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Tide pools are rocky pools near oceans packed with seawater. Tide pools are a home of distinctively adaptive animals. Tide pools offer a habitat for enduring organisms. Inhabitants should be capable to deal with constantly shifting setting Ė changing in water temperature, salinity, and oxygen substance. Massive waves, tough currents, exposures to noon sun and predators are just few hazards that tide pool animals should bear to stay alive. Waves crashing on rocks intimidate to remove mussels and draw them out to sea. Sea gulls are picking up and dropping down sea urchins to smash them open. Starfishes prey on mussels and make an excellent dine for gulls themselves. Even such big predators as Black Bears sometimes devour on tide pools creatures at low tide. Spray/Splash zone- This sector gets drenched during high tides, and during water storms. At other times the rocks roast in the sun, or put up with cold winds. Only few organisms can endure these cruel circumstances. Lichens and Barnacles live in this area. Within this zone, different species of Barnacle live in very securely contained locations, allowing the precise height of a group over or under sea level to be accurately determined. Since the intertidal zone occasionally desiccates, barnacles are well tailored against water loss. The calcite shells are resistant and they acquire two plates which they can glide across their opening when not feeding. These plates also defend against predation. Sea Anemones are a very beautiful part of the San Miguel tide pools. Usually these creatures can sting but since are skin is so strong we canít feel it. They also donít need to eat anything so they would be easy to take care of but we should not take them from the beach. Appearance: Sea Anemones can range from the tiny size of one and one fourth of an inch all the way to the crazy size of six feet in diameter! The bigger the Sea Anemone the deeper they live in the water. Anemones can have ten tentacles to hundreds of little arms. One way to find a Sea Anemone at San Miguel Island is if you see very bright or dark colors it can be an Anemone because come in almost all colors. They are beautiful creatures that live in the shallow pools on the shoreline. Reproduction: When you see things that look like little rocks and you touch and they are all squishy it means that it is a Sea Anemone. The reason that it is all dull and covered in accessories from the shore it means that the Anemone is cloning. That means it is duplicating itself. That is how they reproduce themselves. That is one amazing way to reproduce. Habitat: Sea Anemones can live pretty much everywhere in the world except the land part of the world. Since the world is about seventy-five percent water they have one big house. When they live in the tide pools they are pretty small but when you get into the deeper waters they get bigger. Not only do they have a pretty good habitat they also provide a great habitat themselves. They make a good habitat to animals with tough skin or scales only because when that animal gets in their house they donít get stung but when a predator is trying to get them the predator gets a sharp pain of shock. Origanal Photo by: Zack Brown

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http://library.thinkquest.org/08aug/02333/id32.htm

2013-06-18T23:31:45Z

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en

History Of Mosaic Art Mosaic is basically the art of creating beautiful motifs and patterns, with the help of colorful stones, glass pieces, clay and other such items. These motifs are also used as floor patterns and other forms of interior decorative art. Though the exact origin place of this art is untraceable, this pattern is often associated with Roman and Greece dwellings and cathedrals, because of its prominent visibility in the Roman and Greek culture. There are also oriental links of this art, which can be traced to Chaldea, Syria and Byzantium. Mosaic arthas kept emerging through the eras, in diverse forms and in various cultures. This is also, undoubtedly, the reason that it has remained one of the most popular interior decoration art worldwide. Read on to explore some interesting information on the background, history and origin of Mosaic Art. Interesting Information On Background & Origin Of Mosaic Art To understand the history of the Mosaic art, a chronological description of the art in various cultures, in different eras, is necessary, as the art was not born at certain point of time, in a particular place. As the art form gradually emerged with time, there have been several stages in its development to the current form. It is even doubted that Mosaic art emerged simultaneously in various cultures not even linked to each other or spread from one culture to another, through subsequent links. The popular belief says that once this art form became a little prominent, it was subsequently developed and disseminated from one