ( for example , the Laurentide ice sheet ) . The major effects of the ice age are erosion and deposition of material over large parts of the continents , modification of river systems , creation of millions of lakes , changes in sea level , development of pluvial lakes far from the ice margins , isostatic adjustment of the crust , and abnormal winds . It affected oceans , flooding , and biological communities . The ice sheets themselves , by raising the albedo , affect a major feedback on climate cooling .", "West Antarctic Rift The West Antarctic Rift is a major , active rift valley lying between East and West Antarctica . It encompasses the Ross Sea , the area under the Ross Ice Shelf and a part of West Antarctica . Its evolution is due to lithospheric thinning of the non-cratonic area of West Antarctica . Exploration of the geology of the West Antarctic Rift is difficult , because , apart from peaks of the Transantarctic Mountains that protrude above the ice , the region is covered by the vast West Antarctic Ice Sheet . Thus , the rift is less well known than other major rift valleys . It is known , however , that like the East African Rift , the West Antarctic Rift is actually a number of much shorter rifts that cross Antarctica . There is also a sharp division between older , broader Paleogene rifts including the Ross Sea Basin and the younger , narrower Terror Rift . There are also a large number of failed rifts extending as far as Berkner Island . Although many rifts within the West Antarctic Rift system are no longer active , it is now known that West Antarctica is moving away from the East Antarctic Craton in a north/northeasterly direction ( approximately in the direction of the South Georgia Islands ) at a rate of about 2 mm per year or 500,000 years per kilometre . The West Antarctic Rift is the source of all the recently active volcanoes within Antarctica , and of most of the major Antarctic mountain systems outside the Antarctic Peninsula . It is also believed to have a major influence on ice flows in West Antarctica , because fast moving ice streams are believed to be influenced by the lubrication provided by water-saturated till , which some argue could help cause breakup of the ice sheet if global warming accelerates .", "Amundsen Sea The Amundsen Sea , an arm of the Southern Ocean off Marie Byrd Land in western Antarctica , lies between Cape Flying Fish ( the northwestern tip of Thurston Island ) to the east and Cape Dart on Siple Island to the west . Cape Flying Fish marks the boundary between the Amundsen Sea and the Bellingshausen Sea . West of Cape Dart there is no named marginal sea of the Southern Ocean between the Amundsen and Ross Seas . The Norwegian expedition of 1928 -- 1929 under Captain Nils Larsen named the body of water for the Norwegian polar explorer Roald Amundsen while exploring this area in February 1929 . The sea is mostly ice-covered , and the Thwaites Ice Tongue protrudes into it . The ice sheet which drains into the Amundsen Sea averages about 3 km in thickness ; roughly the size of the state of Texas , this area is known as the Amundsen Sea Embayment ( ASE ) ; it forms one of the three major ice-drainage basins of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet .", "Richards Inlet Richards Inlet is a large ice-filled inlet at the mouth of Lennox-King Glacier , opening to the Ross Ice Shelf just southeast of Lewis Ridge . Named by the New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition ( NZGSAE ) ( 1959 -- 60 ) for R.W. Richards , a member of the Ross Sea Party of the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition ( 1914 -- 17 ) , who assisted in laying depots as far south as Mount Hope for Shackleton 's proposed crossing of Antarctica . Category : Inlets of Antarctica Category : Shackleton Coast", "Weddell Sea The Weddell Sea is part of the Southern Ocean and contains the Weddell Gyre . Its land boundaries are defined by the bay formed from the coasts of Coats Land and the Antarctic Peninsula . The easternmost point is Cape Norvegia at Princess Martha Coast , Queen Maud Land . To the east of Cape Norvegia is the King Haakon VII Sea . Much of the southern part of the sea is covered by a permanent , massive ice shelf field , the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf ( not pack ice ) . The sea is contained within the two overlapping Antarctic territorial claims of Argentina , ( Argentine Antarctica ) and Britain ( British Antarctic Territory ) , and also resides partially within the territorial claim of Chile ( Antarctic Chilean Territory ) . At its widest the sea is around 2,000 km across , and its area is around 2.8 e6km2 . Various ice shelves , including the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf , fringe the Weddell sea . Some of the ice shelves on the east side of the Antarctic Peninsula , which formerly covered roughly 3900 sqmi of the Weddell Sea , had completely disappeared by 2002 ; see . Whilst a dramatic event , the area that disappeared was far smaller than the total area of ice shelf that remains . The Weddell Sea has been deemed by scientists to have the clearest water of any sea . Dutch researchers from the German Alfred Wegener Institute , on finding a Secchi disc visible at a depth of 262 ft on 13 October 1986 , ascertained that the clarity corresponded to that of distilled water . In his 1950 book The White Continent , historian Thomas R. Henry writes : He continues for an entire chapter , relating myths of the green-haired merman sighted in the sea 's icy waters , the inability of crews to navigate a path to the coast until 1949 , and treacherous `` flash freezes '' that left ships , such as Ernest Shackleton 's Endurance , at the mercy of the ice floes .", "Konrad Steffen Konrad `` Koni '' Steffen ( born 1952 ) is a glaciologist and the former director of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder , a position he held from 2005 until he took office as the director of the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest , Snow and Landscape Research on July 1 , 2012 . He is known for his research into Arctic sea ice and the glaciers of Greenland , and how they are affected by global warming . He has often traveled to Greenland to study these glaciers firsthand ; for example , when studying Petermann Glacier for three weeks in 2004 , Steffen did so from a camp set up 4,000 feet up the flanks of the glacier 's ice cap . He also operates a network of 20 weather stations on the Greenland ice sheet , the first of which , Swiss Camp , he established in 1990 . He has argued that due to this ice sheet melting faster than anticipated , sea levels could rise by about 3 feet by 2100 , considerably higher than the IPCC 's upper limit of 59 cm , and that Greenland might lose all its ice in 10,000 years , but Antarctica would take considerably longer , since it is so much bigger .", "Ross Sea party 1914–1917 The Ross Sea party was a component of Sir Ernest Shackleton 's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition 1914 -- 17 . Its task was to lay a series of supply depots across the Great Ice Barrier from the Ross Sea to the Beardmore Glacier , along the polar route established by earlier Antarctic expeditions . The expedition 's main party , under Shackleton , was to land near Vahsel Bay on the opposite coast of Antarctica , and to march across the continent via the South Pole to the Ross Sea . As the main party would be unable to carry sufficient fuel and supplies for the whole distance , their survival depended on the Ross Sea party setting up supply depots , which would cover the final quarter of their journey . Shackleton set sail from London on his ship Endurance , bound for the Weddell Sea in August 1914 . Meanwhile , the Ross Sea party personnel gathered in Australia , prior to departure for the Ross Sea in the second expedition ship , SY Aurora . Organisational and financial problems delayed their start until December 1914 , which shortened their first depot-laying season . After their arrival the inexperienced party struggled to master the art of Antarctic travel , in the process losing most of their sled dogs . A greater misfortune occurred at the onset of the southern winter when the Aurora , locked in an ice-floe which broke off from the main shelf , was torn from its moorings . The ocean currents then pulled ship further away from the sledding parties marooned on shore and drifted for over six months before breaking free of the ice . Sadly the Aurora 's damaged rudder forced her to return to New Zealand rather than returning for the stranded shore party . Despite these setbacks , the Ross Sea party survived inter-personnel disputes , extreme weather , illness , and the deaths of three of its members to carry out its mission in full during its second Antarctic season . This success proved ultimately without purpose , because Shackleton 's main expedition was unable to land after Endurance was crushed in the Weddell Sea ice . Shackleton eventually led his men to safety , but the transcontinental march did not take place and the Ross Sea party 's depots were not required . The Ross Sea party remained stranded until January 1917 , when Aurora , which had been repaired and refitted in New Zealand , arrived to rescue them . Public recognition of their efforts was slow in coming , but in due course four Albert Medals were awarded to members of the party , two posthumously . Shackleton later wrote that those who died `` gave their lives for their country as surely as those who gave up their lives in France or Flanders . ''", "Nordic Seas The Nordic Seas are located north of Iceland and south of Svalbard . They have also been defined as the region located north of the Greenland-Scotland Ridge and south of the Fram Strait-Spitsbergen-Norway intersection . Known to connect the North Pacific and the North Atlantic waters , this region is also known as having some of the densest waters , creating the densest region found in the North Atlantic Deep Water . The deepest waters of the Arctic Ocean are connected to the worlds other oceans through Nordic Seas and Fram Straight . There are three seas within the Nordic Sea : Greenland Sea , Norwegian Sea , and Iceland Sea . The Nordic Seas only make up about 0.75 % of the World 's Oceans . This region is known as having diverse features in such a small topographic area , such as the mid oceanic ridge systems . Some locations have shallow shelves , while others have deep slopes and basins . This region , because of the atmosphere-ocean transfer of energy and gases , has varying seasonal climate . During the winter , sea ice is formed in the western and northern regions of the Nordic Seas , whereas during the summer months , the majority of the region remains free of ice . Several water masses are found interacting in the Nordic Sea . These water masses are present due to subduction , deep convective mixing , surface/frontal mixing , and entrainment of water from low and high latitudes . Interaction from multiple water sources can lead to varying conditions . New primary production is higher in this region , usually exceeding regenerated primary production . New production is higher in regions where water interacts with Atlantic Water , which has nutrient-rich waters . When looking at carbon flux from the atmosphere to the ocean , this region is considered one of the highest in the world 's oceans . This region is also known as being one of the few bodies of water that take up large quantities of carbon dioxide yearly , ranging from 20-85 g C m − 2y − 1 , which is considered high in comparison the carbon dioxide flux in the world 's oceans . The Nordic Seas include the Greenland Sea , the Norwegian Sea , and the Iceland Sea . The Greenland and the Norwegian Sea are separately distinguished by Mohn 's Ridge . The Greenland and Iceland Sea are separated by the Jan Mayen fracture zone , and the Norwegian and Iceland Seas have the Aegir Ridge between them . The Nordic Seas have varying and diverse features as a result of each sea having separate water mass structures and circulation patterns . The Greenland Sea produces dense waters because of its high salinity and cooler temperatures from winter cooling . Higher salinity is present as a result of the Greenland Sea 's close proximity to the salinity inflow that occurs from the Atlantic Ocean . Another dense water source comes from the Arctic waters that also flow into the Greenland Sea . These water source mixtures are important because they play a role in the overflows that occur in the North Atlantic . The water that overflows from the Greenland ridge becomes the North Atlantic Deep Water dense water , even though this body of water does not make up the deep waters of the Nordic Sea .", "Ice shove An ice shove , ice surge , ice heave , ivu , or shoreline ice pileup is a surge of ice from an ocean or large lake onto the shore . Ice shoves are caused by ocean currents , strong winds , or temperature differences pushing ice onto the shore , creating piles up to 12 metres ( 40 feet ) high . Some have described them as ` ice tsunamis ' , but the phenomenon works like an iceberg . Witnesses have described the shove 's sound as being like that of a train or thunder . Ice shoves can damage buildings and plants that are near to the body of water . Arctic communities can be affected by ice shoves .", "Bentley Subglacial Trench Bentley Subglacial Trench is a vast topographic trench in Marie Byrd Land , West Antarctica , 80 ° S , 115 ° W . At 2,555 meters ( 8,382 ft ) below sea level , it is the lowest point on the surface of the earth not covered by ocean , although it is covered by ice . Normally , it is not counted as the lowest point on land , since the overlying ice sheet makes it essentially subterranean . ( See Extremes on Earth and Vestfold Hills ) Also , if the ice melted , the area would be under water . The trench was named in 1961 after Charles R. Bentley who was the geophysicist in charge of the scientific expeditions in West Antarctica in 1957 -- 59 that led to its discovery .", "Earth Earth ( from Eorðe -LSB- Γαῖα , Gaia -RSB- Terra ) , otherwise known as the World or the Globe , is the third planet from the Sun and the only object in the Universe known to harbor life . It is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest of the four terrestrial planets . According to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence , Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago . Earth 's gravity interacts with other objects in space , especially the Sun and the Moon , Earth 's only natural satellite . During one orbit around the Sun , Earth rotates about its axis over 365 times ; thus , an Earth year is about 365.26 days long . Earth 's axis of rotation is tilted , producing seasonal variations on the planet 's surface . The gravitational interaction between the Earth and Moon causes ocean tides , stabilizes the Earth 's orientation on its axis , and gradually slows its rotation . Earth 's lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years . About 71 % of Earth 's surface is covered with water , mostly by its oceans . The remaining 29 % is land consisting of continents and islands that together have many lakes , rivers and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere . The majority of Earth 's polar regions are covered in ice , including the Antarctic ice sheet and the sea ice of the Arctic ice pack . Earth 's interior remains active with a solid iron inner core , a liquid outer core that generates the Earth 's magnetic field , and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics . Within the first billion years of Earth 's history , life appeared in the oceans and began to affect the Earth 's atmosphere and surface , leading to the proliferation of aerobic and anaerobic organisms . Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as much as 4.1 billion years ago . Since then , the combination of Earth 's distance from the Sun , physical properties , and geological history have allowed life to evolve and thrive . In the history of the Earth , biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion , occasionally punctuated by mass extinction events . Over 99 % of all species that ever lived on Earth are extinct . Estimates of the number of species on Earth today vary widely ; most species have not been described . Over 7.4 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and minerals for their survival . Humans have developed diverse societies and cultures ; politically , the world has about 200 sovereign states ." ]

[ "Climate change (general concept) Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.", "Cloud In meteorology , a cloud is an aerosol comprising a visible mass of minute liquid droplets , frozen crystals , or particles suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of a planetary body . The droplets and crystals may be made of water or various chemicals . On Earth , clouds are formed as a result of saturation of the air when it is cooled to its dew point , or when it gains sufficient moisture ( usually in the form of water vapor ) from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the ambient temperature . They are seen in the Earth 's homosphere ( which includes the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere ) . Nephology is the science of clouds which is undertaken in the cloud physics branch of meteorology . There are two systems of naming clouds in their respective layers of the atmosphere ; Latin in the troposphere and mostly alpha-numeric above the troposphere . Cloud types in the troposphere , the atmospheric layer closest to Earth 's surface , have Latin names due to the universal adaptation of Luke Howard 's nomenclature . Formally proposed in 1802 , it became the basis of a modern international system that classifies clouds into five physical forms and three altitude levels ( formerly known as étages ) . These physical types , in approximate ascending order of convective activity , include stratiform sheets , cirriform wisps and patches , stratocumuliform layers ( mainly structured as rolls , ripples , and patches ) , cumuliform heaps , and very large cumulonimbiform heaps that often show complex structure . The physical forms are cross-classified by the altitude levels to produce ten basic genus-types , most of which can be divided into species , and subdivided into varieties . Two cirriform clouds that form higher up in the stratosphere and mesosphere have common names for their main types , but are sub-classified alpha-numerically . They are relatively uncommon and are mostly seen in the polar regions of Earth . Clouds have been observed in the atmospheres of other planets and moons in the Solar System and beyond . However , due to their different temperature characteristics , they are often composed of other substances such as methane , ammonia , and sulfuric acid as well as water . Homospheric types determined by cross-classification of forms and levels . '' Homospheric types include the ten tropospheric genera and two additional major types above the troposphere . The cumulus genus includes three variants as defined by vertical size .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Climate change in Saskatchewan The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .", "Physical impacts of climate change This article is about the physical impacts of climate change . For some of these physical impacts , their effect on social and economic systems are also described . This article refers to reports produced by the IPCC . In their usage , `` climate change '' refers to a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or variability of its properties , and that persists for extended periods , typically decades or longer ( IPCC , 2007d :30 ) . The climate change referred to may be due to natural causes and/or the result of human activity .", "Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "Vapor polishing Vapor polishing is a method of polishing plastics to reduce the surface roughness or improve clarity . Typically , a component is exposed to a chemical vapor causing the surface to flow thereby improving the surface finish . This method of polishing is frequently used to return clear materials to an optical quality finish after machining . Vapor polishing works well in the internal features of components . Feature size changes of the plastic component generally do not occur . Post stress relieving is usually required as vapor polishing sets up surface stresses that can cause crazing . Plastics that respond well to vapor polishing are polycarbonate , acrylic , polysulfone , PEI , and ABS . The technique is also being used to improve the surface of objects created with 3D printing techniques . As the printer deposits layer upon layer of material to build the object , the surface is often not entirely smooth . The smoothness of the surface can be greatly increased by vapor polishing .", "Negative feedback Negative feedback occurs when some function of the output of a system , process , or mechanism is fed back in a manner that tends to reduce the fluctuations in the output , whether caused by changes in the input or by other disturbances . Whereas positive feedback tends to lead to instability via exponential growth , oscillation or chaotic behavior , negative feedback generally promotes stability . Negative feedback tends to promote a settling to equilibrium , and reduces the effects of perturbations . Negative feedback loops in which just the right amount of correction is applied with optimum timing can be very stable , accurate , and responsive . Negative feedback is widely used in mechanical and electronic engineering , but it also occurs naturally within living organisms , and can be seen in many other fields from chemistry and economics to physical systems such as the climate . General negative feedback systems are studied in control systems engineering .", "Climate change adaptation in Nepal Climate change ( CC ) refers `` to the change of earth 's global or regional climate over a long period of time , whether due to natural variability or as the result of human activities '' IPCC , 2007d :30 . By the impact of climate change , as systems become more vulnerable to natural hazards , there is a greater need to develop responses ( that is , adjustments in existing practices , processes or structures ) that are able to counter potential future disasters . Such a response is known as adaptation to climate change IPCC , 2001b ; Smit et al. , 1999 . Community forest user group ( CFUG ) is main areas to act climate change adaptation in Nepa", "Euro-Mediterranean Center on Climate Change The Euro-Mediterranean Center on Climate Change ( CMCC ) is an Italian research centre dedicated to climate and climate related research , including climate variability , its causes and consequences , carried out through numerical models ranging from Global Earth System to Regional models within the Euro-Mediterranean area .", "SAGE III on ISS SAGE III on ISS is the fourth generation of a series of NASA Earth-observing instruments , known as the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment . The first SAGE III instrument was launched on the Russian Meteor ( satellite ) spacecraft . The recently revised SAGE III will be mounted to the International Space Station where it will use the unique vantage point of ISS to make long-term measurements of ozone , aerosols , water vapor , and other gases in Earth 's atmosphere .", "Journal of Climate The Journal of Climate is a scientific journal published by the American Meteorological Society . The journal publishes articles on climate research , in particular those concerned with large-scale atmospheric and oceanic variability , changes in the climate system ( including those caused by human activities ) , and climate simulation and prediction .", "Water cycle The water cycle , also known as the hydrological cycle or the hydrologic cycle , describes the continuous movement of water on , above and below the surface of the Earth . The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time but the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice , fresh water , saline water and atmospheric water is variable depending on a wide range of climatic variables . The water moves from one reservoir to another , such as from river to ocean , or from the ocean to the atmosphere , by the physical processes of evaporation , condensation , precipitation , infiltration , surface runoff , and subsurface flow . In doing so , the water goes through different forms : liquid , solid ( ice ) and vapor . The water cycle involves the exchange of energy , which leads to temperature changes . For instance , when water evaporates , it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the environment . When it condenses , it releases energy and warms the environment . These heat exchanges influence climate . The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land with freshwater . The flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals across the globe . It is also involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth , through processes including erosion and sedimentation . The water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet .", "Climate change in Idaho Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .", "Cooperative Institute for Climate Applications and Research The Cooperative Institute for Climate Applications and Research ( CICAR ) formalizes a major collaborative relationship between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) and Columbia University . The CICAR research themes are : Modeling , understanding , prediction , and assessment of climate variability and change Development , collection , analysis , and archiving of instrumental and Paleoclimate data Development of the application of climate variability and change prediction and assessment to provide information for decision makers and assess risk to water resources , agriculture , health , and policy", "International Arctic Research Center The International Arctic Research Center , or IARC , established in 1999 , is a research institution focused on integrating and coordinating study of climate change in the Arctic . The primary partners in IARC are Japan and the United States . Participants include organizations from Canada , China , Denmark , Germany , Japan , Norway , Russia , the United Kingdom , and the United States . The Center is located at the University of Alaska Fairbanks , in the Syun-Ichi Akasofu Building . The Keith B. Mather Library is the science library housed in the Akasofu Building , serving IARC and the Geophysical Institute of UAF . The building also houses the UAF atmospheric sciences department , the Center for Global Change and the Fairbanks forecast office of the National Weather Service . Study projects are focused within four major themes : Arctic ocean models and observation Arctic atmosphere : feedbacks , radiation , and weather analysis Permafrost/Frozen soil models and observations Arctic biota/vegetation ( ecosystem models ) IARC is devoting specific effort to answering the following three questions : To what extent is climate change due to natural vs man-made causes ? What parameters , processes and interactions are needed to understand and predict future climate change ? What are the likely impacts of climate change ?", "Peter A. Stott Peter A. Stott is a climate scientist who leads the Climate Monitoring and Attribution team of the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research at the Met Office in Exeter , UK . He is an expert on anthropogenic and natural causes of climate change . He was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I report , chapter 9 , for the AR4 released in 2007 and is an editor of the Journal of Climate . Peter has an undergraduate degree in Mathematics from Durham University and completed Part III of the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge . He was awarded a PhD by Imperial College London for work on atmospheric modelling of the environmental consequences of the Chernobyl disaster . After his PhD he carried out postdoctoral research at the University of Edinburgh on stratospheric ozone depletion .", "Atmospheric river An atmospheric river is a narrow corridor or filament of concentrated moisture in the atmosphere . Atmospheric rivers consist of narrow bands of enhanced water vapor transport , typically along the boundaries between large areas of divergent surface air flow , including some frontal zones in association with extratropical cyclones that form over the oceans . Pineapple Express storms are the most commonly represented and recognized type of atmospheric rivers ; they are given the name due to the warm water vapor plumes originating over the Hawaiian tropics that follow a path towards California . The term was originally coined by researchers Reginald Newell and Yong Zhu of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the early 1990s , to reflect the narrowness of the moisture plumes involved . Atmospheric rivers are typically several thousand kilometers long and only a few hundred kilometers wide , and a single one can carry a greater flux of water than the Earth 's largest river , the Amazon River . There are typically 3 -- 5 of these narrow plumes present within a hemisphere at any given time . In the current research field of atmospheric rivers the length and width factors described above in conjunction with an integrated water vapor depth greater than 2.0 cm are used as standards to categorize atmospheric river events . However , as data modeling techniques progress , integrated water vapor transport ( IVT ) is becoming a more common data type used to interpret atmospheric rivers . Its strength lies in its ability to show the transportation of water vapor over multiple time steps instead of a stagnant measurement of water vapor depth in a specific air column ( IWV ) . In addition IVT is more directly attributed to orographic precipitation , a key factor in the production of intense rainfall and subsequent flooding . Atmospheric rivers have a central role in the global water cycle . On any given day , atmospheric rivers account for over 90 % of the global meridional ( north-south ) water vapor transport , yet they cover less than 10 % of the Earth 's circumference . They also are the major cause of extreme precipitation events that cause severe flooding in many mid-latitude , westerly coastal regions of the world , including the West Coast of North America , Western Europe , and the west coast of North Africa . The significance atmospheric rivers have for the control of coastal water budgets juxtaposed against their creation of detrimental floods can be constructed and studied by looking at California and the surrounding coastal region of the western United States . In this region atmospheric rivers have contributed 30-50 % of total annual rainfall . In conjunction Californian land falling Atmospheric Rivers have been historically associated with approximately all major flooding events . The inconsistency of California 's rainfall is due to the variability in strength and quantity of these storms , which can produce strenuous effects on California 's water budget . The factors described above make California a perfect case study to show the importance of proper water management and prediction of these storms . __ NOTOC __", "Schiaparelli (Martian crater) Schiaparelli is an impact crater on Mars named after Giovanni Schiaparelli located near Mars 's equator . It is 461 km in diameter and located at latitude 3 ° south and longitude 344 ° . A crater within Schiaparelli shows many layers that may have formed by the wind , volcanoes , or deposition under water . Layers can be a few meters thick or tens of meters thick . Recent research on these layers suggests that ancient climate change on Mars , caused by regular variation in the planet 's tilt , may have caused the patterns in layers . On Earth , similar changes ( astronomical forcing ) of climate results in ice-age cycles . The regular appearance of rock layers suggests that regular changes in climate may be the root cause . Regular changes in climate may be due to variations of a planet 's tilt ( called obliquity ) . The tilt of the Earth 's axis changes by only a little more than 2 degrees since our moon is relatively large . In contrast Mars 's tilt varies by tens of degrees . When the tilt is low ( current situation on Mars ) , the poles are the coldest places on the planet , while the equator is the warmest ( as on Earth ) . This could cause gases in the atmosphere , like water and carbon dioxide , to migrate poleward , where they would freeze . When the obliquity is higher , the poles receive more sunlight , causing those materials to migrate away . When carbon dioxide moves from the Martian poles , the atmospheric pressure increases , possibly causing a difference in the ability of winds to transport and deposit sand . Also , with more water in the atmosphere sand grains may stick and cement together to form layers .", "Dynamic vapor sorption Dynamic vapor sorption ( DVS ) is a gravimetric technique that measures how quickly and how much of a solvent is absorbed by a sample : such as a dry powder absorbing water . It does this by varying the vapor concentration surrounding the sample and measuring the change in mass which this produces . Water vapor is most commonly used , but it is also possible to use a wide range of organic solvents . Dr Daryl Williams , founder of Surface Measurement Systems Ltd , invented Dynamic Vapor Sorption in 1991 and the first instrument was delivered to Pfizer UK in 1992 . DVS was originally developed to replace the time and labor-intensive desiccators and saturated salt solutions to measure water vapor sorption isotherms .", "Climatic adaptation Climate adaptation refers to specific adaptations in a living organism that develop in response to changes in climate and habitat . Such adaptations could include physical changes , such as skin or fur color and composition changes , or the adaptations could be behavioral , such as burrowing into the ground or spending more time in water . These are not necessarily permanently expressed traits , instead encompassing the potential for the individual to adapt to certain environments . The change in the environment triggers a change in behavior which would not have been present had the organism not been exposed to that specific stimuli . Climate adaptation is constrained by the genetic variability of the species in question .", "CLIVAR CLIVAR ( climate variability and predictability ) is a component of the World Climate Research Programme . Its purpose is to describe and understand climate variability and predictability on seasonal to centennial time-scales , identify the physical processes responsible for climate change and develop modeling and predictive capabilities for climate modelling .", "Evaporative cooler An evaporative cooler ( also swamp cooler , desert cooler and wet air cooler ) is a device that cools air through the evaporation of water . Evaporative cooling differs from typical air conditioning systems , which use vapor-compression or absorption refrigeration cycles . Evaporative cooling works by exploiting water 's large enthalpy of vaporization . The temperature of dry air can be dropped significantly through the phase transition of liquid water to water vapor ( evaporation ) . This can cool air using much less energy than refrigeration . In extremely dry climates , evaporative cooling of air has the added benefit of conditioning the air with more moisture for the comfort of building occupants . The cooling potential for evaporative cooling is dependent on the wet bulb depression , the difference between dry-bulb temperature and wet-bulb temperature . In arid climates , evaporative cooling can reduce energy consumption and total equipment for conditioning as an alternative to compressor-based cooling . In climates not considered arid , indirect evaporative cooling can still take advantage of the evaporative cooling process without increasing humidity . Passive evaporative cooling strategies offer the same benefits of mechanical evaporative cooling systems without the complexity of equipment and ductwork .", "Kathleen Miller Kathleen A. Miller is a climate scientist who specializes in the economics of climate change and its effects on institutions , management of risk and investment decisions . She has worked as the lead author on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change chapter on North America in the report Climate Change 2001 : Impacts , Adaptations and Vulnerability . She is based at the United States National Center for Atmospheric Research in Colorado . Miller undertook her doctorate in Economics at the University of Washington in 1985 . Her dissertation was entitled The Right to Use vs. the Right to Sell : Water Rights in the Western United States . It explored the evolution of property institutions governing access to water in the arid western states and modelled the operation and effects of these institutions in the presence of both scarcity and inter-temporal variability in water supplies .", "Trace gas A trace gas is a gas which makes up less than 1 % by volume of the Earth 's atmosphere , and it includes all gases except nitrogen ( 78.1 % ) and oxygen ( 20.9 % ) . The most abundant trace gas at 0.934 % is argon . Water vapor also occurs in the atmosphere with highly variable abundance .", "Cryosphere The cryosphere ( from the Greek κρύος kryos , `` cold '' , `` frost '' or `` ice '' and σφαῖρα sphaira , `` globe , ball '' ) is those portions of Earth 's surface where water is in solid form , including sea ice , lake ice , river ice , snow cover , glaciers , ice caps , ice sheets , and frozen ground ( which includes permafrost ) . Thus , there is a wide overlap with the hydrosphere . The cryosphere is an integral part of the global climate system with important linkages and feedbacks generated through its influence on surface energy and moisture fluxes , clouds , precipitation , hydrology , atmospheric and oceanic circulation . Through these feedback processes , the cryosphere plays a significant role in the global climate and in climate model response to global changes . The term deglaciation describes the retreat of cryospheric features . Cryology is the study of cryospheres .", "Ainun Nishat Ainun Nishat ( born April 29 , 1948 ) is a Professor Emeritus of BRAC University , and is deemed as a water resource and climate change specialist . He represented Bangladesh at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in 2009 , among other international climate-related conferences .", "Venkatachalam Ramaswamy Venkatachalam Ramaswamy ( V. `` Ram '' Ramaswamy ) is the Director of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) , studying climate modeling and climate change . `` A leading climate scientist '' , his work is cited as supporting evidence for significant stratospheric climate change . He focuses in particular on radiative transfer models and the hydrologic cycle in the atmosphere . He has actively supported the development of supercomputing approaches that enable researchers to achieve higher resolution and greater complexity in climate models . As a lead author involved in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Ramaswamy 's contributions ( along with the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .", "Habitat destruction Habitat destruction is the process in which natural habitat is rendered unable to support the species present . In this process , the organisms that previously used the site are displaced or destroyed , reducing biodiversity . Habitat destruction by human activity is mainly for the purpose of harvesting natural resources for industry production and urbanization . Clearing habitats for agriculture is the principal cause of habitat destruction . Other important causes of habitat destruction include mining , logging , trawling and urban sprawl . Habitat destruction is currently ranked as the primary cause of species extinction worldwide . It is a process of natural environmental change that may be caused by habitat fragmentation , geological processes , climate change or by human activities such as the introduction of invasive species , ecosystem nutrient depletion , and other human activities The terms habitat loss and habitat reduction are also used in a wider sense , including loss of habitat from other factors , such as water and noise pollution .", "Sierra Wave thumb | A Sierra Wave over the Sierra Nevada The Sierra Wave is a type of lenticular cloud created by winds that lift off the Sierra Nevada mountain range of California . Known as lee waves , Sierra Waves form as winds hit the Sierra Nevada and are forced to rise , causing water vapor to condense as it cools and forming lenticular clouds on the leeward side of the mountain range . These clouds can remain stationary for many hours . The formation of a Sierra Wave is dependent upon many factors , including wind speed and direction , leeward wind patterns , and water vapor . Given that Sierra Waves are dependent upon many variables their formation is unpredictable .", "Woods Hole Research Center The Woods Hole Research Center ( WHRC ) is a scientific research organization that studies climate change , land use change , soils , wetlands , and forests . WHRC was named the world 's top climate change think tank for 2013 , 2014 , and 2015 by the International Center for Climate Governance . The Center conducts research throughout the Amazon , the Arctic , central Africa , and North America . WHRC collaborates with a wide variety of partners to understand the causes and impacts of climate change and to implement more science-based policies .", "Climatic Change (journal) Climatic Change is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Springer Science + Business Media covering cross-disciplinary work on all aspects of climate change and variability . It was established in 1978 and the editors-in-chief are Michael Oppenheimer ( Princeton University ) and Gary Yohe ( Wesleyan University ) .", "Köhler theory Köhler theory describes the process in which water vapor condenses and forms liquid cloud drops , and is based on equilibrium thermodynamics . It combines the Kelvin effect , which describes the change in saturation vapor pressure due to a curved surface , and Raoult 's Law , which relates the saturation vapor pressure to the solute . It is an important process in the field of cloud physics . It was initially published in 1936 by Hilding Köhler , Professor of Meteorology in the Uppsala University . Köhler equation : where is the droplet water vapor pressure , is the corresponding saturation vapor pressure over a flat surface , is the droplet surface tension , is the density of pure water , is the moles of solute , is the molecular weight of water , and is the cloud drop diameter .", "International Conference on Climate Change The International Conference on Climate Change is a conference series organized and sponsored by The Heartland Institute which aims to bring together global warming skeptics who `` dispute that the science is settled on the causes , consequences , and policy implications of climate change . '' The first conference took place in 2008 . As at 2017 there have been twelve conferences . Most of the events have been held in the United States , but there has been one in Australia and two in Germany .", "Vacuum evaporation Vacuum evaporation is the process of causing the pressure in a liquid-filled container to be reduced below the vapor pressure of the liquid , causing the liquid to evaporate at a lower temperature than normal . Although the process can be applied to any type of liquid at any vapor pressure , it is generally used to describe the boiling of water by lowering the container 's internal pressure below standard atmospheric pressure and causing the water to boil at room temperature . The vacuum evaporation treatment process consists of reducing the interior pressure of the evaporation chamber below atmospheric pressure . This reduces the boiling point of the liquid to be evaporated , thereby reducing or eliminating the need for heat in both the boiling and condensation processes . In addition , there are other technical advantages such as the ability to distill other liquids with high boiling points and avoiding the decomposition of substances that are sensitive to temperature , etc. ." ]

[ "Net metering Net metering ( or net energy metering , NEM ) allows consumers who generate some or all of their own electricity to use that electricity anytime , instead of when it is generated . This is particularly important with wind and solar , which are non-dispatchable . Monthly net metering allows consumers to use solar power generated during the day at night , or wind from a windy day later in the month . Annual net metering rolls over a net kilowatt credit to the following month , allowing solar power that was generated in July to be used in December , or wind power from March in August . Net metering policies can vary significantly by country and by state or province : if net metering is available , if and how long banked credits can be retained , and how much the credits are worth ( retail/wholesale ) . Most net metering laws involve monthly roll over of kWh credits , a small monthly connection fee , require monthly payment of deficits ( i.e. normal electric bill ) , and annual settlement of any residual credit . Unlike a feed-in tariff ( FIT ) , which requires two meters , net metering uses a single , bi-directional meter and can measure current flowing in two directions . Net metering can be implemented solely as an accounting procedure , and requires no special metering , or even any prior arrangement or notification . Net metering is an enabling policy designed to foster private investment in renewable energy ." ]

[ "Jhansi Junction railway station Jhansi Junction is a major railway junction in the city of Jhansi in Bundelkhand region of Uttar Pradesh . It is one of the busiest and largest railway stations in India . It is a major intercity hub and a technical stoppage for many superfast trains in India . Jhansi has its own division in the North Central Railway zone of Indian Railways . It lies on the main Delhi-Chennai and Delhi-Mumbai line . The station code is JHS . Vivaan Solar , a Gwalior based company has won contract to install a total of 1.5 MW rooftop solar power project at the wagon repair workshop of Jhansi Junction railway station . The company will install rooftop solar panels on production sheds and service buildings of the complex .", "List of U.S. states by electricity production from renewable sources The information used to calculate values is from the Electric Power Monthly , February 2015 and 2014 published by the U.S. Energy Information Administration . Renewable generation does not include amounts for ` rooftop solar ' . Only utility scale generation from solar sources is included .", "True Value Solar True Value Solar was an Australian solar systems sales company , read reviews : , , . In 2013 German-based M+W Group bought True Value 's remaining 35 per cent shareholding . The core business of the company is as a sales company of rooftop solar power systems , with installation and perhaps responsibility for issues by contractors . Operating in all major states in Australia ( absent from the Northern Territory and Australian Capital Territory ) and no office in Tasmania . Founded in 2009 .", "Solar power in Virginia Solar power in Virginia on rooftops is estimated to be capable of providing 32.4 % of electricity used in Virginia using 28,500 MW of solar panels . Installing solar panels provides a 6.8 % return on investment in Virginia , and a 5 kW array would return a profit of $ 16,041 over its 25 year life . A feed-in tariff is available from the Tennessee Valley Authority , which pays $ 1,000 for signing up , plus the current rate for electricity plus $ 0.12 / kWh for all generation . Systems are limited to from 0.5 kW to 50 kW . Payment is for 10 years . Payments are in the form of monthly credits to the consumers regular monthly bill and are paid monthly or annually at TVA 's choice . Payments are for 10 years , and payment at retail can be extended for an additional 10 years . A standard offer program is available for systems from 50 kW to 1 MW , which pays from 4 to 6 cents/kWh above retail for the first 10 years . Net metering is available , but residential customers with from 10 to 20 kW arrays could pay a monthly `` standby charge '' of up to $ 60/month . As of December 2 , 2011 , only one customer in Virginia was a residential customer with an array of that size . Standby charges were implemented in California by two utilities until they were banned by the California PUC . Commercial customers with up to 500 kW can use net metering and are not subject to a standby charge . Credits are perpetually rolled over , and customers can request payment once a year at avoided cost . Best practices do not recommend any limits to net metering , either individually or aggregate , other than to the customers service entrance capacity , and perpetual roll over of kilowatt credits . Net metering requires a bi-directional meter , but other than that is simply an accounting procedure , and is more easily discovered by the utility than requiring any sign-up or reporting , just as air conditioning use is discovered , and does not require any sign-up or reporting . At low levels of local generation there is no impact to the utility other than the change in recording and reporting . At high levels utilities need to contract with or provide storage or export/import of the excess electricity generation . Germany , with 26 GW of solar and 29 GW of wind , which exceeds Germany 's peak load of 50 GW , has not reached the point where this is an issue . During the summer wind output is reduced , as is solar during the winter . Solar tends to make up all of the peak load during the summer . Virginia currently has two pumped hydro-storage facilities . Virginia 's largest solar array in 2014 was the 504 kW rooftop array located in Woodbridge . It was expected to produce 636,199 kWh of electricity each year . In 2015 , Dominion Virginia Power announced the planning of a 20 MW facility to be built on 125 acres near Remington Power Station in Fauquier County . Amazon has partnered with Dominion Virginia Power to construct the largest solar facility in the Mid-Atlantic in Accomack County on Virginia 's Eastern Shore . Amazon Solar Farm US East is an 80MW facility developed by a solar energy company and purchased by Dominion . Based on the projects announced and permitted , it is estimated that Virginia will have 188MW of solar installed by the end of 2016 and an additional 198MW installed by the end of 2017", "Solar power in Armenia Solar energy is widely available in Armenia due to its geographical position and is considered a developing industry . According to the Ministry of Energy Infrastructures and Natural Resources of the Republic of Armenia , Armenia has an average of about 1720 kilowatt hour ( kWh ) solar energy flow per square meter of horizontal surface annually and has a potential of 1000 MW power production . In the capital Yerevan , the average solar energy flux is equal to 1642 kWh/m2 . Armenia 's area can not be considered as homogeneous from the perspective of available solar energy : the difference between the amount of solar energy reaching the ground in different places in the country can be up to 20 % in the summer time , and 50 % in the winter time . The use of solar energy in Armenia is increasing . One example is the American University of Armenia ( AUA ) . According to International Network for Sustainable Energy , solar panels were installed on the rooftop of American University of Armenia in 1999-2002 . Also , AUA has solar heaters , which are used to heat up auditoriums , and supply hot water during cold periods . Another example is the United Nations House in Armenia . Its building also uses solar power energy .", "Solar-powered fountain A Solar powered fountain is a decorative electrical fountain powered by a solar panel . The solar panel either forms a part of the fountain , or is separately mounted .", "Babcock Ranch Babcock Ranch is an approximately 17000 acre planned community under development in Southwest Florida that was approved as part of a public-private partnership strategy with the State of Florida and local governments . The deal established the neighboring Babcock Ranch Preserve . Plans for the future city of Babcock Ranch were announced in 2005 by real estate development firm Kitson & Partners as part of a complex real estate transaction that facilitated the largest conservation land acquisition in Florida history . In 2009 , the company joined with Florida Power & Light to announce plans to make Babcock Ranch the first solar-powered city in the United States . The largest photovoltaic power station in the world and a network of rooftop solar panels on commercial buildings , planned to be expanded over time , are intended to send more renewable power into the Florida electrical grid than the city consumes . Kitson & Partners have stated their goal is for Babcock Ranch to be the `` world 's most sustainable city '' . A grand opening is planned for Earth Day 2016 .", "Azure Power Azure Power Global Limited is an independent power producer , a developer and an operator of utility and commercial scale solar PV power plants headquartered in New Delhi , India . The company was founded in 2008 by entrepreneur Inderpreet Wadhwa . The company sells energy to government utilities , and independent industrial and commercial customers in India . Azure Power developed India 's first utility scale solar project in 2009 in Awan , Punjab . The company also installed India 's first megawatt scale solar rooftop project in Gandhinagar , Gujarat which was awarded the top 10 Public Private Partnership , 2013 by International Finance Corporation . Azure Power has a total capacity of over 1 GW in 15 states , which includes India 's largest operational solar plant of 100 MW under India 's National Solar Mission in Rajasthan .", "Solar power in Minnesota Solar power in Minnesota is expanding significantly as a result of favorable policies and as the cost of photovoltaics continues to decrease . Minnesota was the 12th largest state solar market in 2016 , and the only Midwestern state in the top 20 by either market size or installed capacity . In 1983 Minnesota adopted a net metering rule which allows customers generating up to 40 kW to use net metering , with the kilowatt hour surplus rolled over each month , or optionally credited at the retail rate . In May 2013 , the Minnesota legislature adopted a mandate on investor-owned utilities in the state that requires them to produce 1.5 % of their electricity from solar power by 2020 with the bill also raising the state 's cap on net metering from 40 kW to 1 MW . This mandate is in addition to the state 's renewable portfolio standard of 25 % by 2025 and it is estimated that affected utilities will have to add 450 MW of solar by 2020 to comply with the 1.5 % requirement . While Minnesota is currently developing several utility level projects , currently , Minnesota 's largest solar array is the North Star Solar Project in North Branch , Minnesota . With more than 440,000 solar panels , its output is more than 100MW . Other large arrays include the 62MW Marshall Solar Energy Project , completed in January 2017 , a 2MW solar array in Slayton followed by a 1 MW array at an IKEA in Bloomington . There is also a 600 kW array on the roof of the Minneapolis Convention Center , . In January 2015 , Ecolab announced it would be going 100 % solar powered by purchasing power from community solar gardens to be built by SunEdison . Ecolab 's share of the power would be 16MW , more than the amount of solar power in the state at the time of the announcement . If completely subscribed the solar gardens could provide up to 200MW . The Aurora Solar Project is a similar distributed network of arrays planned to reach 100MW utilizing midsized 2MW-10MW installations throughout the southern half of the state . The 62MW Marshall Solar Energy Project is proposed to be built on 500 acres near Marshall , Minnesota . Already home to the state 's largest array , Chisago County , Minnesota has seven additional arrays in various stages of completion , earning it the nickname the solar capitol of Minnesota . When finished they will generate roughly 29 MW . Minnesota has the potential to generate 38.5 % of its electricity from rooftop solar , from 23,100 MW of solar panels . St. Paul can generate 27 % of its electricity , using 800 MW , and Minneapolis 26 % from 1,000 MW . A 2016 estimate suggests that a typical 5 kW system will pay for itself in about 10 years . With incentives , a $ 20,000 system can be installed for a net profit after the first year of $ 5,331 , and will generate a profit of $ 11,833 over its 25-year life , using a loan . Purchasing it outright returns a 9.2 % return on investment , saving $ 20,301 over 25 years , and increases the home value by $ 15,210 .", "Solar power in Turkey Turkey is located in an advantageous position in the Middle East and Southeast Europe for solar energy . Compared to the rest of the region , insolation values are higher and conditions for solar power generation are comparable to Spain . The government is aiming for at least 3 gigawatts ( GW ) by 2023 . Solar power in Turkey is increasing massively . Although solar panel prices are decreasing but still the generation cost of solar power is high as compare to the other power generation methods . Solar potential is very high in Turkey , especially in South Eastern Anatolia and Mediterranean regions solar energy potential is very high .", "List of solar-powered products The following is a list of products powered by sunlight , either directly or through electricity generated by solar panels . Solar air conditioning Solar balloon Solar charger Solar backpack Solar cell phone charger Strawberry Tree Solar chimney Solar calculator Solar-powered waste compacting bin Solar cooker Solar dryer Solar-powered fan Solar furnace Solar inverter Solar keyboard Solar lamp Solar pond Solar road stud Solar street light Solar traffic light Solar Tuki Solar-powered flashlight Solar notebook Solar-powered calculator Solar-powered desalination unit Solar-powered pump Solar-powered fountain Solar-powered radio Solar-powered refrigerator Solar-powered Stirling engine Solar-powered watch Solar-pumped laser Solar roadway Solar Spark Lighter Solar still Solar tree Solar vehicle Solar balloon Solar boat Tûranor PlanetSolar Solar bus Solar car Solar golf cart Solar panels on spacecraft Solar sail Solar thermal rocket . Tracker Windmill Fan Computer", "White Rose (food product) White Rose Food Division ( est. 1886 ) of DiGiorgio Corporation is the largest independent food wholesaler and distributor in the New York metropolitan area . It is mainly distributed at Met Foods and Pioneer and has a large presence in the supermarket Western Beef . White Rose food can also be found in Thriftway/Shop 'n' Bag stores in the Philadelphia , PA region . White Rose utilizes power from KDC Solar and has the second-largest rooftop solar panel in Carteret , New Jersey . In 2014 , White Rose filed for bankruptcy and sold its assets to C&S Wholesale Grocers , Inc. .", "Lists of solar power stations A solar power station may either concentrate sunlight to make steam , or may use solar panels to directly generate electricity . The following articles contain lists of solar power stations : See : List of solar thermal power stations List of photovoltaic power stations List of largest solar power stations Solar power stations Category : Solar power", "Solar Power International Solar Power International is a solar power conference , in 2008 was touted as the largest solar power conference in North America . The conference was previously called Solar Power Conference and Expo , and was created in 2004 when the Solar Electric Power Association ( SEPA ) and the Solar Energy Industries Association ( SEIA ) joined together to organize an annual event to bring together companies and professionals from all parts of the solar industry . The conference consists of two main elements : an exhibition hall where companies have booths to promote their products and services ; and conference sessions where panels of solar industry experts share ideas and success stories . Solar Power International 2010 was held at the Los Angeles Convention Center October 12 -- 14 . The 2013 Conference was held on Oct 21-24 in Chicago , Ill at McCormick Place Convention Center and the 2014 Conference will be held on Oct 20-23 at the Las Vegas Convention Center in Las Vegas , Nevada", "Solar power in New Hampshire Solar power in New Hampshire provides a small percentage of the state 's electricity . State renewable requirements and declining prices have led to some installations . Photovoltaics on rooftops can provide 53.4 % of all electricity used in New Hampshire , from 5,300 MW of solar panels , and 72 % of the electricity used in Concord , New Hampshire . A 2016 estimate suggests that a typical 5 kW system costing $ 25,000 before credits and utility savings will pay for itself in 9 years , and generate a profit of $ 34,196 over the rest of its 25-year life . A loan or lease provides a net savings each year , including the first year . New Hampshire has a rebate program which pays $ 0.75 / W for residential systems up to 5 kW , for up to 50 % of the system cost , up to $ 3,750 . However , New Hampshire 's solar installation lagged behind nearby states such as Vermont and New York , which in 2013 had 10 times and 25 times more solar , respectively . Net metering is available for up to 1 MW generation , but is capped at 50 MW . Excess generation is perpetually rolled over each month , and customers can elect to be paid at avoided cost once a year . The organization Freeing the Grid gave the state a B for net metering and a D for interconnection . The state renewable portfolio standard calls for 25 % of electricity from renewable energy in 2025 , including 0.3 % from solar . Noncompliance fees are used to fund renewable energy , and resulted in payments of $ 1.3 million in 2009 and $ 2.6 million in 2010 . A 2014 review by the state found the `` business-as-usual '' model predicted that the state 's 2025 goals would not be met . In 2005 , New Hampshire 's largest solar array was the 50 kW installation on the roof of the Stonyfield Farm yogurt factory . It remained the largest in the state until PSNH installed a 51 kW array on their roof in 2009 . In 2012 , New Hampshire 's largest solar array was the 525 kW facility on the top level of the Manchester Airport parking garage . It was removed because of glare , and reinstalled with the panels facing East instead of South . Additional panels were installed to maintain the same output . In 2015 , the largest solar farm in the state was at the Peterborough wastewater treatment plant , a 942 kW installation with 3,100 solar panels on 5 acre . In a pilot program , a solar panel was installed on a few utility poles , four in Nashua and four in Berlin . New Hampshire 's average electricity price of 16.47 cents / kWh is the sixth highest in the country .", "Solar car A solar car is a solar vehicle used for land transport . Solar cars only run on solar power from the sun . To keep the car running smoothly , the driver must monitor multiple gauges to spot possible problems . Cars without gauges almost always feature wireless telemetry , which allows the driver 's team to monitor the car 's energy consumption , solar energy capture and other parameters and thereby freeing the driver to concentrate on driving . Solar cars combine technology typically used in the aerospace , bicycle , alternative energy and automotive industries . The design of a solar vehicle is severely limited by the amount of energy input into the car . Most solar cars have been built for the purpose of solar car races . Some solar cars are designed also for public use List of prototype solar-powered cars Solar cars depend on a solar array that uses photovoltaic cells ( PV cells ) to convert sunlight into electricity . Unlike solar thermal energy which converts solar energy to heat for either household purposes , industrial purposes or to be converted to electricity , PV cells directly convert sunlight into electricity . When sunlight ( photons ) strike PV cells , they excite electrons and allow them to flow , creating an electric current . PV cells are made of semiconductor materials such as silicon and alloys of indium , gallium and nitrogen . Crystalline silicon is the most common material used and has an efficiency rate of 15-20 % . The first solar family car was built in 2013 . Researchers at Case Western Reserve University , have also developed a better solar car which can recharge more quickly , due to better materials used in the solar panels . Chinese solar panel manufacturer Hanergy plans to build and sell solar cars equipped with lithium-ion batteries to consumers in China . Hanergy says that five to six hours of sunlight should allow the cars ' thin-film solar cells to generate between 8-10 kWh of power a day , allowing the car to travel about 80 km ( 50 mi ) on solar power alone . Maximum range is about 350 km ( 217 mi ) .", "Solar power in space Solar panels on spacecraft , covers using solar power on spacecraft Space-based solar power , is the concept using spacecraft in space for Earth power .", "Solar Energy Corporation of India Solar Energy Corporation of India Ltd. ( SECI ) is a company of the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy , Government of India , established to facilitate the implementation of Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission . It is the only public sector undertaking dedicated to the solar energy sector . The company 's mandate has been broadened to cover the entire renewable energy domain and the company will be renamed to Renewable Energy Corporation of India ( RECI ) . The company is responsible for implementation of a number of government schemes , major ones being the VGF schemes for large-scale grid-connected projects under JNNSM , solar park scheme and grid-connected solar rooftop scheme , along with a host of other specialised schemes such as defence scheme , canal-top scheme , and Indo-Pak border scheme . In addition , SECI has ventured into solar project development on turnkey basis for several PSUs . The company also has a power-trading licence and is active in this domain through trading of solar power from projects set up under the schemes being implemented by it .", "Nanosolar Nanosolar was a developer of solar power technology . Based in San Jose , CA , Nanosolar developed and briefly commercialized a low-cost printable solar cell manufacturing process . The company started selling thin-film CIGS panels mid-December 2007 , and planned to sell them at 99 cents per watt , much below the market at the time . However , prices for solar panels made of crystalline silicon declined significantly during the following years , reducing most of Nanosolar 's cost advantage . By February 2013 Nanosolar had laid off 75 % of its work force . Nanosolar began auctioning off its equipment in August 2013 . Co-Founder of Nanosolar Martin Roscheisen stated on his personal blog that nanosolar `` ultimately failed commercially . '' and that he would not enter this industry again because of slow-development cycle , complex production problems and the impact of cheap Chinese solar power production . Nanosolar ultimately produced less than 50 MW of solar power capacity despite having raised more than $ 400 million in investment .", "Solar power forecasting Solar power forecasting involves knowledge of the Sun ´ s path , the atmosphere 's condition , the scattering processes and the characteristics of a solar energy plant which utilizes the Sun 's energy to create solar power . Solar photovoltaic systems transform solar energy into electric power . The power output depends on the incoming radiation and on the solar panel characteristics . Photovoltaic power production is increasing nowadays . Forecast information is essential for an efficient use , the management of the electricity grid and for solar energy trading . Common solar forecasting method include stochastic learning method , local and remote sensing method , and hybrid method ( Chu et al. 2016 ) .", "Solar power in Georgia (U.S. state) Solar power in Georgia on rooftops can provide 31 % of all electricity used in Georgia . Net metering is limited to 100 kW for non-residential consumers and 10 kW for residential consumers , up to 0.2 % of previous years peak demand . Georgia was given an F for net metering . Georgia is not a Net Metering State . The state 's first solar community is located at Weatherford Place in Roswell . All homes are LEED Certified Platinum and monitored . The solar generation is compared to GP totals each month . The past 6 years of data monitoring show that GP meter consistently records less produced power . GP does not pay `` time of day rates '' as do many other states and also requires the homeowner to sign over all `` environmental attributes '' -LSB- solar renewable energy credits or SRECs -RSB- if the homeowner chooses to sell back all solar energy . Similar results are being seen at a Zero Net Energy home -LSB- the architectural design and training was a pro-bono project of Cadmus Design-Build and is being monitored by UGA -RSB- located in Tifton , GA. . In other states such as California , New Jersey , New York , North Carolina , Pennsylvania , etc -RSB- the accumulated SRECs can be sold by the owner of the system . Georgia does not allow the sale of SRECs . Georgia Power is also charging the homeowner tax on the solar energy that is sold back to GP . According to the Database of State Incentives for Renewable Energy , Renewable energy is not taxable . Georgia Power has a solar purchase program , SP-1 , for up to 100 kW systems which pays 17 cents / kWh . A second meter is installed for the solar generation , all of which is purchased by Georgia Power . The consumer then purchases back any electricity consumed as if they did not have solar power . The program has an aggregate limit of 4.4 MW and is fully subscribed , but will be expanded as consumers purchase `` Premium Green Energy '' , for an additional $ 5.00 / 100kWh . Once a consumer enters the program there is no reason to also purchase green energy , as doing so would reduce the 17 cent payment to 12 cents . By comparison , Ontario paid 80 cents Canadian/kWh , and Germany $ 34.05 cents / kWh , both with 20 year contracts , vs. the 5 year contract from Georgia Power . Long term power agreements are essential to renewable energy projects , as you pay upfront for 25 years of electricity - the `` fuel '' , the sun or wind , is free , and most of the cost of wind power or solar power is the installation cost . Approved by the state 's Public Service Commission in 2012 and significantly expanded in the following year , Georgia Power 's ` Advanced Solar Initiative ' is expected to bring online 865 MW of solar capacity by the end of 2016 . In 1982 the country 's largest industrial solar installation was completed , the 400 kW Solar Total Energy Project , which operated until 1991 . The $ 5 million 1 MW Spectro PowerCap on the Hickory Ridge Landfill near Atlanta was one of Georgia 's largest solar arrays , when it was completed in October 2011 . Another 1MW solar farm in Blairsville was completed in January 2011 . A 30 MW solar farm is being developed in Social Circle , and is expected to be completed in 2015 . In 2011 , Georgia was one of three states being considered for a 400 MW solar park , to consist of 20 20 MW sections . Other states being considered were Florida and North Carolina . Gadsden County , Florida , was chosen . The company , National Solar , is planning 3,000 MW of solar farms in the Southeast .", "List of prototype solar-powered cars This list of prototype solar-powered cars comprises multiperson , relatively practical vehicles powered completely or significantly by solar cells ( panels or arrays , mounted on the vehicle ) which convert sunlight into electricity to drive electric motors while the vehicle is in motion and have a homologation for public streets .", "Morgan Solar Inc Morgan Solar , Inc. is a Canadian solar power and optical technology company based in Toronto , Ontario . The company 's two main products are the Sun Simba concentrated photovoltaic ( CPV ) solar panel and the Savanna Dual-Axis Tracker .", "Solar rickshaw A solar rickshaw is a vehicle , usually three-wheeled , driven by an electric motor and powered either by solar panels or by a battery charged by solar panels . A solar rickshaw may be a type of : Cycle rickshaw , if it is equipped with both pedals and an assisting electric motor Electric rickshaw , if its only means of propulsion is one or more electric motors", "Charles Fritts Charles Fritts ( 1850 -- 1903 ) was the American inventor credited with creating the first working Selenium Cell in 1883 . The world 's first rooftop solar array , using Fritts ' selenium cells , was installed in 1884 on a New York City rooftop . Fritts coated the semiconductor material selenium with an extremely thin layer of gold . The resulting cells had a conversion electrical efficiency of only about 1 % owing to the properties of selenium , which in combination with the material 's high cost prevented the use of such cells for energy supply . Selenium cells found other applications however , for example as light sensors for exposure timing in photo cameras , where they were common well into the 1960s . Solar cells later became practical for power uses after Russell Ohl 's 1941 development of silicon p/n junction cells that reached efficiencies above 5 % by the 1950s/1960s . Today 's best silicon solar cells are over 40 % efficient , with industrial average over 17 % .", "Beneixama photovoltaic power plant Beneixama photovoltaic power plant is a 20 MW photovoltaic power plant located in Beneixama , Spain . The plant consists of approximately 100,000 solar panels , encompassing an area of approximately 500,000 m2 . The panels are City Solar PQ 200 modules made of polycrystalline silicon solar cells . In addition , 200 units of Siemens photovoltaic inverters `` Sinvert Solar 100 Master '' were installed . The plant was built by City Solar , and completed in September , 2007 .", "Solar cable A solar cable is the interconnection cable used in photovoltaic power generation . Solar cables interconnect solar panels and other electrical components of a photovoltaic system . Solar cables are designed to be UV resistant and weather resistant . They can be used within a large temperature range and are generally laid outside .", "Guadarranque Solar Power Plant Guadarranque solar power plant ( also known as Cádiz solar power plant , Parque Solar Guadarranque , or Planta Solar Guadarranque ) is a photovoltaic solar power plant in the Guadarranque industrial park in San Roque , Cádiz , Spain . The plant is owned and operated by Endesa . In 2007 , Endesa received a municipal permit to build a 20.1 megawatt ( MW ) photovoltaic solar power plant . Construction on the first stage of the plant began in July 2007 and was finished in September 2008 . The first stage has installed capacity of 12.3 MW and it covers 37 ha . It consists of 123 photovoltaic installations , each including 550 220-watt solar panels . The first stage cost $ 90 million and its annual generation is estimated about 24 GWh . Electricity production at the plant will increase during the summer months due to the higher number of daylight hours . This will help to meet the significant rise in power demand in Andalusia in the summer .", "Waldpolenz Solar Park The Waldpolenz Solar Park is a 52-megawatt ( MW ) photovoltaic power station built by German developer and operator Juwi at a former military air base near Leipzig , Eastern Germany . When completed by the end of 2008 , it was the world 's largest thin-film solar park using CdTe-modules . Initially , the solar power plant 's nameplate capacity was 40 MW , consisting of 500,000 state-of-the-art solar panels provided by U.S. manufacturer First Solar , and generated 40,000 MWh of electricity per year . The solar park was then extended with another 153,650 panels , also provided by First Solar , to a final capacity of 52 MWP in 2011 The installation is located in the Muldentalkreis district in the state of Saxony in eastern Germany , built on half of the location 's 220 ha in the townships of Brandis and Bennewitz . The investment costs for the Waldpolenz solar park have amounted to some 130 million euro .", "Mithapur Solar Power Plant Mithapur Solar Power Plant is a 25 MW solar power plant located in Mithapur , Gujarat . It is expected to produce 40,734 MWh/year . 108,696 230 Wp panels were used .", "SunEdison SunEdison , Inc. is a global renewable energy company headquartered in the U.S. . In addition to developing , building , owning , and operating solar power plants and wind energy plants , it also manufactures high purity polysilicon , monocrystalline silicon ingots , silicon wafers , solar modules , solar energy systems , and solar module racking systems . Originally a silicon-wafer manufacturer established in 1959 as the Monsanto Electronic Materials Company , a former business unit of Monsanto Company , Monsanto sold the company in 1989 . Prior to May 30 , 2013 , the company was known as MEMC Electronic Materials ; the name change to SunEdison reflects the company 's focus on solar energy . SunEdison 's corporate headquarters are in Maryland Heights , Missouri , and the company 's operational and solar headquarters are in Belmont , California with offices throughout the world . Established in the early stages of the semiconductor electronics industry in 1959 , MEMC was for the next half century a major and pioneering manufacturer of silicon wafers , the most basic element of semiconductor-chip manufacturing . The company entered the solar market in a major way beginning in 2006 , with longterm contracts to manufacture and sell solar wafers to several large Asian solar-energy companies . Contracts with other solar-energy companies followed , as did joint-venture projects on solar power plants . With the acquisition of the large , successful , and pioneering solar-energy systems company SunEdison LLC in late 2009 and the smaller solar-power companies Axio and Fotowatio in 2011 , MEMC focused increasingly on the burgeoning solar-energy industry to offset the cyclical downturns in the semiconductor market . The company now develops , finances , and maintains solar power systems and plants for a widespread commercial , public-sector , and power-plant customer base , and its name change in 2013 to SunEdison , Inc. reflects its main focus . It is one of the leading solar-power companies worldwide , and with its acquisition of wind-energy company First Wind in 2014 , SunEdison is the leading renewable energy development company in the world . SunEdison 's subsidiaries TerraForm Power and TerraForm Global own and operate renewable-energy projects around the globe . In 2015 , SunEdison sold off its subsidiary SunEdison Semiconductor , which manufactures silicon wafers for the electronics industry . The divestiture marked the completion of SunEdison , Inc. 's transition from a semiconductor-wafer company to a dedicated renewable-energy corporation . Following years of major expansion and the announcement of the intent -- which eventually fell through -- to acquire the residential-rooftop solar company Vivint Solar in 2015 , SunEdison 's stock plummeted and its more than $ 11billion in debt caused it to file for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection on April 21 , 2016 .", "Solar cell fabric Solar cell fabric is a fabric with embedded photovoltaic ( PV ) cells which generate electricity when exposed to light . Traditional silicon based solar cells are expensive to manufacture , rigid and fragile . Although less efficient , thin-film cells and organic polymer based cells can be produced quickly and cheaply . They are also flexible and can be stitched onto fabric . According to an article from New Scientist researchers have built a PV cell in the layers around a fiber , creating a tiny cylindrical cell . No longer limited to rooftops and poles , solar collection could work silently and unobtrusively from everyday objects ." ]

[ "Attribution of recent climate change Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "Instrumental temperature record The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "David Parker (climatologist) David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England . He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' . In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .", "Climate change in New Zealand Climate change in New Zealand refers to change in the climate of New Zealand on the scale of years , decades , centuries and longer periods of time . New Zealand is being affected by climate change and the impacts are predicted to increase in future . Anthropogenic global warming during the 20th century is apparent in the instrumental temperature record , in New Zealand 's participation in international treaties , and in social and political debates . Climate change is being responded to in a variety of ways by civil society and the government of New Zealand . An emissions trading scheme has been established and from 1 July 2010 , the energy and liquid fossil fuel sectors have obligations to report emissions and to obtain and surrender emissions units ( carbon credits ) .", "Temperature data logger A temperature data logger , also called temperature monitor , is a portable measurement instrument that is capable of autonomously recording temperature over a defined period of time . The digital data can be retrieved , viewed and evaluated after it has been recorded . A data logger is commonly used to monitor shipments in a cold chain and to gather temperature data from diverse field conditions .", "Climate change in South Korea In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .", "Climate change in Nevada Climate change in Nevada has been measured over the last century , with the average temperature in Elko , Nevada increasing by 0.6 F-change , and precipitation increasing by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future .", "Pseudoproxy A pseudoproxy is a synthetic dataset used in paleoclimatology to test methods of reconstruction of global or hemispherical climate change from temperature records , developed for reconstructing the temperature record of the past 1000 years using proxies for periods before the instrumental temperature record . In May 2002 Michael E. Mann and Scott Rutherford published a paper introducing this method of adding artificial noise to actual temperature records or to climate model simulations to produce what they called `` pseudoproxies '' . When the reconstruction algorithms were used with these pseudoproxies , the result was then compared with the original record or simulation to see how closely it had been reconstructed . They discussed the issue that regression methods of reconstruction tended to underestimate the amplitude of variation .", "UAH satellite temperature dataset The UAH satellite temperature dataset , developed at the University of Alabama in Huntsville , infers the temperature of various atmospheric layers from satellite measurements of radiance . It was the first global temperature datasets developed from satellite information and has been used as a tool for research into surface and atmospheric temperature changes . The dataset is published by John Christy et al. and formerly jointly with Roy Spencer .", "Temperature coefficient A temperature coefficient describes the relative change of a physical property that is associated with a given change in temperature . For a property R that changes by dR when the temperature changes by dT , the temperature coefficient α is defined by Here α has the dimension of an inverse temperature and can be expressed e.g. in 1/K or K − 1 . If the temperature coefficient itself does not vary too much with temperature , a linear approximation can be used to determine the value R of a property at a temperature T , given its value R0 at a reference temperature T0 : where ΔT is the difference between T and T0 . For strongly temperature-dependent α , this approximation is only useful for small temperature differences ΔT . Temperature coefficients are specified for various applications , including electric and magnetic properties of materials as well as reactivity . The temperature coefficient of most of the reactions lies between - 2 & 3", "Gordon Manley Gordon Valentine Manley , FRGS ( 3 January 1902 -- 29 January 1980 ) was an English climatologist who has been described as `` probably the best known , most prolific and most expert on the climate of Britain of his generation '' . He assembled the Central England temperature ( CET ) series of monthly mean temperatures stretching back to 1659 , which is the longest standardised instrumental record available for anywhere in the world . It provides a benchmark for proxy records of climatic change for the period covered , and is a notable example of scientific scholarship and perseverance ( it took over thirty years to complete ) . His two papers describing the work are available online .", "Divergence problem The divergence problem is an anomaly from the field of dendroclimatology , the study of past climate through observations of old trees , primarily the properties of their annual growth rings . It is the disagreement between the temperatures measured by the thermometers ( instrumental temperatures ) and the temperatures reconstructed from the latewood densities or , in some cases , widths of tree rings in the far northern forests . While the thermometer records indicate a substantial late 20th century warming trend , many tree rings from such sites do not display a corresponding change in their maximum latewood density . In some studies this issue has also been found with tree ring width . A temperature trend extracted from tree rings alone would not show any substantial warming since the 1950s . The temperature graphs calculated in these two ways thus `` diverge '' from one another , which is the origin of the term .", "Thermo-hygrograph A thermo-hygrograph or hygrothermograph is a chart recorder that measures and records both temperature and humidity ( or dew point ) . Similar devices that record only one parameter are a thermograph for temperature and hygrograph for humidity . Thermographs where the variations are recorded using photography were described by several scientists as early as 1845 , including Francis Ronalds who was Honorary Director of the Kew Observatory . An updated model of the initial machine was deployed across the national observational network set up by the new UK Met Office in 1867 and coordinated by Kew Observatory . These instruments then saw extended use around the world . An alternative thermograph configuration has a pen that records temperature on a revolving cylinder . The pen is at the end of a lever that is controlled by a bi-metal strip of temperature-sensitive metal which bends as the temperature changes . A human hair bundle can be used for humidity in such machines .", "Målilla Målilla is a locality situated in Hultsfred Municipality , Kalmar County , Sweden with 1,524 inhabitants in 2010 . It is more commonly known as the temperature capital of Sweden due to the frequent records , both high and low , being set there . A Swedish record high temperature of +38 ° C ( 100.4 ° F ) was set on June 29 , 1947 . This record is shared with Ultuna in Uppland . The lowest temperature recorded is − 33.8 ° C , one of the lowest ever recorded in southern Sweden . Being famous for the extremes in temperature , visitors are welcomed by a 15 metre high thermometer in the middle of the town 's only roundabout . Shortly after its inauguration in December 2000 , it was hit by a car and the bulb had to be replaced . Målilla is further famous for motorcycle speedway . Almost since the birth of the sport the local team has been amongst the best in Sweden . Dackarna Målilla , the original name of the team has lately changed names due to sponsorship deals . Luxo Stars and Team Svelux were two passing names until the original name once again was reinstated . The other two things which has put Målilla on the Swedish map is their bandy team Målilla Bandy which has had quite big success during the years and adventurer and mountaineer Janne Corax who is the only Swedish alpinist with first ascents in the Himalayas on the CV . The legendary pop band The Beach Boys founders , the Wilson and Love families , have their roots in Målilla .", "Carl Mears Carl Mears is a Senior Scientist , at Remote Sensing Systems , since 1998 . He has worked on validation of SSM/I derived winds , and rain-flagging algorithm for the QuikScat scatterometer . He is best known for his work with Frank Wentz in developing a satellite temperature record from MSU and AMSU . Intercomparison of this record with the earlier UAH satellite temperature record , developed by John Christy and Roy Spencer , revealed deficiencies in the earlier work ; specifically , the warming trend in the RSS version is larger than the UAH one . Mears was a major contributor to Temperature Trends in the Lower Atmosphere : Steps for Understanding and Reconciling Differences , the first released report from the US Climate Change Science Program . He also contributed to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Working Group one report , Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis .", "Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .", "Tuff Gong Worldwide Tuff Gong Worldwide is a record label formed by Ziggy Marley . He used the same name as his father 's label , but changed the word international to worldwide .", "Phil Jones (climatologist) Philip Douglas Jones ( born April 22 , 1952 ) retired from his positions as the Director of the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) and as a Professor in the School of Environmental Sciences at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) at the end of 2016 . Jones was replaced as CRU director by Tim Osborn and has taken up a position as a Professorial Fellow at the UEA from January 2017 . His research interests include instrumental climate change , palaeoclimatology , detection of climate change and the extension of riverflow records in the UK . He has also published papers on the temperature record of the past 1000 years . He is known for maintaining a time series of the instrumental temperature record . This work was featured prominently in both the 2001 and 2007 IPCC reports , where he was a contributing author to Chapter 12 , Detection of Climate Change and Attribution of Causes , of the Third Assessment Report and a Coordinating Lead Author of Chapter 3 , Observations : Surface and Atmospheric Climate Change , of the AR4 .", "Highest temperature recorded on Earth The standard measuring conditions for temperature are in the air , 1.5 meters above the ground , and shielded from direct sunlight . The highest confirmed temperature on Earth recorded according to these measures was 56.7 C in Furnace Creek Ranch , California , located in the Death Valley desert in the United States , on July 10 , 1913 . The former highest official temperature on Earth , held for 90 years by ` Aziziya , Libya , was de-certified by the WMO ( World Meteorological Organization ) in January 2012 as the record for the world 's highest surface temperature ( this temperature of 57.8 ° C ( 136 ° F ) , registered on 13 September 1922 , is currently considered to have been a recorder 's error ) . Christopher C. Burt , the weather historian writing for Weather Underground who shepherded the Libya reading 's 2012 disqualification , believes that the 1913 Death Valley reading is `` a myth '' , and is at least four or five degrees Fahrenheit too high , as do other weather historians Dr. Arnold Court and William Taylor Reid . Burt proposes that the highest reliably recorded temperature on Earth is still at Death Valley , but is instead 53.9 C recorded five times : 20 July 1960 , 18 July 1998 , 20 July 2005 , 7 July 2007 , and 30 June 2013 . Temperatures measured directly on the ground may exceed air temperatures by 30 to 50 ° C . A ground temperature of 84 ° C ( 183.2 ° F ) has been recorded in Port Sudan , Sudan . A ground temperature of 93.9 ° C ( 201 ° F ) was recorded also in Furnace Creek Ranch on 15 July 1972 ; this may be the highest natural ground surface temperature ever recorded . The theoretical maximum possible ground surface temperature has been estimated to be between 90 and 100 ° C for dry , darkish soils of low thermal conductivity . Temperature measurements via satellite also tend to capture occurrence of higher records but are considered less reliable than ground-positioned thermometers . There is a satellite record of 66.8 C measured in the Flaming Mountains of China in 2008 . Other satellite measurements of ground temperature taken between 2003 and 2009 , taken with the MODIS infrared spectroradiometer on the Aqua satellite , found a maximum temperature of 70.7 ° C ( 159.3 ° F ) , which was recorded in 2005 in the Lut Desert , Iran . The Lut Desert was also found to have the highest maximum temperature in 5 of the 7 years measured ( 2004 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 and 2009 ) . These measurements reflect averages over a large region and so are lower than the maximum point surface temperature .", "Science On a Sphere Science On a Sphere ( SOS ) is a spherical projection system created by NOAA . It presents high-resolution video on a suspended globe rather than a flat screen , with the aim of better representing global phenomena . Animated images of atmospheric storms , climate change , and ocean temperature can be shown on the sphere to explain these complex environmental processes . SOS systems are most frequently installed in science museums , universities , zoos , and research institutions , although new and novel uses for these systems in a variety of presentation spaces and contexts are starting to emerge . The system has been installed in more than 130 locations worldwide .", "Dilatometer A dilatometer is a scientific instrument that measures volume changes caused by a physical or chemical process . A familiar application of a dilatometer is the mercury-in-glass thermometer , in which the change in volume of the liquid column is read from a graduated scale . Because mercury has a fairly constant rate of expansion over ambient temperature ranges , the volume changes are directly related to temperature .", "Climate change in the Arctic The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "Bathythermograph The bathythermograph , or BT , also known as the Mechanical Bathythermograph , or MBT ; is a small torpedo-shaped device that holds a temperature sensor and a transducer to detect changes in water temperature versus depth down to a depth of approximately 285 meters ( 935 feet ) . Lowered by a small winch on the ship into the water , the BT records pressure and temperature changes on a coated glass slide as it is dropped nearly freely through the water . While the instrument is being dropped , the wire is paid out until it reaches a predetermined depth , then a brake is applied and the BT is drawn back to the surface . Because the pressure is a function of depth ( see Pascal 's law ) , temperature measurements can be correlated with the depth at which they are recorded .", "Sperm thermotaxis Sperm thermotaxis is a form of sperm guidance , in which sperm cells ( spermatozoa ) actively change their swimming direction according to a temperature gradient , swimming up the gradient . Thus far this process has been discovered in mammals only .", "Recording thermometer A recording thermometer is a type of thermometer that records temperature changes over a period of time . One end of the strip is attached to a long , light metal lever that holds a special pen . Tiny movement of the bimetallic strip causes much larger movement of the free end of the lever and the pen . The pen traces a rising and falling line on a strip of paper attached to a slowly turning drum . The drum usually makes one turn every seven or so days , so afterwards each strip of paper contains a complete and accurate record of temperature changes for a whole week . There are normally two types of metal on the bimetallic strip . Mostly one is steel and one is copper . Because these metals expand and contract at different rates.When one of these metals expand it curls tighter , when one contracts it uncurl slightly . When it curls or uncurls , the data is converted into electric signals , which record the temperature change . Category : Thermometers", "Thermotropism Thermotropism or thermotropic movement is the movement of a plant or part of a plant in response to a change in temperature . A common example is the curling of Rhododendron leaves in response to cold temperatures . Mimosa pudica also show thermotropism by the collapsing of leaf petioles leading to the folding of leaflets , when temperature drops . The term `` thermotropism '' was originated by French botanist Philippe Van Tieghem in his 1884 textbook Traité de botanique . Van Tieghem stated that a plant irradiated with an optimum growth temperature on one side laterally , and a much higher or lower temperature on the opposite side , would exhibit faster growth on the side exposed to optimum temperature . The precise physiological mechanism enabling plant thermotropism is not yet understood . It has been noted that one of the earliest physiological responses by plants to cooling is an influx of calcium ions from the cell walls into the cytosol , which increases calcium ion concentration in the intracellular space . This calcium influx is dependent upon mechanical changes in the actin cytoskeleton that alter the fluidity of the cell membrane , which allows calcium ion channels to open . From this information , a hypothesis has formed that the plant cell plasma membrane is an important site of plant temperature perception .", "Autoclave tape Autoclave tape is an adhesive tape used in autoclaving ( heating under high pressure with steam to sterilise ) to indicate whether a specific temperature has been reached . Autoclave tape works by changing color after exposure to temperatures commonly used in sterilization processes , typically 121 ° C in a steam autoclave . Small strips of the tape are applied to the items before they are placed into the autoclave . The tape is similar to masking tape but slightly more adhesive , to allow it to adhere under the hot , moist conditions of the autoclave . One such tape has diagonal markings containing an ink which changes colour ( usually beige to black ) upon heating . It is important to note that the presence of autoclave tape that has changed color on an item does not ensure that the product is sterile , as the tape will change color upon exposure only . For steam sterilization to occur , the entire item must completely reach and maintain 121 ° C for 15 -- 20 minutes with proper steam exposure to ensure sterilization . The color-changing indicator of tape is usually lead carbonate based , which decomposes to lead ( II ) oxide . To protect users from lead -- and because this decomposition can occur at many moderate temperatures -- manufactures may protect the lead carbonate layer with a resin or polymer that is degraded under steam at high temperature .", "Global change Global change refers to planetary-scale changes in the Earth system . The system consists of the land , oceans , atmosphere , polar regions , life , the planet 's natural cycles and deep Earth processes . These constituent parts influence one another . The Earth system now includes human society , so global change also refers to large-scale changes in society . More completely , the term `` global change '' encompasses : population , climate , the economy , resource use , energy development , transport , communication , land use and land cover , urbanization , globalization , atmospheric circulation , ocean circulation , the carbon cycle , the nitrogen cycle , the water cycle and other cycles , sea ice loss , sea-level rise , food webs , biological diversity , pollution , health , over fishing , and more .", "Fahrenheit Fahrenheit is a temperature scale based on one proposed in 1724 by Amsterdam-based physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit ( 1686 -- 1736 ) , after whom the scale is named . It uses the degree Fahrenheit ( symbol ° F ) as the unit . Several accounts of how he originally defined his scale exist . The lower defining point , 0 ° F , was established as the temperature of a solution of brine made from equal parts of ice and salt . Further limits were established as the melting point of ice ( 32 ° F ) and his best estimate of the average human body temperature ( 96 ° F , about 2.6 ° F less than the modern value due to a later redefinition of the scale ) . The scale is now usually defined by two fixed points : the temperature at which water freezes into ice is defined as 32 ° F , and the boiling point of water is defined to be 212 ° F , a 180 ° F separation , as defined at sea level and standard atmospheric pressure . By the end of the 20th century , Fahrenheit was used as the official temperature scale only in the United States ( including its unincorporated territories ) , its freely associated states in the Western Pacific ( Palau , the Federated States of Micronesia and the Marshall Islands ) , the Bahamas , Belize , and the Cayman Islands . All other countries in the world now use the Celsius scale , defined since 1954 by absolute zero being − 273.15 ° C and the triple point of water being at 0.01 ° C.", "1815 eruption of Mount Tambora The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora was one of the most powerful eruptions in recorded history , with a Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) of 7 . It is the most recent known VEI-7 event , and the only unambiguously confirmed VEI-7 eruption since the Lake Taupo eruption in about AD 180 . ( The 946 eruption of Paektu Mountain might also have been VEI-7 . ) The eruption of the volcano , on the island of Sumbawa in the Dutch East Indies ( present-day Indonesia ) , reached a climax on 10 April 1815 and was followed by between six months and three years of increased steaming and small phreatic eruptions . The ash from the eruption column dispersed around the world and lowered global temperatures , leading to worldwide harvest failures in an event sometimes known as the Year Without a Summer in 1816 . The eruption resulted in a brief period of significant climate change that led to various cases of extreme weather . Several climate forcings coincided and interacted in a systematic manner that has not been observed since , despite other large eruptions that have occurred since the early Stone Age . Although the link between the post-eruption climate changes and the Tambora event has been established by various scientists , the understanding of the processes involved is incomplete .", "Climate system Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "Animal migration tracking For years scientists have been tracking animals and the ways they migrate . One of the many goals of animal migration research has been to determine where the animals are going ; however , researchers also want to know why they are going `` there '' . Researchers not only look at the animals ' migration but also what is between point a and point b to determine if a species is moving to new locations based on food density , a change in water temperature , and the animal 's ability to adapt to these changes .", "Lunz am See Lunz am See is a municipality in the district of Scheibbs , Lower Austria , Austria . Since May 2007 Lunz am See has been the home of the `` Wasser Cluster Lunz '' . It has been recorded as the coldest place in Central Europe , as a temperature of -52.6 Celsius was measured here on 19 February 1932 at .", "The Machine That Changed the World (book) The Machine That Changed the World is a book based on the Massachusetts Institute of Technology 's $ 5 million , five-year study on the future of the automobile , written by James P. Womack , Daniel T. Jones , and Daniel Roos . This book made the term lean production known worldwide . It has been translated into eleven languages and has been sold more than 600,000 times . A revised edition was published in 2007 ." ]