culture to other, in various time periods. Though any scientific evidence of Mosaic art's origin is unavailable, the historians link it to the orient i.e. the eastern world. They even quote some links to justify these points. It is said that some of the earliest manifestations of this art have been found in Chaldean architecture, dating back to about 2,000 BC. There, some columns have been found embedded with small cones of clay, painted later on, to make it an attractive display very similar to Mosaic. They also refer to the Mosaic motif panels related to war and peace found in UR, a city of Sumeria, as one of the earliest manifestation of this art. However, till this culture, the Mosaic art was limited to the use of clay cones and paints. Egyptian Developments and Further Spreading The other most prominent development that took place in context of Mosaic art was the fusion of glasses by Egyptians. Even now, one can get to see numerous such ancient mosaic decorations in Alexandria Museum. The earliest example of the glass fusion in mosaic can be seen in the ships, palaces and temples belonging to the Egyptian. It is said that Mosaic art, around this time, gradually spread in two directions, simultaneously. On one hand, it was discovered by the eastern world - Asia, Syria and Byzantium and on the other, it spread towards the countries, like Greece and Italy. Mosaic Art in Greece In Greece, the art of Mosaic gained a quick foot hold. The first school of mosaics was born under Master Artist Sosos, in Pergamo - the capital of Misia (Greece). Gradually, the art became so famous that it was used in the interiors of even the most modest homes. At that time, the use of colorful pebbles in the Mosaic motifs of Greece became popular. The 'ciottol', or pebbles, were combined in a manner that they provided contrasting colors, gradation of shading and volume to the figures created through mosaic. A thin strips of led was inserted in the plaster to give it an outlining. This method remained popular for a very long time. Mosaic Art in Rome In the capital city of Italy, Rome, Mosaic became a form of artistic expression. Its use became prominent in the interiors of dwellings and cathedrals. Initially, it was used exclusively for the decoration of floors. However, gradually, the need to create works of art that would persist over time emerged. Romans gave Mosaic a completely different definition - of being a long-lived and easy handled art. The most prominent use of this art was seen in their dining halls, where simple terracotta art was not suitable in terms of beauty. So, they concentrated on developing mosaic as a method of visual decorations that, contrary to paintings and terracotta, could be walked on and could be easily washed and cleaned. Mosaic Art Across the World By 4th Century, Mosaic art had spread in almost all the parts of the world. It was the stage when the highest level of perfection was attained in this art and it reached unexpected heights of popularity. The credits can be given to Greek and Roman craftsmen, who gained perfection in this art form. By now, the use of pebbles had stopped and instead, the small, highly colored and brilliant pieces were employed. At this stage, Mosaic art spread in the world, like 'fire in jungle'. Till this time, it was considered that Mosaic art, apart from being beautiful, was also eternal. With gradual passage of time and discovery of several other forms of art, the Mosaic stepped down from the top most slot of popularity. It was also realized that the art form was not eternal. As the mosaics were conditioned by plaster and cement bases, there became subject to deterioration over time. Still, the popularity of Mosaic art did not vanish altogether. Even now, the art is used as floor motifs and decoration pattern on fountain walls, pools, ceilings and garden walls. Now, it is also combined with glass paste, shells, and enamels, to add to its brilliance. With time, Mosaic art has only become more polished and beautiful. How to Cite

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http://lifestyle.iloveindia.com/lounge/history-of-mosaic-art-4769.html

2013-06-18T23:11:12Z

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en

As noun, landscape is: 1) a picture, sketch, etching, photograph, map or other representation of inland scenery, as of prairie, woodland, mountains, etc.; 2) the branch of painting, photography, etc, dealing with such pictures; 3) a view, prospect or vista of scenery or tract of land with its distinguishing characteristics either natural and/or man made. As verb, landscape is: 4) the act of shaping land so as to make it more attractive or useful. The word landscape first appeared printed in English in 1603 and has origins in Middle Dutch ( landscap ) meaning region, German ( landschaft ) and Old Norse ( landskap ). A previous formation in English was landskip. Also note that the suffix –ship is closely tied to –schaft meaning constitution, condition or shape. Scape refers to a view of any scenery and thus does not always refer to a portion of the earth but can include interior architectural spaces and, increasingly, virtual digital (cyber)spaces. Other scapes include dreamscapes, seascapes, townscapes, roofscapes, moonscapes and cityscapes. These scapes serve as environmental media that envelop the observer. Scape can also be used to describe the impression or quality of a thing or action. The suffix ‘scape’ in ‘landscape” posits the presence of a unifying principle which positions one view, a bounded landscape, as representative of the larger environment or entire landscape. [i] Central to landscape is the role of the spectator. In the case of direct observation, landscapes require a beholder to set the parameters of scope, depth and details within the vista. Generically, landscape is a term that refers to the visible world and “a particular landscape is that portion of the world visible by an observer from a specific position.” [ii] The body serves as a medium for the reception and interpretation of the scene governed by corporal position and orientation within the landscape and the outer limit of sight located at the horizon. As a medium, landscape is can be described in three ways. First, as the product of an artistic endeavor wherein a landscape (view) is represented. The three-dimensional scene is rendered in two dimensions on a surface. In this case the landscape is the content of the work of art expressed through the medium of paint, charcoal, ink etc. Combined with the beholder/artist’s body these materials create a channel (medium) through which the landscape moves from the real to the representational. Second, landscape can serve as a medium itself that carries messages and meanings embedded in the environment/scene and can be extracted and decoded. A third meaning of landscape has recently been posited by which landscape is explored as a social practice. These three approaches are described below. Landscape representation (generally painting) is commonly considered to have begun in 17th century Europe becoming, arguably, the dominant genre of Europe’s visual arts. [iii] As Ann Adams describes, “Something dramatic happened around 1620 in Haarlem, so the narrative goes, as if scales has suddenly and collectively fallen from seventeenth-century Dutch artists’ eyes, and they could suddenly see, and faithfully transcribe, the land in which they found themselves.” [iv] The efforts of European landscape artists fell into genres of the ideal, pastoral, heroic and the Netherlandish naturalism. The sites represented in European landscapes were generally historical, agricultural, urban and industrial settings and their representations often expressed a network of social hierarchy and moral standards. [v] For example, Adams shows how 17 th century Dutch landscape paining portrays a narrative of identity formation in a period of fragmented economic, geographical, political and religious change. Landscape painting marked a new focus on the observation of the natural world and social processes therein. The images demonstrated a process of investment/extraction of meanings into and out of landscape images and these works often served as expressions of the social changes, cultural sensibilities and conflicts of their eras. There is a rich literature on these subjects, which explores the meanings found in these images. A touchstone of this literature is Kenneth Clark’s Landscape into Art (1949) which argued that landscape painting “marks the stages in our conception of nature. Its rise and development since the middle ages in part of a cycle in which the human spirit attempted once more to create a harmony with its environment.” [vi] Clark’s assumptions and statements were challenged over issues regarding imperialism, class power and cultural hegemony by John Barrell in The Dark Side of Landscape (1980) and Ann Bermingham’s Landscape and Ideology (1987). [vii] Landscapes are normally thought of as formed by and consisting of natural and cultural forces which can be identified and studied. In this case, landscape is the medium that holds and channels these forces. The study of these forces and their inter-dynamics is the subject employed by geographers, sociologists and historians. This academic tradition of “reading,” decoding and interpreting landscapes is an approach aimed to extract meanings from the landscape as a visual text. In his essay “The beholding eye: ten versions of the same scene,” Donald Meinig identifies ten approaches to this discipline. As described by Michael Conzen they are: “ nature (stressing insignificance of man), habitat (as man’s adjustment to nature), artifact (reflecting man’s impact on nature), system (a scientific view of interacting processes contributing to a dynamic equilibrium), problem (for solving through social action), wealth (in terms of property), ideology (revealing cultural values and social philosophy), history (as a record of the concrete and