[ "Climate Climate is the statistics of weather , usually over a 30-year interval . It is measured by assessing the patterns of variation in temperature , humidity , atmospheric pressure , wind , precipitation , atmospheric particle count and other meteorological variables in a given region over long periods of time . Climate differs from weather , in that weather only describes the short-term conditions of these variables in a given region . A region 's climate is generated by the climate system , which has five components : atmosphere , hydrosphere , cryosphere , lithosphere , and biosphere . The climate of a location is affected by its latitude , terrain , and altitude , as well as nearby water bodies and their currents . Climates can be classified according to the average and the typical ranges of different variables , most commonly temperature and precipitation . The most commonly used classification scheme was the Köppen climate classification . The Thornthwaite system , in use since 1948 , incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it . The Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region . Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates . Since direct observations of climate are not available before the 19th century , paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables that include non-biotic evidence such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores , and biotic evidence such as tree rings and coral . Climate models are mathematical models of past , present and future climates . Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from a variety of factors ; recent warming is discussed in global warming . Global warming results in redistributions . For example , `` a 3 ° C change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300 -- 400 km in latitude ( in the temperate zone ) or 500 m in elevation . Therefore , species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones '' .", "General circulation model A general circulation model ( GCM ) is a type of climate model . It employs a mathematical model of the general circulation of a planetary atmosphere or ocean . It uses the Navier -- Stokes equations on a rotating sphere with thermodynamic terms for various energy sources ( radiation , latent heat ) . These equations are the basis for computer programs used to simulate the Earth 's atmosphere or oceans . Atmospheric and oceanic GCMs ( AGCM and OGCM ) are key components along with sea ice and land-surface components . GCMs and global climate models are used for weather forecasting , understanding the climate and forecasting climate change . Versions designed for decade to century time scale climate applications were originally created by Syukuro Manabe and Kirk Bryan at the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in Princeton , New Jersey . These models are based on the integration of a variety of fluid dynamical , chemical and sometimes biological equations .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Global warming hiatus A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "Climate change in Argentina According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .", "Frank Wentz Frank Wentz is the CEO and director of Remote Sensing Systems , a company he founded in 1974 . Remote Sensing Systems specializes in satellite microwave remote sensing research . Together with Carl Mears , he is best known for developing a satellite temperature record from MSU and AMSU . Intercomparison of this record with the earlier UAH satellite temperature record , developed by John Christy and Roy Spencer , revealed deficiencies in the earlier work ; specifically , the warming trend in the RSS version is larger than the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) one . From 1978 to 1982 Frank was a member of NASA 's SeaSat Experiment Team involved in the development of physically based retrieval methods for microwave scatterometers and radiometers . He has also investigated the effect of climate change on satellite-derived evaporation , precipitation and surface wind values . His findings are different from most climate change model predictions .", "Remote Sensing Systems Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) is a private research company founded in 1974 by Frank Wentz . It processes microwave data from a variety of NASA satellites . Most of their research is supported by the Earth Science Enterprise program . The company is based in Santa Rosa , California . They are a widely cited source of data , on the satellite temperature record . Their data is one source of evidence for global warming . Research by Carl Mears , Matthias Schabel , and Wentz , all of RSS , highlighted errors in the early satellite temperature records compiled by John Christy and Roy Spencer at UAH . The UAH data had previously showed no significant temperature trend , bringing the derived satellite data into closer agreement with surface temperature trends , radiosonde data and computer models . The UAH data is now closer to the RSS data but differences remain , for example the Lower Troposphere global average trend since 1979 , RSS currently have +0.133 K/decade while UAH have 0.140 K/decade , while the mid troposphere difference is even more marked at 0.079 K/decade and 0.052 K/decade respectively . However , in a recent online YouTube video , Dr. Carl Mears , a senior scientist with the team behind the satellite data , explained how he believes his data set needed correction . I would have to say that the surface data seems that it 's more accurate , because a number of groups analyze the surface data , including some who set out to prove the other ones wrong , and they all get more or less the same answer .", "Norwegian cyclone model The older of the models of extratropical cyclone development is known as the Norwegian Cyclone Model , developed during and shortly after World War I within the Bergen School of Meteorology . In this theory , cyclones develop as they move up and along a frontal boundary , eventually occluding and reaching a barotropically cold environment . It was developed completely from surface-based weather observations , including descriptions of clouds found near frontal boundaries . Developed from this model was the concept of the warm conveyor belt , which transports warm and moist air just ahead of the cold front above the surface warm front .", "Gliese 1214 Gliese 1214 is a dim M4 .5 red dwarf in the constellation Ophiuchus with an apparent magnitude of 14.7 . It is located at a distance of approximately 47 light years from Earth . It is about one-fifth as large as the Sun with a surface temperature estimated to be 3000 K. Its luminosity is only 0.003 % that of the Sun . The estimate for the stellar radius is 15 % larger than predicted by theoretical models . It also shows a 1 % intrinsic variability in the near-infrared probably caused by stellar spots .", "Tropical Warm Pool The Tropical Warm Pool ( TPW ) is a mass of ocean water located in the western Pacific Ocean and eastern Indian Ocean which exhibits the highest water temperatures over the largest expanse of the Earth 's surface .", "Geochemical modeling Geochemical modeling is the practice of using chemical thermodynamics , chemical kinetics , or both , to analyze the chemical reactions that affect geologic systems , commonly with the aid of a computer . It is used in high-temperature geochemistry to simulate reactions occurring deep in the Earth 's interior , in magma , for instance , or to model low-temperature reactions in aqueous solutions near the Earth 's surface , the subject of this article .", "Selective inverted sink The selective inverted sink or SIS is a device used by farmers to protect plants from frost , developed by Uruguayan Rafael Guarga in the late 1990s . The sink is actually a large fan housed in a chimney-like structure , and works by defeating surface temperature inversion . Cold air is denser than warm air , and will pool at ground level during calm weather . This lowers the surface temperature , even if the ambient temperature is higher . Vents near the base of the chimney allow cold surface air to be pulled up through the chimney , creating a suction effect that draws warmer air down to surface level . The SIS is more efficient than typical ground-heaters , and is widely used to combat frost .", "Princeton Ocean Model The Princeton Ocean Model ( POM ) is a community general numerical model for ocean circulation that can be used to simulate and predict oceanic currents , temperatures , salinities and other water properties .", "MSU temperature measurements Microwave sounding unit temperature measurements have been obtained from the troposphere since 1979 , when they were included within NOAA weather satellites . By comparison , the usable balloon ( radiosonde ) record begins in 1958 but has less geographic coverage and is less uniform . Satellites do not measure temperature . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands , which must then be mathematically inverted to obtain indirect inferences of temperature . The resulting temperature profiles depend on details of the methods that are used to obtain temperatures from radiances . As a result , different groups that have analyzed the satellite data have obtained different temperature trends . Among these groups are Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) and the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) . The satellite series is not fully homogeneous - the record is constructed from a series of satellites with similar but not identical instrumentation . The sensors deteriorate over time , and corrections are necessary for satellite drift in orbit . Particularly large differences between reconstructed temperature series occur at the few times when there is little temporal overlap between successive satellites , making intercalibration difficult . To compare to the trend from the surface temperature record ( approximately +0.07 ° C/decade over the past century and +0.15 -0.16 ° C/decade since 1979 ) it is most appropriate to derive trends for the part of the atmosphere nearest the surface , i.e. , the lower troposphere . Doing this , through January 2012 : RSS v3 .3 finds a trend of +0.137 ° C/decade . UAH v5 .4 finds a trend of +0.136 ° C/decade . An alternative adjustment introduced by Fu et al. ( 2004 ) finds trends ( 1979 -- 2011 ) of +0.14 ° C/decade when applied to the RSS data set and +0.11 ° C/decade when applied to the UAH data set . Using the T2 channel ( which include significant contributions from the stratosphere , which has cooled ) , Mears et al. of Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) find ( through January 2012 ) a trend of +0.082 ° C/decade . Spencer and Christy of the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) , find a smaller trend of +0.046 ° C/decade . A no longer updated analysis of Vinnikov and Grody found +0.20 ° C/decade ( 1978 -- 2005 ) . Another satellite temperature analysis is provided by NOAA/NESDIS STAR Center for Satellite Application and Research and use simultaneous nadir overpasses ( SNO ) to remove satellite intercalibration biases yielding more accurate temperature trends . The SNO analysis finds a 1979-2011 trend of +0.128 ° C/decade for T2 channel . The satellite records have the advantage of greater spatial coverage , whereas the radiosonde record is longer . There have been complaints of data problems with both records , and difficulty reconciling climate model predictions with the observed data .", "Polar vortex A polar vortex is an upper level low-pressure area lying near the Earth 's pole . There are two polar vortices in the Earth 's atmosphere , which overlie the North , and South Poles . Each polar vortex is a persistent , large-scale , low pressure zone that rotates counter-clockwise at the North Pole ( called a cyclone ) , and clockwise at the South Pole . The bases of the two polar vortices are located in the middle and upper troposphere and extend into the stratosphere . Beneath that lies a large mass of cold , dense arctic air . The vortices weaken and strengthen from year to year . When the vortex of the arctic is strong it is well defined , there is a single vortex and the arctic air is well contained ; when weaker , which it generally is , it will break into two or more vortices ; when very weak , the flow of arctic air becomes more disorganized and masses of cold arctic air can push equatorward , bringing with it a rapid and sharp temperature drop . The interface between the cold dry air mass of the pole and the warm moist air mass further south defines the location of the polar front . The polar front is centered , roughly at 60 ° latitude . A polar vortex strengthens in the winter and weakens in the summer due to its dependence on the temperature difference between the equator and the poles . The vortices span less than 1,000 kilometers ( 620 miles ) in diameter within which they rotate counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere , and in a clockwise fashion in the Southern Hemisphere . As with other cyclones , their rotation is driven by the Coriolis effect . When the polar vortex is strong , there is a single vortex with a jet stream that is `` well constrained '' near the polar front . When the northern vortex weakens , it separates into two or more vortices , the strongest of which are near Baffin Island , Canada and the other over northeast Siberia . The Antarctic vortex of the Southern Hemisphere is a single low pressure zone that is found near the edge of the Ross ice shelf near 160 west longitude . When the polar vortex is strong , the mid-latitude Westerlies ( winds at the surface level between 30 ° and 60 ° latitude from the west ) increase in strength and are persistent . When the polar vortex is weak , high pressure zones of the mid latitudes may push poleward , moving the polar vortex , jet stream , and polar front equatorward . The jet stream is seen to `` buckle '' and deviate south . This rapidly brings cold dry air into contact with the warm , moist air of the mid latitudes , resulting in a rapid and dramatic change of weather known as a `` cold snap '' . Ozone depletion occurs within the polar vortices -- particularly over the Southern Hemisphere -- reaching a maximum depletion in the spring .", "Eötvös rule The Eötvös rule , named after the Hungarian physicist Loránd ( Roland ) Eötvös ( 1848 -- 1919 ) enables the prediction of the surface tension of an arbitrary liquid pure substance at all temperatures . The density , molar mass and the critical temperature of the liquid have to be known . At the critical point the surface tension is zero . The first assumption of the Eötvös rule is : 1 . The surface tension is a linear function of the temperature . This assumption is approximately fulfilled for most known liquids . When plotting the surface tension versus the temperature a fairly straight line can be seen which has a surface tension of zero at the critical temperature . The Eötvös rule also gives a relation of the surface tension behaviour of different liquids in respect to each other : 2 . The temperature dependence of the surface tension can be plotted for all liquids in a way that the data collapses to a single master curve . To do so either the molar mass , the density , or the molar volume of the corresponding liquid has to be known .", "The Great Bust Ahead The Great Bust Ahead is a somewhat controversial book by Dan Arnold predicting an inevitable , massive economic depression in the United States and United Kingdom beginning in the years 2011-2012 . It is available only on Amazon.com , where it remains a best-seller . Unlike most books of the `` Gloom and Doom '' genre , this one 's prediction is solely based on demographics ( similar to Harry Dent 's work ) , and the author is not an economist . Written in 2002 , it notes a strong correlation ( with a few exceptions ) since 1920 between the inflation-adjusted Dow Jones Industrial Average and the number of 45 - to 54-year-olds in the country . Both trends are predicted to increase until 2011-2012 and subsequently crash hard , leading to a depression that is seven times worse than the Great Depression in the 1930s that lasts for roughly 13 years . It may even begin earlier as well according to Arnold . The latest prediction as of January 2009 is that the current recession/financial crisis has nothing to do with the demographically induced depression to come but is merely a warm-up to what is to come .", "Wibjörn Karlén Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .", "Thermal oxidation In microfabrication , thermal oxidation is a way to produce a thin layer of oxide ( usually silicon dioxide ) on the surface of a wafer . The technique forces an oxidizing agent to diffuse into the wafer at high temperature and react with it . The rate of oxide growth is often predicted by the Deal-Grove model . Thermal oxidation may be applied to different materials , but this article will only consider oxidation of silicon substrates to produce silicon dioxide .", "Effects of global warming on oceans Global warming can affect sea levels , coastlines , ocean acidification , ocean currents , seawater , sea surface temperatures , tides , the sea floor , weather , and trigger several changes in ocean bio-geochemistry ; all of these affect the functioning of a society .", "Simon Tett Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .", "GME of Deutscher Wetterdienst GME - operational global numerical weather prediction model of the German Weather Service . The model is on almost uniform icosahedral-hexagonal grid . The GME gridpoint approach avoids the disadvantages of spectral techniques as well as the pole problem in latitude -- longitude grids and provides a data structure well suited to high efficiency on distributed memory parallel computers . The GME 's approach to a global grid would later be utilized by the Flow-following , finite-volume Icosahedral Model ( FIM ) , an experimental model currently in development in the United States .", "Climate change and potatoes Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .", "Predictive informatics Predictive informatics ( PI ) is the combination of predictive modeling and informatics applied to healthcare , pharmaceutical , life sciences and business industries . Predictive informatics enables researchers , analysts , physicians and decision-makers to aggregate and analyze disparate types of data , recognize patterns and trends within that data , and make more informed decisions in an effort to preemptively alter future outcomes .", "Corona poling Corona poling is a technique in optoelectronics . Corona discharge is a partial breakdown of air , usually at atmospheric pressure , and is initiated by a discharge in an inhomogeneous electric field ( see Figure 1 ) . Corona discharge has been used to pole films of electro-optic materials to enhance their electro-optic properties . Although corona poling can be performed at room temperature , poling at elevated temperature has several advantages . For example , raising the temperature in a polymer guest-host system close to its glass-rubber transition temperature before poling increases the mobility of the guest molecules and allows rotation to occur during poling . If during poling the temperature is lowered well below the transition temperature , the guest molecules are fixed in their new orientation . Category : Optoelectronics", "Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project ( AMIP ) is a standard experimental protocol for global atmospheric general circulation models ( AGCMs ) . It provides a community-based infrastructure in support of climate model diagnosis , validation , intercomparison , documentation and data access . Virtually the entire international climate modeling community has participated in this project since its inception in 1990 . AMIP is endorsed by the Working Group on Numerical Experimentation ( WGNE ) of the World Climate Research Programme , and is managed by the Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison with the guidance of the WGNE AMIP Panel . The AMIP experiment itself is simple by design ; an AGCM is constrained by realistic sea surface temperature and sea ice from 1979 to near present , with a comprehensive set of fields saved for diagnostic research . This model configuration removes the added complexity of ocean-atmosphere feedbacks in the climate system . It is not meant to be used for climate change prediction , an endeavor that requires a coupled atmosphere-ocean model ( e.g. , see AMIP 's sister project CMIP ) .", "Blue dwarf (red-dwarf stage) A blue dwarf is a predicted class of star that develops from a red dwarf after it has exhausted much of its hydrogen fuel supply . Because red dwarfs fuse their hydrogen slowly and are fully convective ( allowing their entire hydrogen supply to be fused , instead of merely that in the core ) , the Universe is currently not old enough for any blue dwarfs to have formed yet , but their future existence is predicted based on theoretical models . Stars increase in luminosity as they age , and a more luminous star needs to radiate energy more quickly to maintain equilibrium . Stars larger than red dwarfs do this by increasing their size and becoming red giants with larger surface areas . Rather than expanding , however , red dwarfs with less than 0.25 solar masses are predicted to increase their radiative rate by increasing their surface temperatures and becoming `` bluer '' . This is because the surface layers of red dwarfs do not become significantly more opaque with increasing temperature . Blue dwarfs eventually evolve into white dwarfs once their hydrogen fuel is completely exhausted , which in turn will eventually cool to become a black dwarf .", "Waalian interglacial The Waalian interglacial ( Waal-Warmzeit or Waal-Interglazial ) ( Zagwijn , 1960 ) was an interglacial in northern Europe that lasted from about 1.45 million to 1.20 million years ago . It thus lies entirely within the Old Pleistocene and is thus part of the Cenozoic . Its name is derived from a major branch of the Rhine delta , the Waal . The Waal warm period could correspond temporally to the Danube-Gunz interglacial of the northern Alpine Foreland . The warm period lies wholly within the Matuyama epoch , in which the earth 's magnetic field , with a few exceptions , had a different polarity from that today : the magnetic north pole ( actually corresponding to the magnetic south ) lay near the geographic south pole .", "White marlin White marlin ( Kajikia albida ) , also known as Atlantic white marlin , marlin , skilligalee , is a species of billfish that lives in the epipelagic zone of the tropical and subtropical Atlantic Ocean . They are found between the latitudes of 45 ° N and 45 ° S in waters deeper than 100 m. Even though white marlin are found in bodies of water that are deeper than 100 m they tend to stay near the surface . White marlin have been found near banks , shoals , and canyons , but they are not limited to those locations . They prefer warm surface temperatures greater than 22 ° C.", "Oren–Nayar reflectance model The Oren -- Nayar reflectance model , developed by Michael Oren and Shree K. Nayar , is a reflectivity model for diffuse reflection from rough surfaces . It has been shown to accurately predict the appearance of a wide range of natural surfaces , such as concrete , plaster , sand , etc. .", "Color superconductivity Color superconductivity is a phenomenon predicted to occur in quark matter if the baryon density is sufficiently high ( well above nuclear density ) and the temperature is not too high ( well below 1012 kelvin ) . Color superconducting phases are to be contrasted with the normal phase of quark matter , which is just a weakly interacting Fermi liquid of quarks . In theoretical terms , a color superconducting phase is a state in which the quarks near the Fermi surface become correlated in Cooper pairs , which condense . In phenomenological terms , a color superconducting phase breaks some of the symmetries of the underlying theory , and has a very different spectrum of excitations and very different transport properties from the normal phase .", "TerrSet TerrSet ( formerly IDRISI ) is an integrated geographic information system ( GIS ) and remote sensing software developed by Clark Labs at Clark University for the analysis and display of digital geospatial information . TerrSet is a PC grid-based system that offers tools for researchers and scientists engaged in analyzing earth system dynamics for effective and responsible decision making for environmental management , sustainable resource development and equitable resource allocation . Key features of TerrSet include : GIS analytical tools for basic and advanced spatial analysis , including tools for surface and statistical analysis , decision support , land change and prediction , and image time series analysis ; an image processing system with multiple hard and soft classifers , including machine learning classifiers such as neural networks and classification tree analysis , as well as image segmentation for classification ; Land Change Modeler , a land planning and decision support toolset that addresses the complexities of land change analysis and land change prediction . Habitat and Biodiversity Modeler , a modeling environment for habitat assessment and biodiversity modeling . Ecosystem Services Modeler , a spatial decision support system for assessing the value of natural capital . Earth Trends Modeler , an integrated suite of tools for the analysis of image time series ( time series ) to assess climate trends and impacts . Climate Change Adaptation Modeler , a facility for modeling future climate and its impacts . GeOSIRIS-REDD , a national-level REDD planning tool to assess deforestation , carbon emissions , agricultural revenue and carbon payments . GeoMod , a land change modeling tool based around modeling unidirectional transitions between two land cover categories", "History of numerical weather prediction The history of numerical weather prediction considers how current weather conditions as input into mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather and future sea state ( the process of numerical weather prediction ) has changed over the years . Though first attempted manually in the 1920s , it was not until the advent of the computer and computer simulation that computation time was reduced to less than the forecast period itself . ENIAC was used to create the first forecasts via computer in 1950 , and over the years more powerful computers have been used to increase the size of initial datasets as well as include more complicated versions of the equations of motion . The development of global forecasting models led to the first climate models . The development of limited area ( regional ) models facilitated advances in forecasting the tracks of tropical cyclone as well as air quality in the 1970s and 1980s . Because the output of forecast models based on atmospheric dynamics requires corrections near ground level , model output statistics ( MOS ) were developed in the 1970s and 1980s for individual forecast points ( locations ) . The MOS apply statistical techniques to post-process the output of dynamical models with the most recent surface observations and the forecast point 's climatology . This technique can correct for model resolution as well as model biases . Even with the increasing power of supercomputers , the forecast skill of numerical weather models only extends to about two weeks into the future , since the density and quality of observations -- together with the chaotic nature of the partial differential equations used to calculate the forecast -- introduce errors which double every five days . The use of model ensemble forecasts since the 1990s helps to define the forecast uncertainty and extend weather forecasting farther into the future than otherwise possible .", "Gradient-Enhanced Kriging (GEK) Gradient-Enhanced Kriging ( GEK ) is a surrogate modeling technique used in engineering . A surrogate model ( alternatively known as a metamodel , response surface or emulator ) is a prediction of the output of an expensive computer code . This prediction is based on a small number of evaluations of the expensive computer code .", "IPCC First Assessment Report The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century ." ]

[ "Minimum wage A minimum wage is the lowest remuneration that employers must legally pay their workers . Equivalently , it is the price floor below which workers may not sell their labor . Although minimum wage laws are in effect in many jurisdictions , differences of opinion exist about the benefits and drawbacks of a minimum wage . Supporters of the minimum wage say it increases the standard of living of workers , reduces poverty , reduces inequality , and boosts morale . In contrast , opponents of the minimum wage say it increases poverty , increases unemployment ( particularly among unskilled or inexperienced workers ) and is damaging to businesses , because excessively high minimum wages require businesses to raise the prices of their product or service to accommodate the extra expense of paying a higher wage .", "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience This is a list of topics that have , at one point or another in their history , been characterized as pseudoscience by academics or researchers . Discussion about these topics is done on their main pages . These characterizations were made in the context of educating the public about questionable or potentially fraudulent or dangerous claims and practices -- efforts to define the nature of science , or humorous parodies of poor scientific reasoning . Criticism of pseudoscience , generally by the scientific community or skeptical organizations , involves critiques of the logical , methodological , or rhetorical bases of the topic in question . Though some of the listed topics continue to be investigated scientifically , others were only subject to scientific research in the past , and today are considered refuted but resurrected in a pseudoscientific fashion . Other ideas presented here are entirely non-scientific , but have in one way or another infringed on scientific domains or practices . Many adherents to or practitioners of the topics listed here dispute their characterization as pseudoscience . Each section summarizes the pseudoscientific aspects of that topic .", "History of economic thought The history of economic thought deals with different thinkers and theories in the subject that became political economy and economics , from the ancient world to the present day . It encompasses many disparate schools of economic thought . Ancient Greek writers such as the philosopher Aristotle examined ideas about the art of wealth acquisition , and questioned whether property is best left in private or public hands . In the Middle Ages , scholasticists such as Thomas Aquinas argued that it was a moral obligation of businesses to sell goods at a just price . In the Western world , economics was not a separate discipline , but part of philosophy until the 18th -- 19th century Industrial Revolution and the 19th century Great Divergence , which accelerated economic growth . Long before that , from the Renaissance at least , economics as an intellectual discipline or science was dominated by Western thinkers and their academic institutions , schooling economists from outside the West , although there are isolated instances in other societies .", "Alternative medicine Alternative medicine -- or fringe medicine -- includes practices claimed to have the healing effects of medicine but which are disproven , unproven , impossible to prove , or are excessively harmful in relation to their effect ; and where the scientific consensus is that the therapy does not , or can not , work because the known laws of nature are violated by its basic claims ; or where it is considered so much worse than conventional treatment that it would be unethical to offer as treatment . Alternative therapies or diagnoses are not part of medicine or science-based healthcare systems . Alternative medicine consists of a wide variety of practices , products , and therapies -- ranging from those that are biologically plausible but not well tested , to those with known harmful and toxic effects . Contrary to popular belief , significant expense is paid to test alternative medicine , including over $ 2.5 billion spent by the United States government . Almost none show any effect beyond that of false treatment . Perceived effects of alternative medicine may be caused by placebo ; decreased effect of functional treatment ( and therefore potentially decreased side effects ) ; and regression toward the mean where improvement that would have occurred anyway is credited to alternative therapies ; or any combination of the above . Alternative treatments are neither the same as experimental medicine , nor traditional medicine -- although the latter , when used today may be considered alternative . Alternative medicine has grown in popularity and is used by a significant percentage of the population in many countries . While it has extensively rebranded itself : from quackery to complementary or integrative medicine -- it promotes essentially the same practices . Newer proponents often suggest alternative medicine be used together with functional medical treatment , in a belief that it `` complements '' ( improves the effect of , or mitigates the side effects of ) the treatment . There is no evidence showing they do so , and significant drug interactions caused by alternative therapies may instead negatively influence treatments , making them less effective , notably cancer therapy . Despite being illegal to market alternative therapies for cancer treatment in most of the developed world , many cancer patients use them . Alternative medical diagnoses and treatments are not taught as part of science-based curricula in medical schools , and are not used in any practice where treatment is based on scientific knowledge or proven experience . Alternative therapies are often based on religion , tradition , superstition , belief in supernatural energies , pseudoscience , errors in reasoning , propaganda , fraud , or lies . Regulation and licensing of alternative medicine and health care providers varies between and within countries . Alternative medicine is criticized for being based on misleading statements , quackery , pseudoscience , antiscience , fraud , or poor scientific methodology . Promoting alternative medicine has been called dangerous and unethical . Testing alternative medicine that has no scientific basis has been called a waste of scarce research resources . Critics state `` there is really no such thing as alternative medicine , just medicine that works and medicine that does n't '' , and the problem with the idea of `` alternative '' treatments in this sense is that the `` underlying logic is magical , childish or downright absurd '' . It has been strongly suggested that the very idea of any alternative treatment that works is paradoxical , as any treatment proven to work is by definition `` medicine '' .", "Economics Economics ( UK English : -LSB- iːkəˈnɒmɪks -RSB- , -LSB- ɛkəˈnɒmɪks -RSB- US English : -LSB- ɛkəˈnɑːmɪks -RSB- , -LSB- ikəˈnɑːmɪks -RSB- ) is `` a social science concerned chiefly with description and analysis of the production , distribution , and consumption of goods and services '' . Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work . Consistent with this focus , textbooks often distinguish between microeconomics and macroeconomics . Microeconomics examines the behaviour of basic elements in the economy , including individual agents and markets , their interactions , and the outcomes of interactions . Individual agents may include , for example , households , firms , buyers , and sellers . Macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy ( meaning aggregated production , consumption , savings , and investment ) and issues affecting it , including unemployment of resources ( labour , capital , and land ) , inflation , economic growth , and the public policies that address these issues ( monetary , fiscal , and other policies ) . Other broad distinctions within economics include those between positive economics , describing `` what is '' , and normative economics , advocating `` what ought to be '' ; between economic theory and applied economics ; between rational and behavioural economics ; and between mainstream economics and heterodox economics . Economic analysis can be applied throughout society , in business , finance , health care , and government . Economic analyses is sometimes also applied to such diverse subjects as crime , education , the family , law , politics , religion , social institutions , war , science , and the environment ." ]

[ "Field extension In abstract algebra , field extensions are the main object of study in field theory . The general idea is to start with a base field and construct in some manner a larger field that contains the base field and satisfies additional properties . For instance , the set Q ( √ 2 ) = -LCB- a + b √ 2 | a , b ∈ Q -RCB- is the smallest extension of Q that includes every real solution to the equation x2 = 2 .", "Trans-National Industrial Electricity and Gas Company The Trans-National Industrial Electricity and Gas Company is an energy conglomerate based in Mogadishu , Somalia . Established in 2010 , it unites five major Somali companies from the trade , finance , security and telecommunications sectors , after an agreement was signed in Istanbul , Turkey that will see this new firm provide electricity and gas in Somalia . With an investment budget of $ 1 billion , the company 's aim is to create 100,000 jobs and build the necessary infrastructure to accommodate its energy projects in the country .", "Super-Poulet number A super-Poulet number is a Poulet number , or pseudoprime to base 2 , whose every divisor d divides 2d − 2 . For example 341 is a super-Poulet number : it has positive divisors -LCB- 1 , 11 , 31 , 341 -RCB- and we have : ( 211 - 2 ) / 11 = 2046 / 11 = 186 ( 231 - 2 ) / 31 = 2147483646 / 31 = 69273666 ( 2341 - 2 ) / 341 = 13136332798696798888899954724741608669335164206654835981818117894215788100763407304286671514789484550 When a composite number is a pseudoprime to base 2 , but not to every base ( That is , not a Carmichael number ) , then it is a super-Poulet number , and when is not prime , then it and every divisor of it are a pseudoprime to base 2 , and a super-Poulet number . The super-Poulet numbers below 10,000 are :", "Lionel Job Lionel G. Job ( born January 23 , 1942 ) is an American music producer , publisher , lyricist , and songwriter based in White Plains , New York . His music career dates back years . Job is widely known for writing and producing for Keith Sweat , Joe Public , Starpoint , Walter Beasley , Sharon Bryant , Atlantic Starr , The Detroit Spinners , and Third World .", "Smooth number In number theory , a smooth ( or friable ) number is an integer which factors completely into small prime numbers . The term seems to have been coined by Leonard Adleman . Smooth numbers are especially important in cryptography relying on factorization . The 2-smooth numbers are just the powers of 2 .", "Affective events theory Affective events theory ( AET ) is a model developed by organizational psychologists Howard M. Weiss ( Purdue University ) and Russell Cropanzano ( University of Colorado ) to explain how emotions and moods influence job performance and job satisfaction . The model explains the linkages between employees ' internal influences ( e.g. , cognitions , emotions , mental states ) and their reactions to incidents that occur in their work environment that affect their performance , organizational commitment , and job satisfaction . The theory proposes that affective work behaviors are explained by employee mood and emotions , while cognitive-based behaviors are the best predictors of job satisfaction . The theory proposes that positive-inducing ( e.g. , uplifts ) as well as negative-inducing ( e.g. , hassles ) emotional incidents at work are distinguishable and have a significant psychological impact upon workers ' job satisfaction . This results in lasting internal ( e.g. , cognition , emotions , mental states ) and external affective reactions exhibited through job performance , job satisfaction , and organizational commitment . Alternatively , some research suggests that job satisfaction mediates the relationship between various antecedent variables such as dispositions , workplace events , job characteristics , job opportunities , and employee behavior exhibited while on the job ( e.g. , organizational citizenship behaviors , counter-productive work behaviors , and job withdrawal ) . To that end , when workers experience uplifts ( e.g. , completing a goal , receiving an award ) or hassles ( e.g. , dealing with a difficult client , reacting to an updated deadline ) , their intention to continue or quit depends upon the emotions , moods , and thoughts associated with the satisfaction they derive from their jobs . Other research has demonstrated that the relationship between job satisfaction and turnover is fully mediated by intention to quit ; workers who report low job satisfaction are likely to engage in planned quitting . However , this relationship does not account for employees who report high job satisfaction , but quit unexpectedly . Although extrinsic rewards , such as better job offers outside their current organization , may influence their decisions , employees ' personality factors may also impact their decisions to exit early from otherwise ideal jobs under ideal working conditions . Recipients often refer to specific events in exit interviews when voluntarily leaving their current jobs . Minor events with subtle emotional effects also have a cumulative impact on job satisfaction , particularly when they occur acutely with high frequency . For example , perceived stressful events at work are often positively associated with high job strain on the day that they occur and negatively associated with strain the day after , resulting in an accumulation of perceived job-related stress over time . This is consistent with the general understanding in vocational psychology that job satisfaction is a distal , long-term outcome that is mediated by perceived job stress .", "Number A number is a mathematical object used to count , measure , and label . The original examples are the natural numbers 1 , 2 , 3 , and so forth . A notational symbol that represents a number is called a numeral . In addition to their use in counting and measuring , numerals are often used for labels ( as with telephone numbers ) , for ordering ( as with serial numbers ) , and for codes ( as with ISBNs ) . In common usage , number may refer to a symbol , a word , or a mathematical abstraction . In mathematics , the notion of number has been extended over the centuries to include 0 , negative numbers , rational numbers such as and , real numbers such as and , and complex numbers , which extend the real numbers by adding a square root of . Calculations with numbers are done with arithmetical operations , the most familiar being addition , subtraction , multiplication , division , and exponentiation . Their study or usage is called arithmetic . The same term may also refer to number theory , the study of the properties of numbers . Besides their practical uses , numbers have cultural significance throughout the world . For example , in Western society , the number 13 is regarded as unlucky , and `` a million '' may signify `` a lot . '' Though it is now regarded as pseudoscience , numerology , the belief in a mystical significance of numbers , permeated ancient and medieval thought . Numerology heavily influenced the development of Greek mathematics , stimulating the investigation of many problems in number theory which are still of interest today . During the 19th century , mathematicians began to develop many different abstractions which share certain properties of numbers and may be seen as extending the concept . Among the first were the hypercomplex numbers , which consist of various extensions or modifications of the complex number system . Today , number systems are considered important special examples of much more general categories such as rings and fields , and the application of the term `` number '' is a matter of convention , without fundamental significance .", "Alternating permutation In combinatorial mathematics , an alternating permutation ( or zigzag permutation ) of the set -LCB- 1 , 2 , 3 , ... , n -RCB- is an arrangement of those numbers so that each entry is alternately greater or less than the preceding entry . For example , the five alternating permutations of -LCB- 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 -RCB- are : 1 , 3 , 2 , 4 because 1 < 3 > 2 < 4 , 1 , 4 , 2 , 3 because 1 < 4 > 2 < 3 , 2 , 3 , 1 , 4 because 2 < 3 > 1 < 4 , 2 , 4 , 1 , 3 because 2 < 4 > 1 < 3 , and 3 , 4 , 1 , 2 because 3 < 4 > 1 < 2 . This type of permutation was first studied by Désiré André in the 19th century . Different authors use the term alternating permutation slightly differently : some require that the second entry in an alternating permutation should be larger than the first ( as in the examples above ) , others require that the alternation should be reversed ( so that the second entry is smaller than the first , then the third larger than the second , and so on ) , while others call both types by the name alternating permutation . The determination of the number An of alternating permutations of the set -LCB- 1 , ... , n -RCB- is called André 's problem . The numbers An are known as Euler numbers , zigzag numbers , or up/down numbers . When n is even the number An is known as a secant number , while if n is odd it is known as a tangent number . These latter names come from the study of the generating function for the sequence .", "Aksak In Ottoman musical theory , aksak is a rhythmic system in which pieces or sequences , executed in a fast tempo , are based on the uninterrupted reiteration of a matrix , which results from the juxtaposition of rhythmic cells based on the alternation of binary and ternary quantities , as in 2 +3 , 2 +2 +3 , 2 +3 +3 , etc. . The name literally means `` limping '' , `` stumbling '' , or `` slumping '' , and has been borrowed by Western ethnomusicologists to refer generally to irregular , or additive meters . In Turkish folk music , these metres occur mainly in vocal and instrumental dance music , though they are found also in some folksongs . Strictly speaking , in Turkish music theory the term refers only to the grouping of nine pulses into a pattern of 2 + 2 + 2 + 3 . Examples :", "Alive & Kicking (social enterprise) Alive and Kicking is an African social enterprise that manufactures sports balls to provide balls for children , create jobs for adults and promote health education through sport . It states its vision as being of ` an Africa where every child can play with a real ball , where thousands of jobs are sustained in the production of balls , and where sport contributes to the eradication of deadly disease . '", "Kill the Flaw Kill the Flaw is the eleventh studio album by American alternative metal band Sevendust . It is the third album that is self-produced and recorded at Architekt Music studio in Butler , New Jersey . It was released on October 2 , 2015 through 7Bros .", "Longest alternating subsequence In combinatorial mathematics , probability , and computer science , in the longest alternating subsequence problem , one wants to find a subsequence of a given sequence in which the elements are in alternating order , and in which the sequence is as long as possible . Formally , if is a sequence of distinct real numbers , then the subsequence is alternating < ref name = `` Stanleybook '' > </ref> ( or zigzag or down-up ) if Similarly , is reverse alternating ( or up-down ) if Let denote the length ( number of terms ) of the longest alternating subsequence of . For example , if we consider some of the permutations of the integers 1,2,3,4,5 , we have that ; because any sequence of 2 distinct digits are ( by definition ) alternating . ( for example 1,2 or 1,4 or 3,5 ) because 1,5,3,4 and 1,5,2,4 and 1,3,2,4 are all alternating , and there is no alternating subsequence with more elements ; because 5,3,4,1,2 is itself alternating .", "California Chamber of Commerce The California Chamber of Commerce ( CalChamber ) is the largest broad-based business advocacy group in California . Membership represents one-quarter of the private sector jobs in California and includes firms of all sizes and companies from every industry within the state . The CalChamber provides products and services to help businesses and human resources ( HR ) professionals comply with both federal and state employment law . As a not-for-profit organization with roots dating to 1890 , the CalChamber promotes international trade and investment to stimulate California 's economy and create jobs . CalChamber has over 14,000 members , who collectively employ one quarter of the private sector workforce in California . Three-quarters of CalChamber 's members have 100 or fewer employees .", "Symplectic vector space In mathematics , a symplectic vector space is a vector space V over a field F ( for example the real numbers R ) equipped with a symplectic bilinear form . A symplectic bilinear form is a mapping that is bilinear : linear in each argument separately , alternating : holds for all , and nondegenerate : for all implies that is zero . If the underlying field has characteristic not 2 , alternation is equivalent to skew-symmetry . If the characteristic is 2 , the skew-symmetry is implied by , but does not imply alternation . In this case every symplectic form is a symmetric form , but not vice versa . Working in a fixed basis , ω can be represented by a matrix . The conditions above say that this matrix must be skew-symmetric , nonsingular , and hollow . This is not the same thing as a symplectic matrix , which represents a symplectic transformation of the space . If V is finite-dimensional , then its dimension must necessarily be even since every skew-symmetric , hollow matrix of odd size has determinant zero . Notice the condition that the matrix be hollow is not redundant if the characteristic of the field is 2 . A symplectic form behaves quite differently from a symmetric form , for example , the scalar product on Euclidean vector spaces .", "Witten index In quantum field theory and statistical mechanics , the Witten index at the inverse temperature β is defined as a modification of the standard partition function : Note the ( -1 ) F operator , where F is the fermion number operator . This is what makes it different from the ordinary partition function . In a supersymmetric theory , each nonzero energy eigenvalue contains an equal number of bosonic and fermionic states . Because of this , the Witten index is independent of the temperature and gives the number of zero energy bosonic vacuum states minus the number of zero energy fermionic vacuum states . In particular , if supersymmetry is spontaneously broken then there are no zero energy ground states and so the Witten index is equal to zero . The Witten index of the supersymmetric sigma model on a manifold is given by the manifold 's Euler characteristic . It is an example of a quasi-topological quantity , which is a quantity that depends only on F-terms and not on D-terms in the Lagrangian . A more refined invariant in 2-dimensional theories , constructing using only the right-moving part of the fermion number operator together with a 2-parameter family of variations , is the elliptic genus .", "Cabinet Secretary for Economy, Jobs and Fair Work The Cabinet Secretary for Economy , Jobs and Fair Work is a position in the Scottish Government Cabinet . The Cabinet Secretary has responsibilities for the Scottish economy , infrastructure , trade and investment , business , industry , employment , trade unions and energy . The Cabinet Secretary is assisted by the Minister for Business , Innovation and Energy and the Minister for Employability and Training . The current Cabinet Secretary for Economy , Jobs and Fair Work is Keith Brown , who was appointed in May 2016 .", "BrainBuxa BrainBuxa is an education Portal Founded in 2015 by Gargi Surana , with its Headquarters situated in Rajasthan India . Brainbuxa portal allows users to view real time Result updates including the notifications of universities , colleges and every other form of educational organizations . It incorporates a search technology in searching for various courses , Study material , institutes , Webinars , online lectures , Event Recordings , Jobs , and colleagues . The portal provides information concerning entrance exams and information on government jobs in India .", "Inverse semigroup In group theory , an inverse semigroup ( occasionally called an inversion semigroup ) S is a semigroup in which every element x in S has a unique inverse y in S in the sense that x = xyx and y = yxy , i.e. a regular semigroup in which every element has a unique inverse . Inverse semigroups appear in a range of contexts ; for example , they can be employed in the study of partial symmetries . ( The convention followed in this article will be that of writing a function on the right of its argument , and composing functions from left to right -- a convention often observed in semigroup theory . )", "List of Soviet Air Force bases This List of Soviet Air Force bases shows the state of the Soviet Air Force and Russian Air Force during the last decade of the Cold War to the mid-1990s . Dates shown indicate years during which units and aircraft were known to be at that airbase . If none is indicated , the date is unknown . In Russia the airbase naming convention seems to be to use the nearest village name , or in the case of a large city , use a numerical designator , i.e. Severomorsk-2 . Quite often they are just referred to as , variously , `` Tiksi aerodrome '' and `` Tiksi air base '' ( uncapitalized ) . This is also the convention that is used in declassified FOIA documents in the CIA archive website . Therefore , the construction ' X Air Base ' or ' X Air Force Base ' in regard to the USSR and Russian Federation appears to be incorrect .", "Sports Jobs with Junior Seau Sports Jobs with Junior Seau was a television reality program/documentary series on Versus hosted by retired National Football League player Junior Seau . The program premiered on December 2 , 2009 ; the final episode ran on January 27 , 2010 . The program depicted Seau exploring a variety of support and behind-the-scenes jobs in the sports industry . The program was produced by Mandt Bros. . Productions .", "Harmonious coloring In graph theory , a harmonious coloring is a ( proper ) vertex coloring in which every pair of colors appears on at most one pair of adjacent vertices . The harmonious chromatic number χH ( G ) of a graph G is the minimum number of colors needed for any harmonious coloring of G. Every graph has a harmonious coloring , since it suffices to assign every vertex a distinct color ; thus χH ( G ) ≤ | V ( G ) | . There trivially exist graphs G with χH ( G ) > χ ( G ) ( where χ is the chromatic number ) ; one example is the path of length 2 , which can be 2-colored but has no harmonious coloring with 2 colors . Some properties of χH ( G ) : , where Tk ,3 is the complete - ary tree with 3 levels . ( Mitchem 1989 ) Harmonious coloring was first proposed by Harary and Plantholt ( 1982 ) . Still very little is known about it .", "Ivy Exec IvyExec.com is a United States-based company that runs an online professional network for executives as well as recruitment , market research , marketing and advertising services . Ivy Exec , Inc. was founded in 2006 by a team of Columbia Business School alumni and is based in New York , New York . Ivy Exec helps various professionals and MBAs find jobs with companies . The company has over 800,000 members . For job seekers , Ivy Exec has 2 levels of membership , Basic and All Access ( which requires users to pay a subscription fee ) . It offers members the Ivy Exec Mentor Network , which connects professionals with 600 + volunteer executives for career brainstorming sessions . Ivy Exec also offers members access to online classes , webinars , and industry content via their Insights blog . For companies , Ivy Exec provides advisory services such as market research , compensation analysis , recruitment advisory , recruitment marketing , and employment branding . Ivy Exec pre-screens each applicant for membership , as well as each job posting .", "Cargomatic (business) Cargomatic is a logistics company based in Los Angeles that connects shippers ( drivers ) with customers . Cargomatic is focused on local shipping jobs . The company currently matches shippers in Southern California , Northern California and the New York Metro areas . The app lets shippers list local jobs on its app , which are pinged to the smartphones of nearby drivers . When one of them takes on a job , the shipper can track his journey in real time . The app has GPS tracking of drivers to provide real-time updates for customers . The app is available for download on iOS and Android . Cargomatic allows drivers with under-utilized capacity to pick up extra jobs using the app . As of March 2016 , the company has shipped over four million pallets and over one million miles .", "Bayport Industrial District The Bayport Industrial District is a large commercial real-estate development located in southeast Harris County , Texas , within the Bay Area of Greater Houston . It is one of the two industrial districts in the extraterritorial jurisdiction of La Porte ( the other being the Battleground Industrial District ) . It is located adjacent to both La Porte and Pasadena . In 1965 the City of Pasadena and the City of Houston both annexed an area that included the site of Bayport resulting in a lawsuit between Pasadena and City of Houston . Houston was joined by Harris County and Humble Oil & Refining Company in the lawsuit . In 1969 the Supreme Court of Texas reversed lower court rulings that had sustained Houston 's motion for summary judgment and upheld the validity of Pasadena 's 1965 annexation of the disputed territory . In 1970 the City of Pasadena created an industrial district that included the Bayport complex . The development , created in 1970 , is among the largest private industrial complexes in the United States . The leading center for chemical processing in the Houston area , Bayport contains more than 60 chemical plants . Businesses located in this district can receive tax incentives from Harris County , La Porte , and Pasadena . local business volume for Bayport-related enterprises exceeds $ 829 million annually with 11,000 jobs directly attributable to the complex . Additionally the Bay Area Houston Economic Partnership estimates that for every job created within the complex approximately 3.79 related jobs are created on average outside the district . Thus the district represents a key economic pillar of the communities in the area . Major facilities in the district include the LyondellBasell site , the Celanese/Air Products/Clariant/Dow site , and the Albemarle/Akzo Nobel site . Adjacent to the industrial complex is the new Bayport Terminal , which contains both a major new cargo container shipping terminal and a cruise ship terminal . This port is operated by the Port of Houston Authority .", "Creeper World Creeper World is a series of web browser and standalone video games with both real-time strategy and tower defense elements developed by Knuckle Cracker . Players must survive the onslaught of the titular blue mass , known as Creeper , which rises up the playing field and attempts to destroy their base of operations , Odin City . This is achieved by gathering energy and using it to power weapons which stave off the Creeper long enough for the player to link Odin City with each level 's energy totems in order to escape to the next level . Reviewers stated that the original game has simplistic graphics , but praised Creeper Worlds gameplay . Two expansions were subsequently released . The first , Creeper World : Evermore , features randomly generated new maps that are generated daily . The second , Creeper World : User Space , features new graphics and a selection of 14 increasingly challenging maps created by fans and collected by the original creators . A sequel , Creeper World 2 : Redemption was released May 16 , 2011 . It features new weapons , and a different angle of view , drastically changing the gameplay . The third game , Creeper World 3 : Arc Eternal was released October 4 , 2013 . This third part in the series returns to the original Creeper World style of top down gameplay , but features a built in map editor and a custom scripting language called CRPL to make every map in the game . On September 28th of 2016 , `` Particle Fleet : Emergence '' was released on Steam , and it is by Knucklecracker and is part of the Creeper World universe . On May 22 , 2014 , a new , free browser-based minigame was released , Creeper World 3 : Abraxis it consists of 12 new prequel missions , running on the Unity browser plug-in .", "Gender marking in job titles One of the chief issues with which the movement for gender-neutral language has been concerned is that of gender ( sex ) specificity in job titles . A gender-specific job title is a name of a job that also specifies or implies the gender of the person performing that job . For example , in English , the job title stewardess implies that the person is female ; the job title policeman implies that the person is male . A gender-neutral job title , on the other hand , is one that does not specify or imply gender , such as firefighter or lawyer . In some cases it may be debatable whether a title is gender-specific ; for example , chairman appears to denote a male ( because of the ending - man ) , but the title is also applied sometimes to women . Proponents of gender-neutral language generally advocate the use of gender-neutral job titles , particularly in contexts where the gender of the person in question is not known or not specified . For example , they prefer flight attendant to stewardess or steward , and police officer to policeman or policewoman . In some cases this may involve deprecating the use of certain specifically female titles ( such as authoress ) , thus encouraging the use of the corresponding unmarked form ( such as author ) as a fully gender-neutral title . The above applies to gender neutrality in English and in some other languages without grammatical gender ( where grammatical gender is a feature of a language 's grammar that requires every noun to be placed in one of several classes , often including feminine and masculine ) . In languages with grammatical gender , the situation is altered by the fact that nouns for people are often constrained to be inherently masculine or feminine , and the production of truly gender-neutral titles may not be possible . In such cases , proponents of gender-neutral language may instead focus on ensuring that feminine and masculine words exist for every job , and that they are treated with equal status .", "Chinwag Chinwag is an Internet community based in Soho , London , United Kingdom consisting of new media and digital marketing professionals . Chinwag was founded in 1996 by Sam Michel , and hosts several of the UK 's oldest known electronic mailing lists , including uk-netmarketing . These email lists form the center of the community and include contributions from many notable Internet pioneers and commentators including Bill Thompson , Ivan Pope and Brent Hoberman . A sister-site Chinwag Jobs was launched based on Chinwag 's uknm-jobs e-mail list , an email-based announcement service for jobs within the Internet and digital media industries . Chinwag Jobs is a recruitment website , about which discussions have appeared in New Media Age . Chinwag also hosts monthly events under the brand Chinwag Live . These events are informal , panel-based sessions focusing on issues affecting the new media industry . Past speakers include Andrew Orlowski of The Register and Neville Hobson . Chinwag is also known for its periodic , large-scale networking evenings . The company also a series of trade missions for UK Trade & Investment , specifically design for companies operating in the digital sector . Digital Missions to date are : Digital Mission to Washington , 11-15 July 2011 Digital Mission to New York , 1-5 November 2010 Digital Mission to SXSW interactive , 11-17 March 2010 Digital Mission to New York , 14 -- 19 September 2009 Digital Mission to SXSW interactive , 13 -- 17 March 2009", "Pharmaceutical technician Pharmaceutical Technician or Pharmaceutical Research Technician or Drug Technician is a job title for a laboratory assistant or research assistant employed in the pharmaceutical industry under the direct supervision of a physician , veterinarian , or scientist involved in the research and development of new or existing medications . In most cases , job responsibilities include supervising ongoing experiments , recording laboratory results , keeping records , testing for various compounds , and maintaining laboratory cleanliness . More responsibilities are typically given as the pharmaceutical technician gains experience in laboratory techniques and proper research methodology .", "Studio Job Studio Job is a design studio based in Antwerp and Amsterdam . The items designed by Studio Job have been shown in museums and galleries all around the world , and have won various design awards . Studio Job 's work has been exhibited at the Museum of Modern Art , New York , the Victoria & Albert Museum London , FIAC , Cooper-Hewitt , Guggenheim , Montreal Museum of Fine Arts , Wallraf-Richartz Museum , NRW Forum and several major Dutch museums including the Groninger Museum and the Stedelijk Museum , Amsterdam . They are known for their rebellious , limitless way of creating their own universe . The objects are often based on personal fascinations varying from unique pieces , editions , installations , interiors and assignments for public space . The way Studio Job is walking a tightrope between design and art gave their works an autonomous position in the world design internationally . More than once Studio Job provoked a fresh discussion on the existing norms of the contemporary design field .", "M/M/∞ queue In queueing theory , a discipline within the mathematical theory of probability , the M/M / ∞ queue is a multi-server queueing model where every arrival experiences immediate service and does not wait . In Kendall 's notation it describes a system where arrivals are governed by a Poisson process , there are infinitely many servers , so jobs do not need to wait for a server . Each job has an exponentially distributed service time . It is a limit of the M/M/c queue model where the number of servers c becomes very large . The model can be used to model bound lazy deletion performance .", "Scale factor (computer science) A scale factor is used in computer science when a real world set of numbers needs to be represented on a different scale in order to fit a specific number format . For instance , a 16 bit unsigned integer ( uint16 ) can only hold a value as large as 65,53510 . If uint16 's are to be used to represent values from 0 to 131,07010 , then a scale factor of 1/2 would be introduced . Notice that while the scale factor extends the range , it also decreases the precision . In this example , for instance , the number 3 could not be represented because a stored 1 represents a real world 2 , and a stored 2 represents a real world 4 .", "Fundamental theorem of arithmetic In number theory , the fundamental theorem of arithmetic , also called the unique factorization theorem or the unique-prime-factorization theorem , states that every integer greater than 1 either is prime itself or is the product of prime numbers , and that this product is unique , up to the order of the factors . For example , 1200 = 2 × 3 × 5 = 3 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 5 = 5 × 2 × 3 × 2 × 5 × 2 × 2 = etc. . The theorem is stating two things : first , that 1200 can be represented as a product of primes , and second , no matter how this is done , there will always be four 2s , one 3 , two 5s , and no other primes in the product . The requirement that the factors be prime is necessary : factorizations containing composite numbers may not be unique ( e.g. 12 = 2 × 6 = 3 × 4 ) . This theorem is one of the main reasons why 1 is not considered a prime number : if 1 were prime , the factorization would not be unique , as , for example ," ]

[ "Christopher Monckton, 3rd Viscount Monckton of Brenchley Christopher Walter Monckton , 3rd Viscount Monckton of Brenchley ( born 14 February 1952 ) is a British public speaker and hereditary peer . He is known for his work as a journalist , Conservative political advisor , UKIP political candidate , and for his invention of the mathematical puzzle Eternity . Early on in his public speaking career topics centred on his mathematical puzzle and conservative politics . In recent years his public speaking has garnered attention due to his advocacy of climate change denial and his views on the European Union and social policy .", "British Columbia British Columbia ( BC ) is the westernmost province of Canada , with a population of more than four million people located between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains . British Columbia is also a component of the Pacific Northwest and the Cascadia bioregion , along with the U.S. states of Idaho , Oregon , Washington , Alaska , and western Montana . The first British settlement in the area was Fort Victoria , established in 1843 , which gave rise to the city of Victoria , at first the capital of the separate Colony of Vancouver Island . Subsequently , on the mainland , the Colony of British Columbia ( 1858 -- 66 ) was founded by Richard Clement Moody and the Royal Engineers , Columbia Detachment , in response to the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush . Moody was Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works for the Colony and the first Lieutenant-Governor of British Columbia : he was hand-picked by the Colonial Office in London to transform British Columbia into the British Empire 's `` bulwark in the farthest west '' , and `` to found a second England on the shores of the Pacific '' . Moody selected the site for and founded the original capital of British Columbia , New Westminster , established the Cariboo Road and Stanley Park , and designed the first version of the Coat of arms of British Columbia . Port Moody is named after him . In 1866 , Vancouver Island became part of the colony of British Columbia , and Victoria became the united colony 's capital . In 1871 , British Columbia became the sixth province of Canada . Its Latin motto is Splendor sine occasu ( `` Splendour without Diminishment '' ) . The capital of British Columbia remains Victoria , the fifteenth-largest metropolitan region in Canada , named for the Queen who created the original European colonies . The largest city is Vancouver , the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada , the largest in Western Canada , and the third-largest in the Pacific Northwest . In October 2013 , British Columbia had an estimated population of 4,606,371 ( about 2.5 million of whom were in Greater Vancouver ) . The province is currently governed by the BC Liberal Party , led by Premier Christy Clark , who became leader as a result of a leadership convention vote on February 26 , 2011 , and who led her party to an election victory on May 14 , 2013 . British Columbia evolved from British possessions that were established in what is now British Columbia by 1871 . First Nations , the original inhabitants of the land , have a history of at least 10,000 years in the area . Today there are few treaties and the question of Aboriginal Title , long ignored , has become a legal and political question of frequent debate as a result of recent court actions . Notably , the Tsilhqot ` in Nation has established Aboriginal title to a portion of their territory , as a result of the recent Supreme Court of Canada decision ( William -LSB- Tsilhqot ` in Nation -RSB- v. British Columbia ) . BC 's economy is diverse , with service producing industries accounting for the largest portion of the province 's GDP . It is the endpoint of transcontinental railways , and the site of major Pacific ports that enable international trade . Though less than 5 % of its vast 944735 km2 land is arable , the province is agriculturally rich ( particularly in the Fraser and Okanagan valleys ) , because of milder weather near the coast and in certain sheltered southern valleys . Its climate encourages outdoor recreation and tourism , though its economic mainstay has long been resource extraction , principally logging , farming , and mining . Vancouver , the province 's largest city and metropolitan area , also serves as the headquarters of many western-based natural resource companies . It also benefits from a strong housing market and a per capita income well above the national average . While the coast of British Columbia and certain valleys in the south-central part of the province have mild weather , the majority of its land mass experiences a cold-winter-temperate climate similar to that of the rest of Canada . The Northern Interior region has a subarctic climate with very cold winters . The climate of Vancouver is by far the mildest winter climate of the major Canadian cities , with nighttime January temperatures averaging above the freezing point .", "Terra Nova Expedition The Terra Nova Expedition , officially the British Antarctic Expedition , was an expedition to Antarctica which took place between 1910 and 1913 . It was led by Robert Falcon Scott and had various scientific and geographical objectives . Scott wished to continue the scientific work that he had begun when leading the Discovery Expedition to the Antarctic in 1901 -- 04 . He also wanted to be the first to reach the geographic South Pole . He and four companions attained the pole on 17 January 1912 , where they found that the Norwegian team led by Roald Amundsen had preceded them by 34 days . Scott 's entire party died on the return journey from the pole ; some of their bodies , journals , and photographs were found by a search party eight months later . The expedition , named after its supply ship , was a private venture , financed by public contributions augmented by a government grant . It had further backing from the Admiralty , which released experienced seamen to the expedition , and from the Royal Geographical Society . The expedition 's team of scientists carried out a comprehensive scientific programme , while other parties explored Victoria Land and the Western Mountains . An attempted landing and exploration of King Edward VII Land was unsuccessful . A journey to Cape Crozier in June and July 1911 was the first extended sledging journey in the depths of the Antarctic winter . For many years after his death , Scott 's status as tragic hero was unchallenged , and few questions were asked about the causes of the disaster which overcame his polar party . In the final quarter of the 20th century the expedition came under closer scrutiny , and more critical views were expressed about its organization and management . The degree of Scott 's personal culpability , and more recently , the culpability of certain expedition members , remain controversial ." ]

[ "SGS/SCN SGS/SCN is an Australian regional television station serving the Spencer Gulf of South Australia and the Broken Hill area of New South Wales , owned by Southern Cross Austereo . The station is based in Port Pirie , South Australia with satellite offices in Broken Hill , Port Augusta , Whyalla and Port Lincoln , and studio and playout facilities based in Canberra . Prior to 2004 , GTS/BKN was the only regional commercial station servicing the Spencer Gulf and Broken Hill areas . It broadcast a selection of content , ` cherry-picked ' from the three metropolitan networks Seven , Nine and Ten . GTS/BKN remained among the few stations that continued to ` cherry-pick ' content following aggregation in the 1980s , though after 2000 it began to favour content from Seven due to its ownership by Seven affiliate Southern Cross Television . In 2003 , Spencer Gulf Telecasters won the right to broadcast a second station in the same licence area , and in January 2004 , SGS/SCN was launched as a Ten-affiliated station , branded as Southern Cross Ten .", "Cherry picking (basketball) Cherry picking , in basketball and certain other sports , refers to play where one player ( the cherry picker ) does not play defense with the rest of the team but remains near the opponents ' goal . If the opponents do not designate a player to stay near the cherry picker , they will have a 5-on-4 advantage as they try to score , but if the defense steals the ball , it could make a long pass to the cherry picker for an uncontested basket . Acquiring the ball by a violation or foul , or after a made basket , the cherry picker is less relevant , as the opponents have more time to put their own defense in place . Disapproval of cherry picking stems from the fact that the cherry picker is not playing the `` complete '' game and accumulates statistics for points scored that exaggerate the player 's prowess .", "Cherry picking (disambiguation) Cherry picking is the fallacy of selecting evidence that supports an argument while ignoring evidence that contradicts it . Cherry picking may also refer to : Harvesting fruit from cherry trees Cherry picking ( basketball ) , a strategy in basketball where a player stays near the opponents ' goal rather than playing defense Cherry-picking tax avoidance , a form of tax avoidance in Australia in the 1970s and 1980s Cherry-picking , moving only some revisions from one branch to another in version control", "The Cherry Pick The Cherry Pick or De Kersenpluk is a 1997 Dutch film directed by Arno Kranenborg .", "Transmitter/studio link The transmitter/studio link ( or TSL ) of a radio station or television station is a return link which sends telemetry data from the remotely located radio transmitter or television transmitter back to the studio for monitoring purposes . The ` TSL may return the same way as the studio/transmitter link ( STL ) , or it can be embedded in the station 's regular broadcast signal as a subcarrier ( for analog stations ) or a separate data channel ( for digital stations ) . Analog or digital data such as transmitter power , temperature , VSWR , voltage , modulation level , and other status information are returned so that broadcast engineering staff can correct any problems as soon as possible . These data may be attended to by an automated transmission system .", "Robert Monckton (disambiguation) Robert Monckton may refer to : Robert Monckton ( died 1722 ) , English Member of Parliament Robert Monckton ( 1726 -- 1782 ) , British Army officer", "MSU temperature measurements Microwave sounding unit temperature measurements have been obtained from the troposphere since 1979 , when they were included within NOAA weather satellites . By comparison , the usable balloon ( radiosonde ) record begins in 1958 but has less geographic coverage and is less uniform . Satellites do not measure temperature . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands , which must then be mathematically inverted to obtain indirect inferences of temperature . The resulting temperature profiles depend on details of the methods that are used to obtain temperatures from radiances . As a result , different groups that have analyzed the satellite data have obtained different temperature trends . Among these groups are Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) and the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) . The satellite series is not fully homogeneous - the record is constructed from a series of satellites with similar but not identical instrumentation . The sensors deteriorate over time , and corrections are necessary for satellite drift in orbit . Particularly large differences between reconstructed temperature series occur at the few times when there is little temporal overlap between successive satellites , making intercalibration difficult . To compare to the trend from the surface temperature record ( approximately +0.07 ° C/decade over the past century and +0.15 -0.16 ° C/decade since 1979 ) it is most appropriate to derive trends for the part of the atmosphere nearest the surface , i.e. , the lower troposphere . Doing this , through January 2012 : RSS v3 .3 finds a trend of +0.137 ° C/decade . UAH v5 .4 finds a trend of +0.136 ° C/decade . An alternative adjustment introduced by Fu et al. ( 2004 ) finds trends ( 1979 -- 2011 ) of +0.14 ° C/decade when applied to the RSS data set and +0.11 ° C/decade when applied to the UAH data set . Using the T2 channel ( which include significant contributions from the stratosphere , which has cooled ) , Mears et al. of Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) find ( through January 2012 ) a trend of +0.082 ° C/decade . Spencer and Christy of the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) , find a smaller trend of +0.046 ° C/decade . A no longer updated analysis of Vinnikov and Grody found +0.20 ° C/decade ( 1978 -- 2005 ) . Another satellite temperature analysis is provided by NOAA/NESDIS STAR Center for Satellite Application and Research and use simultaneous nadir overpasses ( SNO ) to remove satellite intercalibration biases yielding more accurate temperature trends . The SNO analysis finds a 1979-2011 trend of +0.128 ° C/decade for T2 channel . The satellite records have the advantage of greater spatial coverage , whereas the radiosonde record is longer . There have been complaints of data problems with both records , and difficulty reconciling climate model predictions with the observed data .", "Walter Monckton, 1st Viscount Monckton of Brenchley Walter Turner Monckton , 1st Viscount Monckton of Brenchley , ( 17 January 1891 -- 9 January 1965 ) was a British politician .", "Francis Monckton Francis Monckton ( 7 March 1844 -- 30 September 1926 ) was an English Conservative politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1871 to 1885 . Monckton was the eldest son of Gen. Henry Monckton of Stretton Hall , Staffordshire and his wife Ann Smythe . He was educated at Eton and Christ Church , Oxford . In 1871 he was returned unopposed as Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Staffordshire West on the death of the previous incumbent , holding the seat until 1885 . He inherited the estates of Stretton and Somerford Hall from his uncle , George Monckton . He was High Sheriff of Staffordshire for 1895 -- 96 . Monckton married Evelyn Mary Heber-Percy , daughter of Algernon Charles Heber-Percy and Emily Heber , on 16 July 1889 .", "Data (computing) Data ( -LSB- ˈdeɪtə -RSB- , or -LSB- ˈdɑːtə -RSB- ; treated as singular , plural , or as a mass noun ) is any sequence of one or more symbols given meaning by specific act ( s ) of interpretation . Data ( or datum -- a single unit of data ) requires interpretation to become information . To translate data to information , there must be several known factors considered . The factors involved are determined by the creator of the data and the desired information . The term metadata is used to reference the data about the data . Metadata may be implied , specified or given . Data relating to physical events or processes will also have a temporal component . In almost all cases this temporal component is implied . This is the case when a device such as a temperature logger received data from a temperature sensor . When the temperature is received it is assumed that the data has a temporal references of `` now '' . So the device records the date , time and temperature together . When the data logger communicates temperatures , it must also report the date and time ( metadata ) for each temperature . Digital data is data that is represented using the binary number system of ones ( 1 ) and zeros ( 0 ) , as opposed to analog representation . In modern ( post 1960 ) computer systems , all data is digital . Data within a computer , in most cases , moves as parallel data . Data moving to or from a computer , in most cases , moves as serial data . See Parallel communication and Serial communication . Data sourced from an analog device , such as a temperature sensor , must pass through an `` analog to digital converter '' or `` ADC '' ( see Analog-to-digital converter ) to convert the analog data to digital data . Data representing quantities , characters , or symbols on which operations are performed by a computer are stored and recorded on magnetic , optical , or mechanical recording media , and transmitted in the form of digital electrical signals . A program is a set of data that consists of a series of coded software instructions to control the operation of a computer or other machine . Physical computer memory elements consist of an address and a byte/word of data storage . Digital data are often stored in relational databases , like tables or SQL databases , and can generally be represented as abstract key/value pairs . Data can be organized in many different types of data structures , including arrays , graphs , and objects . Data structures can store data of many different types , including numbers , strings and even other data structures . Data pass in and out of computers via peripheral devices . In an alternate usage , binary files ( which are not human-readable ) are sometimes called `` data '' as distinguished from human-readable `` text '' . The total amount of digital data in 2007 was estimated to be 281 billion gigabytes ( = 281 exabytes ) . Digital data comes in these three states : data at rest , data in transit and data in use .", "George Monckton-Arundell George Monckton-Arundell may refer to : George Monckton-Arundell , 8th Viscount Galway ( 1882 -- 1943 ) , British politician George Monckton-Arundell , 7th Viscount Galway ( 1844 -- 1931 ) , British Conservative politician and courtier George Monckton-Arundell , 6th Viscount Galway ( 1805 -- 1876 ) , Anglo-Irish Conservative politician", "Cherry picker (disambiguation) A cherry picker is a platform for lifting someone to work at a high level . Cherry picker may also refer to : Glenbuck Cherrypickers F.C. , a former Scottish football club The Cherry Picker , a 1974 British drama film One who engages in the fallacy of cherry picking Cherry picker , in basketball , a player who remains near the opponents ' goal rather than playing defense 11th Hussars , nicknamed the Cherry Pickers , a cavalry regiment in the British Army", "Gilbert Monckton, 2nd Viscount Monckton of Brenchley Major-General Gilbert Walter Riversdale Monckton , 2nd Viscount Monckton of Brenchley CB , OBE , MC , Knight of Malta ( 3 November 1915 -- 22 June 2006 ) served in the British Army from 1939 to 1967 , retiring with the rank of Major-General . He was Army director of public relations in the 1960s when the conduct of the Army 's personnel came under scrutiny during the Profumo Affair .", "Rainier cherry Rainier ( pronounced : -LSB- reɪˈnɪər -RSB- - ) is a cultivar of cherry . It was developed in 1952 at Washington State University by Harold Fogle , and named after Mount Rainier . It is a cross between the ` Bing ' and ` Van ' cultivars . ` Rainiers ' are considered a premium type of cherry . They are sweet with a thin skin and thick creamy-yellow flesh . The cherries are very sensitive to temperature , wind , and rain . About 1/3 of a ` Rainier ' cherry orchard 's crop is eaten by birds .", "Cherry-red spot A cherry-red spot is a finding in the macula of the eye in a variety of lipid storage disorders and in central retinal artery occlusion . It describes the appearance of a small circular choroid shape as seen through the fovea centralis . Its appearance is due to a relative transparency of the macula ; storage disorders cause the accumulation of storage material within the cell layers of the retina , however , the macula , which is relatively devoid of cellular layers , does not build up this material , and thus allows the eye to see through the macula to the red choroid below . The sign was first described by Warren Tay , founding member of the British Ophthalmological Society , in 1881 , with reference to a patient with Tay -- Sachs disease . The cherry red spot is seen in central retinal artery occlusion , appearing several hours after the blockage of the retinal artery occurs . The cherry red spot is seen because the macula receives its blood supply from the choroid , supplied by the posterior ciliary arteries , while the surrounding retina is pale due to retinal artery infarction . It is also seen in several other conditions , classically Tay -- Sachs disease , but also in Niemann -- Pick disease , Sandhoff disease , and mucolipidosis .", "Park West and Cherry Orchard railway station Park West and Cherry Orchard railway station is an Iarnród Éireann railway station in Ballyfermot , Dublin , serving the Parkwest and the Cherry Orchard area .", "Engine coolant temperature sensor The coolant temperature sensor is used to measure the temperature of the engine coolant of an internal combustion engine . The readings from this sensor are then fed back to the engine control unit ( ECU ) , which uses this data to adjust the fuel injection and ignition timing . On some vehicles the sensor may also be used to switch on the electric cooling fan . The data may also be used to provide readings for a coolant temperature gauge on the dashboard .", "Cherry Ripe Cherry Ripe may refer to : Cherry Ripe ( chocolate bar ) , a brand of chocolate bar made by Cadbury Cherry Ripe ( numbers station ) , a suspected cryptic British radio station Cherry Ripe ( song ) , an English poetic song Cherry Ripe ( novel ) , an 1878 novel Cherry Ripe ( film ) , a 1921 silent film", "Cherry shrimp Neocaridina davidi var . red or cherry shrimp is a variety of freshwater shrimp from Taiwan which is commonly kept in aquariums . The natural colouration of the shrimp is green-brown , however the red morph is more frequently sold . The density of coloration on adult shrimp , dependent on breeding , determines their sale price and `` quality '' ( grading ) . This `` quality '' is purely aesthetic , as the size , behavior and other characteristics of the animal is more or less equal across varieties . Full-grown cherry shrimp reach about 4 cm long . They prefer clean water , with a pH of 6.5-8 , and a temperature of 14 - They are most comfortable at 22 C. Cherry shrimp are omnivores that may live 1 -- 2 years . These shrimp have previously been classified as Neocaridina heteropoda and Neocaridina denticulata sinensis , however are now known as Neocaridina davidi which is based on the oldest known published description of the species .", "Williams–Landel–Ferry equation The Williams -- Landel -- Ferry Equation ( or WLF Equation ) is an empirical equation associated with time -- temperature superposition . The WLF equation has the form where T is the temperature , Tr is a reference temperature chosen to construct the compliance master curve and C1 , C2 are empirical constants adjusted to fit the values of the superposition parameter aT . The equation can be used to fit ( regress ) discrete values of the shift factor aT vs. temperature . Here , values of shift factor aT are obtained by horizontal shift log ( aT ) of creep compliance data plotted vs. time or frequency in double logarithmic scale so that a data set obtained experimentally at temperature T superposes with the data set at temperature Tr . A minimum of three values of aT are needed to obtain C1 , C2 , and typically more than three are used . Once constructed , the WLF equation allows for the estimation of the temperature shift factor for temperatures other than those for which the material was tested . In this way , the master curve can be applied to other temperatures . However , when the constants are obtained with data at temperatures above the glass transition temperature ( Tg ) , the WLF equation is applicable to temperatures at or above Tg only ; the constants are positive and represent Arrhenius behavior . Extrapolation to temperatures below Tg is erroneous . When the constants are obtained with data at temperatures below Tg , negative values of C1 , C2 are obtained , which are not applicable above Tg and do not represent Arrhenius behavior . Therefore , the constants obtained above Tg are not useful for predicting the response of the polymer for structural applications , which necessarily must operate at temperatures below Tg . The WLF equation is a consequence of time -- temperature superposition ( TTSP ) , which mathematically is an application of Boltzmann 's superposition principle . It is TTSP , not WLF , that allows the assembly of a compliance master curve that spans more time , or frequency , than afforded by the time available for experimentation or the frequency range of the instrumentation , such as dynamic mechanical analyzer ( DMA ) . While the time span of a TTSP master curve is broad , according to Struik , it is valid only if the data sets did not suffer from ageing effects during the test time . Even then , the master curve represents a hypothetical material that does not age . Effective Time Theory . needs to be used to obtain useful prediction for long term time . Having data above Tg , it is possible to predict the behavior ( compliance , storage modulus , etc. ) of viscoelastic materials for temperatures T > Tg , and/or for times/frequencies longer/slower than the time available for experimentation . With the master curve and associated WLF equation it is possible to predict the mechanical properties of the polymer out of time scale of the machine ( typically to Hz ) , thus extrapolating the results of multi-frequency analysis to a broader range , out of measurement range of machine .", "EUREF Permanent Network EUREF Permanent Network ( EPN ) is a European Network of more than 200 continuously operating GNSS reference stations with precisely known coordinates referenced to the ETRS89 . EPN is the key instrument in the maintenance of ETRS89 geodetic datum . The EPN stations collect continuously the observation data from high accuracy GPS/GLONASS receivers . The data is processed in the centralized way in a few data processing centres . EPN is created and maintained by a voluntary agreement of about 100 European agencies and universities . EPN activities are coordinated by EUREF .", "Air data computer An air data computer ( ADC ) is an essential avionics component found in modern glass cockpits . This computer , rather than individual instruments , can determine the calibrated airspeed , Mach number , altitude , and altitude trend data from an aircraft 's pitot-static system . In some very high speed aircraft such as the Space Shuttle , equivalent airspeed is calculated instead of calibrated airspeed . The first air data computer patented in the US was developed by John H. Andresen . Air data computers usually also have an input of total air temperature . This enables computation of static air temperature and true airspeed . In Airbus aircraft the air data computer is combined with altitude , heading and navigation sources in a single unit known as the Air Data Inertial Reference Unit ( ADIRU ) . This has now been replaced by Global Navigation Air Data Inertial Reference System ( GNADIRS ) .", "Cherry Hill station (Baltimore Light Rail) Cherry Hill station is a Baltimore Light Rail stop in Baltimore , Maryland . There is currently no free public parking at this station , but connections can be made to 3 of MTA Maryland 's buses from here . The Cherry Hill stop is accessible to the streets via a walking tunnel . When the station opened in 1992 , this raised concerns about safety , as the tunnel could be a hideout for muggers . The agency then known as the Mass Transit Administration pledged to keep a police vehicle parked at the station at all times to address these concerns .", "Stretton Hall, Staffordshire Stretton Hall is an early 18th-century mansion house at Stretton , South Staffordshire . It is the home of a branch of the Monckton family descended from John Monckton 1st Viscount Galway . It is a privately owned Grade II * listed building , not open to the public . The house built by John Congreve in about 1700 was originally two-storeyed with dormers above , a three-bay pedimented central block and two-bayed wings with a central pedimented entrance door . General Henry Monckton ( 1780 -- 1854 ) , a son of Edward Monckton and Sophia Pigot of Somerford Hall , purchased the estate in about 1845 . He died in 1854 , passing the estate on to his son , Francis Monckton . Four years later , Francis inherited Somerford , which had passed through the hands of two childless uncles , Edward and George . The Somerford inheritance included Coven and Engleton , two large neighbouring estates . Francis already resided at Stretton and moved the family seat there permanently , renting out Somerford Hall . In the 1860s he carried out extensive alterations at Stretton including a third storey and a new entrance front . Several members of the family have served as High Sheriff of Staffordshire , the latest being Mrs Joanna Bird Monckton in 1995 .", "Tony Cherry Anthony Earl Cherry was a running back in the Canadian Football League with the B.C. Lions . He was selected in the 1986 NFL Draft by the San Francisco 49ers in the ninth round ( 240th pick ) out of the University of Oregon . He is distinguished as being the first Libyan to play in the National Football League . Cherry height is 5 ' 7 .", "Bridget Monckton, 11th Lady Ruthven of Freeland Bridget Helen `` Biddy '' Monckton , 11th Lady Ruthven of Freeland CBE ( 27 July 1896 -- 17 April 1982 ) , also known as The Countess of Carlisle between 1918 and 1947 , as Lady Monckton between 1947 and 1957 , as The Viscountess Monckton of Brenchley between 1957 and 1965 and as The Dowager Viscountess Monckton of Brenchley between 1965 and 1982 , was a British peer and Conservative member of the House of Lords , but is probably best remembered as the wartime commander of women 's services in India .", "The Little Damozel (1916 film) The Little Damozel is a 1916 British silent drama film directed by Wilfred Noy . A sound version , also based on the play by Monckton Hoffe , appeared in 1933 .", "Cherry Orchard Cherry Orchard may refer to : The Cherry Orchard , a play by Anton Chekhov . There are also three film adaptions of the same play . The Cherry Orchard ( 1974 film ) The Cherry Orchard ( 1990 film ) The Cherry Orchard ( 1999 film ) Cherry Orchard F.C. , an Irish association football club . Cherry Orchard Road , a road and planned building development in East Croydon , London . Cherry Orchard Bog Natural Area Preserve , a natural area preserve in Virginia . Park West and Cherry Orchard railway station , a railway station in Ballyfermot , Dublin", "Wireless asset monitoring system A Wireless asset monitoring system ( WAM ) collects vibration data from accelerometers installed on rotating machinery and transmits it wirelessly to the user 's maintenance station personal computer ( PC ) for analyzing , archiving and even transferring it to maintenance staff 's data collectors irrespective of brand or software used by those . WAM is also capable of collecting 4-20mA process signals , for process data like temperature , pressure , and speed through the proximity probes and transmitting these wirelessly via a long range spread spectrum 900 MHz radio to the ` Pathfinder ' software residing in the user 's maintenance station PC . Category : Telemetry", "Monckton Hoffe Monckton Hoffe ( 1880-1951 ) was an Irish playwright and screenwriter . He was born in Connemara on 26 December 1880 .", "Cherry Hill station (NJ Transit) Cherry Hill is a New Jersey Transit train station in Cherry Hill Township , New Jersey , United States , on the Atlantic City Line . Eastbound service is offered to Atlantic City and Westbound service is offered to Philadelphia . The station runs through the former Garden State Racetrack property , currently occupied by two separate shopping centers . The station is accessible directly from Route 70 . There is also an NJT 450 bus connection at the station , and the 406 bus on Route 70 . Amtrak formerly served this station when it opened in the summer of 1994 .", "Climatological normal Climatological normal is a 30-year average of a weather variable . Climatological normals are used as an average or baseline to evaluate climate events and provide context for year-to-year variability . Normals can be calculated for a variety of weather variables including temperature and precipitation and rely on data from weather stations . Variability from the 30-year averages is typical and climate variability looks at the magnitude of extremes ." ]

[ "Polar bear The polar bear ( ursus #Latin maritimus #Latin ) is a carnivorous bear whose native range lies largely within the Arctic Circle , encompassing the Arctic Ocean , its surrounding seas and surrounding land masses . It is a large bear , approximately the same size as the omnivorous Kodiak bear ( Ursus arctos middendorffi ) . A boar ( adult male ) weighs around 350 -- , while a sow ( adult female ) is about half that size . Although it is the sister species of the brown bear , it has evolved to occupy a narrower ecological niche , with many body characteristics adapted for cold temperatures , for moving across snow , ice and open water , and for hunting seals , which make up most of its diet . Although most polar bears are born on land , they spend most of their time on the sea ice . Their scientific name means `` maritime bear '' and derives from this fact . Polar bears hunt their preferred food of seals from the edge of sea ice , often living off fat reserves when no sea ice is present . Because of their dependence on the sea ice , polar bears are classified as marine mammals ; an alternative basis for classification as marine mammals is that they depend on the ocean as their main food source . Because of expected habitat loss caused by climate change , the polar bear is classified as a vulnerable species , and at least three of the nineteen polar bear subpopulations are currently in decline . For decades , large-scale hunting raised international concern for the future of the species , but populations rebounded after controls and quotas began to take effect . For thousands of years , the polar bear has been a key figure in the material , spiritual , and cultural life of circumpolar peoples , and polar bears remain important in their cultures ." ]

[ "Ursid hybrid An ursid hybrid is an animal with parents from two different species or subspecies of the Ursidae ( bear ) family . Species and subspecies of bear known to have produced offspring with another bear species or subspecies include brown bears , black bears , grizzly bears and polar bears , all of which are members of the Ursus genus . Bears not included in Ursus , such as the giant panda , are probably unable to produce hybrids . Note all of the confirmed hybrids listed here have been in captivity ( except grizzly/polar bear ) , but there have been hybrids in the wild . A recent study found genetic evidence of multiple instances and species combinations where genetic material has passed the species boundary in bears ( a process called introgression by geneticists ) . Specifically , species with evidence of past intermingling were ( 1 ) brown bear and American black bear , ( 2 ) brown bear and polar bear , ( 3 ) American black bear and Asian black bear , ( 4 ) bears currently distributed in Asia ( sloth bear , sun bear and Asian black bear ) . Overall , this study shows that evolution in the bear family ( Ursidae ) has not been strictly bifurcation , but instead showed complex evolutionary relationships .", "Polar Bear (locomotive) Polar Bear is a Bagnall steam locomotive built in 1905 for the Groudle Glen Railway , to supplement the similar but slightly smaller Sea Lion . The two Bagnalls were temporarily taken out of service in the 1920s when they were replaced by a pair of battery locomotives . These proved unsatisfactory , and Polar Bear and Sea Lion were returned to traffic . The railway was closed for the duration of World War II , and when the line reopened in the late 1940s only Polar Bear was returned to traffic . Following the 1962 closure of the GGR , Polar Bear was sold to the Brockham Museum Trust in 1967 . In 1982 it passed , with the rest of the Brockham collection , to the Amberley Museum Railway , where it was returned to traffic in the early 1980s . Polar Bear '' 's boiler was condemned around 1988 , returning to service with a new boiler in 1993 . Its boiler certificate expired at the end of 2010 ; with a retube and work on the firebox being required before a return to service . Since being based at Amberley , Polar Bear has returned to the Groudle Glen on three occasions ( 1993 , 1996 and 2005 ) to visit.Polar Bear was stripped down for overhaul in early 2011 . The boiler was moved to Chatham for overhaul , with mechanical work being undertaken in-house at Amberley . The boiler was returned to Amberley in January 2012 . Polar Bear was relaunched on 13 July 2013 by BBC newsreader and railway enthusiast Nicholas Owen , and is now in service sharing steam passenger duties at Amberley with the museum 's 1917 Bagnall 0-4-0ST Peter . '' Polar Bear made its fourth visit home to the Groudle Glen Railway since it was preserved in late July 2016 . After its two week stay there , it returned home to Amberley museum .", "Ursus maritimus tyrannus Ursus maritimus tyrannus ( meaning tyrant polar bear ) is an extinct subspecies of polar bear , known from a single fragmentary ulna found in the gravels of the Thames at Kew Bridge , London . It was named by the Finnish paleontologist Björn Kurtén in 1964 and is interpreted to represent a relatively large subadult individual : the ulna is estimated to have been 48.5 cm long when complete . For comparison , modern subadult polar bear ulnae are 36 - long . An unpublished reinvestigation of the fossil suggests that the fossil is actually a brown bear .", "Polar city A polar city is a proposed sustainable polar retreat designed to house human beings in the future , in the event that global warming causes the equatorial and middle latitudes of the Earth to become uninhabitable for a long period of time . Although they have not been built yet , some futurists have been giving considerable thought to the concepts involved . High-population-density cities , to be built near the Arctic Rim and in Antarctica , New Zealand , Tasmania , and Patagonia , with sustainable energy and transportation infrastructure , will require substantial nearby agriculture . Boreal soils are largely poor in key nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus , but nitrogen-fixing plants ( such as the various alders ) with the proper symbiotic microbes and mycorrhizal fungi can likely remedy such poverty without the need for petroleum-derived fertilizers . Regional probiotic soil improvement should perhaps rank high on any polar cities priority list . James Lovelock 's notion of a widely distributed almanac of science knowledge and post-industrial survival skills also appears to have value .", "Polar Bear (cipher) In cryptography , Polar Bear is a stream cypher algorithm designed by Johan Håstad and Mats Näslund . It has been submitted to the eSTREAM Project of the eCRYPT network .", "Polar organelle Polar organelle ( German : Basalkörper-Membran , also referred to in some microbiological literature articles as `` polar membrane '' or `` polar cap '' ) is a specialized region of the lipid cell membrane in bacterial cells , usually located at or near the so-called poles ( e.g. the ends of a cylindrical cell ) . This region can easily be distinguished from the `` normal '' membrane regions in ultrathin sections of embedded bacteria by electron microscopy when the cell membrane is orientated perpendicular to the viewing direction . There , the membrane appears slightly thickened with a finely frilled layer facing the inside of the cell . It is also possible to isolate these polar organelles from the bacterial cells and study them in face view in negatively stained preparations . The polar organelle bears a fine array of attached particles in hexagonal close packing and these have been shown to possess ATPase activity . The polar organelle is invariably found in close juxtaposition to the points of insertion of the bacterial flagella into the plasma membrane , especially where multiple flagella bases are grouped in a region of the cell membrane . It may thus be inferred that the polar organelle could be of importance in the supply and transfer of energy to the bidirectional molecular rotational motor situated at the base of each individual bacterial flagellum ( see also Electrochemical gradient ) .", "Polar bear hunting Polar bear hunting may refer to : Polar bear hunting , an activity where polar bears are hunted for sport Polar-bear hunting , a name used in U.S. media to refer to a violent `` game '' in which a white passerby is punched without warning", "Inuit astronomy The Inuit have traditional names for many constellations , asterisms and stars . A number of these constellations overlap with , or can be found within , more commonly known western constellations : Two Placed Far Apart ( Orion ) The Runners ( Orion 's Belt ) , used for navigation The Polar Bear ( Alnitak ) The Dogs ( Alnilam and Mintaka ) Nephews and Nieces ( Orion Nebula ) The Lamp-Stand ( Cassiopeia ) Sikuliaqsiujuittuq , the Murdered Man ( Canis Minor ) The Flickering ( Canis Major ) The First Ones ( Boötes ) The Old Man ( Arcturus ) The One Behind ( Lyra ) The Old Woman ( Vega ) The Caribou ( Ursa Major ) Nanurjuk , the Spirit of a Polar Bear ( Taurus ) Having the Spirit of a Polar Bear ( Aldebaran ) Kaguyagat , Red Fox ( Pleiades )", "Shirokuma Cafe is a Japanese manga series by . It revolves around the everyday lives of a group of animals mingling with humans at a café run by a polar bear . An anime adaptation by Studio Pierrot aired in Japan between April 2012 and March 2013 . While it never received an official international release ( mostly due to its heavy emphasis on Japanese wordplay , which complicates the potential for dubbing into other languages ) , it is available on the streaming website Crunchyroll as Polar Bear Cafe alongside the television broadcast for global audiences .", "Futuristic Polar Bears Futuristic Polar Bears is a British DJ and production trio from London , formed in 2010 . Since then , the trio has released many singles , and has been signed to labels Spinnin ' , Revealed and Harem Records , the label of the Canadian duo Sultan & Shepard .", "Polar Bear Shores Polar Bear Shores is a polar bear exhibit at the Sea World theme park on the Gold Coast , Australia . As of 2013 , the exhibit features four polar bears ( Lia , Hudson , Nelson , and Henry ) .", "Polar Bear (EP) Polar Bear is the debut release from Polar Bear , led by Jane 's Addiction bassist Eric Avery . This clear blue 12 '' vinyl , MR-054 , was self-produced and released on Man 's Ruin Records , limited to 2,000 copies . It includes instrumental versions of songs the band would later release on their records , reworked with vocal tracks . Intended for spinning and mixing by DJs , these versions have more of a club edge to them .", "Polar Bear (album) Polar Bear is the eponymous third album by Sebastian Rochford 's British jazz band Polar Bear .", "Edese Zwem- & Poloclub Polar Bears Edese Zwem - & Poloclub Polar Bears or simply Polar Bears Ede is a swimming and water polo club based in the city of Ede , Netherlands .", "Polar capsule Polar capsules are structures found in the valves of Myxosporean parasites , which contain the polar filament . The polar capsule is constructed of a proteinaceous and a polysaccharide layer , both layers of which continue into the polar filament . The mouth of the capsule is covered with a cap-like structure . This structure may function as a stopper , its digestion in the alimentary tract possibly triggering the discharge of the polar filaments . Two ideas have been proposed to explain the eversion of the polar filaments . Firstly , that the hydrostatic pressure in the polar capsule pushes the filament out , rather like the cnidocyst of coelenterates . The second is that extrusion is an active process involving contractile proteins and is calcium-dependent ( Uspenskaya , 1982 ) .", "List of fatal bear attacks in North America Fatal bear attacks in North America have occurred in a variety of settings . There have been several in the bears ' wilderness habitats involving hikers , hunters , and campers . Brown bear incidents have occurred in their native range spanning Alaska , Northern and Western Canada , and portions of the Rocky Mountains in the United States . The locations of black bear wilderness fatal attacks reflect their wider range : all Canadian Provinces except the Atlantic Provinces and several major mountainous areas in the United States . Bears held captive by animal trainers , in zoos , carnivals , or kept as pets have been responsible for several attacks . There have also been unusual cases in which a person entered a bear 's cage and was then mauled . Bear attacks are extremely rare . Attacks are for predatory , territorial , or protective reasons . Most wilderness attacks have occurred when there was only one to two persons in the vicinity . In this list , three species of bear are recognized : the brown bear ( Ursus arctos ) , the American black bear ( Ursus americanus ) , and the polar bear ( Ursus maritimus ) .", "Bear in heraldry The bear as heraldic charge is not as widely used as the lion , boar or other beasts . In England it occurs mostly in canting arms , e.g. in the familial coats of arms of Barnard , Baring , Barnes , Bearsley , etc. . In English heraldry , a bear 's head is usually muzzled , and is more commonly used as a charge than the whole beast . The bear in the coat of arms of Berlin is also used cantingly , and appears in representations of the Berlin coats of arms in the early modern period ( used alongside the Prussian and Brandenburg eagles until the early 20th century ) . Also canting , but associated with a legendary false etymology of the city 's name , is the bear in the coat of arms of Berne . The bear is also used in arms representing Saint Gall , based on a legend of the saint involving a bear . This is the origin of the bear in the coat of arms in the Abbey of Saint Gall and of Appenzell . The bear of Appenzell is represented pizzled ; omission of the bear 's penis from the coat of arms of Appenzell was seen as a grave insult , and was notoriously forgotten by the printer of a calendar printed in Saint Gallen 1579 , which brought Appenzell to the brink of war with Saint Gallen . The saddled bear of Saint Corbinian 's legend is the heraldic symbol of Freising , Bavaria , and the Diocese of Munich and Freising . Pope Benedict XVI , former archbishop of Munich , also applied it in his Papal Arms . In 1666 a polar bear on a blue field was added to the greater/royal arms of the king of Denmark to represent Greenland . It has since then been adopted by Greenland itself as its coat of arms , with the current version having been adopted in 1989 . The Greenlandic version bucks European heraldic tradition in favour of Inuit custom by having the bear 's left arm raised rather than the right ; when used in Denmark the right is raised . It is officially blazoned Azure , a polar bear rampant argent and as such neither version contradicts the other .", "Polar Bear Provincial Park Polar Bear Provincial Park is an isolated wilderness park in the far north of Ontario , Canada . It lies on the western shore where James Bay joins Hudson Bay . The terrain is part of the Hudson Bay Lowlands and features unspoiled low-lying tundra in the Hudson Plains ecozone . Administered by Ontario Parks , the 23552 km2 Polar Bear Provincial Park is the largest park in Ontario . It has no visitor facilities , is reachable only by air , and special permission is required before visiting it . Its primary purpose is the preservation of habitat for wildlife , especially the several hundred polar bears that migrate through the area . Visitors to Polar Bear should be prepared for any eventuality . They should bring at least one week 's extra supplies in case their departure is delayed due to bad weather . Tents should not rise any higher than necessary , due to the possibility of strong winds . Polar Bear Provincial Park has been designated as a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention since May 1987 .", "The Little Polar Bear The Little Polar Bear ( Der kleine Eisbär ) is a franchise about a polar bear cub named Lars who first starred in a number of books written by Dutch author , Hans de Beer . It later became an animated TV series for BBC TV , Lars , der Kleine Eisbär , in the 1990s . The show proved to be popular in Germany , but its English-dubbed version ( titled The Little Polar Bear ) had also gained a cult following with UK viewers . The show was later revived between 2001 and 2003 . For its first film , subtitled Der Kinofilm , Warner Bros. and animation studio Rothkirch Cartoon Film bought the rights to adapt the children 's books into a feature-length film , released in 2001 . Following the success of the feature , several direct-to-video features were released , one of the new characters included was a tiger cub . In 2005 , another film , The Little Polar Bear 2 -- The Mysterious Island ( Der Kleine Eisbär 2 : Die geheimnisvolle Insel ) was released and also proved successful . The score to The Little Polar Bear ( 1 ) was composed by Nigel Clarke & Michael Csanyi-Wills and recorded by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra in London and was nominated for several awards .", "Stable nuclide Stable nuclides are nuclides that are not radioactive and so ( unlike radionuclides ) do not spontaneously undergo radioactive decay . When such nuclides are referred to in relation to specific elements , they are usually termed stable isotopes . The 80 elements with one or more stable isotopes comprise a total of 253 nuclides that have not been known to decay using current equipment ( see list at the end of this article ) . Of these elements , 26 have only one stable isotope ; they are thus termed monoisotopic . The rest have more than one stable isotope . Tin has ten stable isotopes , the largest number known for an element .", "Polar Bear, Polar Bear, What Do You Hear? Polar Bear , Polar Bear , What Do You Hear ? is a children 's picture book , published in 1991 , written and illustrated by Bill Martin , Jr. and Eric Carle . The book is designed to help toddlers identify zoo animals and the noises they make . It features a polar bear , a lion , a hippopotamus , a flamingo , a zebra , a boa constrictor , an elephant , a leopard , a peacock , a walrus , a zoo keeper and some children . This is a companion book to Brown Bear , Brown Bear , What Do You See ? , published by Carle and Martin in 1967 , replacing the earlier text 's colours and common animals with sounds and less common creatures .", "Repetition priming Repetition priming refers to improvements in a behavioural response when stimuli are repeatedly presented . The improvements can be measured in terms of accuracy or reaction time , and can occur when the repeated stimuli are either identical or similar to previous stimuli . These improvements have been shown to be cumulative , so as the number of repetitions increases the responses get continually faster up to a maximum of around seven repetitions . These improvements are also found when the repeated items are changed slightly in terms of orientation , size and position . The size of the effect is also modulated by the length of time the item is presented for and the length time between the first and subsequent presentations of the repeated items .", "The Little Polar Bear 2 – The Mysterious Island The Little Polar Bear 2 - The Mysterious Island ( Der Kleine Eisbär 2 -- Die Geheimnisvolle Insel ) is a 2005 German animation film . It is a sequel to The Little Polar Bear from 2001 .", "Unbearable - sculpture Unbearable is a bronze sculpture by the Danish artist Jens Galschiot . It consists of a graph showing the global fossil fuel carbon emissions , and an impaled polar bear . The sculpture was finished in 2015 and exhibited in Paris during COP21 . The sculpture is made in cooperation with WWF Denmark .", "The Polar Bear Family & Me The Polar Bear Family & Me was a three-part nature documentary series produced by the BBC Natural History Unit . It follows wildlife cameraman Gordon Buchanan as he spends a year with a family of wild , but frosty polar bears , under the guidance of his biologist Jason Roberts , the polar expertise of the Antarctic region and Svalbard near Norwegian archipelago of the Arctic Ocean .", "Spherical roller bearing A spherical roller bearing is a rolling-element bearing that permits rotation with low friction , and permits angular misalignment . Typically these bearings support a rotating shaft in the -LSB- bore -RSB- of the inner ring that may be misaligned in respect to the outer ring . The misalignment is possible due to the spherical internal shape of the outer ring and spherical rollers.Despite what their name may imply , spherical roller bearings are not truly spherical in shape . The rolling elements of spherical roller bearings are mainly cylindrical in shape , but have a profile that makes them appear like cylinders that have been slightly over-inflated .", "Ian Stirling (biologist) Ian Stirling ( born September 26 , 1941 ) is a research scientist emeritus with Environment and Climate Change Canada and an adjunct professor in the University of Alberta Department of Biological Sciences . His research has focused mostly on Arctic and Antarctic zoology and ecology , and he is one of the world 's top authorities on polar bears . Stirling has written five books and more than 150 articles published in peer-reviewed scientific journals . He has written and spoken extensively about the danger posed to polar bears by global warming .", "Chelyabinsk Polar Bears The Chelyabinsk Polar Bears ( Белые Медведи Polar Bears ) is a junior ice hockey team from Chelyabinsk , which contains players from the Traktor Chelyabinsk school . They are members of the Minor Hockey League ( MHL ) , the top tier of junior hockey in the country .", "The Polar Bear Group The Polar Bear Group is a life-size , bronze animal sculpture in the Aqua Park of the Zoo in the city of Nuremberg . The Group consists of a mother polar bear with her young cubs in a playful pose , and is based on a flat plate from bright granite , which is reminiscent of an ice floe . The Group was created by the sculptor Josef Tabachnyk and was installed in the zoo in 2007 . The measurements of the Polar Bear Group are 120x240x90 cm . Since November 2010 , another bronze bear sculpture created by the same artist was installed in the entrance area of the zoo . It depicts a brown bear lying on its back , playing with a slug .", "Polar Bear Pass Polar Bear Pass is a 262,400 hectare wetland and mountain pass on Bathurst Island within the Qikiqtaaluk Region , Nunavut , Canada . The pass is on federal Crown land .", "Main bearing In a piston engine , the main bearings are the bearings on which the crankshaft rotates , usually plain or journal bearings . The bearings hold the crankshaft in place and prevent the forces created by the piston and transmitted to the crankshaft by the connecting rods from dislodging the crankshaft , instead forcing the crank to convert the reciprocating movement into rotation . While some small single-cylinder engines have only one main bearing , designed to deal with the bending moment exerted by the crank as a result of the force from the connecting rod , most engines have at least two main bearings , one at each end of the crank shaft and may have as many as one more than the number of crank pins . Increasing the number of bearings in an engine will generally increase the size and cost of the engine , but also provides stability to the crankshaft , which would otherwise have to endure greater bending moments from having the crank pin further from a bearing . The combination of bearing number and crankshaft design can also have an effect on engine balance ; a more stable crankshaft will better avoid unbalance from flexing , but increasing the crankshaft length or girth to accommodate an additional bearing increases the rotational inertia of the crankshaft , which can have the opposite effect . Most modern automotive engines have one main bearing at each end of the crankshaft and another in between each adjacent pair of connecting rod journals , but not all engines conform to this generalization . Notable exceptions include the Ford flathead V-8 , which had only three main bearings , and Chevrolet 's inline-six cylinder engine , which had in various iterations , three , four or seven main bearings . When describing a crankshaft design , the number of main bearings is generally quoted , as the number of crank pins is determined by the engine configuration . For example , a crankshaft for an inline six engine will be described as three bearing or four bearing depending on its number of main bearings ; The crank pins are not counted in this description . Similarly , when speaking of a crankshaft , the journals are the main bearing journals only . The crank pins are not normally called journals although they form the centre shafts of the big end bearings and are therefore journals in the more general sense . Category : Crankshafts Category : Engine technology Category : Bearings ( mechanical )", "Wapusk Trail The Wapusk Trail is a winter road that starts in Gillam , Manitoba , where Manitoba Provincial Road 280 , between Thompson , Manitoba and Gillam , Manitoba , ends , and the Wapusk Trail begins . The Wapusk Trail is rebuilt every year out of snow , from Gillam , Manitoba , eastward first , to Shamattawa , Manitoba , then to Fort Severn , Ontario , then curves slightly south , but still east , through Polar Bear Provincial Park , along Hudson Bay , to Peawanuck , Ontario , about 30 kilometres inland . For most people in Fort Severn , or Peawanuck , this is their only means of transport , other than by plane . `` Wapusk '' is Cree for `` White Bear '' , and there are lots of Polar bears around . The communities of Shamattawa , Manitoba , and Fort Severn and Peawanuck , Ontario , on the Wapusk Trail , are mostly Cree ." ]

[ "Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "West Antarctic Ice Sheet The Western Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) is the segment of the continental ice sheet that covers West ( or Lesser ) Antarctica , the portion of Antarctica on the side of the Transantarctic Mountains which lies in the Western Hemisphere . The WAIS is classified as a marine-based ice sheet , meaning that its bed lies well below sea level and its edges flow into floating ice shelves . The WAIS is bounded by the Ross Ice Shelf , the Ronne Ice Shelf , and outlet glaciers that drain into the Amundsen Sea . It is estimated that the volume of the Antarctic ice sheet is about 25.4 million km3 ( 6.1 million cu mi ) , and the WAIS contains just under 10 % of this , or 2.2 million km3 ( 530,000 cu mi ) . The weight of the ice has caused the underlying rock to sink by between 0.5 and 1 kilometres ( 0.31 -- 0.62 mi ) in a process known as isostatic depression . Under the force of its own weight , the ice sheet deforms and flows . The interior ice flows slowly over rough bedrock . In some circumstances , ice can flow faster in ice streams , separated by slow-flowing ice ridges . The inter-stream ridges are frozen to the bed while the bed beneath the ice streams consists of water-saturated sediments . Many of these sediments were deposited before the ice sheet occupied the region , when much of West Antarctica was covered by the ocean . The rapid ice-stream flow is a non-linear process still not fully understood ; streams can start and stop for unclear reasons . When ice reaches the coast , it either calves or continues to flow outward onto the water . The result is a large , floating ice shelf affixed to the continent .", "Tipping points in the climate system A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible." ]

[ "Konrad Steffen Konrad `` Koni '' Steffen ( born 1952 ) is a glaciologist and the former director of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder , a position he held from 2005 until he took office as the director of the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest , Snow and Landscape Research on July 1 , 2012 . He is known for his research into Arctic sea ice and the glaciers of Greenland , and how they are affected by global warming . He has often traveled to Greenland to study these glaciers firsthand ; for example , when studying Petermann Glacier for three weeks in 2004 , Steffen did so from a camp set up 4,000 feet up the flanks of the glacier 's ice cap . He also operates a network of 20 weather stations on the Greenland ice sheet , the first of which , Swiss Camp , he established in 1990 . He has argued that due to this ice sheet melting faster than anticipated , sea levels could rise by about 3 feet by 2100 , considerably higher than the IPCC 's upper limit of 59 cm , and that Greenland might lose all its ice in 10,000 years , but Antarctica would take considerably longer , since it is so much bigger .", "Vashon Glaciation The Vashon Glaciation or Vashon Stade was the most recent period of very cold climate in which glaciers existed at elevations at and near sea level in the western part of present-day Washington state . It occurred during a colder than present part of the current ice age . The Vashon Glaciation lasted from about 19,000 - 16,000 BP ( Before Present - present defined as January 1 , 1950 for this scale ) . The Cordilleran Ice Sheet was an ice sheet that covered present-day southern Alaska and parts of western Canada . During the Vashon Glaciation , the Cordilleran Ice Sheet advanced into the Puget Sound region .", "East Antarctic Ice Sheet The East Antarctic Ice Sheet ( EAIS ) is one of two large ice sheets in Antarctica , and the largest on the entire planet . The EAIS lies between 45 ° west and 168 ° east longitudinally . The EAIS is considerably larger in area and mass than the West Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) . It is separated from the WAIS by the Transantarctic Mountains . The EAIS rests upon a large land mass , contrary to that of the WAIS , which rests mainly on bedrock below sea level . The EAIS is also home to the thickest ice on the frozen white continent , at 15,700 ft ( 4,800 m ) . More well known , however , is that the EAIS is home to the geographic South Pole as well as of the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station .", "Hartmut Heinrich Hartmut Heinrich ( born March 5 , 1952 in Northeim , Lower Saxony ) is a German marine geologist and climatologist . Dr. Heinrich is Head of the Physics Department at the Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency ( BSH ) in Hamburg . He is actively involved in GOOS ( Global Ocean Observing System ) . In 1988 he described the suddenly occurring climate changes in the history of the earth , which have since been named after him , Heinrich events . Heinrich studied geology at the University of Göttingen and attained a doctorate at the University of Kiel in marine geology . The discovery which was named for him , Heinrich events -- periods of substantial ice output of the continental ice sheets , by which the global climate is strongly affected -- were subsequently confirmed by investigations of ice core samples from the Greenland ice sheet by the Greenland ice core project ( GRIP ) . Dr. Heinrich warns of the global warming consequences which could occur precipitously and of far larger effects on navigation and population .", "West Antarctica West Antarctica , or Lesser Antarctica , one of the two major regions of Antarctica , is the part of that continent that lies within the Western Hemisphere , and includes the Antarctic Peninsula . It is separated from East Antarctica by the Transantarctic Mountains and is covered by the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . It lies between the Ross Sea ( partly covered by the Ross Ice Shelf ) , and the Weddell Sea ( largely covered by the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf ) . It may be considered a giant peninsula stretching from the South Pole towards the tip of South America . West Antarctica is largely covered by the Antarctic ice sheet , but there have been signs that climate change is having some effect and that this ice sheet may have started to shrink slightly . The coasts of the Antarctic Peninsula are the only parts of West Antarctica that become ( in summer ) ice-free . These constitute the Marielandia Antarctic tundra and have the warmest climate in Antarctica . The rocks are clad in mosses and lichens that can cope with the intense cold of winter and the short growing-season .", "Geography of Antarctica The geography of Antarctica is dominated by its south polar location and , thus , by ice . The Antarctic continent , located in the Earth 's southern hemisphere , is centered asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle . It is washed by the Southern ( or Antarctic ) Ocean or , depending on definition , the southern Pacific , Atlantic , and Indian Oceans . It has an area of more than 14 million km ² . Some 98 % of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet , the world 's largest ice sheet and also its largest reservoir of fresh water . Averaging at least 1.6 km thick , the ice is so massive that it has depressed the continental bedrock in some areas more than 2.5 km below sea level ; subglacial lakes of liquid water also occur ( e.g. , Lake Vostok ) . Ice shelves and rises populate the ice sheet on the periphery .", "Greenland's Grand Canyon Greenland 's Grand Canyon or Grand Canyon of Greenland is a tentative canyon of record length discovered underneath the Greenland ice sheet as reported in the journal Science on 30 August 2013 ( submitted 29 April 2013 ) , by scientists from the University of Bristol , University of Calgary , and University of Urbino , who described it as a mega-canyon . Ice-penetrating radar data collected during NASA 's Operation IceBridge showed a huge subglacial canyon running from the central region of the island northward into the Arctic Ocean , to the fjord of the Petermann Glacier . The bottom of the canyon is below sea level ; the canyon is likely to have influenced basal water flow from the ice sheet interior to the margin . Jonathan Bamber , a geographer at University of Bristol , stated , `` The distinctive V-shaped walls and flat bottom suggests water carved the buried valley , not ice . '' The canyon is more than 750 km long , up to 800 m deep and 10 km wide , making it the longest canyon discovered on the Earth to date . There are , however , many canyons -- including Arizona 's Grand Canyon and Tibet 's Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon , previously the world 's longest -- that are deeper . The canyon predates ice sheet inception and has influenced basal hydrology in Greenland over past glacial cycles .", "Eemian Sea The Eemian Sea was a body of water located approximately where the Baltic Sea is now during the last interglacial , or Eemian Stage , Marine isotopic stage ( MIS ) 5e , roughly 130,000 to 115,000 years BP . Sea level was 5 to 7 metres higher globally than it is today , due to the release of glacial water in the early stage of the interglacial . Although `` Eemian '' rightly applies only to the northern European glacial system , some scientists use the term in a wider sense to mean any high-level body of water in the last interglacial . The early Eemian Sea connected with the White Sea along the line of the present White Sea-Baltic Canal . Karelia was inundated and Lakes Ladoga and Onega were mere depressions in the shallow eastern end of the Eemian sea . At the other end the sea connected to the North Sea more broadly than its presently does . Much of northern Europe was under shallow water . Scandinavia was an island . The salinity of the Eemian Sea was comparable to that of the Atlantic . Scientists reach these conclusions from a study of types of micro-organisms fossilized in the clay sediments laid down in the Eemian Sea , and from the included pollen of Corylus , Carpinus and Betula . During MIS 5e , the mean annual temperature was 3 ° C higher than today . At its end , during the cooler prelude of MIS 5d , c , b and a , the region continued to rise isostatically . Some water was recaptured in ice . Levels in the Eemian Sea dropped , and the opening to the White Sea was blocked . The post-Eemian brackish lake did not last long geologically speaking , but was covered totally with ice . The Weichselian glaciation starting fully in MIS 4 , with an interstadial in 3 and a greatest extent in 2 , produced , at its maximum in 20,000-18 ,000 BP , an ice sheet more than 3 km high . As the lake bed was only a few hundred metres deep , no lake could have existed . The ice extended southward into northern Europe as far as France and eastward as far as Poland . At its recession , the Baltic Ice Lake appeared .", "Thwaites Glacier Thwaites Glacier is an unusually broad and fast Antarctic glacier flowing into Pine Island Bay , part of the Amundsen Sea , east of Mount Murphy , on the Walgreen Coast of Marie Byrd Land . Its surface speeds exceed 2 km/yr near its grounding line , and its fastest flowing grounded ice is centred between 50 and 100 km east of Mount Murphy . It was named by ACAN after Fredrik T. Thwaites , a glacial geologist , geomorphologist and professor emeritus at the University of Wisconsin -- Madison . Thwaites Glacier drains into West Antarctica 's Amundsen Sea and is closely watched for its potential to raise sea levels . Along with Pine Island Glacier , Thwaites Glacier has been described as part of the `` weak underbelly '' of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet , due to its apparent vulnerability to significant retreat . This hypothesis is based on both theoretical studies of the stability of marine ice sheets and recent observations of large changes on both of these glaciers . In recent years , the flow of both of these glaciers have accelerated , their surfaces lowered , and the grounding lines retreated .", "Marine regression Marine regression is a geological process occurring when areas of submerged seafloor are exposed above the sea level . The opposite event , marine transgression , occurs when flooding from the sea covers previously exposed land . Evidence of marine regressions and transgressions occurs throughout the fossil record , and these fluctuations are thought to have caused or contributed to several mass extinctions , among them the Permian-Triassic extinction event ( 250 million years ago ) and Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event ( 66 Ma ) . At the time of the Permian-Triassic extinction , the largest extinction event in the Earth 's history , global sea level fell 250 m ( 820 ft ) . A major regression could itself cause marine organisms in shallow seas to go extinct , but mass extinctions tend to involve both terrestrial and aquatic species , and it is harder to see how a marine regression could cause widespread extinctions of land animals . Regressions are , therefore , seen as correlates or symptoms of major extinctions , rather than primary causes . The Permian regression might have been related to the formation of Pangaea : the accumulation of all the major landmasses into one body could have facilitated a regression , by providing `` a slight enlargement of the ocean basins as the great continents coalesced . '' However , that cause could not have applied in all , or even many , other cases . During the ice ages of the Pleistocene , a clear correlation existed between marine regressions and episodes of glaciation ; as the balance shifts between the global cryosphere and hydrosphere , more of the planet 's water in ice sheets means less in the oceans . At the height of the last ice age , at around 18,000 years before the present , the global sea level was 120 to 130 m ( 390-425 ft ) lower than today . A cold spell around 6 million years ago was linked to an advance in glaciation , a marine regression , and the start of the Messinian salinity crisis in the Mediterranean basin . Some major regressions of the past , however , seem unrelated to glaciation episodes -- the regression that accompanied the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous Period being one example . A clear and certain understanding of major marine regressions has not yet been achieved ; according to one hypothesis , regressions may be linked to a `` slowdown in sea-floor spreading , leading to a generalized drop in sea level ( as the mid-ocean ridges would take up less space ) ... '' In that view , major marine regressions are one aspect of a normal variation in rates of plate tectonic activity , which lead to major episodes of global volcanism like the Siberian Traps and the Deccan Traps , which in turn cause large extinction events .", "North Ice North Ice was a research station of the British North Greenland Expedition ( 1952 to 1954 ) on the inland ice of Greenland . The coordinates of the station were , at an altitude of 2341 m above sea level . The British North Greenland Expedition was led by Commander James Simpson RN . The station recorded the lowest temperature ever in North America with -66.1 C on 9 January 1954 . The name of the station contrasts to the former British South Ice station in Antarctica .", "Strudel (ice) A strudel -LSB- ˈstruːdəl -RSB- ( plural : strudel ) is a vertical hole in sea ice through which downward jet-like , buoyancy-driven drainage of flood water is thought to occur . This feature is less than a few tens of meters in size and typically occurs within 30 km from a river mouth , in the sea ice expanse that is fastened to the coastline ( known as fast ice ) . Once the water that flooded the ice has completely drained off the ice surface , strudel become recognizable by a radial pattern of feeder channels that lead to the hole . They are elongated and irregularly spaced , with the larger ones up to several kilometers apart . Their distribution tends to be controlled by weak areas in the ice -- in places , they line up along fractures or refrozen extensional cracks . The ice sheet where they occur may be 2 m in thickness , at water depths ( below the ice ) in the order of a few meters . The term strudel is German , and designates a whirlpool , in reference to the water vortex that forms above these features during drainage . It has been suggested that this vortex could present a hazard for investigators wishing to study this phenomenon in the field , and that this would explain , at least partly , why little is known about strudel .", "Glacier morphology Glacier morphology , or the form a glacier takes , is influenced by temperature , precipitation , topography , and other factors . Types of glaciers range from massive ice sheets , such as the Greenland ice sheet or those in Antarctica , to small cirque glaciers perched on a mountain . Glaciers types can be grouped into two main categories , based on whether ice flow is constrained by the underlying bedrock topography .", "Ice algae Ice algae are any of the various types of algal communities found in annual and multi-year sea or terrestrial ice . On sea ice in polar regions of the oceans , ice algae communities play an important role in primary production . The timing of blooms of the algae is especially important for supporting higher trophic levels at times of the year when light is low and ice cover still exists . Sea ice algal communities are mostly concentrated in the bottom layer of the ice , but can also occur in brine channels within the ice , in melt ponds , and on the surface . Because terrestrial ice algae occur in freshwater systems , the species composition differs greatly from that of sea ice algae . These communities are significant in that they often change the color of glaciers and ice sheets , impacting the reflectivity of the ice itself .", "Extreme points of Antarctica The tallest mountain in Antarctica is Mount Vinson rising 4,892 metres ( 16,050 feet ) above sea level . The lowest point in Antarctica is within the Bentley Subglacial Trench , which reaches 2,555 metres below sea level . This is also the lowest place on Earth not covered by ocean ( although it is covered by ice ) . The lowest accessible point in Antarctica is the shore of Deep Lake , Vestfold Hills , which is 50 m beneath sea level . The point on land farthest from any coastline on the Antarctic Continent is located at . This is also known as the South Pole of inaccessibility . Antarctica is the southernmost land mass on Earth . The Geographical South Pole lies on the Polar Plateau at . It is here that the southernmost human habitation on Earth is located : Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station ( U.S. Administered Base ) . Vostok Station is the most isolated research base on the continent ( located at ) , and it is situated over the southernmost lake in the world , Lake Vostok , a subglacial lake 4,000 metres ( 13,000 feet ) under the surface of the ice where the station sits . Formerly administrated by the Soviets , it is now operated by Russia . The southernmost volcano on the planet -- Mount Erebus -- is in Antarctica on the world 's southernmost island reachable from the sea : Ross Island . The southernmost island is Berkner Island . It is embedded in the ice shelf , fully covered by ice and fully below sea level . The Ross Sea is the southernmost sea in the world , with its southernmost extremity ( Gould Coast ) at the foot of the Horlick Mountains approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) from the Geographic South Pole . However , this area is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf . The southernmost open sea is also part of Ross Sea , namely Bay of Whales at 78 ° 30 'S , at the edge of Ross Ice Shelf . The northernmost extremity of the Antarctic mainland ( without nearshore islands ) is Prime Head , at the northern tip of the Trinity Peninsula at . The Antarctic Peninsula is the largest contiguous part of the continent projecting north of the Antarctic Circle and thus has many of the continent 's research bases . Prime Head is 609 mi ( 980 km ) from Cape Horn . The northernmost research base on the mainland is Esperanza Base .", "Mini-Neptune A mini-Neptune ( sometimes known as a gas dwarf or transitional planet ) is a planet of up to 10 Earth masses , less massive than Uranus and Neptune , which have about 14.5 and 17 , respectively . Mini-Neptunes have thick hydrogen -- helium atmospheres , probably with deep layers of ice , rock or liquid oceans ( made of water , ammonia , a mixture of both , or heavier volatiles ) . These planets have small cores made of low-density volatiles . Theoretical studies of such planets are loosely based on knowledge about Uranus and Neptune . Without a thick atmosphere , it would be classified as an ocean planet instead . An estimated dividing line between a rocky planet and a gaseous planet is around two Earth radii . In fact , empirical observations are showing that planets larger than approximately 1.6 Earth-radius ( more massive than approximately 6 Earth-masses ) contain significant amounts of volatiles or H -- He gas ( such planets appear to have a diversity of compositions that is not well-explained by a single mass -- radius relation as that found in rocky planets ) . Similar results are confirmed by other studies . As for mass , the lower limit can vary widely for different planets depending on their compositions ; the dividing mass can vary from as low as one to as high as 20 . Several exoplanets have been discovered that are possibly gas dwarfs , based on known masses and densities . For example , Kepler-11f has a mass of 2.3 , yet its density is the same as that of Saturn , implying that it is a gas dwarf with a hydrogen -- helium ( or water vapor ) atmosphere and only a small rocky core . The even smaller Kepler-138d , having only roughly Earth 's mass , is also suspected to be a gas planet due to its relatively large diameter ( ~ 20,500 km ) and therefore low density . Such planets are not found orbiting too close to their parent stars , where their thick atmospheres would be evaporated by heat or blown away by stellar winds . It is demonstrated that the inner planets of the Kepler-11 system have higher densities than planets farther away .", "Retrogradation Retrogradation is the landward change in position of the front of a river delta with time . This occurs when the mass balance of sediment into the delta is such that the volume of incoming sediment is less than the volume of the delta that is lost through subsidence , sea-level rise , and/or erosion . As a result , retrogradation is most common : during periods of sea-level rise which results in marine transgression . This can occur during major periods of global warming and the melting of continental ice sheets . with extremely low sediment input .", "Ice giant An ice giant is a giant planet composed mainly of elements heavier than hydrogen and helium , such as oxygen , carbon , nitrogen , and sulfur . There are two known ice giants in the Solar System , Uranus and Neptune . Ice giants consist of only about 20 % hydrogen and helium in mass , as opposed to the Solar System 's gas giants ( Jupiter and Saturn ) , which are both more than 90 % hydrogen and helium in mass . In the 1990s , it was realized that Uranus and Neptune are a distinct class of giant planet , separate from the other giant planets . They have become known as ice giants because their constituent compounds were ices when they were primarily incorporated into the planets during their formation , either directly in the form of ices or trapped in water ice . The amount of solid volatiles within the ice giants today is , however , very small .", "Nioghalvfjerdsbrae Nioghalvfjerdsbrae , sometimes referred to as `` 79 N Glacier '' , is a large glacier located in northeast Greenland . It drains an area of 103,314 km2 of the Greenland Ice Sheet with a flux ( quantity of ice moved from the land to the sea ) of 14.3 km3 per year , as measured for 1996 .", "Astrological transit Astrological transits are one of the main means used in horoscopic astrology to forecast future trends and developments ( the other means used is astrological progression , which progresses the horoscope forward in time according to set methods ) . As its name implies , astrological transits involve a method of interpreting the ongoing movement of the planets as they transit the horoscope . This is most often done for the birth or Natal Chart of a particular individual . Particular attention is paid to changes of sign , or house , and to the aspects or angles the transiting planets make with the natal chart . A particularly important transit is the planetary return . This occurs when a transiting planet returns to the same point in the sky that it occupied at the moment of a person 's birth . What this means is that the planet has completed a whole circuit of the sky , and signifies that a new cycle in the person 's life is beginning . The most significant returns are those of the outer planets Jupiter and Saturn . The Jupiter return occurs approximately every 12 years and heralds a new phase of growth and development . The Saturn return occurs approximately every 30 years , and heralds a new phase in the aging process when new realities and responsibilities must be faced .", "Hurricane force wind warning A hurricane force wind warning is a warning issued by the National Weather Service of the United States when sustained winds or frequent gusts of 64 knots ( 118 km/h , 74 mph ) or greater are either being observed or are predicted to occur . The winds must not be directly associated with a tropical cyclone , or a hurricane warning will be issued . If winds are lighter than 64 knots , a storm warning or gale warning will be issued . In US maritime warning flag systems , two red square flags with a black square taking up the middle ninth of each flag is used to indicate a hurricane force wind warning ( the use of one such flag denotes a storm warning or a tropical storm warning ) . Example of a hurricane force wind warning : URGENT - MARINE WEATHER MESSAGE NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE PORTLAND OR 249 AM PDT MON MAR 12 2012 PZZ255-275-121800 - / O.CON.KPQR.HF.W.0002.000000T0000Z-120313T0100Z / COASTAL WATERS FROM CASCADE HEAD TO FLORENCE OR OUT 10 NM - WATERS FROM CASCADE HEAD TO FLORENCE OR FROM 10 TO 60 NM - 249 AM PDT MON MAR 12 2012 ... HURRICANE FORCE WIND WARNING REMAINS IN EFFECT UNTIL 6 PM PDT THIS EVENING ... A HURRICANE FORCE WIND WARNING REMAINS IN EFFECT UNTIL 6 PM PDT THIS EVENING . * WINDS ... SOUTH WIND 40 TO 50 KT WITH GUSTS TO 70 KT EXPECTED TO PEAK MONDAY MORNING OVER THE OUTER WATERS ... WITH LOCAL GUSTS TO 75 KT POSSIBLE OVER THE INNER WATERS MONDAY LATE MORNING AND EARLY AFTERNOON . * SEAS ... COMBINED SEAS WILL REACH 28 TO 30 FEET EARLY MONDAY MORNING ... POSSIBLY HIGHER ... THEN EASE TO AROUND 20 FEET BY EARLY MONDAY EVENING . SEAS WILL BE QUITE CHOPPY WITH A HIGH SOUTH TO SOUTHWEST WIND WAVE COMPONENT ... AND A WEST LONGER PERIOD SWELL COMPONENT . PRECAUTIONARY/PREPAREDNESS ACTIONS ... A HURRICANE FORCE WIND WARNING MEANS WINDS OF 64 KNOTS OR GREATER ARE IMMINENT OR OCCURRING . ALL VESSELS SHOULD REMAIN IN PORT ... OR TAKE SHELTER AS SOON AS POSSIBLE ... UNTIL WINDS AND WAVES SUBSIDE .", "Cordilleran Ice Sheet The Cordilleran ice sheet was a major ice sheet that periodically covered large parts of North America during glacial periods over the last ~ 2.6 million years . This included the following areas : Western Montana The Idaho Panhandle Northern Washington state down to about Olympia and Spokane All of British Columbia The southwestern third or so of Yukon Territory All of the Alaska Panhandle South Central Alaska The Alaska Peninsula Almost all of the continental shelf north of the Strait of Juan de Fuca The ice sheet covered up to 2.5 million square kilometres at the Last Glacial Maximum and probably more than that in some previous periods , when it may have extended into the northeast extremity of Oregon and the Salmon River Mountains in Idaho . It is probable , though , that its northern margin also migrated south due to the influence of starvation caused by very low levels of precipitation . At its eastern end the Cordilleran ice sheet merged with the Laurentide ice sheet at the Continental Divide , forming an area of ice that contained one and a half times as much water as the Antarctic ice sheet does today . At its western end it is believed nowadays that several small glacial refugia existed during the last glacial maximum below present sea level in the now-submerged Hecate Strait and on the Brooks Peninsula in northern Vancouver Island . However , evidence of ice-free refugia above present sea level north of the Olympic Peninsula has been refuted by genetic and geological studies since the middle 1990s . The ice sheet faded north of the Alaska Range because the climate was too dry to form glaciers . Unlike the Laurentide ice sheet , which is believed to have taken as much as eleven thousand years to fully melt , it is believed the Cordilleran ice sheet , except for areas that remain glaciated today , melted very quickly , probably in four thousand years or less . This rapid melting caused such floods as the overflow of Lake Missoula and shaped the topography of the extremely fertile Inland Empire of Eastern Washington .", "Patagonian Ice Sheet thumb | right | Map showing the extent of the Patagonian Ice Sheet in the Strait of Magellan area during the last glacial period . Selected modern settlements are shown with yellow dots . The sea-level was much lower than shown in this picture . The Patagonian Ice Sheet was a large elongated and narrow ice sheet centered in the southern Andes that existed during the Llanquihue glaciation . The ice sheet covered all of Chile south of Puerto Montt plus the western fringes of Argentine Patagonia .", "West Antarctic Rift The West Antarctic Rift is a major , active rift valley lying between East and West Antarctica . It encompasses the Ross Sea , the area under the Ross Ice Shelf and a part of West Antarctica . Its evolution is due to lithospheric thinning of the non-cratonic area of West Antarctica . Exploration of the geology of the West Antarctic Rift is difficult , because , apart from peaks of the Transantarctic Mountains that protrude above the ice , the region is covered by the vast West Antarctic Ice Sheet . Thus , the rift is less well known than other major rift valleys . It is known , however , that like the East African Rift , the West Antarctic Rift is actually a number of much shorter rifts that cross Antarctica . There is also a sharp division between older , broader Paleogene rifts including the Ross Sea Basin and the younger , narrower Terror Rift . There are also a large number of failed rifts extending as far as Berkner Island . Although many rifts within the West Antarctic Rift system are no longer active , it is now known that West Antarctica is moving away from the East Antarctic Craton in a north/northeasterly direction ( approximately in the direction of the South Georgia Islands ) at a rate of about 2 mm per year or 500,000 years per kilometre . The West Antarctic Rift is the source of all the recently active volcanoes within Antarctica , and of most of the major Antarctic mountain systems outside the Antarctic Peninsula . It is also believed to have a major influence on ice flows in West Antarctica , because fast moving ice streams are believed to be influenced by the lubrication provided by water-saturated till , which some argue could help cause breakup of the ice sheet if global warming accelerates .", "AT-10 resin AT-10 is a synthetic resin , mainly used in the manufacture of ultra-thin condoms . It has a higher strength in thinner sheets than other materials such as natural latex . AT-10 is not stretchable , but does cling to skin to form a `` wrap '' . It is well suited to condom manufacture as it : can be made into very thin sheets , circa 15 micrometres thick is hypoallergenic so does not have the potential to cause allergic reactions on contact with skin like natural latex allows body heat to pass through quickly is strong at relatively thin levels is non-porous does not degrade when exposed to common oils , such as oil based lubricants", "Greenland Ice Sheet Project The Greenland Ice Sheet Project ( GISP ) was a decade-long project to drill ice cores in Greenland that involved scientists and funding agencies from Denmark , Switzerland and the United States . Besides the U.S. National Science Foundation ( NSF ) , funding was provided by the Swiss National Science Foundation and the Danish Commission for Scientific Research in Greenland . The ice cores provide a proxy archive of temperature and atmospheric constituents that help to understand past climate variations . The preliminary GISP field work started in 1971 at Dye 3 , where a 372 meter deep , 10.2 cm diameter core was recovered . After this , annual field expeditions were carried out to drill intermediate depth cores at various locations on the ice sheet . The first was a 398 m core at Milcent and another was a 405 m core at the Crete station in 1974 . After working out various logistical and engineering problems related to the development of a more sophisticated drilling rig , drilling to bedrock at Dye 3 began in the summer of 1979 using a new Danish electro-mechanical ice drill . In the first year , an 18 cm diameter hole was drilled and cased to a depth of 80 m. Coring continued for two more seasons , and on August 10 , 1981 , bedrock was reached at a depth of 2037 m . The Dye 3 site was a compromise : glaciologically , a higher site on the ice divide with smooth bedrock would have been better ; logistically , such a site would have been too remote .", "Dome A Dome A or Dome Argus is the loftiest ice dome on the Antarctic Plateau , located 1200 km inland . It is thought to be the coldest naturally occurring place on Earth ; scientists believe that temperatures can sometimes even drop below -102 ° C in the winter . It is the highest ice feature in Antarctica , consisting of an ice dome or eminence of 4093 m elevation above sea level . It is located near the center of East Antarctica , approximately midway between the enormous head of Lambert Glacier and the geographic South Pole , within the Australian claim .", "Geography of Norway Norway is a country located in Northern Europe on the western and northern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula , bordering the North Sea in southwest and the Skagerrak inlet to the south , the North Atlantic Ocean ( Norwegian Sea ) in the west and the Barents Sea to the northeast . Norway has a long land border with Sweden to the east , a shorter one with Finland in the northeast and a still shorter border with Russia in the far northeast . Norway has a very elongated shape , one of the longest and most rugged coastlines in the world , and some 50,000 islands off the extremely indented coastline . The mainland covers 13 ° latitude , from 58 ° N to more than 71 ° N , ( Svalbard north to 81 ° N ) , and covers the longitude from 5 ° E in Solund to 31 ° E in Vardø ( Jan Mayen to 9 ° W , Kvitøya to 33 ° E ) . Norway is one of the world 's most northerly countries , and one of Europe 's most mountainous countries with large areas dominated by the Scandinavian Mountains ; average elevation is 460 m and 32 % of the mainland is located above the tree line . The country-length chain of peaks is geologically continuous with the mountains of Scotland , Ireland and , crossing the Atlantic Ocean , the Appalachian Mountains of North America . Geologists hold that all these formed a single range prior to the breakup of the ancient supercontinent Pangaea . Virtually the entire country was covered with a thick ice sheet during the last ice age , as well as in many earlier ice ages . The movement of the ice carved out deep valleys , and when the ice melted , the sea filled many of these valleys , creating Norway 's famous fjords . The land is still rebounding from the enormous weight of the ice ( isostatic rebound ) , `` growing out of the sea '' several millimeters a year . Rebound is greatest in the eastern part of the country and the inner part of the long fjords , where the ice cover was thickest . This is a slow process , and for thousands of years following the end of the ice age , the sea covered substantial areas of what is today dry land . The sea reached what is today an elevation of 221 m in Oslo ( Aker ) , 25 m in Stavanger , 5 m near Stad , 180 m in Trondheim , 50 m in Tromsø and 75 m in Kirkenes . This old seabed is now among the best agricultural land in the country . The glaciers in the higher mountain areas today are not remnants of the large ice sheet of the ice age , their origins are more recent . The regional climate was up to 1-3 ° C warmer in 7000 BC to 3000 BC in the Holocene climatic optimum , ( relative to the 1961-90 period ) , melting the remaining glaciers in the mountains almost completely during that period . As a result of the ice carving , Sognefjorden is the world 's second deepest fjord and Hornindalsvatnet is the deepest lake in Europe .", "Ice shelf An ice shelf is a thick floating platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface . Ice shelves are only found in Antarctica , Greenland , Canada and the Russian Arctic . The boundary between the floating ice shelf and the grounded ( resting on bedrock ) ice that feeds it is called the grounding line . The thickness of ice shelves ranges from about 100 to 1000 meters . In contrast , sea ice is formed on water , is much thinner ( typically less than 3m ) , and forms throughout the Arctic Ocean . It also is found in the Southern Ocean around the continent of Antarctica . Ice shelves are principally driven by gravity-driven pressure from the grounded ice . That flow continually moves ice from the grounding line to the seaward front of the shelf . The primary mechanism of mass loss from ice shelves was thought to have been iceberg calving , in which a chunk of ice breaks off from the seaward front of the shelf . A study by NASA and university researchers - published in the June 14 , 2013 issue of Science - found however that ocean waters melting the undersides of Antarctic ice shelves are responsible for most of the continent 's ice shelf mass loss . Typically , a shelf front will extend forward for years or decades between major calving events . Snow accumulation on the upper surface and melting from the lower surface are also important to the mass balance of an ice shelf . Ice may also accrete onto the underside of the shelf . The density contrast between glacial ice , which is denser than normal ice , and liquid water means that only about 1/9 of the floating ice is above the ocean surface . The world 's largest ice shelves are the Ross Ice Shelf and the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in Antarctica . The term captured ice shelf has been used for the ice over a subglacial lake , such as Lake Vostok .", "Pine Island Glacier Pine Island Glacier ( PIG ) is a large ice stream glacier , and the fastest melting glacier in Antarctica , responsible for about 25 % of Antarctica 's ice loss . The glacier ice streams flow west-northwest along the south side of the Hudson Mountains into Pine Island Bay , Amundsen Sea , Antarctica . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from surveys and United States Navy ( USN ) air photos , 1960 -- 66 , and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) in association with Pine Island Bay . The area drained by Pine Island Glacier comprises about 10 % of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . Satellite measurements have shown that the Pine Island Glacier Basin has a greater net contribution of ice to the sea than any other ice drainage basin in the world and this has increased due to recent acceleration of the ice stream . The ice stream is extremely remote , with the nearest continually occupied research station at Rothera , nearly 1300 km away . The area is not claimed by any nations and the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any new claims while it is in force .", "Polar forests of the Cretaceous Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "Salisbury Embayment The Salisbury Embayment was an arm of the Atlantic Ocean which covered what is now Delaware , southern and eastern Maryland , the Virginia Peninsula and parts of southern New Jersey during Paleogene and Neogene times , from about 65 million to 5 million years ago . Sea level throughout most of this period stood several hundred feet higher than at present , and deposition of sediments draining off the continent possibly caused the underlying rocks to sink down , creating the embayment . The shore of the embayment lay inland at the present-day fall line in the region . When sea levels fell as the Pleistocene ice ages took hold , the thousands of feet of sediment layers in the Salisbury Embayment were exposed as the Coastal Plain terrains of Delaware , Maryland and eastern Virginia ." ]

[ "Arctic Ocean The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world 's five major oceans . The International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) recognizes it as an ocean , although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea , classifying it a mediterranean sea or an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean . Alternatively , the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean . Located mostly in the Arctic north polar region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere , the Arctic Ocean is almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America . It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter . The Arctic Ocean 's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes ; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans , due to low evaporation , heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams , and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities . The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50 % . The US National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years .", "Retreat of glaciers since 1850 The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Thick-skinned deformation Thick-skinned deformation is a geological term which refers to crustal shortening that involves basement rocks and deep-seated faults as opposed to only the upper units of cover rocks above the basement which is known as thin-skinned deformation . While thin-skinned deformation is common in many different localities , thick-skinned deformation requires much more strain to occur and is a rarer type of deformation .", "Thick and thin Colloquially , thick and thin means good times and bad times . Thick and thin may refer to : `` Thick and Thin '' , a song by Avenged Sevenfold on Sounding the Seventh Trumpet `` Thick N ' Thin '' , a song by The Black Crowes on Shake Your Money Maker `` Thick & Thin '' , a song by Ten City on No House Big Enough Thick and thin , opposing philosophical concepts discussed by political theorist Michael Walzer Thick and thin , forms of the rule of law present in Chinese law", "Russian-American Long-term Census of the Arctic July 23 , 2004 marked an historic day in Arctic research and exploration as well as Russian-U.S. relations . On this date the Russian research ship , the Professor Khromov , left Vladivostok , Russia packed with U.S.and Russian funded scientists to begin a 45-day collaborative journey of exploration and research in the Arctic . Stemming from a 2003 Memorandum of Understanding for World Ocean and Polar Regions Studies between NOAA and the Russian Academy of Sciences , this cruise was the first activity under the Russian-American Long-term Census of the Arctic ( RUSALCA ) . RUSALCA means mermaid in the Russian language . In November 2003 , a RUSALCA planning workshop was held in Moscow , Russia to outline the biological , geological , chemical and physical oceanographic sampling strategies to be pursued in the Bering Strait and the Chukchi Sea . The Initial Expedition to the Bering and Chukchi Seas ( Arctic Ocean ) , was conducted July 23 -- September 6 , 2004 . This initial cruise was a collaborative U.S -- Russian Federation oceanographic expedition to the Arctic seas regions shared by both countries : the Bering and Chukchi Seas . These seas and the life within are thought to be particularly sensitive to global climate change because they are centers where steep thermohaline and nutrient gradients in the ocean coincide with steep thermal gradients in the atmosphere . The Bering Strait acts as the only Pacific gateway into and out of the Arctic Ocean and as such is critical for the flux of heat between the Arctic and the rest of the world . Monitoring the flux of fresh and salt water as well as establishing benchmark information about the distribution and migration patterns of the life in these seas are also critical pieces of information needed prior to the placement of a climate-monitoring network in this region .", "Maritime Forces Atlantic In the Canadian Forces , Maritime Forces Atlantic ( MARLANT ) is responsible for the fleet training and operational readiness of the Royal Canadian Navy in the Atlantic Ocean and Arctic Ocean . It was once referred to as Canadian Atlantic Station .", "Shrinking space In mathematics , in the field of topology , a topological space is said to be a shrinking space if every open cover admits a shrinking . A shrinking of an open cover is another open cover indexed by the same indexing set , with the property that the closure of each open set in the shrinking lies inside the corresponding original open set . The following facts are known about shrinking spaces : Every shrinking space is normal . Every shrinking space is countably paracompact . In a normal space , every locally finite , and in fact , every point finite open cover admits a shrinking . Thus , every normal metacompact space is a shrinking space . In particular , every paracompact space is a shrinking space . These facts are particularly important because shrinking of open covers is a common technique in the theory of differential manifolds and while constructing functions using a partition of unity .", "Margin Margin may refer to : Margin ( economics ) Margin ( finance ) , a type of financial collateral used to cover credit risk Margin ( typography ) , the white space that surrounds the content of a page Margin ( machine learning ) , the distance between a decision boundary and a data point Margin , Iran , a village in Qazvin Province Continental margin , the zone of the ocean floor that separates the thin oceanic crust from thick continental crust Marginal frequency distribution in statistics Leaf margin , the edge of a leaf blade , also ID-2119 , a United States Navy patrol boat in commission from 1918 to 1919", "South Kara Depression The South Kara Depression is the central part of the South Kara Basin of the Arctic shelf of Russia . It is covered with up to 12 km thick of Neogene-Quaternary deposits .", "Kvitøyjøkulen Kvitøyjøkulen is a large icecap on the island of Kvitøya in the Svalbard archipelago . The icecap covers most of the island , which has an area between 600 and 700 square kilometers .", "Stone slab A stone slab is a big stone , flat and of little thickness , that are generally used for paving floors , for covering walls or as headstones . Other definitions refine the meaning a bit more : Flat big stone and of little thickness . Flat stone , relatively thin , of rectangular form or almost rectangular ...", "Russian Arctic National Park Russian Arctic National Park is a national park of Russia , which was established in June 2009 . It was expanded in 2016 , and it covers a large and remote area of the Arctic Ocean , the northern part of Novaya Zemlya ( Severny Island ) , and Franz Josef Land .", "Through Thick and Thin Through Thick and Thin is the second full-length album by San Diego punk band Dogwood .", "Nuclear-powered icebreaker A nuclear-powered icebreaker is a nuclear-powered ship purpose-built for use in waters covered with ice . The only country constructing nuclear-powered icebreakers is Russia . Nuclear-powered icebreakers have been constructed by the USSR and later Russia primarily to aid shipping along the Northern Sea Route in the frozen Arctic waterways north of Siberia . Nuclear-powered icebreakers are much more powerful than their diesel-powered counterparts , and although nuclear propulsion is expensive to install and maintain , very heavy fuel demands and limitations on range can make diesel vessels less practical and economical overall for these ice-breaking duties . During the winter , the ice along the Northern Sea Route varies in thickness from 1.2 to 2.0 metres ( 3.9 to 6.5 feet ) . The ice in central parts of the Arctic Ocean is on average 2.5 metres ( 8.2 ft ) thick . Nuclear-powered icebreakers can force through this ice at speeds up to 10 knots ( 19 km/h , 12 mph ) . In ice-free waters the maximum speed of the nuclear-powered icebreakers is as much as 21 knots ( 39 km/h , 24 mph ) . In August 2012 Russia 's state-owned nuclear corporation , Rosatom , signed a contract to begin construction on what will be the world 's largest nuclear icebreaker , a `` universal '' vessel that could navigate both shallower rivers and the freezing depths of the Arctic .", "Thin-wall injection molding Thin wall injection molding is a specialized form of conventional injection molding that focuses on mass-producing plastic parts that are thin and light so that material cost savings can be made and cycle times can be as short as possible . Shorter cycle times means higher productivity and lower costs per part . The definition of thin wall is really about the size of the part compared to its wall thickness . For any particular plastic part , as the wall thickness reduces the harder it is to manufacture using the injection molding process . The size of a part puts a limit on how thin the wall thickness can be . For packaging containers thin wall means wall thicknesses that are less than 0.025 inch ( 0.62 mm ) with a flow length to wall thickness greater than 200 .", "Koukdjuak River The Koukdjuak River begins at the outlet of Nettilling Lake and empties into the Arctic Ocean . It is the namesake of the Great Plain of the Koukdjuak located in the Foxe Basin on western Baffin Island , Nunavut ( formerly Northwest Territories ) , northern Canada . The first non-Inuit who specifically explored the river was the Canadian Arctic explorer/ornithologist , J. Dewey Soper . The northern boundary of the Dewey Soper Migratory Bird Sanctuary is the middle thread of the Koukdjuak River . The river is also notable as a Barren-ground caribou migration crossing and for Arctic charr fishing .", "Holochroal eye Holochroal eyes are compound eyes with many tiny lenses ( sometimes more than 15,000 , each 30-100μm , rarely larger ) . They are the oldest and most common type of trilobite eye , and found in all orders of trilobite from the Cambrian to the Permian periods . Lenses ( composed of calcite ) covered a curved , kidney-shaped visual surface in a hexagonal close packing system , with a single corneal membrane covering all lenses . Unlike in schizochroal eyes , adjacent lenses were in direct contact with one another . Lens shape generally depended on cuticle thickness . The lenses of trilobites with thin cuticles were thin and biconvex , whereas those with thick cuticles had thick lenses , which in extreme cases , could be thick columns with the outer surface flattened and the inner surface hemispherical . Regardless of lens thickness , however , the point at which light was focused was roughly the same distance below the lens .", "Polycarpa fibrosa Polycarpa fibrosa is a species of tunicate in the family Styelidae . It is brown and globular and its outer surface is covered with a mat of fibrils . It normally lies buried in soft sediment on the seabed with only its two siphons protruding . It occurs in the Arctic Ocean and northern Atlantic Ocean . P. fibrosa was first identified and described by the American malacologist William Stimpson in 1852 .", "Wolf River (Nunavut) The Wolf River is a river on Axel Heiberg Island in Qikiqtaaluk Region , Nunavut , Canada . It flows to the Arctic Ocean . The river begins at Black Crown Glacier on the slopes of Wolf Mountain , flows south , then turns southwest to reach its mouth at Expedition Fjord , adjacent to the mouth of the Expedition River . Expedition Fjord connects via Strand Bay and the Sverdrup Channel to the Arctic Ocean .", "Thin layers (oceanography) Thin layers are congregations of phytoplankton and zooplankton in the water column which were discovered with advances in instrumentation and deployment technologies allowed samples at the temporal and spatial scales where patterns were revealed . Although they may extend for kilometers , thin layers are only a few tens of centimeters in vertical thickness . They have distinct physical , biological , chemical , optical and acoustical signatures . Thin layers of phytoplankton or zooplankton may contain densities of organisms ranging up to 1000 times those found just above , or below the structure . These extraordinary concentrations of living material must have important implications for many aspects of marine ecology ( e.g. , phytoplankton growth dynamics , micro - and macrozooplankton grazing , behaviour , life histories , predation , harmful algal blooms ) , as well as for ocean optics and acoustics . Thin layers occur in a wide variety of ocean environments , including estuaries , fjords , bays , and the open ocean , and they are often associated with some form of vertical structure in the water column , such as a pycnocline , and in zones of reduced flow .", "Phil Torres Phil Torres ( born March 17 , 1986 ) is an American scientist , journalist , television host , photographer , and explorer . After leading conservation projects in the Amazon rainforest for two years , he is now the lead host of the television show TechKnow on Al Jazeera America . His science research and reporting have sent him around the world , including a submarine to the bottom of the ocean , a USCG ice breaker into the Arctic , and an expedition into Mongolia .", "Thin lens In optics , a thin lens is a lens with a thickness ( distance along the optical axis between the two surfaces of the lens ) that is negligible compared to the radii of curvature of the lens surfaces . Lenses whose thickness is not negligible are sometimes called thick lenses . The thin lens approximation ignores optical effects due to the thickness of lenses and simplifies ray tracing calculations . It is often combined with the paraxial approximation in techniques such as ray transfer matrix analysis .", "Heishanoolithus Heishanoolithus is an oogenus of Elongatoolithid fossil egg from the Shahai Formation in Liaoning . It is known only from seven eggshell fragments . It is most notable for having a very thin eggshell ( 1.2-1 .3 mm thick ) , the dense covering of nodes on the eggshell surface , and for its relatively thin mammilary layer ( making up only one eighth of the eggshell thickness ) . While no remains of Heishanoolithus have been associated with skeletal remains , strong evidence links Elongatoolithid eggs to Oviraptorosaurs .", "West Northwall Firn The West Northwall Firn is a glacial body near the peak of Puncak Jaya ( sometimes called Mount Carstensz or the Carstensz Pyramid ) which is a mountain in the Sudirman Range , western central highlands of Papua province , Indonesia . The glacier is situated at an elevation of approximately 4750 m and is 3 km north of the summit tower of Puncak Jaya . The Northwall Firn split into several separate glaciers since 1936 , the largest two remnants being the West Northwall Firm and the East Northwall Firn . Research presented in 2004 of IKONOS satellite imagery of the New Guinean glaciers indicated that in the two years from 2000 to 2002 , the West Northwall Firn had lost a further 19.4 % of its surface area . An expedition to the remaining glaciers on Puncak Jaya in 2010 discovered that the ice on the glaciers there is about 32 m thick and thinning at a rate of 7 m annually . At that rate , the remaining glaciers in the immediate region near Puncak Jaya are expected to last only to the year 2015 . The West Northwall Firn is a remnant glacier that was once part of an icecap that developed approximately 5,000 years ago . At least one previous icecap also existed in the region between 15,000 and 7,000 years ago , when it also apparently melted away and disappeared .", "The Shrinking of Treehorn The Shrinking of Treehorn is a book by Florence Parry Heide , illustrated by Edward Gorey and first published in 1971 . The main character in the book is Treehorn , a young boy who begins shrinking in height after playing a strange board game . Treehorn 's parents fail to notice . The sequel to this book is Treehorn 's Treasure .", "Arctic Ocean Highway Arctic Ocean Highway ( Jäämerentie , Ishavsvägen , Eismeerstraße ) was a 531 kilometre-long highway in Lapland , Finland connecting the town of Rovaniemi to the port of Liinakhamari by the Pechenga Bay of the Barents Sea . It was opened in 1931 as the first highway in the world reaching the Arctic Ocean . Arctic Ocean Highway and the Liinakhamari port became vital during the World War II in 1940 -- 1941 as the only export route for Finland and Sweden not controlled by Nazi Germany or the Soviet Union . After the war , Finland ceded the area of the former Petsamo Province to the Soviet Union and thereby lost its connection to the Arctic Ocean . The highway was rerouted and today it is a part of the Finnish national road 4 leading to Norway .", "List of ports and harbors of the Arctic Ocean This is a list of ports and harbors connecting to the Arctic Ocean .", "Dalton Highway The James W. Dalton Highway , usually referred to as the Dalton Highway ( and signed as Alaska Route 11 ) , is a 414 mi road in Alaska . It begins at the Elliott Highway , north of Fairbanks , and ends at Deadhorse near the Arctic Ocean and the Prudhoe Bay oil fields . Once called the North Slope Haul Road ( a name by which it is still sometimes known ) , it was built as a supply road to support the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System in 1974 . It is named after James Dalton , a lifelong Alaskan and an engineer who supervised construction of the Distant Early Warning Line in Alaska and , as an expert in Arctic engineering , served as a consultant in early oil exploration in northern Alaska . It is also the subject of the second episode of America 's Toughest Jobs and the first episode of the BBC 's World 's Most Dangerous Roads .", "List of islands in the Arctic Ocean This is a list of islands in the Arctic Ocean , classified by country .", "Arctic Report Card The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Arctic Report Card presents annually updated , peer-reviewed information on recent observations of environmental conditions in the Arctic relative to historical records . The annual updates are released during a press conference at the December American Geophysical Society meeting . Key highlights are featured on the current report card home page , previous report cards are available online , and each report card is summarized in a short YouTube video The audience for the Arctic Report Card is wide , including scientists , students , teachers , decision makers and the general public interested in Arctic environment and science .", "ICEX: US Navy Mission in Arctic Ice Exercise was a United States Navy mission in the Arctic Ocean . On March 2 , 2016 , the United States Navy set course bound for the Arctic region . Roughly two weeks later two Los Angeles-Class Submarines arrived at US Navy Ice Camp Sargo , which is a temporary camp stationed on top of a floating ice sheet . Their objective was to carry out the US Navy 's Ice X exercise to evaluate the readiness of the Navy 's submarine force and pursue further interest into scientific fields of the Arctic region . The 2016 ICE X took place over a five-week period and included over 200 participants from the four nations : the United States , Canada , United Kingdom , and Norway . The Arctic Submarine Laboratory will also be participating . The Arctic Submarine Laboratory is responsible for the construction of Camp SARGO , conducting tests and evaluations under Arctic operations , and acts as a liaison between the civilian science community and submarine operations . The submarines will conduct Arctic transits in which they will surface and break the ice ( usually 60-90 cm or 2 -- 3 feet thick ) , collect data , and run other training exercise to gain experience working in this region . The United States ' first ICE X exercise in which a submarine surfaced and broke the ice was in 1958 . Since then , the United States has conducted more than 26 Arctic exercises , including the Ice Exercise 2009 . The importance of this exercise is that `` the submarine operations to the North Pole provides the required training broaden our knowledge of an extremely challenging region that is very different than any other ocean in the world , '' said Cmdr. Scott Luers . Other than collecting data and training in this region the ICE X exercise also shows the US Navy 's Arctic defense capabilities and readiness for roles in this region , increases the experience of sailing and working in the area , and gathering broader knowledge about this region .", "Furtwängler Glacier Furtwangler Glacier is located near the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania . The glacier is named after Walter Furtwängler who , along with Siegfried König , were the fourth party to ascend to the summit of Kilimanjaro in 1912 . The glacier is a small remnant of an ice cap that once crowned the summit of Kilimanjaro . Almost 85 percent of the ice cover disappeared from October 1912 to June 2011 . At the current rate , most of the ice will disappear by 2040 and `` it is highly unlikely that any ice body will remain after 2060 '' . Furtwängler Glacier is ephemeral , existing continuously since only about 1650 CE , which corresponds with very high levels in Kenya 's Lake Naivasha and the beginning of the Maunder Minimum . Between measurements in 1976 and 2000 , the area of this glacier was cut almost in half , from 113,000 m2 to 60,000 m2 . Based on the rate of thinning observed between 2000 and 2009 , this glacier is expected to disappear by 2018 . During fieldwork conducted early in 2006 , scientists discovered a large hole near the center of the glacier . This hole , extending through the 6 m remaining thickness of the glacier to the underlying rock , was expected to grow and split the glacier in two by 2007 .", "Shrink bands Shrink bands are thin packaging strips that protect products from tampering . Bands are applied with heat or water depending on the style . PVC bands are bound with heat and cellulosic bands use water . Shrink bands serve two purposes in the marketplace . Tamper evident shrink bands indicate if a product has been altered during fabrication , distribution or sale . Tamper resistant shrink bands make products difficult to open . This feature limits access to unintended audiences . Medicines and some retail products use shrink bands for both reasons . The Tylenol scare in 1982 led to a greater adoption of shrink bands to combat tampering and protect consumers .", "Lead (sea ice) A lead ( -LSB- ˈliːd -RSB- ) is a large fracture within an expanse of sea ice , defining a linear area of open water that can be used for navigation purposes . Leads vary in width from meters to hundreds of meters . As is the case for polynyas ( another sea ice feature involving open water ) , leads allow the direct interaction between the atmosphere and the ocean , and are important for Arctic sea ice ecology . Additionally it has been lately found that ice leads contribute significantly to the amount of mercury deposited onto surface and leaked into the ocean . If the air is cold enough ( typically in the winter ) , the water within a lead quickly refreezes , such that in many cases , leads are partly or entirely covered by a thin layer of new ice ." ]

[ "Earth Earth ( from Eorðe -LSB- Γαῖα , Gaia -RSB- Terra ) , otherwise known as the World or the Globe , is the third planet from the Sun and the only object in the Universe known to harbor life . It is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest of the four terrestrial planets . According to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence , Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago . Earth 's gravity interacts with other objects in space , especially the Sun and the Moon , Earth 's only natural satellite . During one orbit around the Sun , Earth rotates about its axis over 365 times ; thus , an Earth year is about 365.26 days long . Earth 's axis of rotation is tilted , producing seasonal variations on the planet 's surface . The gravitational interaction between the Earth and Moon causes ocean tides , stabilizes the Earth 's orientation on its axis , and gradually slows its rotation . Earth 's lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years . About 71 % of Earth 's surface is covered with water , mostly by its oceans . The remaining 29 % is land consisting of continents and islands that together have many lakes , rivers and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere . The majority of Earth 's polar regions are covered in ice , including the Antarctic ice sheet and the sea ice of the Arctic ice pack . Earth 's interior remains active with a solid iron inner core , a liquid outer core that generates the Earth 's magnetic field , and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics . Within the first billion years of Earth 's history , life appeared in the oceans and began to affect the Earth 's atmosphere and surface , leading to the proliferation of aerobic and anaerobic organisms . Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as much as 4.1 billion years ago . Since then , the combination of Earth 's distance from the Sun , physical properties , and geological history have allowed life to evolve and thrive . In the history of the Earth , biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion , occasionally punctuated by mass extinction events . Over 99 % of all species that ever lived on Earth are extinct . Estimates of the number of species on Earth today vary widely ; most species have not been described . Over 7.4 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and minerals for their survival . Humans have developed diverse societies and cultures ; politically , the world has about 200 sovereign states .", "Planetary nebula A planetary nebula , often abbreviated as PN or plural PNe , is a kind of emission nebula consisting of an expanding , glowing shell of ionized gas ejected from old red giant stars late in their lives . The word `` nebula '' is Latin for mist or cloud , and the term `` planetary nebula '' is a misnomer that originated in the 1780s with astronomer William Herschel because when viewed through his telescope , these objects resemble the rounded shapes of planets . Herschel 's name for these objects was popularly adopted and has not been changed . They are a relatively short-lived phenomenon , lasting a few tens of thousands of years , compared to a typical stellar lifetime of several billion years . A mechanism for formation of most planetary nebulae is thought to be the following : at the end of the star 's life , during the red-giant phase , the outer layers of the star are expelled by strong stellar winds . After most of the red giant 's atmosphere is dissipated , the ultraviolet radiation of the hot luminous core , called a planetary nebula nucleus ( PNN ) , ionizes the outer layers earlier ejected from the star . Absorbed ultraviolet light energises the shell of nebulous gas around the central star , causing it to appear as a brightly coloured planetary nebula . Planetary nebulae likely play a crucial role in the chemical evolution of the Milky Way by expelling elements to the interstellar medium from stars where those elements were created . Planetary nebulae are also observed in more distant galaxies , yielding useful information about their chemical abundances . Starting from the 1990s , Hubble Space Telescope images have revealed many planetary nebulae to have extremely complex and varied morphologies . About one-fifth are roughly spherical , but the majority are not spherically symmetric . The mechanisms that produce such a wide variety of shapes and features are not yet well understood , but binary central stars , stellar winds and magnetic fields may play a role .", "Planetary habitability Planetary habitability is the measure of a planet 's or a natural satellite 's potential to have habitable environments hospitable to life . Habitable environments do not need to contain life . Life may develop directly on a planet or satellite or be transferred to it from another body , a hypothetical process known as panspermia . As the existence of life beyond Earth is unknown , planetary habitability is largely an extrapolation of conditions on Earth and the characteristics of the Sun and Solar System which appear favorable to life 's flourishing -- in particular those factors that have sustained complex , multicellular organisms and not just simpler , unicellular creatures . Research and theory in this regard is a component of planetary science and the emerging discipline of astrobiology . An absolute requirement for life is an energy source , and the notion of planetary habitability implies that many other geophysical , geochemical , and astrophysical criteria must be met before an astronomical body can support life . In its astrobiology roadmap , NASA has defined the principal habitability criteria as `` extended regions of liquid water , conditions favorable for the assembly of complex organic molecules , and energy sources to sustain metabolism '' . In determining the habitability potential of a body , studies focus on its bulk composition , orbital properties , atmosphere , and potential chemical interactions . Stellar characteristics of importance include mass and luminosity , stable variability , and high metallicity . Rocky , wet terrestrial-type planets and moons with the potential for Earth-like chemistry are a primary focus of astrobiological research , although more speculative habitability theories occasionally examine alternative biochemistries and other types of astronomical bodies . The idea that planets beyond Earth might host life is an ancient one , though historically it was framed by philosophy as much as physical science.This article is an analysis of planetary habitability from the perspective of contemporary physical science . A historical viewpoint on the possibility of habitable planets can be found at Beliefs in extraterrestrial life and Cosmic pluralism . For a discussion of the probability of alien life see the Drake equation and Fermi paradox . Habitable planets are also a staple of fiction ; see Planets in science fiction . The late 20th century saw two breakthroughs in the field . The observation and robotic spacecraft exploration of other planets and moons within the Solar System has provided critical information on defining habitability criteria and allowed for substantial geophysical comparisons between the Earth and other bodies . The discovery of extrasolar planets , beginning in the early 1990s and accelerating thereafter , has provided further information for the study of possible extraterrestrial life . These findings confirm that the Sun is not unique among stars in hosting planets and expands the habitability research horizon beyond the Solar System . The chemistry of life may have begun shortly after the Big Bang , 13.8 billion years ago , during a habitable epoch when the Universe was only 10 -- 17 million years old . According to the panspermia hypothesis , microscopic life -- distributed by meteoroids , asteroids and other small Solar System bodies -- may exist throughout the Universe . Nonetheless , Earth is the only place in the Universe known to harbor life . Estimates of habitable zones around other stars , along with the discovery of hundreds of extrasolar planets and new insights into the extreme habitats here on Earth , suggest that there may be many more habitable places in the Universe than considered possible until very recently . On 4 November 2013 , astronomers reported , based on Kepler space mission data , that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth-sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun-like stars and red dwarfs within the Milky Way . 11 billion of these estimated planets may be orbiting Sun-like stars . The nearest such planet may be 12 light-years away , according to the scientists ." ]

[ "Triple Crown of Cycling The Triple Crown of Cycling is considered by many fans of the sport to be the greatest achievement in cycling . Although more definitions for the term are used , mostly it means winning the Tour de France , the Giro d'Italia and the Road World Cycling Championship in one year , although occasionally a broader definition where one grand tour can be exchanged for the Vuelta a España is also seen . So far , the triple crown of cycling ( in both the narrow and the broad definition ) has been achieved by two cyclists , Eddy Merckx and Stephen Roche . It is considered the hardest title to win in professional road bicycle racing in the same year . The triple crown of cycling is not an official title , and there is no physical award given .", "Exoplanet An exoplanet ( -LSB- ˈɛk.səʊˌplæn.ɪt -RSB- , -LSB- ˌɛk.soʊˈplæn.ɪt -RSB- ) or extrasolar planet is a planet outside of our solar system that orbits a star . The first scientific detection of an exoplanet was in 1988 . However , the first confirmed detection came in 1992 ; since then , and as of , there have been exoplanets , in planetary systems and multiple planetary systems , confirmed detections . HARPS ( since 2004 ) has discovered about a hundred exoplanets while the Kepler space telescope ( since 2009 ) has found more than two thousand . Kepler has also detected a few thousand candidate planets , of which about 11 % may be false positives . On average , there is at least one planet per star , with a percentage having multiple planets . About 1 in 5 Sun-like starsFor the purpose of this 1 in 5 statistic , `` Sun-like '' means G-type star . Data for Sun-like stars was not available so this statistic is an extrapolation from data about K-type stars have an `` Earth-sized `` For the purpose of this 1 in 5 statistic , Earth-sized means 1 -- 2 Earth radii planet in the habitable zone.For the purpose of this 1 in 5 statistic , `` habitable zone '' means the region with 0.25 to 4 times Earth 's stellar flux ( corresponding to 0.5 -- 2 AU for the Sun ) . Assuming there are 200 billion stars in the Milky Way , About 1/4 of stars are GK Sun-like stars . The number of stars in the galaxy is not accurately known , but assuming 200 billion stars in total , the Milky Way would have about 50 billion Sun-like ( GK ) stars , of which about 1 in 5 ( 22 % ) or 11 billion would be Earth-sized in the habitable zone . Including red dwarfs would increase this to 40 billion . one can hypothesize that there are 11 billion potentially habitable Earth-sized planets in the Milky Way , rising to 40 billion if planets orbiting the numerous red dwarfs are included . The least massive planet known is Draugr ( also known as PSR B1257 +12 A or PSR B1257 +12 b ) , which is about twice the mass of the Moon . The most massive planet listed on the NASA Exoplanet Archive is DENIS-P J082303.1-491201 b , about 29 times the mass of Jupiter , although according to some definitions of a planet , it is too massive to be a planet and may be a brown dwarf instead . There are planets that are so near to their star that they take only a few hours to orbit and there are others so far away that they take thousands of years to orbit . Some are so far out that it is difficult to tell whether they are gravitationally bound to the star . Almost all of the planets detected so far are within the Milky Way , but there have also been a few possible detections of extragalactic planets . The nearest exoplanet is Proxima Centauri b , located 4.2 light-years ( 1.3 parsecs ) from Earth and orbiting Proxima Centauri , the closest star to the Sun . The discovery of exoplanets has intensified interest in the search for extraterrestrial life . There is special interest in planets that orbit in a star 's habitable zone , where it is possible for liquid water , a prerequisite for life on Earth , to exist on the surface . The study of planetary habitability also considers a wide range of other factors in determining the suitability of a planet for hosting life . Besides exoplanets , there are also rogue planets , which do not orbit any star and which tend to be considered separately , especially if they are gas giants , in which case they are often counted , like WISE 0855 − 0714 , as sub-brown dwarfs . The rogue planets in the Milky Way possibly number in the billions ( or more ) .", "Generational planet In the field of astrology , generational planets are planets that affect an entire generation of people . The generational planets are the outer planets Uranus , Neptune , Pluto , Sedna , and Quaoar . Uranus was discovered by amateur astronomer William Herschel on 13 March 1781 . Uranus exhibits the ideals of the 18th century , where people such as Benjamin Franklin endeavoured to use their inventive mind to move man into a more enlightened era . It has an orbit of 84 years , staying in each sign of the zodiac for approximately 7 years . Uranus is considered to be a higher octave of Mercury , which means that as people develop within their selves , their character and means of communication will exhibit more influences of the sign and house of Uranus . In essence , Uranus can be seen as a person 's higher self . Because it takes Uranus 84 years to travel through the zodiac , transiting Uranus just might conjoin the natal Uranus within a person 's lifetime . Neptune was discovered on 23 September 1846 . Neptune is a 19th-century planet in that it heralded in many of the varied assortment of Protestant religions , as well as spiritualism , took hold . Visionaries such as Edgar Cayce and Rudolf Steiner were born in the second half of the 19th century , and their psychic abilities are indicative of the Neptunian themes of this time . It has an orbit of 165 years , which is approximately twice the time of Uranus . Neptune is considered to be the higher octave of Venus because both planet 's are gaseous and both strive to achieve the higher ideals of mankind ; Venus through the adoption of beauty and Neptune through unconditional love . Because Neptune has such a long orbit , an individual may see transiting Neptune form an opposition to their natal Neptune . Pluto was discovered by Clyde W. Tombaugh on 18 February 1930 . When Pluto was first discovered , it was initially known as Planet X. Astronomers had been searching for another planet past Neptune , hoping to solve the dilemma of its rather irregular orbit . It is now known , however , that the perceived irregular orbit of Neptune was the result of a mathematical error because Pluto , being a planetoid smaller than our own Moon , was far too small to affect any type of gravitational pull on the gas giant . Pluto is very much a 20th-century planet and refers to the two world wars , and weapons of mass destruction , nuclear power , and a desire to totally control the world we live in . It is a planet that reveals to us the extremes we are capable of if we do not set necessary boundaries in our lives . This planet governs the compulsions in our life : those things we are compelled to do but know we should not , such as murder , rape , drug addiction , and even overeating if it is of such an extent that it threatens our health . Pluto is considered to be a higher octave of Mars , and this is evidenced by the fact that both planets co-rule Scorpio . Pluto , circling the Sun in 248 years , has a rather elliptical orbit , which means that it stays in the sign it rules , Scorpio , for a mere 9 years , and the sign of its fall , Taurus for 30 ! With this in mind , some astrologers believe that Pluto should rightfully rule Taurus , but for the time being it still rules Scorpio . As other trans-Neptunian object planets are discovered , however , this placement just might have to be reconsidered . Quaoar was discovered on 4 June 2002 and is considered to be a trans-Neptunian object . Although a planetoid , it is considered by many to be more of a planet than Pluto because its orbit is more circular in nature , being 286 years . When a person is around 71 years old , transiting Quaoar will form a square aspect to his natal placement . Since this is a recently discovered object , not much is yet known about its astrological significance and what part it plays in the universe . Sedna was discovered by a team using the Samuel Oschin telescope on 14 November 2003 and is a trans-Neptunian object . It has an orbit of 11,250 years , so stays in a sign for approximately a millennium . Because this planet has recently been discovered , not much is yet known about it .", "Reconstructing Amelia Reconstructing Amelia is the 2013 debut novel of American author Kimberly McCreight . It was first published in hardback in the United States on April 2 , 2013 , through Harper and received a paperback release on December 3 of the same year . An audiobook edition narrated by Khristine Hvam was released the following year through HarperCollins Audio and Blackstone Audio . McCreight did not write the book with a specific age group in mind and after completing the work commented to a friend that she `` might have written an adult-YA crossover . '' The novel is told through three alternating points of view , that of fifteen year old Amelia Baron , her single mother , Kate , and an anonymous blog called gRaCeFULLY . Film rights for the novel have been optioned by Nicole Kidman 's production company Blossom Films , with Kidman set to star as the character Kate and serve as an executive producer .", "Phonon noise Phonon noise , also known as thermal fluctuation noise , arises from the random exchange of energy between a thermal mass and its surrounding environment . This energy is quantized in the form of phonons . Each phonon has an energy of order , where is Boltzmann 's constant and is the temperature . The random exchange of energy leads to fluctuations in temperature . This occurs even when the thermal mass and the environment are in thermal equilibrium , i.e. at the same time-average temperature . If a device has a temperature-dependent electrical resistance , then these fluctuations in temperature lead to fluctuations in resistance . Examples of devices where phonon noise is important include bolometers and calorimeters . The superconducting transition edge sensor ( TES ) , which can be operated either as a bolometer or a calorimeter , is an example of a device for which phonon noise can significantly contribute to the total noise . Although Johnson -- Nyquist noise shares many similarities with phonon noise ( e.g. the noise spectral density depends on the temperature and is white at low frequencies ) , these two noise sources are distinct . Johnson-Nyquist noise arises from the random thermal motion of electrons , whereas phonon noise arises from the random exchange of phonons . Johnson-Nyquist noise is easily modeled at thermal equilibrium , where all components of the circuit are held at the same temperature . A general equilibrium model for phonon noise is usually impossible because different components of the thermal circuit are nonuniform in temperature and also often not time invariant , as in the occasional energy deposition from particles incident on a detector . The transition edge sensor typically maintains the temperature through negative electrothermal feedback associated with changes in internal electrical power . An approximate formula for the noise-equivalent power ( NEP ) due to phonon noise in a bolometer when all components are very close to a temperature T is where G is the thermal conductance and the NEP is measured in . In calorimetric detectors , the rms energy resolution due to phonon noise near quasi-equilibrium is described using a similar formula , where C is the heat capacity . A real bolometer or calorimeter is not at equilibrium because of a temperature gradient between the absorber and the bath . Since G and C are generally nonlinear functions of temperature , a more advanced model may include the temperature of both the absorber and the bath and treat G or C as a power law across this temperature range .", "Frank Vandenbroucke (cyclist) Frank Vandenbroucke ( 6 November 1974 -- 12 October 2009 ) , was a Belgian professional road racing cyclist . He was the great hope of Belgian cycling in the 1990s but a remarkable talent which appeared in his adolescence in athletics and then in cycle racing dissipated in a succession of drugs problems , rows with teams , suicide attempts and finally being disowned by the cycling world . His former wife described him as a cocaine addict . He is known to have had numerous drug and family problems , and to have attempted suicide . However , VDB claimed in an interview with ProCycling 's Daniel Friebe three weeks before his death to have made a near-complete recovery from the emotional issues that plagued him throughout his career . Vandenbroucke told Friebe , `` I simply realise that the last year and a half have been fantastic for me . '' Nevertheless , he died of a pulmonary embolism in October 2009 .", "Vertex cycle cover In mathematics , a vertex cycle cover ( commonly called simply cycle cover ) of a graph G is a set of cycles which are subgraphs of G and contain all vertices of G. If the cycles of the cover have no vertices in common , the cover is called vertex-disjoint or sometimes simply disjoint cycle cover . In this case the set of the cycles constitutes a spanning subgraph of G . A disjoint cycle cover of an undirected graph ( if it exists ) can be found in polynomial time by transforming the problem into a problem of finding a perfect matching in a larger graph . If the cycles of the cover have no edges in common , the cover is called edge-disjoint or simply disjoint cycle cover . Similar definitions exist for digraphs , in terms of directed cycles .", "PPA (complexity) In computational complexity theory , PPA is a complexity class , standing for `` Polynomial Parity Argument '' ( on a graph ) . Introduced by Christos Papadimitriou in 1994 ( page 528 ) , PPA is a subclass of TFNP . It is a class of search problems that can be shown to be total by an application of the handshaking lemma : any undirected graph that has a vertex whose degree is an odd number must have some other vertex whose degree is an odd number . This observation means that if we are given a graph and an odd-degree vertex , and we are asked to find some other odd-degree vertex , then we are searching for something that is guaranteed to exist ( so , we have a total search problem ) . PPA is defined as follows . Suppose we have a graph on whose vertices are - bit binary strings , and the graph is represented by a polynomial-sized circuit that takes a vertex as input and outputs its neighbors . ( Note that this allows us to represent an exponentially-large graph on which we can efficiently perform local exploration . ) Suppose furthermore that a specific vertex ( say the all-zeroes vector ) has an odd number of neighbors . We are required to find another odd-degree vertex . Note that this problem is in NP -- given a solution it may be verified using the circuit that the solution is correct . A function computation problem belongs to PPA if it admits a polynomial-time reduction to this graph search problem . A problem is complete for the class PPA if in addition , this graph search problem is reducible to that problem . PPA contains PPAD as a subclass . This is because the corresponding problem that defines PPAD , known as END OF THE LINE , can be reduced ( in a straightforward way ) to the above search for an additional odd-degree vertex ( essentially , just by ignoring the directions of the edges in END OF THE LINE ) . There is an un-oriented version of the Sperner lemma known to be complete for PPA . The problem of searching for a second Hamiltonian cycle on a 3-regular graph is a member of PPA , but is not known to be complete for PPA .", "Tweed Run The Tweed Run is a group bicycle ride through the centre of London , in which the cyclists are expected to dress in traditional British cycling attire , particularly tweed plus four suits . Any bicycle is acceptable on the Tweed Run , but classic vintage bicycles are encouraged . Some effort to recreate the spirit of a bygone era is always appreciated . The ride dubs itself `` A Metropolitan Cycle Ride With a Bit of Style . ''", "II (Hardline album) II is the second album by American hard rock band , Hardline . It was released in 2002 , ten years after the band 's debut album Double Eclipse . It is also the last album to feature Joey Gioeli . The album was originally going to be named Hyperspace , but vocalist Johnny Gioeli decided to change the name simply to II because `` it 's a natural prosecution of what we started with our debut album Double Eclipse . '' The tracks `` Face the Night , '' `` Do or Die , '' `` Your Eyes , '' and `` This Gift '' were originally recorded for Double Eclipse , as Johnny Gioeli revealed in a 2002 interview , `` So people are getting a real Hardline record . '' It features former The Storm guitarist Josh Ramos . In a 2002 interview with Andy Read , Johnny Gioeli revealed four songs that were to be included on II : `` Plastic Jesus , '' `` Sweet Surrender , '' `` Why Me , '' which may have been an early demo of `` Y , '' and `` Only a Night , '' the only track among the four confirmed to have appeared on the final product . Gioeli also revealed that he had written two full-length albums , one of which was unused and replaced with what became II . `` We actually started writing an album that would 've truly been a follow-up to the first Hardline record , '' Gioeli explained , `` It would have been a bit shocking because it was a little outside the box . People do n't know that because the second album never came out . Anyway , people at Frontiers heard it and got a little bit nervous and said , ` Keep it like the first record . ' '' In an interview with members of Jun Senoue 's official fansite at Summer of Sonic 2012 , Gioeli elaborated on the differences between Double Eclipse and what would have been an immediate follow up : `` So the question is , how different was it going to be ? Well , what happened was , we had a meeting with the record company ( MCA Records ) when we were preparing for that , and then , you know the whole Pearl Jam alternative shit was happening , and the record company said ` Hey look , we know that you guys are talented enough that you can fit in this space as well . So we want to have a bit of an alternative flare . ' So , was it completely different ? No , but it definitely had a little alternative feel to it . Yeah , it definitely did . I 'm trying to recall ... basically the difference was , what was happening is a lot of the singers were not using much vibrato . '' He then demonstrated the difference . `` So what we were doing was ... '' He proceeded to sing part of `` I Will Survive '' ( unreleased ) without vibrato . `` There it is , that was one of the songs . ''", "Kerbdog (album) Kerbdog ( also sometimes known as ` Totally Switched ' for the US release ) is Kerbdog 's eponymous debut album . The album was recorded in 1993 at Rockfield Studios in Wales and released on 28 March 1994 through Vertigo . Though the band had various indie influences , with bands like Sonic Youth and Big Black , the album ended up having a Metallica influenced proto-grunge sound . The band said that this was simply the result of getting professional equipment , and turning everything up as loud as they could . What also might account for this is the fact that grunge pioneer Jack Endino recorded the album . `` If I remember right the whole thing took five weeks . No problems except that Cormac was still writing lyrics right up to the next-to-last day of mixing . Dummy Crusher was literally the last thing finished , we cut the vocal and then I mixed it next day . We had about run out of time at that point . -LSB- I -RSB- liked almost all of it . Thought the intro to EOG should have been half as long , but band disagreed ; and in retrospect I would have turned up the vocals on EOG just a teeny bit , though no one ever complained . Did n't like Xenophobia much but that did n't make the album . Thought Clock should have been a single . '' Jack Endino The album was fairly well received in Britain , Ireland , and Europe , reaching number 97 in the UK Albums Chart . It also got a lot of radio play on US college radio , but the album did n't do as well as expected . The album was re-released in September 2012 on East World Records UK .", "Animal Planet Nordic Animal Planet Nordic is a television channel broadcasting nature-related documentaries to the Nordic countries . Animal Planet was launched in the Nordic region in 1997 . In 2001 , the channel received a license to broadcast in the digital terrestrial network in Sweden . By 2008 , the channel had regularly been one of the twenty most watched channels in Sweden for a few years . From 2007 , the channel is also broadcast terrestrially in Norway via the RiksTV package . For its first ten years in existence , the channel used a logo with a globe and an elephant which was also used by its sister channels . On 1 October 2008 the channel switched a new logo , which had previously been adopted by Animal Planet in the United States . A high-definition version of the channel , called Animal Planet HD , was launched on 3 February 2009 . That made the Nordic region the first region to get a high-definition version of Animal Planet after the United States . The high-definition channel used to have a separate schedule in order to broadcast only high-definition programmes . Animal Planet Nordic has been replaced by the pan-European feed . The commercials on Animal Planet Europe show three air times depending on the country you live in . The Eastern European timezone is marked with `` Suomi '' for Finnish viewers . Programs shown on the channel include : Animal Cops : Houston Animal Cops : Philadelphia Animal Cops : Phoenix Animal Crackers Big Cat Diary Meerkat Manor Monkey Life Natural World Orangutan Island The Planet 's Funniest Animals Untamed & Uncut Wildlife SOS Wild Europe Up Close and Dangerous", "Managerial finance Managerial finance is the branch of finance that concerns itself with the managerial significance of finance techniques . It is focused on assessment rather than technique . The difference between a managerial and a technical approach can be seen in the questions one might ask of annual reports . The concern of a technical approach is primarily measurement . It asks : is money being assigned to the right categories ? Were accounting principles followed ? The purpose of a managerial approach , however , is to understand what the figures mean . Someone using such an approach might compare the returns to other businesses in their industry and ask : are we performing better or worse than our peers ? If we are performing worse , what is the source of the problem ? Do we have the same profit margins ? If not , why ? Do we have the same expenses ? Are we paying more for something than our peers ? They may look at changes in asset balances or red flags that indicate problems with bill collection or bad debt . They will analyze working capital to anticipate future cash flow problems . Managerial finance is an interdisciplinary approach that borrows from both managerial accounting and corporate finance . Sound financial management creates value and organizational agility through the allocation of scarce resources amongst competing business opportunities . It is an aid to the implementation and monitoring of business strategies and helps achieve business objectives .", "Table of the largest known graphs of a given diameter and maximal degree In graph theory , the degree diameter problem is the problem of finding the largest possible graph for a given maximum degree and diameter . The Moore bound sets limits on this , but for many years mathematicians in the field have been interested in a more precise answer . The table below gives current progress on this problem ( excluding the case of degree 2 , where the largest graphs are cycles with an odd number of vertices ) .", "Kiyotaki–Moore model The Kiyotaki -- Moore model of credit cycles is an economic model developed by Nobuhiro Kiyotaki and John H. Moore that shows how small shocks to the economy might be amplified by credit restrictions , giving rise to large output fluctuations . The model assumes that borrowers can not be forced to repay their debts . Therefore , in equilibrium , lending occurs only if it is collateralized . That is , borrowers must own a sufficient quantity of capital that can be confiscated in case they fail to repay . This collateral requirement amplifies business cycle fluctuations because in a recession , the income from capital falls , causing the price of capital to fall , which makes capital less valuable as collateral , which limits firms ' investment by forcing them to reduce their borrowing , and thereby worsens the recession . Kiyotaki ( a macroeconomist ) and Moore ( a contract theorist ) originally described their model in a 1997 paper in the Journal of Political Economy . Their model has become influential because earlier real business cycle models typically relied on large exogenous shocks to account for fluctuations in aggregate output . The Kiyotaki -- Moore model shows instead how relatively small shocks might suffice to explain business cycle fluctuations , if credit markets are imperfect .", "United National Gridiron League The United National Gridiron League ( UNGL ) was a proposed minor professional football league . The league was formed in August 2007 and was originally called the United National Football League . The league 's inaugural draft took place January 8 -- 9 , 2009 . The league had planned to begin the season on February 8 , 2009 but , after a multiple postponements of the kick-off date , the inaugural season was pushed back to March 2010 , because of financing problems . On March 10 , 2010 , the league announced via an email to the media , that it was canceling the 2010 season and suspending league operations indefinitely . In the statement to the media , the league said , `` We were very hopeful that this announcement would not have to be made ( or at the very least we might have been able to delay our season start a bit ) , if we had been able to secure certain assurances and arrangements from the investor group we had been working with these past 4 months . Unfortunately , as of this past Monday , we were unable to confirm these arrangements which prohibited us , in good conscience , from announcing our league start date , along with the other announcements everyone was expecting regarding our player draft , camp report date , etc. . ''", "Nickel mining in Western Australia Nickel mining in Western Australia has been an industry that has had many fluctuations of fortune in its history . Large fluctuations in the world nickel price have seen mines close and reopen on several occasions . In 2004/05 , the value of nickel production ( $ 2.3 billion ) exceeded that of gold ( $ 2.2 billion ) . In the 2011 calendar year , nickel contributed $ 3.9 billion or four per cent to the value of the State 's resources . Nickel production in the same year was 188,000 tonnes . Australia ( predominantly Western Australia ) holds one-third of the world 's known reserves of nickel-producing laterites and sulfide deposits . As of 2011 , Australia was the world 's fifth largest nickel producer . The only other significant Australian nickel production outside Western Australia is a refinery at Yabulu , Queensland which processes ore from New Caledonia , Indonesia , and the Philippines .", "Branded (Dad's Army) Branded is the eleventh episode of the third series of the British comedy series Dad 's Army . It was originally transmitted on Thursday 20 November 1969 . On a night of programmes devoted to Dad 's Army , Jimmy Perry named it his favourite episode . `` When we told Arnold Ridley that we 'd written a part especially for him , he was absolutely delighted . When he read the script he said , `` Jimmy , its good to mention conchies as they were called , because they went through hell a lot of them , and a lot of them had high principles . I 'm very honoured to play it . Both Arnold Ridley and John Laurie had served in the First World War and both served in the Battle of the Somme where Ridley was dreadfully badly wounded . We all knew about the war - perhaps that 's what gives Dad 's Army , as Clint Eastwood says in Pale Rider , that ` little bit of edge ' . It 's -LSB- a -RSB- quite serious -LSB- episode -RSB- . In the end dear old Godfrey is proved to have more courage than the lot of them '' .", "Taxome The taxome is the sum of all the described species and higher groups such as genera , families , phyla of all life , or the sum of all valid taxa . The documenting of all this biodiversity is still very incomplete . Many organisms have already been documented ( it is guessed that around 1-2 million species have been described -- see Species Inventory in biodiversity article ) , but probably around nine-tenths of existing species have never been described , and those that have been described may have been redescribed , many times , under different names . Thus , the state of the science of taxonomy ( the systematic organization of life ) is somewhat confused . The system of Linnean nomenclature ( named after the 18th century Swedish pioneer Carl Linnaeus ) is such that , in principle , the correct scientific name of all organisms described could be adjudicated , by means of historical priority . However , the names of many organisms are published in such obscure books and journals that very little of this information is available to most people . Thus , not only do we have little idea how many species there are , but we are even ignorant of the number of supposedly known species that have been described . However , the situation is not as bad as it is sometimes painted . The sum total of all existing taxonomic and nomenclatural documentation of living things is not large by today 's data-rich standards . We know where the books and journals are where species might have been described . We simply need to put in the work to make the text and graphics of species descriptions available in databases , particularly electronic databases . In many groups , species are poorly known , but it is now rare to discover a major undetected phylum or family , so coverage of the kinds of diversity of life is probably good , even if all species are not described . Most of the undiscovered groups are probably reasonably closely related to something we have described . Thus if we could document the existing knowledge , we would have a useful , albeit somewhat pixellated map of the diversity of life . Just as a sequenced genome of an organism is a map of its DNA , a database documenting the complete taxome would form a map of the described biodiversity of the entire planet . Existing projects are mapping the positions of moons , planets and stars in the universe , as well as the physical geography of our own planet , and the genomes of selected organisms . Projects are now being set up to take advantage of information technology to document and make available the entire body of taxonomy on line . When this information becomes more complete , it should be possible to link this taxome information to all other information about biology . Category : Biological nomenclature Category : Taxonomy ( biology )", "CRESU experiment The CRESU experiment ( -LSB- Cinétique de Réaction en Ecoulement Supersonique Uniforme , lit = Reaction Kinetics in Uniform Supersonic Flow -RSB- ) is an experiment investigating chemical reactions taking place at very low temperatures . The technique involves the expansion of a gas or mixture of gases through a de Laval nozzle from a high pressure reservoir into a vacuum chamber . As it expands , the nozzle collimates the gas into a uniform supersonic beam that is essentially collision free and has a temperature that , in the centre of mass frame , can be significantly below that of the reservoir gas . Each nozzle produces a characteristic temperature . This way , any temperature between room temperature and about 10K can be achieved . There are relatively few CRESU apparatuses in existence for the simple reason that the gas throughput and pumping requirements are huge , which makes them expensive to run . Two of the leading centres have been the University of Rennes ( France ) and the University of Birmingham ( UK ) . A more recent development has been a pulsed version of the CRESU , which requires far less gas and therefore smaller pumps . One might well ask why we should use such a complex method for producing low temperature gases when they could be produced much more easily using liquid helium . The answer is simple : most species have a negligible vapour pressure at such low temperatures and this means that they quickly condense on the sides of the apparatus . Essentially , the CRESU technique provides a `` wall-less flow tube , '' which allows the kinetics of gas phase reactions to be investigated at much lower temperatures than otherwise possible . Chemical kinetics experiments can then be carried out in a `` pump-probe '' fashion using a laser to initiate the reaction ( for example by preparing one of the reagents by photolysis of a precursor ) , followed by observation of that same species ( for example by laser-induced fluorescence ) after a known time delay . The fluorescence signal is captured by a photomultiplier a known distance downstream of the de Laval nozzle . The time delay can be varied up to the maximum corresponding to the flow time over that known distance . By studying how quickly the reagent species disappears in the presence of differing concentrations of a ( usually stable ) co-reagent species the reaction rate constant at the low temperature of the CRESU flow can be determined . Reactions studied by the CRESU technique typically have no significant activation energy barrier . In the case of neutral-neutral reactions ( i.e. , not involving any charged species , ions ) , these type of barrier-free reactions usually involve free radical species such as molecular oxygen ( O2 ) , the cyanide radical ( CN ) or the hydroxyl radical ( OH ) . The energetic driving force for these reactions is typically an attractive long range intermolecular potential . CRESU experiments have been used to show deviations from Arrhenius kinetics at low temperatures : as the temperature is reduced , the rate constant actually increases . They can explain why chemistry is so prevalent in the interstellar medium , where many different polyatomic species have been detected ( by radio astronomy ) , but where temperatures are so low that conventional wisdom might suggest that chemical reactions do not occur .", "Drum rudiment In percussion music , a rudiment is one of a number of relatively small patterns which form the foundation for more extended and complex drum patterns . The term `` rudiment '' in this context means not only `` basic '' , but also fundamental . While any level of drumming may , in some sense , be broken down by analysis into a series of component rudiments , the term `` drum rudiment '' is most closely associated with various forms of field drumming , also known as rudimental drumming . Rudimental drumming has something of a flexible definition , even within drumming societies devoted to that form of drumming . For example , the longest running website on rudimental drumming defines it as `` the study of coordination , '' whereas the Percussive Arts Society defines rudimental drumming as a particular method for learning the drums -- beginning with rudiments , and gradually building up speed and complexity through practicing those rudiments . ( An analogy might be made to learning the piano by first learning scales and arpeggios , as opposed to beginning by taking a full piece of music and grinding through it bit by bit , to the end . )", "Where the Devil Don't Stay `` Where the Devil Do n't Stay '' is a song written and recorded by the rock and alt-country group Drive-By Truckers , and released on their 2004 album , The Dirty South . DBT 's frontman , Patterson Hood , had this to say about the song : `` Cooley wrote this one , based on a poem by his uncle Ed Cooley . Ed got to be there when we recorded it . Think he packed for a long evening of recording , but we 'd been playing it live for a year or so and ended up nailing it in one take . Think Ed might have been a little disappointed by that . '' Category :2004 songs", "Where I Am (song) `` Where I Am '' is a song performed by Danish-Australian singer Anja Nissen . The song was released as a digital download on 28 February 2017 , through Australian Broadcasting Corporation . It represented Denmark in the Eurovision Song Contest 2017 , and was written by Nissen along with Angel Tupai and Michael D'Arcy . Nissen said : `` The song is about letting go , particularly in relationships . Breaking down the emotional walls and letting you give love and receive love . Have n't we all been in that situation where we 've felt lost and we 've felt we do n't know who we are and that no one is going to accept us for who we are ? But at the end of the day we make a decision to not care and just to let go . That 's what the song is about . '' Anja Nissen wrote the song when she was 18 years old about her first relationship . She intended `` Where I Am '' to be her debut single after winning The Voice Australia in 2014 , but it never materialized .", "Rxqual RxQual is used in GSM and is a part of the Network Measurement Reports ( NMR ) . This is an integer value of which can be between 0 and 7 and reflects the quality of voice . 0 is the best quality , 7 is the worst . Each RxQual value corresponds to an estimated number of bit errors in a number of bursts . There are two types of RxQual values , FULL and SUB . We use RxQual SUB when we have DTX DL activated because RxQual FULL values will not be reliable , because they will use Bit error rate ( BER ) measurements when nothing has been sent , what leads to a very high BER and a poor RxQual . If DTX DL is deactivated , is better to use RxQual FULL values , they are more precise , because it uses all frames on the SACCH multiframe , whether they have been transmitted from the base station or not . The official definition of RxQual is given in Chapter 8.2.4 of GSM TS 05.08 ( ETSI TS 100 911 ) , later superseded by 3GPP TS 45.008 .", "Truthful job scheduling Truthful job scheduling is a mechanism design variant of the Job shop scheduling problem from operations research . We have a project composed of several `` jobs '' ( tasks ) . There are several workers . Each worker can do any job , but for each worker it takes a different amount of time to complete each job . Our goal is to allocate jobs to workers such that the total makespan of the project is minimized . In the standard Job shop scheduling problem , the timings of all workers are known , so we have a standard optimization problem . In contrast , in the truthful job scheduling problem , the timings of the workers are not known . We ask each worker how much time he needs to do each job , but , the workers might lie to us . Therefore , we have to give the workers an incentive to tell us their true timings by paying them a certain amount of money . The challenge is to design a payment mechanism which is incentive compatible . The truthful job scheduling problem was introduced by Nisan and Ronen in their 1999 paper on Algorithmic mechanism design .", "African Continental Cycling Championships The African Continental Cycling Championships are a series of cycling races held annually in Africa where the African cyclists decide who will be the champion for the year to come . They have been held since 2005 .", "Complex network zeta function Different definitions have been given for the dimension of a complex network or graph . For example , metric dimension is defined in terms of the resolving set for a graph . Dimension has also been defined based on the box covering method applied to graphs . Here we describe the definition based on the complex network zeta function . This generalises the definition based on the scaling property of the volume with distance . The best definition depends on the application .", "Byte addressing Byte addressing refers to hardware architectures which support accessing individual bytes of data rather than only larger units called words , which would be word-addressable . Such computers are sometimes called byte machines ( in contrast to word machines ) . The basic unit of digital storage is called a bit , storing a single 0 or 1 . Many common architectures can address more than 8 bits of data at a time . For example , the Intel 386SX processor can handle 16-bit ( two-byte ) data , since data is transferred over a 16-bit bus . However , data in memory may be of various lengths . A 64-bit architecture machine might still need to access 8-bit data over its 64-bit address line , and have the data returned in the bottom 8 bits of its longer data line . Byte addressable memory refers to architectures where data can be accessed and addressed in units that are narrower than the bus . An eight bit processor like the Intel 8008 addresses eight bits , but as this is the full width of the bus , this is regarded as word addressable . The 386SX , which addresses memory in 8 bit units but can fetch and store it 16 bits at a time , is termed byte addressable . Bytes have not always meant 8 bits , in fact , depending on the platform , byte sizes of 1 to 48 bits have been used in the past . Therefore , the term `` octet '' is used where the context makes byte-length ambiguous . For example in the 1980s , Honeywell mainframes had 36 bit words , and were byte addressable in 9 bit bytes , or `` nonets '' , They used 7 - or 8-bit character codes , either of which were stored one to each 9-bit byte , making characters individually addressable . To illustrate why byte addressing is useful , consider the IBM 7094 which was word addressable and had no concept of a byte . It had 36 bit words , and stored its six-bit character codes six to a word . To change the 15th character in a string , the program had to figure out that this occurred in the third word , fetch the third word , figure out that it wanted the fourth character in that word , mask out the old character from the value held in the register , `` or '' in the new one , and then store back the amended word . At least six machine instructions . Usually these were relegated to a subroutine , so every store or fetch of a single character involved the overheads of calling a subroutine and returning . With byte addressing , that can be achieved in one instruction : store this character code at that byte address . Text programs are easier to write , smaller , and run faster . The advantage of word addressing is that more memory can be addressed in the same number of bits . The IBM 7094 had 15 bit addresses , so could address 32768 words of 36 bits . The machines were often built with a full complement of addressable memory . Addressing 32768 bytes of 6 bits would have been much less useful for scientific and engineering users . Or consider the 32 bit Pentium processor . Its 32-bit address bus can address 4 billion different items . Using word addressing , a 32 bit address bus could address 4 Gigawords ; or 16 Gigabytes using the modern 8 bit byte . If the 386SX and its successors had used word addressing , scientists , engineers , and gamers could all have enjoyed programs that were 4x larger on 32 bit machines . Then again , word processing , rendering HTML , and all other text applications would have run more slowly . When computers were so costly that they were only or mainly used for science and engineering , word addressing was the obvious mode . As it became cost-effective to use computers for handling text , hardware designers moved to byte addressing .", "Class (philosophy) In at least one source , a `` class '' is a set in which an individual member can be recognized in one or both of two ways : a ) it is included in an extensional definition of the whole set ( a list of set members ) b ) it matches an Intensional definition of one set member . By contrast , a `` type '' is an intensional definition ; it is a description that is sufficiently generalized to fit every member of a set . Philosophers sometimes distinguish classes from types and kinds . We can talk about the class of human beings , just as we can talk about the type ( or natural kind ) , human being , or humanity . How , then , might classes differ from types ? One might well think they are not actually different categories of being , but typically , while both are treated as abstract objects , classes are not usually treated as universals , whereas types usually are . Whether natural kinds ought to be considered universals is vexed ; see natural kind . There is , in any case , a difference in how we talk about types or kinds . We say that Socrates is a token of a type , or an instance of the natural kind , human being . But notice that we say instead that Socrates is a member of the class of human beings . We would not say that Socrates is a `` member '' of the type or kind , human beings . Nor would we say he is a type ( or kind ) of a class . He is a token ( instance ) of the type ( kind ) . So the linguistic difference is : types ( or kinds ) have tokens ( or instances ) ; classes , on the other hand , have members . The concept of a class is similar to the concept of a set defined by its members . Here , the class is extensional . If , however , a set is defined intensionally , then it is a set of things that meet some requirement to be a member . Thus , such a set can be seen as creating a type . Note that it also creates a class from the extension of the intensional set . A type always has a corresponding class ( though that class might have no members ) , but a class does not necessarily have a corresponding type .", "EXPSPACE In complexity theory , '' is the set of all decision problems solvable by a deterministic Turing machine in O ( 2p ( n ) ) space , where p ( n ) is a polynomial function of n. ( Some authors restrict p ( n ) to be a linear function , but most authors instead call the resulting class . ) If we use a nondeterministic machine instead , we get the class , which is equal to by Savitch 's theorem . In terms of and , A decision problem is if it is in , and every problem in has a polynomial-time many-one reduction to it . In other words , there is a polynomial-time algorithm that transforms instances of one to instances of the other with the same answer . problems might be thought of as the hardest problems in . is a strict superset of , , and and is believed to be a strict superset of .", "The Night Is Ours The Night Is Ours is the fourth studio album by Australian rock band Youth Group , released in Australia in June 2008 and in the US in April 2009 . The album features guest musician Chris Walla of Death Cab for Cutie , who mixed four tracks and also provided additional guitar and backing vocals . The band recorded the album in a near-derelict 1920s mess hall on Sydney Harbour , which they had rented from the local council at a rate cheap enough to allow them to take their time to develop the songs . Songwriter Toby Martin said the songs were only basic sketches in his head when the group entered the makeshift studio , with the idea being that the whole band would workshop the songs together . `` We were very conscious of not losing spontaneity on this album , '' Martin told the Sunday Herald Sun . `` Even though we did a lot of overdubs , we spent a long time on this record because we did n't want to demo the songs first . We wanted to write and arrange the songs in the studio , so recording the album would be capturing the moment of creation rather than capturing the moment of recreation . So we had roughly a week per song -- I normally had the lyrics and a bit of a rough idea , or Cameron would have a riff , and by the end of the week we would be putting it down . '' The melancholy of the recording venue was reflected in much of the material , which tackled issues such as addiction , grief , desperation and death . Martin commented : `` It 's a fairly contemplative record , which might have something to do with being by the water , but it also has a slightly creepy or paranoid edge . It 's a bit out of the way and there are owls and rats , and old falling down walls , so I think it did influence the record . When I finished recording the record I did n't think it had influenced us much at all , but listening to it later and hearing some of my friends ' comments , I was beginning to see how it had rubbed off on to us in a way we had n't really planned . ''", "Grandmother Fish Grandmother Fish : A Child 's First Book of Evolution was written by Jonathan Tweet . The book explains Charles Darwin 's theory of common descent and its target audience is 3 -- 5-year-olds . It uses a call-and-response interaction between speaker and listener , where the child is asked to mimic the behavior of various animals from our evolutionary past . The book is illustrated by Karen Lewis with colored artwork . Grandmother Fish takes children and adults through the history of life on our planet and explains how we are connected ." ]