the chronological), place (through the identity that locations have), esthetic (according to some artistic quality possessed).” [viii] Recent notable works in the tradition of the interpretive approach as described above include The Image of the City by Kevin Lynch (1960), Life and Death of Great American Cities by Jane Jacobs (1961), The Making of Urban America by John W. Reps (1965), A Pattern Language by Christopher Alexander (1971), Learning from Las Vegas by Robert Venturi, Denise Scott-Brown & Steven Izenour (1977), Common Landscapes of America, 1580 to 1845 by J.R. Stilgoe (1982), Discovering the Vernacular Landscape by John Brinckerhoff Jackson (1984), Nature’s Metropolis by William Cronon (1991). W.J.T. Mitchell counterpoises two established approaches to landscape and posits a third method for examining landscapes in his book Landscape and Power (1994). First, he addresses the representation of landscapes (painting, drawing etc.) as the modern “progressive movement toward the purification of the visual field,” and a process of contemplation and naturalization of cultural and social constructions. In this case the landscape is the content within the medium of painting. This interpretation is contrasted with a second, post-modern interpretive approach of making the landscape an allegory for the psychological and the social that requires decoding. In this latter case, landscape is the medium itself which carries the messages extracted from the scene as described above in Meaning’s ten approaches. Mitchell refutes the idea that landscape is a solely European/western phenomenon originating in the 17 th century and introduces an approach that asks not what landscape “is” or “means” but rather what it “does” and how it works as social practice. [ix] Here Mitchell concludes, “landscape circulates as medium of exchange, a site of the visual appropriation, a focus for the formation of identity.” [x] Ultimately, for Mitchell, landscape is about power. Technology is intimately tied to the subject of landscape as mechanisms of mediation that play a role in the perception of the scene and its resultant representations in a variety of formats (pictures, photographs, digital media etc). In each case media are nested within one another in increasingly complicated configurations through history. Renaissance techniques of perspective created depth in landscape depictions previously unseen and revolutionized the depiction of space in painting and etching. In the 19th century European artists employed tinted mirrors called Claude glasses that transformed reflected landscapes into desirable images of the Roman campagna in the fashionable style of the painter Claude. [xi] Because of the intimate relationship of the viewer and environment, transportation has played a large role in shaping perceptions of landscape. Perhaps the most dramatic change came as a result of the introduction of the railroad in the 19th Century. Beyond the new environs of track and tunnel required for the railroad, “the traveler perceived the landscape as it was filtered through the machine ensemble. [xii] Track and steam power combined to produce a new found speed at which locomotives could travel over the land and thereby shrink time and space. Erwin Straus describes this effect as a change from the experience of travel through landscape in which “each location is determined [mediated] by its relation to the neighboring space within the circle of visibility. But geographical space is closed, and is therefore in its entire structure transparent. Every place as such a space is determined by its position with respect to the whole and ultimately by its relation to the null point of the coordinate system by which this space obtains its order. Geographical space is systematized.” [xiii] Perhaps the best example of this change in the perception of space was the introduction of American time-zones by act of congress in 1883 which roughly corresponded with the rise in traffic along the transcontinental railway (completed 1869). Increasingly landscape was to be traveled not in but through. [See time, space.] In post-WWII United States the automobile and the interstate highway system (car and road) extended this doubled dynamic introduced by the railroad wherein the landscape of the road serves both as a medium of observation and the medium to be observed. Through the car window we watch the road and its associated landscapes of gas stations, fast food establishments, strip malls. This system had dramatic effects on the morphology of post-war suburban landscapes and the new life styles developed therein. Developments in aerial photography also produced landscapes before unimaginable in detail and scope. This new perspective gave viewers a new sense of the scale of impact man could make on the landscape and aided practitioners of landscape design in the further shaping of the land. Images shot from airplanes were instrumental in creating new urban plans by urban planners like