[ "Deglaciation Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .", "North Pole The North Pole , also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole , is ( subject to the caveats explained below ) defined as the point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earth 's axis of rotation meets its surface . The North Pole is the northernmost point on the Earth , lying diametrically opposite the South Pole . It defines geodetic latitude 90 ° North , as well as the direction of true north . At the North Pole all directions point south ; all lines of longitude converge there , so its longitude can be defined as any degree value . Along tight latitude circles , counterclockwise is east and clockwise is west . The North Pole is at the center of the Northern Hemisphere . While the South Pole lies on a continental land mass , the North Pole is located in the middle of the Arctic Ocean amid waters that are almost permanently covered with constantly shifting sea ice . This makes it impractical to construct a permanent station at the North Pole ( unlike the South Pole ) . However , the Soviet Union , and later Russia , constructed a number of manned drifting stations on a generally annual basis since 1937 , some of which have passed over or very close to the Pole . Since 2002 , the Russians have also annually established a base , Barneo , close to the Pole . This operates for a few weeks during early spring . Studies in the 2000s predicted that the North Pole may become seasonally ice-free because of Arctic ice shrinkage , with timescales varying from 2016 to the late 21st century or later . The sea depth at the North Pole has been measured at 4261 m by the Russian Mir submersible in 2007 and at 4,087 m ( 13,410 ft ) by USS Nautilus in 1958 . The nearest land is usually said to be Kaffeklubben Island , off the northern coast of Greenland about 700 km away , though some perhaps non-permanent gravel banks lie slightly closer . The nearest permanently inhabited place is Alert in the Qikiqtaaluk Region , Nunavut , Canada , which is located 817 km from the Pole .", "Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "Arctic The Arctic ( -LSB- ˈɑrktɪk -RSB- or -LSB- ˈɑrtɪk -RSB- ) is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth . The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean , adjacent seas , and parts of Alaska ( United States ) , Canada , Finland , Greenland ( Denmark ) , Iceland , Norway , Russia and Sweden . Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover , with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra . Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places . The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth 's ecosystems . For example , the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions . In recent years , Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming . Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice , zooplankton and phytoplankton , fish and marine mammals , birds , land animals , plants and human societies . Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic .", "Climate change in the Arctic The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 ." ]

[ "Arctic resources race The Arctic resources race refers to the competition between global entities for newly available natural resources in the Arctic . As the ice in the Arctic melts at a record rate and the sea ice extent continues to decrease due to global climate change , the Arctic waters become more navigable and Arctic resources -- such as oil and gas , minerals , fish , as well as tourism and new trade routes -- are becoming more accessible . Under the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea , five nations have the legal right to exploit the Arctic 's natural resources within their exclusive economic zones : Canada , Russia , Denmark , Norway , and the United States ( though the U.S. has yet to ratify the treaty , it considers the treaty to be customary international law and abides by it ) . The Arctic region and its resources have recently been at the center of controversy and pose potential conflicts between nations that have differing opinions of how to manage the area , including conflicting territorial claims . In addition , the Arctic region is home to an estimated 400,000 indigenous people . If the ice continues to melt at the current rate , then these indigenous people are at risk of being displaced . The acceleration of ice depletion will contribute to climate change as a whole : melting ice releases methane , ice reflects incoming solar radiation , and without it will cause the ocean to absorb more radiation ( albedo effect ) , heating up the water causing more ocean acidification , and melting ice will cause a rise in sea level .", "Arctic Climate Impact Assessment The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .", "Retreat of glaciers since 1850 The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .", "Copenhagen Diagnosis The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "Sea ice Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs .", "Antarctic sea ice Antarctic sea ice is the sea ice of the Southern Ocean . It extends far north in winter and retreats almost to the coastline each summer . Sea ice is frozen seawater that is usually less than a few meters thick . This is in contrast to ice shelves , which are formed by glaciers , float in the sea , and are up to a kilometer thick . There are two subdivisions of sea ice : fast ice , which is attached to land ; and ice floes , which are not . Sea ice in the Southern Ocean melts from the bottom instead of from the surface like Arctic ice because it is covered in snow . As a result , melt ponds are rarely observed . On average , Antarctic sea ice is younger , thinner , warmer , saltier , and more mobile than Arctic sea ice . Due to its inaccessibility , it is not as well-studied as Arctic ice .", "Ice-sheet model In climate modelling , Ice-sheet models use numerical methods to simulate the evolution , dynamics and thermodynamics of ice sheets , such as the Greenland ice sheet , the Antarctic ice sheet or the large ice sheets on the northern hemisphere during the last glacial period . They are used for a variety of purposes , from studies of the glaciation of Earth over glacial -- interglacial cycles in the past to projections of ice-sheet decay under future global warming conditions .", "Antarctic ice sheet The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .", "Regional effects of global warming Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "Arctic methane emissions Arctic methane release is the release of methane from seas and soils in permafrost regions of the Arctic . While a long-term natural process , it is exacerbated by global warming . This results in a positive feedback effect , as methane is itself a powerful greenhouse gas . The Arctic region is one of the many natural sources of the greenhouse gas methane . Global warming accelerates its release , due to both release of methane from existing stores , and from methanogenesis in rotting biomass . Large quantities of methane are stored in the Arctic in natural gas deposits , permafrost , and as undersea clathrates . Permafrost and clathrates degrade on warming , thus large releases of methane from these sources may arise as a result of global warming . Other sources of methane include submarine taliks , river transport , ice complex retreat , submarine permafrost and decaying gas hydrate deposits . Concentrations in the Arctic atmosphere are higher by 8 -- 10 % than that in the Antarctic atmosphere . During cold glacier epochs , this gradient decreases to practically insignificant levels . Land ecosystems are considered the main sources of this asymmetry , although it has been suggested that `` the role of the Arctic Ocean is significantly underestimated . '' Soil temperature and moisture levels have been found to be significant variables in soil methane fluxes in tundra environments .", "Tipping points in the climate system A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.", "Climate of the Arctic The climate of the Arctic is characterized by long , cold winters and short , cool summers . There is a large amount of variability in climate across the Arctic , but all regions experience extremes of solar radiation in both summer and winter . Some parts of the Arctic are covered by ice ( sea ice , glacial ice , or snow ) year-round , and nearly all parts of the Arctic experience long periods with some form of ice on the surface . Average January temperatures range from about − 34 ° C to 0 ° C ( − 40 to +32 ° F ) , and winter temperatures can drop below − 50 ° C ( − 58 ° F ) over large parts of the Arctic . Average July temperatures range from about − 10 to +10 ° C ( 14 to 50 ° F ) , with some land areas occasionally exceeding 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in summer . The Arctic consists of ocean that is largely surrounded by land . As such , the climate of much of the Arctic is moderated by the ocean water , which can never have a temperature below − 2 ° C ( 28 ° F ) . In winter , this relatively warm water , even though covered by the polar ice pack , keeps the North Pole from being the coldest place in the Northern Hemisphere , and it is also part of the reason that Antarctica is so much colder than the Arctic . In summer , the presence of the nearby water keeps coastal areas from warming as much as they might otherwise .", "Uunartoq Qeqertaq Uunartoq Qeqertaq , Greenlandic for `` The Warming Island '' , is an island off the east central coast of Greenland , 550 km north of the Arctic Circle . It became recognised as an island only in September 2005 , by US explorer Dennis Schmitt . It was attached to the mainland of Liverpool Land by glacial ice even in 2002 , when the ice shelves began retreating rapidly in this area , so that by 2005 it was no longer attached to the mainland . Members of the scientific community believe this newly discovered island is a direct result of global warming . The island has three large peninsulas , and thus resembles the letter W , or the Chinese character 山 .", "Angaangaq Lyberth Angaangaq Lyberth is a politician from Greenland . He has been quoted on the effects of global warming in Greenland . He has represented Arctic peoples in the United Nations General Assembly , and frequently speaks before governments and universities .", "Climate system Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "Climate inertia Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "Konrad Steffen Konrad `` Koni '' Steffen ( born 1952 ) is a glaciologist and the former director of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder , a position he held from 2005 until he took office as the director of the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest , Snow and Landscape Research on July 1 , 2012 . He is known for his research into Arctic sea ice and the glaciers of Greenland , and how they are affected by global warming . He has often traveled to Greenland to study these glaciers firsthand ; for example , when studying Petermann Glacier for three weeks in 2004 , Steffen did so from a camp set up 4,000 feet up the flanks of the glacier 's ice cap . He also operates a network of 20 weather stations on the Greenland ice sheet , the first of which , Swiss Camp , he established in 1990 . He has argued that due to this ice sheet melting faster than anticipated , sea levels could rise by about 3 feet by 2100 , considerably higher than the IPCC 's upper limit of 59 cm , and that Greenland might lose all its ice in 10,000 years , but Antarctica would take considerably longer , since it is so much bigger .", "Ice sheet An ice sheet is a mass of glacier ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50000 km2 , thus also known as continental glacier . The only current ice sheets are in Antarctica and Greenland ; during the last glacial period at Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) the Laurentide ice sheet covered much of North America , the Weichselian ice sheet covered northern Europe and the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered southern South America . Ice sheets are bigger than ice shelves or alpine glaciers . Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are termed an ice cap . An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery . Although the surface is cold , the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to geothermal heat . In places , melting occurs and the melt-water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly . This process produces fast-flowing channels in the ice sheet -- these are ice streams . The present-day polar ice sheets are relatively young in geological terms . The Antarctic Ice Sheet first formed as a small ice cap ( maybe several ) in the early Oligocene , but retreating and advancing many times until the Pliocene , when it came to occupy almost all of Antarctica . The Greenland ice sheet did not develop at all until the late Pliocene , but apparently developed very rapidly with the first continental glaciation . This had the unusual effect of allowing fossils of plants that once grew on present-day Greenland to be much better preserved than with the slowly forming Antarctic ice sheet .", "Extinction risk from global warming The extinction risk of global warming is the risk of species becoming extinct due to the effects of global warming .", "West Spitsbergen Current The West Spitsbergen Current ( WSC ) is a warm , salty current that runs poleward just west of Spitsbergen , ( formerly called West Spitsbergen ) , in the Arctic Ocean . The WSC branches off the Norwegian Atlantic Current in the Norwegian Sea . The WSC is of importance because it drives warm and salty Atlantic Water into the interior Arctic . The warm and salty WSC flows north through the eastern side of Fram Strait , while the East Greenland Current ( EGC ) flows south through the western side of Fram Strait . The EGC is characterized by being very cold and low in salinity , but above all else it is a major exporter of Arctic sea ice . Thus , the EGC combined with the warm WSC makes the Fram Strait the northernmost ocean area having ice-free conditions throughout the year in all of the global ocean .", "Greenland ice sheet The Greenland ice sheet ( Grønlands indlandsis , Sermersuaq ) is a vast body of ice covering 1710000 km ² , roughly 80 % of the surface of Greenland . It is the second largest ice body in the world , after the Antarctic ice sheet . The ice sheet is almost 2400 km long in a north-south direction , and its greatest width is 1100 km at a latitude of 77 ° N , near its northern margin . The mean altitude of the ice is 2135 m . The thickness is generally more than 2 km and over 3 km at its thickest point . It is not the only ice mass of Greenland -- isolated glaciers and small ice caps cover between 76000 and around the periphery . If the entire 2850000 km3 of ice were to melt , it would lead to a global sea level rise of 7.2 m . The Greenland Ice Sheet is sometimes referred to under the term inland ice , or its Danish equivalent , indlandsis . It is also sometimes referred to as an ice cap .", "Greenhouse gas A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "Effects of global warming on marine mammals The effect of global warming on marine mammals is a growing concern . Many of the effects of climate change are currently unknown due to its unpredictability , but many are becoming increasingly evident today . Some effects are very direct such as loss of habitat , temperature stress , and exposure to severe weather . Other effects are more indirect such as changes in host pathogen associations , changes in body condition because of predator -- prey interaction , changed in exposure to toxins , and increased human interactions . These are just a few examples of what marine mammals are dealing with as a result of rapid climate change . There are a number of marine mammals that have been affected by climate change including walruses , seals , penguins , and polar bears .", "Arctic geoengineering Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .", "Abrupt climate change An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .", "North Water Polynya The North Water Polynya or Pikialasorsuaq in Greenlandic ( NOW ) is a polynya ( area of year-round open water surrounded by sea ice ) that lies between Greenland and Canada in northern Baffin Bay . The world 's largest Arctic polynya at about 85000 km2 , it creates a warm microclimate that provides a refuge for narwhal , beluga , walrus , and bowhead whales to feed and rest . While thin ice forms in some areas , the polynya is kept open by wind , tides and an ice bridge on its northern edge . Named the `` North Water '' by 19th century whalers who relied on it for spring passage , this polynya is one of the most biologically productive marine areas in the Arctic Ocean .", "Antarctic Cold Reversal The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .", "Last Glacial Maximum The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE . Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .", "Greenland Sea The Greenland Sea is a body of water that borders Greenland to the west , the Svalbard archipelago to the east , Fram Strait and the Arctic Ocean to the north , and the Norwegian Sea and Iceland to the south . The Greenland Sea is often defined as part of the Arctic Ocean , sometimes as part of the Atlantic Ocean . However , definitions of the Arctic Ocean and its seas tend to be imprecise or arbitrary . In general usage the term `` Arctic Ocean '' would exclude the Greenland Sea . In oceanographic studies the Greenland Sea is considered part of the Nordic Seas , along with the Norwegian Sea . The Nordic Seas are the main connection between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans and , as such , could be of great significance in a possible shutdown of thermohaline circulation . In oceanography the Arctic Ocean and Nordic Seas are often referred to collectively as the `` Arctic Mediterranean Sea '' , a marginal sea of the Atlantic . The sea has Arctic climate with regular northern winds and temperatures rarely rising above 0 ° C . It previously contained the Odden ice tongue ( or Odden ) area , which extended eastward from the main East Greenland ice edge in the vicinity of 72 -- 74 ° N during the winter and acted as a key winter ice formation area in the Arctic . The West Ice forms in winter in the Greenland Sea , north of Iceland , between Greenland and Jan Mayen island . It is a major breeding ground of harp seal and hooded seal that has been used for seal hunting for more than 200 years .", "West Antarctic Rift The West Antarctic Rift is a major , active rift valley lying between East and West Antarctica . It encompasses the Ross Sea , the area under the Ross Ice Shelf and a part of West Antarctica . Its evolution is due to lithospheric thinning of the non-cratonic area of West Antarctica . Exploration of the geology of the West Antarctic Rift is difficult , because , apart from peaks of the Transantarctic Mountains that protrude above the ice , the region is covered by the vast West Antarctic Ice Sheet . Thus , the rift is less well known than other major rift valleys . It is known , however , that like the East African Rift , the West Antarctic Rift is actually a number of much shorter rifts that cross Antarctica . There is also a sharp division between older , broader Paleogene rifts including the Ross Sea Basin and the younger , narrower Terror Rift . There are also a large number of failed rifts extending as far as Berkner Island . Although many rifts within the West Antarctic Rift system are no longer active , it is now known that West Antarctica is moving away from the East Antarctic Craton in a north/northeasterly direction ( approximately in the direction of the South Georgia Islands ) at a rate of about 2 mm per year or 500,000 years per kilometre . The West Antarctic Rift is the source of all the recently active volcanoes within Antarctica , and of most of the major Antarctic mountain systems outside the Antarctic Peninsula . It is also believed to have a major influence on ice flows in West Antarctica , because fast moving ice streams are believed to be influenced by the lubrication provided by water-saturated till , which some argue could help cause breakup of the ice sheet if global warming accelerates .", "Effects of global warming on South Asia ", "Climate state Climate state describes a state of climate on Earth and similar terrestrial planets based on a thermal energy budget , such as the greenhouse or icehouse climate state . The main climate state change is between periodical glacial and interglacial cycles in Earth history , studied from climate proxies . The climate system is responding to the current climate forcing and adjusts following climate sensitivity to reach a climate equilibrium , Earth 's energy balance . Model simulations suggest that the current interglacial climate state will continue for at least another 100,000 years , due to emissions - including complete deglaciation of the Northern Hemisphere ." ]

[ "Ice age An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .", "Climate change (general concept) Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.", "Younger Dryas The Younger Dryas is a geological period from c. 12,900 to c. 11,700 calendar years ago ( BP ) . It is named after an indicator genus , the alpine-tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala . Leaves of Dryas octopetala are occasionally abundant in the Late Glacial , often minerogenic-rich , like the lake sediments of Scandinavian lakes . The Younger Dryas saw a sharp decline in temperature over most of the northern hemisphere , at the end of the Pleistocene epoch , immediately before the current warmer Holocene . It was the most recent and longest of several interruptions to the gradual warming of the Earth 's climate since the severe Last Glacial Maximum , c. 27,000 to 24,000 calendar years BP . The change was relatively sudden , taking place in decades , and resulted in a decline of 2 to 6 degrees Celsius , advances of glaciers and drier conditions , over much of the temperate northern hemisphere . It is thought to have been caused by a decline in the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation , which transports warm water from the equator towards the North Pole , and which in turn is thought to have been caused by an influx of fresh cold water from North America into the Atlantic . The Younger Dryas was a period of climatic change , but the effects were complex and variable . In the southern hemisphere , and some areas of the north such as southeastern North America , there was a slight warming . The presence of a distinct cold period at the end of the Late Glacial interval has been known for a long time . Paleobotanical and lithostratigraphic studies of Swedish and Danish bog and lake sites , e.g. the Allerød clay pit in Denmark , first recognized and described the Younger Dryas . The Younger Dryas is the youngest and longest of three stadials that resulted from typically abrupt climatic changes that took place over the last 16,000 calendar years . Within the Blytt-Sernander classification of north European climatic phases , the prefix ` Younger ' refers to the recognition that this original ` Dryas ' period was preceded by a warmer stage , the Allerød oscillation , which in turn was preceded by the Older Dryas around 14,000 calendar years BP . This is not securely dated , and estimates vary by 400 years , but it is generally accepted that it lasted around 200 years . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and more extensive than during the Younger Dryas . The Older Dryas , in turn , is preceded by another warmer stage , the Bølling oscillation that separates it from a third and even older stadial . This stadial is often , but not always , known as the Oldest Dryas . The Oldest Dryas occurred approximately 1,770 calendar years before the Younger Dryas and lasted about 400 calendar years . According to the GISP2 ice core from Greenland , the Oldest Dryas occurred between about 15,070 and 14,670 calendar years BP . In Ireland , the Younger Dryas has also been known as the Nahanagan Stadial , while in Great Britain it has been called the Loch Lomond Stadial . In the Greenland Summit ice core chronology , the Younger Dryas corresponds to Greenland Stadial 1 ( GS-1 ) . The preceding Allerød warm period ( interstadial ) is subdivided into three events : Greenland Interstadial-1c to 1a ( GI-1c to GI-1a ) .", "Huaynaputina Huaynaputina ( -LSB- wainapuˈtina -RSB- , Pronounced : -LSB- waɪnəpʊˈtiːnə -RSB- ; from young volcano , meaning `` Young Volcano '' ) is a stratovolcano in a volcanic upland in southern Peru . The volcano does not have an identifiable mountain profile , but instead is a large volcanic crater . It has produced high-potassium andesite and dacite . On 19 February 1600 , it exploded catastrophically ( Volcanic Explosivity Index -LSB- VEI -RSB- 6 ) , in the largest volcanic explosion in South America in historic times . The eruption continued with a series of events into March . An account of the event was included in Fray Antonio Vázquez de Espinosa 's Compendio y Descripción de las Indias , which was translated into English as Compendium and description of the West Indies in 1942 ." ]

[ "St. Andrew Strait St. Andrew Strait is a volcano in Papua New Guinea that has had eruptions in historical times . The volcano is not linked to any tectonic plates , the volcano is also in an area of very little earthquakes , this suggests that St. Andrew Strait is an Intraplate volcano . It consists of a group of Quaternary volcanic cones that are mainly rhyolitic in composition . The volcanism is curved , suggesting that the volcano has an ancient caldera . The centre of the volcano is Lou Island . Lou island last erupted in 240 BC ( give or take 100 years ) and 340 AD , both eruptions came from the Bendal volcano . Lou island is the largest eruptive centre of the volcano , with 6 volcanic vents . Also the Pam islands ( Pam Lin and Pam Mandian ) also contain fresh deposits . Historic eruptions have come from the Tuluman Islands .", "Global warming hiatus A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "Duncan Wingham Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "Global Warming Policy Foundation The Global Warming Policy Foundation ( GWPF ) is a think tank in the United Kingdom , whose stated aims are to challenge `` extremely damaging and harmful policies '' envisaged by governments to mitigate anthropogenic global warming . It promotes climate change denial . In 2014 , when the Charity Commission ruled that the GWPF had breached rules on impartiality , a non-charitable organisation called the `` Global Warming Policy Forum '' or `` GWPF '' was created as a wholly owned subsidiary , to do lobbying that a charity could not . The GWPF website carries an array of articles `` sceptical '' of scientific findings of anthropogenic global warming and its impacts .", "Ellington (horse) Ellington ( 1853 -- 1870 ) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse and sire . In a career that lasted from 1855 to 1856 he ran eleven times and won four races . A leading two-year-old in 1855 , when his wins included the Champagne Stakes at Doncaster , he won only one of his seven races the following year . That win , however , came in the Epsom Derby , where his ability to handle soft ground proved to be decisive . Ellington was retired to stud at the end of the his three-year-old season , but had very little impact as a sire .", "Effects of global warming on human health The effects of global warming include effects on human health . The observed and projected increased frequency and severity of climate related impacts will further exacerbate the effects on human health . This article describes some of those effects on individuals and populations .", "Thermal Credits Thermal credits is a new holistic concept which corresponds to the percentage of the climate impact saving obtained through mitigation and adaptation measures applied against global warming , taking as reference the global temperature rise projected in a given time scale . Thermal credits are measured in percentages of global warming reduction in a given time .", "Plantesamfund Plantesamfund - Grundtræk af den økologiske Plantegeografi , published in Danish in 1895 by Eugen Warming , and in English in 1909 as Oecology of Plants : An Introduction to the Study of Plant Communities , by Warming and Martin Vahl , was the first book to be published having the word ecology in its title . The book has had a lasting impact on the field of ecology , particularly in its German translation soon after its initial publication , and in its expanded and revised English translation . The book was based on Warming 's lectures on plant geography at the University of Copenhagen . It gives an introduction to all major biomes of the world . Its aim was to explain how nature solved similar problems ( drought , flooding , cold , salt , herbivory ) in similar way , despite using very different raw material ( species of different descent ) in different regions of the world . Warming , E. ( 1895 ) Plantesamfund - Grundtræk af den økologiske Plantegeografi . P.G. Philipsens Forlag , Kjøbenhavn . 335 pp .", "Global warming in Russia Global warming in Russia describes the global warming related issues in Russia . This includes climate politics , contribution to global warming and the influence of global warming on Russia . In 2009 Russia was ready to reduce emissions 20 -- 25 % from its 1990 emission levels by the year 2020 .", "List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "Coal in Europe Coal in Europe describes coal as energy fuel in Europe today . Coal includes hard coal , brown coal , and lignite . Coal production in Europe is falling , and imports exceed production . If production and consumption continue at the present rate , proven and economically recoverable world reserves would last for about 150 years . According to IEA Coal Information ( 2007 ) world production and use of coal have increased considerably in recent years . There is , however , growing controversy in Europe over the use of coal , as many denounce it for reasons such as health risks and links to global warming .", "AGW AGW can refer to : Anthropogenic global warming ; see the following : Attribution of recent climate change Human impact on the environment Climate change Global warming Global warming controversy Actual gold weight , a measure used in gold bullion , coin or bar Agnew Airport , Queensland , Australia ( IATA code : AGW ) Access gateway , shorthand for multi-service access gateway ( MSAG ) , a device used in telecommunications . Kahua language ( ISO 639-3 code : agw )", "Anthropogenic Anthropogenic is an adjective which may refer to : pertaining to anthropogeny , the origin of humanity Human impact on the environment or anthropogenic impact on the environment Anthropogenic biome Anthropogenic climate change , or global warming Anthropogenic cloud Anthropogenic greenhouse gases Anthropogenic hazards Anthropogenic metabolism", "Crude Impact Crude Impact is a 2006 film written and directed by James Jandak Wood . It is a documentary about the effect of fossil fuels on issues such as global warming , the environmental crisis , society and the questionable practices of oil companies . Crude Impact was an official selection at over thirty film festivals around the world . The film had a limited theatrical release in the United States and Canada . It has been broadcast on television in several countries . Crude Impact has been translated into French , Spanish , Czech , Turkish and Finnish .", "Taupo Volcano Lake Taupo , in the centre of New Zealand 's North Island , is the caldera of a large rhyolitic volcano called the Taupo Volcano . This huge volcano has produced two of the world 's most violent eruptions in geologically recent times . The Taupo Volcano forms part of the Taupo Volcanic Zone , a region of volcanic activity that extends from Ruapehu in the South , through the Taupo and Rotorua regions , to White Island , in the Bay of Plenty . Taupo began erupting about 300,000 years ago , but the main eruptions that still affect the surrounding landscape are the Oruanui eruption , about 26,500 years ago , which is responsible for the shape of the modern caldera , and the Hatepe eruption , about 1,800 years ago . However , there have been many more eruptions , with major ones every thousand years or so ( see timeline of last 10,000 years of eruptions ) .", "Not Evil Just Wrong Not Evil Just Wrong is a 2009 documentary film by Ann McElhinney and Phelim McAleer that challenges Al Gore 's An Inconvenient Truth by suggesting that the evidence of global warming is inconclusive and that the impact global warming legislation will have on industry is much more harmful to humans than beneficial . The movie was filmed in 2008 and was screened at the International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam and at the RightOnline conference in 2009 . Despite earlier screenings at conservative political conferences , filmmakers promoted a `` premiere '' on October 18 , 2009 . The film attempted to break a World Record for largest simultaneous premiere , which is currently held by the documentary The Age of Stupid , another global warming documentary . The film 's website claims that there were 6,500 U.S. screenings and 1,500 foreign screenings and reached 400,000 people .", "Yaodong A yaodong or `` house cave '' is a particular form of earth shelter dwelling common in the Loess Plateau in China 's north . They are generally carved out of a hillside or excavated horizontally from a central `` sunken courtyard '' . The earth that surrounds the indoor space serves as an effective insulator keeping the inside of the structure warm in cold seasons and cool in hot seasons . Consequently , very little heating is required in winter , and in summer , it is as cool as an air-conditioned room . The history of yaodongs goes back centuries , and they continue to be used . In 2006 , an estimated 40 million people in northern China lived in yaodongs . In the last decade , yaodongs have been brought to the attention of scientists and researchers . These traditional dwellings have been regarded as an example of sustainable design .", "Last ice age Last ice age may refer to : Quaternary glaciation , the period of the last few million years Last glacial period , the most recent glacial period of the current ice age Little Ice Age , a hundred years of relative cold in the Middle Ages after what historians term the Medieval Warm Period", "Hekla Hekla ( -LSB- 3 = Is-Hekla_pronunciation . ogg -RSB- ) , or Hecla , is a stratovolcano in the south of Iceland with a height of 1491 m. Hekla is one of Iceland 's most active volcanoes ; over 20 eruptions have occurred in and around the volcano since 874 . During the Middle Ages , Europeans called the volcano the `` Gateway to Hell '' . Hekla is part of a volcanic ridge , 40 km long . The most active part of this ridge , a fissure about 5.5 km long named Heklugjá , is considered to be the volcano Hekla proper . Hekla looks rather like an overturned boat , with its keel being a series of craters , two of which are generally the most active . The volcano 's frequent large eruptions have covered much of Iceland with tephra and these layers can be used to date eruptions of Iceland 's other volcanos . 10 % of the tephra created in Iceland in the last thousand years has come from Hekla , amounting to 5 km3 . The volcano has produced one of the largest volumes of lava of any in the world in the last millennium , around 8 km3 .", "Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "Warm Jets Warm Jets were a British pop indie band , who had two UK top 40 singles and a top 40 album in 1998 .", "Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "Cloud feedback Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .", "Neenach Volcano Neenach Volcano is an extinct Miocene volcano in the Coastal Ranges of California . The volcano was split by a fault in the San Andreas fault system and over the last 23 million years the two halves of the volcano have moved about 200 miles apart . The original volcano formed about 23 million years ago . It formed along a fault in the San Andreas fault system . Through tectonic plate motion the western half of the volcano moved north at about 1.5 cm per year . During the course of this movement the volcano also eroded away to the minor formations visible today .", "Apastepeque Volcanic Field The Apastepeque Volcanic Field is in El Salvador , Central America . The volcanic field is 8 kilometers north of a small town in central El Salvador called San Vicente . The last eruption of the volcano is unknown , however scientists have concluded that it was around 10 , 000 years ago .", "San Vicente (volcano) San Vicente ( also known as Chichontepec or Las Chiches ) is a stratovolcano in central El Salvador . It is located next to the town of San Vicente ( hence the name ) and is the second highest volcano in El Salvador . In the indigenous language Nahuat , Chichontepec means the mountain of the two breasts , because its double summit resembles a woman 's bosom . The volcano has two craters , one located in each summit , although not exactly at the top . Dense vegetation covers both summits . Numerous hot springs and fumaroles are found on the northern and western flanks of the volcano . To the northeast , at 820 metres in a ravine of 180 metres longitude , there are fumaroles -- fountains of clear and muddy water or small volcanoes of mud . The last significant eruption occurred more than 1,700 years ago . The volcano may have had a very long history of repeated , and sometimes violent , eruptions , and at least once a large section of the volcano collapsed in a massive landslide . On August 9 , 1995 , Aviateca Flight 901 crashed at the volcano , killing all 65 people on board .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "Global warming in Norway Global warming in Norway discusses global warming issues in Norway .", "Scientific opinion on climate change The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "Maitland Volcano Maitland Volcano is a heavily eroded shield volcano that resides in the Northern Interior of British Columbia , Canada . It is located southeast of the small community of Telegraph Creek in what is now the Klappan Range of the northern Skeena Mountains . This multi-vent volcano covered a remarkably large area and was topped by a younger volcanic edifice . Little remains of Maitland Volcano today , limited only to eroded lava flows and distinctive upstanding landforms created when magma hardened within the vents of the volcano . The shield is associated with an extensive group of related volcanoes called the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province ( NCVP ) . This forms part of the much larger Ring of Fire , which surrounds most of the Pacific Ocean basin . Geologic studies have shown that Maitland was a comparatively short-lived volcano . It had volcanic activity for less than a million years , a time span unique from other massive NCVP shields . The volcano is known to have produced at least four types of lava , namely alkali basalt , hawaiite , trachyte and trachybasalt . These have been studied by scientists since the 1950s .", "Haikou Volcanic Cluster Global Geopark Haikou Volcanic Cluster Global Geopark , also known as Haikou Scenic-Shishan Volcano Cluster , Leiqiong Global Geopark , Haikou Crater Park , and Hainan Crater Park is a national park located approximately 15 km west of Haikou , Hainan , China . It is named for a crater , one of many extinct volcanoes on the island . The park has a total area of 118 square kilometres . It contains the two towns Shishan Town and Yongxing Town , and more than 40 Quaternary volcanoes . Part of the area is called Mount Maanling ( Saddle ) Crater Scenic Area . This area consists of the two major volcanoes , Mount Fengliung ( furnace ) and Mount Baoziling . Together they appear as a saddle , hence the name . Adjacent to these , there are another two volcanoes , one of which is called Mount Yanjinglin ." ]

[ "Climate change in the Arctic The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "Greenland ice sheet The Greenland ice sheet ( Grønlands indlandsis , Sermersuaq ) is a vast body of ice covering 1710000 km ² , roughly 80 % of the surface of Greenland . It is the second largest ice body in the world , after the Antarctic ice sheet . The ice sheet is almost 2400 km long in a north-south direction , and its greatest width is 1100 km at a latitude of 77 ° N , near its northern margin . The mean altitude of the ice is 2135 m . The thickness is generally more than 2 km and over 3 km at its thickest point . It is not the only ice mass of Greenland -- isolated glaciers and small ice caps cover between 76000 and around the periphery . If the entire 2850000 km3 of ice were to melt , it would lead to a global sea level rise of 7.2 m . The Greenland Ice Sheet is sometimes referred to under the term inland ice , or its Danish equivalent , indlandsis . It is also sometimes referred to as an ice cap .", "North America North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere . It can also be considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas . It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean , to the east by the Atlantic Ocean , to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean , and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea . North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers ( 9,540,000 square miles ) , about 16.5 % of the earth 's land area and about 4.8 % of its total surface . North America is the third largest continent by area , following Asia and Africa , and the fourth by population after Asia , Africa , and Europe . In 2013 , its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states , or about 7.5 % of the world 's population , if nearby islands ( most notably the Caribbean ) are included . North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period , via crossing the Bering land bridge approximately 40,000 to 17,000 years ago . The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago ( the beginning of the Archaic or Meso-Indian period ) . The Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries . The Pre-Columbian era ended with the transatlantic migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery and the Early Modern period . Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists , indigenous peoples , African slaves and their descendants . European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south . Because of the history of colonialism , most North Americans speak English , Spanish or French and societies and states commonly reflect Western traditions ." ]

[ "Gunz glaciation The Gunz or Günz glaciation ( Günz-Kaltzeit , also Günz-Glazial , Günz-Komplex or ( obs . ) Günz-Eiszeit ) , also sometimes the Günz , Gunzian glaciation or Günz glacial stage , is a glacial stage of the Pleistocene epoch . It is the oldest glaciation of the Pleistocene in the traditional , quadripartite glacial classification of the Alps , although there are signs of even older glaciations in the Alpine Foreland , so that today it is reckoned that there were at least eight to 15 glacial periods . The name goes back to Albrecht Penck and Eduard Brückner , who named this ice age after the River Günz in their multi-volume work , Die Alpen im Eiszeitalter ( `` The Alps in the Ice Age Period '' ) which was published between 1901 and 1909 . Its type region is the Iller-Lech Plateau . The Günz followed the Danube-Günz interglacial and was ended by the Günz-Haslach interglacial . The corresponding stage in North Europe was the Elbe glaciation ( Elbe-Kaltzeit or , obsolete , Elbe-Eiszeit ) . The Günz is thought to have run from 800 000 to 600 000 years ago . Possible geological correlations suggest it may have begun 900 000 years ago .", "Laguna Caldera Laguna Caldera is located southeast of Manila . It has a summit elevation of 743m or 2,438 feet . The caldera , whose lake surface is only 1m above sea level , may have formed at least two major eruptions of about 1 million and 27,000-29 ,000 years ago .", "Termination (geomorphology) Termination , as used by Quaternary geologists , oceanographers , and paleoclimatologists is the period of time during an glacial cycle when there is a relatively rapid transition from full glacial climates to full interglacial climates . For the Quaternary period , terminations are numbered using Roman numerals from the most recent termination as `` I '' and with increasing value , e.g. `` II '' , `` III '' , and so forth , into the past . Termination I , also known as the Last Glacial Termination , is the end of Marine isotope stage 2 ; Termination II is the end of Marine Isotope Stage 6 ; Termination III is the end of Marine Isotope Stage 8 ; Termination IV is the end of Marine Isotope Stage 10 , and so forth . During the Quaternary , global climate experienced a recurring pattern of ice-sheet growth and decay . The length of Late Quaternary cycles varied between 80,000 and 120,000 years , with an average recurrence interval of about 100,000 years . The typical Late Quaternary glacial cycle was asymmetric having a long cooling interval that was characterized by an oscillating buildup of ice sheets to maximum volume . The long cooling interval was then followed by a relatively short warming period . During this warming period , called a termination , huge Northern hemisphere ice sheets melted away ; sea level rose about 120 m ; and interglacial climate emerged across the planet in a few thousand years . In case of the termination of the last glacial cycle , the retreat of continental ice sheets in the Northern hemisphere began about 20,000 calendar years ago . By about 7,000 calemdar years ago , a small ice cap on Baffin Island was all that was left of the great Laurentide Ice Sheet that had once covered northern North America . In Antarctica , the last termination began about 18,000 years ago and interglacial climate was attained close to 11,000 years ago .", "Death rates in the 20th century Death Rates in the 20th century is the ratio of deaths compared to the population around the world throughout the 20th century . When giving these ratios , they are most commonly expressed by number of deaths per 1,000 people per year . Many factors contribute to death rates such as cause of death , increasing the death rate , an aging population , which could increase and decrease the death rates by birth rates , and improvements in public health , decreasing the death rate . According to the CIA World Factbook , as of July 2012 , the global crude death rate is 7.99 deaths/1 ,000 population . The crude death rate represents the total number of deaths per year per thousand people . Comparatively , the crude death rate in the year 1900 was 17.2 deaths/1 ,000 population and 9.6 deaths/1 ,000 population in 1950 in America .", "Konrad Steffen Konrad `` Koni '' Steffen ( born 1952 ) is a glaciologist and the former director of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder , a position he held from 2005 until he took office as the director of the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest , Snow and Landscape Research on July 1 , 2012 . He is known for his research into Arctic sea ice and the glaciers of Greenland , and how they are affected by global warming . He has often traveled to Greenland to study these glaciers firsthand ; for example , when studying Petermann Glacier for three weeks in 2004 , Steffen did so from a camp set up 4,000 feet up the flanks of the glacier 's ice cap . He also operates a network of 20 weather stations on the Greenland ice sheet , the first of which , Swiss Camp , he established in 1990 . He has argued that due to this ice sheet melting faster than anticipated , sea levels could rise by about 3 feet by 2100 , considerably higher than the IPCC 's upper limit of 59 cm , and that Greenland might lose all its ice in 10,000 years , but Antarctica would take considerably longer , since it is so much bigger .", "Der Alte Schwede Der Alte Schwede or Alter Schwede ( meaning ( The ) Old Swede in German ) is a glacial erratic , found during dredging of the river Elbe near Hamburg in 1999 , at a depth of 15 m . The rock has a circumference of 19.7 m , a height of 4.5 m and weighs 217 tons . During the Elster maximum glaciation of the ice age 400 000 years ago , it was carried from Småland to the site where it was found . In June 2000 , it was given its current name . It is Germany 's oldest glacial erratic .", "Cold blob (North Atlantic) The cold blob in the North Atlantic describes a cold temperature anomaly of ocean surface waters , affecting the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation ( AMOC ) which is part of the thermohaline circulation , possibly related to global warming-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet .", "Gutmanis Cave Gutman 's Cave ( Gūtmaņa ala ) is the widest and highest cave in the Baltic countries , located on the Gauja River in the National Park of Sigulda , Latvia . It started forming more than 10 000 years ago when meltwater eroded the sandstone rock after the Ice Age . It is the oldest tourist attraction in Latvia . On the walls of the cave are inscriptions from the 17th century . The legend of the Rose of Turaida began in this cave .", "Norge 1:50000 Norge 1:50 000 ( Norway 1:50 000 ) is the main series of 727 topographical maps in 1:50,000 scale that cover the entire mainland area of Norway and proximate islands . The civilian designation is Norway 1:50 000 and the military designation is M711 . The military series includes 727 maps . The production of the map series was begun in 1952 , and the series was completed for whole Norway in 1988 . The maps are subject to ongoing revision , and about 60 maps are issued in new release each year . From 2012 , a civilian series printed on plastic sheets on both sides and in a larger format were produced . Each map sheet is now equivalent to four different maps in the military series . The civilian series include 212 different maps . Statens kartverk ( Norwegian Mapping Authority ) , the governmental cartography office , is responsible for updating and maintaining the maps . The geodetic datum of the series is EUREF89 ( European Reference Frame 1989 ) , which is approximately equal to WGS84 ( World Geodetic System 1984 ) . The maps are in full color , complete with place names and political boundaries . Contour line spacing is 20 meters ( 66 ft ) , and the maps are usable for hiking and other navigation . The maps are available for sale in most bookstores , though it may vary how complete their collection is .", "Abrupt climate change An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .", "Maritsa Municipality Maritsa Municipality ( obshtina ) is located in the Plovdiv Province , southern Bulgaria on the northern bank of the Maritsa River . It has 30,676 inhabitants and consists only of villages . The municipality has thriving industry with around $ 400 000 000 invested in the recent years . Its administrative center is Plovdiv but the city is not part of the municipality .", "Setergrotta Setergrotta ( or Setergrotten ) is a karst cave in Røvassdalen in the municipality of Rana in Nordland , Norway . It has a total depth of 50 meters and explored length of 2.4 kilometers . It is probably connected to the nearby Grønligrotta . The cave contains large galleries and sediments from the latest ice age and younger . It was created 2-300 ,000 years ago .", "Hartmut Heinrich Hartmut Heinrich ( born March 5 , 1952 in Northeim , Lower Saxony ) is a German marine geologist and climatologist . Dr. Heinrich is Head of the Physics Department at the Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency ( BSH ) in Hamburg . He is actively involved in GOOS ( Global Ocean Observing System ) . In 1988 he described the suddenly occurring climate changes in the history of the earth , which have since been named after him , Heinrich events . Heinrich studied geology at the University of Göttingen and attained a doctorate at the University of Kiel in marine geology . The discovery which was named for him , Heinrich events -- periods of substantial ice output of the continental ice sheets , by which the global climate is strongly affected -- were subsequently confirmed by investigations of ice core samples from the Greenland ice sheet by the Greenland ice core project ( GRIP ) . Dr. Heinrich warns of the global warming consequences which could occur precipitously and of far larger effects on navigation and population .", "Energy consumption measurement Energy consumption measurement is done in varying units . In List of countries by energy consumption per capita , the data is given in kilogrammes of oil equivalent per year -LSB- kgoe/a -RSB- , and gigajoules per year , and in watts , as average equivalent power . 1000 kgoe = 42 GJ W per capita ( 1 GJ/a = 31.7 W ) ( multiply by 8.766 to get kWh/year ) Megawatt hours per year can be written as Watt : 1 MW · h/yr = 1 000 kWh/yr = 1 000 000 Wh / ( 365.25 · 24 ) h = 114.077116 Watt Category : Energy measurement Category : Energy consumption", "Nioghalvfjerdsbrae Nioghalvfjerdsbrae , sometimes referred to as `` 79 N Glacier '' , is a large glacier located in northeast Greenland . It drains an area of 103,314 km2 of the Greenland Ice Sheet with a flux ( quantity of ice moved from the land to the sea ) of 14.3 km3 per year , as measured for 1996 .", "Peopling of China The ancestry of the present-day Chinese is complex and incompletely known . Genetic evidence indicates that groups of humans began to enter the region 50-60 ,000 years ago , probably from Africa , settling mainly in coastal areas and river valleys . After the last ice age China became cut off from neighboring island groups , but settlement became more widespread with the more favorable climate and the development of agriculture about 10,000 years ago . However , much detail about prehistoric cultures and languages remains conjectural . The historical period saw the absorption of many local cultures by the Han Chinese as the Chinese empire spread . Influences from outside included contact with nomads from the steppe and with Arab traders , and later the conquest of the empire successively by the Mongols and the Manchu .", "Zhoukoudian Zhoukoudian or Choukoutien is a cave system in Beijing , China . It has yielded many archaeological discoveries , including one of the first specimens of Homo erectus , dubbed Peking Man , and a fine assemblage of bones of the gigantic hyena Pachycrocuta brevirostris . Dates of when Peking Man inhabited this site vary greatly : 700,000-200 ,000 years ago , 670,000-470 ,000 years ago and no earlier than 530,000 years ago . The Peking Man Site was first discovered by Johan Gunnar Andersson in 1921 and was first excavated by Otto Zdansky in 1921 and 1923 unearthing two human teeth . These were later identified by Davidson Black as belonging to a previously unknown species and extensive excavations followed . Fissures in the limestone containing middle Pleistocene deposits have yielded the remains of about 45 individuals as well as animal remains and stone flake and chopping tools . The oldest animal remains date from as early as 690,000 years ago and tools from 670,000 years ago while another authority dates the tools found from no earlier than 530,000 years ago . During the Upper Palaeolithic , the site was re-occupied and remains of Homo sapiens and its stone and bone tools have also been recovered from the Upper Cave . The crater Choukoutien on asteroid 243 Ida was named after the location . The caves are located in Fangshan District , southwest of central Beijing .", "Orsugissap Qaqqarsua Orsugissap Qaqqarsua ( old spelling : Orssugissap Qaqqarssua ) is a nunatak ( nunataq ) of the Greenland ice sheet in the Qaasuitsup municipality in northwestern Greenland .", "West Greenland Current The West Greenland Current is a weak cold water current that flows to the north along the west coast of Greenland . The current results from the movement of water flowing around the southernmost point of Greenland caused by the East Greenland Current . According to Lloyd et al. , 2007 , the WGC is a WARM current connected to a broader scale North Atlantic climate via the combined influences of Atlantic water from the Irminger Current ( IC ) and polar water from the East Greenland Current . Paleoclimatology records derived from foraminifera abundance show that periodic influxes of warm subsurface temperatures and near-bottom temperatures occurred throughout the Late Holocene epoch , particularly during the Holocene climatic optimum . The increased flow from the nearby East Greenland Current was associated with increased glacial iceberg calving from the large Jakobshavn Isbrae glacial outlet within the western Greenland Ice Sheet , causing rapid melting and destabilization events . Following the Neoglaciation , the Jakobshavn outlet formed a floating ice tongue around 2000 years before present .", "Dye 3 Dye 3 is an ice core site and previously part of the Distant Early Warning ( DEW ) line , located at ( , 2480 masl ) in Greenland . As a DEW line base , it was disbanded in years 1990/1991 . An ice core is a core sample from the accumulation of snow and ice that has re-crystallized and trapped air bubbles over many years . The composition of these ice cores , especially the presence of hydrogen and oxygen isotopes , provides a picture of the climate at the time . Ice cores contain an abundance of climate information . Inclusions in the snow , such as wind-blown dust , ash , bubbles of atmospheric gas and radioactive substances , remain in the ice . The variety of climatic proxies is greater than in any other natural recorder of climate , such as tree rings or sediment layers . These include ( proxies for ) temperature , ocean volume , precipitation , chemistry and gas composition of the lower atmosphere , volcanic eruptions , solar variability , sea-surface productivity , desert extent and forest fires . Typical ice cores are removed from an ice sheet such as the ice cap internal to Greenland . Greenland is , by area , the world 's largest island . The Greenland ice sheet covers about 1.71 million km2 and contains about 2.6 million km3 of ice .", "Tipping points in the climate system A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.", "Médaille militaire The Médaille militaire ( Military Medal ) is a military decoration of the French Republic for other ranks for meritorious service and acts of bravery in action against an enemy force . It is the third highest award of the French Republic , after the Légion d'honneur , a civil and military order , and the ordre de la Libération , a second world war-only order . The Médaille militaire is therefore the most senior entirely military active French decoration . During World War One , 230 000 médailles were awarded , when 1 400 000 French Army soldiers were killed and 3 000 000 wounded . For comparison , the UK Military Medal was awarded on 115 000 occasions in World War One , when 673 375 British Army soldiers were killed and 1 643 469 wounded . The award was first established in 1852 by the first President of the French Republic , Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte who may have taken his inspiration from a medal established and awarded by his father , Louis Bonaparte , King of Holland . After the First World War , the Military Medal was also temporarily awarded for wounds received in combat .", "List of glaciers in Glacier National Park (U.S.) There are at least 35 named glaciers in Glacier National Park ( U.S. ) . In 1850 , the area now comprising the national park had 150 glaciers . There are 25 active glaciers remaining in the park today . Since the ice ages stopped 10,000 years ago , there have been many slight climate shifts causing periods of glacier growth or melt-back . The glaciers are currently being studied to see the effect of global warming It is estimated that if current warming trends continue , there will be no glaciers left in the park by 2030 .", "Climate inertia Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "List of Greenlandic films A list of films produced in the Greenlandic language either by Greelandic or Danish producers , sorted in alphabetical order .", "Thue Christiansen Thue Christiansen ( born 25 February 1940 Maamorilik , Greenland ) is a Greenlandic Inuit teacher , artist and politician . Christiansen is best known as the designer of the flag of Greenland , which was adopted on 21 June 1985 . Christiansen also served as the Greelandic Minister of Culture and Education from 1979 , when Greenland was granted home rule , until 1983 .", "Eutatus Eutatus is an extinct genus of large insectivorous armadillo of the family Dasypodidae . It was endemic to South America during the middle to Late Pleistocene , living from 1.2 Ma-11 ,000 years ago and existing for approximately .", "Greenlands Guest House Greelands Guest House is a government-owned guest house located in Hyderabad , India . It is located in Greelands , Begumpet . It is a notified heritage structure in Hyderabad . It is used as a state guest house .", "Glacial earthquake Glacial earthquakes are earthquakes as large as magnitude 5.1 that occur in glaciated areas where the glacier moves faster than one kilometer per year . The number of glacial earthquakes in Greenland shows a peak every year in July , August and September , and the number is increasing over time . In a study using data from January 1993 through October 2005 , more events were detected every year since 2002 , and twice as many events were recorded in 2005 as there were in any other year . This increase in the numbers of glacial earthquakes in Greenland may be a response to global warming . Seismic waves are also generated by the Whillans Ice Stream , a large , fast-moving river of ice pouring from the West Antarctic Ice Sheet into the Ross Ice Shelf . Two bursts of seismic waves are released every day , each one equivalent to a magnitude 7 earthquake , and are seemingly related to the tidal action of the Ross Sea . During each event a 96 by 193 kilometer ( 60 by 120 mile ) region of the glacier moves as much as .67 meters ( 2.2 feet ) over about 25 minutes , remains still for 12 hours , then moves another half-meter . The seismic waves are recorded at seismographs around Antarctica , and even as far away as Australia , a distance of more than 6,400 kilometers . Because the motion takes place of such a long period of time 10 to 25 minutes , it can not be felt by scientists standing on the moving glacier . It is not known if these events are related to global warming .", "Paf (company) Ålands Penningautomatförening or Paf is a Finnish company that operates a legal gambling monopoly on the Åland Islands , Finland . Paf also has an Internet-based gambling and gaming operation , in addition to operating and maintaining casino and gaming activities on a large number of cruise ferries . The purpose of Paf is to generate funds for humanitarian and social causes on the Åland Islands . Paf serves players from countries including Finland , Sweden , Estonia , Spain and Italy . Paf is licensed and controlled by the local Åland government . An independent allocation board distributes all the Paf profit to non-profit associations , organizations and good causes on the Åland Islands . In 2015 , Paf distributed a total of 20,7 million euros in different grants and loans . Social activities : 3 260 000 Environmental activities : 450 000 Youth work : 385 000 Sport : 1 575 000 Arts and culture activities : 1 681 000 Leadership contributions : 169 000 Event contributions : 100 000 Other contributions : 2 125 000 Project contributions : 790 000 Social development and employment : 6 555 000 Loans and investments Geriatric clinic : 2 000 0000 Other loans : 1 610 000 Paf 's counterpart in Mainland Finland is the not-for-profit gambling company Veikkaus . Disputes over jurisdiction between the two associations are ongoing . Paf is going to start a four-year research cooperation with the Department of Psychology at Stockholm University . The study focus on setting limits , customer contact and feedback on gaming habits . The research project is led by Professor of Psychology Per Carlbring , and Paf is funding the study with 320 000 euros . Paf arrange every other year a multi-national Responsible Gaming Summit . Purpose of the conference is to increase awareness about responsible gaming . The conference is aimed to gaming operators , partners , academics and decision makers to learn from each other and share best practices . The conference arranged at 29 September 2015 . The first conference was arranged in 2013 .", "Maarten Swings Maarten Swings ( born 2 November 1988 ) is the brother of Bart Swings . Like his brother , he is a Belgian speed skater ( inline skating & ice ) and multiple European and world Champion . Together with his brother and their mutual friend Ferre Spruyt they form ` Team Stressless ' . It is the first Belgian professional top speed skating team . Inline speedskating Top results 2011 European Champion men 's speed inline skating ( on the road ) 5 000 m relay race 2010 European Champion men 's speed inline skating ( on the road ) 5 000 m relay race 2009 European Champion men 's speed inline skating ( on the road ) 3 000 m relay race", "Tremarctos Tremarctos is a genus of the family Ursidae , subfamily Tremarctinae endemic to Americas from the Pliocene to recent . The northern species , the Florida short-faced bear , was extinct 11 000 years ago . The sole living Tremarctos species is the South American spectacled bear ." ]

[ "Earth Earth ( from Eorðe -LSB- Γαῖα , Gaia -RSB- Terra ) , otherwise known as the World or the Globe , is the third planet from the Sun and the only object in the Universe known to harbor life . It is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest of the four terrestrial planets . According to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence , Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago . Earth 's gravity interacts with other objects in space , especially the Sun and the Moon , Earth 's only natural satellite . During one orbit around the Sun , Earth rotates about its axis over 365 times ; thus , an Earth year is about 365.26 days long . Earth 's axis of rotation is tilted , producing seasonal variations on the planet 's surface . The gravitational interaction between the Earth and Moon causes ocean tides , stabilizes the Earth 's orientation on its axis , and gradually slows its rotation . Earth 's lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years . About 71 % of Earth 's surface is covered with water , mostly by its oceans . The remaining 29 % is land consisting of continents and islands that together have many lakes , rivers and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere . The majority of Earth 's polar regions are covered in ice , including the Antarctic ice sheet and the sea ice of the Arctic ice pack . Earth 's interior remains active with a solid iron inner core , a liquid outer core that generates the Earth 's magnetic field , and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics . Within the first billion years of Earth 's history , life appeared in the oceans and began to affect the Earth 's atmosphere and surface , leading to the proliferation of aerobic and anaerobic organisms . Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as much as 4.1 billion years ago . Since then , the combination of Earth 's distance from the Sun , physical properties , and geological history have allowed life to evolve and thrive . In the history of the Earth , biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion , occasionally punctuated by mass extinction events . Over 99 % of all species that ever lived on Earth are extinct . Estimates of the number of species on Earth today vary widely ; most species have not been described . Over 7.4 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and minerals for their survival . Humans have developed diverse societies and cultures ; politically , the world has about 200 sovereign states .", "Atmosphere of Earth The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "Climate of Antarctica The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth . Antarctica 's lowest air temperature record was set on 21 July 1983 , with − 89.2 C at Vostok Station . Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures , down to − 93.2 C at the cloud free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010 . It is also extremely dry ( technically a desert ) , averaging 166 mm of precipitation per year . On most parts of the continent the snow rarely melts and is eventually compressed to become the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet . Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent , because of the katabatic winds . Most of Antarctica has an ice cap climate ( Köppen EF ) with very cold , generally extremely dry weather ." ]

[ "Global warming hiatus A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "Upsalite Upsalite is an anhydrous form of magnesium carbonate first reported in July 2013 . With a surface area of 800 m ² per gram , Upsalite is reported to have the highest surface area measured for an alkali earth metal carbonate ever created . It is found to adsorb more water at low relative humidities better than the best materials previously available -- the hygroscopic zeolites . Further , upsalite can release that water at lower temperatures than zeolites , requiring less energy .", "Atmosphere of Triton The atmosphere of Triton is the layer of gases surrounding Triton . The surface pressure is only 14 microbars , 1/70 ,000 th of the surface pressure on Earth , and it is composed of nitrogen , similar to those of Titan and Earth . It extends 800 kilometers above its surface . Recent observations have shown an increase in temperature .", "Highest temperature recorded on Earth The standard measuring conditions for temperature are in the air , 1.5 meters above the ground , and shielded from direct sunlight . The highest confirmed temperature on Earth recorded according to these measures was 56.7 C in Furnace Creek Ranch , California , located in the Death Valley desert in the United States , on July 10 , 1913 . The former highest official temperature on Earth , held for 90 years by ` Aziziya , Libya , was de-certified by the WMO ( World Meteorological Organization ) in January 2012 as the record for the world 's highest surface temperature ( this temperature of 57.8 ° C ( 136 ° F ) , registered on 13 September 1922 , is currently considered to have been a recorder 's error ) . Christopher C. Burt , the weather historian writing for Weather Underground who shepherded the Libya reading 's 2012 disqualification , believes that the 1913 Death Valley reading is `` a myth '' , and is at least four or five degrees Fahrenheit too high , as do other weather historians Dr. Arnold Court and William Taylor Reid . Burt proposes that the highest reliably recorded temperature on Earth is still at Death Valley , but is instead 53.9 C recorded five times : 20 July 1960 , 18 July 1998 , 20 July 2005 , 7 July 2007 , and 30 June 2013 . Temperatures measured directly on the ground may exceed air temperatures by 30 to 50 ° C . A ground temperature of 84 ° C ( 183.2 ° F ) has been recorded in Port Sudan , Sudan . A ground temperature of 93.9 ° C ( 201 ° F ) was recorded also in Furnace Creek Ranch on 15 July 1972 ; this may be the highest natural ground surface temperature ever recorded . The theoretical maximum possible ground surface temperature has been estimated to be between 90 and 100 ° C for dry , darkish soils of low thermal conductivity . Temperature measurements via satellite also tend to capture occurrence of higher records but are considered less reliable than ground-positioned thermometers . There is a satellite record of 66.8 C measured in the Flaming Mountains of China in 2008 . Other satellite measurements of ground temperature taken between 2003 and 2009 , taken with the MODIS infrared spectroradiometer on the Aqua satellite , found a maximum temperature of 70.7 ° C ( 159.3 ° F ) , which was recorded in 2005 in the Lut Desert , Iran . The Lut Desert was also found to have the highest maximum temperature in 5 of the 7 years measured ( 2004 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 and 2009 ) . These measurements reflect averages over a large region and so are lower than the maximum point surface temperature .", "Capping inversion A capping inversion is an elevated inversion layer that caps a convective boundary layer . The boundary layer is the part of the atmosphere which is closest to the ground . Normally , the sun heats the ground , which in turn heats the air just above it . Thermals form when this warm air rises into the cold air ( warm air is less dense than cold air ) , a process described by convection . A convective layer such as this has the potential for cloud formation , since condensation occurs as the warm air rises and cools . An inversion occurs when the normal temperature ( warm air below , cold air above ) profile is reversed , creating a stable configuration of dense , cold air sitting below lighter , warm air . An elevated inversion layer is thus a region of warm air above a region of cold air , but higher in the atmosphere ( generally not touching the surface ) . A capping inversion occurs when there is a boundary layer with a normal temperature profile ( warm air rising into cooler air ) and the layer above that is an inversion layer ( cooler air below warm air ) . Cloud formation from the lower layer is `` capped '' by the inversion layer . If the capping inversion layer or `` cap '' is too strong ( too close to the surface ) , it will prevent thunderstorms from developing . A strong cap can result in foggy conditions . However , if the air at the surface is unstable enough , strong updrafts can be forced through the capping inversion . This selective process of only allowing the strongest updrafts to form thunderstorms often results in outbreaks of severe weather .", "Tropical Warm Pool The Tropical Warm Pool ( TPW ) is a mass of ocean water located in the western Pacific Ocean and eastern Indian Ocean which exhibits the highest water temperatures over the largest expanse of the Earth 's surface .", "Atmosphere of Venus The atmosphere of Venus is the layer of gases surrounding Venus . It is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and is much denser and hotter than that of Earth . The temperature at the surface is 740 K ( 467 ° C , 872 ° F ) , and the pressure is 93 bar ( 9.3 MPa ) , roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . The Venusian atmosphere supports opaque clouds made of sulfuric acid , making optical Earth-based and orbital observation of the surface impossible . Information about the topography has been obtained exclusively by radar imaging . Aside from carbon dioxide , the other main component is nitrogen . Other chemical compounds are present only in trace amounts . Mikhail Lomonosov was the first person to hypothesize the existence of an atmosphere on Venus based on his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 in a small observatory near his house in Saint Petersburg , Russia . Aside from the very surface layers , the atmosphere is in a state of vigorous circulation . The upper layer of troposphere exhibits a phenomenon of super-rotation , in which the atmosphere circles the planet in just four Earth days , much faster than the planet 's sidereal day of 243 days . The winds supporting super-rotation blow at a speed of 100 m/s ( ~ 360 km/h or 220 mph ) or more . Winds move at up to 60 times the speed of the planet 's rotation , while Earth 's fastest winds are only 10 % to 20 % rotation speed . On the other hand , the wind speed becomes increasingly slower as the elevation from the surface decreases , with the breeze barely reaching the speed of 10 km/h ( 2.8 m/s ) on the surface . Near the poles are anticyclonic structures called polar vortices . Each vortex is double-eyed and shows a characteristic S-shaped pattern of clouds . Above there is an intermediate layer of mesosphere which separates the troposphere from the thermosphere . The thermosphere is also characterized by strong circulation , but very different in its nature - the gases heated and partially ionized by sunlight in the sunlit hemisphere migrate to the dark hemisphere where they recombine and downwell . Unlike Earth , Venus lacks a magnetic field . Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind . This ionised layer excludes the solar magnetic field , giving Venus a distinct magnetic environment . This is considered Venus 's induced magnetosphere . Lighter gases , including water vapour , are continuously blown away by the solar wind through the induced magnetotail . It is speculated that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of the Earth with liquid water on the surface . A runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and subsequent rise of the levels of other greenhouse gases . Despite the harsh conditions on the surface , the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth , making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the Solar System , even more so than the surface of Mars . Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air ( 21 % oxygen , 78 % nitrogen ) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth , the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization . On January 29 , 2013 , ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to `` the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions . ''", "Cloud In meteorology , a cloud is an aerosol comprising a visible mass of minute liquid droplets , frozen crystals , or particles suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of a planetary body . The droplets and crystals may be made of water or various chemicals . On Earth , clouds are formed as a result of saturation of the air when it is cooled to its dew point , or when it gains sufficient moisture ( usually in the form of water vapor ) from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the ambient temperature . They are seen in the Earth 's homosphere ( which includes the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere ) . Nephology is the science of clouds which is undertaken in the cloud physics branch of meteorology . There are two systems of naming clouds in their respective layers of the atmosphere ; Latin in the troposphere and mostly alpha-numeric above the troposphere . Cloud types in the troposphere , the atmospheric layer closest to Earth 's surface , have Latin names due to the universal adaptation of Luke Howard 's nomenclature . Formally proposed in 1802 , it became the basis of a modern international system that classifies clouds into five physical forms and three altitude levels ( formerly known as étages ) . These physical types , in approximate ascending order of convective activity , include stratiform sheets , cirriform wisps and patches , stratocumuliform layers ( mainly structured as rolls , ripples , and patches ) , cumuliform heaps , and very large cumulonimbiform heaps that often show complex structure . The physical forms are cross-classified by the altitude levels to produce ten basic genus-types , most of which can be divided into species , and subdivided into varieties . Two cirriform clouds that form higher up in the stratosphere and mesosphere have common names for their main types , but are sub-classified alpha-numerically . They are relatively uncommon and are mostly seen in the polar regions of Earth . Clouds have been observed in the atmospheres of other planets and moons in the Solar System and beyond . However , due to their different temperature characteristics , they are often composed of other substances such as methane , ammonia , and sulfuric acid as well as water . Homospheric types determined by cross-classification of forms and levels . '' Homospheric types include the ten tropospheric genera and two additional major types above the troposphere . The cumulus genus includes three variants as defined by vertical size .", "Goldich dissolution series The Goldich dissolution series is a way of predicting the relative stability or weathering rate of various minerals on the Earth 's surface . S. S. Goldich came up with the series in 1938 after studying soil profiles . He found that minerals that form at higher temperatures and pressures are less stable on the surface than minerals that form at lower temperatures and pressures . This pattern follows the same pattern of the Bowen 's reaction series , with the minerals that are first to crystallize also the first the undergo chemical weathering .", "Low-pressure area A low-pressure area , low , or depression is a region where the topographic map is atmospheric pressure is lower than that of surrounding locations . Low-pressure systems form under areas of wind divergence that occur in the upper levels of the troposphere . The formation process of a low-pressure area is known as cyclogenesis . Within the field of meteorology , atmospheric divergence aloft occurs in two areas . The first area is on the east side of upper troughs , which form half of a Rossby wave within the Westerlies ( a trough with large wavelength that extends through the troposphere ) . A second area of wind divergence aloft occurs ahead of embedded shortwave troughs , which are of smaller wavelength . Diverging winds aloft ahead of these troughs cause atmospheric lift within the troposphere below , which lowers surface pressures as upward motion partially counteracts the force of gravity . Thermal lows form due to localized heating caused by greater sunshine over deserts and other land masses . Since localized areas of warm air are less dense than their surroundings , this warmer air rises , which lowers atmospheric pressure near that portion of the Earth 's surface . Large-scale thermal lows over continents help drive monsoon circulations . Low-pressure areas can also form due to organized thunderstorm activity over warm water . When this occurs over the tropics in concert with the Intertropical Convergence Zone , it is known as a monsoon trough . Monsoon troughs reach their northerly extent in August and their southerly extent in February . When a convective low acquires a well-hot circulation in the tropics it is termed a tropical cyclone . Tropical cyclones can form during any month of the year globally , but can occur in either the northern or southern hemisphere during November . Atmospheric lift will also generally produce cloud cover through adiabatic cooling once the air becomes saturated as it rises , although the low-pressure area typically brings cloudy skies , which act to minimize diurnal temperature extremes . Since clouds reflect sunlight , incoming shortwave solar radiation decreases , which causes lower temperatures during the day . At night the absorptive effect of clouds on outgoing longwave radiation , such as heat energy from the surface , allows for warmer diurnal low temperatures in all seasons . The stronger the area of low pressure , the stronger the winds experienced in its vicinity . Globally , low-pressure systems are most frequently located over the Tibetan Plateau and in the lee of the Rocky mountains . In Europe ( particularly in the United Kingdom ) , recurring low-pressure weather systems are typically known as `` depressions '' .", "MSU temperature measurements Microwave sounding unit temperature measurements have been obtained from the troposphere since 1979 , when they were included within NOAA weather satellites . By comparison , the usable balloon ( radiosonde ) record begins in 1958 but has less geographic coverage and is less uniform . Satellites do not measure temperature . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands , which must then be mathematically inverted to obtain indirect inferences of temperature . The resulting temperature profiles depend on details of the methods that are used to obtain temperatures from radiances . As a result , different groups that have analyzed the satellite data have obtained different temperature trends . Among these groups are Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) and the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) . The satellite series is not fully homogeneous - the record is constructed from a series of satellites with similar but not identical instrumentation . The sensors deteriorate over time , and corrections are necessary for satellite drift in orbit . Particularly large differences between reconstructed temperature series occur at the few times when there is little temporal overlap between successive satellites , making intercalibration difficult . To compare to the trend from the surface temperature record ( approximately +0.07 ° C/decade over the past century and +0.15 -0.16 ° C/decade since 1979 ) it is most appropriate to derive trends for the part of the atmosphere nearest the surface , i.e. , the lower troposphere . Doing this , through January 2012 : RSS v3 .3 finds a trend of +0.137 ° C/decade . UAH v5 .4 finds a trend of +0.136 ° C/decade . An alternative adjustment introduced by Fu et al. ( 2004 ) finds trends ( 1979 -- 2011 ) of +0.14 ° C/decade when applied to the RSS data set and +0.11 ° C/decade when applied to the UAH data set . Using the T2 channel ( which include significant contributions from the stratosphere , which has cooled ) , Mears et al. of Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) find ( through January 2012 ) a trend of +0.082 ° C/decade . Spencer and Christy of the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) , find a smaller trend of +0.046 ° C/decade . A no longer updated analysis of Vinnikov and Grody found +0.20 ° C/decade ( 1978 -- 2005 ) . Another satellite temperature analysis is provided by NOAA/NESDIS STAR Center for Satellite Application and Research and use simultaneous nadir overpasses ( SNO ) to remove satellite intercalibration biases yielding more accurate temperature trends . The SNO analysis finds a 1979-2011 trend of +0.128 ° C/decade for T2 channel . The satellite records have the advantage of greater spatial coverage , whereas the radiosonde record is longer . There have been complaints of data problems with both records , and difficulty reconciling climate model predictions with the observed data .", "Sunglint Sunglint is a phenomenon that occurs when sunlight reflects off the surface of the ocean at the same angle that a satellite or other sensor is viewing the surface . In the affected area of the image , smooth ocean water becomes a silvery mirror , while rougher surface waters appear dark . Sometimes the sunglint region of satellite images reveals interesting ocean or atmospheric features that the sensor does not typically record . This image shows a large , overlapping wave pattern in the sunglint region of an image of Indonesia ( the islands at the top of the image ) and Australia ( the landmass at the bottom of the image ) . The wave pattern seen in the image is not from large ocean waves , however . The pattern is of atmospheric gravity waves above the surface of the ocean . As the name implies , atmospheric gravity waves form when buoyancy pushes air up , and gravity pulls it back down . On its descent into the low-point of the wave ( the trough ) , the air touches the surface of the ocean , roughening the water . The long , vertical dark lines show where the troughs of gravity waves have roughened the surface . The brighter regions show the crests of the atmospheric waves . Beneath the crests , the water is calm and reflects light directly back towards the sensor . Clouds commonly form at the crests of the waves , and such clouds are visible throughout this scene .", "Bathythermograph The bathythermograph , or BT , also known as the Mechanical Bathythermograph , or MBT ; is a small torpedo-shaped device that holds a temperature sensor and a transducer to detect changes in water temperature versus depth down to a depth of approximately 285 meters ( 935 feet ) . Lowered by a small winch on the ship into the water , the BT records pressure and temperature changes on a coated glass slide as it is dropped nearly freely through the water . While the instrument is being dropped , the wire is paid out until it reaches a predetermined depth , then a brake is applied and the BT is drawn back to the surface . Because the pressure is a function of depth ( see Pascal 's law ) , temperature measurements can be correlated with the depth at which they are recorded .", "Seasat Seasat was the first Earth-orbiting satellite designed for remote sensing of the Earth 's oceans and had on board the first spaceborne synthetic aperture radar ( SAR ) . The mission was designed to demonstrate the feasibility of global satellite monitoring of oceanographic phenomena and to help determine the requirements for an operational ocean remote sensing satellite system . Specific objectives were to collect data on sea-surface winds , sea-surface temperatures , wave heights , internal waves , atmospheric water , sea ice features and ocean topography . Seasat was managed by NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and was launched on 27 June 1978 into a nearly circular 800 km orbit with an inclination of 108 ° . Seasat operated for 106 days until 10 October 1978 , when a massive short circuit in the satellite 's electrical system ended the mission . Seasat carried five major instruments designed to return the maximum information from ocean surfaces : Radar altimeter to measure spacecraft height above the ocean surface Microwave scatterometer to measure wind speed and direction Scanning multichannel microwave radiometer to measure sea surface temperature Visible and infrared radiometer to identify cloud , land and water features Synthetic Aperture Radar ( SAR ) L-band , HH polarization , fixed look angle to monitor the global surface wave field and polar sea ice conditions -LCB- the antenna is the light parallelogram in the picture -RCB- . The SAR support structure was designed and manufactured by Northrop Grumman Astro Aerospace in Carpinteria , CA . The structure deployed on orbit . Many later remote sensing missions owe their legacy to Seasat . These include imaging radars flown on NASA 's Space Shuttle , altimeters on Earth-orbiting satellites such as TOPEX/Poseidon , and scatterometers on NASA Scatterometer ( NSCAT ) , QuikSCAT , and Jason 1 .", "Selective inverted sink The selective inverted sink or SIS is a device used by farmers to protect plants from frost , developed by Uruguayan Rafael Guarga in the late 1990s . The sink is actually a large fan housed in a chimney-like structure , and works by defeating surface temperature inversion . Cold air is denser than warm air , and will pool at ground level during calm weather . This lowers the surface temperature , even if the ambient temperature is higher . Vents near the base of the chimney allow cold surface air to be pulled up through the chimney , creating a suction effect that draws warmer air down to surface level . The SIS is more efficient than typical ground-heaters , and is widely used to combat frost .", "HD 167965 HD 167965 is a 6th magnitude star in the constellation Lyra , approximately 590 light years from Earth . It is a bluish white subgiant star of the spectral type B7IV , meaning it has a surface temperature of 11,000 to 25,000 kelvins . It is larger and brighter than our Sun , and its surface is at least twice as hot .", "Lambda Piscium Lambda Piscium ( Lambda Psc , λ Piscium , λ Psc ) is a star approximately 101 light years away from Earth in the constellation Pisces . It is a bluish-white star of A7V spectral classification , meaning it has a surface temperature of 7,500 to 11,000 kelvins . It is much brighter and hotter in surface temperature than the Sun , yet is approximately the same size . Lambda Piscium forms the southeast corner of the `` Circlet '' in Pisces .", "Life on Venus The speculation of life currently existing on Venus decreased significantly since the early 1960s , when spacecraft began studying Venus and it became clear that the conditions on Venus are extreme compared to those on Earth . The fact that Venus is located closer to the Sun than Earth , raising temperatures on the surface to nearly 735 K , the atmospheric pressure is 90 times that of Earth , and the extreme impact of the greenhouse effect , make water-based life as we know it unlikely on the surface of the planet . However , a few scientists have speculated that thermoacidophilic extremophile microorganisms might exist in the lower-temperature , acidic upper layers of the Venusian atmosphere .", "Nu Piscium Nu Piscium ( Nu Psc , ν Piscium , ν Psc ) is a star approximately 368 light years away from Earth , in the constellation Pisces . It is an orange star of the spectral type K3IIIb , meaning it possesses a surface temperature between 3,500 and 5,000 kelvins . It is a giant star , cooler in surface temperature than the Sun , yet larger and brighter . Nu Piscium was a latter designation of 51 Ceti .", "Polar forests of the Cretaceous Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "Iberulite Iberulites are a particular type of microspherulites that develop in the atmosphere ( troposphere ) , finally falling to the earth 's surface . The name comes from the Iberian Peninsula where they were discovered .", "Titan (moon) Titan is the largest moon of Saturn . It is the only moon known to have a dense atmosphere , and the only object in space other than Earth where clear evidence of stable bodies of surface liquid has been found . Titan is the sixth ellipsoidal moon from Saturn . Frequently described as a planet-like moon , Titan is 50 % larger than Earth 's Moon , and it is 80 % more massive . It is the second-largest moon in the Solar System , after Jupiter 's moon Ganymede , and is larger than the smallest planet , Mercury , but only 40 % as massive . Discovered in 1655 by the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens , Titan was the first known moon of Saturn , and the sixth known planetary satellite ( after Earth 's Moon and the four Galilean moons of Jupiter ) . Titan orbits Saturn at 20 Saturn radii . From Titan 's surface , Saturn subtends an arc of 5.09 degrees and would appear 11.4 times larger in the sky than the Moon from Earth . Titan is primarily composed of water ice and rocky material . Much as with Venus before the Space Age , the dense opaque atmosphere prevented understanding of Titan 's surface until new information from the Cassini -- Huygens mission in 2004 , including the discovery of liquid hydrocarbon lakes in Titan 's polar regions . The geologically young surface is generally smooth , with few impact craters , although mountains and several possible cryovolcanoes have been found . The atmosphere of Titan is largely nitrogen ; minor components lead to the formation of methane and ethane clouds and nitrogen-rich organic smog . The climate -- including wind and rain -- creates surface features similar to those of Earth , such as dunes , rivers , lakes , seas ( probably of liquid methane and ethane ) , and deltas , and is dominated by seasonal weather patterns as on Earth . With its liquids ( both surface and subsurface ) and robust nitrogen atmosphere , Titan 's methane cycle is analogous to Earth 's water cycle , at the much lower temperature of about 94 K.", "Triton (moon) Triton is the largest natural satellite of the planet Neptune . It was discovered on October 10 , 1846 , by English astronomer William Lassell . It is the only large moon in the Solar System with a retrograde orbit , an orbit in the opposite direction to its planet 's rotation . At 2700 km in diameter , it is the seventh-largest moon in the Solar System . Because of its retrograde orbit and composition similar to Pluto 's , Triton is thought to have been a dwarf planet captured from the Kuiper belt . Triton has a surface of mostly frozen nitrogen , a mostly water-ice crust , an icy mantle and a substantial core of rock and metal . The core makes up two-thirds of its total mass . Triton has a mean density of 2.061 g/cm3 and is composed of approximately 15 -- 35 % water ice . Triton is one of the few moons in the Solar System known to be geologically active ( the others being Jupiter 's Io and Saturn 's Enceladus ) . As a consequence , its surface is relatively young with sparse impact craters , and a complex geological history revealed in intricate cryovolcanic and tectonic terrains . Part of its surface has geysers erupting sublimated nitrogen gas , contributing to a tenuous nitrogen atmosphere less than 1/70 ,000 the pressure of Earth 's atmosphere at sea level .", "Micrometeoroid A micrometeoroid is a tiny meteoroid ; a small particle of rock in space , usually weighing less than a gram . A micrometeorite is such a particle that survives passage through the Earth 's atmosphere and reaches the Earth 's surface .", "Metamorphic rock Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock types , in a process called metamorphism , which means `` change in form '' . The original rock ( protolith ) is subjected to heat ( temperatures greater than 150 to 200 ° C ) and pressure , causing profound physical and/or chemical change . The protolith may be a sedimentary , an igneous , or even an existing type of metamorphic rock . Metamorphic rocks make up a large part of the Earth 's crust and form 12 % of the Earth 's current land surface . They are classified by texture and by chemical and mineral assemblage ( metamorphic facies ) . They may be formed simply by being deep beneath the Earth 's surface , subjected to high temperatures and the great pressure of the rock layers above it . They can form from tectonic processes such as continental collisions , which cause horizontal pressure , friction and distortion . They are also formed when rock is heated up by the intrusion of hot molten rock called magma from the Earth 's interior . The study of metamorphic rocks ( now exposed at the Earth 's surface following erosion and uplift ) provides information about the temperatures and pressures that occur at great depths within the Earth 's crust . Some examples of metamorphic rocks are gneiss , slate , marble , schist , and quartzite .", "Epsilon Piscium Epsilon Piscium ( Epsilon Psc , ε Piscium , ε Psc ) is the Bayer designation for a star approximately 182 ly away from the Earth , in the constellation Pisces . It is a yellow-orange star of the G9 III or K0 III spectral type , meaning it has a surface temperature around 5,000 Kelvin . This is a normal giant star , slightly cooler in surface temperature , yet brighter and larger than the Sun . It is a suspected occultation double , with both stars having the same magnitude , separated by 0.25 arcsecond .", "Sea ice Sea ice arises as seawater freezes . Because ice is less dense than water , it floats on the ocean 's surface ( as does fresh water ice , which has an even lower density ) . Sea ice covers about 7 % of the Earth 's surface and about 12 % of the world 's oceans . Much of the world 's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth 's polar regions : the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean . Polar packs undergo a significant yearly cycling in surface extent , a natural process upon which depends the Arctic ecology , including the ocean 's ecosystems . Due to the action of winds , currents and temperature fluctuations , sea ice is very dynamic , leading to a wide variety of ice types and features . Sea ice may be contrasted with icebergs , which are chunks of ice shelves or glaciers that calve into the ocean . Depending on location , sea ice expanses may also incorporate icebergs .", "Tropospheric propagation Tropospheric propagation describes electromagnetic propagation in relation to the troposphere . The service area from a VHF or UHF radio transmitter extends to just beyond the optical horizon , at which point signals start to rapidly reduce in strength . Viewers living in such a `` deep fringe '' reception area will notice that during certain conditions , weak signals normally masked by noise increase in signal strength to allow quality reception . Such conditions are related to the current state of the troposphere . Tropospheric propagated signals travel in the part of the atmosphere adjacent to the surface and extending to some 25,000 feet ( 7,620 m ) . Such signals are thus directly affected by weather conditions extending over some hundreds of miles . During very settled , warm anticyclonic weather ( i.e. , high pressure ) , usually weak signals from distant transmitters improve in strength . Another symptom during such conditions may be interference to the local transmitter resulting in co-channel interference , usually horizontal lines or an extra floating picture with analog broadcasts and break-up with digital broadcasts . A settled high-pressure system gives the characteristic conditions for enhanced tropospheric propagation , in particular favouring signals which travel along the prevailing isobar pattern ( rather than across it ) . Such weather conditions can occur at any time , but generally the summer and autumn months are the best periods . In certain favourable locations , enhanced tropospheric propagation may enable reception of ultra high frequency ( UHF ) TV signals up to 1,000 mi or more . The observable characteristics of such high-pressure systems are usually clear , cloudless days with little or no wind . At sunset the upper air cools , as does the surface temperature , but at different rates . This produces a boundary or temperature gradient , which allows an inversion level to form -- a similar effect occurs at sunrise . The inversion is capable of allowing very high frequency ( VHF ) and UHF signal propagation well beyond the normal radio horizon distance . The inversion effectively reduces sky wave radiation from a transmitter -- normally VHF and UHF signals travel on into space when they reach the horizon , the refractive index of the ionosphere preventing signal return . With temperature inversion , however , the signal is to a large extent refracted over the horizon rather than continuing along a direct path into outer space . Fog also produces good tropospheric results , again due to inversion effects . Fog occurs during high-pressure weather , and if such conditions result in a large belt of fog with clear sky above , there will be heating of the upper fog level and thus an inversion . This situation often arises towards night fall , continues overnight and clears with the sunrise over a period of around 4 -- 5 hours .", "39 Cygni 39 Cygni ( 39 Cyg ) is a star in the constellation Cygnus , approximately 260 light years away from Earth . It is an orange star of the spectral type K3III , meaning it has a surface temperature of 3,500 to 5,000 kelvins . It is cooler , but much larger and brighter , than the Sun .", "EduSAT EduSAT is an Italian microsatellite which was launched in August 2011 . The satellite was built and is operated by the Sapienza University of Rome in conjunction with the Italian Space Agency ASI , and is primarily used for educational outreach and technology demonstration . EduSAT is a 10 kg satellite , measuring 31.5 x . The spacecraft is powered by surface-mounted solar cells . It carries an experimental analogue sun sensor , a magnetometer and a temperature sensor . The satellite also tested a prototype PocketQube deployer and a passive deorbit mechanism . As of September 2013 it remained operational . EduSAT was launched aboard a Dnepr carrier rocket from Site 370/13 at the Dombarovsky launch site in Russia . The launch was conducted by Kosmotras with liftoff occurring at 07:12:20 on 17 August 2011 . The rocket carried six other satellites , with an additional payload bolted to the upper stage . The satellite was placed into a sun-synchronous low Earth orbit . As of 22 November 2013 it was in an orbit with a perigee of 644 km , an apogee of 699 km , 98.20 degrees inclination and a period of 98.04 minutes .", "Radiant cooling A radiant cooling system refers to a temperature-controlled surface that cools indoor temperatures by the removing sensible heat and where more than half of heat transfer occurs through thermal radiation . Heat will flow from objects , occupants , equipment and lights in a space to a cooled surface as long as their temperatures are warmer than that of the cooled surface and they are within the line of sight of the cooled surface . The process of radiant exchange has a negligible effect on air temperature , but through the process of convection , the air temperature will be lowered when air comes in contact with the cooled surface . Radiant cooling systems use the opposite effect of radiant heating systems , which rely on the process of heat flow from a heated surface to objects and occupants .", "Miniature Sensor Technology Integration-3 Miniature Sensor Technology Integration-3 ( MSTI-3 ) was a technology demonstration satellite operated by the United States Air Force . It was equipped with two infrared cameras and one visible light camera , designed to survey Earth 's surface features and characterize their appearance in infrared wavelengths . MSTI-3 launched on 17 May 1996 aboard an Orbital Sciences Pegasus rocket ." ]