Robert Moses who reshaped the landscape of New York City by introducing an auto-centric system of motorways. In this case the technologies media of photography, flight and the automobile all combined to affect the landscape and in turn, these new landscapes affected their dwellers. Electronic media have also created new landscapes via the influence of television, space flight, satellite imagery and new virtual digital technologies. These technologies play a central role in mediating our contact with landscape by offering instantaneous access to information creating a further acceleration and shrinking of time and space and leading to issues related to decontextualization of experience. Marshall McLuhan brought the effects of electronic media to public attention in the 1960s in his books Understanding Media (1964) and The Medium is the Massage (1967). More recent work in the field focuses on the effect of the internet on conceptions of space in an age of globalization. Landscape also enjoys a grand tradition in the manipulation of the earth for the purposes of visual beauty and efficiency. Garden design has a rich history. Frederick Law Olmsted, Chief Architect of Central Park in New York and landscape designer for Chicago’s World Columbian Exposition of 1893 is one of the United States’ most influential landscape architects while Baron Georges-Eugène Haussman, responsible for the late 19th Century transformation of Paris, can be described as Olmsted’s European counterpart. To summarize, landscape can be the content of a representation wherein it travels through a medium (paint, television, digital screen), it can also itself be a medium which carries social, geological, historical messages or it can be considered a medium of exchange and social practice expressing visual appropriation, identity and power. The changing technological apparatus used to view, represent and interpret landscapes affect the operations, outcomes and meanings within these three frameworks. [i] W. A. M. Peters, Gerard Manley Hopkins as sited in Oxford English Dictionary Online, 2002 [ii] Conzen, 1990, p. 2 [iii] Mitchell, 1994, p. 5 [iv] Adams in Mitchell (ed.), 1994, p. 35 [v] Daniels, 1996, p. 96 & 97 [vi] Kenneth Clark, Landscape into Art, as sited in Mitchell, 1994, p. 6 [vii] Adams, Steven & Robins, Anna Gruetzner, 2000 [viii] Conzen, 1990, p.3 [ix] Mitchell, 1994, p. 1 [x] Mitchell, 1994, p. 3 [xi] Daniels, 1996, p. 98 [xii] Schivelbusch, 1977, p. 24 [xiii] Straus, Erwin, The Primary World of the Senses, New York, 1963, p. 385 as sited in Schivelbusch, 1977, p. 53 Adams, Ann, “Competing Communities in the ‘Great Bog of Europe’-Identity and Seventeenth-Century Dutch Landscape Paining,” from: Mitchell, W.J.T., (ed.), Landscape and Power, Chicago, 1994. Adams, Steven & Robins, Anna Gruetzner, Gendering Landscape Art, New Brunswick, NJ, 2000. Appleton, Jay, The Experience of Landscape, London, 1975. Barnhart, Robert K. (ed.), Chambers Dictionary of Etymology, Edinburgh, 1988. Campanella, Thomas J., Cities from the Sky, New York, 2001. Conzen, Michael, (ed.), The Making of the American Landscape, London, 1990. Daniels, Stephen, “The Politics of Landscape in European Art,” in The Bulfinch Guide to Art History, West, Shearer, (ed.), Boston, 1996. Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2002. Grove Dictionary of Art Online, 2002. Hall, Lee, Olmsted’s America, Boston, 1995. McLuhan, Marshall, Understanding Media, New York, 1964. Mitchell, William J., City of Bits, Cambridge, Mass, 1995. Mitchell, W.J.T., (ed.), Landscape and Power, Chicago, 1994. Meyrowitz, Joshua, No Sense of Place: The Impact of Electronic Media on Social Behavior, New York, 1985. Oxford English Dictionary Online, 2002. Schivelbusch, Wolfgang, The Railway Journey, Berkeley, California, 1977. Tuan, Yi-Fu, Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience, Minnesota, 1977. Weekley, Ernest, An Etymological Dictionary of Modern English, London, 1921.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://lucian.uchicago.edu/blogs/mediatheory/keywords/landscape/

2013-06-18T23:33:21Z

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en

Sixty species of fish have been collected by various investigators in the Grand River Basin since 1963 (Table Bc01 , Figure Bc01) An additional 16 species have distributions that overlap portions of the basin (Pflieger 1971, 1975), but have not been collected. Common species within the basin are channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), black bullhead (Ameiurus melas), yellow bullhead (A. natalis), common carp (Cyprinus carpio), river carpsucker (Carpiodes carpio), creek chub (Semotilus atromaculatus), red shiner (Cyprinella lutrensis), sand shiner (Notropis stramineus) and green sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus). Grand River historically had a diverse fish population. An early naturalist reported catching "great numbers of interesting specimens.Grand River is the first stream we have seen in Missouri that is tolerably well supplied with fish" (Hoy 1872). Catfish are the most important sportfish within the basin. An estimated 72,920 catfish and bullheads were caught in Grand River in 1975 (Fleener 1977). Missouri River tributaries such as the Grand River are probably important spawning and nursery areas for big river catfish (Coon and Dames 1989; Brown and Coon 1994). A flathead catfish tagged in the Missouri River near Columbia, Missouri was captured in Grand River near Gallatin. Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) are the most popular sportfish within the basin. Limited sampling has been done to assess channel catfish populations. Samples have generally been restricted to the upper Grand River and a few major tributaries. The majority of channel catfish collected were less than 11 inches long. Proportional stock density (PSD 16) values ranged from 13 to 35. No channel catfish longer than 24 inches were collected. Channel catfish made up 21% of the 1979 fish sample. Age 4 fish averaged 10.6 inches long. This is average when compared with statewide data (Purkett 1958). Grindstone, Big (Daviess County), and Shoal creeks are major tributaries to Grand River that have been electrofished. Grindstone and Big creeks have quality channel catfish populations. Paragamian (1990) collected fish population information from major streams throughout Iowa. Two of his study sites were on the upper Thompson River. Rotenone samples from upper Thompson River produced length frequency histograms similar to the upper Grand River electofishing samples. No fish longer than 20 inches were collected. Age 4 fish averaged 10.5 inches and 10.9 inches at the two sample sites. Density estimates were 4,402 and 721 fish/ha-hectare (Paragamian 1990). Electrofishing Missouri's channelized portion of the river resulted in a length frequency histogram dominated by fish less than 11 inches long. The PSD16 value was 12. No fish longer than 24 inches were captured. Conversations with local conservation agents indicates this is similar to angler catches. Few large channel catfish are observed during routine resource user contacts. Flathead catfish (Pylodictus olivaris) is another popular sport fish species. Many of the major streams and tributaries contain flatheads; however, most of the larger fish (>10 pounds) are caught from Grand River. An occasional large flathead is caught from the Thompson River, Weldon River and other tributaries, but these are uncommon. Sampling in Grand River during 1976 (Gentry County) and 1979 (Daviess County) indicated good number of flatheads. The Gentry County sample was made up mostly of fish less than 16 inches long. The PSD16 value was 23 and the Relative Stock Density (RSD24) value was 8. The Daviess County sample indicates there was a higher quality flathead population. The PSD16 and RSD24 values were 49 and 22, respectively. Age 4 fish averaged 17.2 inches long. Very little sampling has been done in the Grand River below Chillicothe. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the lower Grand River contains more large flathead catfish than the Daviess or Gentry county sites. Blue catfish (Ictalurus furcatus) (locally known as white catfish) are a prized fish in the basin. Every year anglers catch a few fish more than 30 pounds. Pflieger (1975) reported an 1854 account of a blue catfish weighing 136 pounds caught from Grand River near Chillicothe. Information on this species in the Grand River Basin is virtually non-existent. Blue catfish had never been sampled by MDC management personnel in the Grand River Basin before 1994. Freshwater mussels have nearly disappeared from many streams in northwestern and north central Missouri over the last fifty years (Oesch 1984). A 1913 survey indicated the Grand River had a considerable number of shells that were of commercial value (Oesch 1984). Today, mussels are drastically reduced in Grand River due to pollution from agricultural chemicals and sedimentation. According to Oesch (1984) 19 species of freshwater mussels have historically occurred in the Grand River Basin (Table Bc02). Eleven of those species are found in the Grindstone Creek sub-basin. While mussels are sparse within the basin, none of the species sampled are listed as threatened or endangered (A. Buchanan, MDC, personal communication). A formal survey of Locust Creek revealed that flat floaters (Anodonta suborbiculata) were collected for the first time in the Prairie-Upper Missouri Aquatic Faunal Division in 1998. Flat floaters are state listed as rare. They were collected in two locations within the basin (Winston et al, 1998). See Table Bc03 for a list of insects and other invertebrates collected in the Grand River Basin. Five species of crayfish have been collected within the Grand River basin (Pflieger, MDC, personal communication). The species which have been collected in order of abundance are the northern crayfish (Orconectes virilis), papershell crayfish (O. immunis), devil