[ "Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "Greenhouse gas A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 ." ]

[ "Fuel factor The fuel factor , fo , is the ratio of created CO2 to depleted oxygen in a combustion reaction , used to check the accuracy of an emission measurement system . It can be calculated using the equation fo = ( 20.9 - % O2 ) / % CO2 , Where % O2 is the percent O2 by volume , dry basis , % CO2 is the percent CO2 by volume , dry basis , and 20.9 is the percent O2 by volume in ambient air . The Fuel factor can be corrected for the amount of CO , by adding the percent CO on a dry basis to the CO2 , and subtracting half of the percent CO from the O2 .", "Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "Sustainable Silicon Valley Sustainable Silicon Valley ( SSV ) is a collaboration of businesses , governments , and non-governmental organizations that are identifying and addressing environmental and resource pressures in Silicon Valley . As its first initiative , SSV engaged Valley organizations , who are the SSV Partners , to work towards a goal of reducing regional carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emissions 20 % below 1990 levels by 2010 . The SSV approach to reaching this goal is to facilitate strategies to reduce CO2 emissions through increased energy and fuel efficiency and through the use of renewable sources of energy .", "Sustainable tourism Sustainable tourism is the concept of visiting a place as a tourist and trying to make only a positive impact on the environment , society and economy . Tourism can involve primary transportation to the general location , local transportation , accommodations , entertainment , recreation , nourishment and shopping . It can be related to travel for leisure , business and what is called VFR ( visiting friends and relatives ) . There is now broad consensus that tourism development should be sustainable ; however , the question of how to achieve this remains an object of debate . Without travel there is no tourism , so the concept of sustainable tourism is tightly linked to a concept of sustainable mobility . Two relevant considerations are tourism 's reliance on fossil fuels and tourism 's effect on climate change . 72 percent of tourism 's CO2 emissions come from transportation , 24 percent from accommodations , and 4 percent from local activities . Aviation accounts for 55 % of those transportation CO2 emissions ( or 40 % of tourism 's total ) . However , when considering the impact of all greenhouse gas emissions from tourism and that aviation emissions are made at high altitude where their effect on climate is amplified , aviation alone accounts for 75 % of tourism 's climate impact . The International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) considers an annual increase in aviation fuel efficiency of 2 percent per year through 2050 to be realistic . However , both Airbus and Boeing expect the passenger-kilometers of air transport to increase by about 5 percent yearly through at least 2020 , overwhelming any efficiency gains . By 2050 , with other economic sectors having greatly reduced their CO2 emissions , tourism is likely to be generating 40 percent of global carbon emissions . The main cause is an increase in the average distance travelled by tourists , which for many years has been increasing at a faster rate than the number of trips taken . `` Sustainable transportation is now established as the critical issue confronting a global tourism industry that is palpably unsustainable , and aviation lies at the heart of this issue ( Gossling et al. , 2010 ) . ''", "Environmental impact of transport The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .", "Low-carbon emission The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "Soil respiration Soil respiration refers to the production of carbon dioxide when soil organisms respire . This includes respiration of plant roots , the rhizosphere , microbes and fauna . Soil respiration is a key ecosystem process that releases carbon from the soil in the form of CO2 . CO2 is acquired from the atmosphere and converted into organic compounds in the process of photosynthesis . Plants use these organic compounds to build structural components or respire them to release energy . When plant respiration occurs below-ground in the roots , it adds to soil respiration . Over time , plant structural components are consumed by heterotrophs . This heterotrophic consumption releases CO2 and when this CO2 is released by below-ground organisms , it is considered soil respiration . The amount of soil respiration that occurs in an ecosystem is controlled by several factors . The temperature , moisture , nutrient content and level of oxygen in the soil can produce extremely disparate rates of respiration . These rates of respiration can be measured in a variety of methods . Other methods can be used to separate the source components , in this case the type of photosynthetic pathway ( C3/C4 ) , of the respired plant structures . Soil respiration rates can be largely affected by human activity . This is because humans have the ability to and have been changing the various controlling factors of soil respiration for numerous years . Global climate change is composed of numerous changing factors including rising atmospheric CO2 , increasing temperature and shifting precipitation patterns . All of these factors can affect the rate of global soil respiration . Increased nitrogen fertilization by humans also has the potential to effect rates over the entire Earth . Soil respiration and its rate across ecosystems is extremely important to understand . This is because soil respiration plays a large role in global carbon cycling as well as other nutrient cycles . The respiration of plant structures releases not only CO2 but also other nutrients in those structures , such as nitrogen . Soil respiration is also associated with positive feedbacks with global climate change . Positive feedbacks are when a change in a system produces response in the same direction of the change . Therefore , soil respiration rates can be effected by climate change and then respond by enhancing climate change .", "North American Carbon Program The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .", "Project Vulcan Project Vulcan is a NASA/DOE funded effort under the North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) to quantify North American fossil fuel carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emissions at space/time scales much finer than has been achieved in the past . The initial purpose of the Vulcan Project was to aid in quantification of the North American carbon budget , to support inverse estimation of carbon sources and sinks , and to support the demands posed by higher resolution CO2 observations . The detail and scope of the Vulcan CO2 inventory has now made it a valuable tool for policymakers , demographers , social scientists and the public at large . Project Vulcan has achieved U.S. fossil fuel CO2 emissions at < 10 km spatial scales and an hourly time scale , based on datasets such as air quality emissions reporting , census data , highway statistics , energy statistics , and econometric data . Furthermore , Vulcan includes significant process-level detail , dividing the emissions into economic sectors and sub-sectors in addition to 23 fuel types . It has been produced for the year 2002 , and an annual product spanning 1980-2006 will be available by late-2009 . The first Vulcan inventory ( v1 .0 ) was released to the public in early April 2008 . Version 1.1 was released in February 2009 and Version 1.2 is due out in early August 2009 . In addition to the data release , establishment of the Vulcan website and a press release , a video of various aspects of atmospheric transport was released on Purdue University 's YouTube website and portions of the Vulcan inventory are available on Google Earth . As of 2015 , version 2.2 has been published on a site hosted by Arizona State University .", "Carbon dioxide flooding Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .", "Mesopause The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .", "KZZ53 KZZ53 ( sometimes referred to as Barrow All Hazards ) is a NOAA Weather Radio station that serves the Barrow , Alaska area . It is programmed from the National Weather Service Forecast Office in Fairbanks . The station broadcasts weather and hazard information for the North Slope Borough in the North Slope Region in Northern Alaska . The County Coverage ( SAME/FIPS Code ) for the borough is : 002185 . It is the northernmost NOAA Weather Radio station transmitter in Alaska , the United States and in North America .", "Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .", "Global Carbon Project The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "Climate change mitigation scenarios Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project The Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project is part of the Gorgon Project , the world 's largest natural gas project . The Gorgon Project , located on Barrow Island in Western Australia , includes a liquefied natural gas ( LNG ) plant , a domestic gas plant , and a Carbon Dioxide Injection Project . The initial carbon dioxide injections are planned to take place by the end of 2017 . Once launched , the Gorgon Carbon Dioxide Injection Project will be the world 's largest CO2 injection plant , with an ability to store up to 4 million tons of CO2 per year -- approximately 120 million tons over the project 's lifetime , and 40 percent of total Gorgon Project emissions .", "The Greening of Planet Earth The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .", "Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ` The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI , pronounced `` Reggie '' ) is the first mandatory market based program in the United States to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . RGGI is a cooperative effort among the states of Connecticut , Delaware , Maine , Maryland , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , New York , Rhode Island , and Vermont to cap and reduce CO2 emissions from the power sector . RGGI compliance obligations apply to fossil-fueled power plants 25MW and larger within the nine-state region . RGGI establishes a regional cap on the amount of CO2 pollution that power plants can emit by issuing a limited number of tradable CO2 allowances . Each allowance represents an authorization for a regulated power plant to emit one short ton of CO2 . Individual CO2 budget trading programs in each RGGI state together create a regional market for CO2 allowances . The RGGI states distribute over 90 percent of allowances through quarterly auctions . These allowance auctions generate proceeds , which participating states are able to invest in strategic energy and consumer benefit programs . Programs funded through RGGI have included energy efficiency , clean and renewable energy , greenhouse gas abatement , and direct bill assistance . An initial milestone program 's development occurred in 2005 , when seven states signed a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) announcing an agreement to implement RGGI . The RGGI states then established individual CO2 budget trading programs , based on the RGGI Model Rule . The first pre-compliance RGGI auction took place in September 2008 , and the program became effective on January 1 , 2009 . The RGGI program is currently in its third three-year compliance period , which began January 1 , 2015 .", "CO2 is Green CO2 is Green is a non-profit organization supporting public policy on environmental issues . A main focus of the organization are federal proposals that may `` interfere with natures dependence on carbon dioxide . '' CO2 is Green does not view carbon dioxide as a pollutant and advocates for federal law and regulations to support this thinking .", "INRIX INRIX is a global SaaS and DaaS company which provides real-time traffic information , state-wide traffic analytics , traffic collisions , parking data and analytics , connected car services , traffic count and population movement insights . INRIX works with automakers and government agencies to understand how people and commerce move across the world 's transportation networks . As Big Data and the Internet of Things influence where people travel , INRIX is attempting to help by connecting cars to smarter cities . INRIX solutions attempt to reduce congestion , decrease CO2 emissions , increase safety on roads and bring innovative experiences to drivers . Government and business licensees use INRIX Data to improve the mobility of people worldwide . INRIX DaaS products are sourced from 300 million ( as of March 2017 ) real-time vehicles and devices from hundreds of sources in 65 countries .", "Forestle Forestle was an ecologically inspired search engine created by Christian Kroll , Wittenberg , Germany , in 2008 and discontinued in 2011 . Forestle supported rainforest conservation through donations of ad revenue and aimed to reduce CO2 emissions . It was briefly associated with Google before associating with Yahoo .", "Compensation point The ( light ) compensation point is the amount of light intensity on the light curve where the rate of photosynthesis exactly matches the rate of respiration . At this point , the uptake of CO2 through photosynthetic pathways is exactly matched to the respiratory release of carbon dioxide , and the uptake of O2 by respiration is exactly matched to the photosynthetic release of oxygen . In assimilation terms , at compensation point , the net carbon dioxide assimilation is zero . Leaves release CO2 by photorespiration and day respiration , but CO2 is also converted into carbohydrate by photosynthesis . Assimilation is therefore the difference in the rate of these processes . At a normal partial pressure of CO2 ( 0.343 hPa in 1980 ) , there is an irradiation at which the net assimilation of CO2 is zero . For instance , in the early morning and late evenings , the compensation point may be reached as photosynthetic activity decreases and respiration increases . Therefore , the partial pressure of CO2 at the compensation point , also known as gamma , is a function of irradiation . The irradiation dependence of the compensation point is explained by the RuBP ( ribulose-1 ,5 - bisphosphate ) concentration . When the acceptor RuBP is in saturated concentration , gamma is independent of irradiation . However at low irradiation , only a small fraction of the sites on RuBP carboxylase-oxygenase enzyme ( Rubisco ) have the electron acceptor RuBP . This decreases the photosynthetic activity and therefore affects gamma . The intracellular concentration of CO2 affects the rates of photosynthesis and photo respiration . At higher carbon dioxide concentrations , the photosynthesis rate is higher , while at low CO2 concentrations , photo respiration is higher .", "Recycled fuel Fuel made of residues as CO2 produced by using a primary fuel . For example , CO2 pollution in the atmosphere , produced by petrol burning or other sources , can be extracted to produce fuel through an artificial photosynthesis based in nanotechnology , which helps to mitigate pollution , climate change and energy issues .", "Green Power Usage Effectiveness Green Power Usage Effectiveness ( GPUE ) is a proposed measurement of both how much sustainable energy a computer data center uses , its carbon footprint per usable kilowatt hour ( kWh ) and how efficiently it uses its power ; specifically , how much of the power is actually used by the computing equipment ( in contrast to cooling and other overhead ) . It is an addition to the power usage effectiveness ( PUE ) definition and was first proposed by Greenqloud . The Green Grid has developed the Power Usage Effectiveness metric or PUE to measure a data centers ' effectiveness of getting power to IT equipment . What the PUE tells in simple terms is how much extra energy is needed for each usable kWh for the IT equipment due to the power going into cooling , power distribution loss etc. and it 's a simple formula ( in theory ) : PUE = Total Facility Power/IT Equipment Power The PUE can change depending on where measurements are made , when they are made and the timespan the measurements are made in . Data centers are subtracting factors from their PUE to lower it e.g. district heating . Some of the issues with PUE are being addressed with the PUEx definition . GPUE is a way to `` weigh '' the PUE to better see which data centers are truly green in the sense that they indirectly cause the least amount of CO2 to be emitted by their use of sustainable or unsustainable energy sources . This new metric GPUE or Green Power Usage Effectiveness is defined as : GPUE = G × PUEx ( for inline comparison of data centers ) or = G @ PUEx ( a better display and for CO2 emission calculations ) The `` G '' is the key factor here and it is a simple calculated value : G = Weighed sum of energy sources and their lifecycle KG CO2/KWh G = ∑ ( % EnergySource × ( 1 + weight ) ) Adding 1 to the weight is to `` weigh '' ( multiply ) with the PUE to get a number that is comparable to PUE . The weights taken directly from the `` lifecycle CO2/kWh for electricity generation by power source '' table above we got from the 2008 Sovacool Study e.g. the weight for unscrubbed coal is e.g. 1.050 ( kg of CO2/kWh ) while hydroelectric river generation has a weight of 0.013 . An unknown energy source or a `` mix '' will get the same as the maximum value which for now is the same as coal . Example : PUE 1.20 , 50/50 Coal/Hydro G = 0.5 * ( 1 +1.050 ) + 0.5 * ( 1 +0.013 ) G = 1.531 , GPUEx = 1.84 or [email protected] Kg CO2 per usable kWh = ( G-1 ) × PUEx = 0.64 kg", "CERINA-Plan CERINA Plan is the abbreviation for `` CO2 Emissions and Renewable Investment Action Plan '' . It is a CO2 reduction concept developed by the German renewable energy institute IWR . The CERINA Plan proposes a technical investment approach linking a country 's CO2 emissions to its investment in renewable energy technology . Therefore , it is an alternative model to approaches like the Kyoto idea of mere cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . The model is meant to be flexible and to adapt to the special national circumstances of each country .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "Environmental impact of aviation The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "DayCent Daycent is a daily time series biogeochemical model used in agroecosystems to simulates fluxes of carbon and nitrogen between the atmosphere , vegetation , and soil . It is a daily version of the CENTURY biogeochemical model . The United States Environmental Protection Agency , United States Department of Agriculture/ARS and the Colorado State University Natural Resource Ecology Lab are currently using the Daycent model to develop a national inventory of N2O emissions from U.S. agricultural soils . This inventory will be compared and contrasted with the existing Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) agricultural N2O emissions inventory for the United States . Having more accurate data to account for nutrient cycling could have significant implications for public policy associated with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and potential future mitigation efforts in the United States . Model inputs include daily maximum/minimum air temperature and precipitation , surface soil texture class , and land cover/use data . Model outputs include daily fluxes of various N-gas species ( e.g. , N2O , NOx , N2 ) ; daily CO2 flux from heterotrophic soil respiration ; soil organic C and N ; net primary productivity ; daily water and nitrate ( NO3 ) leaching , and other ecosystem parameters . Daycent has been tested with data from various native and managed systems . In similar studies , comparisons between Daycent simulated data and measured values for annual crop yields , N2O emissions , and NO3 leaching produced r2 values of 0.72 , 0.68 , and 0.61 respectively . Other models used for simulating carbon and nitrogen biogeochemistry in agricultural systems include DNDC EPIC", "Estuarine acidification Estuarine acidification is a decrease in the pH of coastal marine ecosystems , specifically those of estuaries . pH change in estuaries is more complicated than in the open ocean due to direct impacts from land run-off and coastal current dynamics . Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the absorption of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere ( 0.1 units over the last century ) . The ocean absorbs 30-40 % of all CO2 emitted to the atmosphere ; this increase in aqueous carbon dioxide causes a decline in the pH of the ocean surface . As carbon dioxide combines with water , it releases protons ( hydrogen ions ) , based on the following equation : CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ HCO3 + H + ↔ CO3 + 2 H +", "Carbon price Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .", "German response to Kyoto Protocol Germany is Europe 's largest and the world 's 6th greatest single emitter of CO2 . In July 2007 , Germany had the largest European population , with 82.4 million people . Germany imports most of its materials and energy sources , and in 2004 imported 2.135 million barrels of oil and 85.02 billion m ³ ( 2003 ) of natural gas a day . In 2004 , Germany emitted 886 million metric tonnes of CO2 . In 2004 , there were approximately 45 million registered cars in Germany . Between March 1998 and March 1999 , 84 countries including Germany signed the Kyoto Protocol . In March 2002 , the Bundestag unanimously ratified Kyoto . In May 2002 , the European Union submitted the articles of ratification for all 15 of its then member states . As an Annex II nation , Germany 's commitment to the UNFCCC with respect to Kyoto was to reduce emissions as well as to provide an economic crutch to developing nations via Clean Development Mechanisms . In November 2006 , Germany 's planned annual quota was 482 million metric tonnes of CO2 . German Greenhouse Gas Emissions reduced by 17.2 % from 1990 to 2004 , according to UNFCCC . Germany actively promotes government carbon funds and supports multilateral carbon funds that are intent on purchasing Carbon Credits from non-Annex I parties . Government organizations work closely with major utility , energy , oil and gas , and chemicals conglomerates to try to acquire as many Greenhouse Gas Certificates as cheaply as possible . Since signing and ratifying the protocol , Germany has committed to reducing its emissions to 21 % below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 . In November 2008 , a study found that Germany had already reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 22.4 % , which means it already reached its Kyoto Emissions Commitments .", "Sustainable automotive air conditioning Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead ." ]

[ "Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "Greenhouse gas A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Carbon dioxide flooding Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .", "Soil respiration Soil respiration refers to the production of carbon dioxide when soil organisms respire . This includes respiration of plant roots , the rhizosphere , microbes and fauna . Soil respiration is a key ecosystem process that releases carbon from the soil in the form of CO2 . CO2 is acquired from the atmosphere and converted into organic compounds in the process of photosynthesis . Plants use these organic compounds to build structural components or respire them to release energy . When plant respiration occurs below-ground in the roots , it adds to soil respiration . Over time , plant structural components are consumed by heterotrophs . This heterotrophic consumption releases CO2 and when this CO2 is released by below-ground organisms , it is considered soil respiration . The amount of soil respiration that occurs in an ecosystem is controlled by several factors . The temperature , moisture , nutrient content and level of oxygen in the soil can produce extremely disparate rates of respiration . These rates of respiration can be measured in a variety of methods . Other methods can be used to separate the source components , in this case the type of photosynthetic pathway ( C3/C4 ) , of the respired plant structures . Soil respiration rates can be largely affected by human activity . This is because humans have the ability to and have been changing the various controlling factors of soil respiration for numerous years . Global climate change is composed of numerous changing factors including rising atmospheric CO2 , increasing temperature and shifting precipitation patterns . All of these factors can affect the rate of global soil respiration . Increased nitrogen fertilization by humans also has the potential to effect rates over the entire Earth . Soil respiration and its rate across ecosystems is extremely important to understand . This is because soil respiration plays a large role in global carbon cycling as well as other nutrient cycles . The respiration of plant structures releases not only CO2 but also other nutrients in those structures , such as nitrogen . Soil respiration is also associated with positive feedbacks with global climate change . Positive feedbacks are when a change in a system produces response in the same direction of the change . Therefore , soil respiration rates can be effected by climate change and then respond by enhancing climate change .", "Carbon rift Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .", "Gas reinjection Gas reinjection is the reinjection of natural gas into an underground reservoir , typically one already containing both natural gas and crude oil , in order to increase the pressure within the reservoir and thus induce the flow of crude oil or else sequester gas that can not be exported . This is not to be confused with gas lift , where gas is injected into the annulus of the well rather than the reservoir . After the crude has been pumped out , the natural gas is once again recovered . Since many of the wells found around the world contain heavy crude , this process increases their production . The basic difference between light crude and heavy crude is its viscosity and pumpability - the lighter the crude the easier it is to pump . Recovery of hydrocarbons in a well is generally limited to 50 % ( heavy crudes ) and 75-80 % ( light crudes ) . Recycling of natural gas or other inert gases causes the pressure to rise in the well , thus causing more gas molecules to dissolve in the oil lowering its viscosity and thereby increasing the well 's output . Air is not suitable for repressuring wells because it tends to cause deterioration of the oil , thus carbon dioxide or natural gas is used to repressure the well . The term ` gas-reinjection ' is also sometimes referred to as repressuring -- the term being used only to imply that the pressure inside the well is being increased to aid recovery . Injection or reinjection of carbon dioxide also takes place in order to reduce the emission of CO2 into the atmosphere , a form of carbon sequestration . This has been proposed as a method to combat climate change , allowing mass storage of CO2 over a geological timescale . Reinjection of carbon dioxide in the Norwegian Sleipner gas field saves the operators 1 million Norwegian Kroners per day in national carbon taxes .", "Low-carbon emission The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "Environmental issues in Mongolia There are many pressing environmental issues in Mongolia that are detrimental to both human and biophysical wellness . These problems have arisen in part due to natural factors , but increasingly because of human actions . One of these issues is climate change , which will be responsible for an increase in desertification , natural disasters , and land degradation . Another is deforestation , which is expanding due to human recklessness , pests , disease , and fire . Mongolian lands are becoming more arid through desertification , a process that is being exacerbated due to irresponsible land use . Additionally , more and more species are disappearing and at risk for extinction . And , especially in population centers , Mongolians deal with air and water pollution caused by human industrialization .", "Mazuku In geology , a mazuku ( Swahili : evil wind ) is a pocket of carbon dioxide-rich air that can be lethal to any human or animal life inside . Mazuku are created when carbon dioxide accumulates in pockets low to the ground . CO2 is heavier than air , which causes it to stay close to the ground , and is also undetectable by human olfactory or visual senses in most conditions . Mazuku can be related to volcanic activity or to a natural disaster known as a limnic eruption . In the first case , noxious gases are released from the Earth 's crust into the atmosphere , whereas in the second case the gases originate deep in a lake and boil rapidly to the surface . Because of their nature as sporadic and subtle events , few mazuku have been recorded , but there is a growing understanding of them based on historical and fossil evidence .", "List of terms of lung size and activity Following are terms that specify a type of lung size and/or activity . More specific definitions may be found in individual articles . Eupnea - normal breathing Apnea - absence of breathing Bradypnea - decreased breathing rate Dyspnea or shortness of breath - sensation of respiratory distress Hyperaeration/Hyperinflation - increased lung volume Hyperpnea - fast and deep breathing Hyperventilation - increased breathing that causes CO2 loss Hypopnea - slow and shallow breathing Hypoventilation - decreased breathing that causes CO2 gain Labored breathing - physical presentation of respiratory distress Tachypnea - increased breathing rate Orthopnea - Breathlessness in lying down position relieved by sitting up or standing Platypnea - Breathlessness when seated or standing , relieved by lying flat Trepopnea - Breathlessness when lying flat relieved by lying in a lateral position Ponopnea - Painful breathing", "Limescale Limescale is the hard , off-white , chalky deposit found in kettles , hot-water boilers and the inside of inadequately maintained hot-water central heating systems . It is also often found as a similar deposit on the inner surface of old pipe and other surfaces where `` hard water '' has evaporated . In addition to being unsightly and hard to clean , limescale seriously impairs the operation or damages various components . The type found deposited on the heating elements of water heaters has a main component of calcium carbonate . Hard water contains calcium ( and often magnesium ) bicarbonate or similar ions . Calcium salts , such as calcium bicarbonate and calcium carbonate are both more soluble in hot water than cold water . Thus , heating water does not cause calcium carbonate to precipitate per se . However , there is an equilibrium between dissolved calcium bicarbonate and dissolved calcium carbonate : Ca2 + + 2HCO3 − ⇋ Ca2 + + CO32 − + CO2 + H2O where the equilibrium is driven by the carbonate/bicarbonate , not the calcium . Note that the CO2 is dissolved in the water . There is also an equilibrium of carbon dioxide between dissolved in water ( dis ) and the gaseous state ( g ) : CO2 ( dis ) ⇋ CO2 ( g ) The equilibrium of CO2 also moves to the right towards gaseous CO2 when the water temperature rises . When water that contains dissolved calcium carbonate is warmed , CO2 is removed from the water as gas causing the equilibrium of bicarbonate and carbonate to shift to the right , increasing the concentration of dissolved carbonate . As the concentration of carbonate increases , calcium carbonate precipitates as the salt : Ca2 + + CO32 − ⇋ CaCO3 . As new cold water with dissolved calcium carbonate/bicarbonate is added and heated , CO2 gas is removed , carbonate concentration increases , and more calcium carbonate precipitates . Descaling agents are used to remove scale . Prevention of scale build-up relies on the technologies of water softening .", "Carbon dioxide generator A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .", "Estuarine acidification Estuarine acidification is a decrease in the pH of coastal marine ecosystems , specifically those of estuaries . pH change in estuaries is more complicated than in the open ocean due to direct impacts from land run-off and coastal current dynamics . Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth 's oceans , caused by the absorption of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere ( 0.1 units over the last century ) . The ocean absorbs 30-40 % of all CO2 emitted to the atmosphere ; this increase in aqueous carbon dioxide causes a decline in the pH of the ocean surface . As carbon dioxide combines with water , it releases protons ( hydrogen ions ) , based on the following equation : CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ HCO3 + H + ↔ CO3 + 2 H +", "Vasocongestion Vasocongestion is the swelling of bodily tissues caused by increased vascular blood flow and a localized increase in blood pressure . Typical causes of vasocongestion in humans includes menstruation , sexual arousal , REM sleep , strong emotions , illnesses and allergic reactions .", "Emergent virus An emergent virus is a virus that has adapted and emerged as a new disease/pathogenic strain , with attributes facilitating pathogenicity in a field not normally associated with that virus . This includes viruses that are the cause of a disease which has notably increased in incidence ; this is often a result of a wide variety of causes from both the influence of man and nature . Most emergent viruses can be categorized as zoonotic ( an animal disease that can be transmitted to humans ) , this has the advantage of possibly having several natural reservoirs for the disease .", "River incision River incision is the narrow erosion caused by a river or stream that is far from its base level . River incision is common after tectonic uplift of the landscape . Incision by multiple rivers result in a dissected landscape , for example a dissected plateau . River Incision is the natural process by which a river cuts downward into its bed , deepening the active channel . Though it is a natural process , it can be accelerated rapidly by human factors including land use changes such as timber harvest , mining , agriculture , and road and dam construction . The rate of incision is a function of basal shear-stress . Shear stress is increased by factors such as sediment in the water , which increase its density ( Lague , et . al. 2005 ) . Shear stress is defined as , where t = Shear Stress ( N/m2 ) , g = Weight Density of Water ( N/m3 , lb/ft ) , D = Average water depth ( m , ft ) , and Sw = Water Surface slope ( m/m , ft/ft ) . Increases in slope , depth , or density of water increase the water 's potential to cause erosion ( Lague 2014 ) .", "Hypercapnia Hypercapnia , also known as hypercarbia and CO2 retention , is a condition of abnormally elevated carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels in the blood . Carbon dioxide is a gaseous product of the body 's metabolism and is normally expelled through the lungs . Hypercapnia normally triggers a reflex which increases breathing and access to oxygen ( O2 ) , such as arousal and turning the head during sleep . A failure of this reflex can be fatal , for example as a contributory factor in sudden infant death syndrome . Hypercapnia is the opposite of hypocapnia , the state of having abnormally reduced levels of carbon dioxide in the blood . The word is from the Greek hyper = `` above '' or `` too much '' and kapnos = `` smoke '' .", "Anthroposphere The anthroposphere ( sometimes also referred as technosphere ) is that part of the environment that is made or modified by humans for use in human activities and human habitats . It is one of the Earth 's spheres . As human technology becomes more evolved , such as the greater ability of technology to cause deforestation , the impact of human activities on the environment potentially increases .", "Fink effect The Fink effect , also known as `` diffusion anoxia '' , `` diffusion hypoxia '' , or the `` third gas effect '' , is a factor that influences the pO2 ( partial pressure of oxygen ) within the alveolus . When soluble gases ( e.g. nitrous oxide , N2O ) are breathed in large quantities they can be dissolved in body fluids rapidly . This can lead to a temporary increase in the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveolus , causing an increase in their respective partial pressures . The effect is named for Bernard Raymond Fink ( 1914 -- 2000 ) , whose 1955 paper first explained it . When a patient is recovering from N2O anaesthesia , large quantities of this gas cross from the blood into the alveolus ( down its concentration gradient ) and so for a short period of time , the O2 and CO2 in the alveolus are diluted by this gas . This could cause the partial pressure of oxygen to decrease and could temporarily lead to hypoxia . The decrease in CO2 could also potentiate this effect as ventilation would be suppressed , leading to potential hypoxaemia . Nonetheless , this effect would only last a couple of minutes and hypoxia can be avoided by increasing the fractional inspired oxygen concentration when recovering from N2O anaesthesia .", "Respiratory acidosis Respiratory acidosis is a medical emergency in which decreased ventilation ( hypoventilation ) increases the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and decreases the blood 's pH ( a condition generally called acidosis ) . Carbon dioxide is produced continuously as the body 's cells respire , and this CO2 will accumulate rapidly if the lungs do not adequately expel it through alveolar ventilation . Alveolar hypoventilation thus leads to an increased PaCO2 ( a condition called hypercapnia ) . The increase in PaCO2 in turn decreases the HCO3 − / PaCO2 ratio and decreases pH.", "Annals of Human Biology Annals of Human Biology is an academic journal that publishes review articles on human population biology , nature , development and causes of human variation . It is published by Informa Healthcare .", "Barrel chest Barrel chest generally refers to a broad , deep chest found on a man . A man described as barrel chested will usually have a naturally large ribcage , very round torso , large lung capacity , and can potentially have great upper body strength . It can sometimes be a sign of acromegaly ( a syndrome resulting from excess levels of human growth hormone ( HGH ) in the body ) . It is most commonly related to osteoarthritis as individuals age . Arthritis can stiffen the chest causing the ribs to become fixed in their most expanded position , giving the appearance of a barrel chest . Barrel chest also refers to an increase in the anterior posterior diameter of the chest wall resembling the shape of a barrel , most often associated with emphysema . There are two main causes of the barrel chest phenomenon in emphysema : Increased compliance of the lungs leads to the accumulation of air pockets inside the thoracic cavity . Increased compliance of the lungs increases the intrathoracic pressure . This increase in pressure allows the chest wall to naturally expand outward . Barrel chest occurs naturally in native people who live at altitudes of over 5500 m , e.g. the Himalayas or the Andes . These natives also have polycythemia and other accommodations for high altitude life .", "List of natural disasters by death toll A natural disaster is a sudden event that causes widespread destruction , lots of collateral damage or loss of life , brought about by forces other than the acts of human beings . A natural disaster might be caused by earthquakes , flooding , volcanic eruption , landslide , hurricanes etc. . In order to be classified as a disaster , it will have profound environmental effect and/or human loss and frequently incurs financial loss .", "Repressuring Repressuring is the method by which the pressure inside a crude oil well is increased so as to increase the output of the well . Pumping crude oil from a reservoir causes its pressure to drop , which further reduces pumpability . Returning the natural gas or other inert gases to the oil well increases the pumpability of the crude present inside the well by decreasing its viscosity and density . In one instance , slower rate of oil production and recycling of natural gas at 9.6 MPa enabled a net recovery of 70 % of the oil originally present . Although recovery can be increased even by repressuring with air , air is seldom used because it causes an inferior quality of product . Instead carbon dioxide or natural gas itself is used so as to not only increase the recovery from the oil well but also to maintain the high quality of the product .", "Air pollution Air pollution occurs when harmful substances including particulates and biological molecules are introduced into Earth 's atmosphere . It may cause diseases , allergies or death in humans ; it may also cause harm to other living organisms such as animals and food crops , and may damage the natural or built environment . Human activity and natural processes can both generate air pollution . Indoor air pollution and poor urban air quality are listed as two of the world 's worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008 Blacksmith Institute World 's Worst Polluted Places report . According to the 2014 WHO report , air pollution in 2012 caused the deaths of around 7 million people worldwide , an estimate roughly matched by the International Energy Agency .", "IPCC First Assessment Report The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "Human nature Human nature refers to the distinguishing characteristics -- including ways of thinking , feeling , and acting -- which humans tend to have naturally . The questions of whether there truly are fixed characteristics , what these natural characteristics are , and what causes them are among the oldest and most important questions in philosophy and science . The concept of human nature is traditionally contrasted not only with unusual human characteristics , but also with characteristics which are derived from specific cultures , and upbringings . The `` nature versus nurture '' debate is a well-known modern discussion about human nature in the natural sciences . These questions have particularly important implications in economy , ethics , politics , and theology . This is partly because human nature can be regarded as both a source of norms of conduct or ways of life , as well as presenting obstacles or constraints on living a good life . The complex implications of such questions are also dealt with in art and literature , the question of what it is to be human .", "Exploding animal The explosion of animals is an uncommon event arising through natural causes or human activity . Among the best known examples are the post-mortem explosion of whales , either as a result of natural decomposition or deliberate attempts at carcass disposal . Other instances of exploding animals are defensive in nature or the result of human intervention .", "Habitat destruction Habitat destruction is the process in which natural habitat is rendered unable to support the species present . In this process , the organisms that previously used the site are displaced or destroyed , reducing biodiversity . Habitat destruction by human activity is mainly for the purpose of harvesting natural resources for industry production and urbanization . Clearing habitats for agriculture is the principal cause of habitat destruction . Other important causes of habitat destruction include mining , logging , trawling and urban sprawl . Habitat destruction is currently ranked as the primary cause of species extinction worldwide . It is a process of natural environmental change that may be caused by habitat fragmentation , geological processes , climate change or by human activities such as the introduction of invasive species , ecosystem nutrient depletion , and other human activities The terms habitat loss and habitat reduction are also used in a wider sense , including loss of habitat from other factors , such as water and noise pollution .", "Cytochrome c oxidase subunit II Cytochrome c oxidase subunit 2 , also known as cytochrome c oxidase polypeptide II , is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MT-CO2 gene . Cytochrome c oxidase subunit II , abbreviated COXII , COX2 , COII , or MT-CO2 , is the second subunit of cytochrome c oxidase .", "Climate system Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "Nature Based Solutions Nature-based solutions ( NbS ) generally refer to the sustainable management and use of nature for tackling societal challenges such as climate change , water security , food security , human health , and disaster risk management . For instance , the protection of mangroves in coastal areas can limit risks of coastal erosion associated to extreme weather conditions , while providing nurseries for fish production to feed local people and sequestering CO2 . Similarly greening roofs or walls can be used to cool down city areas during summer , to capture storm water , to abate pollution , and to increase human well-being while enhancing biodiversity and connecting the city with the wider ecosystem . With NbS , healthy , resilient and diverse ecosystems ( either ` natural ' , managed or newly created ) are viewed as providing solutions for the benefit of our societies and overall biodiversity , in the face of global change . The term NbS was put forward by practitioners in the late 2000s ( in particular the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and the World Bank ) and quickly thereafter by policymakers in Europe ( most notably the European Commission ) . While the term itself is still being framed , case studies from around the world exemplify its potential , as well as the added-value with respect to existing terms and concepts and in complementing traditional conservation approaches . As a consequence , NbS are on their way to being mainstreamed in national and international policies and programmes ( e.g. climate change policy , law , infrastructure investment and financing mechanisms ) .", "Poyntonophrynus lughensis Poyntonophrynus lughensis is a species of toad in the family Bufonidae . It is found in Somalia , northern and eastern Kenya , eastern , central and southern Ethiopia , and extreme southeastern South Sudan . Its natural habitat is very dry savanna . It breeds after the beginning of the rains in temporarily flooded hollows , including roadside ditches . The main threat to this species environmental degradation caused by human expansion and settlement , with increased populations of livestock as a consequence .", "Atmospheric carbon cycle The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere ." ]

[ "Greenhouse gas A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "Climate system Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "Climate change (general concept) Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.", "Global cooling Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Marine cloud brightening Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .", "Robert Jay Charlson Robert Jay Charlson is an American atmospheric scientist , climate scientist , pioneer in the fields of climate forcing and climate change , and coauthor of the CLAW hypothesis . He is professor of Atmospheric Sciences , chemistry , and geophysics at the University of Washington in Seattle , Washington . Charlson earned his PhD from the University of Washington . He is a world expert in atmospheric chemistry , aerosol physics , aerosol/cloud/climate interaction , aerosol and cloud instrumentation .", "Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) is NASA climatological experiment from Earth orbit . The CERES are scientific satellite instruments , part of the NASA 's Earth Observing System ( EOS ) , designed to measure both solar-reflected and Earth-emitted radiation from the top of the atmosphere ( TOA ) to the Earth 's surface . Cloud properties are determined using simultaneous measurements by other EOS instruments such as the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) . Results from the CERES and other NASA missions , such as the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment ( ERBE ) , could lead to a better understanding of the role of clouds and the energy cycle in global climate change .", "Eruption column An eruption column is a cloud of hot volcanic ash suspended in volcanic gas emitted during an explosive volcanic eruption . The ash forms a column that may rise many kilometres into the air above the vent of the volcano . In the most explosive eruptions , the eruption column may rise over 40 km , penetrating the stratosphere . Stratospheric injection of aerosols by volcanoes is a major cause of short-term climate change . A common occurrence in explosive eruptions is for column collapse to occur . In this case , the eruption column is too dense to be lifted high into the air by air convection , and instead falls down the flanks of the volcano to form a pyroclastic flow or surge . On some occasions , if ash is n't dense enough to fall , it may create pyrocumulonimbus .", "The Cloud Mystery The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish . This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .", "Climate change in the Arctic The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "Attribution of recent climate change Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "CLOUD experiment Cosmics Leaving Outdoor Droplets or CLOUD is an experiment being run at CERN by a group of researchers led by Jasper Kirkby to investigate the microphysics between galactic cosmic rays ( GCRs ) and aerosols under controlled conditions . The experiment began operation in November 2009 . The primary goal is to understand the influence of galactic cosmic rays ( GCRs ) on aerosols and clouds , and their implications for climate . Although its design is optimised to address the cosmic ray question , ( as posed by Henrik Svensmark and colleagues in 1997 ) CLOUD allows as well to measure aerosol nucleation and growth under controlled laboratory conditions . Atmospheric aerosols and their effect on clouds are recognised by the IPCC as main source of uncertainty in present radiative forcing and climate models .", "Albrecht effect The Albrecht effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase cloud lifetime and hence increase the amount of solar radiation reflected from clouds . Because it does not directly interact with incoming or outgoing radiation , it has an indirect effect on climate . Aerosol particles act as CCNs creating more droplets of a smaller size . These take more time to coalesce to raindrop size ( > 100μm ) , reducing precipitation efficiency and hence increasing the lifetime of the cloud . The increased scattering of incoming radiation leads to a cooling of -0.3 to -1.4 Wm − 2 . This effect is not as well understood as the Twomey effect . There are many other effects , indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects resulting in a large uncertainty in the radiative forcing due to aerosols .", "Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility The Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility ( ARM Climate Research Facility ) is a United States Department of Energy scientific user facility for the study of global climate change by the national and international research community . The ARM Climate Research Facility consists of global observation sites and research aircraft that measure radiative properties of the atmosphere , particularly cloud and aerosol formation processes . Continuous data from these sites , as well as supplemental data obtained through intensive field research campaigns , are available to scientists online through the ARM Data Archive . ARM is collaboratively managed by nine DOE national laboratories .", "Simon Tett Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .", "Global Energy and Water Exchanges The Global Energy and Water cycle Exchanges project (abbreviated GEWEX, formerly named the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment from 1990 to 2012) is an international research project and a core project of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP). In the beginning, the project intended to observe, comprehend and model the Earth's water cycle. The experiment also observes how much energy the Earth receives, studies how much of that energy reaches surfaces of the Earth and how that energy is transformed. Sunlight's energy evaporates water to produce clouds and rain, and dries out land masses after rain. Rain that falls on land becomes the water budget which can be used by people for agricultural and other processes. GEWEX is a collaboration of researchers worldwide to find better ways of studying the water cycle and how it transforms energy through the atmosphere. If the Earth's climates were identical from year to year, then people could predict when, where and what crops to plant. However, instability created by solar variation, weather trends, and chaotic events creates weather that is unpredictable on seasonal scales. Through weather patterns such as droughts and higher rainfall these cycles impact ecosystems and human activities. GEWEX is designed to collect a much greater amount of data, and see if better models of that data can forecast weather and climate change into the future.", "Mark Z. Jacobson Mark Zachary Jacobson ( born 1965 ) is professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy Program . Jacobson develops computer models about the effects of different energy technologies and their emissions on air pollution and climate . He has done influential research on the role of aerosols and black carbon on the climate and is regarded as a leading aerosol climate modeler . According to Jacobson , a speedy transition to clean , renewable energy is required to reduce the potential acceleration of global warming , including the disappearance of the Arctic Sea ice . This change will also eliminate 2.5 -- 3 million deaths worldwide each year , related to air pollution , and reduce disruption associated with fossil fuel shortages .", "Solar Century Holdings Ltd v Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change Solar Century Holdings Ltd v SS for Energy and Climate Change -LSB- 2016 -RSB- EWCA Civ 117 is a UK enterprise law case , on electricity generation by solar power . It held that the Secretary of State could stop scheme supporting renewable electricity , without breaching legitimate expectations , misusing power , or unfairness in a judicial review claim .", "Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .", "Solar-powered refrigerator A solar-powered refrigerator is a refrigerator which runs on energy directly provided by sun , and may include photovoltaic or solar thermal energy . Solar-powered refrigerators are able to keep perishable goods such as meat and dairy cool in hot climates , and are used to keep much needed vaccines at their appropriate temperature to avoid spoilage . Solar-powered refrigerators may be most commonly used in the developing world to help mitigate poverty and climate change .", "Arctic geoengineering Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .", "Michael Schlesinger Dr. Michael Earl Schlesinger ( born February 23 , 1943 ) is a Professor of Atmospheric Sciences and director of the Climate Research Group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . He received his Ph.D. ( meteorology ) in 1976 from the University of California , Los Angeles . Michael Schlesinger is an expert in the modeling , simulation and analysis of climate and climate change , with interests in simulating and understanding the climates of the geologic past and possible future climates resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases and human-made aerosols . He has been instrumental in developing a range of simple and complex climate models , which have been used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Energy Modeling Forum . His research currently focuses on : ( 1 ) simulating and understanding the effects on climate of a human-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet ; ( 2 ) simulating and understanding the coupled climate-chemistry system , including the influences of the Sun - both irradiance and energetic electron precipitation - and volcanoes ; ( 3 ) understanding and reducing the uncertainty in the estimation of climate sensitivity and climate feedbacks ; and ( 4 ) performing integrative assessment of climate change , including further development of the robust adaptive decision strategy for mitigating and adapting to human-induced climate change . He is known for his work on oscillations in the global climate system , on estimating the climate sensitivity , and on seasonal climate change . He has edited four books , most recently Human-induced climate change : An interdisciplinary assessment . He regularly appears in the media .", "Remote sensing atmospheric boundary layer Remote sensing of the planetary boundary layer refers to the utilization of ground based , flight based , or satellite based remote sensing instruments to measure properties of the planetary boundary layer including boundary layer height , aerosols and clouds . Satellite remote sensing of the atmosphere has the advantage of being able to provide global coverage of atmospheric planetary boundary layer properties while simultaneously providing relatively high temporal sampling rates . Advancements in satellite remote sensing have provided greater vertical resolution which enables higher accuracy for planetary boundary layer measurements . The radiative forcing for marine boundary layer ( MBL ) clouds is imperative for understanding any global warming changes . Low-level clouds , including MBL clouds , have the largest net radiative forcing of all clouds . The albedo of these low level clouds is much higher than the albedo of the underlying ocean surface and correctly modeling these clouds is needed to limit the uncertainty in climate model predictions . The remote sensing of the planetary boundary layer , especially clouds and aerosols within the planetary boundary layer can help verify and improve climate models .", "Tholin Tholins ( after the Greek θολός ( tholós ) `` hazy '' or `` muddy '' ; from the ancient Greek word meaning `` sepia ink '' ) are a class of heteropolymer molecules formed by solar ultraviolet irradiation of simple organic compounds such as methane or ethane , often in combination with nitrogen . Tholins do not form naturally on modern-day Earth , but they are found in great abundance on the surface of icy bodies in the outer Solar System , and as reddish aerosols in the atmosphere of outer solar system planets and moons . They usually have a reddish-brown appearance .", "Methanation Methanation is the conversion of COx to methane CH4 through hydrogenation . The methanation reactions of COx were first discovered by Sabatier and Senderens in 1902 . COx methanation has many practical application it is a means of carbon oxide removal from process gases and is also being discussed as an alternative to PROX in fuel processors for mobile fuel cell applications . Methanation as a means of producing synthetic natural gas has been considered since the 1970s . More recently it has been considered as a way to store energy produced from solar or wind power . This would also allow it to serve as a potential carbon capture mechanism .", "Bio-geoengineering Bio-geoengineering is a form of climate engineering which seeks to use or modify plants or other living things to modify the Earth 's climate . Bio-energy with carbon storage , afforestation projects , and ocean nourishment ( including iron fertilization ) could be considered examples of bio-geoengineering . Biogenic aerosols can be grown to replace those beneficial aerosols lost as the result of the death of 50 % of Earth 's boreal forests . Agricultural production of atmospheric aerosols called `` monoterpenes '' is possible if crops that are rich in monoterpenes are grown .", "Glory (satellite) The Glory satellite was a planned NASA satellite mission that would have collected data on the chemical , micro-physical and optical properties -- and the spatial and temporal distributions -- of sulfate and other aerosols , and would have collected solar irradiance data for the long-term climate record . The science focus areas served by Glory included : atmospheric composition ; carbon cycle , ecosystems , and biogeochemistry ; climate variability and change ; and water and energy cycles . The US$ 424 million satellite was lost on March 4 , 2011 , when its Taurus XL carrier rocket malfunctioned . A subsequent investigation revealed that the fairing system failed to open fully , causing the satellite to reenter the atmosphere at which point it likely broke up and burned .", "Auden Schendler Auden Schendler is an American climate activist , businessman and author of Getting Green Done . He is the Vice President of Sustainability at Aspen Skiing Company . Schendler has written extensively about the difficulties of enacting sustainability initiatives in the business world and the ineffectiveness of conventional green business practices in the face of climate change . He has been featured in Men 's Journal , Businessweek , Outside , Fast Company Harvard Business Review , Slate , and Scientific American 's Earth 3.0 . He has published numerous essays on climate change , politics , parenting , and the outdoors and speaks regularly about climate change and what constitutes meaningful action . At Aspen Skiing Company Schendler is part of a team that has developed several innovative utility-scale clean energy systems , including a microhydroelectric plant , a solar photovoltaic farm , and a coal mine methane-to-electricity project , the first of its kind west of the Mississippi .", "James Hansen James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''", "Solar savings fraction In discussing solar energy , the solar savings fraction or solar fraction ( f ) is the amount of energy provided by the solar technology divided by the total energy required . The solar savings fraction thus is zero for no solar energy utilization , to 1.0 for all energy provided by solar . The solar savings fraction of a particular system is dependent on many factors such as the load , the collection and storage sizes , the operation , and the climate . As an example , the same solar-thermal water heating system installed in a single-family house in Arizona might have f = 0.75 ( 75 % ) , while in a much colder and cloudier climate , like Pittsburgh , PA , might only have a solar fraction of f = 0.3 ( 30 % ) or so . Great care is thus needed in designing such systems , and in evaluating their economics . To increase the solar savings fraction , energy conservation measures should be employed first before expanding the size of the solar energy collection system . Doing so reduces the need for hot water or space heating , for example , and typically provides the best economic return on the total investment , including the solar energy system .", "Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, ocean Ecosystem Plankton , Aerosol , Cloud , ocean Ecosystem ( PACE ) is a NASA ocean color satellite mission that will continue and advance observations of ocean biology , biogeochemistry , and ecology , as well as aerosols and clouds . PACE data will be used to identify the extent and duration of harmful algal blooms and improve understanding of air quality . These and other uses of PACE data will benefit the economy and society , especially sectors that rely on water quality , fisheries and food security . PACE will also measure atmospheric particles and clouds that scatter and absorb sunlight . Improved characterization of aerosol particles , in particular , will enable quantifying their impact on ocean biology and chemistry as well as Earth 's energy budget . The PACE project is managed by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center . The main instrument and bus are being designed and built at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center . The satellite is planned for launch in 2022 .", "Oort cloud The Oort cloud ( -LSB- ˈɔrt -RSB- or -LSB- ˈʊərt -RSB- , named after the Dutch astronomer Jan Oort ) , sometimes called the Öpik -- Oort cloud , is a theoretical cloud of predominantly icy planetesimals believed to surround the Sun to as far as somewhere between 50000 and.The Oort cloud 's outer limit is difficult to define as it varies over the millennia as different stars pass the Sun and thus is subject to variation . Estimates of its distance range from 50,000 to 200,000 AU . It is divided into two regions : a disc-shaped inner Oort cloud ( or Hills cloud ) and a spherical outer Oort cloud . Both regions lie beyond the heliosphere and in interstellar space . The Kuiper belt and the scattered disc , the other two reservoirs of trans-Neptunian objects , are less than one thousandth as far from the Sun as the Oort cloud . The outer limit of the Oort cloud defines the cosmographical boundary of the Solar System and the extent of the Sun 's Hill sphere . The outer Oort cloud is only loosely bound to the Solar System , and thus is easily affected by the gravitational pull both of passing stars and of the Milky Way itself . These forces occasionally dislodge comets from their orbits within the cloud and send them toward the inner Solar System . Based on their orbits , most of the short-period comets may come from the scattered disc , but some may still have originated from the Oort cloud . Astronomers conjecture that the matter composing the Oort cloud formed closer to the Sun and was scattered far into space by the gravitational effects of the giant planets early in the Solar System 's evolution . Although no confirmed direct observations of the Oort cloud have been made , it may be the source of all long-period and Halley-type comets entering the inner Solar System , and many of the centaurs and Jupiter-family comets as well .", "Climate change in Pakistan Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "Solar (novel) Solar is a novel by author Ian McEwan , first published on 18 March 2010 by Jonathan Cape , an imprint of Random House . It is a satire about a jaded Nobel-winning physicist whose dysfunctional personal life and cynical ambition see him pursuing a solar-energy based solution for climate change .", "Solar access Solar access is the ability of one property to continue to receive sunlight across property lines without obstruction from another 's property ( buildings , foliage or other impediment ) . Solar access is calculated using a sun path diagram . Sun is the source of our vision and energy . Its movements inform our perception of time and space . Access to sun is essential to energy conservation and to the quality of our lives . Solar access is differentiated from solar rights or solar easement , which is specifically meant for direct sunlight for solar energy systems , whereas solar access is a right to sunlight upon certain building façades regardless of the presence of active or passive solar energy systems ." ]

[ "Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "Christopher C. Horner Christopher C. Horner is an attorney in Washington , D.C. and a Senior Fellow at the Competitive Enterprise Institute who opposes the mainstream view of climate change and has been prominent in promoting climate change denial . He is the author of three books disputing the scientific evidence for man-made global warming . Horner had a financial relationship with coal companies who provided him with funds . Horner has been criticized for hounding climate scientists with frivolous requests for documentation and emails .", "Climate change in Germany Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe .", "Climate change in Argentina According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .", "Scientific opinion on climate change The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow The Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow ( CFACT ) is a Washington , D.C.-based 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization founded in 1985 that advocates for free-market solutions to environmental issues , but has increasingly turned to climate denial . For example , CFACT co-founder Craig Rucker stated that mankind faces a threat `` not from man-made global warming , but from man-made hysteria . '' At the 29 April 2017 Climate March , leaflets distributed by CFACT claimed the scientific consensus that mankind is now driving global changes in the planet 's climate are `` bogus '' , that reports of record-setting temperatures are `` the hottest lie '' being told , and `` CO2 is not the ` control knob ' of the climate '' .", "Land surface effects on climate Land surface effects on climate are wide-ranging and vary by region . Deforestation and exploitation of natural landscapes play a significant role . Some of these environmental changes are similar to those caused by the effects of global warming .", "John Gribbin John R. Gribbin ( born 19 March 1946 ) is a British science writer , an astrophysicist , and a visiting fellow in astronomy at the University of Sussex . His writings include quantum physics , human evolution , climate change , global warming , the origins of the universe , and biographies of famous scientists . He also writes science fiction .", "International Arctic Research Center The International Arctic Research Center , or IARC , established in 1999 , is a research institution focused on integrating and coordinating study of climate change in the Arctic . The primary partners in IARC are Japan and the United States . Participants include organizations from Canada , China , Denmark , Germany , Japan , Norway , Russia , the United Kingdom , and the United States . The Center is located at the University of Alaska Fairbanks , in the Syun-Ichi Akasofu Building . The Keith B. Mather Library is the science library housed in the Akasofu Building , serving IARC and the Geophysical Institute of UAF . The building also houses the UAF atmospheric sciences department , the Center for Global Change and the Fairbanks forecast office of the National Weather Service . Study projects are focused within four major themes : Arctic ocean models and observation Arctic atmosphere : feedbacks , radiation , and weather analysis Permafrost/Frozen soil models and observations Arctic biota/vegetation ( ecosystem models ) IARC is devoting specific effort to answering the following three questions : To what extent is climate change due to natural vs man-made causes ? What parameters , processes and interactions are needed to understand and predict future climate change ? What are the likely impacts of climate change ?", "Scott Denning A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .", "Business action on climate change Business action on climate change includes a range of activities relating to global warming , and to influencing political decisions on global-warming-related regulation , such as the Kyoto Protocol . Major multinationals have played and to some extent continue to play a significant role in the politics of global warming , especially in the United States , through lobbying of government and funding of global warming skeptics . Business also plays a key role in the mitigation of global warming , through decisions to invest in researching and implementing new energy technologies and energy efficiency measures . ( See also individual and political action on climate change . )", "Space mirror (climate engineering) The use of space mirrors as an anti-global warming measure is a proposed technology for climate change mitigation by deflection of sunlight . It was one of a series of proposals for controlling global warming made to the United States government in 2001 . At the `` Response Options to Rapid or Severe Climate Change '' round-table meeting organized by the President 's Climate Change Technology Program in September 2001 to gather ideas for averting climate change , one of the proposals was to station one or more wire-mesh `` mirrors '' in orbit to deflect sunlight back into space or to filter it . The idea was proposed by Lowell Wood , a senior staff scientist at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , who calculated that deflecting 1 % of sunlight would restore climatic stability , and that that would require either a single mirror 600000 sqmi in area or several smaller ones . Wood had been researching the idea for more than ten years but considered it so infeasible that it should only be a back-up plan for solving the global warming problem . In January 2007 , The Guardian reported that the US government was recommending that research on sunlight deflection , including space mirrors , be continued as `` insurance '' and that the next United Nations Report on Climate Change advocate such a strategy . In addition to the space mirror , suggested sunlight-reducing techniques included launching thousands of highly reflective balloons and pumping sulphate droplets into the upper atmosphere to emulate volcanic emissions . Space mirrors were first considered in the 1980s as a way to cool the climate of Venus . James Early , also at Livermore , in 1989 proposed using a `` space shade '' 2,000 kilometers in diameter orbiting at Lagrangian Point L1 . He estimated the cost at between one and ten trillion US dollars and suggested manufacturing it on the moon using moon rock . Using space mirrors as a space sunshade to reduce the impact of sunlight falls into the category of geoengineering : deliberately modifying the earth 's climate . At a conference on the topic organized by Daniel Schrag of Harvard University and David Keith of the University of Calgary in November 2007 , the consensus was that it was worth studying such ideas further despite their high cost , the doubtful feasibility of some including the space mirror , and the risk of their distracting attention from reduction of greenhouse gas emissions .", "Climate change denial Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism . Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming . Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none . Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks . The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation . Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .", "Glossary of climate change This article serves as a glossary of climate change terms . It lists terms that are related to global warming .", "Effects of global warming on marine mammals The effect of global warming on marine mammals is a growing concern . Many of the effects of climate change are currently unknown due to its unpredictability , but many are becoming increasingly evident today . Some effects are very direct such as loss of habitat , temperature stress , and exposure to severe weather . Other effects are more indirect such as changes in host pathogen associations , changes in body condition because of predator -- prey interaction , changed in exposure to toxins , and increased human interactions . These are just a few examples of what marine mammals are dealing with as a result of rapid climate change . There are a number of marine mammals that have been affected by climate change including walruses , seals , penguins , and polar bears .", "James Annan James D. Annan is a scientist involved in climate prediction . He was a member of the Global Warming Research Program at Frontier Research Centre for Global Change which is associated with the Earth Simulator in Japan . In 2014 he left Japan , returning to the United Kingdom as a co-founder of Blue Skies Research .", "Unstoppable global warming Unstoppable global warming may refer to : Runaway climate change Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years , book by Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery", "List of ministers of climate change A list of ministers of climate change or officials in charge of cabinet positions with portfolios dealing primarily with climate change and issues related to mitigation of global warming .", "Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .", "Ecological forecasting Ecological forecasting uses knowledge of physics , ecology and physiology to predict how ecosystems will change in the future in response to environmental factors such as climate change . The ultimate goal of the approach is to provide people such as resource managers and designers of marine reserves with information that they can then use to respond , in advance , to future changes , a form of adaptation to global warming . One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming . Most physiological processes are affected by temperature , and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth , reproduction and survival of animals and plants . The scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems . One major challenge is to predict where , when and with what magnitude changes are likely to occur so that we can mitigate or at least prepare for them . Ecological forecasting applies existing knowledge of how animals and plants interact with their physical environment to ask how changes in environmental factors might result in changes to the ecosystems as a whole .", "Drawdown (climate) Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis . Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures . Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .", "John F. B. Mitchell John Francis Brake Mitchell OBE FRS ( born 7 October 1948 ) is a British climatologist and climate modeller . He studied Applied Mathematics at Queen 's University Belfast in 1970 , staying on to gain a PhD in Theoretical Physics in 1973 . In 1978 , he was appointed head of the Climate Change group in what is now the Met Office 's Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research . He was Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2008 and Director of Climate Science from 2008 to 2010 . He is the most cited scientist regarding the topic of global warming . He was a convening lead author for the first and third IPCC Working Group I reports and lead author for the second . He was also chair of the World Meteorological Organization JSC/CLIVAR Working Group on Climate Modelling and a member of WMO Executive Council from 2005 to 2008 . He now ( 2014 ) works part-time as Principal Research Fellow , advising the Met Office Chief Scientist on climate change and is Visiting Professor at the University of Reading .", "Myron Ebell Myron Ebell is Director of Global Warming and International Environmental Policy at the Competitive Enterprise Institute ( CEI ) , a libertarian advocacy group based in Washington , D.C. . He is also the chairman of the Cooler Heads Coalition , a loose coalition formed in 1997 which presents itself as `` focused on dispelling the myths of global warming by exposing flawed economic , scientific , and risk analysis '' . In these organizations , Ebell has been central in promoting climate change denial , distributing his views to the media and politicians . Ebell , who is not a scientist , has been described as a climate change skeptic , a climate contrarian and a climate change denier . In September 2016 , Ebell was appointed by then Republican presidential candidate Donald Trump to lead his transition team for the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) .", "Long-term effects of global warming See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .", "List of climate change initiatives Here is a list of international , national , regional , and local political initiatives to take action on climate change ( global warming ) . A Climate Action Plan ( CAP ) is a set of strategies intended to guide efforts for climate change mitigation .", "Peter Stilbs Peter Stilbs ( born 1 June 1945 ) is an emeritus professor in physical chemistry at the Royal Institute of Technology ( KTH ) in Stockholm , Sweden . Stilbs earned a master 's degree in chemical engineering from the Lund Institute of Technology at Lund University in 1969 , and a Ph.D. in physical chemistry in 1974 . He served as a research assistant in physical chemistry at Uppsala University from 1976 to 1982 , and as an assistant professor from 1982 to 1986 . In 1986 he became a professor in physical chemistry at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm . His main fields of research are the techniques and applications of nuclear magnetic resonance ( NMR ) . Stilbs has also been active in the debate on global warming . He has criticised the view that there is a scientific consensus on the attribution of recent climate change , and described the climate projections conducted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) as inadequate and misleading . In September 2006 he was chairman of an international seminar at the Royal Institute of Technology labelled Global Warming -- Scientific Controversies in Climate Variability , where both critics and supporters of the theory of man-made global warming were invited .", "Medieval Warm Period The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .", "AGW AGW can refer to : Anthropogenic global warming ; see the following : Attribution of recent climate change Human impact on the environment Climate change Global warming Global warming controversy Actual gold weight , a measure used in gold bullion , coin or bar Agnew Airport , Queensland , Australia ( IATA code : AGW ) Access gateway , shorthand for multi-service access gateway ( MSAG ) , a device used in telecommunications . Kahua language ( ISO 639-3 code : agw )", "Effects of global warming on Australia Predictions measuring the effects of global warming on Australia assert that global warming will negatively impact the continent 's environment , economy , and communities . Australia has been designated as one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change , according to the Stern Review and others , due partially to the importance of its agricultural sector and the prominence of its coast . Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas , an already warm climate , high annual rainfall variability , and existing pressures on water supply . The continent 's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to change in temperature and climate . Additionally , Australia 's population is highly concentrated in coastal areas , and its important tourism industry depends on the health of the Great Barrier Reef and other fragile ecosystems . The impacts of climate change in Australia will be complex and to some degree uncertain , but increased foresight may enable the country to safeguard its future through planned mitigation and adaptation . Mitigation may reduce the ultimate extent of climate change and its impacts , but requires global solutions and cooperation , while adaptation can be performed at national and local levels .", "An Inconvenient Truth (book) An Inconvenient Truth : The Planetary Emergency of Global Warming and What We Can Do About It is a 2006 book by Al Gore released in conjunction with the film An Inconvenient Truth . It is published by Rodale Press in Emmaus , Pennsylvania , in the United States . Based on Gore 's lecture tour on the topic of global warming this book elaborates upon points offered in the film . The publisher of the text states that the book , `` brings together leading-edge research from top scientists around the world ; photographs , charts , and other illustrations ; and personal anecdotes and observations to document the fast pace and wide scope of global warming . '' Michiko Kakutani argues in the New York Times that the book 's `` roots as a slide show are very much in evidence . It does not pretend to grapple with climate change with the sort of minute detail and analysis '' given by other books on the topic `` and yet as a user-friendly introduction to global warming and a succinct summary of many of the central arguments laid out in those other volumes , `` An Inconvenient Truth '' is lucid , harrowing and bluntly effective . '' In a section called `` The Politicization of Global Warming '' , Al Gore said this statement : As for why so many people still resist what the facts clearly show , I think , in part , the reason is that the truth about the climate crisis is an inconvenient one that means we are going to have to change the way we live our lives . A highlighted statement separated from the main writing in that section was : The truth about the climate crisis is an inconvenient one that means we are going to have to change the way we live our lives . In 2009 , the audiobook version , narrated by Beau Bridges , Cynthia Nixon , and Blair Underwood , won the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album .", "KYOTOplus KYOTOplus is a joint campaign of a number of public interest groups in Canada to encourage and support Canadians in a call for stronger policy on Climate Change . The campaign was devised as a means to educate the Canadian public on issues related to climate change and global warming and to encourage Canadians to take a strong stance at the climate talks in Copenhagen in December 2009 . Canadian politicians are invited to indicate a strong stance against global warming by means of the KYOTOplus Pledge . The KYOTOplus Petition , which calls for a minimum 25 % decrease in greenhouse gas emission in Canada by 2020 ( in comparison to 1990 ) , is available for signing by any Canadian ." ]

[ "Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .", "Global issue Informally , a global issue describes any social , economic , political or environmental problem that affects the global community , possibly in a catastrophic way . Solution to global issues requires cooperation among nations . In their book Global Issues , Hite and Seitz emphasize that global issues are qualitatively different from international affairs and that the former arise from growing international interdependencies which makes the issues themselves interdependent .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Scientific opinion on climate change The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "IPCC First Assessment Report The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "Global Climate Observing System As an outcome of the Second World Climate Conference , the Global Climate Observing System ( GCOS ) was established in 1992 to ensure that the observations and information needed to address climate-related issues are obtained and made available to all potential users . The GCOS is co-sponsored by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) , the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission ( IOC ) of UNESCO , the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and the International Council for Science ( ICSU ) . In order to assess and monitor the adequacy of in-situ observation networks as well as satellite-based observing systems , GCOS regularly reports on the adequacy of the current climate observing system to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , and thereby identifies the needs of the current climate observing system . The Global Climate Observing System ( GCOS ) is a system that comprises the climate-relevant components of many contributing observing systems and networks . The mission of the GCOS programme is to help ensure that these contributing systems , taken as a whole , provide the comprehensive information on the global climate system that is required by users , including individuals , national and international organizations , institutions and agencies . The programme promotes the sustained provision and availability of reliable physical , chemical and biological observations and data records for the total climate system - across the atmospheric , oceanic and terrestrial domains , including the Hydrological cycle , the Carbon cycle and the Cryosphere .", "Climate of Adelaide Adelaide has a Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification Csa ) , with mild to cool winters with moderate rainfall and warm to hot , dry summers . Adelaide is the driest of the Australian capital cities and the past two decades have been far warmer than usual , with the past 8 years seeing an excess of 40 + degrees every summer . Alarmingly , the city has also recorded almost 10 consecutive years of below-average Spring rainfall , with 2014 on track to continuing this trend . A spike in heat waves , droughts and record-breaking high temperatures over the past decade has led to some concerns over the effects of global warming and Man-made climate change ( AGW ) on the city . Nine of the ten warmest years recorded in Adelaide have occurred since 2002 , with 2013 being the hottest year and summer 2015 -- 2016 being the fourth-hottest summer recorded .", "Global warming hiatus A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "Debate over China's economic responsibilities for climate change mitigation This article documents the debate over China 's economic responsibilities for climate change mitigation and mitigation of climate change in China . Both internationally and within the People 's Republic of China , there has been an ongoing debate over China 's responsibilities , particularly since 2006 , when China surpassed the US as the country with the highest emissions rate for the main atmospheric gas in global warming , carbon dioxide ( CO2 )", "List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "CLIMAT CLIMAT is a code for reporting monthly climatological data assembled at land-based meteorological surface observation sites to data centres . CLIMAT-coded messages contain information on several meteorological variables that are important to monitor characteristics , changes , and variability of climate . Usually these messages are sent and exchanged via the Global Telecommunication System ( GTS ) of the World Meteorological Organisation ( WMO ) . Modifications of the CLIMAT code are the CLIMAT SHIP and CLIMAT TEMP / CLIMAT TEMP SHIP codes which serve to report monthly climatological data assembled at ocean-based meteorological surface observation sites and at land - / ocean-based meteorological upper-air observation sites , respectively . The monthly values included usually are obtained by averaging observational values of one or several daily observations over the respective month .", "Climate change denial Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism . Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming . Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none . Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks . The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation . Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .", "Global Change Observation Mission GCOM ( Global Change Observation Mission ) , is a series of JAXA Earth observation satellites as a successor to the ill-fated ADEOS 2 satellite and to the Aqua Mission . GCOM is , together with the GPM Mission , Japan 's contribution to the GEOSS ( Global Earth Observation System of Systems ) . To increase security and scientific output , JAXA made the decision to split the original ADEOS 2 mission into two models of smaller satellites , GCOM-W for water observation and GCOM-C for climate observation . It is planned to launch three satellites for each mission during the next decade , with each subsequent satellite overlapping to provide continuous coverage .", "David Legates David Russell Legates is a Professor of Geography at the University of Delaware . He is the former Director of the Center for Climatic Research at the same university , and a former Delaware State Climatologist . Legates has published research papers , opinion editorials , and spoken openly in opposition to the consensus scientific opinion on climate change . More recently , he has been known for his skepticism toward the anthropogenic cause of the observed global warming patterns and the severity of its consequences at the local geographical scale . Legates viewpoint , as stated in a 2015 study that he co-authored , is that the Earth will experience about 1.0 C warming over the 2000 to 2100 period .", "Climate change and potatoes Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .", "Stratospheric Processes And their Role in Climate Stratosphere-troposphere Processes And their Role in Climate ( SPARC ) is a core project of the World Climate Research Programme . Founded in 1992 , SPARC has coordinated high-level research activities related to understanding Earth system processes for over two decades . More specifically , SPARC promotes and facilitates cutting-edge international research activities on how chemical and physical processes in the atmosphere interact with climate and climate change .", "Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) The Copernicus Climate Change Service ( C3S ) is one of the six thematic services provided by the European Union 's Copernicus Programme . The Copernicus Programme is managed by the European Commission and the C3S is implemented by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ( ECMWF ) and is expected to become operational in 2018 . The objective of the Copernicus Climate Change Service is to build an EU knowledge base in support of mitigation and adaptation policies for Climate Change and Global Warming . The goal of the operational Climate Change service is to provide reliable information about the current and past state of the climate , the forecasts on a seasonal time scale , and the more likely projections in the coming decades for various scenarios of greenhouse gas emissions and other Climate Change contributors .", "Friends of Science Friends of Science ( FoS ) is a Canadian non-profit advocacy organization based in Calgary , Alberta . The organization takes a position that humans are largely not responsible for the currently observed global warming , contrary to the established scientific position on the subject . Rather , they propose that `` the Sun is the main direct and indirect driver of climate change , '' not human activity . They argued against the Kyoto Protocol . The society was founded in 2002 and launched its website in October of that year . They are considered by many to promote climate change denial . They are largely funded by the fossil fuel industry . Madhav Khandekar , Chris de Freitas , Tim Patterson and Sallie Baliunas act as advisers to the Friends of Science with their work cited in Friends ' publications . Douglas Leahey has been president since December , 2009 .", "The Climate Mobilization The Climate Mobilization ( TCM ) is a grassroots environmental advocacy group working toward large-scale political action against global warming , with the belief that the crisis of climate change requires a national economic effort on the scale of the American mobilization of the home front during World War II . It was founded by psychologist Margaret Klein Salamon to confront climate change denial and build the political will necessary to achieve net zero greenhouse gas emissions and 100 % clean energy within a decade in order to avoid crossing potentially catastrophic climate tipping points and begin restoring a safe climate .", "Coral in non-tropical regions The poleward migration of coral species refers to the phenomenon brought on by rising sea temperatures, wherein corals are colonising cooler climates in an attempt to circumvent coral bleaching, rising sea levels and ocean acidification. In the age of Anthropocene, the changing global climate has disrupted fundamental natural processes and brought about observable changes in the submarine sphere. Whilst coral reefs are bleaching in tropical areas like the Great Barrier Reef, even more striking, and perhaps more alarming; is the growth of tropical coral species in temperate regions, which has taken place over the past decade. Coral reefs are frequently compared to the \"canaries in the coal mine,\" who were used by miners as an indicator of air quality. In much the same way, \"coral reefs are sensitive to environmental changes that could damage other habitats in the future,\" meaning they will be the first to visually exhibit the true implications of global warming on the natural world.", "Glossary of climate change This article serves as a glossary of climate change terms . It lists terms that are related to global warming .", "List of ministers of climate change A list of ministers of climate change or officials in charge of cabinet positions with portfolios dealing primarily with climate change and issues related to mitigation of global warming .", "Climate change in Idaho Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .", "Alliance of Small Island States Alliance of Small Island States ( AOSIS ) is an intergovernmental organization of low lying coastal and small island countries . Established in 1990 , the main purpose of the alliance is to consolidate the voices of Small Island Developing States ( SIDS ) to address global warming . AOSIS has been very active from its inception , putting forward the first draft text in the Kyoto Protocol negotiations as early as 1994 . At the 2013 Warsaw climate change conference , AOSIS also pushed for the establishment of an international mechanism on loss and damages stressed by the wreckage of Supertyphoon Haiyan . As the existence of many AOSIS states are put at risk by climate change AOSIS has threatened lawsuits . The results of a recent review of the literature show that potential liability for climate change-related losses for the Alliance of Small Island States is over $ 570 trillion . Many of the member states were present at the December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP15 ) . Democracy Now ! reported that members from the island state of Tuvalu interrupted a session of the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference on 10 December 2009 to demand that global temperature rise be limited to 1.5 ° C instead of the proposed 2 ° C. AOSIS has a membership of 44 states , of which 39 are members of the United Nations and 5 observers from all around the world . The alliance represents 28 % of the developing countries , and 20 % of the UN 's total membership .", "Global Sea Level Observing System The Global Sea Level Observing System ( GLOSS ) is an Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission program whose purpose is to measure sea level globally for long-term climate change studies . The program 's purpose has changed since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the program now collects realtime measurements of sea level . The project is currently upgrading the over 290 stations it currently runs , so that they can send realtime data via satellite to newly set up national tsunami centres . They are also fitting the stations with solar panels so they can continue to operate even if the mains power supply is interrupted by severe weather . The Global Sea Level Observing System does not compete with Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis as most GLOSS transducers are located close to land masses while DART 's transducers are far out in the ocean .", "Jonathan M. Gregory Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .", "List of climate change initiatives Here is a list of international , national , regional , and local political initiatives to take action on climate change ( global warming ) . A Climate Action Plan ( CAP ) is a set of strategies intended to guide efforts for climate change mitigation .", "Helen Cleugh Helen A. Cleugh is an atmospheric scientist . She is currently the Chief Research Scientist in Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) ( Oceans and Atmosphere ) where she leads the Earth Systems and Climate Change Hub . Cleugh 's research focuses on observing and predicting atmospheric , climate and marine systems and determining how they interact with human activities .", "Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.", "Cloud feedback Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .", "Hurricane Alley Hurricane Alley is an area of warm water in the Atlantic Ocean stretching from the west coast of northern Africa to the east coast of Central America and Gulf Coast of the Southern United States . Many hurricanes form within this area . The sea surface temperature of the Atlantic in Hurricane Alley has been steadily growing warmer over the past decades , which most climate scientists believe accounts for the increase in hurricane activity .", "Kari Norgaard Kari Marie Norgaard is an associate professor of sociology at the University of Oregon , a post she has held since 2011 . She is known for her research into climate change denial and the politics of global warming .", "Climate of the British Isles The British Isles are an archipelago off the northwest coast of Europe , consisting of the islands of Great Britain and Ireland along with smaller surrounding ones . Its position allows dry continental air from Eurasia to meet wetter air from the Atlantic Ocean , which causes the weather to be highly variable , often changing many times during the day . It is defined as a temperate oceanic climate , or Cfb on the Köppen climate classification system . It is significantly warmer than other regions on the same latitude , due to the warmth provided by the Gulf Stream . Temperatures do not often switch between great extremes , with warm summers and mild winters .", "Climate change in Pakistan Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning ." ]

[ "Retreat of glaciers since 1850 The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .", "Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems ." ]

[ "Polar see-saw The polar see-saw ( also : Bipolar seesaw ) is the phenomenon that temperature changes in the northern and southern hemispheres may be out of phase . The theory ( or hypothesis ) states that large changes , f.e. when the glaciers are intensely growing or depleting , in the formation of ocean bottom water in both poles take a long time to exert their effect in the other hemisphere . Estimates of the period of delay vary , one typical estimate is 1500 years . This is usually studied in the context of ice-cores taken from Antarctica and Greenland .", "Petermann Glacier Petermann Glacier is a large glacier located in North-West Greenland to the east of Nares Strait . It connects the Greenland ice sheet to the Arctic Ocean near 81 degrees north latitude . It is named after the German cartographer August Heinrich Petermann", "Glacier morphology Glacier morphology , or the form a glacier takes , is influenced by temperature , precipitation , topography , and other factors . Types of glaciers range from massive ice sheets , such as the Greenland ice sheet or those in Antarctica , to small cirque glaciers perched on a mountain . Glaciers types can be grouped into two main categories , based on whether ice flow is constrained by the underlying bedrock topography .", "35th meridian west The meridian 35 ° west of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean , Greenland , the Atlantic Ocean , South America , the Southern Ocean , and Antarctica to the South Pole .", "Bredebrae Bredebrae ( Bredebræ `` Broad Glacier '' ) , sometimes also known as `` Brede Glacier '' , is a large glacier in northeastern Greenland . It has its terminus on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet .", "MS Fram MS Fram is a passenger vessel operated by the Norway-based Hurtigruten Group . The ship is named after the original Fram , the ship used by explorers Fridtjof Nansen and Roald Amundsen . The ship operates in the Arctic Ocean and around Greenland in the summer , and cruises around Antarctica at other times of the year . In December 2007 , the ship lost power and struck a glacier in Antarctica , sustaining damage to the starboard side ; the collision did not affect the ship 's seaworthiness .", "Mendeleyev Dmitri Mendeleev ( 1834 -- 1907 ) was a Russian chemist . Mendeleyev ( masculine ) or Mendeleyeva ( feminine or masculine genitive ) may also refer to : Mendeleyev Glacier , a glacier in Antarctica Mendeleyev Ridge , a ridge in the Arctic Ocean Mendeleyeva , a volcano on the Kuril Islands , Russia", "45th meridian west The meridian 45 ° west of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean , Greenland , the Atlantic Ocean , South America , the Southern Ocean , and Antarctica to the South Pole . In Greenland the meridian defines the borders of Qaasuitsup and Qeqqata municipalities with the Sermersooq municipality and the North East Greenland National Park . The 45th meridian west forms a great circle with the 135th meridian east , and it is the reference meridian for the time zone UTC-3 .", "27th meridian west The meridian 27 ° west of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean , Greenland , the Atlantic Ocean , the Southern Ocean , and Antarctica to the South Pole . The 27th meridian west forms a great circle with the 153rd meridian east .", "53rd meridian west The meridian 53 ° west of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean , Greenland , Newfoundland , the Atlantic Ocean , South America , the Southern Ocean , and Antarctica to the South Pole . In Antarctica , the meridian defines the eastern limit of Chile 's territorial claim and passes through the British and Argentinian claims - the three claims overlap . It also defines the western limit of Brazil 's unofficial claim . The 53rd meridian west forms a great circle with the 127th meridian east .", "Akuliarutsip Sermerssua Akuliarutsip Sermerssua , also known as Nordenskiold Glacier , ( Nordenskiöld Gletscher ) , is a large glacier located on the east coast of Greenland .", "32nd meridian west The meridian 32 ° west of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean , Greenland , the Atlantic Ocean , the Southern Ocean , and Antarctica to the South Pole . The 32nd meridian west forms a great circle with the 148th meridian east .", "19th meridian west The meridian 19 ° west of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean , Greenland , Iceland , the Atlantic Ocean , the Southern Ocean , and Antarctica to the South Pole . The 19th meridian west forms a great circle with the 161st meridian east .", "47th meridian west The meridian 47 ° west of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean , Greenland , the Atlantic Ocean , South America , the Southern Ocean , and Antarctica to the South Pole . The 47th meridian west forms a great circle with the 133rd meridian east .", "Wildlife of Antarctica The wildlife of Antarctica are extremophiles , having to adapt to the dryness , low temperatures , and high exposure common in Antarctica . The extreme weather of the interior contrasts to the relatively mild conditions on the Antarctic Peninsula and the subantarctic islands , which have warmer temperatures and more liquid water . Much of the ocean around the mainland is covered by sea ice . The oceans themselves are a more stable environment for life , both in the water column and on the seabed . There is relatively little diversity in Antarctica compared to much of the rest of the world . Terrestrial life is concentrated in areas near the coast . Flying birds nest on the milder shores of the Peninsula and the subantarctic islands . Eight species of penguins inhabit Antarctica and its offshore islands . They share these areas with seven pinniped species . The Southern Ocean around Antarctica is home to 10 cetaceans , many of them migratory . There are very few terrestrial invertebrates on the mainland , although the species that do live there have high population densities . High densities of invertebrates also live in the ocean , with Antarctic krill forming dense and widespread swarms during the summer . Benthic animal communities also exist around the continent . Over 1000 fungi species have been found on and around Antarctica . Larger species are restricted to the subantarctic islands , and the majority of species discovered have been terrestrial . Plants are similarly restricted mostly to the subantarctic islands , and the western edge of the Peninsula . Some mosses and lichens however can be found even in the dry interior . Many algae are found around Antarctica , especially phytoplankton , which form the basis of many of Antarctica 's food webs . Human activity has caused introduced species to gain a foothold in the area , threatening the native wildlife . A history of overfishing and hunting has left many species with greatly reduced numbers . Pollution , habitat destruction , and climate change pose great risks to the environment . The Antarctic Treaty System is a global treaty designed to preserve Antarctica as a place of research , and measures from this system are used to regulate human activity in Antarctica .", "42nd meridian west The meridian 42 ° west of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean , Greenland , the Atlantic Ocean , South America , the Southern Ocean , and Antarctica to the South Pole . The 42nd meridian west forms a great circle with the 138th meridian east .", "13th meridian west The meridian 13 ° west of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean , Greenland , the Atlantic Ocean , Africa , the Southern Ocean , and Antarctica to the South Pole . The 13th meridian west forms a great circle with the 167th meridian east .", "Frederikshaab Glacier Frederikshaab Glacier is a glacier on the southwest coast of Greenland in the Sermersooq municipality . It flows from Greenland 's ice sheet and at its mouth melts into various ponds and channels that empty into Davis Strait . The nearest major town is Paamiut , roughly 110 km to the south , although some smaller settlements are closer . Category : Glaciers of Greenland", "22nd meridian west The meridian 22 ° west of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean , Greenland , Iceland , the Atlantic Ocean , the Southern Ocean , and Antarctica to the South Pole . The 22nd meridian west forms a great circle with the 158th meridian east .", "44th meridian west The meridian 44 ° west of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean , Greenland , the Atlantic Ocean , South America , the Southern Ocean , and Antarctica to the South Pole . The 44th meridian west forms a great circle with the 136th meridian east .", "38th meridian west The meridian 38 ° west of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean , Greenland , the Atlantic Ocean , South America , the Southern Ocean , and Antarctica to the South Pole . The 38th meridian west forms a great circle with the 142nd meridian east .", "Geography of Greenland Greenland is located between the Arctic Ocean and the North Atlantic Ocean , northeast of Canada and northwest of Iceland . The territory comprises the island of Greenland -- the largest island in the world -- and more than a hundred other smaller islands ( see alphabetic list ) . As an island , Greenland has no land boundaries and 44,087 km of coastline . A sparse population is confined to small settlements along certain sectors of the coast . Greenland possesses the world 's second largest ice sheet . Greenland sits atop the Greenland plate , a subplate of the North American plate . The Greenland craton is made up of some of the oldest rocks on the face of the earth . The Isua greenstone belt in southwestern Greenland contains the oldest known rocks on Earth , dated at 3.7 -- 3.8 billion years old . The vegetation is generally sparse , with the only patch of forested land being found in Nanortalik Municipality in the extreme south near Cape Farewell . The climate is arctic to subarctic , with cool summers and cold winters . The terrain is mostly a flat but gradually sloping icecap that covers all land except for a narrow , mountainous , barren , rocky coast . The lowest elevation is sea level and the highest elevation is the summit of Gunnbjørn Fjeld , the highest point in the Arctic at 3694 m . The northernmost point of the Island of Greenland is Cape Morris Jesup , discovered by Admiral Robert Peary in 1909 . Natural resources include zinc , lead , iron ore , coal , molybdenum , gold , platinum , uranium , hydropower and fish .", "Jakobshavn Glacier Jakobshavn Glacier , also known as Sermeq Kujalleq ( in Greenlandic ) and the Jakobshavn Isbræ ( in Danish ) , is a large outlet glacier in West Greenland . It is located near the Greenlandic town of Ilulissat ( Jakobshavn ) and ends at the sea in the Ilulissat Icefjord . Jakobshavn Glacier drains 6.5 % of the Greenland ice sheet and produces around 10 % of all Greenland icebergs . Some 35 billion tonnes of icebergs calve off and pass out of the fjord every year . Icebergs breaking from the glacier are often so large ( up to a kilometer in height ) that they are too tall to float down the fjord and lie stuck on the bottom of its shallower areas , sometimes for years , until they are broken up by the force of the glacier and icebergs further up the fjord . Studied for over 250 years , Jakobshavn Glacier has helped develop our understanding of climate change and icecap glaciology . Ilulissat Icefjord ( Ilulissat Kangerlua ) was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2004 .", "Mertz Glacier Mertz Glacier is a heavily crevassed glacier in George V Coast of East Antarctica . It is the source of a glacial prominence that historically has extended northward into the Southern Ocean , the Mertz Glacial Tongue . It is named in honor of the Swiss explorer Xavier Mertz . The Mertz-Ninnis Valley is an undersea valley named in association with the Mertz Glacier and the Ninnis Glacier .", "25th meridian west The meridian 25 ° west of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean , Greenland , the Atlantic Ocean , Cape Verde Islands , the Southern Ocean , and Antarctica to the South Pole . The 25th meridian west forms a great circle with the 155th meridian east . In Antarctica , the meridian defines the eastern limit of Argentina 's territorial claim and passes through the British claim - the two claims overlap .", "List of glaciers in Greenland This is a list of glaciers in Greenland . Details on the size and flow of some of the major Greenlandic glaciers are listed by Eric Rignot and Pannir Kanagaratnam ( 2006 )", "Starvation (glaciology) In glaciology , starvation occurs when a glacier retreats , not because of temperature increases , but due to precipitation so low that the ice flow downward into the zone of ablation exceeds the replenishment from snowfall . Eventually , the ice will move so far down that it either calves into the ocean or melts . When starvation does occur , however , it can almost always be reversed by slight changes in precipitation , such as are brought about by mountain ranges . Thus , even if glaciers do not cover a lowland due to low precipitation , glaciation is almost certain to occur at higher elevations .", "Regional effects of global warming Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "Hayes Glacier (Greenland) Hayes Glacier is a tidewater glacier in the Qaasuitsup municipality , located on the northwestern shore of Greenland . It drains the Greenland ice sheet ( Sermersuaq ) southwards into Melville Bay . The glacier front is located to the east of the Tuttulikassak nunatak .", "Karale Glacier The Karale Glacier is one of the major glaciers in the area north of Kuummiit , Greenland . Category : Glaciers of Greenland", "30th meridian west The meridian 30 ° west of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean , Greenland , the Atlantic Ocean , the Southern Ocean , and Antarctica to the South Pole . The 30th meridian west forms a great circle with the 150th meridian east , and it is the reference meridian for the time zone UTC-2 .", "Polar desert Polar deserts are areas with annual precipitation less than 250 mm and a mean temperature of less than 10 C during the warmest months . Polar deserts on Earth cover nearly 5,000,000 km2 and consist primarily of hard bedrock or gravel plains . Polar deserts are one of two polar biomes : polar deserts and Arctic tundra . These biomes are located at the poles of the earth , specifically , the Arctic , northernmost North America , Europe , and Asia , and Antarctica . Polar deserts are located in the Arctic and Antarctic . Unlike the tundra that can support plant and animal life in the summer , polar deserts are barren with permanent layers of ice . However , there is evidence of life in this seemingly inhospitable environment.The thick ice contains sediments of organic and inorganic substances which create a habitable environment for microbial organisms . These organisms are closely related to cyanobacteria which have a variety of functions , particularly , fixing carbon dioxide from the melting water . Temperature changes in polar deserts frequently cross the freezing point of water . This `` freeze-thaw '' alternation forms patterned textures on the ground , as much as 5 m in diameter ( as seen in the picture on the right ) . Most of the interior of Antarctica is polar desert , despite the thick ice cover . Conversely , the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica , although they have had no ice for thousands of years due to katabatic wind , are not necessarily polar desert . Polar deserts are relatively common during ice ages , as ice ages tend to be dry . Climate scientists have voiced concerns about the effects of global warming to the ice poles in these polar biomes ." ]

[ "Sea level rise A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "West Antarctic Ice Sheet The Western Antarctic Ice Sheet ( WAIS ) is the segment of the continental ice sheet that covers West ( or Lesser ) Antarctica , the portion of Antarctica on the side of the Transantarctic Mountains which lies in the Western Hemisphere . The WAIS is classified as a marine-based ice sheet , meaning that its bed lies well below sea level and its edges flow into floating ice shelves . The WAIS is bounded by the Ross Ice Shelf , the Ronne Ice Shelf , and outlet glaciers that drain into the Amundsen Sea . It is estimated that the volume of the Antarctic ice sheet is about 25.4 million km3 ( 6.1 million cu mi ) , and the WAIS contains just under 10 % of this , or 2.2 million km3 ( 530,000 cu mi ) . The weight of the ice has caused the underlying rock to sink by between 0.5 and 1 kilometres ( 0.31 -- 0.62 mi ) in a process known as isostatic depression . Under the force of its own weight , the ice sheet deforms and flows . The interior ice flows slowly over rough bedrock . In some circumstances , ice can flow faster in ice streams , separated by slow-flowing ice ridges . The inter-stream ridges are frozen to the bed while the bed beneath the ice streams consists of water-saturated sediments . Many of these sediments were deposited before the ice sheet occupied the region , when much of West Antarctica was covered by the ocean . The rapid ice-stream flow is a non-linear process still not fully understood ; streams can start and stop for unclear reasons . When ice reaches the coast , it either calves or continues to flow outward onto the water . The result is a large , floating ice shelf affixed to the continent .", "Antarctica Antarctica ( UK English -LSB- ænˈtɑːktɪkə -RSB- or -LSB- ænˈtɑːtɪkə -RSB- , US English -LSB- æntˈɑːrktɪkə -RSB- ) is Earth 's southernmost continent . It contains the geographic South Pole and is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere , almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle , and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean . At 14000000 km2 , it is the fifth-largest continent . For comparison , Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia . About 98 % of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages 1.9 km in thickness , which extends to all but the northernmost reaches of the Antarctic Peninsula . Antarctica , on average , is the coldest , driest , and windiest continent , and has the highest average elevation of all the continents . Antarctica is a desert , with annual precipitation of only 200 mm ( 8 in ) along the coast and far less inland . The temperature in Antarctica has reached − 89.2 ° C ( − 128.6 ° F ) , though the average for the third quarter ( the coldest part of the year ) is − 63 ° C ( − 81 ° F ) . Anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at the research stations scattered across the continent . Organisms native to Antarctica include many types of algae , bacteria , fungi , plants , protista , and certain animals , such as mites , nematodes , penguins , seals and tardigrades . Vegetation , where it occurs , is tundra . Although myths and speculation about a Terra Australis ( `` Southern Land '' ) date back to antiquity , Antarctica is noted as the last region on Earth in recorded history to be discovered and colonised by humans , being only first sighted in 1820 by the Russian expedition of Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on Vostok and Mirny , who sighted the Fimbul ice shelf . The continent , however , remained largely neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment , lack of easily accessible resources , and isolation . In 1895 , the first confirmed landing was conducted by a team of Norwegians . Antarctica is a de facto condominium , governed by parties to the Antarctic Treaty System that have consulting status . Twelve countries signed the Antarctic Treaty in 1959 , and thirty-eight have signed it since then . The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining , prohibits nuclear explosions and nuclear waste disposal , supports scientific research , and protects the continent 's ecozone . Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists from many nations ." ]

[ "Wilkes Basin The Wilkes Basin is a large subglacial basin situated generally southward of George V Coast and westward of Prince Albert Mountains in East Antarctica . The feature is approximately 1400 km long and 400 km wide . The Wilkes Basin is considered to be the largest marine-based drainage basin in East Antarctica , and may be in a state of marine ice-sheet instability , caused by warm water intrusion into the shelf cavities .", "Brunt Basin Brunt Basin is a glacially eroded basin of the Brunt Ice Shelf and partially of the Stancomb-Wills Glacier . It was named in association with Brunt Ice Shelf , the name having been proposed by Dr. Heinrich Hinze of the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research , Bremerhaven , Germany , and approved by the Advisory Committee for Undersea Features in June 1997 .", "Ice rise An ice rise is a clearly defined elevation of the otherwise totally flat ice shelf , typically dome-shaped and rising 100 to 200 metres above the surrounding ice shelf . An ice rise forms where the ice shelf touches the rocky seabed because of an elevation in the seabed that remains below sea level . ( In contrast , an elevation in the seabed that extends above sea level is defined as an island ) . The ice shelf flows over the seabed elevation , completely covering it with ice , thereby forming an ice rise . The resulting tension forms crevasses around the ice rise . An island within and totally covered by the ice shelf , may appear the exactly the same as an ice rise . Elaborate measurements may be required to distinguish between these two geographic features . Although ice rises are typically located within the ice shelf area , they can partially face the open sea . Ice rises are found only on the ice shelves of Antarctica . The largest ice rises exceed dimensions of 50 by 200 km , or 10 000 km ² in area . Some ice rises are incorrectly called islands , but also a few totally ice-covered islands within an ice shelf are also called ice rises . Ice rises , grouped by ice shelf , clockwise starting in East Antarctica : Brunt Ice Shelf McDonald Ice Rumples Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf Lyddan Island King Baudouin Ice Shelf Derwael Ice Rise Amery Ice Shelf Budd Ice Rumples IR1 to IR5 near the ice front Shackleton Ice Shelf Green Ice Rises ( the northernmost ice rise , at 66 ° 21 'S ) Harrisson Ice Rises Ross Ice Shelf Crary Ice Rise ( the southernmost ice rise , at 82 ° 56 'S ) Crosson Ice Shelf Davis Ice Rise Bach Ice Shelf Burgess Ice Rise Dvořák Ice Rise Ives Ice Rise Landy Ice Rises George VI Ice Shelf Martin Ice Rise Wilkins Ice Shelf Petrie Ice Rises Schaus Ice Rises Vere Ice Rise Wordie Ice Shelf Coker Ice Rise Linchpin Ice Rise Miller Ice Rise Napier Ice Rise Reynolds Ice Rise Wade Ice Rise Müller Ice Shelf Humphreys Ice Rise Larsen-C Ice Shelf Bawden Ice Rise Gipps Ice Rise Tharp Ice Rise Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf Berkner Island Korff Ice Rise Henry Ice Rise Fowler Ice Rise Skytrain Ice Rise Doake Ice Rumples Dott Ice Rise Fletcher Ice Rise Hemmen Ice Rise Kealey Ice Rise Kershaw Ice Rumples Henry and Korff Ice Rises are the largest ice rises , with areas of roughly 1 500 to 1 600 km ² .", "Hudson Mountains The Hudson Mountains is a group of parasitic cones , forming nunataks just above the Antarctic ice sheet in west Ellsworth Land . They lie just east of Cranton Bay and Pine Island Bay at the eastern extremity of Amundsen Sea , and are bounded on the north by Cosgrove Ice Shelf and on the south by Pine Island Glacier .", "Icing Icing may refer to : Atmospheric icing , occurs when water droplets freeze on objects they contact Icing conditions , atmospheric conditions that can lead to the formation of water ice on various surfaces Aufeis , also called icing , a sheet-like mass of layered ice that forms from the freezing of successive flows of groundwater Claire 's , which has a brand of accessories and jewelry called Icing Cryotherapy , also called icing , the cooling of body parts , often using ice or cold packs , to decrease pain and inflammation Fuel system icing inhibitor , an additive to aviation fuels that prevents the formation of ice in fuel lines Icing ( drinking game ) , a drinking game involving the consumption of large quantities of Smirnoff Ice in inappropriate situations Icing ( food ) , a sweet and often creamy glaze made of sugar used to cover or decorate baked goods , such as cakes , cookies or donuts Powdered sugar , also known as confectioners ' sugar or icing sugar , is a very fine sugar used for icing , frosting and other decorations Royal icing , a hard , white icing , made from softly beaten egg whites , powdered sugar , and sometimes lemon or lime juice Icing ( ice hockey ) , an ice hockey rule intended to discourage intentionally whacking the puck away from a team 's goal to run out the clock Icing ( nautical ) , sea spray that freezes upon contact with ships , occurs during very cold and windy weather , can cause a ship to capsize Icing the kicker , In the sports of American football or Canadian football , the act of icing the kicker or freezing the kicker is a tactic employed by defending teams to disrupt the process of kicking a field goal just prior to the snap .", "Ice age (disambiguation) __ NOTOC __ An ice age is a geologic period characterized by the presence of polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Periods of major glaciation ( commonly also referred to as ice ages ) are scientifically termed glacial periods . Ice Age may also refer to :", "Ice algae Ice algae are any of the various types of algal communities found in annual and multi-year sea or terrestrial ice . On sea ice in polar regions of the oceans , ice algae communities play an important role in primary production . The timing of blooms of the algae is especially important for supporting higher trophic levels at times of the year when light is low and ice cover still exists . Sea ice algal communities are mostly concentrated in the bottom layer of the ice , but can also occur in brine channels within the ice , in melt ponds , and on the surface . Because terrestrial ice algae occur in freshwater systems , the species composition differs greatly from that of sea ice algae . These communities are significant in that they often change the color of glaciers and ice sheets , impacting the reflectivity of the ice itself .", "Geography of Antarctica The geography of Antarctica is dominated by its south polar location and , thus , by ice . The Antarctic continent , located in the Earth 's southern hemisphere , is centered asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle . It is washed by the Southern ( or Antarctic ) Ocean or , depending on definition , the southern Pacific , Atlantic , and Indian Oceans . It has an area of more than 14 million km ² . Some 98 % of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet , the world 's largest ice sheet and also its largest reservoir of fresh water . Averaging at least 1.6 km thick , the ice is so massive that it has depressed the continental bedrock in some areas more than 2.5 km below sea level ; subglacial lakes of liquid water also occur ( e.g. , Lake Vostok ) . Ice shelves and rises populate the ice sheet on the periphery .", "The Ice Sheet at Ogden The Ice Sheet at Ogden , also known as the Weber County Ice Sheet , is located 35 mi north of Salt Lake City on the campus of Weber State University in Ogden . The Ice Sheet opened in 1994 as a recreational training center for curling , ice hockey , and figure skating . During the 2002 Winter Olympics the Ice Sheet hosted the curling events .", "ICESat ICESat ( Ice , Cloud , and land Elevation Satellite ) , part of NASA 's Earth Observing System , was a satellite mission for measuring ice sheet mass balance , cloud and aerosol heights , as well as land topography and vegetation characteristics . ICESat was launched 13 January 2003 on a Delta II rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California into a near-circular , near-polar orbit with an altitude of approximately 600 km . It operated for seven years before being retired in February 2010 , after its scientific payload shut down and scientists were unable to restart it . The ICESat mission was designed to provide elevation data needed to determine ice sheet mass balance as well as cloud property information , especially for stratospheric clouds common over polar areas . It provides topography and vegetation data around the globe , in addition to the polar-specific coverage over the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets . The satellite was found useful in assessing important forest characteristics , including tree density .", "Burt Matthews Not to be confused with Burton Matthews , ice hockey defenseman for the Krugersdorp Wildcats and the South Africa men 's national ice hockey team . Burton Clare Matthews ( December 16 , 1926 -- January 2 , 2004 ) was a Canadian soil scientist and an academic administrator . He was President of the University of Waterloo from 1970 to 1981 and the University of Guelph from 1983 to 1988 .", "Farley–Buneman instability The Farley -- Buneman instability , or FB instability , is a microscopic plasma instability named after Donald T. Farley and Oscar Buneman . It is similar to the ionospheric Rayleigh-Taylor instability . It occurs in collisional plasma with neutral component , and is driven by drift currents . It can be thought of as a modified two-stream instability arising from the difference in drifts of electrons and ions exceeding the ion acoustic speed . It is present in the equatorial and polar ionospheric E-regions . Since the FB fluctuations can scatter the electromagnetic waves , the instability can be used to diagnose the state of ionosphere by the use of electromagnetic pulses .", "Calving Calving may refer to : Calving , the process of giving birth to a calf Ice calving , the process by which an iceberg breaks off from an ice shelf or glacier", "The Iceberg/Freedom of Speech... Just Watch What You Say! The Iceberg/Freedom of Speech ... Just Watch What You Say ! is the third studio album by American rapper Ice-T . The album was released on October 10 , 1989 , by Sire Records and Warner Bros. . Records . The album has an uncharacteristically gritty sound , featuring some of the darkest musical tracks that Ice-T ever released .", "King Baudouin Ice Shelf The King Baudouin Ice Shelf ( also called Roi Baudouin Ice shelf , from French : Plateforme de glace Roi Baudouin ) in Dronning Maud Land , East Antarctica , is within the Norwegian part of Antarctica . It is named after King Baudouin of Belgium ( 1930-1993 ) .", "Tsiolkovskiy Island Tsiolkovskiy Island is an ice-covered island in the Fimbul Ice Shelf , Queen Maud Land . The summit of the island rises about 200 m above the general level of the ice shelf . Kroshka Island lies close southwest and is similar but smaller . First mapped by the Soviet Antarctic Expedition in 1961 and named for K.E. Tsiolkovskiy ( 1857 -- 1935 ) , Russian scientist and inventor .", "Vance Bluff Vance Bluff is a small ice-covered eminence near the polar plateau , 10 nautical miles ( 18 km ) north of Laird Plateau . Its flat summit merges with the ice sheet to the north and west , but there is a steep cliff along the south side . Black Icefalls run northeast from Vance Bluff to Mount Massam . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for the USS Vance , an ocean station ship in support of aircraft flights between New Zealand and McMurdo Sound during U.S. Navy Operation Deepfreeze 1962 . Category : Cliffs of Oates Land", "Ice pigging Ice Pigging is the process in which an ice slurry is pumped into a pipe and forced along inside in order to remove sediment and other unwanted deposits to leave the pipe clean . It has many applications in the water , sewage and food industries . The University of Bristol has held many laboratory trials to investigate various key factors and refine the process . Ice Pigging was invented and patented by Professor Joe Quarini of the University of Bristol .", "Diocotron instability A diocotron instability is a plasma instability created by two sheets of charge slipping past each other . Energy is dissipated in the form of two surface waves propagating in opposite directions , with one flowing over the other . This instability is the plasma analog of the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability in fluid mechanics .", "Sandefjord Bay Not to be confused with Sandefjord Bay on the west side Coronation Island ! Sandefjord Bay was an ice bay at the head of Prydz Bay , lying on the eastern side of the Amery Ice Shelf . This bay no longer exists , engulfed by the ice of the Amery Ice Shelf . It was discovered in February 1935 , by Captain Klarius Mikkelsen in the whaling ship Thorshavn and called Sandefjord Bukta after the town of Sandefjord , Norway .", "Rogen moraine A Rogen moraine ( also called ribbed moraine ) is a subglacially ( i.e. under a glacier or ice sheet ) formed type of moraine landform , that mainly occurs in Fennoscandia , Scotland , Ireland and Canada . They cover large areas that have been covered by ice , and occur mostly in what is believed to have been the central areas of the ice sheets . Rogen moraines are named after Lake Rogen in Härjedalen , Sweden , the landform 's type locality . Rogen Nature Reserve serves to protect the unusual area . The landform occurs in groups that are often closely and regularly spaced . They consist of glacial drift , with till being the most common constituent . The individual moraines are large , wavy ridges orientated transverse to ice flow . Drumlins are often found in close proximity of Rogen moraines , and are often interpreted to be formed at the same time as the Rogen moraines . Although Rogen moraines can span a large range of sizes , the most common distribution seems to be 10 -- 30 metres high , 150 -- 300 metres wide and 300-1 ,200 metres long . The exact mechanics of Rogen moraine formation are not known , but since the 1970s , several theories on the formation have been proposed : Megaripples eroded in the basal ice fill during subglacial outburst floods . Already existing landforms , such as drumlins and flutes or marginal moraines are reshaped due to a ~ 90 ° change in the direction of the ice flow . Debris-rich basal ice or pre-existing sediments are sheared and stacked , or folded during compressive ice flow . Sediment sheets become fractured and extended during a transition of the overlying glacier from being cold based ice to warm based . However , it has been suggested that , due to the diversity of morphological characteristics displayed by Rogen moraine , different processes might be able to create the landform . This means that all four of the processes mentioned above might be correct . The different theories that proposed a formation near or at the glacial margin have largely been abandoned . Some of these theories proposed that Rogen moraines had an origin as a series of end moraines , that they formed in association with calving ice termini in glacial lakes , or that Rogen moraines formed in dead-ice , where supraglacial material fell down into crevasses in the ice .", "Swinburne Ice Shelf Swinburne Ice Shelf , is an ice shelf just north of Edward VII Peninsula and the Alexandra Mountains in the southern part of Sulzberger Bay , Antarctica . The ice shelf is 20 miles long and 5 miles wide and extends from Fisher Island to White Islands . It was photographed from aircraft and mapped by the Byrd Antarctic Expedition ( ByrdAE ) , 1928-30 . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for Captain H.W Swinburne , Jr. , Deputy Commander and Chief of Staff , U.S. Naval Support Force , Antarctica , during Operation Deep Freeze 1970 and 1971 .", "Schaus Ice Rises Schaus Ice Rises is a group of small ice rises merged within the Wilkins Ice Shelf , aligned east-west just off the north side of Eroica Peninsula , situated off the southwest coast of Alexander Island , Antarctica . Mapped by United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from U.S. Navy aerial photographs taken 1967-68 and from Landsat imagery taken 1972-73 . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for Commander Richard Schaus , U.S. Navy , assigned to the Division of Polar Programs , National Science Foundation ( NSF ) , as aviation projects officer , 1979-80 .", "Thiel Trough Thiel Trough is a submarine trough trending NE-SW with depths reaching to 1,500 metres below sea level . The trough extends southwest from about 7630S , 3500W , in the Weddell Sea ; underlies Filchner Ice Shelf and the south part of Ronne Ice Shelf , south of Henry Ice Rise ; and continues west to about 8300S , 8500W , near Martin Hills . The portion northeast of the Henry Ice Rise was discovered in 1957-58 by a U.S. traverse party from Ellsworth Station and named `` Crary Trough '' after Albert P. Crary , chief scientist with the United States Antarctic Research Program ( USARP ) . The southwest portion was traced by U.S. seismic traverse parties , 1958 -- 64 , and the whole delineated in greater detail by the Scott Polar Research Institute ( SPRI ) - National Science Foundation ( NSF ) - Technical University of Denmark ( TUD ) airborne radio echo sounding program , 1967-79 . The name `` Crary Trough '' was later set aside by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) at the suggestion of Dr. Crary , who recommended that the entire trough be named after Dr. Edward C. Thiel ( 1928 -- 61 ) . Dr Thiel was chief seismologist at Ellsworth Station 1956 -- 58 , the leader of the traverse party that discovered this feature and died in an air-crash at Wilkes Station Antarctica . Category : Oceanic basins of the Southern Ocean Category : Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf", "Fleming Glacier Fleming Glacier is a broad glacier 25 nmi long on the west side of the Antarctic Peninsula , flowing west-northwest and terminating in Forster Ice Piedmont to the east of the Wordie Ice Shelf . The glacier was charted by the British Graham Land Expedition ( BGLE ) under John Rymill , 1934 -- 37 , and was photographed from the air by the United States Antarctic Service on September 29 , 1940 . This hitherto unnamed feature was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 1947 for Reverend W.L.S. Fleming , Dean of Trinity Hall , Cambridge University ; also , chaplain , chief scientist , and geologist of the BGLE .", "Aalborg Pirates Aalborg Pirates is a professional ice hockey team that playing in the best Danish ice hockey league , Metal Ligaen . An ice hockey team organized under the sports club Aalborg Boldspilklub named AaB Ice hockey first appeared in 1967 , playing in the Danish league and won the Danish league championship in 1981 . in 1997 AaB Ishockey merged with a smaller club , IK Aalborg . The merged team was known as Aalborg Ishockey Klub ( AIK ) in the period 1997 -- 2003 , but following financial instability at the club , the professional license was transferred to Aalborg Boldspilklub or AaB . The team was located in Aalborg in the northern part of Jutland and ceased operations at the end of the 2011/2012 season . The team was then replaced by a whole new team and organisation that is called Aalborg Pirates .", "Cedar Rapids Ice Arena The Cedar Rapids Ice Arena is a 3,850-seat multipurpose arena in Cedar Rapids , Iowa , located adjacent to Veterans Memorial Stadium . The arena opened on January 8 , 2000 , and is owned by the city of Cedar Rapids . It is home to the Cedar Rapids RoughRiders of the United States Hockey League as well as several local youth hockey teams . The University of Iowa Hawkeyes club hockey team plays some of their home games at the facility . The arena contains separate sheets of ice for ice hockey games and for public and figure ice skating . The arena serves as the home ice for the Eastern Iowa Figure Skating Club , a US Figure Skating club . For the 2012 and 2013 seasons , it was the temporary home to the Cedar Rapids Titans indoor football team as the U.S. Cellular Center , where they started playing in 2014 and beyond , was being renovated . The arena contains two sheets of ice . One sheet is Olympic regulation ( 200 by ) , and the other is NHL regulation ( 200 by ) . Public skating , youth hockey , and figure skating events take place on both sheets of ice , whereas larger events , such as RoughRider games , are held on the NHL sheet of ice .", "Charles Swithinbank Charles Winthrop Molesworth Swithinbank ( 17 November 1926 -- 27 May 2014 ) was a British glaciologist and expert in the polar regions who has six places in the Antarctic named after him . He was born in Pegu , Burma , the son of Bernard Swithinbank of the Indian Civil Service , and educated at Bryanston School . He served for two years with the Royal Navy before going up to Pembroke College , Oxford to read Geography in 1946 , graduating DPhil in 1955 . Having developed an interest in glaciology he became a research fellow at the Scott Polar Research Institute in Cambridge , studying the distribution of sea ice and its effect on shipping in the Canadian Arctic , which involved the first hand observation of sea ice conditions from aboard the icebreaker Labrador in the Baffin Island region . In 1959 he moved to the University of Michigan to take up an appointment as a research associate and lecturer , spending three summers in the Antarctic investigating the glaciers which feed the Ross Ice Shelf in New Zealand 's Ross Dependency . He then returned to Britain to take up a further research appointment at the Scott Polar Research lnstitute , spending two summers and a winter in the Antarctic as the British representative at the Soviet Novolazarevskaya ice shelf station . He worked at the Scott Polar Research Institute until 1976 , from 1971 as chief glaciologist and from 1974 as head of the Earth Sciences Division of the British Antarctic Survey . During this period he revisited the Antarctic in the summer of 1967-68 and took part as sea ice specialist in the transit of Canada 's Northwest Passage by the supertanker Manhattan in 1969 , and in the return passage to the North Pole by the nuclear submarine Dreadnought in 1971 . In 1976 he joined the British Antarctic Survey in Cambridge . Every other season he spent several months in the Antarctic , primarily directing low level radio echo-sounding flights to measure the thickness of the ice within the British Antarctic Territory . After his retirement from the Survey in 1986 he joined up with two pilots to locate suitable landing strips in Antarctica to enable flights to be inaugurated for the benefit of mountaineers , skiers and other tourists . He died in 2014 . He had married Mary Fellows ( née Stewart ) , with whom he had a son and a daughter .", "Ice jacking Ice jacking occurs when water invades a confined space in a structural support , or geologic formation , and upon freezing causes structural fracture as the ice expands . Ice shove is sometimes called ice-jacking . Ice heaving or frost heaving is sometimes called ice-jacking . Ice wedging is sometimes called ice-jacking .", "Matthews Glacier Matthews Glacier is a glacier on the east side of the Wilkins Mountains , Antarctica , draining south to enter the Ronne Ice Shelf just west of Dodson Peninsula . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from surveys and U.S. Navy air photos , 1961 -- 67 , and was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names for J.D. Matthews , an engineman at South Pole Station in 1963 .", "WHA Junior Hockey League The WHA Junior Hockey League was an independent Canadian junior ice hockey league based out of British Columbia , Canada . The league marketed itself as a Junior A league , but was an unsanctioned independent loop with its own rules , processes and procedures , and was marked by franchise instability . Its team logos were based on the old WHA pro league of the 1970s .", "Dorsa Argentea Formation The Dorsa Argentea Formation ( DAF ) is thought to be a large system of eskers that were under an ancient ice cap in the south polar region of Mars . The ancient ice cap was at least twice the size of the present ice cap and may have been 1500-2000 meters thick . This group of ridges extends from 270 -- 100 E and 70 -- 90 S , around the south pole of Mars . It sits under the Late Amazonian South Polar Layered Deposits ( SPLD ) , in the Mare Australe quadrangle . The amount of these ridges is huge , one study studied seven different ridge systems which contained almost 4,000 ridges that had a total length 51,000 km . Most eskers are thought to be formed inside ice-walled tunnels by streams which flowed within and under glaciers . After the retaining ice walls melted away , stream deposits remained as long winding ridges . Crater counts show that the ridges are of two different ages . One dates from Early Hesperian , while the other group dates to the Late Noachian . These dates correspond to the time when Mars had lakes and valley networks which formed from runoff , drainage and storage of liquid water on the surface of Mars . The Dorsa Argentea Formation represents a time when there was melting and drainage of meltwater from a giant ice sheet around the Martian South Pole . Various mechanisms may have caused the ice to melt . Possible mechanisms may have been a warmer atmosphere , volcanism , or increased thickness of the ice cap from accumulating snow . MARSIS radar data suggest that significant areas of layered , potentially ice-rich parts of the Dorsa Argentea Formation remain today . Twenty-one mountains are associated with this formation . Their shapes suggest they are volcanoes and that most were associated with glaciers . Some probably erupted under a sheet of ice . Some resemble volcanic land forms called tuyas and tindars . These features are common in Iceland and Antarctica ." ]

[ "Henrik Svensmark Henrik Svensmark ( born 1958 ) is a physicist and professor in the Division of Solar System Physics at the Danish National Space Institute ( DTU Space ) in Copenhagen . He is known for his theory on the effects of cosmic rays on cloud formation as an indirect cause of global warming . He detailed his work in the book The Chilling Stars as well as the film The Cloud Mystery .", "Cosmic ray Cosmic rays are high-energy radiation , mainly originating outside the Solar System . Upon impact with the Earth 's atmosphere , cosmic rays can produce showers of secondary particles that sometimes reach the surface . Composed primarily of high-energy protons and atomic nuclei , they are of mysterious origin . Data from the Fermi Space Telescope ( 2013 ) have been interpreted as evidence that a significant fraction of primary cosmic rays originate from the supernovae explosions of stars . Active galactic nuclei probably also produce cosmic rays .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Jasper Kirkby Jasper Kirkby is a British experimental particle physicist currently with CERN . He originated the idea for the Tau-Charm Factory , an accelerator now under construction as BEPC II in Beijing . He has led several large particle accelerator experiments at SPEAR ; the Paul Scherrer Institute ; and most recently , the CLOUD experiment at CERN . The CLOUD experiment is investigating possible physical mechanisms for solar/cosmic ray forcing - a theory whereby cloud nucleation is affected by cosmic rays and the cosmic rays are affected by solar activity . The main purpose of the CLOUD experiment is to simulate the conditions under which clouds form in earth 's atmosphere -- specifically , the process by which cloud condensation nuclei form from aerosols in the atmosphere . Kirkby et al. published the results of CLOUD 's first experiment in the journal Nature in 2011 , reporting that cosmic rays `` seemed to enhance the production of nanometre-sized particles from the gaseous atmosphere by more than a factor of ten . '' He added , however , that the particles in question are far too small to serve as cloud condensation nuclei , adding , `` At the moment , it actually says nothing about a possible cosmic-ray effect on clouds and climate , but it 's a very important first step . ''", "The Cloud Mystery The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish . This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .", "Cosmic Ray Energetics and Mass Experiment The purpose of the Cosmic Ray Energetics and Mass ( CREAM ) Experiment is to determine the composition of cosmic rays up to the 1015 eV `` knee '' in the cosmic ray spectrum . It is suspected that this knee in the cosmic ray spectrum can be explained by the theoretical maximum energy that a supernova can accelerate particles to through Fermi acceleration . This is accomplished with a timing-based charge detector and transition radiation detector at an altitude of at least 110,000 ft with the aid of a high-altitude balloon . After launching from McMurdo Station in Antarctica , the balloon will stay aloft for 60 -- 100 days gathering data on charges and energies of the unimpeded cosmic rays that strike the detectors . One of the advantages of this type of experiment is that it is possible to identify the original particle that would have caused the air shower detected by ground-based detectors . Maximum detectable energy level is determined by duration of the flight and size of the detector ; a difficult barrier to get around for experiments of this type . An accurate measurement of the composition of cosmic rays is necessary in order to understand the origins of the cosmic rays found above the `` knee '' at 1015 eV . To date , the CREAM balloon experiments have accumulated a total of 161 days of exposure , longer than any other single balloon-borne experiment .", "Cloud feedback Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .", "Cosmic-ray observatory A cosmic-ray observatory is a scientific installation built to detect high-energy-particles coming from space called cosmic rays . This typically includes photons ( high-energy light ) , electrons , protons , and some heavier nuclei , as well as antimatter particles . About 90 % of cosmic rays are protons , 9 % are alpha particles , and the rest are other particles It is not yet possible to build image forming optics for cosmic rays , like a Wolter telescope for lower energy X-rays , although some cosmic-ray observatories also look for high energy gamma rays and x-rays . Ultra-high-energy cosmic rays ( UHEC ) pose further detection problems . One way of learning about cosmic rays is using different detectors to observe aspects of a cosmic ray air shower . Methods of detection for Gamma-rays . Scintillation Detectors Solid State Detectors Compton Scattering Pair Telescopes Air Cerenkov Detectors For example , while a visible light photon may have an energy of a few eV , a cosmic gamma ray may exceed a TeV ( 1,000,000,000,000 eV ) . Sometimes cosmic gamma rays ( photons ) are not grouped with nuclei cosmic rays .", "Cirrus cloud thinning Cirrus cloud thinning is a proposed form of climate engineering . Cirrus clouds are high cold ice that , like other clouds , both reflect sunlight and absorb warming infrared radiation . However , they differ from other types of clouds in that , on average , infrared absorption outweighs sunlight reflection , resulting in a net warming effect on the climate . Therefore , thinning or removing these clouds would reduce their heat trapping capacity , resulting in a cooling effect on Earth 's climate . This could be a potential tool to reduce anthropogenic global warming . Cirrus cloud thinning is an alternative category of climate engineering , in addition to solar radiation management and greenhouse gas removal .", "Cosmic wind Cosmic wind , also called galactic wind , is a powerful cosmic force that can push interstellar dust clouds of low density into intergalactic space . It has a primary composition of photons ejected from large stars and sometimes thermal energy from exploding stars.It can be caused by orbital motion of gas in the cluster of a galaxy , or can be ejected from a black hole .", "Tunka experiment The Tunka experiment now named TAIGA ( Tunka Advanced Instrument for cosmic ray physics and Gamma Astronomy ) measures air showers , which are initiated by charged cosmic rays or high energy gamma rays . TAIGA is situated in Siberia in the Tunka valley close to lake Baikal . Meanwhile , TAIGA consists of five different detector systems : Tunka-133 , Tunka-Rex , and Tunka-Grande for charged cosmic rays ; Tunka-HiSCORE and Tunka-IACT for gamma astronomy . From the measurements of each detector it is possible to reconstruct the arrival direction , energy and type of the cosmic rays , where the accuracy is enhanced by the combination of different detector systems . The aim of the cosmic-ray measurements is to solve the question of the origin of the cosmic rays in the energy range up to about 1 EeV . Thus , the Tunka experiment explores the same energy range as the KASCADE-Grande cosmic-ray experiment at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology ( KIT ) and as the surface detector IceTop of the IceCube experiment at South Pole . However , the first detector of TAIGA , Tunka-133 , uses a different and independent measurement technique , which can be used to cross-check the results by the other experiments . For gamma-ray astronomy the aim is to identify sources of higher energy than possible by current gamma-ray observatories .", "Cosmic Ray Subsystem Cosmic Ray Subsystem ( CRS , or Cosmic Ray System ) is an instrument aboard the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft of the NASA Voyager program , and it is an experiment to detect cosmic rays . The CRS includes a High-Energy Telescope System ( HETS ) , Low-Energy Telescope System ( LETS ) , and The Electron Telescope ( TET ) . It is designed to detect energetic particles and some the requirements were for the instrument to be reliable and to have enough charge resolution . It can also detect the energetic particles like protons from the Galaxy or Earth 's Sun . As of 2017 , CRS is one of the active remaining instruments on both Voyager spacecraft , and it is described by as being able to detect electrons from 3-110 MeV and cosmic ray nuclei 1-500 MeV/n . All three systems used solid-state detectors . CRS is one of the five fields and particle experiments on each spacecraft , and one of the goals is to gain a deeper understanding of the solar wind . Other objects of study including electrons and nuclei from planetary magnetospheres and from outside the solar system .", "The Chilling Stars The Chilling Stars is a non-fiction book about the possible causes and effects of global climate change by Henrik Svensmark and Nigel Calder . The paperback version was published by Totem Books on March 19 , 2003 . An updated version titled The Chilling Stars : A New Theory of Climate Change was published in 2007 . Svensmark is otherwise known as a Danish physicist and professor while Calder has worked as a science journalist . The authors argue that cloud cover changes caused by variations in cosmic rays are a major contributor to global temperature increases , and they state that human influences have been exaggerated .", "Cosmic Ray Deflection Society The Cosmic Ray Deflection Society is a satirical/environmental pseudoscientific organization , based in New Orleans , Louisiana . A worldwide membership of over 250 members , the group believes the `` deadly cosmic rays '' are getting in through the hole in the ozone layer .", "Chicago Air Shower Array The Chicago Air Shower Array ( CASA ) was a very large array of scintillation counters located in Utah , fifty miles ( 80 kilometers ) southwest of Salt Lake City in Dugway Proving Grounds . CASA began operating in 1992 in conjunction with a second instrument , the Michigan Anti Array ( MIA ) , under the name CASA-MIA . The MIA was made of 2500 square meters of buried muon detectors . At the time of its completion , the CASA was the most sensitive experiment built to date in the study of gamma ray and cosmic ray interactions at energies above 100 TeV ( 1014 electronvolts or 16 microjoules ) . Research topics on data from this experiment covered a wide variety of physics issues , including the search for gamma-rays from extragalactic sources ( quasars and gamma-ray bursts ) , the study of diffuse gamma-ray emission from the Galactic plane , and a measurement of the cosmic ray composition in the poorly understood region from 100 to 100,000 TeV . The project was decommissioned sometime before the summer of 2001 .", "Milagro (experiment) Milagro , ( the Spanish word for miracle ) , was a ground based water Cherenkov radiation telescope situated in the Jemez Mountains near Los Alamos , New Mexico at the Fenton Hill Observatory site . It was primarily designed to detect gamma rays but also detected large numbers of cosmic rays . It operated in the TeV region of the spectrum at an altitude of 2530 m. Like conventional telescopes , Milagro was sensitive to light but the similarities ended there . Whereas `` normal '' astronomical telescopes view the universe in visible light , Milagro saw the universe at very high energies . The light that Milagro saw was about 1 trillion times more energetic than visible light . While these particles of light , known as photons , are the same as the photons that make up visible light , they behave quite differently due to their high energies . A cosmic ray or high-energy gamma ray striking an atom in the upper atmosphere generates a cascade of particles known as an air shower . This cascade of particles are traveling near the speed of light and generate Cherenkov radiation as they pass through the atmosphere and the water in the Milagro experiment . The photons of Cherenkov radiation are detected by an array of detectors or photomultiplier tubes which send a signal to a recorder . The data from the recorder can then be used to determine the energy and direction of the cosmic or gamma ray . The Milagro experiment used 700 sensitive light detectors submerged in the pond plus another 200 detectors arrayed around the pond . The Milagro Experiment stopped taking data in April 2008 after seven years of operation . There is a follow up experiment called the High Altitude Water Cherenkov Experiment ( HAWC ) located near the Large Millimeter Telescope at the Sierra Negra volcano , Mexico , which is expected to be 15 times more sensitive . In November 2008 Milagro published the surprising result of observing cosmic ray anisotropy .", "Volcano Ranch experiment The Volcano Ranch experiment was an array of particle detectors in Volcano Ranch , New Mexico , used to measure ultra-high-energy cosmic rays . The array was built by John Linsley and Livio Scarsi in 1959 . On February 22 , 1962 , Linsley observed an air shower at Volcano Ranch created by a primary particle with an energy greater than 1020 eV , the highest energy cosmic ray particle ever detected at the time . Linsley continued to operate Volcano Ranch until 1978 , when it was closed due to lack of funding .", "Track Imaging Cherenkov Experiment The Track Imaging Cherenkov Experiment ( TrICE ) is a ground-based cosmic ray telescope located at Argonne National Laboratory near Chicago , IL . The telescope , which contains a Fresnel lens , eight spherical mirrors , and a camera with 16 multianode photomultiplier tubes , uses the atmospheric Cherenkov imaging technique to detect Cherenkov radiation produced when cosmic rays interact with particles in the Earth 's atmosphere . The telescope is primarily a research and development tool for improving photomultiplier tube cameras and electronic systems for future gamma and cosmic ray telescopes . It is also used to study the energy and composition of cosmic rays in the TeV -- PeV range , and the collaboration is currently conducting pioneering work in detecting direct Cherenkov signals from cosmic rays .", "LHCf experiment The LHCf ( `` Large Hadron Collider forward '' ) is a special-purpose Large Hadron Collider experiment for astroparticle ( cosmic ray ) physics , and one of seven detectors in the LHC accelerator at CERN . The other six are : ATLAS , ALICE , CMS , MoEDAL , TOTEM , and LHCb . LHCf is designed to study the particles generated in the `` forward '' region of collisions , those almost directly in line with the colliding proton beams . It therefore consists of two detectors , 140 m on either side of the interaction point . Because of this large distance , it can co-exist with a more conventional detector surrounding the interaction point , and shares the interaction point IP1 with the much larger general-purpose ATLAS experiment .", "LUCID LUCID ( Langton Ultimate Cosmic ray Intensity Detector ) is a cosmic ray detector built by Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd and designed at Simon Langton Grammar School for Boys , in Canterbury , England . Its main purpose is to monitor cosmic rays using technology developed by CERN , and will help predict the occurrence of solar flares ( proton storms ) which disrupt artificial satellites . LUCID was launched on 8 July 2014 at Baikonur , Kazakhstan as an instrument of the satellite TechDemoSat-1 , which was carried into space by a Soyuz-2 rocket . Professor Larry Pinsky , Chair of Physics at the University of Houston , described the project in Symmetry Magazine as `` like playing at being NASA or the European Space Agency , but they 're not really playing . They 're doing the real thing . '' Channel 4 News said of the LUCID project that `` with this metal box , the school has outwitted NASA '' .", "Antarctic Impulse Transient Antenna The Antarctic Impulsive Transient Antenna ( ANITA ) experiment has been designed to study ultra-high-energy ( UHE ) cosmic neutrinos by detecting the radio pulses emitted by their interactions with the Antarctic ice sheet . This is to be accomplished using an array of radio antennas suspended from a helium balloon flying at a height of about 37,000 meters . The neutrinos , with energies on the order of 1018 eV , produce radio pulses in the ice because of the Askaryan effect . It is believed that these high-energy cosmic neutrinos result from interaction of ultra-high-energy ( 1020 eV ) cosmic rays with the photons of the cosmic microwave background radiation . It is thus hoped that the ANITA experiment can shed light on the origin of these cosmic rays .", "Cloud forcing Cloud forcing ( sometimes described as cloud radiative forcing or cloud radiative effect ) is , in meteorology , the difference between the radiation budget components for average cloud conditions and cloud-free conditions . Much of the interest in cloud forcing relates to its role as a feedback process in the present period of global warming .", "Hurricane Katrina and global warming The tremendous destruction caused by recent Atlantic Ocean tropical cyclones , such as Hurricanes Katrina , Wilma , and Sandy caused a substantial upsurge in interest in the subject of global warming by news media and the wider public , and concerns that global climatic change may have played a significant role in those events . Time Magazine , for example , published an article titled , `` Is Global Warming Fueling Katrina ? '' -- however , the article itself addressed hurricanes in general , rather than Katrina specifically , and was inconclusive . Shortly after the hurricane , former Boston Globe reporter Ross Gelbspan wrote an op-ed piece for the Globe titled , `` Katrina 's Real Name '' , declaring that the hurricane 's `` real name is global warming . '' Gelbspan went on to assert : `` Although Katrina began as a relatively small hurricane that glanced off south Florida , it was supercharged with extraordinary intensity by the relatively blistering sea surface temperatures in the Gulf of Mexico . '' Gelbspan did not single out Katrina from other recent storms in that regard ; in the article he went on to attribute other major weather events over the preceding year to global warming , including a blizzard in Los Angeles , high winds in Scandinavia , wildfires in Spain , and a drought centered in Missouri . Britain 's then deputy prime minister , John Prescott , has linked Katrina with global warming , and statements made shortly after the hurricane by Germany 's environment minister , Jürgen Trittin , indicate he believes that global warming is responsible for an increase in the frequency of destructive natural events . Kerry Emanuel had recently published a paper in the journal Nature that found a good correlation between hurricane intensity and sea surface temperatures . Some journalists have claimed Emanuel 's paper concludes that the recent increase in intense Atlantic storms is due to global warming , but Emanuel stated that `` it would be absurd to attribute the Katrina disaster to global warming '' . The Internet blog RealClimate has written that `` there is no way to prove that Katrina either was , or was not , affected by global warming '' .", "NEVOD NEVOD ( НЕВОД , НЕйтринный ВОдный Детектор , Neutrino Water Detector ; nevod means `` dragnet '' in Russian ) is a neutrino detector and cosmic ray experiment that attempts to detect Cherenkov radiation arising from interactions between water and charged particles ( mostly muons ) . It represents the first attempt to perform such measurements at the earth 's surface ; it is because of this surface deployment that the experiment is also able to investigate cosmic rays . NEVOD is situated at the Moscow Engineering Physics Institute ( MEPhI ) .", "Viper telescope The Viper telescope is mainly used to view cosmic background radiation . The telescope is currently helping scientists prove or disprove the Big Crunch theory . The telescope is also one of the most powerful of its kind . Previous cosmic background telescopes were smaller and did not have the ability to focus on the detailed measurement of distant clouds that Viper does .", "Cloudbuster A cloudbuster ( or cloud buster ) is a pseudoscientific device designed by Austrian psychoanalyst Wilhelm Reich ( 1897 -- 1957 ) , which Reich said could produce rain by manipulating what he called `` orgone energy '' present in the atmosphere . The cloudbuster was intended to be used in a way similar to a lightning rod : focusing it on a location in the sky and grounding it in some material that was presumed to absorb orgone -- such as a body of water -- would draw the orgone energy out of the atmosphere , causing the formation of clouds and rain . Reich conducted dozens of experiments with the cloudbuster , calling the research `` Cosmic orgone engineering '' .", "Radio Ice Cherenkov Experiment Radio Ice Cerenkov Experiment ( RICE ) is an experiment designed to detect the Cherenkov emission in the radio regime of the electromagnetic spectrum from the interaction of high energy neutrinos ( greater than 1 PeV ) with the Antarctic ice cap . The goals of this experiment are to determine the potential of the radio-detection technique for measuring the high energy cosmic neutrino flux , determining the sources of this flux , and measuring neutrino-nucleon cross sections at energies above those accessible with existing accelerators . Such an experiment also has sensitivity to neutrinos from gamma ray bursts , as well as highly ionizing charged particles ( monopoles , e.g. ) traversing the Antarctic icecap .", "Clouds of Smoke Clouds of Smoke is a documentary directed and produced by Fatmir Terziu . It explores the recent phenomenon of global warming and asks several environmental questions . It mainly focuses on the environmental damage caused by Albania , especially its biggest industrial city , Elbasan . The documentary started as a collaboration with Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( DEFRA ) , and it was created for the purpose of educating students at London South Bank University . It was chosen to be shown at Curzon , London , the first documentary directed by an Albanian director to be selected .", "Global warming game A global warming game , also known as a climate game or a climate change game , is a type of serious game . As a serious game , it attempts to simulate and explore real life issues to educate players through an interactive experience . The issues particular to a global warming video game are usually energy efficiency and the implementation of green technology as ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and thus counteract global warming . Global warming games also include more traditional board games , video games , as well as other varieties .", "Washington Large Area Time Coincidence Array The Washington Area Large-scale Time-coincidence Array ( WALTA ) is a cosmic ray physics experiment run by the University of Washington to investigate ultra high energy cosmic rays ( > 10 ^ 19 eV ) . The program uses detectors placed at Seattle-area high schools and colleges which are linked via the internet , effectively forming an Extensive Air Shower array . In addition to working on the unexplained levels of Ultra High Energy cosmic ray ( UHECR ) flux , it hopes to serve as a pedagogical tool for increasing the physics involvement of high schools and community colleges with a University level physics experiment . Each site has three to four scintillation detectors with the goal of having enough sites to cover a 200 km2 area around the city of Seattle . WALTA is a part of the larger NALTA project which hopes to combine data from several WALTA like projects to further the exploration of UHE cosmic rays .", "KASCADE KASCADE is a European physics experiment started in 1996 at Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe , Germany ( now Karlsruher Institut für Technologie ) , an extensive air shower experiment array to study the cosmic ray primary composition and the hadronic interactions in the energy range of 1016 -- 1018 eV , measuring simultaneously the electronic , muonic and hadronic components . KASCADE-Grande is a further extension of the previous project by reassembling 37 detectors of the former EAS-TOP experiment running between 1987 and 2000 at Campo Imperatore , Gran Sasso Laboratories , Italy . The experiment uses a CORSIKA simulation program . Co-located with KASCADE-Grande is the LOPES experiment . LOPES consists of radio antennas and measures the radio emission of extensive air showers . KASCADE ( including all extensions ) stopped operation in 2013 , but a part of the detectors is still used in other experiments for cosmic-ray air showers , e.g. , LOFAR or Tunka .", "Albrecht effect The Albrecht effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase cloud lifetime and hence increase the amount of solar radiation reflected from clouds . Because it does not directly interact with incoming or outgoing radiation , it has an indirect effect on climate . Aerosol particles act as CCNs creating more droplets of a smaller size . These take more time to coalesce to raindrop size ( > 100μm ) , reducing precipitation efficiency and hence increasing the lifetime of the cloud . The increased scattering of incoming radiation leads to a cooling of -0.3 to -1.4 Wm − 2 . This effect is not as well understood as the Twomey effect . There are many other effects , indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects resulting in a large uncertainty in the radiative forcing due to aerosols .", "Akeno Giant Air Shower Array The Akeno Giant Air Shower Array ( AGASA ) is a very large surface array designed to study the origin of ultra-high-energy cosmic rays . It covers an area of 100 km2 and consists of 111 surface detectors and 27 muon detectors . Array experiments such as this one are used to detect air shower particles . The array is operated by the Institute for Cosmic Ray Research , University of Tokyo at the Akeno Observatory .", "Climatic Research Unit documents Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''", "Atmospheric electricity Atmospheric electricity is the study of electrical charges in the Earth 's atmosphere ( or that of another planet ) . The movement of charge between the Earth 's surface , the atmosphere , and the ionosphere is known as the global atmospheric electrical circuit . Atmospheric electricity is an interdisciplinary topic , involving concepts from electrostatics , atmospheric physics , meteorology and Earth science . Thunderstorms act as a giant battery in the atmosphere , charging up the ionosphere to about 400,000 volts with respect to the surface . This sets up an electric field throughout the atmosphere , which decreases with increase in altitude . Atmospheric ions created by cosmic rays and natural radioactivity move in the electric field , so a very small current flows through the atmosphere , even away from thunderstorms . Near the surface of the earth , the magnitude of the field is around 100 V/m . Atmospheric electricity involves both thunderstorms , which create lightning bolts to rapidly discharge huge amounts of atmospheric charge stored in storm clouds , and the continual electrification of the air due to ionization from cosmic rays and natural radioactivity , which ensure that the atmosphere is never quite neutral ." ]

[ "SeaLifeBase SeaLifeBase is a global online database of information about marine life . It aims to provide key information on the taxonomy , distribution and ecology of all marine species in the world apart from finfish . SeaLifeBase is in partnership with the WorldFish Center in Malaysia and the UBC Fisheries Centre at the University of British Columbia . Daniel Pauly is the principal investigator and it is coordinated by Maria Lourdes D. Palomares . , it included descriptions of 74,000 species , 47,700 common names , 12,400 pictures , and references to 31,700 works in the scientific literature . SeaLifeBase complements FishBase , which provides parallel information for finfish .", "Cross-validation (statistics) Cross-validation , sometimes called rotation estimation , is a model validation technique for assessing how the results of a statistical analysis will generalize to an independent data set . It is mainly used in settings where the goal is prediction , and one wants to estimate how accurately a predictive model will perform in practice . In a prediction problem , a model is usually given a dataset of known data on which training is run ( training dataset ) , and a dataset of unknown data ( or first seen data ) against which the model is tested ( testing dataset ) . The goal of cross validation is to define a dataset to `` test '' the model in the training phase ( i.e. , the validation dataset ) , in order to limit problems like overfitting , give an insight on how the model will generalize to an independent dataset ( i.e. , an unknown dataset , for instance from a real problem ) , etc. . One round of cross-validation involves partitioning a sample of data into complementary subsets , performing the analysis on one subset ( called the training set ) , and validating the analysis on the other subset ( called the validation set or testing set ) . To reduce variability , multiple rounds of cross-validation are performed using different partitions , and the validation results are averaged over the rounds . One of the main reasons for using cross-validation instead of using the conventional validation ( e.g. partitioning the data set into two sets of 70 % for training and 30 % for test ) is that there is not enough data available to partition it into separate training and test sets without losing significant modelling or testing capability . In these cases , a fair way to properly estimate model prediction performance is to use cross-validation as a powerful general technique . In summary , cross-validation combines ( averages ) measures of fit ( prediction error ) to derive a more accurate estimate of model prediction performance .", "They They is the third-person plural personal pronoun ( subjective case ) in Modern English . It can also be used with singular meaning , particularly in informal contexts , sometimes to avoid specifying the gender of the person referred to .", "ZFS ZFS is a combined file system and logical volume manager designed by Sun Microsystems . The features of ZFS include protection against data corruption , support for high storage capacities , efficient data compression , integration of the concepts of filesystem and volume management , snapshots and copy-on-write clones , continuous integrity checking and automatic repair , RAID-Z and native NFSv4 ACLs . The ZFS name is registered as a trademark of Oracle Corporation ; although it was briefly given the retrofitted expanded name `` Zettabyte File System '' , it is no longer considered an initialism . Originally , ZFS was proprietary , closed-source software developed internally by Sun as part of Solaris , with a team led by the CTO of Sun 's storage business unit and Sun Fellow , Jeff Bonwick . In 2005 , the bulk of Solaris , including ZFS , was licensed as open-source software under the Common Development and Distribution License ( CDDL ) , as the OpenSolaris project . ZFS became a standard feature of Solaris 10 in June 2006 . In 2010 , Oracle stopped the releasing of source code for new OpenSolaris and ZFS development , effectively forking their closed-source development from the open-source branch . In response , OpenZFS was created as a new open-source development umbrella project , aiming at bringing together individuals and companies that use the ZFS filesystem in an open-source manner ." ]

[ "The Gospel According to Larry The Gospel According to Larry is a `` coming of age '' political , romantic teen novel by Janet Tashjian that explores anti-consumerism . The introduction of the book is written from a point of view that makes it seem as though Josh Swensen is real and Janet Tashjian is simply the one who edited and published it . This quality gives the book a non-fiction feel .", "Discount points Discount points , also called mortgage points or simply points , are a form of pre-paid interest available in the United States when arranging a mortgage . One point equals one percent of the loan amount . By charging a borrower points , a lender effectively increases the yield on the loan above the amount of the stated interest rate . Borrowers can offer to pay a lender points as a method to reduce the interest rate on the loan , thus obtaining a lower monthly payment in exchange for this up-front payment . For each point purchased , the loan rate is typically reduced by anywhere from 1/8 % ( 0.125 % ) to 1/4 % ( 0.25 % ) . Selling the property or refinancing prior to this break-even point will result in a net financial loss for the buyer while keeping the loan for longer than this break-even point will result in a net financial savings for the buyer . The longer you keep the property financed under the loan with purchased points , the more the money spent on the points will pay off . Accordingly , if the intention is to buy and sell the property or refinance in a rapid fashion , paying points is actually going to end up costing more than just paying the loan at the higher interest rate . Points may also be purchased to reduce the monthly payment for the purpose of qualifying for a loan . Loan qualification based on monthly income versus the monthly loan payment may sometimes only be achievable by reducing the monthly payment through the purchasing of points to buy down the interest rate , thereby reducing the monthly loan payment . Discount points may be different from origination fee , mortgage arrangement fee or broker fee . Discount points are always used to buy down the interest rates , while origination fees sometimes are fees the lender charges for the loan or sometimes just another name for buying down the interest rate . Origination fee and discount points are both items listed under lender-charges on the HUD-1 Settlement Statement . The difference in savings over the life of the loan can make paying points a benefit to the borrower . If you intend to stay in your home for an extended period of time , it may be worthwhile to pay additional points in order to obtain a lower interest rate . Any significant changes in fees should be re-disclosed in the final good faith estimate ( GFE ) . Also directly related to points is the concept of the ` no closing cost loan ' , in which the consumer accepts a higher interest rate in return for the lender paying the loan 's closing costs up front . In some cases purchaser can negotiate with the seller to get them to pay seller 's points which can to pay mortgage points .", "Eyes of Fate Eyes of Fate is a 1933 British sports fantasy film directed by Ivar Campbell and starring Allan Jeayes , Valerie Hobson and Terence De Marney . It is a quota quickie , made at Shepperton Studios . It is also known by the alternative title of All the Winners . A bookmaker seems to have struck it lucky when he comes across a newspaper containing the next day 's horse racing results , but the paper also contains some more unsettling news .", "Interest Project An Interest Project was an earned award for the Cadette and Senior levels of Girl Scouts of the USA . In the Fall of 2011 , a new program was introduced and Interest Projects were retired . They were earned through completing skill-building activities and certain requirements . Each Interest Project comes as a patch or badge and each represent an achievement in a different area such as camping or first aid . The badges are sewn onto the bottom left and right sections of the vest and the lower half of the sash uniform parts .", "Lonnie Brooks Lonnie Brooks ( born Lee Baker Jr. , December 18 , 1933 -- April 1 , 2017 ) was an American blues singer and guitarist . The musicologist Robert Palmer , writing in Rolling Stone , stated , `` His music is witty , soulful and ferociously energetic , brimming with novel harmonic turnarounds , committed vocals and simply astonishing guitar work . '' Jon Pareles , a music critic for the New York Times , wrote , `` He sings in a rowdy baritone , sliding and rasping in songs that celebrate lust , fulfilled and unfulfilled ; his guitar solos are pointed and unhurried , with a tone that slices cleanly across the beat . Wearing a cowboy hat , he looks like the embodiment of a good-time bluesman . '' Howard Reich , a music critic for the Chicago Tribune , wrote , '' ... the music that thundered from Brooks ' instrument and voice ... shook the room . His sound was so huge and delivery so ferocious as to make everything alongside him seem a little smaller . ''", "Rule of 72 In finance , the rule of 72 , the rule of 70 and the rule of 69.3 are methods for estimating an investment 's doubling time . The rule number ( e.g. , 72 ) is divided by the interest percentage per period to obtain the approximate number of periods ( usually years ) required for doubling . Although scientific calculators and spreadsheet programs have functions to find the accurate doubling time , the rules are useful for mental calculations and when only a basic calculator is available . These rules apply to exponential growth and are therefore used for compound interest as opposed to simple interest calculations . They can also be used for decay to obtain a halving time . The choice of number is mostly a matter of preference : 69 is more accurate for continuous compounding , while 72 works well in common interest situations and is more easily divisible . There are a number of variations to the rules that improve accuracy . For periodic compounding , the exact doubling time for an interest rate of r percent per period is , where t is the number of periods required . The formula above can be used for more than calculating the doubling time . If one wants to know the tripling time , for example , simply replace the constant 2 in the numerator with 3 . As another example , if one wants to know the number of periods it takes for the initial value to rise by 50 % , replace the constant 2 with 1.5 .", "CU-SeeMe CU-SeeMe ( also written as CUseeMe or CUSeeMe depending on the source ) is an Internet videoconferencing client . CU-SeeMe can make point to point video calls without a server or make multi-point calls through server software first called a `` reflector '' and later called a `` conference server '' or Multipoint Control Unit ( MCU ) . Later commercial versions of CU-SeeMe could also make point-to-point or multi-point calls to other vendor 's standards-based H. 323 endpoints and servers .", "Ghost deer The ghost deer is supposedly an animal , or cryptid , that lives in the canyons of Mount Eddy in northern California . According to legend , when shot at , bullets will fly right through the deer , or miss it . The `` animal '' also seems to appear and disappear with no traces of it . Attempts have been made to track its prints , only to find that they simply `` end '' at one point .", "Crepuscular rays Crepuscular rays -LSB- krɪ-ˈpʌskjᵿlər -RSB- ( also known as sunbeams , sun rays , angel lights or God rays ) , in atmospheric optics , are rays of sunlight that appear to radiate from the point in the sky where the sun is located . These rays , which stream through gaps in clouds ( particularly stratocumulus ) or between other objects , are columns of sunlit air separated by darker cloud-shadowed regions . Despite seeming to converge at a point , the rays are in fact near-parallel shafts of sunlight , and their apparent convergence is a perspective effect ( similar , for example , to the way that parallel railway lines seem to converge at a point in the distance ) . The name comes from their frequent occurrences during twilight hours ( those around dawn and dusk ) , when the contrasts between light and dark are the most obvious . Crepuscular comes from the Latin word `` crepusculum '' , meaning twilight .", "Making Connections Survey The Making Connections Survey ( MCS ) is a neighborhood-based , longitudinal and cross-sectional survey funded by the Annie E. Casey Foundation ( AECF ) . It serves as an evaluation of a larger AECF-supported initiative and was designed to collect data measuring how neighborhood change affects the well-being of children . The Making Connections Survey was conducted by NORC at the University of Chicago between 2002 and 2011 with residents in ten low-income communities across the United States . The final survey dataset includes responses from roughly 28,000 interviews at three points in time .", "Sandy Point, Bahamas Sandy Point is a fast growing community at the tip of southwest Abaco Bahamas . The first indication of its growth is the `` Sandy Point Airport '' which you 'll see on your arrival by land or private plane . As of yet it is not part of any regular scheduled carrier . Seems others feel this areas potential as there are 3-4 major new developments from planned to completed , which you 'll pass in route from Marsh Harbour . There is a brand new police station . The annual `` Homecoming and Conch Fest '' is this towns major happening . It 's held around Bahamian Labour Day the first Friday in June . You can call it an Abaco event , as folks come from all over the island even as far as Coopers Town ( 100 miles away ) . In Sandy Point , is a small settlement with a few shops a couple churches and a couple bonefish lodges . It seems however all streets wind up at a restaurant and bar called Nancy 's . It 's a friendly fun joint . You 'll often see a group of young men and women on the porch having lunch or dinner whom work for Disney . In the 1990s , Disney bought Gorda Cay , renamed it Castaway Island and made it their pit stop `` Island in the Sun '' for their cruise ships folks . Most of its employees live in Sandy Point . There is no public access for tourists from shore . Also off shore and a little more to the north , lies the Abaco island that some say time forgot , Moore 's Island . It has two settlements `` Hard Bargain '' and `` The Bight '' . Lastly , Hole-in-the-Wall , which is the site of Abaco 's other light house , may seem nearby but should be a trip unto itself and only in a 4-wheel vehicle when coming from Marsh Harbour .", "We All Want the Same Things We All Want the Same Things is the third studio album by Craig Finn . It was released on Partisan Records on March 24 , 2017 . The title comes from a line in the song `` God in Chicago '' . Craig Finn said , `` It seems like a bit of dark humor in these turbulent political times , but it also rings true : No matter our differences , we all have some very basic wants and needs that line up with each other . ''", "Point Au Fer Reef Light The Point Au Fer Reef Light was a lighthouse built in 1916 on Eugene Island in Atchafalaya Bay , Louisiana to mark a new channel across Point Au Feu Reef . It replaced Southwest Reef Light as the entrance light for the Atchafalaya River . The light was deactivated and replaced by a skeleton tower in 1975 . The Coast Guard then offered it to the South Lafourche Cultural and Historical Society , which declined , so the Coast Guard burned it down .", "Elevator pitch An elevator pitch , elevator speech or elevator statement is a short sales pitch , that is , a summary used to quickly and simply define a process , product , service , organization , or event and its value proposition . The name ` elevator pitch ' reflects the idea that it should be possible to deliver the summary in the time span of an elevator ride , or approximately thirty seconds to two minutes and is widely credited to Ilene Rosenzweig and Michael Caruso ( while he was editor for Vanity Fair ) for its origin . The term itself comes from a scenario of an accidental meeting with someone important in the elevator . If the conversation inside the elevator in those few seconds is interesting and value adding , the conversation will either continue after the elevator ride , or end in exchange of business cards or a scheduled meeting . A variety of people , including project managers , salespeople , evangelists , and policy-makers , commonly rehearse and use elevator pitches to get their points across quickly .", "Coming Up (TV series) Coming Up is a British Channel 4 television series of films made for television by new directors and writers . The first series was in 2006 , and each year 's series comprises seven or eight films . Series 6 was shown from July to September 2011 . A reviewer in The Independent wrote : `` Thank goodness for Coming Up ... it 's a genuinely interesting display of possibilities '' .", "Colobraro Colobraro is a town and comune in the province of Matera , in the southern Italian region of Basilicata . The town is positioned on a high hill dominating the valley of river Sinni near the town of Valsinni . The hamlet is known as the `` village without name '' : its name is considered bringer of bad luck in the towns around , where Colobraro is usually mentioned in the local dialects simply as chillu paese , cudd ' puaise or chill ' pais , all simply meaning `` that village '' . This notoriety , which has in recent years spread all over Italy , began during the first decades of the 20th century and seems to have been sparked by a story concerning a famous lawyer from the town , Biagio Virgilio , who one day in court to stress a point exclaimed : `` If what I say is false , may this chandelier come down '' . Alas , the chandelier did come down , and Virgilio became synonymous with bad omens , giving birth to the hex upon the town .", "Semble Semble is an Norman French word meaning `` it seems or appears to be '' or , more simply , `` it seems '' .", "Appalachian String Band Music Festival The Appalachian String Band Music Festival ( often referred to simply as `` Clifftop '' ) is a weeklong gathering of thousands of string band musicians and their friends from across the country and around the world , who each year since 1990 have assembled near the New River Gorge in West Virginia in late July/early August to celebrate the evolving tradition of old-time music and the community of people who keep it thriving by preserving and contributing to that tradition .", "European Geoparks Network The European Geoparks Network , also known as the EGN , is a trans-national partnership of Geoparks across Europe formed in 2000 to provide mutual support to established and prospective Geoparks across the continent . The Madonie Agreement of 2004 provided that all Geoparks recognised by the EGN were also to be members of the UNESCO Global Network of National Geoparks , sometimes referred to as the GGN . The EGN was established in 2000 with just four member Geoparks . It has grown to the point that by November 2014 there were 64 Geoparks in 22 countries across Europe . Member Geoparks of the EGN aim to achieve sustainable economic growth in their designated areas by making the most of their cultural , geological and wider natural heritage not least through developing geo-tourism . Members of the Network meet at different Geopark venues twice a year to debate matters of common interest , to elect new member Geoparks and to revalidate existing members . At the start of each summer , the EGN also promotes ` European Geoparks Week ' - a celebration of Geoparks across Europe which , in individual Geoparks , may be manifest as ~ Geopark Fortnight or ~ Festival .", "Hanover Finance Hanover Finance was a New Zealand non-bank finance company that focused on lending for high-risk property development that failed in 2010 under the leadership of Mark Hotchin . At the time of its failure it was the largest finance company in New Zealand . The Hanover Group also had interests in property and was responsible for developing Matarangi Beach Estates and golf course , and acquired completed lots at the Jacks Point property sub-division in Queenstown . The Group also had property and finance interests in Australia .", "America/Bahia America/Bahia is a time zone identifier from zone file of the IANA time zone database . The data is as follows : America/Bahia The reference point is Salvador , Bahia also simply called Bahia .", "Rainbow Road (novel) Rainbow Road is the third in a trilogy by Alex Sánchez ; the first two books are Rainbow Boys and Rainbow High respectively . The three main characters Nelson , Kyle , and Jason , are on a road trip told from the point of view from each one of them the summer after they graduate from high school . It is the last time they will see each other before going off to college . They travel across the country so Jason can speak at a high school about coming out to his town and team on TV . They find a lot on the way , from a transgender Britney Spears look-alike to a gay seven-year-old named Esau .", "Suicaine Gratifaction Suicaine Gratifaction is the third solo album from former The Replacements leader Paul Westerberg . Co-producer Don Was had admired Westerberg for years . He used Westerberg 's solo debut , 14 Songs , as daily inspiration while producing the Rolling Stones ' Voodoo Lounge . Westerberg once claimed that he had originally been interested in working with Quincy Jones . Regarding the album 's strange title , Westerberg said , `` I do n't want to think about it too deeply other than the fact that it seems wrong , and therefore it 's attractive to me . '' The piano solo in the middle of `` Born for Me '' is the subject of a chapter within Nick Hornby 's Songbook , where its simply played , undemonstrative character , of a piece with the song as a whole , is contrasted with virtuosic solos that use the underlying song as a jumping-off point to some unrelated destination .", "List of points of interest in Albuquerque, New Mexico The following is a list of points of interest in Albuquerque , New Mexico for which there are articles in English Wikipedia :", "Real Life with Jane Pauley Real Life with Jane Pauley was a newsmagazine television program aired in the United States by NBC from 1990 to 1991 . Real Life with Jane Pauley seemed to be presented as an answer to both critics and members of the general public to the frequently-repeated viewpoint that `` television news never seems to show anything positive '' . Real Life focused on positive , human interest-type stories and occasional celebrity profiles . Jane Pauley also presented less uplifting but still-lightweight features as well , such as a feature focusing on how less than 20 % of the people who owned VCRs at the time actually knew how to program them . Boyd Matson was also featured as a correspondent ; his reports featured stories on out of the way places . Real Life with Jane Pauley began as an hour-long program aired on Tuesday nights in the summer of 1990 . It was put on hiatus in September of that year , returning in January 1991 as a mid-season replacement . At this time it was reduced to a half hour , the length it was to remain throughout the balance of its run . The last broadcast was on November 1 , 1991 . Although the series was one of over a dozen attempts by NBC to launch a newsmagazine , Pauley and the network prevailed in 1992 with Dateline NBC .", "Astroid An astroid is a particular mathematical curve : a hypocycloid with four cusps . Specifically , it is the locus of a point on a circle as it rolls inside a fixed circle with four times the radius . By double generation , it is also the locus of a point on a circle as it rolls inside a fixed circle with 4/3 times the radius . It can also be defined as the envelope of a line segment with an end point on each of the axes . It is therefore the envelope of the moving bar in the Trammel of Archimedes . Its modern name comes from the Greek word for `` star '' . It was proposed , originally in the form of `` Astrois '' , by Joseph Johann von Littrow in 1838 . The curve had a variety of names , including tetracuspid ( still used ) , cubocycloid , and paracycle . It is nearly identical in form to the evolute of an ellipse .", "Algiers Point Algiers Point is a location on the Lower Mississippi River in New Orleans , Louisiana . In river pilotage , Algiers Point is simply one of the many points of land around which the river flows -- albeit a significant one . Since the 1970s , the name Algiers Point has also referred to the neighborhood in the immediate vicinity of that point .", "1/100 Regularity Rally The 1/100 regularity rally is a typically European format of regularity rally often for classic cars . As with other regularity rallies , the aim is not to be the fastest but rather to stay on the prescribed time across all timed checkpoints . Accordingly , 1/100 regularity rallies carry a negligible risk of damage to the vehicles and participants . 1/100 regularity rallies are generally conducted on open , public roads alongside regular traffic , without the contestants knowing the route in advance . Teams usually take off at fixed intervals , creating a field that is spread along the course . The route is described in a roadbook sign by sign , to be deciphered by the navigator . In addition to having to adhere to the prescribed arrival times to the timed checkpoints , the route is also sprinkled with 1/100 challenges - where the denomination of the rally comes from . 1/100 challenges are special tasks between ordinary stages of the rally , timed to the accuracy of 1/100 second ( 0.01 s ) . The roadbook will usually include a chart with the layout for each challenge with their prescribed completion times , and competitors would receive penalty points for every 0.01 s too early or too late across the finish line .", "Benjamin Flounders Benjamin Flounders ( 17 June 1768 -- 19 April 1846 ) was a prominent English Quaker with business interests in key new industries and developments at the time of the Mid-Industrial Revolution , such as The Stockton and Darlington Railway ( of which he was a founding Director ) and new canals in his native North-East England ; he operated his own family businesses very successfully with large interests in timber for shipbuilding ( at the time of the War with France ) , also owning two linen mills and large estates in places as diverse as Egham , Surrey and Glasgow . He was it seems , for all of his life , a hard working , astute and forward thinking man of independent means . He was born at Crathorne in 1768 , and educated at Ackworth School , Leeds .", "Les Champs magnétiques Les Champs magnétiques ( The Magnetic Fields ) is a book by André Breton and Philippe Soupault . It is famed as the first work of literary Surrealism . Published in 1920 , the authors used a surrealist automatic writing technique . The book is considered Surrealist , rather than Dadaist , because it attempts to create something new rather than react to an existing work . Les Champs magnetiques is characterised by rich textured language that often seems to border on the nonsensical . This is considered a `` normal '' result of automatic writing and is considerably more logical than the output from other Surrealist techniques , such as `` exquisite corpse '' ( a method whereby each of a group of collaborators , in sequence , adds words or images to a composition ) . A typical paragraph in ( an English-language version of ) Les Champs magnetiques is : It was the end of sorrow lies . The rail stations were dead , flowing like bees stung from honeysuckle . The people hung back and watched the ocean , animals flew in and out of focus . The time had come . Yet king dogs never grow old -- they stay young and fit , and someday they might come to the beach and have a few drinks , a few laughs , and get on with it . But not now . The time had come ; we all knew it . But who would go first ? The division between chapters was the point where the writers stopped writing at the end of the day . The next chapter was started the following morning . Breton gave many interviews about the creation of the book .", "Glan Pibwr Stream Section Glan Pibwr Stream Section is a Site of Special Scientific Interest in Carmarthen & Dinefwr , Wales . Datasets for various species associated with this area , under a variety of designations , are available .", "New Altstadt Church The New Altstadt Church ( Neue Altstädtische Kirche ) , also known simply as Altstadt Church , was a Protestant church in the Altstadt quarter of Königsberg , Germany . It was built as a replacement for the dismantled medieval Altstadt Church ." ]

[ "Scientific consensus on climate change There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "Abrupt climate change An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth ." ]

[ "Shadow Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change The Shadow Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change is a post in the Official Opposition Shadow Cabinet . The Shadow Secretary helps hold the Energy and Climate Change Secretary and junior ministers to account and is the lead spokesperson on energy and climate change issues for his or her party . Should the relevant party take office , the Shadow Secretary would be a likely candidate to become Energy Secretary . A previous Official Opposition post of Shadow Secretary of State for Energy existed until the Department of Energy was merged into the Department of Trade and Industry ( DTI ) in 1992 . In 2008 , the Department for Energy and Climate Change was split from the DTI 's successor department , effectively reviving the former department and the need for an Opposition shadow . Following Theresa May 's appointment as Prime Minister in July 2016 , the department was disbanded and merged with the Department for Business , Innovation and Skills to form the Department for Business , Energy and Industrial Strategy , with the consequent ending of this shadow post .", "Ottmar Edenhofer Ottmar Georg Edenhofer ( born in 8 July 1961 in Gangkofen , Lower Bavaria , Germany ) is one of the world 's leading experts on climate change policy , environmental and energy policy , and energy economics . Edenhofer currently holds the professorship of the Economics of Climate Change at the Technical University of Berlin . He is deputy director and chief economist of the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research ( PIK ) as well as director of the Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change ( MCC ) . From 2008 to 2015 he served as one of the co-chairs of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group III `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . Among other functions , he is a member of the OECD Advisory Council `` Growth , Investment and the Low-Carbon Transition '' , a member of the High-Level Commission on Carbon Prices , a member of the Advisory Committee of the Green Growth Knowledge Platform ( GGKP ) , and a member of the German Academy of Science and Engineering ( acatech ) .", "European Climate Foundation The European Climate Foundation is an international organisation whose aims are to promote climate and energy policies that it says would greatly reduce Europe 's greenhouse gas emissions and to help Europe play a stronger international leadership role in mitigating climate change . According to the grop , key elements of a sustainable energy future include : A substantial increase in energy efficiency A successful transition from conventional to renewable energy Maintenance of the earth 's ecological systems and the life-supporting services they provide Equitable distribution of energy services to different segments of the population , both internationally and within nations . The European Climate Foundation is funded by the Nationale Postcode Loterij , The Arcadia Fund , The Children 's Investment Fund Foundation , The ClimateWorks Foundation , The McCall MacBain Foundation , Oak Foundation , The Stordalen Foundation and The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation .", "Renewable energy in the Philippines Renewable energy accounts for 26.44 % of the total electrical energy needs in the Philippines , according to a 2013 survey . Renewable energy sources provided 19,903 gigawatt-hours of electrical energy out of a total need of 75,266 gigawatt-hours in 2013 . There are five main types of renewable energy used in the Philippines , hydropower , geothermal power , wind power , solar power and biomass power . There has been pressure to increase the Philippines ' usage of renewable energy sources in recent years due to the negative effects of fossil fuels -- such as pollution , accelerated climate change and fluctuating prices . A number of laws have been passed by the Philippine Congress to support the use of renewable energy including the Electric Power Industry Reform Act ( 2001 ) , which promotes the use of local and sustainable energy sources to replace imported fossil fuel sources ; the Biofuels Act ( 2006 ) , which encourages the use of biomass fuels ; the Renewable Energy Act ( 2008 ) ; and the Climate Change Act ( 2009 ) , which provides a legal basis for the tackling of climate change through sustainable development . The laws enacted by Congress have resulted in a significant degree of cooperation from private companies producing renewable energy , many of which have contracts with the Philippine Government .", "Varun Sivaram Varun Sivaram is the Douglas Dillon fellow at the Council on Foreign Relations ( CFR ) , a nonpartisan foreign-policy think tank and membership organization . He is the acting director of the CFR program on energy security and climate change and an expert on clean energy technology , climate change , and sustainable urbanization .", "Environmental issues in Haiti Environmental issues in Haiti include a severe deforestation problem , overpopulation , a lack of sanitation , natural disasters , and food insecurity . A major reason for these environmental issues is that there is not sufficient protection or management of the country 's natural resources . Other environmental issues , such as decreases in precipitation and more severe natural disasters , will likely arise in Haiti as a result of climate change . Experts agree that Haiti needs to adopt new policies to address both the issues that already exist and to prepare for the effects of climate change .", "A Friend of the Earth T. Coraghessan Boyle 's novel A Friend of the Earth ( 2000 ) is a story of environmental destruction . The novel is set in 2025 ; as a result of global warming and the greenhouse effect , the climate has drastically changed , and , accordingly , biodiversity is a thing of the past .", "Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change Her Majesty 's Principal Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change was a British government cabinet position from 2008 to 2016 . The Department for Energy and Climate Change was created on 3 October 2008 when former Prime Minister Gordon Brown reshuffled his Cabinet . The Energy and Climate Change Secretary revived the earlier post of the Secretary of State for Energy as head of the Department of Energy , existing from 1974 to 1992 . After which , the Department of Energy was merged into the Department of Trade and Industry under the Conservative government of Sir John Major in 1992 . Sixteen years later , and immediately prior to the creation of the new department , energy policy was the responsibility of the Department for Business , Enterprise and Regulatory Reform ( itself now a defunct government department , superseded by the Department for Business , Innovation and Skills ) . In 2010 , Lord Marland was made Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State . On 3 February 2012 , Chris Huhne resigned from the post after it was announced that he would be prosecuted for perverting the course of justice , in relation to accusations that he passed on speeding penalties to his ex-wife to avoid losing his own licence . The post was taken over by Ed Davey on the same day . The post was formed into the new Department for Business , Energy and Industrial Strategy in July 2016 .", "Climate Capitalism Climate Capitalism : Capitalism in the Age of Climate Change is a 2011 book by L. Hunter Lovins and Boyd Cohen . It presents positive stories and examples of how profit-seeking companies are helping to save the planet , and says that `` the best way to rebuild America 's economy , cities and job markets is to invest in energy efficiency and renewable energy resources , whether climate change is happening or not '' . However , reviewer Gail Whiteman is unconvinced by the argument that naked greed and market forces will drive businesses to cut their greenhouse gas emissions .", "Center for Climate and Energy Solutions The Center for Climate and Energy Solutions ( C2ES ) is an environmental nonprofit organization based in Arlington , Virginia . Launched in 2011 , C2ES is the successor to the Pew Center on Global Climate Change . C2ES works closely with policymakers and stakeholders to promote pragmatic , effective policies at the state , national and international levels .", "Kirk R. Smith Kirk R. Smith is an expert on the health and climate effects of household energy use in developing nations . He is currently a professor of Global Environmental Health at the University of California , Berkeley , where his research focuses on the relationships among environmental quality , health , resource use , climate , development , and policy in developing countries . Smith contributed a great deal to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and the work of the IPCC ( including the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize . Smith is a recipient of the 2012 Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement for his work with cookstoves , health , and climate . He is also credited with designing and implementing the first randomized controlled trial of the health effects of indoor air pollution ( IAP ) from cookstoves .", "Energy in Ireland Energy in Ireland describes energy and electricity production , consumption and importing in the Republic of Ireland . The Department of Communications , Climate Change and Natural Resources ( Irish : An Roinn Cumarsáide , Athrú Aeráide agus Achmhainní Nádúrtha ) is a department of the Government of Ireland that is responsible for the telecommunications and broadcasting sectors and regulates , protects and develops the natural resources of Ireland . The head of the department is the Minister for Communications , Climate Change and Natural Resources who is assisted by one Minister of State . The Department of Communications , Climate Change and Natural Resources oversees the formulation and implementation of policies concerning Ireland 's coal , gas , peat , oil , electricity and renewable energy supply . The department strives to protect Ireland 's energy supply , generation , security , affordability and sustainability , and to ensure that Ireland complies with international energy and climate change policies .", "Prince's Rainforests Project The Prince 's Rainforests Project ( PRP ) was set up in the UK in 2007 by Charles , Prince of Wales following reports from leading climate change experts , including the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , to promote awareness of the urgent need to take action against tropical deforestation . The Prince of Wales has long been concerned about climate change and about how destruction of the world 's rainforests contributes to rising temperatures and sea levels . The project is working with governments , businesses and non-profit organisations around the world to quickly find solutions to deforestation , with the ambition of `` making the trees worth more alive than dead '' . On 5 May 2009 , The Prince 's Rainforests Project launched a global awareness campaign to improve understanding of the link between rainforests and climate change and the need for urgent action to stop deforestation in the run up to the climate change conference in Copenhagen in December 2009 . A number of celebrities worked with the PRP to promote the campaign . The Prince 's Rainforest Project is now a part of the International Sustainability Unit , which was also created by the Prince in relation to international deforestation .", "Shobhakar Dhakal Shobhakar Dhakal ( born in Nepal ) is the Head of Department of Energy , Environment and Climate Change at the Asian Institute of Technology , Thailand . His main areas of expertise are energy and climate change policies . Dhakal actively contributes to international and scientific arena . He was the Coordinating Lead Author of the Nobel Prize winning 5th Mitigation Assessment Report written by the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change ( released in April 2014 ) for the Chapter on Human Settlements , Infrastructure and Spatial Planning .", "Effects of climate change on island nations Climate change is producing drastic changes to Earth processes and changing Earth 's environmental status quo . Especially pertinent to human development is the threat of climate change on island nations . As sea levels continue to rise , island peoples and cultures are being threatened . As the former President of the Republic of the Marshall Islands , Christopher Loeak , noted `` In the last year alone , my country has suffered through unprecedented droughts in the north , and the biggest ever king tides in the south ; and we have watched the most devastating typhoons in history leave a trail of death and destruction across the region . '' Efforts to combat theses environmental changes are ongoing and multinational . Particularly notable is the adoption of the Paris agreement at the UN Climate Summit in Paris in 2015 , which by no means an unqualified success , is certainly a step in the right direction in regards to fighting the effects of climate by aiming to slow the pace of global warming .", "Climate change in Pakistan Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "Michael Schlesinger Dr. Michael Earl Schlesinger ( born February 23 , 1943 ) is a Professor of Atmospheric Sciences and director of the Climate Research Group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign . He received his Ph.D. ( meteorology ) in 1976 from the University of California , Los Angeles . Michael Schlesinger is an expert in the modeling , simulation and analysis of climate and climate change , with interests in simulating and understanding the climates of the geologic past and possible future climates resulting from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases and human-made aerosols . He has been instrumental in developing a range of simple and complex climate models , which have been used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Energy Modeling Forum . His research currently focuses on : ( 1 ) simulating and understanding the effects on climate of a human-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet ; ( 2 ) simulating and understanding the coupled climate-chemistry system , including the influences of the Sun - both irradiance and energetic electron precipitation - and volcanoes ; ( 3 ) understanding and reducing the uncertainty in the estimation of climate sensitivity and climate feedbacks ; and ( 4 ) performing integrative assessment of climate change , including further development of the robust adaptive decision strategy for mitigating and adapting to human-induced climate change . He is known for his work on oscillations in the global climate system , on estimating the climate sensitivity , and on seasonal climate change . He has edited four books , most recently Human-induced climate change : An interdisciplinary assessment . He regularly appears in the media .", "100% renewable energy The endeavor to use 100 % renewable energy for electricity , heating and cooling , and transport is motivated by global warming , pollution and other environmental issues , as well as economic and energy security concerns . Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system . In 2013 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand . Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates anticipated . In 2014 , renewable sources such as wind , geothermal , solar , biomass , and burnt waste provided 19 % of the total energy consumed worldwide , with roughly half of that coming from traditional use of biomass . The most important sector is electricity with a renewable share of 22.8 % , most of it coming from hydropower with a share of 16.6 % , followed by wind with 3.1 % . There are many places around the world with grids that are run almost exclusively on renewable energy . At the national level , at least 30 nations already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 % of the energy supply . Professors S. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow of Princeton University have developed a series of `` Climate stabilization wedges '' that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change , and `` renewable energy sources , '' in aggregate , constitute the largest number of their `` wedges . '' Mark Z. Jacobson , professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy program , says that producing all new energy with wind power , solar power , and hydropower by 2030 is feasible , and that existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050 . Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be `` primarily social and political , not technological or economic '' . Jacobson says that energy costs today with a wind , solar , and water system should be similar to today 's energy costs from other optimally cost-effective strategies . The main obstacle against this scenario is the lack of political will . Similarly , in the United States , the independent National Research Council has noted that `` sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change , energy security , and the escalation of energy costs ... Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States , taken collectively , can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand . '' The main barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low-carbon energy strategies are political rather than technological . According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report , which reviewed many international studies , the key roadblocks are : climate change denial , the fossil fuels lobby , political inaction , unsustainable energy consumption , outdated energy infrastructure , and financial constraints .", "Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration The Committee on Climate Change Science and Technology Integration was created as part of the Clear Skies Initiative in February 2002 by George W. Bush , as a Cabinet-level effort to coordinate climate change science and technology research . The White House says : `` The Secretary of Commerce and Secretary of Energy will lead the effort , in close coordination with the President 's Science Advisor . The research effort will continue to be coordinated through the National Science and Technology Council in accordance with the Global Change Research Act of 1990 . ''", "Climate Finance Climate finance refers to financing channeled by national , regional and international entities for climate change mitigation and adaptation projects and programs . They include climate specific support mechanisms and financial aid for mitigation and adaptation activities to spur and enable the transition towards low-carbon , climate-resilient growth and development through capacity building , R&D and economic development . The term has been used in a narrow sense to refer to transfers of public resources from developed to developing countries , in light of their UN Climate Convention obligations to provide `` new and additional financial resources , '' and in a wider sense to refer to all financial flows relating to climate change mitigation and adaptation . Finance is sourced from public , private and public-private sectors and can be channelled through various intermediaries , notably BFIs , MFIs , development cooperation agencies , the UNFCCC ( various funds including those managed by the Global Environment Facility ) , non-governmental organisations and the private sector . The financials flows can flow from developed to developing countries ( North-South ) , from developing to developing countries ( South-South ) , from developed to developed countries ( North-North ) and domestic climate finance flows in developed and developing countries . According to the Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment Report 2011 , investments in renewable energy in 2010 reached a record of USD 211 billion ( not including large hydropower ) . These amounts far exceed existing dedicated resources and those proposed under the developed world at the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) Cancún Agreements . The estimations for the needed financing for climate change vary according to the geographic , sectorial and activity coverage , timescale and phasing , target and the underlying assumptions . The 2010 the World Development Report preliminary estimates of financing needs for mitigation and adaptation activities in developing countries range from USD 140-175 billion per year for mitigation over the next 20 years with associated financing needs of USD 265-565 billion and USD30 -- 100 billion a year over the period 2010 - 2050 for adaptation . The International Energy Agency 's 2011 World Energy Outlook ( WEO ) estimates that in order to meet growing demand for energy through 2035 , USD 16.9 trillion in new investment for new power generation is projected , with renewable energy ( RE ) comprising 60 % of the total . The capital required to meet projected energy demand through 2030 amounts to $ 1.1 trillion per year on average , distributed ( almost evenly ) between the large emerging economies ( China , India , Brazil , etc. ) and including the remaining developing countries .", "Energy and Climate Change Select Committee The Energy and Climate Change Select Committee was a select committee of the House of Commons in the Parliament of the United Kingdom that came into existence on 1 January 2009 .", "Paul J. Crutzen Paul Jozef Crutzen ( -LSB- pʌul ˈjoːzəf ˈkrɵtsə ( n ) -RSB- ; born 3 December 1933 ) is a Dutch , Nobel Prize-winning , atmospheric chemist . He is known for work on climate change research and for popularizing the term Anthropocene to describe a proposed new era when human actions have a drastic effect on the Earth .", "2015 Speed Energy Formula Off-Road season The 2015 Speed Energy Formula Off-Road presented By Traxxas season was the third season of the Speed Energy Formula Off-Road series , and second with the name . Sheldon Creed won the championship .", "Fatima Denton Fatima Denton is the Co-ordinator for the African Climate Policy Centre ( ACPC ) of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa ( UNECA ) , based in Addis Ababa , Ethiopia . She directs a special initiatives division focused on innovation , science , technology and natural resource management . She partners with countries such as Benin and Liberia to develop and implement country needs assessment missions . Fatima Denton writes about topics including renewable energy , sustainable development , climate change , gender and climate change , climate change adaptation , vulnerability , food security and water and energy poverty . She is a lead author for Working Group II 's Fifth Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and for the IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation ( SRREN ) . She has served on a number of scientific committees including the Independent Science Panel ( ISP ) of the CGIAR Climate Change and Food Security Programme ( CCAFS ) . Denton was the 2015 Barbara Ward Lecturer , challenging policy-makers , researchers , and academics in London to reexamine Africa and its relationship to climate change . She is a speaker at the 2016 Borlaug Dialogue International Symposium , one of several `` Women Leaders Driving Agricultural Transformation in Africa '' .", "Fee and dividend Fee and Dividend or Carbon Fee and Dividend ( CF&D ) is a market-based mechanism for reducing the carbon emissions that help to drive anthropogenic climate change . Carbon Fee and Dividend begins with levying imposing a progressively-rising fee on carbon-based fuels , then returning some or all of the fees collected to the public as a regular energy dividend . This is intended to incentivize a shift to low-carbon energy while protecting consumers from any increases in the costs of carbon-based fuels . Designed to maintain or improve economic vitality while speeding the transition to a sustainable energy economy , Carbon Fee and Dividend has been proposed as an alternative to emission reduction mechanisms such as cap and trade or a straightforward carbon tax .", "Minister of State at the Department of Energy and Climate Change The position Minister of State at the Department of Energy and Climate Change was a junior ministerial position in the Government of the United Kingdom . Holders of this office deputised for the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change . When the DECC was dissolved in 2016 this office fell out of use .", "Climate Change Bill Climate Change Bill may refer to : American Clean Energy and Security Act The Bill for the Climate Change Act 2008", "Kinetic energy In physics , the kinetic energy of an object is the energy that it possesses due to its motion . It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its stated velocity . Having gained this energy during its acceleration , the body maintains this kinetic energy unless its speed changes . The same amount of work is done by the body in decelerating from its current speed to a state of rest . In classical mechanics , the kinetic energy of a non-rotating object of mass m traveling at a speed v is . In relativistic mechanics , this is a good approximation only when v is much less than the speed of light . The standard unit of kinetic energy is the joule .", "The Adaptation Fund The Adaptation Fund is an international fund that finances projects and programs aimed at helping developing countries to adapt to the harmful effects of climate change . It is set up under the Kyoto Protocol of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) .", "2017 Speed Energy Formula Off-Road season The 2017 Speed Energy Formula Off-Road presented By Traxxas season was the fifth season of the Speed Energy Formula Off-Road series , and fourth with the name .", "Climate Change TV Climate-ChangeTV was the world 's first web channel specific to climate change videos . It contains interviews from heads of state , government officials and negotiators , NGO 's , Civil Society and business professionals with a range of views on the climate change negotiations . It is hosted by Responding to Climate Change , an NGO and Official Observer to the United Nations Framework on the Convention on Climate Change RTCC provides a daily news and analysis service - following latest developments in climate policy , research and other aspects of the climate debate . In February this year they submitted a series of proposals to the UNFCCC on raising the ambition of the Durban Platform - which had been agreed at COP17 . The Studio is run for the UNFCCC at the annual COP . The interviews are hosted on RTCC and the UNFCCC 's studio portal . It provides for one-on-one video interviews with a wide array of stakeholders from civil society , intergovernmental organizations and party delegates . The studio provides a platform for discussing the effects of climate change , causes of global warming and possible solutions . It continues at COP17/CMP 7 after successfully running at COP15/CMP 5 in Copenhagen , and COP16/CMP 6 in Cancun . At the most recent COP , held in December 2011 , the Climate Change TV Studio was visited by UNFCCC Chief Executive Christiana Figueres , lead Netherlands negotiator Maas Goote , and UK Minister for energy and climate change Greg Barker , along with members of Oxfam and 350 . org .", "US Climate Symposium The US Climate Symposium ( also known as USCAN ( US Climate Action Network ) ) was established in 1989 by groups and organizations working towards fight and threat of global warming . The need for a forum for a joint strategy development and advocacy to effect change in a coordinated way at the state and local level as well as at the United Nations and in Washington , D.C." ]

[ "Heat wave A heat wave is a prolonged period of excessively hot weather , which may be accompanied by high humidity , especially in oceanic climate countries . While definitions vary , a heat wave is measured relative to the usual weather in the area and relative to normal temperatures for the season . Temperatures that people from a hotter climate consider normal can be termed a heat wave in a cooler area if they are outside the normal climate pattern for that area . The term is applied both to hot weather variations and to extraordinary spells of hot which may occur only once a century . Severe heat waves have caused catastrophic crop failures , thousands of deaths from hyperthermia , and widespread power outages due to increased use of air conditioning . A heat wave is considered extreme weather , and a danger because heat and sunlight may overheat the human body ." ]

[ "Arizona Heatwave The Arizona Heatwave were an American women 's soccer team , founded in 2003 , which played in the USL W-League for three years , until 2005 , when they left the league and the franchise was terminated . The Heatwave played their home games in the stadium at Sandra Day O'Connor High School in the city of Glendale , Arizona . The team 's colors were green and white .", "Disruption (adoption) Disruption is ending an adoption . While technically an adoption is disrupted only when it is abandoned by the adopting parent or parents before it is legally completed ( an adoption that is reversed after that point is instead referred to in the law as having been dissolved ) , in practice the term is used for all adoptions that are ended ( more recently , among families disrupting , the euphemism `` re-homing '' has become current ) . It is usually initiated by the parents via a court petition , much like a divorce , to which it is analogous . While rarely discussed in public , even within the adoption community , the practice has become far more widespread in recent years , especially among those parents who have adopted from Eastern European countries , particularly Russia and Romania , where some children have suffered far more from their institutionalization than their parents were led to believe .", "2002 India heat wave More than 1,030 people were killed in the 2002 heatwave in south India . Most of the dead were poor and elderly and a majority of deaths occurred in the southern state of Andhra Pradesh . In districts that were impacted most , the heat was so severe that ponds and rivers evaporated and in those same districts birds had fallen from the sky and animals were collapsing from the intense heat . It is said by officials to be the worst heat wave in four years . The relief commissioner of Andhra Pradesh , Rosaiah , said that the maximum number of 172 deaths related to heat took place in the East Godavari district . There were also 166 deaths in Prakasam and 144 deaths in West Godavari . Unusually high temperatures were detected across India during April of the year 2002 . In addition , this heat wave over northern zones of India lasted from the middle of April to the third week in May , thus , causing these fatalities . On May 10 the highest temperature recorded in the region of Gannavaram ( Vijayawada ) was 49 degrees Celsius ( 120.2 degrees Fahrenheit ) . According to the BBC News , `` Heatwaves are defined as periods of abnormally high temperatures and usually occur between March and June in India . May is the country 's hottest month , with an average maximum temperature of 41C ( 104F ) in Delhi . Longer , more severe heatwaves are becoming increasingly frequent globally . Intense heat can cause cramps , exhaustion and heat stroke . Thousands of people have died across India during heatwaves in 2002 and 2003 . '' The heatwaves also affected the northern states of Punjab , Haryana , Orissa and 100 people suffered from heat-related sickness . 2010 Indian heatwave", "Lynda Madaras Lynda Madaras is an educator and author . She has written a number of books on puberty including two ( What 's Happening to my Body ? Book for Girls : A Growing-Up Guide for Parents & Daughters , and What 's Happening to my Body ? Book for Boys : A Growing-Up Guide for Parents & Sons ) that are on the American Library Association 's list of 100 Most Frequently Challenged Books 1990-2000 . Her books have won numerous awards , including recognition as an American Library Association Best Books for Young Adults . She has one daughter , Area , and two granddaughters . Her other titles include My Body , My Self for Girls , My Body , My Self for Boys , Ready , Set , Grow ! , On Your Mark , Get Set , Grow ! , Womancare , Child 's Play , and The Alphabet Connection .", "Hadise discography This is the discography of Turkish pop singer-songwriter Hadise , who has released two studio albums . Hadise gained fame when she appeared on the Belgium Version of Pop idol . She later released her debut album , Sweat , and its lead single `` Sweat '' . It produced four more singles : `` Stir Me Up '' , the more successful `` Milk Chocolate Girl '' , `` Ai n't No Love Lost '' and `` Bad Boy '' . She then released her second studio album , `` Hadise '' , which has so far become more commercially successful than her previous album and has thus produced four singles : `` A Good Kiss '' , `` My Body '' , `` My Man and the Devil on His Shoulder '' and `` Deli Oğlan '' .", "2014 South-Eastern Australian heatwave The 2014 South-Eastern Australian Heatwave was a prolonged period of time in which highly unseasonal weather was recorded across the south and south-eastern corridor of mainland Australia . The heatwave commenced during early May , and was the longest ever recorded in Australia 's modern history , lasting in some places up to 15 days . Sydney , Melbourne and Adelaide were most hard hit , with temperatures in these areas breaking late Autumn records and causing a distinct lack of precipitation , especially in Sydney , Australia 's most populous city . The cause of this phenomenon was a large blocking High pressure system situated over the Tasman sea , which pushed usual Autumn cold fronts far south of the mainland .", "Nurturant parent model The nurturant parent model is a parenting style which envisions a family model where children are expected to explore their surroundings , while being protected by their parents . This model believes that children inherently know what they need and should be allowed to explore their environment . The parents are responsible for protecting their child during this exploration , including protecting their child from serious mistakes , by offering guidance . A child will be picked up if the child cries because the parent wants the child to feel safe and nurtured . If a child grows up believing that its needs will be met , it will be more confident when facing challenges . Ideas involved in this model include : True discipline is not a matter of strict obedience , but of respect and compassion The world is no more inherently hostile than it is inherently friendly ; it merely commands respect Respect and compassion can only be taught by example", "Haar Jeet (TV series) Haar Jeet was an Indian drama aired on Imagine TV . It premiered on 3 October 2011 and finished on 12 April 2012 . When children become a source of income ... it is the childhood that gets lost . Parents always dream that their children should grow up to be successful . It brings them a great sense of joy to see their children doing well . But sometimes the parent 's dream can turn into a nightmare for the children . Parents become pushy and start living their dreams through their children . Worse , they push the child towards success so that they can personally benefit from it . Nowhere is this more stark than in the glamorous world of TV .", "Dust devil A dust devil is a strong , well-formed , and relatively long-lived whirlwind , ranging from small ( half a meter wide and a few meters tall ) to large ( more than 10 meters wide and more than 1000 meters tall ) . The primary vertical motion is upward . Dust devils are usually harmless , but can on rare occasions grow large enough to pose a threat to both people and property . They are comparable to tornadoes in that both are a weather phenomenon of a vertically oriented rotating column of wind . Most tornadoes are associated with a larger parent circulation , the mesocyclone on the back of a supercell thunderstorm . Dust devils form as a swirling updraft under sunny conditions during fair weather , rarely coming close to the intensity of a tornado .", "2014 Adelaide heatwave The 2014 Adelaide heatwave was a heat wave that occurred in Adelaide , South Australia in both January and February 2014 . The heatwaves were so strong that it broke records , becoming the hottest summer ever recorded in Adelaide . Although there were no deaths directly linked to the heatwave as of 2015 , there were at least 136 heat-related hospital admissions recorded .", "Sibling rivalry Sibling rivalry is a type of competition or animosity among siblings , whether blood related or not . Siblings generally spend more time together during childhood than they do with parents . The sibling bond is often complicated and is influenced by factors such as parental treatment , birth order , personality , and people and experiences outside the family . Sibling rivalry is particularly intense when children are very close in age and of the same gender and/or where one or both children are intellectually gifted .", "Elizabeth Fishel Elizabeth Fishel is a journalist and author . In 2013 , Fishel published her fifth book , coauthored with Jeffrey Arnett , Getting To 30 : A Parent 's Guide to the 20-Something Years ( Workman , originally titled , When Will My Grown-Up Kid Grow Up ? ) In 2000 , Fishel published a book profiling 10 of her classmates from the class of 1968 at Brearley School titled Reunion : The Girls We Used to Be , the Women We Became . Her book I Swore I 'd Never Do That ! was awarded `` Best Parenting Book '' by Parent 's Choice Award in 1991 . Earlier books include Sisters ( 1979 , reissued in 1997 ) and The Men In Our Lives ( 1985 ) . Fishel has also written for various magazines and newspapers , including Oprah 's O , Vogue , Good Housekeeping , More , Redbook , Parents , Ms. , Parenting , The New York Times Book Review and the San Francisco Chronicle . She presently lives in Oakland , California with her spouse , Robert Houghteling . They have two sons .", "Growing Up Straight (1968 book) Growing Up Straight : What Every Thoughtful Parent Should Know About Homosexuality is a 1968 guide for parents , by Peter and Barbara Wyden , on how to prevent their children from becoming homosexual .", "Cleveland Street Intensive English High School Cleveland Street Intensive English High School ( abbreviated to CSIEHS ) is an ESL High School located in the inner-Sydney suburb of Surry Hills , New South Wales , Australia and operated by the New South Wales Department of Education and Communities . The school provides intensive English language , settlement , orientation and welfare programs to secondary aged , newly arrived permanent , temporary resident and international students . Settlement support and partnership programs are provided for the school 's culturally and linguistically diverse parent community . The school 's student and parent community come from more than 30 language backgrounds other than English . Bilingual staff support student learning and parent programs . The school 's motto `` Harmony and Progress '' reflects the proactively inclusive education and welfare programs designed to enhance student resilience and achievement . The school was founded in 1856 , and was a general high school until 1977 , when the school was moved to Alexandria and later renamed Alexandria Park Community School . It is one of the oldest public schools in Australia still operating on its site . The site on Cleveland Street was then reworked as an annex of the school for newly arrived immigrants into Australia , then into its current form as an intensive English-language high school in 2001 .", "1914 Burdur earthquake The 1914 Burdur earthquake occurred at 00:07 local time ( 22:07 UTC ) on 4 October . It was estimated to be 7.0 on the surface wave magnitude scale with a maximum intensity of IX ( Violent ) on the Mercalli intensity scale . It was centered near Lake Burdur in southwestern Turkey and the mainshock and subsequent fire destroyed more than 17,000 homes , and caused 2,344 casualties . In Burdur nearly 100 percent of the homes were destroyed along with other significant and historical monuments . Kilinc was completely destroyed and in Keciborlu around 85 percent of the houses were lost . In the city of Isparta the great Mosque was destroyed along with more than half of the homes . Other villages were also impacted as far as 60 km from the epicenter . The earthquake , along with several others in 1959 and 1971 , occurred along the Fethiye-Burdur fault zone , a parallel and discontinuous series of fault segments . No unambiguous fault displacement has been found that is related to the event , but a 23 km portion of the southeast coast of Lake Burdur experienced subsidence of up to 150 cm and this may indicate that the event was due to normal faulting with a strike of N45 ° E.", "Sibling relationship Siblings play a unique role in one another 's lives that simulates the companionship of parents as well as the power and assistance of friends . Because siblings often grow up in the same household , they have a large amount of exposure to one another , like other members of the immediate family . However , though a sibling relationship can have both hierarchical and reciprocal elements , this relationship tends to be more egalitarian and symmetrical than with family members of other generations . Furthermore , sibling relationships often reflect the overall condition of cohesiveness within a family . Siblings generally spend more time with each other during childhood than they do with parents or anyone else , and sibling relationships are often the longest-lasting relationship in individuals ' lives .", "When I Grow Up (Matilda) `` When I Grow Up '' is a song from the musical Matilda . Its music and lyrics were written by Tim Minchin .", "Sibling abuse Sibling abuse ( or intersibling abuse ) is the physical , emotional , and/or sexual abuse of one sibling by another . Though several studies indicate that sibling abuse is far more common than other forms of family abuse , chronic maltreatment by siblings has only relatively recently become the subject of serious clinical study and concern . Sibling abuse is far less recognized than spousal or child abuse and is often considered less dangerous , although siblings who are a great deal larger and/or older than their younger counterparts may in fact be capable of lethal violence towards their victims . Sibling abuse is significantly more likely to occur in dysfunctional , neglectful and/or abusive homes , and often reflects a lack of appropriate boundaries and discipline on the part of the parents . In many cases , sibling abuse can occur as `` second hand abuse '' in which children who have been harmed or maltreated go on to harm siblings . A 1982 study found that of 60 % of children who witnessed their mothers abused by their fathers subsequently acted out the scene with their siblings . Similarly , those who witness abuse as children are more likely to abuse as adults : Malone and colleagues found that when children witnessed parental abuse they were more likely to behave abusively as adults , and that , contrary to common wisdom , girls from such families were more likely than boys to behave abusively towards partners as adults . The `` Cinderella effect '' , which is a conventional wisdom in the English-speaking world , holds that sibling abuse is more common between half-siblings or full step-siblings than genetic siblings .", "Heatwave! (1974 film) Heatwave ! is an American disaster movie that was broadcast on the ABC television network on January 26 , 1974 . It was an ABC Movie of the Week . Its running time was 90 minutes . The film was directed by Jerry Jameson , produced by Herbert F. Solow and Harve Bennett . The plot focuses upon the effect an intense and prolonged heat wave and water shortage has on Frank Taylor and his pregnant wife Laura Taylor , both while they are in the city where they live and after they decide to relocate .", "Heatwave's Greatest Hits Heatwave 's Greatest Hits is a greatest hits album by Heatwave released by Epic Records in 1984 . It features all of their biggest hits from all of their albums , with the lone exception of the Hot Property album , which all of its singles were omitted .", "Heatwave (album) Heatwave is the fifth album by Belgian RIO band Univers Zero . Released in 1986 , the album is a continued exploration of the Middle Eastern influences , which first appeared on Uzed . The instrumentation here is more electronic than in their previous works . The album was recorded and mixed by Didier de Roos at Daylight Studio , Brussels . The album is unusual among Univers Zero albums in that drummer/bandleader Daniel Denis did not write the majority of the material . Keyboardist Andy Kirk takes the compositional lead instead , penning both the title track and `` The Funeral Plain . '' The latter is notable for being the second longest Univers Zero song ( Only the track `` La Faulx '' , off the Heresie album , is longer ) . `` The Funeral Plain '' is dedicated to `` all living hardships that lead into self-awareness . '' The band would not release their next album , The Hard Quest , until 1999 . Denis temporarily broke up the band after the release of Heatwave due to financial difficulties and tension within the group .", "Threadfin rainbowfish The threadfin rainbowfish or featherfin rainbowfish ( Iriatherina werneri ) is a rainbowfish , the only species in the genus Iriatherina . It is characterized by long beautiful fins , and is among the most attractive of the rainbowfishes . It is native to freshwater swamps and demersal or thickly vegetated areas of flowing waters , in tropical Australia , the West Papuan region of Indonesia , and Papua New Guinea . It grows up to 5 cm in length , but this does not include the Threadfin 's long tail . Sexing is easy by examining fins : males have larger , gaudier finnage than females . Males also have more intense colours . When reproduction takes place eggs are scattered among fine leaved plants , and hatch after 8 -- 12 days .", "Circadian advantage ", "1950s Texas drought The 1950s Texas drought was a period between 1949 and 1957 , in which the state received 30 to 50 percent less rain than normal , while temperatures rose above average . During this time period , Texans experienced the second , third and eighth-driest single years ever in the state -- 1956 , 1954 and 1951 , respectively . The drought was described by a state water official as `` the most costly and one of the most devastating droughts in 600 years . ''", "The Soundtrack of My Life The Soundtrack of My Life is the 16th studio album released by Donny Osmond in 2014 . It contains his versions of very popular songs from when he was growing up , like `` Ben '' , `` My Cherie Amour '' , and `` Baby Love '' . The album peaked at No. 181 on the Billboard 200 chart and No. 17 on the UK Albums Chart .", "Nothing to Lose (Billy Talent song) `` Nothing to Lose '' is a single by Canadian band Billy Talent 's debut self-titled album . The song was not released for special digital download or as a CD single or vinyl record . The song is about a suicidal teenager . The unnamed character suffers rejection from peers and depression , although the character 's parents overlook this-Teacher said it 's just a phase/When I grow up my children will probably do the same . '' At the end of the song , it can be inferred that the character committed suicide .", "Fosterella spectabilis Fosterella spectabilis is a Bromeliad species in the genus Fosterella . This species is endemic to Bolivia . ` Growing Fosterella Spectabilis in Sydney Australia ' Grows vigorously in Sydney but I would avoid planting in the open if you get frost in your area . It will tolerate low light but leaves will be smaller and more delicate . I had my Fosterella in a shadehouse for 3 years and the leaves were thick and succulent . For the last 7 years it has been on a windy balcony with good light and 2 -- 3 hours of afternoon sun . The leaves are wider and longer with more sun but I have not tried planting in full sun so I am unsure if it will survive in full sun . Mine has flowered every year without fail on established pups , my original plant is still pupping and flowering . Pups grow from the base of the plant above the soil and grows to a mature plant in 1 -- 2 years when it flowers and pups and so on . Pups can be re-potted anytime when it has grown roots of its own but it may require staking or pebbles at its base for stability until new roots have anchored it well . The flower spike starts to grow at the end of winter and it can take 3 -- 4 months to complete the flowering cycle . The spike grows towards the sun so it can grow bent if you turn or move the pot during flowering . The spike can be up to 45 cm long . Keep Fosterellas well watered during Spring and Summer then reduce through Autumn . Water well once every fortnight in winter but check it weekly in case a top up is needed . Regular supermarket bought potting mix is fine just make sure the pot is well drained .", "Normoxic ", "My Heaven (Big Bang song) `` My Heaven '' is the first Japanese single by South Korean boy band , Big Bang released under YG Entertainment . The single is a Japanese version of the group 's previous song '' 천국 '' ( `` Heaven '' ) from their EP , Stand Up . The song has sold more than 40,552 copies so far . The Music Video started filming from 27 to 28 April , 2009 . and premiered May 11 , 2009 . The music video is about G-Dragon and his girlfriend . The girl featured in the music video is the Japanese actress and model Mayuko Kawakita .", "Global warming in Turkey ", "Minuartia yukonensis Minuartia yukonensis , the Yukon sandwort or Yukon stitchwort , is a plant species native to Yukon and Northwest Territories of Canada , as well as Alaska , and The Russian Far East . Flora of North America and some other publications also report it from British Columbia , but more recent work shows those collections to have been misidentified . Minuartia yukonensis grows in dry , rocky meadows at elevations less than 1000 m. Minuartia yukonensis is a perennial herb with a large taproot , spreading out along the ground to form low-lying mats . Stems are up to 30 cm long . Leaves are narrow and linear , up to 18m mm long but rarely more than 1.5 mm across . Flowers are born in cymes of up to 13 green to purplish cup-shaped flowers .", "Raised by Bats Raised by Bats is the tenth studio album by Cuban American dark cabaret singer Voltaire , released in 2014 . The album 's production was crowdfunded by Voltaire 's fans all over the world via a successful Indiegogo campaign ; it would reach US$ 53,793 , surpassing its originally intended goal of US$ 10,000 . The album is a major departure of Voltaire 's musical style ; instead of his usual dark cabaret style , Raised by Bats is more deathrock - and gothic rock-oriented . According to Voltaire in his official website : In truth , it 's a tour of all of the kinds of music I loved growing up . There are songs on this album that are goth rock , deathrock , new wave , New Romantic , dark wave and dark folk . It 's the album I 've always wanted to make . Some of the songs were written as far back as 1984 , when I was 17 years old ! Raised by Bats is , thus far , the album by Voltaire that most features guest musicians : among them are Ray Toro of My Chemical Romance fame , Craig Adams of The Mission and The Sisters of Mercy , Melora Creager of Rasputina and much more ." ]

[ "Ice age An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .", "Retreat of glaciers since 1850 The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .", "Little Ice Age The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Last ice age Last ice age may refer to : Quaternary glaciation , the period of the last few million years Last glacial period , the most recent glacial period of the current ice age Little Ice Age , a hundred years of relative cold in the Middle Ages after what historians term the Medieval Warm Period", "James O'Brien (oceanographer) James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''", "We've Been Had Again We 've Been Had Again is the second album by Huffamoose , released in 1997 .", "We've Got Tonight (disambiguation) `` We 've Got Tonight '' is a song by Bob Seger . We 've Got Tonight may also refer to : We 've Got Tonight ( Kenny Rogers album ) , 1983 We 've Got Tonight ( Elkie Brooks album )", "Climate inertia Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "Future Vintage Future Vintage is the fifth studio album by American hip hop group ¡ Mayday ! . Pre-release , Wrekonize illustrated that `` This album sums up everywhere we 've been and is a link between everything we 've done and where we 're trying to go . '' The album was released on September 18 , 2015 , by Strange Music .", "We Are the Ones (We've Been Waiting For) We Are The Ones ( We 've Been Waiting For ) is the fourth album by The Visionaries , an American hip hop group composed of 2Mex , LMNO , KeyKool , DJ Rhettmatic , Lord Zen , and Dannu .", "Songs from the British Isles Songs from the British Isles is a collobrative extended play by Australian singer songwriter Katie Noonan and classical guitarist Karin Schaupp , available only from Katie Noonan webshop . It was released to support the tour ` Songs from the British Isles ' . Katie said ; '' -LSB- it 's -RSB- a chance to rediscover the Celtic music I grew up around , the classical music I fell in love with and the pop music that has informed my voice as a songwriter in more recent years . '' Karin Schaupp said ; `` For years we 've been saying ` We must do something together one day ... ' and finally we found the time to make it happen ! I am delighted to be collaborating with Katie - her voice is absolutely unique and she is a brilliant musician . The combination of voice and guitar is very intimate but also very versatile . We 've had a wonderful time putting together this British programme drawn from so many different styles of music , and we 've become great friends in the process ! ''", "We've Got the Power We 've Got the Power may refer to : We 've Got the Power ( album ) , a 1987 live album by Skrewdriver `` We 've Got the Power '' ( song ) , a 1992 song by Sonia", "Fight Songs (Billy Bragg album) Fight Songs is a compilation of songs by Billy Bragg that had previously been released as free digital downloads . This album was released in October 2011 . Most of the songs are political in nature , but a Christmas song , `` We 're Following the Wrong Star '' , is also included . Describing why he decided to release this album , Bragg said ... `` Since I started giving away music for free on the internet in 2002 with The Price of Oil , I 've felt a little bit like I 've been pissing in the wind , so to speak , that the ideas that I 've been putting out there have not really been in keeping with what 's going on in the music industry . But the last couple of years , since the crash in 2008 , I think the idea of polemical songs has become more and more relevant , so it now seems like a good time to collect these together and make them available for people who may only have tuned in a few years ago . ''", "Duncan Wingham Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "Seminal Live Seminal Live is a 1989 album by British rock band The Fall , recorded partly in the studio and partly at live performances in 1988 . The album was the last to be released by the group through Beggars Banquet Records , and as such is often seen as a `` contractual obligation '' album . It was also the last Fall album to feature Brix Smith , former wife of the lead singer Mark E. Smith , until her return for 1995 's Cerebral Caustic . The studio recordings on Seminal Live were all new songs and make up the first five tracks of the album -- side one on the original vinyl release . The live recordings on side two , meanwhile , are all versions of previously-released tracks . In a 2006 interview with The Pseud Mag fanzine , keyboardist Marcia Scofield called Seminal Live '' `` the worst piece of shit I have ever worked on -LSB- ... -RSB- Talk about exhausted and out of ideas . It was one of those-we 've just come off tour and have to make a record so what shit covers can we bung on it ? - album '' .", "The Rise and Fall of Little Voice The Rise and Fall of Little Voice is a 1992 play written by English dramatist Jim Cartwright .", "We Are the People We've Been Waiting For We Are the People We 've Been Waiting For is a 2009 documentary film directed by Daryl Goodrich and produced by Caroline Rowland . It explores the education system in the UK and asks whether the current system provides young people with the opportunity to develop their talents .", "Copenhagen Climate Challenge During the United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009 ( COP15 ) , there was a rival conference in Copenhagen , Denmark , for sceptics , called the Copenhagen Climate Challenge . which was organised by the Committee for a Constructive Tomorrow . While COP15 attracted 33,200 delegates , the rival sceptic conference was attended by 60 people ( 15 journalists , 18 speakers , 27 audience ) . According to Lenore Taylor of The Australian , the attendees had an average age `` well over 60 '' . In closing his speech , Plimer stated that `` They 've got us outnumbered , but we 've got them outgunned , and that 's with the truth . '' Plimer also stated that `` It 's been freezing in Perth and bucketing down '' . Perth had below average rainfall in 2009 , and temperatures of 38 ° C were forecast for December 13 .", "Last One to Die `` Last One to Die '' is a song by the American punk rock band Rancid . It was released as the first single from their seventh album , Let the Dominoes Fall . It first primered on April 6 , 2009 on the Los Angeles modern rock radio station , KROQ , and is currently available on their MySpace page . Frontman Tim Armstrong explained that the song , `` is about the survival of our band . Over the last eighteen years we 've seen a lot of bands and friends pass on , quit or move on for various reasons , yet we keep moving forward . '' The song impacted radio on April 21 , 2009 . A music video was also produced and released for the song on May 12 , 2009 . The song 's music video features many cameos including WWE wrestlers CM Punk and Lita", "Regional effects of global warming Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "We've Come a Long Way, Baby We 've Come a Long Way , Baby is the thirtieth studio album by American country music singer-songwriter Loretta Lynn . It was released on January 29 , 1979 , by MCA Records . The title track was a top ten hit for Lynn , playing on the famous Virginia Slims slogan of the day , `` You 've Come a Long Way , Baby '' . The album was produced by Owen Bradley .", "So where the bloody hell are you? So where the bloody hell are you ? is a A$ 180 million advertising campaign launched in 2006 by Tourism Australia created by the Sydney office of the London advertising agency M&C Saatchi . The advertisements feature Australians preparing for visitors to their country . It begins in an Outback pub with the barkeeper saying , `` We 've poured you a beer '' . Further imagery to a similar effect is then shown , including a young boy on the beach saying , `` We 've got the sharks out of the pool , '' and partygoers watching Sydney harbour fireworks saying , `` We 've turned on the lights '' . The commercial ends with bikini-clad model Lara Bingle at Fingal Spit stepping out of the ocean and asking , `` So where the bloody hell are you ? '' The campaign received extensive press coverage , but it was soon deemed a failure and withdrawn .", "Rise and Fall Rise and Fall may refer to : `` Rise & Fall '' ( Justice Crew song ) `` Rise & Fall '' ( song ) , a 2003 song by Craig David featuring Sting Rise and Fall ( band ) , a Belgian hardcore band Rise and Fall ( Dargaard album ) , 2004 Rise and Fall ( Tim Halperin album ) , 2011 Rise and Fall ( The Warlocks album ) , 2001 Rise and Fall : Civilizations at War , a 2006 computer game Rises and falls , ballroom dance techniques The Rise & Fall , a 1982 album by Madness", "6.1 (album) 6.1 is the sixth studio album by Out of the Grey , released on August 15 , 2001 . It was their first ( and only ) on Rocketown Records , after leaving Sparrow . The duo saw the new album as an opportunity to redefine themselves as a band , and this hope is reflected in the album 's name , 6.1 . In an interview , the Dentés said `` This time around , we were told to forget about the mentality of trying to write a certain way . It 's been a long time since we 've been able to let go and feel the freedom to do what we like and be what we want to be . '' Although the album gained favorable reviews , it would be their last as a band until 2015 .", "Caleb (Buffy the Vampire Slayer) Caleb is a fictional character played by Nathan Fillion in the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer created by Joss Whedon . The character is a sadistic sociopath with a pathological hatred of women . According to Whedon , the character was introduced because the mutable , non-corporeal nature of the First Evil `` meant that we did n't really have anything to push against . We needed ... a sidekick . Somebody physical that we can see from episode to episode . '' Whedon describes him as `` the creepiest priest '' , adding , `` he is the most bald-faced misogynist we 've had since , well , since last year , with Warren . ''", "Climate change in the Arctic The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "Schoolboys in Disgrace Schoolboys in Disgrace or The Kinks Present Schoolboys in Disgrace is a 1975 album by the Kinks . According to the back cover liner notes , the story which the album presents is as follows : Once upon a time there was a naughty little schoolboy . He and his gang were always playing tricks on the teachers and bullying other children in the school . One day he got himself into very serious trouble with a naughty schoolgirl and he was sent to the Headmaster who decided to disgrace the naughty boy and his gang in front of the whole school . After this punishment the boy turned into a hard and bitter character . Perhaps it was not the punishment that changed him but the fact that he realised people in authority would always be there to kick him down and the Establishment would always put him in his place . He knew that he could not change the past but he vowed that in the future he would always get what he wanted . The naughty little boy grew up ... into Mr Flash . Mr Flash was the name of the villain from the Kinks ' rock opera Preservation ( released as Preservation Act 1 and Preservation Act 2 ) . In 2015 , Dave Davies spoke positively of the album in a Yahoo interview , saying , `` Schoolboys in Disgrace is a great album . At the time , we were so busy doing it and getting it out and touring and playing it . Over a matter of three years it was gone and we were doing something else . But when you draw this into the present , it 's like , ` Oh my God , what the f -- is this ?!? How did we do that ? ' We 've been very fortunate , Ray and I and the Kinks . We 've had such a wealth of materials , ideas , and observations . We 've been very good at following our intuition . That 's something you ca n't really teach . '' The front cover was illustrated by Mickey Finn of T. Rex . It later appeared on NME 's list of the '50 worst covers of all time ' . In 1978 the Finnish band Kontra had a number one hit with the song `` Jerry Cotton '' which was a cover version of the song `` Jack the Idiot Dunce . ''", "Soldiers of the King Soldiers of the King is a song written and composed by Leslie Stuart . The song is often sung and published as `` Soldiers of the Queen '' depending on the reigning monarch at the time . The tune was originally composed by Stuart as a march celebrating the opening of the Manchester Ship Canal . The lyrics were added at a later date and the title changed . The song was then interpolated in the musical comedy An Artist 's Model ( 1895 ) . The song served as the regimental ( quick ) march of the Queen 's Regiment , 1966 -- 1992 . In 1992 the Queens Regiment and Royal Hampshires became The Princess of Wales 's Royal Regiment who now use the song Soldiers of the Queen as their regimental song ( at the end of the song the Regiment then sing `` Farmer 's boy '' to show their links to R Hampshire ) It is also the regimental march of the combined 2nd and 14th Light Horse Regiment , Queensland Mounted Infantry -LCB- 2/14LHR ( QMI ) -RCB- ; and of the Lord Strathcona 's Horse ( Royal Canadians ) , the second most senior of Canada 's Cavalry Regiments . The song was sung by the public attending a farewell function in Brisbane , Australia the day before the departure of the 1st contingent QMI , to the Boer War on 1 November 1899 . It was used as the theme to the film , Breaker Morant . BBC Radio 4 comedy programme The Harpoon , a show lampooning boys ' magazines from Britain 's Empire days of the 20th century , also used the piece as its opening theme -- which is harshly interrupted mid-stanza by a page-turn . The song has no connection to `` The Soldiers of Our Queen '' , a quite different song which appears in the Gilbert and Sullivan opera Patience . Soldiers of the Queen by Leslie Stuart 1898 1 Britons once did loyally declaim About the way we rul 'd the waves Ev'ry Briton 's song was just the same , When singing of our soldier braves . All the world had heard it wonder 'd why we sang , And some have learn 'd the reason why But we 're forgetting it , And we 're letting it Fade away and gradually die , Fade away and gradually die . So when we say that England 's master , Remember who has made her so 1st Refrain It 's the Soldiers of the Queen , my lads Who 've been my lads , Who 're seen my lads , In the fight for England 's glory , lads , When we 've had to show them what we mean : And when we say we 've always won , And when they ask us how it 's done , We 'll proudly point to ev'ry one of England 's soldiers of the Queen ! It 's the Queen ! 2 War clouds gather over ev'ry land , Our flag is threaten 'd east and west . Nations that we 've shaken by the hand Our bold resources try to test They thought they found us sleeping thought us unprepar 'd , Because we have our party wars , But Englishmen unite when they 're call 'd to fight The battle for Old England 's common cause , The battle for Old England 's common cause . So when we say that England 's master , Remember who has made her so . 2nd/3rd Refrains It 's the Soldiers of the Queen , my lads , Who 've been my lads , Who 're seen my lads , In the fight for England 's glory , lads , When we have to show them what we mean : And when we sat we 've always won , And when they ask us how it 's done , We 'll proudly point to ev'ry one Of England 's soldiers of the Queen ! It 's the Queen ! 3 Now we 're rous 'd we 've buckled on our swords , We 've done with diplomatic lingo , We 'll do deeds to follow on our words , We 'll show we 're something more than `` jingo . '' And though Old England 's laws do not her sons compel To military duties do , We 'll play them at their game , and show them all the same , An Englishman can be a soldier too , An Englishman can be a soldier too . So when we say that England 's master , Remember who has made her so . refrain Notes Who 've been & Who 're seen - easy to miss When we 've had & When we have to show them what we mean :", "We've Come a Long Way Baby (song) `` We 've Come a Long Way Baby '' is a song written by L.E. White and Shirl Milete that was originally performed by American country music artist Loretta Lynn . It was released as a single in October 1978 via MCA Records .", "Ee Aye Addio A traditional British celebratory football crowd song . The usual format is : : `` We 've won the cup , we 've won the cup , ee aye addio , we 've won the cup '' . Variations are often made up on the spur of the moment . The song perhaps first gained a wider audience at the 1965 FA Cup final at Wembley Stadium , when the singing by supporters of Liverpool F.C. was broadcast on TV and radio . Noticing the Queen had a red jacket on ( Liverpool 's team colours ) , the words were hastily changed to `` Ee aye addio , the Queen 's wearing red ! '' . The origin of the song lies in the traditional British nursery rhyme The Farmer 's in his Den . Category : Football songs and chants", "Divided We Fall Divided We Fall may refer to : `` United we stand , divided we fall '' , a motto `` Divided We Fall '' ( short story ) , by Raymond F. Jones Divided We Fall ( film ) , a 2000 Czech film directed by Jan Hřebejk Divided We Fall ( album ) , a 2016 album by Flaw A 2005 episode of Justice League Unlimited", "Riphouse 151: Could've Been's & Wanna Be's Riphouse 151 : Could 've Been 's & Wan na Be 's is a 2008 retrospective documentary film chronicling the rise and fall of Riphouse , a thrash metal band from Rockland County , New York . The film was directed by Peter O'Brien and features interviews with Rob Dukes ( current lead singer of Exodus ) , Don La Greca of ESPN radio , Rob Moschetti ( M.O.D. and Pro Pain ) , and several others .", "We've Got Tonight (Kenny Rogers album) We 've Got Tonight is the fourteenth studio album by Kenny Rogers , released in 1983 . It is also his last with Liberty Records before moving to RCA Nashville .", "X2 (Record Label) x2 a British record label set up by Pet Shop Boys to release their own music . On 14 March 2013 , the duo officially left Parlophone after 28 years and entered into a new arrangement with Kobalt Label Services for their 12th , the band 's first release on their own music label . Tennant stated at the time of the announcement : We 'd like to thank everyone we 've worked with at Parlophone over the last 28 years both in the UK and abroad . When we signed to the label in 1985 we had no idea how long and successful a relationship we were embarking on . However it is also exciting now to commence a new phase working with a new team in a new business structure and we look forward to a creative and equally fulfilling relationship with Kobalt .", "Deglaciation Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time ." ]

[ "El Niño–Southern Oscillation El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .", "Cosmic ray Cosmic rays are high-energy radiation , mainly originating outside the Solar System . Upon impact with the Earth 's atmosphere , cosmic rays can produce showers of secondary particles that sometimes reach the surface . Composed primarily of high-energy protons and atomic nuclei , they are of mysterious origin . Data from the Fermi Space Telescope ( 2013 ) have been interpreted as evidence that a significant fraction of primary cosmic rays originate from the supernovae explosions of stars . Active galactic nuclei probably also produce cosmic rays .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "Climate Climate is the statistics of weather , usually over a 30-year interval . It is measured by assessing the patterns of variation in temperature , humidity , atmospheric pressure , wind , precipitation , atmospheric particle count and other meteorological variables in a given region over long periods of time . Climate differs from weather , in that weather only describes the short-term conditions of these variables in a given region . A region 's climate is generated by the climate system , which has five components : atmosphere , hydrosphere , cryosphere , lithosphere , and biosphere . The climate of a location is affected by its latitude , terrain , and altitude , as well as nearby water bodies and their currents . Climates can be classified according to the average and the typical ranges of different variables , most commonly temperature and precipitation . The most commonly used classification scheme was the Köppen climate classification . The Thornthwaite system , in use since 1948 , incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it . The Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region . Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates . Since direct observations of climate are not available before the 19th century , paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables that include non-biotic evidence such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores , and biotic evidence such as tree rings and coral . Climate models are mathematical models of past , present and future climates . Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from a variety of factors ; recent warming is discussed in global warming . Global warming results in redistributions . For example , `` a 3 ° C change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300 -- 400 km in latitude ( in the temperate zone ) or 500 m in elevation . Therefore , species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones '' .", "21st century The 21st century is the current century of the Anno Domini era , in accordance with the Gregorian calendar . It began on January 1 , 2001 and will end on December 31 , 2100 . It is the first century of the 3rd millennium . It is distinct from the time span known as the 2000s , which began on January 1 , 2000 and will end on December 31 , 2099 ." ]

[ "The Cloud Mystery The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish . This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .", "Hockham Mere The Hockham Mere pollen data shows the rates of change in levels of vegetation using pollen samples from within the Holocene period . Hockham Mere is the site of a former lake , > 400 metres diameter , in Norfolk , East Anglia . Its biogenic sediments contain a late-Devensian & Holocene pollen record . This data can be analysed using temperature proxies to help determine climate change in the area at that time . These proxies can be the amount of pollen found in the sample , as more pollen would indicate higher flora productivity which would suggest a warmer climate . The same can be seen if data shows negligible amounts of pollen which would suggest a cooler climate . These are proxies for temperature , and not an accurate record as there are many variances that can not be monitored easily .", "Anthrenus flavipes Anthrenus flavipes is a species of beetle in the family Dermestidae known by the common name furniture carpet beetle . It has a cosmopolitan distribution , occurring throughout the world , being most active in warmer climates . It is a pest that damages household materials such as textiles .", "Climate change in Germany Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe .", "Lavoisier Group The Lavoisier Group is an Australian organisation formed by politicians and dominated by retired industrial businesspeople and engineers . It does not accept the science of global warming and works to influence attitudes of policy makers and politicians . The organisation downplays the risk of the effects of global warming , rejects the scientific conclusion that human activity causes it , and opposes policies designed to curtail it . Some members regard climate change as a `` scam . '' The group was named after French scientist Antoine Lavoisier ( 1743-1794 ) , the father of modern chemistry who disproved the Phlogiston theory of combustion .", "Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "Climate as complex networks The field of complex networks has emerged as an important area of science to generate novel insights into nature of complex systems . The application of the network theory to climate science is a young and emerging field . To identify and analyze patterns in global climate , scientists model climate data as Complex Networks . Unlike most of real-world networks in which nodes and edges are well defined , nodes in climate networks are identified with the spatial grid points of underlying global climate data set , which is defined arbitrarily and can be represented at various resolutions . Two nodes are connected by an edge depending on the degree of statistical similarity ( that may be related to dependence ) between corresponding pairs of time-series taken from climate data , based on similarity shared in climatic variability . The climate network approach enables novel insights into the dynamics of the climate system over many spatial and temporal scales .", "Willie Soon Wei-Hock `` Willie '' Soon ( born 1966 ) is an externally-funded part-time researcher of the Smithsonian at the Solar and Stellar Physics ( SSP ) Division of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics . Soon co-authored The Maunder Minimum and the Variable Sun -- Earth Connection with Steven H. Yaskell . The book treats historical and proxy records of climate change coinciding with the Maunder Minimum , a period from 1645 to about 1715 when sunspots became exceedingly rare . Soon disputes the current scientific understanding of climate change , and contends that most global warming is caused by solar variation rather than by human activity . He gained visibility in part due to strong scientific criticism of the methodology of a paper which he co-wrote . Climate scientists such as Gavin Schmidt of the Goddard Institute for Space Studies have strongly refuted Soon 's arguments , and the Smithsonian does not support his conclusions . He is nonetheless frequently cited by politicians opposed to climate-change legislation .", "Global Oceanographic Data Archaeology and Rescue Project The Global Oceanographic Data Archaeology and Rescue Project , or GODAR Project was established to increase the volume of historical oceanographic data available to climate change and other researchers . The project attempts to locate ocean profile and plankton data sets not yet in digital form , digitizes these data , and ensures their submission to national data centers and the World Data Center system ( WDC ) . In addition , data on electronic media that are at risk of loss due to media degradation are also candidates for rescue .", "YAD06 YAD06 is a tree located in the Yamal Peninsula of Siberia . A core sample from this tree , YADO61 , provided data used to support hockey stick interpretation of global climate history . The data was originally published in 1995 a paper by Keith Briffa of the Climate Research Unit at the University of East Anglia . The paper asserted that the late Middle Ages , previously described as a `` Medieval Warm Period , '' was actually quite cold . Steve McIntyre has described this tree as possibly `` the most influential tree in the world '' , and publicly accused Briffa of cherry-picking certain tree ring records in order to get a specific result , creating what Michael E. Mann described as a `` manufactured scandal . ''", "National Climatic Data Center The United States National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , previously known as the National Weather Records Center ( NWRC ) , in Asheville , North Carolina was the world 's largest active archive of weather data . Starting as a tabulation unit in New Orleans , Louisiana in 1934 , the climate records were transferred to Asheville in 1951 , becoming named the National Weather Records Center ( NWRC ) . It was later renamed the National Climatic Data Center , with relocation occurring in 1993 . In 2015 , it was merged with the National Geophysical Data Center ( NGDC ) and the National Oceanic Data Center ( NODC ) into the National Centers for Environmental Information ( NCEI ) .", "Arctic geoengineering Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .", "Fibropapillomatosis Fibropapillomatosis ( FP ) is a disease specific to sea turtles . The condition is characterized by benign epithelial tumours on the surface of biological tissues . A herpesvirus is believed to be the causative agent of the disease , while turtle leeches are suspected mechanical vectors , transmitting the disease to other individuals . The disease is thought to have a multifactorial cause , including a tumour-promoting phase that is possibly caused by biotoxins or contaminants . FP exists all over the world , but it is most prominent in warmer climates , affecting up to 50 % -70 % of some populations .", "ExxonMobil climate change controversy The ExxonMobil climate change controversy is the controversy around ExxonMobil 's activities related to climate change , especially their promotion of climate change denial . Since the 1970s , ExxonMobil engaged in research , lobbying , advertising , and grant making , some of which were conducted with the purpose of delaying widespread acceptance and action on global warming . From the late 1970s and through the 1980s , Exxon funded internal and university collaborations , broadly in line with the developing public scientific approach . After the 1980s , the company was a leader in climate change denial , opposing regulations to curtail global warming . ExxonMobil funded organizations critical of the Kyoto Protocol and seeking to undermine public opinion about the scientific consensus that global warming is caused by the burning of fossil fuels . Exxon helped to found and lead the Global Climate Coalition of businesses opposed to the regulation of greenhouse gas emissions .", "Climatic Research Unit email controversy The Climatic Research Unit email controversy ( also known as `` Climategate '' ) began in November 2009 with the hacking of a server at the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) at the University of East Anglia ( UEA ) by an external attacker , copying thousands of emails and computer files , the Climatic Research Unit documents , to various internet locations several weeks before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change . The story was first broken by climate change denialists with columnist James Delingpole popularising the term `` Climategate '' to describe the controversy . Several people considered climate change `` skeptics '' argued that the emails showed global warming was a scientific conspiracy , that scientists manipulated climate data and attempted to suppress critics . The CRU rejected this , saying the emails had been taken out of context and merely reflected an honest exchange of ideas . The mainstream media picked up the story as negotiations over climate change mitigation began in Copenhagen on 7 December 2009 . Because of the timing , scientists , policy makers and public relations experts said that the release of emails was a smear campaign intended to undermine the climate conference . In response to the controversy , the American Association for the Advancement of Science ( AAAS ) , the American Meteorological Society ( AMS ) and the Union of Concerned Scientists ( UCS ) released statements supporting the scientific consensus that the Earth 's mean surface temperature had been rising for decades , with the AAAS concluding , `` based on multiple lines of scientific evidence that global climate change caused by human activities is now underway ... it is a growing threat to society . '' Eight committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . However , the reports called on the scientists to avoid any such allegations in the future by taking steps to regain public confidence in their work , for example by opening up access to their supporting data , processing methods and software , and by promptly honouring freedom of information requests . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged throughout the investigations .", "Global Climate Observing System As an outcome of the Second World Climate Conference , the Global Climate Observing System ( GCOS ) was established in 1992 to ensure that the observations and information needed to address climate-related issues are obtained and made available to all potential users . The GCOS is co-sponsored by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) , the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission ( IOC ) of UNESCO , the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and the International Council for Science ( ICSU ) . In order to assess and monitor the adequacy of in-situ observation networks as well as satellite-based observing systems , GCOS regularly reports on the adequacy of the current climate observing system to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , and thereby identifies the needs of the current climate observing system . The Global Climate Observing System ( GCOS ) is a system that comprises the climate-relevant components of many contributing observing systems and networks . The mission of the GCOS programme is to help ensure that these contributing systems , taken as a whole , provide the comprehensive information on the global climate system that is required by users , including individuals , national and international organizations , institutions and agencies . The programme promotes the sustained provision and availability of reliable physical , chemical and biological observations and data records for the total climate system - across the atmospheric , oceanic and terrestrial domains , including the Hydrological cycle , the Carbon cycle and the Cryosphere .", "Climate of California The climate of California varies widely , from hot desert to subarctic , depending on latitude , elevation , and proximity to the coast . California 's coastal regions , the Sierra Nevada foothills , and much of the Central Valley have a Mediterranean climate , with warm to hot , dry summers and mild , moderately wet winters . The influence of the ocean generally moderates temperature extremes , creating warmer winters and substantially cooler summers in coastal areas .", "Glory (satellite) The Glory satellite was a planned NASA satellite mission that would have collected data on the chemical , micro-physical and optical properties -- and the spatial and temporal distributions -- of sulfate and other aerosols , and would have collected solar irradiance data for the long-term climate record . The science focus areas served by Glory included : atmospheric composition ; carbon cycle , ecosystems , and biogeochemistry ; climate variability and change ; and water and energy cycles . The US$ 424 million satellite was lost on March 4 , 2011 , when its Taurus XL carrier rocket malfunctioned . A subsequent investigation revealed that the fairing system failed to open fully , causing the satellite to reenter the atmosphere at which point it likely broke up and burned .", "SolarAid SolarAid is an international development charity which is working to create a sustainable market for solar lights in Africa . The organisation 's aim is to reduce global poverty and climate change . SolarAid wholly owns an African social enterprise , SunnyMoney , the largest seller of solar lights in Africa . SolarAid was founded by Solarcentury , a solar energy company based in the UK .", "Climateprediction.net Climateprediction.net ( CPDN ) is a distributed computing project to investigate and reduce uncertainties in climate modelling . It aims to do this by running hundreds of thousands of different models ( a large climate ensemble ) using the donated idle time of ordinary personal computers , thereby leading to a better understanding of how models are affected by small changes in the many parameters known to influence the global climate . The project relies on the volunteer computing model using the BOINC framework where voluntary participants agree to run some processes of the project at the client-side in their personal computers after receiving tasks from the server-side for treatment . CPDN , which is run primarily by Oxford University in England , has harnessed more computing power and generated more data than any other climate modelling project . It has produced over 100 million model years of data so far . , there are more than 12,000 active participants from 223 countries with a total BOINC credit of more than 27 billion , reporting about 55 teraflops ( 55 trillion operations per second ) of processing power .", "Myles Allen Myles R. Allen is head of the Climate Dynamics group at the University of Oxford 's Atmospheric , Oceanic and Planetary Physics Department . He is the Principal Investigator of the distributed computing project Climateprediction.net ( which makes use of computing resources provided voluntarily by the general public ) , and was principally responsible for starting this project . He is Professor of Geosystem Science in the School of Geography and the Environment , and a Fellow of Linacre College , Oxford . He has worked at the Energy Unit of the United Nations Environment Programme , the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory in Oxfordshire , and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . He contributed to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change as a Lead Author of the Chapter on detection of change and attribution of causes , and was a Review Editor for the chapter on predictions of global climate change for the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . His research focuses on the attribution of recent climate change and assessing what these changes mean for global climate simulations of the future . In 2010 , Allen was awarded the Appleton Medal and Prize by the Institute of Physics for `` his important contributions to the detection and attribution of human influence on climate and quantifying uncertainty in climate predictions '' . Allen also provided the technical expertise for the game Fate of the World , which is `` a PC strategy game that simulates the real social and environmental impact of global climate change over the next 200 years . ''", "NCDC NCDC may refer to : National Climatic Data Center , the United States National Climatic Data Center in Asheville , North Carolina is the world 's largest active archive of weather data National Capital Development Commission , an Australian Commonwealth Government body created to complete the establishment of Canberra as the seat of government National Cooperative Development Corporation ( India ) North Central Data Cooperative North Cornwall District Council , Cornwall , UK National Centre for Disease Control ( India )", "Steve Running Steven W. Running , ( born 1950 ) Regents Professor , Forest Ecology , College of Forestry & Conservation at the University of Montana , and Director of the Numerical Terradynamics Simulation Group , is responsible for developing the earth observing-oriented algorithms used by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) on board NASA 's satellites , Terra and Aqua . He continues to be the lead investigator on this project . Running 's MOD17 algorithms are used to provide accurate and continuous global monitoring of the terrestrial biosphere , specifically , generating near-real-time data sets for repeated monitoring of vegetation primary production on vegetated land at 1-km resolution at 8-day intervals . These datasets are unique in that they provide global data on primary productivity and span a decade . A recognized expert in global ecosystem monitoring , Running was invited to serve on the board of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . In 2007 , the IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' . Running made the following statement about winning the prize : `` We 've got to get past all the petty bickering and get to work . This is about a big transition for society over the next 50 years . The path we are on is unsustainable . What the Nobel committee is saying is that we 've got to wake up . We 've got to change the course of the whole world . '' Steve Running is co-author of the 2007 book , Forest Ecosystems , and has published over 240 scientific papers . In 2012 , Running suggested a tenth planetary boundary , the annual net global primary production of all terrestrial plants , as an easily determinable measure integrating many variables that will give `` a clear signal about the health of ecosystems '' .", "Uncomfortable science Uncomfortable science , as identified by statistician John Tukey , comprises situations in which there is a need to draw an inference from a limited sample of data , where further samples influenced by the same cause system will not be available . More specifically , it involves the analysis of a finite natural phenomenon for which it is difficult to overcome the problem of using a common sample of data for both exploratory data analysis and confirmatory data analysis . This leads to the danger of systematic bias through testing hypotheses suggested by the data . A typical example is Bode 's law , which provides a simple numerical rule for the distances of the planets in the solar system from the Sun . Once the rule has been derived , through the trial and error matching of various rules with the observed data ( exploratory data analysis ) , there are not enough planets remaining for a rigorous and independent test of the hypothesis ( confirmatory data analysis ) . We have exhausted the natural phenomena . The agreement between data and the numerical rule should be no surprise , as we have deliberately chosen the rule to match the data . If we are concerned about what Bode 's law tells us about the cause system of planetary distribution then we demand confirmation that will not be available until better information about other planetary systems becomes available .", "National Geophysical Data Center The National Geophysical Data Center ( NGDC ) provided scientific stewardship , products and services for geophysical data describing the solid earth , marine , and solar-terrestrial environment , as well as earth observations from space . In 2015 , NGDC was merged with the National Climatic Data Center and the National Oceanographic Data Center into the National Centers for Environmental Information ( NCEI ) .", "Solar Millennium Solar Millennium is a German globally active company in the renewable energy sector founded in 1998 in Erlangen , Germany , which is specialized in the designing and implementation of solar thermal power plants . The main activities are site selection , project development , planning , design and construction of parabolic trough power plants .", "Data Science Institute The Data Science Institute is a research institute at the Imperial College London founded in May 2014 . The institute is one of five Global Institutes at Imperial College London , alongside the Institute of Global Health Innovation , Energy Futures Lab , Institute for Security Science and Technology , and the Grantham Institute - Climate Change and Environment . The Data Science Institute has partnerships with international industry and academia , with formal investments from Chinese multinational telecoms company Huawei , multinational consultancy KPMG , and Zhejiang University , China . The goal of the institute is to enhance multidisciplinary data science research across the whole of Imperial College by coordinating and promoting data-driven research and education activities . These activities cover all areas across the College including engineering , medicine , natural sciences , and business . The institute houses a custom built large-scale immersive data visualization facility called the KPMG Data Observatory , which has a resolution of 132 megapixels that is thought to be the largest such system in Europe .", "Get Warmer Get Warmer is the fourth full-length album by DIY collective Bomb the Music Industry ! .", "Canadian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society The Canadian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society ( CMOS ) ( ` La Société canadienne de météorologie et d'océanographie ' ( SCMO ) ) is the national society of individuals and organisations dedicated to advancing atmospheric and oceanic sciences and related environmental disciplines in Canada . CMOS was officially created in 1967 as the Canadian Meteorological Society and adopted its present name in 1977 , following an invitation by the Canadian Meteorological Society to the oceanographic community in Canada to join the Society . However , CMOS has a rich history dating back to 1939 when it was known as the Canadian Branch of the Royal Meteorological Society . In 2007 , CMOS issued a position statement on global warming : CMOS endorses the process of periodic climate science assessment carried out by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and supports the conclusion , in its Third Assessment Report , which states that the balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate .", "National Centers for Environmental Information National Centers for Environmental Information ( NCEI ) , headquartered in Asheville , North Carolina , is the world 's largest active archive of environmental data . In 2015 it was established from the merger of the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , the National Geophysical Data Center ( NGDC ) and the National Oceanographic Data Center ( NODC ) . The current director is Thomas R. Karl , who was the director of NCDC before merger .", "Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment The Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ( GEWEX ) is a research program of the World Climate Research Programme intended to observe , comprehend and model the Earth 's water cycle . The experiment also observes how much energy the Earth receives , studies how much of that energy reaches surfaces of the Earth and how that energy is transformed . Sunlight 's energy evaporates water to produce clouds and rain , and dries out land masses after rain . Rain that falls on land becomes the water budget which can be used by people for agricultural and other processes . GEWEX is a collaboration of researchers worldwide to find better ways of studying the water cycle and how it transforms energy through the atmosphere . If the Earth 's climates were identical from year to year , then people could predict when , where and what crops to plant . However , instability created by solar variation , weather trends , and chaotic events create weather that is unpredictable on seasonal scales . Through weather patterns such as droughts and higher rainfall these cycles impact ecosystems and human activities . GEWEX is designed to collect a much greater amount of data , and see if better models of that data can forecast weather and climate change into the future . GEWEX is organized into several structures . As GEWEX was conceived projects were organized by participating factions , this task is now done by the International GEWEX Project Office ( IGPO ) . IGPO oversees major initiatives and coordinates between national projects in an effort to bring about communication of researchers . IGPO claims to support communication exchange between 2000 scientist and is the instrument for publication of major reports . The Scientific Steering Group organizes the projects and assigns them to panels , which oversee progress and provide critique . The Coordinated Energy and Water Cycle Observations Project ( CEOP ) the ` Hydrology Project ' is a major instrument in GEWEX . This panel includes geographic study areas such as the Climate Prediction Program for the Americas operated by NOAA , but also examines several types of climate zones ( e.g. high altitude and semi-arid ) . Another panel , the GEWEX Radiation Panel oversees the coordinated use of satellites and ground based observation to better estimate energy and water fluxes . One recent result GEWEX 's Radiation panel has assessed data on rainfall for the last 25 years and determined that global rainfall is 2.61 mm/day with a small statistical variation . While the study period is short , after 25 years of measurement regional trends are beginning to appear . The GEWEX Modeling and Prediction Panel takes current models and analyzes the models when climate forcing phenomena occur ( global warming as an example of a ` climate forcing ' event ) . GEWEX is now the core project of WCRP .", "Dan Lubin Dan Lubin is a research physicist and senior lecturer at the Scripps Institute of Oceanography since 1990 . He is a member of the American Geophysical Union , as well as Sigma Pi Sigma . He was a member of the National Ozone Expedition , and also participated in SHEBA . The general area of his research focuses on polar remote sensing and using global climate models to simulate climate change in the Arctic . In addition to a large number of scientific papers , he has written a textbook about the interactions between polar ice packs and the atmosphere . On October 17 , 2012 , Lubin gave a talk about solar activity and climate change at the SETI Institute ." ]

[ "Global dimming Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Global warming in Russia Global warming in Russia describes the global warming related issues in Russia . This includes climate politics , contribution to global warming and the influence of global warming on Russia . In 2009 Russia was ready to reduce emissions 20 -- 25 % from its 1990 emission levels by the year 2020 .", "Global warming in Luxembourg Global warming in Luxembourg discuss the global warming issues in Luxembourg .", "Global warming in Belgium Global warming in Belgium describes the global warming related issues in Belgium .", "Iris Woolcock Iris Woolcock was an artist , photographer , realtor and adventurer . Born in Wisconsin in the late 19th century ; she died in 1980 . Iris lived in Putney ( Vermont ) , New York City , and in later years in Warm Mineral Springs , Florida .", "Economics of global warming The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "Extinction risk from global warming The extinction risk of global warming is the risk of species becoming extinct due to the effects of global warming .", "Flick Off FLICK OFF ( flick off ) is a Canadian advertising campaign launched by Key Gordon Communications . It is a movement to fight climate change by getting Canadians to use less energy . Its sponsors include MuchMusic , Roots Canada , Environmental Defence Canada and the Government of Ontario . Some view this program as a continuation of the scrapped program One-Tonne Challenge in global perspective . The motivation for the campaign is both to reduce energy consumption for its own sake and also with the aim of reducing carbon emissions to ultimately combat global warming . The website associated with the campaign is aimed specifically at young Canadians . The website contains educational material about causes and consequences of global warming and strategies for reducing carbon emissions , and includes a `` carbon calculator '' called One Less Tonne to measure individual carbon dioxide emissions . The website was launched by British entrepreneur Richard Branson and Ontario Environment Minister Laurel Broten in Toronto on April 25 , 2007 . According to the official website , the campaign is now in `` hibernation '' .", "Politics of global warming The complex politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from the global economy 's interdependence on carbon dioxide emitting hydrocarbon energy sources and because carbon dioxide is directly implicated in global warming -- making global warming a non-traditional environmental challenge .", "Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "Global warming conspiracy theory A global warming conspiracy theory invokes claims that scientific consensus on global warming is based on conspiracies to produce false data or suppress dissent . It is one of a number of tactics used in climate change denial to legitimize political controversy disputing this consensus . Global warming conspiracy theorists typically allege that , through worldwide acts of professional and criminal misconduct , the science behind global warming has been invented or distorted for ideological or financial reasons , or both .", "Unstoppable global warming Unstoppable global warming may refer to : Runaway climate change Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years , book by Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery", "Long-term effects of global warming See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .", "Global warming in Antarctica The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .", "Global Warming (Pitbull album) Global Warming is the seventh studio album recorded by American rapper Pitbull . It was released on November 16 , 2012 . A teaser to accompany the release of Global Warming was first released onto Pitbull 's official Facebook and YouTube channel on September 17 , 2012 .", "Mark Hoofnagle Mark Hoofnagle is an American surgery resident and blogger . He uses the term `` denialism '' , especially in relation to global warming , to label tactics he believes reduce public understanding of scientific knowledge . Hoofnagle , with his brother Chris Hoofnagle , a lawyer , he runs the website denialism.com as well as the `` denialism blog '' at ScienceBlogs .", "The Real Global Warming Disaster The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .", "The Carbon War The Carbon War : Global Warming and the End of the Oil Era is a 1999 book by former oil geologist Jeremy Leggett about global warming .", "Global Warming Policy Foundation The Global Warming Policy Foundation ( GWPF ) is a think tank in the United Kingdom , whose stated aims are to challenge `` extremely damaging and harmful policies '' envisaged by governments to mitigate anthropogenic global warming . It promotes climate change denial . In 2014 , when the Charity Commission ruled that the GWPF had breached rules on impartiality , a non-charitable organisation called the `` Global Warming Policy Forum '' or `` GWPF '' was created as a wholly owned subsidiary , to do lobbying that a charity could not . The GWPF website carries an array of articles `` sceptical '' of scientific findings of anthropogenic global warming and its impacts .", "Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , or Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 , is a California State Law that fights global warming by establishing a comprehensive program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from all sources throughout the state . AB 32 was authored by then-Assembly member Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez ( D-Los Angeles ) and signed into law by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger on September 27 , 2006 . On June 1 , 2005 , Governor Schwarzenegger signed an executive order known as Executive Order S-3-05 which established greenhouse gas emissions targets for the state . The executive order required the state to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions levels to 2000 levels by 2010 , to 1990 levels by 2020 , and to a level 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . However , to implement this measure , the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) needed authority from the legislature . The California State Legislature passed the Global Warming Solutions Act to address this issue and gave the CARB authority to implement the program . AB 32 requires the California Air Resources Board ( CARB or ARB ) to develop regulations and market mechanisms to reduce California 's greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year of 2020 , representing approximately a 30 % reduction statewide , with mandatory caps beginning in 2012 for significant emissions sources . The bill also allows the Governor to suspend the emissions caps for up to a year in case of emergency or significant economic harm . The State of California leads the nation in energy efficiency standards and plays a lead role in environmental protection , but is also the 12th largest emitter of carbon worldwide . Greenhouse gas emissions are defined in the bill to include all of the following : carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons . These are the same greenhouse gases listed in Annex A of the Kyoto Protocol .", "Climate change in Germany Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe .", "Breeding for heat stress tolerance Plant breeding is process of development of new cultivars . Plant breeding involves development of varieties for different environmental conditions -- some of them are not favorable . Among them , heat stress is one of such factor that reduces the production and quality significantly . So breeding against heat is a very important criterion for breeding for current as well as future environments produced by global climate change ( e.g. global warming ) .", "Storm World In his book Storm World : Hurricanes , Politics , and the Battle over Global Warming , Chris Mooney discusses tensions between two different approaches to analyzing global warming and its effect on hurricanes .", "Warming Warming may refer to : People Eugenius Warming , ( 1841 -- 1924 ) , Danish botanist Thomas Warming , ( b. 1969 ) , Danish illustrator , painter and author Other Global warming Warming up Warming Land", "Sauna A sauna ( -LSB- ˈsɔːnə -RSB- or -LSB- ˈsaʊnə -RSB- -LSB- ˈsɑunɑ -RSB- ) , or sudatory , is a small room or building designed as a place to experience dry or wet heat sessions , or an establishment with one or more of these facilities . The steam and high heat make the bathers perspire . Saunas can be divided into two basic types : conventional saunas that warm the air or infrared saunas that warm objects . Infrared saunas may use a variety of materials in their heating area such as charcoal , active carbon fibers , and other materials .", "Global Warming: What You Need to Know Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .", "United States Senate Environment and Public Works Subcommittee on Private Sector and Consumer Solutions to Global Warming and Wildlife Protection The United States Senate Environment and Public Works Subcommittee on Private Sector and Consumer Solutions to Global Warming and Wildlife Protection was one of six subcommittees of the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works during the 110th Congress . The subcommittee 's jurisdiction included : Global warming Fisheries and wildlife , including the Fish and Wildlife Service Endangered Species Act ( ESA ) National Wildlife Refuges The subcommittee was formerly known as the Subcommittee on Fisheries , Wildlife , and Water , but was renamed during committee organization of the 110th Congress when global warming was added to its oversight responsibilities . It served as a counterpart to the new Subcommittee on Public Sector Solutions to Global Warming , Oversight , and Children 's Health Protection . The subcommittee was chaired by Senator Joe Lieberman of Connecticut , and the ranking member was Senator John Warner of Virginia .", "Effects of climate change The effects of climate change may refer to : Effects of global warming , the effects of current climate change Historical impacts of climate change , during the early evolution and history of humans , prior to current global warming", "Global warming hiatus A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "Clean Energy Act 2011 The Clean Energy Act 2011 is the main Act in a package of legislation that established an Australian emissions trading scheme , to be preceded by a three-year period of fixed carbon pricing designed to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and limit global warming . The package was introduced by the Gillard Labor Government in February 2011 and repealed on 17 July 2014 by the Abbott Government .", "IRI (company) IRI is an American market research company which provides clients with consumer , shopper , and retail market intelligence and analysis focused on the consumer packaged goods ( CPG ) industry . IRI 's clients include 95 percent of the Fortune Global 500 CPG , retail and healthcare companies . The firm operates in 58 countries .", "Warm air intake (disambiguation) Warm air intakes are systems to supply a car engine with pre-heated air : Heated air inlet , a commonplace system to improve winter cold starting , pre-heating inlet air , by passing it around the exhaust manifold Warm air intake , an esoteric system to reduce mass flow by reducing inlet density with heating , thus reducing mass flow for the same volume Short ram air intake", "GWPP The initials GWPP could indicate : the Global Water Policy Project , a fresh-water conservation project headed by Sandra Postel . the Global Warming Petition Project ( AKA the Oregon Petition ) , a project devoted to discrediting global climate change ( or its previous label global warming ) , under the auspices of the non-profit organization called the Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine ." ]

[ "Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "Antarctica Antarctica ( UK English -LSB- ænˈtɑːktɪkə -RSB- or -LSB- ænˈtɑːtɪkə -RSB- , US English -LSB- æntˈɑːrktɪkə -RSB- ) is Earth 's southernmost continent . It contains the geographic South Pole and is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere , almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle , and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean . At 14000000 km2 , it is the fifth-largest continent . For comparison , Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia . About 98 % of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages 1.9 km in thickness , which extends to all but the northernmost reaches of the Antarctic Peninsula . Antarctica , on average , is the coldest , driest , and windiest continent , and has the highest average elevation of all the continents . Antarctica is a desert , with annual precipitation of only 200 mm ( 8 in ) along the coast and far less inland . The temperature in Antarctica has reached − 89.2 ° C ( − 128.6 ° F ) , though the average for the third quarter ( the coldest part of the year ) is − 63 ° C ( − 81 ° F ) . Anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at the research stations scattered across the continent . Organisms native to Antarctica include many types of algae , bacteria , fungi , plants , protista , and certain animals , such as mites , nematodes , penguins , seals and tardigrades . Vegetation , where it occurs , is tundra . Although myths and speculation about a Terra Australis ( `` Southern Land '' ) date back to antiquity , Antarctica is noted as the last region on Earth in recorded history to be discovered and colonised by humans , being only first sighted in 1820 by the Russian expedition of Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on Vostok and Mirny , who sighted the Fimbul ice shelf . The continent , however , remained largely neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment , lack of easily accessible resources , and isolation . In 1895 , the first confirmed landing was conducted by a team of Norwegians . Antarctica is a de facto condominium , governed by parties to the Antarctic Treaty System that have consulting status . Twelve countries signed the Antarctic Treaty in 1959 , and thirty-eight have signed it since then . The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining , prohibits nuclear explosions and nuclear waste disposal , supports scientific research , and protects the continent 's ecozone . Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists from many nations ." ]

[ "Ežerėlis Ežerėlis ( ; literally : little lake ) is a city in Kaunas County , Lithuania . It is located 25 km west of Kaunas . It is a fairly new settlement as it started developing only in 1918 when a peat digging enterprise was established in the Ežerėlis Bog . According to the census of 1923 , it had 132 residents . In 1959 the town reached the population of 2,200 and remained fairly stable since then .", "Kataonami stable is a stable of sumo wrestlers , part of the Nishonoseki ichimon or group of stables . It was founded in 1961 by former sekiwake Tamanoumi Daitarō , who branched off from Nishonoseki stable . Former sekiwake Tamanofuji took over the running of the stable upon Tamanoumi 's death in 1987 . In February 2010 he passed control over to another former sekiwake , Tamakasuga , remaining in the stable under the elder name Tateyama . As of January 2017 it had four wrestlers .", "Mexico–Spain relations Mexican -- Spanish relations refers to the bilateral relations between the United Mexican States and the Kingdom of Spain . Like many other Latin American nations , despite having achieved independence , Mexico retains a fairly strong and stable relationship with Spain . Both nations are members of the G-20 , Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development , Organization of Ibero-American States and the United Nations .", "Étienne Michelin Étienne Michelin ( 4 January 1898 - 27 August 1932 ) was a French industrialist . As the eldest son of Édouard Michelin ( 1859-1940 ) , there was a strong likelihood that he would take over at as head of the Michelin tyre company , where he worked as a member of the top management team . His early death ruled out this possibility , however .", "Pleasantville, Venango County, Pennsylvania Pleasantville is a borough in Venango County , Pennsylvania in the United States . The population was 850 at the 2000 census , and 892 at the 2010 census . It was an early oil ` boom town ' , and the population jumped from 291 to 1,598 between 1860 and 1870 . But the boom soon passed , and the population shrank to 855 by 1880 , and has remained fairly stable since then .", "List of sumo stables The following is an alphabetical list of heya or training stables in professional sumo . Each belongs to one of six groups , called ichimon . These groups , led by the stable by which each group is named , are in order of size : Dewanoumi ichimon , Nishinoseki ichimon , Tokitsukaze ichimon , Takasago ichimon , Isegahama ichimon , and the splinter group led by Takanohana stable that broke off in February 2010 but was subsequently given ichimon status in 2014 ; see here . The founding dates listed below are for the current incarnation of each stable ; in most cases this is not the first stable to exist under a given name , however . The number of stables peaked at 54 , with the opening of Onoe stable in August 2006 . In order to limit the over-proliferation of stable the Japan Sumo Association introduced new rules the following month that greatly raised the qualifications needed by former wrestlers wishing to branch out ( namely , those ranked below yokozuna or ōzeki must have spent at least 60 tournaments in the top makuuchi division or 25 in the titled san ` yaku ranks ) . Discounting the special circumstances of the temporary closure of Kise stable from 2010 until 2012 , there were no new stables established for more than six years , while eleven folded , bringing the number of active heya down to 43 . This sequence was ended by the opening of former yokozuna Musashimaru 's Musashigawa stable in April 2013 . Since this time the opening and closing of stables has stabilized and the number of stables has remained in the mid 40s .", "Araiso stable Araiso stable ( Japanese : 荒磯部屋 , Araiso-beya ) was a stable of sumo wrestlers , one of the Nishonoseki group of stables . It was founded in 1993 by former komusubi Futagodake of the Futagoyama stable . It was the smallest of all the sumo stables , with just three sumo wrestlers . The stable was dissolved after the September 2008 tournament , as Futagodake was due to reach the mandatory retirement age of 65 . Two of the stable 's wrestlers retired following the announcement , with the one remaining active wrestler , Mongolian Arawashi , moving to Hanakago stable . Futagodake worked at Matsugane stable until his retirement that November .", "Episode (Stratovarius album) Episode is the fifth studio album by power metal band Stratovarius , released on 22 April 1996 through Noise Records . It is the first Stratovarius album to feature keyboardist Jens Johansson and drummer Jörg Michael , both of whom would form part of the band 's most stable line-up for nine years . The album reached No. 21 on the Finnish albums chart and remained on that chart for six weeks .", "Kalends of February `` Kalends of February '' is the twelfth episode of the first season of the television series Rome . As a result of their arena exploits , Pullo and Vorenus have become heroes to the Roman rank and file , causing Caesar to reward those he normally would punish . Pullo 's unexpected return to Vorenus ' household is not appreciated by his former slave Eirene . Caesar decides to overhaul the Senate by adding some unexpected new faces , to the chagrin of the old guard . And Servilia hurdles the final obstacle in her ambitious revenge scenario , at Niobe 's expense .", "Log Cabin Stable Log Cabin Stable was a Thoroughbred horse racing partnership founded in 1923 by New York City financiers W. Averell Harriman and Bert Walker who raced under orange and white silks . As part of a private purchase of twenty horses , in January 1925 Harriman and Walker acquired Chance Play from the estate of August Belmont , Jr. . The horse would be voted the retrospective American Horse of the Year for 1926 . A disagreement between the two owners of Log Cabin Stable in the fall of 1926 led to the partnership being dissolved and Averell Harriman became the stable 's sole owner . Trainers who worked for the Log Cabin stable include Albert Simons ( 1923 ) , Will . M. Wallace ( 1924 ) , Louis Feustel ( 1925-July 1926 ) , John I. Smith ( 1927 -- 1928 ) , George M. Odom ( 1928 ) .", "James Fairlie Gemmill James Fairlie Gemmill FRS FRSE FZS ( 1867 -- 1926 ) was a Scottish physician , botanist and author . He had a strong affinity to Robert Burns , sharing several similarities .", "Veer Singh Dillon Veer Singh Dillon ( 1792 -- 1842 ) was a Sikh who was born in Gurdaspore , Punjab . He was the a general in the Sikh Khalsa Army , army of Maharaja Ranjit Singh and was the founder of one of the most highly honoured Sikh warrior families . Veer Singh was awarded the title Jallaha of Gurdaspore after his army single-handedly won the eastern areas of Punjab for the Maharaja . Later when the Sikh Empire fell to the British forces , the armies of the Jallaha of Gurdaspore ( then under the son of Veer Singh ) were not defeated due to their strong defenses . But later the British signed a treaty with the ruler in which his areas would come under the British Empire but the Jallaha would still remain the supreme commander of the military forces and also the chief administrator of the area .", "Seagram Stables Seagram Stables was a Canadian Thoroughbred horse racing operation founded in 1888 by the wealthy distiller , Joseph E. Seagram . Located in Seagram 's hometown of Waterloo , Ontario , the stables and large training facilities were built along Lincoln Road . Joseph E. Seagram established his breeding operation 's bloodlines by importing mares in foal from English sires . Between 1891 and 1898 his stables won eight consecutive Queen 's Plates , Canada 's most prestigious horse racing event . In total , during his lifetime Joseph Seagram won the race fifteen times and horses from his stables won every major race in Canada as well as races in the United States . As part of a program honoring important horse racing tracks and racing stables , the Pennsylvania Railroad named its baggage car # 5860 the `` Seagram Stable '' . Following the death of Joseph E. Seagram in 1919 , his sons took over the operation and would win the Plate four more times before dismantling their racing stables in 1933 . Edward F. Seagram arranged to buy out brothers Norman and Thomas and he would go on to win the family 's twentieth Plate in 1935 with the filly , Sally Fuller . Edward F. Seagrams son , J. E. Frowde Seagram , would continue the family tradition and operate a successful racing operation . Of such prominence , the black and gold colours of the Seagram Stables were adopted by the City of Waterloo . Eventually , the stables were torn down and the property sold for real estate development .", "Hurricane Jimena The name Jimena has been used for seven tropical cyclones in the Eastern Pacific Ocean . Tropical Storm Jimena ( 1979 ) -- formed at a very low latitude , remained at sea Hurricane Jimena ( 1985 ) -- remained at sea Hurricane Jimena ( 1991 ) -- remained at sea Hurricane Jimena ( 1997 ) -- formed fairly far east , out in the Pacific Ocean Hurricane Jimena ( 2003 ) -- remained at sea for its entire lifetime . Entered the Central Pacific days after forming , crossed the International Dateline and dissipated there . Hurricane Jimena ( 2009 ) -- tied for strongest hurricane to strike the Baja California Peninsula , also a strong Category 4 hurricane . Hurricane Jimena ( 2015 ) -- a long lasting , strong Category 4 hurricane . Category : Pacific hurricane disambiguation pages", "Kasugayama stable was a stable of sumo wrestlers , part of the Isegahama ichimon or group of stables . In its modern form it dates from 1954 when it was re-established by former ōzeki Nayoroiwa who led it until his death in 1971 . It went out of existence in 1990 when the stablemaster , former maegashira Ōnobori , reached the mandatory retirement age of sixty-five , and was absorbed by Ajigawa stable , but it was revived by Kasugafuji after his retirement as an active wrestler in 1996 . As of January 2016 it had 23 wrestlers . Its thus far only wrestler to reach the top division , Korean born Kasugaō , retired in 2011 . In 2012 Kasugafuji stood down as head following his election to the Sumo Association 's board of directors , handing over control to the former Hamanishiki of the affiliated Oitekaze stable , and remained at Kasugayama stable under the name elder name Ikazuchi . However he resigned from the Sumo Association in September of that year . In 2013 the current and former heads of the stable sued each other , with the former Kasugafuji who still owned the deeds to the premises claiming unpaid rent and demanding eviction , while Hamanishiki claimed the Kasugayama myoseki certificate had not been handed over as promised . Two trials proceeded on the two separate issues . A settlement was reached on the rent issue in 2015 with Hamanishiki agreeing to move the stable to another location with the same ward of Kawasaki . In August 2016 the court ordered that Hamanishiki pay Kasugafuji 171.6 million yen for the certificate . Hamanishiki appealed this decision to the Tokyo High Court . In October 2016 the Sumo Association ordered Kasugayama to resign as stablemaster of Kasugayama stable , and that it be absorbed into Oitekaze stable , because Kasugayama 's lack of a myoseki certificate meant that he was not qualified to be a stablemaster . They also criticized him for not training or guiding his wrestlers at all during the September tournament , despite being told to after being removed as a judge in August . The closure went ahead despite the stable 's koenkai , or supporter 's group , sending a petition to the Sumo Association demanding the decision be reversed , and 11 of the stable 's wrestlers refusing to move to Oitekaze and instead submitting their retirement papers in protest . In January 2017 Hamanishiki resigned from the Sumo Association . In the same month it was announced that the stable would be revived under the name Nakagawa stable and run by Nakagawa Oyakata ( former maegashira Asahisato ) who had been looking after the remaining Kasugayama stable wrestlers within Oitekaze stable .", "Municipality of Petersham The Municipality of Petersham was a local government area of Sydney , New South Wales , Australia . The small municipality was proclaimed as a borough in 1871 and was centred on the suburbs of Lewisham , Petersham and Stanmore . It was bounded by Parramatta Road in the north , Cardigan and Liberty Streets in the east , Stanmore and New Canterbury Roads in the south , and Old Canterbury Road in the west . The municipality was divided into three wards : South Kingston , Annadale and Sydenham , all the names of early farms . The boundaries remained fairly stable , with only minor changes on the east and western sides . The borough became a municipality in 1907 . In 1949 under the Local Government ( Areas ) Act 1948 , Petersham Council was merged with the larger neighbouring Marrickville Council which was located immediately to the south .", "Michinoku stable The is a stable of sumo wrestlers , part of the Tokitsukaze ichimon or group of stables . It was established in 1974 by former maegashira Hoshikabuto , who branched off from Izutsu stable . Former ōzeki Kirishima became the current head coach in December 1997 . It absorbed Tatsutagawa stable in November 2000 upon the retirement of the stablemaster there . It lost four top members in April 2011 ( Hakuba , Toyozakura , Jūmonji and Kirinowaka ) , who were forced to retire after being found guilty of match-fixing and as of January 2016 none of its twelve remaining wrestlers were ranked higher than the makushita division .", "Isotopes of copper Copper ( 29Cu ) has two stable isotopes , 63Cu and 65Cu , along with 27 radioisotopes . The most stable of these is 67Cu with a half-life of 61.83 hours . The least stable is 54Cu with a half-life of approximately 75 ns . Most have half-lives under a minute . Unstable copper isotopes with atomic masses below 63 tend to undergo β + decay , while isotopes with atomic masses above 65 tend to undergo β − decay . 64Cu decays by both β + and β − . 68Cu , 69Cu , 71Cu , 72Cu , and 76Cu each have one metastable isomer . 70Cu has two isomers , making a total of 7 distinct isomers . The most stable of these is 68mCu with a half-life of 3.75 minutes . The least stable is 69mCu with a half-life of 360 ns .", "Score (statistics) In statistics , the score , score function , efficient score or informant indicates how sensitive a likelihood function is to its parameter . Explicitly , the score for is the gradient of the log-likelihood with respect to . The score plays an important role in several aspects of inference . For example : in formulating a test statistic for a locally most powerful test ; in approximating the error in a maximum likelihood estimate ; in demonstrating the asymptotic sufficiency of a maximum likelihood estimate ; in the formulation of confidence intervals ; in demonstrations of the Cramér -- Rao inequality . The score function also plays an important role in computational statistics , as it can play a part in the computation of maximum likelihood estimates .", "Carlotism Carlotism was a political movement that took place in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata between 1808 and 1812 ; it intended to make Carlota Joaquina , Infanta of Spain and Queen Consort of Portugal , its monarch . After Napoleon 's invasion of Spain , Fernando VII , Carlota 's younger brother , was forced to abdicate and give the throne to Joseph Bonaparte . Most Spanish did not consider him a legitimate king and Carlota , an ambitious woman , seemed to like a possible option to keep the royal line safe . Carlota was living in Brazil by then , after the nobility of Portugal moved from Portugal to the Americas because of Napoleón 's invasion of Portugal . Carlotism found strong resistance from many parties involved : the viceroys , other Spanish authorities in the Americas , part of the Criollos , and the British . The plans were never applied , and supporters of it would later turn to independence .", "Ferganosuchus Ferganosuchus is an extinct genus of gavialid crocodilian . The genus is thought to be a tomistomine , although it has been suggested that Ferganosuchus may be a more basal gavialoid . Fossils have been found in the region of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan that date back the middle Eocene . The genus is well known from fairly complete specimens , unlike most other Asian tomistomines , whose remains tend to be more fragmentary .", "Mihogaseki stable The was a stable of sumo wrestlers , part of the Dewanoumi ichimon or group of stables . Its last head coach , former ōzeki Masuiyama Daishirō II who took charge in November 1984 , was the son of the previous head , also an ōzeki under the name Masuiyama . He produced nine sekitori in that time , the last being the Russian Aran in July 2008 . Until September 2006 the stable also had Baruto in the top division , but he later moved to a newly formed stable , Onoe . Being close to the mandatory retirement age , Mihogaseki wound his stable up in October 2013 , with himself and his remaining wrestlers moving to Kasugano stable . Aran chose to retire instead .", "Nakagawa stable Nakagawa stable is a stable of sumo wrestlers , part of the Tokitsukaze ichimon or group of stables . It was founded on Jan 26 , 2017 with nine wrestlers , all of whom were previously members of Kasugayama stable . That stable closed in October 2016 , with its wrestlers living temporarily in Oitekaze stable One of Oitekaze 's coaches , Nakagawa Oyakata ( ex-maegashira Asahisato ) , agreed to become the head coach of the newly formed stable . He effectively replaced Kasugayama Oyakata ( ex-maegashira Hamanishiki ) , who was forced to resign from the Japan Sumo Association on Jan 16 2017 because of a legal dispute with the previous Kasugayama Oyakata ( ex-maegashira Kasugafuji ) which meant he was unable to obtain the necessary toshiyori certificate to remain a stablemaster .", "Golden Fishery Golden Fishery is a South Korean talk show broadcast on MBC . It first aired on the July 7 , 2006 and has had a fairly stable audience share . Currently , Radio Star is the main segment in this program .", "Kise Kise may refer to : Kise stable , stable of sumo wrestlers founded in 1958 Kise stable ( 2003 ) , another sumo stable founded in 2003 Kise , Kentucky", "Minato stable is a stable of sumo wrestlers , part of the Tokitsukaze ichimon or group of stables . It was founded in 1982 by former komusubi Yutakayama , who branched off from Tokitsukaze stable . Minato Oyakata studied at the Tokyo University of Agriculture , and due to his interest in academia his stable was the first to introduce a library on its premises . Until the arrival of Ichinojō , the stable had produced just one makuuchi division wrestler , Minatofuji , who reached a highest rank of maegashira 2 in 1995 and later became a coach at the stable under the name Tatsutagawa . In July 2010 Minato and Tatsutagawa swapped roles . In the same month the Chinese wrestler Nakanokuni earned promotion to the juryo division .", "Izutsu stable is a stable of sumo wrestlers , part of the Tokitsukaze group of stables . The stable was established in the Meiji era by former yokozuna Nishinoumi Kajirō I , the 16th yokozuna , who became the 7th Izutsu-oyakata . He was succeeded by Nishinoumi Kajirō II , the 25th yokozuna . The current incarnation of Izutsu stable is back in the hands of the same family , having been founded as Kimigahama stable by his grandson-in-law Tsurugamine Akio in 1972 and subsequently renamed Izutsu stable five years later , after Tsurugamine obtained the stock from former yokozuna Kitanofuji ( who would become the head of Kokonoe stable ) . All three of Tsurugamine 's sons were members of the stable , with two of them , Terao and Sakahoko , emulating their father by reaching the sekiwake rank . Sakahoko took over the stable from his father in 1994 . The stable 's sole sekitori as of 2015 is Kakuryū , who reached the yokozuna rank in March 2014 .", "Surena Surena or Suren or Sourena ( died 53 BC ) was a Parthian spahbed ( `` General '' or `` Commander '' ) during the 1st century BC . He was a member of the House of Suren and was best known for defeating the Romans in the Battle of Carrhae . Under his command Parthians decisively defeated a numerically superior Roman invasion force under the command of Marcus Licinius Crassus . It is commonly seen as one of the earliest and most important battles between the Roman and Parthian empires and one of the most crushing defeats in Roman history . ` Surena ' remains popular as a name in Iran . ` Surena ' is the Greek and Latin form of Sûrên or Sūrēn . As ` Suren ' , the name remains common in Armenia . Suren means `` the heroic one , Avestan sūra ( strong , exalted ) . ''", "Trademark dilution Trademark dilution is a trademark law concept giving the owner of a famous trademark standing to forbid others from using that mark in a way that would lessen its uniqueness . In most cases , trademark dilution involves an unauthorized use of another 's trademark on products that do not compete with , and have little connection with , those of the trademark owner . For example , a famous trademark used by one company to refer to hair care products might be diluted if another company began using a similar mark to refer to breakfast cereals or spark plugs . Dilution is a basis of trademark infringement that only applies to famous marks . With non-famous marks , the owner of the mark must show that the allegedly infringing use creates a likelihood of confusion as to the source of the product or service being identified by the allegedly infringing use . With non-famous marks , it is highly unlikely a likelihood of confusion will be found if the products or services are in unrelated markets . However , with famous marks , any use by another person of the mark has the potential for confusion , since a famous mark is so well known among the consuming public that people will assume affiliation with the owner of the mark regardless of the product or service being sold under the infringing use .", "Willington Dovecote and Stables Willington Dovecote & Stables is a National Trust property located in Willington , near Bedford , Bedfordshire , England . Both buildings are Grade I listed . The property is a 16th-century stable and stone dovecote , which contains nesting boxes for over 1500 pigeons . The dovecote and stables themselves were commissioned by Sir John Gostwick . Completed in around 1541 , they were made from the remains of a manorial complex , and include stones most likely taken from local priories , in particular Newnham Priory , after the Dissolution of the Monasteries . A signature on the stone above the fireplace in the stables reads `` John Bunyan '' , but its authenticity has not been proven .", "Doctor Destroyer Doctor Destroyer is the most powerful villain in the Hero Universe . He first appeared in the adventure module The Island of Dr. Destroyer in 1981 and has remained a stable part of the Champions role-playing game ever since .", "Strong two clubs Bridge bidding systems that incorporate a strong 2 clubs opening bid include modern Standard American , standard Acol , 2/1 game forcing and many others . In most natural bridge bidding systems , the opening bid of 2 is used exclusively for hands too strong for an opening bid at the one-level . Typically , the bid is reserved for hands that are almost strong enough to bid to the game level on their own power , or even stronger . The exact requirements for the bid vary considerably depending upon the system used and partnership agreement . In most early bidding systems , opening bids of two of a suit signified a very strong hand and were referred to as strong two bids . However , pioneer bridge inventors like Pierre Albarran and David Burnstine saw that the frequency of such bids is fairly low , and that a 2 bid can be used for all strong hands , leaving other two-level opening bids for other purposes ( for example , weak two bids ) ." ]

[ "United States labor law United States labor law sets the rights and duties for employees , labor unions , and employers in the United States . Labor law 's basic aim is to remedy the `` inequality of bargaining power '' between employees and employers , especially employers `` organized in the corporate or other forms of ownership association '' . Over the 20th century , federal law created a series of minimum social and economic rights , and encouraged state laws to go beyond the minimum to favor employees . The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 requires a federal minimum wage , currently $ 7.25 but higher in 28 states , and discourages unhealthy working weeks over 40 hours through time-and-a-half overtime pay . Unlike every other democratic country , there are no federal or state laws requiring paid holidays or paid family leave : the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 creates a limited right to 12 weeks of unpaid leave in larger employers . There is no automatic right to an occupational pension beyond federally guaranteed social security , but the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 requires standards of prudent management and good governance if employers agree to provide pensions , health plans or other benefits . The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 requires employees have a safe system of work . A contract of employment can always improve standards beyond the minimum statutory rights . To get fair terms beyond the statutory minimum , and improve upon individual contracts , employees must organize a labor union for collective bargaining . The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 creates rights for most employees to organize a labor union , without any detriment through unfair labor practices . Under the Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959 , labor union governance follows democratic principles . In any workplace where a majority of employees support a union , employing entities have a duty to bargain in good faith . Unions can take collective action to defend their interests , including withdrawing their labor on strike . There are not yet general rights to directly participate in enterprise governance , but many employees and unions have experimented with securing representation on corporate boards . Since the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , all employing entities and labor unions have a duty to treat employees equally , without discrimination based on `` race , color , religion , sex , or national origin . '' There are separate rules for sex discrimination in pay under the Equal Pay Act of 1963 . Additional groups with `` protected status '' were added by the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 . There is no federal law banning all sexual orientation or identity discrimination , but 22 states had passed laws by 2016 . These equality laws generally prevent discrimination in hiring , terms of employment , and make discharge because of a protected characteristic unlawful . There is not a federal law against unjust discharge , and most states also have no law with full protection against wrongful termination of employment . Job security rights in the US are not weaker than in all other industrialized countries . On the other hand , collective agreements made by labor unions and many individual contracts often require people are only discharged for a `` just cause '' . The Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act of 1988 requires employing entities give 60 days notice if more than 50 or one third of the workforce may lose their jobs . Federal law has sought to reach full employment through monetary policy and spending on infrastructure . Trade policy has increasingly attempted to put labor rights in international agreements , to ensure that open markets in a global economy do not lead to more unemployment in the United States of America .", "Wisconsin Wisconsin ( -LSB- wᵻˈskɒnsᵻn -RSB- ) is a U.S. state located in the north-central United States , in the Midwest and Great Lakes regions . It is bordered by Minnesota to the west , Iowa to the southwest , Illinois to the south , Lake Michigan to the east , Michigan to the northeast , and Lake Superior to the north . Wisconsin is the 23rd largest state by total area and the 20th most populous . The state capital is Madison , and its largest city is Milwaukee , which is located on the western shore of Lake Michigan . The state is divided into 72 counties . Wisconsin 's geography is diverse , with the Northern Highland and Western Upland along with a part of the Central Plain occupying the western part of the state and lowlands stretching to the shore of Lake Michigan . Wisconsin is second to Michigan in the length of its Great Lakes coastline . Wisconsin is known as `` America 's Dairyland '' because it is one of the nation 's leading dairy producers , particularly famous for its cheese . Manufacturing , especially paper products , information technology ( IT ) , and tourism are also major contributors to the state 's economy .", "2011 Wisconsin protests The 2011 Wisconsin protests were a series of demonstrations in the state of Wisconsin in the United States beginning in February involving at its zenith as many as 100,000 protesters opposing the 2011 Wisconsin Act 10 , also called the `` Wisconsin Budget Repair bill . '' Subsequently , anti-tax activists and other conservatives , including Tea Party advocates , launched small pockets of counter protests . The protests centered on the Wisconsin State Capitol in Madison , with satellite protests also occurring at other municipalities throughout the state . Demonstrations took place at various college campuses , including the University of Wisconsin -- Madison and the University of Wisconsin -- Milwaukee . After the collective bargaining bill was upheld by the Wisconsin Supreme Court on June 14 , the number of protesters declined to about 1,000 within a couple days . The protests were a major driving force for recall elections of state senators in 2011 and 2012 , the failed recall of Governor Scott Walker in 2012 and a contentious Wisconsin Supreme Court election in 2011 .", "Google Google is an American multinational technology company specializing in Internet-related services and products . These include online advertising technologies , search , cloud computing , software , and hardware . Google was founded in 1998 by Larry Page and Sergey Brin while they were Ph.D. students at Stanford University , in California . Together , they own about 14 percent of its shares , and control 56 percent of the stockholder voting power through supervoting stock . They incorporated Google as a privately held company on September 4 , 1998 . An initial public offering ( IPO ) took place on August 19 , 2004 , and Google moved to its new headquarters in Mountain View , California , nicknamed the Googleplex . In August 2015 , Google announced plans to reorganize its various interests as a conglomerate called Alphabet Inc. . Google , Alphabet 's leading subsidiary , will continue to be the umbrella company for Alphabet 's Internet interests . Upon completion of the restructure , Sundar Pichai became CEO of Google , replacing Larry Page , who became CEO of Alphabet . Rapid growth since incorporation has triggered a chain of products , acquisitions , and partnerships beyond Google 's core search engine ( Google Search ) . It offers services designed for work and productivity ( Google Docs , Sheets and Slides ) , email ( Gmail/Inbox ) , scheduling and time management ( Google Calendar ) , cloud storage ( Google Drive ) , social networking ( Google + ) , instant messaging and video chat ( Google Allo/Duo/Hangouts ) , language translation ( Google Translate ) , mapping and turn-by-turn navigation ( Google Maps ) , video sharing ( YouTube ) , notetaking ( Google Keep ) , and photo organizing and editing ( Google Photos ) . The company leads the development of the Android mobile operating system , the Google Chrome web browser , and Chrome OS , a lightweight operating system based on the Chrome browser . Google has moved increasingly into hardware ; from 2010 to 2015 , it partnered with major electronics manufacturers in the production of its Nexus devices , and in October 2016 , it released multiple hardware products ( including the Google Pixel smartphone , Home smart speaker , Wifi mesh wireless router , and Daydream View virtual reality headset ) . The new hardware chief , Rick Osterloh , stated : `` a lot of the innovation that we want to do now ends up requiring controlling the end-to-end user experience '' . Google has also experimented with becoming an Internet carrier . In February 2010 , it announced Google Fiber , a fiber-optic infrastructure that was installed in Kansas City ; in April 2015 , it launched Project Fi in the United States , combining Wi-Fi and cellular networks from different providers ; and in 2016 , it announced the Google Station initiative to make public Wi-Fi around the world , which had already been deployed in India . Alexa , a company that monitors commercial web traffic , lists Google.com as the most visited website in the world . Several other Google services also figure in the top 100 most visited websites , including YouTube and Blogger . Google has been the second most valuable brand in the world for 4 consecutive years , but has received significant criticism involving issues such as privacy concerns , tax avoidance , antitrust , censorship , and search neutrality . Google 's mission statement , from the outset , was `` to organize the world 's information and make it universally accessible and useful '' , and its unofficial slogan was `` Do n't be evil '' . In October 2015 , the motto was replaced in the Alphabet corporate code of conduct by the phrase `` Do the right thing '' ." ]

[ "Climate change and potatoes Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .", "Climate of Kosovo Kosovo is a relatively small territory . Because of the climatic position and complicated structure of the relief , the country has a variety of climate systems . Kosovo lies in the south part of the middle geographical latitude of the northern hemisphere and it is affected by the Mediterranean Mild Climate and European Continental Climate . Important factors that affect Kosovo 's climate are : its position towards Eurasia and Africa , hydrographic masses ( Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean sea ) , atmospheric masses ( tropic , arctic and continental ) and others . Minor factors are : relief , hydrography , plain and vegetation .", "Population ethics Population ethics is the philosophical study of the ethical problems concerning populations . It is also sometimes called population axiology , which is `` the theory of when one state of affairs is better than another , where the states of affairs may differ over the number of people who ever live '' . It deals with the special problems that arise when actions or policies can not be said to affect individual persons but merely to substitute one group of people with another . Such problems usually only arise when our actions affect future generations . `` Most discussion in population ethics has concentrated on how to evaluate populations in regard to their goodness , that is , how to order populations by the relations `` is better than '' and `` is as good as '' . This field has been riddled with paradoxes which purport to show that our considered beliefs are inconsistent in cases where the number of people and their welfare varies . '' Population ethics is especially important when making large-scale decisions like those regarding climate policy . Population ethics may be also applied to evaluate scenarios that influence how people value averting deaths in charitable organizations .", "Political economy of climate change Political economy of climate change is an approach that applies the political economy thinking of collective or political processes to study the critical issues surrounding the decision-making on climate change . As the issue of climate change reaching the top of international agenda , the complexity of the environmental problems in combination with various other social political challenges have put great pressures on the scholars to explore a better understanding of the multiple actors and influencing factors that affect the climate change negotiation and to seek more effective solutions to tackle climate change . Analyzing these issues from a political economy perspective helps to explain the complex interactions between different stakeholders in respond to climate change impacts and provides broader opportunities to achieve better implementation of climate change policies .", "Ecological forecasting Ecological forecasting uses knowledge of physics , ecology and physiology to predict how ecosystems will change in the future in response to environmental factors such as climate change . The ultimate goal of the approach is to provide people such as resource managers and designers of marine reserves with information that they can then use to respond , in advance , to future changes , a form of adaptation to global warming . One of the most important environmental factors for organisms today is global warming . Most physiological processes are affected by temperature , and so even small changes in weather and climate can lead to large changes in the growth , reproduction and survival of animals and plants . The scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era . These changes are in turn affecting human and natural ecosystems . One major challenge is to predict where , when and with what magnitude changes are likely to occur so that we can mitigate or at least prepare for them . Ecological forecasting applies existing knowledge of how animals and plants interact with their physical environment to ask how changes in environmental factors might result in changes to the ecosystems as a whole .", "Orbital effects on climate There are various solar/celestial effects that exist which have an effect on Earth 's climate . These effects usually occur in cycles , and primarily include how Earth 's obliquity , the eccentricity of Earth 's orbit , and the precession of the equinoxes and solstices affect Earth 's climate . In addition to these effects , there are also other factors that have an effect on Earth 's climate . These other factors include how sun activity affects climate and how celestial phenomena , such as meteors , affect Earth 's climate . Some of these factors are n't yet well understood , for instance the ice ages occur on 100,000 year cycles , and it 's not completely understood why the various effects with this periodicity have such a strong effect on glaciation ( see the 100,000-year problem ) .", "Price-based selling Price-based selling is a specific selling technique in which a business exclusively reduces their price in attempt to close the sales cycle . Price-based selling clearly exists in businesses such as : commodity sales , auto sales , hospitality , and even some retail stores . However , it is only recommended that commodity items like petroleum be sold exclusively by price . Selling on price is even more apparent now in the current US economy as most businesses make the switch to the lowest price approach in attempt to attract more consumers . Car insurance companies like Progressive Auto Insurance advertise specifically with their price , as they promote the amount of money that can be saved by making the switch . Price-based selling may result in a good or service becoming a commodity and a commodity by definition is a product or service that has no differentiating qualities or characteristics from competing products or services in its class . A survey of Canadian consumers by Wishabi in 2009 finds that only 10 % of shoppers see price as the only factor , but a 2007 Shopzilla survey of 2000 shoppers showed that 49 % of consumers feel that price was the most important factor in their buying decision . Thus it can be seen that while pricing is not the only factor that matters , it is probably the most important .", "Copenhagen Climate Council The Copenhagen Climate Council is a global collaboration between international business and science founded by the leading independent think tank in Scandinavia , Monday Morning , based in Copenhagen . The councilors of the Copenhagen Climate Council have come together to create global awareness of the importance of the UN Climate Summit ( COP15 ) in Copenhagen , December 2009 , and to ensure technical and public support and assistance to global decision makers when agreeing on a new climate treaty to replace the Kyoto Protocol from 1997 .", "Uncertainties in building design and building energy assessment The detailed design of buildings needs to take into account various external factors , which may be subject to uncertainties . Among these factors are prevailing weather and climate ; the properties of the materials used and the standard of workmanship ; and the behaviour of occupants of the building . Several studies have indicated that it is the behavioural factors that are the most important among these . Methods have been developed to estimate the extent of variability in these factors and the resulting need to take this variability into account at the design stage .", "Kanaleneiland Kanaleneiland is a district within the Southwest section of the Dutch city of Utrecht . It was created in the massive expansion of the city in the 1960s . It was listed as one of 40 `` problem neighborhoods '' that required extra attention by the Dutch Ministry of Housing . Kanaleneiland 's residents have low levels of employment , health , and education . Approximately 76 % of the population are not ethnically Dutch , most of them of being of Turkish and Moroccan origin . This unique political climate is one that shaped the views of one of its ex-residents , national politician Geert Wilders .", "Environment of Canada The environment is the subject of ministries AT the federal and provincial level in Canada , with the current highest environmental government official being the national Minister of the Environment Catherine McKenna . Canada 's large land mass and coastline make it very susceptible to any climate changes , so any contemporary changes of climate in the country are of national concern . Of the factors caused by human intervention that can affect this environment , activities that sustain the economy of Canada such as oil and gas extraction , mining , forestry and fishing are influential . In 2011 United Nations said Canada 's environment was the best in the world Several governmental programs have been created to mitigate 20th and 21st century climate change , such as the One-Tonne Challenge . In late 2005 Canada hosted the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Montreal , Quebec . Hundreds of environmental organizations have been founded in Canada .", "Voting behavior Voting behavior is a form of political behavior . Understanding voters ' behavior can explain how and why decisions were made either by public decision-makers , which has been a central concern for political scientists , or by the electorate . To interpret voting behavior both political science and psychology expertise were necessary and therefore the field of political psychology emerged . Political psychology researchers study ways in which affective influence may help voters make more informed voting choices , with some proposing that affect may explain how the electorate makes informed political choices in spite of low overall levels of political attentiveness and sophistication . To make inferences and predictions about behavior concerning a voting decision , certain factors such as gender , race , culture or religion must be considered . Moreover , key public influences include the role of emotions , political socialization , tolerance of diversity of political views and the media . The effect of these influences on voting behavior is best understood through theories on the formation of attitudes , beliefs , schema , knowledge structures and the practice of information processing . For example , surveys from different countries indicate that people are generally happier in individualistic cultures where they have rights such as the right to vote . Additionally , social influence and peer effects , as originating from family and friends , also play an important role in elections and voting behavior . . An important question in this context is how to disentangle the social contagion by peers from external influences.The degree to which voting decision is affected by internal processes and external influences alters the quality of making truly democratic decisions .", "Sheena Iyengar Sheena S. Iyengar ( born November 29 , 1969 ) is the inaugural S.T. Lee Professor of Business in the Management Division at Columbia Business School . She is one of the world 's experts on choice . Her research focuses on : why people want choice , what affects how and what we choose , and how we can improve our decision-making outcomes .", "Scale factor (cosmology) The relative expansion of the universe is parametrized by a dimensionless scale factor . Also known as the cosmic scale factor or sometimes the Robertson-Walker scale factor , this is a key parameter of the Friedmann equations . In the early stages of the big bang , most of the energy was in the form of radiation , and that radiation was the dominant influence on the expansion of the universe . Later , with cooling from the expansion the roles of mass and radiation changed and the universe entered a mass-dominated era . Recently results suggest that we have already entered an era dominated by dark energy , but examination of the roles of mass and radiation are most important for understanding the early universe . Using the dimensionless scale factor to characterize the expansion of the universe , the effective energy densities of radiation and mass scale differently . This leads to a radiation-dominated era in the very early universe but a transition to a matter-dominated era at a later time and , since about 5 billion years ago , a subsequent dark energy-dominated era .", "Climate change in South Korea In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .", "Economics of global warming The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "NLRB v. Mackay Radio & Telegraph Co. NLRB v. Mackay Radio & Telegraph Co. 304 U.S. 333 ( 1938 ) is a 7-0 decision by the United States Supreme Court which held that workers who strike remain employees for the purposes of the National Labor Relations Act ( NLRA ) . The Court granted the relief sought by the National Labor Relations Board , which sought to have the workers reinstated by the employer . However , the decision is much better known today for its obiter dicta in which the Court said that an employer may hire strikebreakers and is not bound to discharge any of them if or when the strike ends . The Mackay doctrine , as the striker replacement portion of the ruling is known , is one of the most significant Supreme Court rulings in American labor law , and has defined collective bargaining in the United States since its publication . `` Mackay Radio was more than a decision that provided an instrumental method for a firm to replace economic strikers and to resist their return to employment after a strike . It was also a decision that established important practices that constituted the conduct of union-management bargaining during the post-New Deal Era . '' The ruling is also highly controversial , even 70 years later . It is strongly and uniformly condemned by labor unions , and resolutely defended by employers . In the legal community , however , `` the doctrine continues to provoke the notice and the nearly universal condemnation of scholars . ''", "Technology intelligence Technology Intelligence ( TI ) is an activity that enables companies to identify the technological opportunities and threats that could affect the future growth and survival of their business . It aims to capture and disseminate the technological information needed for strategic planning and decision making . As technology life cycles shorten and business become more globalized having effective TI capabilities is becoming increasingly important . In the United States , Project Socrates identified the exploitation of technology as the most effective foundation for decision making for the complete set of functions within the private and public sectors that determine competitiveness . The Centre for Technology Management has defined ` technology intelligence ' as `` the capture and delivery of technological information as part of the process whereby an organisation develops an awareness of technological threats and opportunities . ''", "David Titley David W. Titley is a professor of meteorology at Pennsylvania State University and the founding director of their Center for Solutions to Weather and Climate Risk . He was also NOAA 's chief operating officer from 2012 -- 2013 . Before assuming these positions , he was a rear admiral in , and the chief oceanographer of , the U.S. Navy , in which he served for 32 years . Titley initiated the Navy 's Task Force on Climate Change , and serves on the CNA Corporation 's Military Advisory Board . He was formerly a climate change skeptic , but later changed his mind after looking at the evidence of what factors influence climate -- which are , according to Titley , `` what are the larger things doing -- what is the ocean doing ? What is the sun doing ? And what 's our atmosphere doing ? '' Since then , he has described climate change as `` one of the driving forces in the 21st century '' and said that it contributed to the 2011 Arab Spring . The Department of Defense requested that Titley present on their behalf at both Congressional Hearings and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) meetings from 2009 to 2011 . Titley is a member of the Hoover Institution 's Arctic Security Initiative , and serves on the Advisory Boards of the Applied Research Laboratory at Penn State , the Center for Climate and Security , Columbia University 's Center for Research on Environmental Decisions , and the Association of Climate Change Officers . He is a member of the National Academies of Science committee on Geoengineering and the Center for Naval Analysis ' Military Advisory Board and co-chairs the National Research Council 's `` A Decadal Survey of Ocean Sciences '' committee . Titley sits on the Science and Security Board at the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists , which , among other things , enables him to participate in the discussions that determine the position of the Bulletin 's famed Doomsday Clock . Titley is also on the Advisory Board of Citizens Climate Lobby .", "Immunodeficiency Immunodeficiency ( or immune deficiency ) is a state in which the immune system 's ability to fight infectious disease and cancer is compromised or entirely absent . Most cases of immunodeficiency are acquired ( `` secondary '' ) due to extrinsic factors that affect the patient 's immune system . Examples of these extrinsic factors include HIV infection , extremes of age , and environmental factors , such as nutrition . In the clinical setting , the immunosuppression by some drugs , such as steroids , can be either an adverse effect or the intended purpose of the treatment . Examples of such use is in organ transplant surgery as an anti-rejection measure and in patients suffering from an overactive immune system , as in autoimmune diseases . Some people are born with intrinsic defects in their immune system , or primary immunodeficiency . A person who has an immunodeficiency of any kind is said to be immunocompromised . An immunocompromised person may be particularly vulnerable to opportunistic infections , in addition to normal infections that could affect everyone . Immunodeficiency also decreases cancer immunosurveillance , in which the immune system scans the body 's cells and kills neoplastic ones .", "Sustainable product development Sustainable product development ( SPD ) is a method for product development that incorporates a Framework for Strategic Sustainable Development ( FSSD ) , also known as The Natural Step ( TNS ) framework . As the demand for products continues to increase around the world and environmental factors like climate change increasingly affect policies - and thus business - it becomes more and more of a competitive advantage for businesses to consider sustainability aspects early on in the product development process .", "Boulder Climate Action Plan The Climate Action Plan ( CAP ) is a set of strategies intended to guide community efforts for reducing greenhouse gas emissions . Those strategies have focused on improving energy efficiency and conservation in our homes and businesses -- the source of nearly three-fourths of local emissions . The plan also promotes strategies to reduce emissions from transportation , which account for over 20 percent of our local greenhouse gas sources .", "Tactical litigation Tactical litigation is a type of litigation which is not used for the normal purposes of victory on the merits , but instead , to give expression to a tactical goal . One of the most well known uses of tactical litigation , is the use of lawsuits for manufacturing delay , for example as an environmental authority to prevent a decision being taken to remove a wilderness area . Category : Legal terminology Category : Abuse of the legal system Category : Ethically disputed judicial practices", "McCleskey v. Kemp McCleskey v. Kemp , 481 U.S. 279 ( 1987 ) , was a United States Supreme Court case , in which the death penalty sentencing of Warren McCleskey for armed robbery and murder was upheld . The Court said the `` racially disproportionate impact '' in the Georgia death penalty indicated by a comprehensive scientific study was not enough to overturn the guilty verdict without showing a `` racially discriminatory purpose . '' McCleskey has been described as the `` most far-reaching post-Gregg challenge to capital sentencing . '' McCleskey was named one of the worst Supreme Court decisions since World War II by a Los Angeles Times survey among legal scholars . In a New York Times comment eight days after the decision , Anthony Lewis charged that the Supreme Court had `` effectively condoned the expression of racism in a profound aspect of our law . '' Anthony G. Amsterdam called it `` the Dred Scott decision of our time . '' Justice Lewis Powell , when asked by his biographer if he wanted to change his vote in any case , replied , `` Yes , McCleskey v. Kemp . ''", "Lists of landmark court decisions Landmark court decisions , in present day common law legal systems , establish precedents that determine a significant new legal principle or concept , or otherwise substantially affect the interpretation of existing law . `` Leading case '' is commonly used in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth jurisdictions instead of `` landmark case '' as used in the United States . In Commonwealth countries , a reported decision is said to be a leading decision when it has come to be generally regarded as settling the law of the question involved . In 1914 , Canadian jurist Augustus Henry Frazer Lefroy said `` a ` leading case ' -LSB- is -RSB- one that settles the law upon some important point . '' A leading decision may settle the law in more than one way . It may do so by : Distinguishing a new principle that refines a prior principle , thus departing from prior practice without violating the rule of stare decisis ; Establishing a `` test '' ( that is , a measurable standard that can be applied by courts in future decisions ) , such as the Oakes test ( in Canadian law ) or the Bolam test ( in English law ) . Sometimes , with regard to a particular provision of a written constitution , only one court decision has been made . By necessity , until further rulings are made , this ruling is the leading case . For example , in Canada , '' -LSB- t -RSB- he leading case on voting rights and electoral boundary readjustment is Carter . In fact , Carter is the only case of disputed electoral boundaries to have reached the Supreme Court . '' The degree to which this kind of leading case can be said to have `` settled '' the law is less than in situations where many rulings have reaffirmed the same principle .", "Invader potential In conservation biology , invader potential is the qualitative and quantitative measure of a given invasive species probability to invade a given ecosystem . Exotic species with high invader potential are ones with high tolerance of different climates , dissolved oxygen content ( for aquatic organisms ) , high propagule pressure and species with a large number of individuals introduced . The last factor is called a transport vector , for instance , sea lampreys and zebra mussels were transported into the Great Lakes through the vector of ballast water in ships . Transport vector is one of the most important factors , because if a large enough number of individuals are transported to an area that they can not thrive in , a mutation within that population to thrive in the new ecosystem is more likely . Most invaders are adapted to disturbed areas , so ecosystems that have been disrupted or roadside ditches are susceptible to invasion . Climate matching is one of the most common measures of invader potential . Mostly exotic species that have already exhibited invasive traits are studied . Biotic resistance is a controversial concept in invader potential . Small scale studies have borne the concept of diversity resistance , that diverse ecosystems resist invasions better than less diverse ecosystems . However , evidence on regional scales finds a positive correlation between diversity and number of invasions . The exact interpretation of these studies is unclear .", "Response bias Response bias is a general term for a wide range of cognitive biases that influence the responses of participants away from an accurate or truthful response . These biases are most prevalent in the types of studies and research that involve participant self-report , such as structured interviews or surveys . Response biases can have a large impact on the validity of questionnaires or surveys . Response bias can be induced or caused by a number of factors , all relating to the idea that human subjects do not respond passively to stimuli , but rather actively integrate multiple sources of information to generate a response in a given situation . Because of this , almost any aspect of an experimental condition may potentially bias a respondent . Examples include the phrasing of questions in surveys , the demeanor of the researcher , the way the experiment is conducted , or the desires of the participant to be a good experimental subject and to provide socially desirable responses may affect the response in some way . All of these `` artifacts '' of survey and self-report research may have the potential to damage the validity of a measure or study . Compounding this issue is that surveys affected by response bias still often have high reliability , which can lure researchers into a false sense of security about the conclusions they draw . Because of response bias , it is possible that some study results are due to a systematic response bias rather than the hypothesized effect , which can have a profound effect on psychological and other types of research using questionnaires or surveys . It is therefore important for researchers to be aware of response bias and the effect it can have on their research so that they can attempt to prevent it from impacting their findings in a negative manner .", "Big Five personality traits The Big Five personality traits , also known as the five factor model ( FFM ) , is a model based on common language descriptors of personality . When factor analysis ( a statistical technique ) is applied to personality survey data , some words used to describe aspects of personality are often applied to the same person . For example , someone described as `` conscientious '' is more likely to be described as `` always prepared '' rather than `` messy '' . This widely examined theory suggests five broad dimensions used by some psychologists to describe the human personality and psyche . The five factors have been defined as openness to experience , conscientiousness , extraversion , agreeableness , and neuroticism , often listed under the acronyms OCEAN or CANOE . Beneath each proposed global factor , a number of correlated and more specific primary factors are claimed . For example , extraversion is said to include such related qualities as gregariousness , assertiveness , excitement seeking , warmth , activity , and positive emotions . That these factors can be found is consistent with the lexical hypothesis : firstly that those personality characteristics that are most important in peoples ' lives will eventually become a part of their language ; secondly that more important personality characteristics are more likely to be encoded into language as a single word .", "Weather and climate effects on Lyme disease exposure Lyme disease is spread to humans through the bite of infected ticks . The tick population is affected by weather and climate . Many factors determine tick population densities as well as diseased population densities of ticks so that no single factor can determine likelihood of exposure to tick-borne disease . Overall climate and primary host population determine the localities where ticks will thrive . However , studies have been conducted which correlate tick population to climate change and their behavior to weather patterns . Ticks are parasites which carry a myriad of infectious diseases that depend on the species of tick . Overall climate is more determinate of tick population and daily weather has a subtle effect on the spread of tick-borne disease . Being mindful of daily weather patterns and vigilantly avoiding exposure to ticks reduces human exposure to Lyme disease .", "World Architecture Survey The World Architecture Survey was conducted in 2010 by Vanity Fair , to determine the most important works of contemporary architecture . 52 leading architects , teachers , and critics , including several Pritzker Prize winners and deans of major architecture schools were asked for their opinion . The survey asked two questions : What are the five most important buildings , bridges , or monuments constructed since 1980 ? What is the greatest work of architecture thus far in the 21st century ? While the range of responses was very broad , more than half of the experts surveyed named the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao by Frank Gehry as one of the most important works since 1980 . The Beijing National Stadium ( Bird 's Nest stadium ) in Beijing by Herzog and de Meuron was the building most often cited , by seven respondents , as the most significant structure of the 21st century so far . Counted by architect , works by Frank Gehry received the most votes , followed by those of Rem Koolhaas . The result of the survey led Vanity Fair to label Gehry as `` the most important architect of our age '' .", "Animal Spirits: How Human Psychology Drives the Economy, and Why It Matters for Global Capitalism Animal Spirits : How Human Psychology Drives the Economy , and Why It Matters for Global Capitalism ( 2009 ) is a book written to promote the understanding of the role played by emotions in influencing economic decision making . According to the authors , economists have tended to de-emphasize the importance of emotional factors , as the effects of emotions are difficult to model and quantify . The book asserts that a variety of otherwise puzzling questions can be answered once one allows for the effect that emotional drives , or `` animal spirits , '' have on economic factors . Akerlof and Shiller began writing the book in 2003 . While finishing the work after the Financial crisis of 2007-2008 the authors set themselves the additional aim of promoting a much more aggressive US government intervention to alleviate the crises than has been seen as of February 2009 . They repeatedly stress the need for decisive action targeted at restoring credit flows , and that the overall stimulus from the government needs to be much larger than would otherwise be the case due to very low levels of confidence about short and medium term economic prospects .", "Labour rights in New Zealand Labour rights in New Zealand are largely covered by both statute , particularly the Employment Relations Act 2000 , and common law ( including cases , judicial decisions and tribunal decision ) . The Ministry of Business , Innovation and Employment carries out most of the day to day administrative functions surrounding labour rights and their practical application in the state . New Zealand is committed to a number of international institutions and treaties and is widely regarded as one of the world 's pioneers in terms of enforcement of and protection of labour rights and obligations ." ]

[ "Earth Earth ( from Eorðe -LSB- Γαῖα , Gaia -RSB- Terra ) , otherwise known as the World or the Globe , is the third planet from the Sun and the only object in the Universe known to harbor life . It is the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest of the four terrestrial planets . According to radiometric dating and other sources of evidence , Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago . Earth 's gravity interacts with other objects in space , especially the Sun and the Moon , Earth 's only natural satellite . During one orbit around the Sun , Earth rotates about its axis over 365 times ; thus , an Earth year is about 365.26 days long . Earth 's axis of rotation is tilted , producing seasonal variations on the planet 's surface . The gravitational interaction between the Earth and Moon causes ocean tides , stabilizes the Earth 's orientation on its axis , and gradually slows its rotation . Earth 's lithosphere is divided into several rigid tectonic plates that migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years . About 71 % of Earth 's surface is covered with water , mostly by its oceans . The remaining 29 % is land consisting of continents and islands that together have many lakes , rivers and other sources of water that contribute to the hydrosphere . The majority of Earth 's polar regions are covered in ice , including the Antarctic ice sheet and the sea ice of the Arctic ice pack . Earth 's interior remains active with a solid iron inner core , a liquid outer core that generates the Earth 's magnetic field , and a convecting mantle that drives plate tectonics . Within the first billion years of Earth 's history , life appeared in the oceans and began to affect the Earth 's atmosphere and surface , leading to the proliferation of aerobic and anaerobic organisms . Some geological evidence indicates that life may have arisen as much as 4.1 billion years ago . Since then , the combination of Earth 's distance from the Sun , physical properties , and geological history have allowed life to evolve and thrive . In the history of the Earth , biodiversity has gone through long periods of expansion , occasionally punctuated by mass extinction events . Over 99 % of all species that ever lived on Earth are extinct . Estimates of the number of species on Earth today vary widely ; most species have not been described . Over 7.4 billion humans live on Earth and depend on its biosphere and minerals for their survival . Humans have developed diverse societies and cultures ; politically , the world has about 200 sovereign states .", "Paleocene The Paleocene ( -LSB- pronˈpæliəˌsiːn , _ ˈpæ - , _ - lioʊ - -RSB- ) or Palaeocene , the `` old recent '' , is a geologic epoch that lasted from about . It is the first epoch of the Paleogene Period in the modern Cenozoic Era . As with many geologic periods , the strata that define the epoch 's beginning and end are well identified , but the exact ages remain uncertain . The Paleocene Epoch brackets two major events in Earth 's history . It started with the mass extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous , known as the Cretaceous -- Paleogene ( K -- Pg ) boundary . This was a time marked by the demise of non-avian dinosaurs , giant marine reptiles and much other fauna and flora . The die-off of the dinosaurs left unfilled ecological niches worldwide . The Paleocene ended with the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , a geologically brief ( ~ 0.2 million year ) interval characterized by extreme changes in climate and carbon cycling . The name `` Paleocene '' comes from Ancient Greek and refers to the `` old ( er ) '' ( παλαιός , palaios ) `` new '' ( καινός , kainos ) fauna that arose during the epoch .", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Temperature record of the past 1000 years For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .", "2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .", "Climate of Miami Miami has a tropical monsoon climate ( Köppen climate classification Am ) with hot and humid summers and short , warm winters , with a marked drier season in the winter . Köppen climate classification Its sea-level elevation , coastal location , position just above the Tropic of Cancer , and proximity to the Gulf Stream shape its climate . With January averaging 69.2 F , winter features warm temperatures ; cool air usually settles after the passage of a cold front , which produces much of the little amount of rainfall . Lows sometimes fall to or below 50 F , with an average 3 such occurrences annually , but very rarely 40 F ; from 1981 to 2010 , temperatures reached that level in only eight calendar years . Highs generally reach 70 F or higher , and fail to do so on only an average of 12 days annually . The wet season usually begins during the month of May and continues through mid-October . During this period , temperatures are in the mid 80s to low 90s ( 29 -- 35 ° C ) , accompanied by high humidity , though the heat is often relieved by afternoon thunderstorms or a sea breeze that develops off the Atlantic Ocean , which then allow lower temperatures , but conditions still remain very muggy . Much of the year 's 61.9 in of rainfall occurs during this period . Extreme temperatures range from 26.5 ° F ( recorded as 27 in the almanac ) on February 3 , 1917 , to 100 ° F on July 21 , 1942 , ( − 2.8 to 38 ° C ) , the triple-digit ( ° F ) reading on record ; the more recent freezing temperature seen at Miami International Airport was on December 25 , 1989 . The highest daily minimum temperature is 84 ° F on August 4 , 1993 and September 7 , 1897 ( although the corresponding record for Miami Beach is 90 ° F on July 17 , 2001 ) , and conversely , the lowest daily maximum temperature is 45 ° F on February 19 , 1900 . While Miami has never officially recorded any accumulating snowfall since records have been kept , there were dubious claims of snow flurries on January 19 , 1977 during the cold wave of January 1977 . Weather conditions for the area around Miami were recorded sporadically from 1839 until 1900 , with many years-long gaps . A cooperative temperature and rainfall recording site was established in what is now Downtown in December 1900 . An official Weather Bureau Office opened in Miami in June 1911 . Heavy snow squalls with accumulations that lasted for a few hours after the snow had stopped falling in February 1899 were reported , but these are not official since there is no written record of it . Miami receives abundant rainfall , one of the highest among major cities in the United States . Most of this rainfall occurs from mid-May through early October . Miami has an average annual rainfall of 61.9 in , whereas nearby Fort Lauderdale and Miami Beach receive 66.5 in and 51.7 in , respectively , which demonstrates the high local variability in rainfall rates . Miami reports more thunderstorms than most US cities , with about eighty days per year having thunder reported . These storms are often strong , with frequent lightning and very heavy rain . Occasionally , they can be severe with damaging straight line winds and large hail . Tornadoes and waterspouts sometimes occur , although violent tornadoes of the type seen in other parts of the United States are rare in Florida . During El Niño events , Miami becomes cooler than normal during the dry season with above average precipitation . During La Niña , Miami becomes warmer and drier than normal . A record setting 12-day cold snap in January 2010 was the coldest period since at least the 1940s . During the cold wave of January 1977 that saw snowfall over the majority of the state , isolated flurries have been observed on the outskirts of Miami , which is the only recorded snowfall in the history of the region . The climate for much of the state is humid subtropical ( Köppen Cfa ) , South Florida , as well as all of the Florida Keys , qualify as one of several tropical classifications ( Köppen Aw , Am , or Af ) . Köppen climate classification Southeastern Florida falls into USDA zone 10b for plant hardiness , where annual extreme low temperatures range from 30 to , versus zone 9 in Central Florida , and zone 8 in northern Florida . With global warming , the urban heat island effect , as well as Biscayne Bay as a buffer , the waterside downtown area and the barrier islands including Miami Beach made it into hardiness zone 11a by 2012 . Miami Beach has virtually no freezing weather in its history and very few sub - 40 F weather . Roughly 115 mi north of Miami , Jensen Beach is at the threshold of Florida 's tropical climate designation , with January having an average about 64 F. Southeastern Florida is also the only area in the continental United States to be in Zone 1 for Energy Star recommended insulation levels , with Hawaii , Puerto Rico , and the US Virgin Islands .", "1C Company 1C Company ( Russian : Фирма `` 1С '' ) is an independent Russian software developers and publishers . Its headquarters are in Moscow , Russia . It is best known outside Russia as a video game developer whose presence has come to dominate events like the KRI , and whose products have begun to show up for international platforms like the Xbox . On the internal Russian market , 1C is considered a leader in business software as well . 1C 's comprehensive business software suite 1C : Предприятие ( 1C : Predpriyatiye , 1C : Enterprise ) has held an overwhelming market share for over a decade . 1C is also a leader in localizing and publishing Russian-language versions of international software . For instance , more than half of popular Western video games are licensed and published by 1C . The company has over 700 employees , 10,000 business partners , 4,500 authorized retailers , 1,200 training centers , 200 authorized certification locations and over 280 stores in 100 cities .", "Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "Climate of Sindh The province of Sindh is situated in a subtropical region ; it is hot in the summer and cold in winter . Temperatures frequently rise above 46 ° C between May and August , and the minimum average temperature of 2 ° C occurs during December and January . The annual rainfall averages about seven inches , falling mainly during July and August . The southwesterly monsoon wind begins to blow in mid-February and continues until the end of September , whereas the cool northerly wind blows during the winter months from October to January . Sindh lies between the two monsoons -- the southwest monsoon from the Indian Ocean and the northeast or retreating monsoon , deflected towards it by the Himalayan mountains -- and escapes the influence of both . The average rainfall in Sindh is only 6 - per year . The region 's scarcity of rainfall is compensated by the inundation of the Indus twice a year , caused by the spring and summer melting of Himalayan snow and by rainfall in the monsoon season . These natural patterns have recently changed somewhat with the construction of dams and barrages on the Indus River . Parts of southeastern Sindh receive rainfall of up to 36 in and some cities have received very heavy rainfall on occasion . In 2005 , Hyderabad received 14.4 in in just 11 hours . Sindh is divided into three climatic regions : Siro ( the upper region , centred on Jacobabad ) , Wicholo ( the middle region , centred on Hyderabad ) , and Lar ( the lower region , centred on Karachi ) . The thermal equator passes through upper Sindh , where the air is generally very dry . The highest temperature ever recorded in Sindh was 53.5 C , which was recorded in Mohenjo-daro on 26 May 2010 . It was not only the hottest temperature ever recorded in Pakistan but also the hottest reliably measured temperature ever recorded in the continent of Asia and the fourth highest temperature ever recorded on earth . The previous record for Sindh and Pakistan , and for all of Asia , had been 52.8 C , reached on 12 June 1919 . In the winters , frost is common . Central Sindh 's temperatures are generally lower than those of upper Sindh but higher than those of lower Sindh . Dry hot days and cool nights are typical during the summer . Central Sindh 's maximum temperature typically reaches 43 - . Lower Sindh has a damper and humid maritime climate affected by the southwestern winds in summer and northeastern winds in winter , with lower rainfall than Central Sindh . Lower Sindh 's maximum temperature reaches about 35 - . In the Kirthar range at 1800 m and higher at Gorakh Hill and other peaks in Dadu District , temperatures near freezing have been recorded and brief snowfall is received in the winters.In gorakh temperatures in winter nights can sour down to -15 . The highest temperatures each year in Pakistan , typically rising to above 48 ° C , are usually recorded in Shaheed Benazeerabad District ( previously called Nawabshah District ) and Sibbi from May to August . Sometimes the temperature falls to 0 ° C ; on rare occasions ( once every 25 years or so ) it has fallen to below -7 ° C in December or January .", "Stream Global Services Stream Global Services ( formerly known as Global BPO Services Corp. ) , was a BPO company acquired by Convergys through a definitive merger , with more than 37,000 employees in 22 countries in 50 contact centers ; it managed more than 100 million voice , e-mail , and chat contacts a year . The footprint of the company included countries across North America , Europe , Asia Pacific , Latin America , Middle East and Africa delivering service in over 35 languages .", "Phil Popham Phil Popham was Global Operations Director for the global Jaguar Land Rover business , responsible for the fortunes of the companies worldwide . Having spent almost his entire career with Land Rover ( he joined in 1988 ) , he took up his current position in December 2010 . He presided over a period of rapid growth for the company , leading to record sales of more than 200,000 vehicles . Jaguar Land Rover announced his resignation on 28 November 2014 to take up the position of CEO , Sunseeker International .", "Climate of Brazil The climate of Brazil varies considerably mostly from tropical north ( the equator traverses the mouth of the Amazon ) to temperate zones south of the Tropic of Capricorn ( 23 ° 26 ' S latitude ) . Temperatures below the equator are high , averaging above 25 ° C , but not reaching the summer extremes of up to 40 ° C in the temperate zones . There is little seasonal variation near the equator , although at times it can get cool enough to need to wear a jacket , especially in the rain . Average temperatures below the Tropic of Capricorn are mild , ranging from 13 ° C to 22 ° C. At the country 's other extreme , there are frosts south of the Tropic of Capricorn and during the winter ( June -- September ) , and in some years there are snowfalls on the high plateau and mountainous areas of some regions . Snow falls in the mountains of the states of Rio Grande do Sul , Santa Catarina , and Paraná and it is possible but very rare in the states of São Paulo , Rio de Janeiro , Minas Gerais , and Espírito Santo . The cities of Belo Horizonte and Brasília have moderate temperatures , usually between 15 and , because of their elevation of approximately 1000 m. Rio de Janeiro , Recife , and Salvador on the coast have warm climates , with average temperatures of each month ranging from 23 to , but enjoy constant trade winds . The cities of São Paulo , Curitiba , Florianópolis and Porto Alegre have a subtropical climate similar to that of southern United States , and temperatures can fall below freezing in winter . Precipitation levels vary widely . Most of Brazil has moderate rainfall of between 1000 and a year , with most of the rain falling in the summer ( between December and April ) south of the Equator . The Amazon region is notoriously humid , with rainfall generally more than 2000 mm per year and reaching as high as 3000 mm in parts of the western Amazon and near Belém . It is less widely known that , despite high annual precipitation , the Amazon rain forest has a three - to five-month dry season , the timing of which varies according to location north or south of the equator . High and relatively regular levels of precipitation in the Amazon contrast sharply with the dryness of the semiarid Northeast , where rainfall is highly erratic and there are severe droughts in cycles averaging seven years . The Northeast is the driest part of the country . The region also constitutes the hottest part of Brazil , where during the dry season between May and November , temperatures of more than 38 ° C have been recorded . However , the sertão , a region of semidesert vegetation used primarily for low-density ranching , turns green when there is rain . Most of the Center-West has 1500 to of rain per year , with a pronounced dry season in the middle of the year , while the South and most of the East is without a distinct dry season . Because the South Atlantic basin is generally not a favorable environment for their development , Brazil has only rarely experienced tropical cyclones . The country 's coastal population centers are therefore not as burdened with the need to prepare for cyclones , as are cities at similar latitudes in the United States and Asia .", "Megachurch A megachurch is a Christian church having 2,000 or more people in average weekend attendance . In 2010 , the Hartford Institute 's database listed more than 1,300 such Protestant churches in the United States ; according to that data , approximately 50 churches on the list had average attendance exceeding 10,000 , with the highest recorded at 47,000 in average attendance . On one weekend in November 2015 , around one in ten Protestant churchgoers in the US , or about 5 million people , attended service in a megachurch . While 3,000 individual Catholic parishes have 2,000 or more attendants for an average Sunday Mass , these Catholic churches are not seen as part of the megachurch movement , because -- by definition -- megachurches are a part of Protestantism . Globally , these large congregations are a significant development in Protestant Christianity . In the United States , the phenomenon has more than quadrupled in the past two decades . It has since spread worldwide . In 2007 , five of the ten largest Protestant churches were in South Korea . The largest megachurch in the United States is Lakewood Church in Houston , Texas with more than 40,000 members every weekend and the current largest megachurch in the world is South Korea 's Yoido Full Gospel Church , an Assemblies of God church , with more than 830,000 members as of 2007 .", "List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "March 2012 North American heat wave In March 2012 , one of the greatest heat waves was observed in many regions of North America . Very warm air pushed northward west of the Great Lakes region , and subsequently spread eastward . The intense poleward air mass movement was propelled by an unusually intense low level southerly jet that stretched from Louisiana to western Wisconsin . Once this warm surge inundated the area , a remarkably prolonged period of record setting temperatures ensued . NOAA 's National Climate Data Center reported that over 7,000 daily record high temperatures were tied or broken from 1 March through 27 March . In some places the temperature exceeded 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) . For instance , in Grand Rapids , Michigan , the highest temperature recorded was 87 ° F on March 21 ; in Chicago a high of 87 ° F was also recorded on that same day . Records were broken in unusual ways . Chicago , for example , saw temperatures above 80 ° F every day between March 14 -- 18 , breaking records on all five days . Chicago would go on to record eight days at or above 80 ° F during the month , with many suburban areas recording an additional day in the 80s on March 19 ( that day , the city only tied its record high of 78 ° F ) . In context , the National Weather Service 's Chicago branch noted that Chicago typically averages only one day in the 80 's in April . And only once in 140 years of weather observations has April produced as many 80 ° F days as this March . In Traverse City , Michigan one day began with a low temperature ( 67 ° F ) higher than the previous record high for the day . Temperature records across much of southern Canada also were shattered . Some of the most impressive readings came from Nova Scotia on March 22 , when the mercury climbed to 30.0 C at a climate station in Lake Major , making it the highest March temperature recorded in Nova Scotia , and the third highest March temperature recorded in Canada . That same day , the temperature hit 29.2 C at Western Head , Nova Scotia . The heat reached as far east as Cape Breton Island , with the temperature climbing to 24.0 C at Sydney , Nova Scotia on March 22 , a place historically surrounded by ice-jammed waters , frigid winds , and snow in March . The week of March 18 also set record temperatures in Manitoba and much of Ontario as well as into the Maritime Provinces . Non-severe thunderstorms were reported on the evening hours of March 21 , through to the early morning hours March 22 into northern Ontario . In addition , NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis data show that the atmospheric pattern was so persistent that much of the Midwest and Northeast , and up into Ontario , had temperature departures over periods of several days to a week or more of magnitudes which would be unusual even for a single day . Averaged over the seven-day period from March 16 to March 22 inclusive , nearly the entire area of the Midwest and Northeast U.S. and most of Ontario and Quebec had temperatures 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) or more above the 1981-2010 average . Even more dramatically , most of Iowa and Minnesota , all of Wisconsin and Michigan , and most of southeastern Ontario had seven-day mean temperatures more than 15 ° C ( 27 ° F ) above the climatological average for the same period . An 84 ° F high at Madison , WI in early March was 43 ° F above average and followed an overnight low of 60 ° F , 35 degrees above normal the daily high being more than seven standard deviations above the mean . The absolute temperature and departure statistically would be equivalent to a mid-July high at that station in excess of 125 ° F or more ; the highest temperature recorded there was 107 ° at least once during the heat waves of the middle 1930s . This mild warm spell brought out spring peepers in northern Ontario on 23 March , which are usually not heard until mid-to-late April , or sometimes early May . The warm weather was also responsible for several early-season tornado touchdowns , such as the EF3 that struck Dexter , Michigan , near Ann Arbor .", "Public Relations Global Network The Public Relations Global Network ( PRGN ) is globally one of the 4 biggest PR networks of independent agencies . PRGN is made up of almost 50 partnering agencies operating in more than 80 markets around the world and provides public relations services to more than 1,000 clients . The network started in 1992 in Phoenix , Arizona ( United States ) and is registered in Delaware since 2003 .", "Eudora, Missouri Eudora is an unincorporated community in southwestern Polk County , Missouri , United States . It is located at the intersection of Route 123 and Route 215 about twenty miles northwest of Springfield . Eudora is part of the Springfield Metropolitan Statistical Area . The average temperature is 58.25 ° F , 3.75 ° F higher than the nationwide average ( 54.50 ° F ) , and 3 % higher than the Missouri average of 56.55 ° F. In the summer , temperatures rise to 75.7 ° F on average . The winter average is 43.5 ° F . It is collected over the last 32 years . Category : Unincorporated communities in Polk County , Missouri Category : Springfield , Missouri metropolitan area Category : Unincorporated communities in Missouri", "Gandhi (bookstore) Gandhi Bookstores were created in the year of 1971 ; they are now one of the biggest bookstores chains in Mexico . After 40 years and more than 36 stores all over the country , besides being one of the biggest chains , it is also the most known .", "Gross national income in the European Union Gross national income at market prices in the European Union of 27 Member States ( GNI ) amounted to EUR 25000 per inhabitant in 2008 . In 2009 GNI in EU-27 fell by -5.5 % over the year 2008 . In 2007 , the highest per capita GNI measured in purchasing power standards ( PPS ) was recorded for Luxembourg ( more than twice of the EU-27 average ) and the lowest was recorded for Bulgaria ( less than half of the EU-27 average ) . Estonia , Ireland , Latvia and Lithuania were the Member States that in 2009 suffered the most from the recession experiencing declines of more than 10 % in GNI ( measured in PPS ) over 2008 .", "Global warming controversy The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "Fundy Geological Museum The Fundy Geological Museum is a geological museum in Parrsboro , Nova Scotia , Canada . It first opened in 1993 . It has received over 300,000 visitors since it opened , averaging more than 21,000 per year . The museum is part of the Nova Scotia Museum system .", "List of Connecticut tornadoes Although historically the U.S. state of Connecticut is not typically known to fall casualty to tornadoes , more than 100 of these powerful storms have affected the state in modern history , resulting in at least 48 deaths , 780 injuries , and more than $ 500 million in damage . This list of tornadoes in the state is likely incomplete , as official records date back only to 1950 for tornadoes in the United States . As with most of the northeastern United States , the number of tornadoes peaks in the summer months , normally in July or August . Hartford County has had the most tornadoes in the state , although since 1950 Litchfield County has reported the most tornadoes . Several areas have been struck more than once , and Waterbury has been struck by no less than four tornadoes since 1955 . From 1953 to 1991 , Connecticut recorded an average of about 1.3 tornadoes per year , ranked 43rd in the United States . Although Connecticut tornadoes are typically weak , isolated events can be violent . Three tornadoes of F4 intensity have affected the state in its history , as well as at least 27 tornadoes of F2 intensity or greater . Outbreaks of three or more tornadoes in a single day occurred in 1786 , 1787 , 1878 , 1973 , 1989 , 1998 , and 2001 . The year 1973 was particularly active ; eight tornadoes occurred on six separate days . The 1878 Wallingford tornado killed at least 29 and likely 34 people in Wallingford , the most by any tornado event in Connecticut history .", "Hulton family of Hulton The Hulton family of Hulton lived and owned land in Lancashire for more than eight hundred years from the late-12th to the late-20th centuries . The family took its name from the three townships surrounding their Hulton Park Estate , Over , Middle and Little Hulton .", "Highest temperature recorded on Earth The standard measuring conditions for temperature are in the air , 1.5 meters above the ground , and shielded from direct sunlight . The highest confirmed temperature on Earth recorded according to these measures was 56.7 C in Furnace Creek Ranch , California , located in the Death Valley desert in the United States , on July 10 , 1913 . The former highest official temperature on Earth , held for 90 years by ` Aziziya , Libya , was de-certified by the WMO ( World Meteorological Organization ) in January 2012 as the record for the world 's highest surface temperature ( this temperature of 57.8 ° C ( 136 ° F ) , registered on 13 September 1922 , is currently considered to have been a recorder 's error ) . Christopher C. Burt , the weather historian writing for Weather Underground who shepherded the Libya reading 's 2012 disqualification , believes that the 1913 Death Valley reading is `` a myth '' , and is at least four or five degrees Fahrenheit too high , as do other weather historians Dr. Arnold Court and William Taylor Reid . Burt proposes that the highest reliably recorded temperature on Earth is still at Death Valley , but is instead 53.9 C recorded five times : 20 July 1960 , 18 July 1998 , 20 July 2005 , 7 July 2007 , and 30 June 2013 . Temperatures measured directly on the ground may exceed air temperatures by 30 to 50 ° C . A ground temperature of 84 ° C ( 183.2 ° F ) has been recorded in Port Sudan , Sudan . A ground temperature of 93.9 ° C ( 201 ° F ) was recorded also in Furnace Creek Ranch on 15 July 1972 ; this may be the highest natural ground surface temperature ever recorded . The theoretical maximum possible ground surface temperature has been estimated to be between 90 and 100 ° C for dry , darkish soils of low thermal conductivity . Temperature measurements via satellite also tend to capture occurrence of higher records but are considered less reliable than ground-positioned thermometers . There is a satellite record of 66.8 C measured in the Flaming Mountains of China in 2008 . Other satellite measurements of ground temperature taken between 2003 and 2009 , taken with the MODIS infrared spectroradiometer on the Aqua satellite , found a maximum temperature of 70.7 ° C ( 159.3 ° F ) , which was recorded in 2005 in the Lut Desert , Iran . The Lut Desert was also found to have the highest maximum temperature in 5 of the 7 years measured ( 2004 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 and 2009 ) . These measurements reflect averages over a large region and so are lower than the maximum point surface temperature .", "GlobalGiving GlobalGiving is 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in the United States that provides a global crowdfunding platform for grassroots charitable projects . Since 2002 , more than 560,000 donors on GlobalGiving have raised more than $ 245 million to support more than 15,000 projects in 165 countries .", "Demographics of Switzerland This article is about the demographic features of the population of Switzerland , including population density , ethnicity , education level , health of the populace , economic status , religious affiliations and other aspects of the population . Switzerland had a population of 8.02 million as of 2012 . Its population quadrupled over the period 1800 to 1990 ( average doubling time 95 years ) . Population growth was steepest in the period after World War II ( 1.4 % per annum during 1950-1970 , doubling time 50 years ) , it slowed down during the 1970s to 1980s and has since again picked up to 1 % during the 2000s ( doubling time 70 years ) . More than 75 % of the population live in the central plain , which stretches between the Alps and the Jura Mountains and from Geneva in the southwest to the Rhine River and Lake Constance in the northeast . Foreigners with permanent residency ( which does not include temporary foreign workers ) make up about 23 % of the population .", "Health in Spain In 2012 , life expectancy at birth in Spain reached 82.5 years , one of the highest among OECD countries and more than two years higher than the OECD average ( 80.2 years ) . Only Japan ( 83.2 years ) , Iceland ( 83.0 years ) and Switzerland ( 82.8 years ) had a higher life expectancy than Spain in 2012 . The top three causes of death since 1970 have been cardiovascular diseases , cancer and respiratory diseases .", "Showroomprive.com Showroomprive.com is a French e-commerce company , specialised in online flash sales . Founded in 2006 , the website offers daily exclusive sales of famous brands , in France and in 8 other European countries . 10 years later , the group has become one of the biggest online retailers in Europe and has reached more than 26 million members . Since its beginning , the website 's sales and revenue have increased steadily . In 2015 , the net revenue of Showroomprivé reached $ 443M , with an average annual growth rate of 28 % . The company has a net revenue goal of $ 750M by 2018 .", "Global Personals Global Personals is an online dating company founded and headquartered in Windsor , UK . Part of the Venntro Media Group , Ross Williams , a UK businessman , started the company in 2003 and it has since grown to have three additional offices located in London , New York , and Melbourne . Global Personals employs more than 150 people around the world and possesses a combined portfolio of more than 12,000 dating websites .", "Danish property bubble of 2000s During the Danish property bubble of 2001 through 2006 , Danish property prices rose faster than at any point in history , in some years increasing by more than 25 % . Apartments and homes near the big cities rose especially fast . Some of the rise can be attributed to falling interest rates , the introduction of new loan types ( such as interest-only mortgages ) , improving economy and increasing urbanisation , higher wages along with other factors . Some observers have also noted increased interest in homes and a dramatic increase in the number of TV programs regarding home decoration , home sales , gardening etc. . The increasing number of parents buying apartments for their children is also an important factor , dramatically increasing the demand on smaller apartments , typically 2 - 3 rooms , thus giving rising prices from the lower segment of apartments . However , many banks and analysts acknowledge that prices have increased more than can be explained by their models even when taking the economic factors into account and that homes have indeed become less affordable . In particular , it is becoming increasingly difficult for first-time buyers to enter the market , and they now make up a historically low fraction of all buyers . This has led some observers to speculate that the Danish real estate market may be in a bubble where price increases have been fueled by speculation beyond what can be justified by fundamental economics . Some have warned that the market may be in for a correction , i.e. , major price decreases . Still , as of March 2007 , this has not occurred . Apartments in Copenhagen have fallen 7 % in the first quarter of 2007 and the supply is still rising . However , there are signs that the market is softening and prices have fallen in some areas . In 2006 , the number of homes for sale increased dramatically , tripling in some areas . It was estimated that 10 % of all apartments in Copenhagen are for sale . The total inventory of homes for sale totaled more than one average year of home sales . In the statistics for the fourth quarter 2006 , some areas experienced a quarter-to-quarter price fall around 4-5 % , the first significant fall in over a decade . Two of the major real estate agencies claim they are observing price falls , with the biggest agency ( Home ) claiming to have observed falls since July 2006 The softening comes at a time when there has been an explosion in the building of new apartments and homes all around in the country . In Copenhagen alone , as many as 2,000 new apartments are expected to be added to the inventory during 2007 . Denmark 2007 - -12 %", "Whitewater Lake, Manitoba Whitewater Lake is a lake in the Canada province of Manitoba located between Boissevain and Deloraine . It is an endorheic basin and more marsh than lake . Whitewater Lake was previously called White Lake due to its salt flats that were exposed during dry periods . Whitewater Lake covers approximately 22,000 acres on average and only reaches depths of about 2 m . The lake is fed by several small streams which flow into from the Turtle Mountains , though it has no natural outflow . The alkaline lake was vulnerable to drought having dried up several times including 1857 , 1913-1915 , 1934-1940 and 1989-1992 . In 1989 Ducks Unlimited Canada began partnering with Manitoba Conservation and other partners to enhance the sustainability of the lake , investing more than two million over the following years . Dikes and water control structures were added to the east side of the lake to ensure the permanency of the water even during dry years . As of 2016 , Whitewater Lake is at a peak of 1633 ft which is five feet above the average long-term level . These high levels have seen the lake claim more farm land and resulted in significant erosion of the dike and park space structures on the lake 's southeast side . The lake has received several important designations due to the diverse and large amount of wildlife that depend on it , particularly avian species . It is labelled a Manitoba Wildlife Management Area , bird habitat of Canadian importance for staging shorebirds and geese , and a globally significant Important Bird Area .", "Microthermal In climatology , the term microthermal is used to denote the continental climates of Eurasia and North America . The word microthermal is derived from two Greek words meaning `` small '' and `` heat '' . This is misleading , however , since the term is intended to describe only the temperature conditions that prevail during the winter months , rather than those of the entire year . The characteristic feature of the microthermal climate is cold winters -- specifically , winters that are cold enough to ensure that snow will remain on the ground continuously for a fixed period of time every year . Conceptually , an average temperature of 0 ° C or colder is assumed to be necessary to bring this about ; thus the climate of a location where at least one full month is this cold is classified as microthermal ( however , at least one month in the summer must average 10 ° C or higher ; otherwise the climate would be reckoned as polar ) . This definition places all of the world 's microthermal climates in the Northern Hemisphere , as the absence of broad land masses at upper-middle latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere precludes the existence of such temperature conditions there . Microthermal climates are typically subdivided into three categories based on the temperature characteristics of the summer season . The southernmost of the three is frequently referred to as the temperate continental climate , and has hot summers -- that is to say , at least one month has an average temperature of 22 ° C ( 71.6 ° F ) or above . The middle zone is often labelled hemiboreal , and no summer month there has an average temperature as warm as 22 ° C , but at least four months will average 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) or higher . The northernmost of the three microthermal zones is the subarctic , or boreal zone ; there only one to three months will have average temperatures of at least 10 ° C. In North America , microthermal climates commence north of Boston along the Atlantic seaboard , this line drifting gradually southward further inland , reaching approximately 38 ° at the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains , then curving dramatically northward near the Pacific coast , reaching the Pacific Ocean just south of Juneau , Alaska . In Asia , the latitude at which these climates begin is several degrees lower due to the pervasive influence of the vast Siberian anticyclone , or high-pressure system , and in continental Europe the line actually runs longitudinally rather than latitudinally , cutting through central Poland after beginning north of the Arctic Circle along the Norwegian coast , thereafter moving diagonally across Scandinavia . The boundary between the microthermal and polar climate zones is farthest north in western Europe ( actually within the Arctic Circle there ) , and farthest south along the east coast of North America ( at about 56 ° North latitude on the central coast of Labrador ) ; it then trends northward across Canada before dropping south again as it courses through Alaska . Throughout most of Siberia , the boundary tends to follow the Arctic Circle fairly closely . In addition to having various summer temperature regimes , microthermal climates also differ from one another in how much precipitation they receive -- such climates may be humid , semiarid or arid . Most of the Turkestan-Gobi desert system has an arid microthermal climate , while the best-known example of the semiarid microthermal climate can be found in the `` steppes of Central Asia '' immortalized by Russian classical music composer Alexander Borodin .", "Hockey stick graph Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "Albirex Niigata is a Japanese J1 League association football club based in Niigata In 2003 , while still playing in the second tier of Japanese football ( J2 ) , Albirex attracted the best average crowd in the country of over 30,000 . Since promotion to J1 in 2004 they have recorded an average crowd of over 38,000 , and in 2005 Albirex were the first ever club in Japan to record an average gate of over 40,000 .", "Global Student Entrepreneur Awards The Global Student Entrepreneur Awards ( GSEA ) is an international competition series established in 1998 which recognizes excellence among student entrepreneurs who own for-profit businesses while attending a University or college . The GSEA program is an Entrepreneurs ' Organization program , in partnership with Mercedes-Benz Financial . The GSEA program was founded by the John Cook School of Business at Saint Louis University and was taken over by Entrepreneurs ' Organization ( EO ) in 2006 . EO is a non-profit global network of more than 10,000 business owners in 48 countries . The average EO member sales is $ 52.3 million per year ." ]

[ "Reinforcement In behavioral psychology , reinforcement is a consequence that will strengthen an organism 's future behavior whenever that behavior is preceded by a specific antecedent stimulus . This strengthening effect may be measured as a higher frequency of behavior ( e.g. , pulling a lever more frequently ) , longer duration ( e.g. , pulling a lever for longer periods of time ) , greater magnitude ( e.g. , pulling a lever with greater force ) , or shorter latency ( e.g. , pulling a lever more quickly following the antecedent stimulus ) . Rewarding stimuli , which are associated with `` wanting '' and `` liking '' ( desire and pleasure , respectively ) and appetitive behavior , function as positive reinforcers ; the converse statement is also true : positive reinforcers provide a desirable stimulus . Reinforcement does not require an individual to consciously perceive an effect elicited by the stimulus . Thus , reinforcement occurs only if there is an observable strengthening in behavior . However , there is also negative reinforcement , which is characterized by taking away an undesirable stimulus . An ibuprofen is a negative reinforcer because it takes away pain . In most cases , the term `` reinforcement '' refers to an enhancement of behavior , but this term is also sometimes used to denote an enhancement of memory ; for example , `` post-training reinforcement '' refers to the provision of a stimulus ( such as food ) after a learning session in an attempt to increase the retained breadth , detail , and duration of the individual memories or overall memory just formed . The memory-enhancing stimulus can also be one whose effects are directly rather than only indirectly emotional , as with the phenomenon of `` flashbulb memory , '' in which an emotionally highly intense stimulus can incentivize memory of a set of a situation 's circumstances well beyond the subset of those circumstances that caused the emotionally significant stimulus , as when people of appropriate age are able to remember where they were and what they were doing when they learned of the assassination of John F. Kennedy or of the September 11 , 2001 , terrorist attacks . Reinforcement is an important part of operant or instrumental conditioning .", "Climate change feedback Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''", "Global warming Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned ." ]

[ "Perceptual control theory Perceptual control theory ( PCT ) is a model of behavior based on the principles of negative feedback , but differing in important respects from engineering control theory . Results of PCT experiments have demonstrated that an organism controls neither its own behavior , nor external environmental variables , but rather its own perceptions of those variables . Actions are not controlled , they are varied so as to cancel the effects that unpredictable environmental disturbances would otherwise have on controlled perceptions . According to the standard catch-phrase of the field , `` behavior is the control of perception . '' PCT demonstrates circular causation in a negative feedback loop closed through the environment . This fundamentally contradicts the classical notion of linear causation of behavior by stimuli , in which environmental stimuli are thought to cause behavioral responses , mediated ( according to cognitive psychology ) by intervening cognitive processes . Numerous computer simulations of specific behavioral situations demonstrate its efficacy , with extremely high correlations to observational data ( 0.95 or better ) , which are vanishingly rare in the so-called ` soft ' sciences . While the adoption of PCT in the scientific community has not been widespread , it has been applied not only in experimental psychology and neuroscience , but also in sociology , linguistics , and a number of other fields , and has led to a method of psychotherapy called the method of levels .", "Regime shift In ecology , regime shifts are large , abrupt , persistent changes in the structure and function of a system . A regime is a characteristic behaviour of a system which is maintained by mutually reinforced processes or feedbacks . Regimes are considered persistent relative to the time period over which the shift occurs . The change of regimes , or the shift , usually occurs when a smooth change in an internal process ( feedback ) or a single disturbance ( external shocks ) triggers a completely different system behavior . Although such non-linear changes have been widely studied in different disciplines ranging from atoms to climate dynamics , regime shifts have gained importance in ecology because they can substantially affect the flow of ecosystem services that societies rely upon , such as provision of food , clean water or climate regulation . Moreover , regime shift occurrence is expected to increase as human influence on the planet increases -- the Anthropocene -- including current trends on human induced climate change and biodiversity loss .", "Sensitivity (control systems) The controller parameters are typically matched to the process characteristics and since the process may change , it is important that the controller parameters are chosen in such a way that the closed loop system is not sensitive to variations in process dynamics . One way to characterize sensitivity is through the nominal sensitivity peak : where and denote the plant and controller 's transfer function in a basic closed loop control System , using unity negative feedback . The sensitivity function , which appears in the above formula also describes the transfer function from external disturbance to process output . Hence , lower values of suggest further attenuation of the external disturbance . The sensitivity function tells us how the disturbances are influenced by feedback . Disturbances with frequencies such that is less than one are reduced by an amount equal to the distance to the critical point and disturbances with frequencies such that is larger than one are amplified by the feedback . It is important that the largest value of the sensitivity function be limited for a control system and it is common to require that the maximum value of the sensitivity function , , be in a range of 1.3 to 2 .", "Negative-feedback amplifier A negative-feedback amplifier ( or feedback amplifier ) is an electronic amplifier that subtracts a fraction of its output from its input , so that negative feedback opposes the original signal . The applied negative feedback improves performance ( gain stability , linearity , frequency response , step response ) and reduces sensitivity to parameter variations due to manufacturing or environment . Because of these advantages , many amplifiers and control systems use negative feedback . An idealized negative-feedback amplifier as shown in the diagram is a system of three elements ( see Figure 1 ) : an amplifier with gain AOL , a feedback network β , which senses the output signal and possibly transforms it in some way ( for example by attenuating or filtering it ) , a summing circuit that acts as a subtractor ( the circle in the figure ) , which combines the input and the transformed output .", "Climate system Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "Shortwave radiation Shortwave radiation ( SW ) is radiant energy with wavelengths in the visible ( VIS ) , near-ultraviolet ( UV ) , and near-infrared ( NIR ) spectra . There is no standard cut-off for the near-infrared range ; therefore , the shortwave radiation range is also variously defined . It may be broadly defined to include all radiation with a wavelength between 0.1 μm and 5.0 μm or narrowly defined so as to include only radiation between 0.2 μm and 3.0 μm . There is little radiation flux ( in terms of W/m ² ) to the Earth 's surface below 0.2 μm or above 3.0 μm , although photon flux remains significant as far as 6.0 μm , compared to shorter wavelength fluxes . UV-C radiation spans from 0.1 μm to .28 μm , UV-B from 0.28 μm to 0.315 μm , UV-A from 0.315 μm to 0.4 μm , the visible spectrum from 0.4 μm to 0.7 μm , and NIR arguably from 0.7 μm to 5.0 μm , beyond which the infrared is thermal . Shortwave radiation is distinguished from longwave radiation . Downward shortwave radiation is sensitive to solar zenith angle , cloud cover and surface albedo .", "Microscale meteorology Microscale meteorology is the study of short-lived atmospheric phenomena smaller than mesoscale , about 1 km or less . These two branches of meteorology are sometimes grouped together as `` mesoscale and microscale meteorology '' ( MMM ) and together study all phenomena smaller than synoptic scale ; that is they study features generally too small to be depicted on a weather map . These include small and generally fleeting cloud `` puffs '' and other small cloud features . Microscale meteorology controls the most important mixing and dilution processes in the atmosphere . Important topics in microscale meteorology include heat transfer and gas exchange between soil , vegetation , and/or surface water and the atmosphere caused by near-ground turbulence . Measuring these transport processes involves use of micrometeorological ( or flux ) towers . Variables often measured or derived include net radiation , sensible heat flux , latent heat flux , ground heat storage , and fluxes of trace gases important to the atmosphere , biosphere , and hydrosphere .", "Journal of Hydrometeorology The Journal of Hydrometeorology is a scientific journal published by the American Meteorological Society . It covers the modeling , observing , and forecasting of processes related to water and energy fluxes and storage terms , including interactions with the boundary layer and lower atmosphere , and including processes related to precipitation , radiation , and other meteorological inputs .", "Self-justification Self-justification describes how , when a person encounters cognitive dissonance , or a situation in which a person 's behavior is inconsistent with their beliefs , that person tends to justify the behavior and deny any negative feedback associated with the behavior .", "Radiation pressure Radiation pressure is the pressure exerted upon any surface exposed to electromagnetic radiation . Radiation pressure implies an interaction between electromagnetic radiation and bodies of various types , including clouds of particles or gases . The interactions can be absorption , reflection , or some of both ( the common case ) . Bodies also emit radiation and thereby experience a resulting pressure . The forces generated by radiation pressure are generally too small to be detected under everyday circumstances ; however , they do play a crucial role in some settings , such as astronomy and astrodynamics . For example , had the effects of the sun 's radiation pressure on the spacecraft of the Viking program been ignored , the spacecraft would have missed Mars orbit by about 15,000 kilometers . This article addresses the macroscopic aspects of radiation pressure . Detailed quantum mechanical aspects of interactions are addressed in specialized articles on the subject . The details of how photons of various wavelengths interact with atoms can be explored through links in the See also section .", "Luminous flux In photometry , luminous flux or luminous power is the measure of the perceived power of light . It differs from radiant flux , the measure of the total power of electromagnetic radiation ( including infrared , ultraviolet , and visible light ) , in that luminous flux is adjusted to reflect the varying sensitivity of the human eye to different wavelengths of light .", "Negativity Negativity may refer to : Negativity ( quantum mechanics ) , a measure of quantum entanglement in quantum mechanics Negative charge of electricity Electronegativity , a chemical property pertaining to the ability to attract electrons Positivity/negativity ratio , in behavioral feedback Negativity effect , a psychological bias", "Robert D. Cess Robert D. Cess is professor emeritus of atmospheric sciences at Stony Brook University . He earned his bachelor of science degree in mechanical engineering from Oregon State University and his master 's degree from Purdue University in Indiana in 1956 . Cess received a Ph.D. from the University of Pittsburgh in 1959 . He is a recognized leader in the fields of climate change and atmospheric radiation transfer . His research interest involve modeling of climate feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish global climate change , and interpreting surface and satellite remote sensing data . He has been a part of studies which have found problems with the ability of model the transmission of shortwave radiation through a cloud-free atmosphere , and designed an experiment to test the accuracy of the models . They reported that they found agreement between the models and the observations of clear-sky shortwave radiation at the surface for the period studied , 1985 to 1988 . Cess was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and worked with the National Science Foundation on understanding greenhouse warming and its associated policy implications .", "Radiation flux Radiation flux is a measure of the amount of radiation received by an object from a given source . This can be any type of radiation , including electromagnetic , sound , and particles from a radioactive source . Φ = is the radiation flux , L is the luminosity , or total power output of the source , and r is the distance from the radiation source . The units of radiation flux are W · m − 2 , or kg · s − 3 . Radiation flux density is a related measure that takes into account the area the radiation flux passes through , and is defined as the flux divided by the area it passes through . The Radiation flux density is also known as Intensity where I =", "Wind-induced surface heat exchange The wind-induced surface heat exchange ( WISHE ) is a positive feedback mechanism between the ocean and atmosphere in which a stronger ocean-to-atmosphere heat flux results in a stronger atmospheric circulation , which results in a strong heat flux . It has been hypothesized that this is the mechanism by which low pressure areas in the tropics develop into tropical cyclones .", "Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility The Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Climate Research Facility ( ARM Climate Research Facility ) is a United States Department of Energy scientific user facility for the study of global climate change by the national and international research community . The ARM Climate Research Facility consists of global observation sites and research aircraft that measure radiative properties of the atmosphere , particularly cloud and aerosol formation processes . Continuous data from these sites , as well as supplemental data obtained through intensive field research campaigns , are available to scientists online through the ARM Data Archive . ARM is collaboratively managed by nine DOE national laboratories .", "Rethinking the Weather ", "Cryosphere The cryosphere ( from the Greek κρύος kryos , `` cold '' , `` frost '' or `` ice '' and σφαῖρα sphaira , `` globe , ball '' ) is those portions of Earth 's surface where water is in solid form , including sea ice , lake ice , river ice , snow cover , glaciers , ice caps , ice sheets , and frozen ground ( which includes permafrost ) . Thus , there is a wide overlap with the hydrosphere . The cryosphere is an integral part of the global climate system with important linkages and feedbacks generated through its influence on surface energy and moisture fluxes , clouds , precipitation , hydrology , atmospheric and oceanic circulation . Through these feedback processes , the cryosphere plays a significant role in the global climate and in climate model response to global changes . The term deglaciation describes the retreat of cryospheric features . Cryology is the study of cryospheres .", "Photographic hypersensitization Photographic hypersensitization refers to a set of processes that can be applied to photographic film or plates before exposing . One or more of these processes is often needed to make photographic materials work better in long exposures . Most photographic materials are designed for snapshot exposure of much less than one second . In longer exposures , such as those used in astrophotography , many such materials lose sensitivity . This phenomenon is known as low-intensity reciprocity failure ( LIRF ) or the Schwarzschild effect . The reciprocal relationship between flux and exposure time for photographic film implies that at a given light flux , doubling the exposure time would double the photographic effect . This holds with exposures up to a second or so , but in general does not hold over exposure times of minutes or hours . Several hypersensitization or `` hypering '' techniques have been developed to overcome this failure of the reciprocity law , and what follows refers mainly to work in astronomy .", "Tipping points in the climate system A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.", "Tootling Tootling is a classroom-based intervention used to increase peer prosocial behaviors , particularly offering and receiving help , while decreasing negative and disruptive peer interactions . Tootling is like tattling but refers to the reporting of only positive , rather than inappropriate , social behaviors . The idea behind this concept is if young children can learn to tattle on inappropriate behavior , then they are capable of monitoring and reporting prosocial behavior . The objective of tootling is to get students to engage in more prosocial behaviors and to be aware and appreciative of these behaviors in others . Tootling is also helpful for teachers to foster awareness of positive behaviors and increase praise while downplaying a focus on negative behaviors and punishment . The word `` tootling '' is a combination of `` tattling '' ( monitoring and reporting classmates antisocial behavior ) and the expression `` tooting your own horn '' . Tootling differs from `` tattling '' because students report incidental instances of prosocial behavior , rather than negative . Tootling meets key criteria for classroom-based positive behavior support ( PBS ) and can be used in general and special education settings . In addition , tootling was considered a best practice strategy for special education instructors for providing an inclusive classroom Tootling Process The tootling process begins with a group training session to teach students how to appropriately report positive peer behaviors . Students are not allowed to report on their own behaviors . They are given clear examples of tootling and then asked to give their own examples . At this point , the teacher or trainer offers feedback and/or reinforcement . Students are then given index cards that will be taped to their desks and used to record tootles . A correct `` tootle '' states a ) the name of the `` helper '' b ) the name of the `` helpee '' c ) a description of the observed prosocial behavior . A group feedback chart is created , to count the cumulative number of tootles , and a group reward or reinforcer ( typically an activity ) is chosen . At the beginning of each school day , the students are given an index card that is then taped to the desk . Students quietly record any observations of peers helping peers seen throughout the day . If a student fills an entire card , he/she can turn it in for a new card . At the end of the day , students hand in their cards . The teacher then counts the tootles , only counting helping behaviors , and fills in the feedback chart . If the same instance is recorded multiple times , they all count . The next day , the teacher announces the number of tootles recorded and may read some examples aloud and offer praise . Once the set number of tootles is reached , the class earns the group reward . After the goal is met , this process can be repeated . Some alterations may be to make the tootle criteria more difficult or stringent or to choose a new group reward . It is encouraged to get suggestions from students for group rewards and to choose them randomly to ensure reinforcement for as many students as possible .", "Cloud forcing Cloud forcing ( sometimes described as cloud radiative forcing or cloud radiative effect ) is , in meteorology , the difference between the radiation budget components for average cloud conditions and cloud-free conditions . Much of the interest in cloud forcing relates to its role as a feedback process in the present period of global warming .", "Iris hypothesis The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''", "Positive feedback Positive feedback is a process that occurs in a feedback loop in which the effects of a small disturbance on a system include an increase in the magnitude of the perturbation . That is , A produces more of B which in turn produces more of A . In contrast , a system in which the results of a change act to reduce or counteract it has negative feedback . Both concepts play an important role in science and engineering , including biology , chemistry , and cybernetics . Mathematically , positive feedback is defined as a positive loop gain around a closed loop of cause and effect . That is , positive feedback is in phase with the input , in the sense that it adds to make the input larger . Positive feedback tends to cause system instability . When the loop gain is positive and above 1 , there will typically be exponential growth , increasing oscillations , chaotic behavior or other divergences from equilibrium . System parameters will typically accelerate towards extreme values , which may damage or destroy the system , or may end with the system latched into a new stable state . Positive feedback may be controlled by signals in the system being filtered , damped , or limited , or it can be cancelled or reduced by adding negative feedback . Positive feedback is used in digital electronics to force voltages away from intermediate voltages into ' 0 ' and ' 1 ' states . On the other hand , thermal runaway is a positive feedback that can destroy semiconductor junctions . Positive feedback in chemical reactions can increase the rate of reactions , and in some cases can lead to explosions . Positive feedback in mechanical design causes tipping-point , or ` over-centre ' , mechanisms to snap into position , for example in switches and locking pliers . Out of control , it can cause bridges to collapse . Positive feedback in economic systems can cause boom-then-bust cycles . A familiar example of positive feedback is the loud squealing or howling sound produced by audio feedback in public address systems : the microphone picks up sound from its own loudspeakers , amplifies it , and sends it through the speakers again .", "Solar minimum Solar minimum is the period of least solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the sun . During this time , sunspot and solar flare activity diminishes , and often does not occur for days at a time . The date of the minimum is described by a smoothed average over 12 months of sunspot activity , so identifying the date of the solar minimum usually can only happen 6 months after the minimum takes place . Solar minima are not generally correlated with changes in climate but recent studies have shown a correlation with regional weather patterns . Solar minimum is contrasted with the solar maximum , where there may be hundreds of sunspots .", "Orbital forcing Orbital forcing is the effect on climate of slow changes in the tilt of the Earth 's axis and shape of the orbit ( see Milankovitch cycles ) . These orbital changes change the total amount of sunlight reaching the Earth by up to 25 % at mid-latitudes ( from 400 to 500 Wm − 2 at latitudes of 60 degrees ) . In this context , the term `` forcing '' signifies a physical process that affects the Earth 's climate . This mechanism is believed to be responsible for the timing of the ice age cycles . A strict application of the Milankovitch theory does not allow the prediction of a `` sudden '' ice age ( rapid being anything under a century or two ) , since the fastest orbital period is about 20,000 years . The timing of past glacial periods coincides very well with the predictions of the Milankovitch theory , and these effects can be calculated into the future .", "Climate variability Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.", "Physical properties of greenhouse gases ", "Personality theories of addiction Personality theories of addiction are psychological models that associate personality traits or modes of thinking ( i.e. , affective states ) with an individual 's proclivity for developing an addiction . Models of addiction risk that have been proposed in psychology literature include an affect dysregulation model of positive and negative psychological affects , the reinforcement sensitivity theory model of impulsiveness and behavioral inhibition , and an impulsivity model of reward sensitization and impulsiveness .", "Observer effect (information technology) In information technology , the observer effect is the impact on the behaviour of a computer process caused by the act of observing the process while it is running . This effect is a manifestation of the uncertainty principle in information technology . The uncertainty principle is attributed to Werner Heisenberg and was originally referring to quantum mechanics . For example : if a process uses a log file to record its progress , the process could slow down . Furthermore , the act of viewing the file while the process is running could cause an I/O error in the process , which could , in turn , cause it to stop . Another example would be observing the performance of a CPU by running both the observed and observing programs on the same CPU , which will lead to inaccurate results because the observer program itself affects the CPU performance ( modern , heavily cached and pipelined CPUs are particularly affected by this kind of observation ) . It should be noted that the observer effect could either have a positive or negative impact on the computer process behaviour . A positive impact can be software bugs , also known as Heisenbugs , which diminish or change their negative behavior when observation mechanisms , such as debugging , are enabled . Such bugs usually create extra difficulties in being isolated .", "CLAW hypothesis The CLAW hypothesis proposes a negative feedback loop that operates between ocean ecosystems and the Earth 's climate . The hypothesis specifically proposes that particular phytoplankton that produce dimethyl sulfide are responsive to variations in climate forcing , and that these responses act to stabilise the temperature of the Earth 's atmosphere . The CLAW hypothesis was originally proposed by Robert Jay Charlson , James Lovelock , Meinrat Andreae and Stephen G. Warren , and takes its acronym from the first letter of their surnames .", "Adaptive capacity Adaptive capacity is the capacity of a system to adapt if the environment where the system exists is changing . It is applied to e.g. , ecological systems and human social systems . As applied to ecological systems , the adaptive capacity is determined by : genetic diversity of species biodiversity of particular ecosystems heterogeneous ecosystem mosaics as applied to specific landscapes or biome regions . As applied to human social systems , the adaptive capacity is determined by : the ability of institutions and networks to learn , and store knowledge and experience . creative flexibility in decision making and problem solving the existence of power structures that are responsive and consider the needs of all stakeholders . Adaptive capacity is associated with r and K selection strategies in ecology and with a movement from explosive positive feedback to sustainable negative feedback loops in social systems and technologies . The Resilience Alliance , as illustrated by the work of C. S. Holling and L. H. Gunderson , shows how the logistic curve of the r phase positive feedback , becoming replaced by the K negative feedback strategy is an important part of adaptive capacity . The r strategy is associated with situations of low complexity , high resilience , and growing potential . K strategies are associated with situations of high complexity , high potential and high resilience , but if the perturbations exceed certain limits , adaptive capacity may be exceeded and the system collapses into another so-called Omega state , of low potential , low complexity and low resilience ." ]