crayfish (Cambarus diogenes), grassland crayfish (Procambarus gracilis) and the White River crayfish (P. acutus). Threatened and Endangered Species The threatened and endangered fish species in the Grand River Basin are listed in Table Bc04. Of particular concern is the Topeka shiner because it is a good indicator of high quality habitat of prairie creeks (Pflieger 1990) This species is experiencing a dramatic decline in population over its entire range (Tabor 1993). Paddlefish, mooneye and blue sucker are basically large river species. Capture records of these species indicate their presence being restricted primarily to the mainstem of the Grand River. The distribution of all three species has been documented in the lower Grand River to Gallatin, Daviess County, MO (river mile 0-88). Additional collections of paddlefish have been made upstream in the Grand River in Gentry County, MO. Mooneye have been collected in the Weldon River near Princeton, Mercer County, MO. One conservation agent reports that paddlefish are caught in the Weldon River as far upstream as Princeton, MO. Topeka shiners are found in high quality stream reaches that have not been degraded by extensive channelization or heavy sedimentation. "We learned of the presence of the Topeka shiner in Harrison County only because a student sampled many small streams of this county as part of a thesis project in 1963. There has never been a systematic survey of small streams in most other counties of the Grand River system, and such a survey might have the best potential for the discovery of additional Missouri populations of N. topeka" (Pflieger, personal communication). Recent Topeka shiner collections have come from the remaining high quality streams in Daviess, Grundy and Harrison counties in Missouri. A systematic fish survey of the Grand River Basin or at least a fish survey of potential occurrence sites of Topeka shiner would be beneficial in documenting the current distribution of this species in the basin. Trout-perch are typically found in deeper pools in small streams within the Grand River Basin. Trout-perch are "widespread in the Grand and Chariton stream systems." (Pflieger 1971), but only rarely abundant at any fish sample site. Seven of the ten fish collections listed in Table Bc04 had trout-perch represented. A systematic fish survey of Topeka shiner localities would help in delineating the range of the trout-perch since these fish species often occur together. A pallid sturgeon was caught by an angler on May 10, 1998 from the Grand River at the Chillicothe Access. The fish was one of 24 tagged and released into the Missouri River at river mile 299 on July 24, 1997. Stocking of both native and non-native species has been a fisheries management tool in lakes and streams throughout the basin. Minutes of the Cameron Hunting and Fishing Club report that the Missouri Conservation Commission stocked 35,000 channel catfish and 5,000 largemouth bass in Shoal Creek during July, 1942. No information regarding lengths of those fish is available. Undoubtedly, unreported stocking by private individuals has also occurred. Two smallmouth bass were sampled from Shoal Creek in 1973 (O. Fajen, MDC, unpublished data). No other observations of this species have been noted from streams within the basin. The most intensive stream stocking program was an effort to establish spotted bass fisheries in several north Missouri streams. Over 25,000 spotted bass were stocked in the Grand River Basin from 1965-1971 (Fajen 1975). Table Bc05 indicates the streams where the fish were stocked. Recent collections (since 1988) indicate that self sustaining populations are located in Grindstone, Big and Marrowbone creeks. Spotted bass were never stocked in Marrowbone Creek by MDC personnel. Escapement of walleye (Stizostedion vitreum) and saugeye (S. vitreum) X (S. canadense) from several Iowa reservoirs contributes to the stream sport fishery. Limited fisheries exist downstream of these lakes. In Missouri, walleye are occasionally captured in the Weldon Fork and Thompson River. A locally popular walleye fishery exists in West Muddy Creek immediately downstream of Lake Paho near Princeton, Missouri. Most public lakes in Missouri are supplementally stocked with channel catfish annually. Escapement of these fish into basin streams varies and may be locally significant but overall is probably negligible. In 1985, channel catfish (n=2,885) were tagged before stocking into Lake Paho to document spillway losses. As of April 1999, all tag returns (n=59) have come from the main lake. Numerous channel catfish are captured in West Muddy Creek. The fish may be coming from the Lake Paho Fish Rearing Station below Lake Paho and adjacent to the stream. Flathead catfish were captured from the Missouri River near St. Joseph and stocked into King Lake in 1986. Five years later, one of the tagged fish was recaptured in the Missouri River near Nebraska City, Nebraska (NE). The fish traveled more than 400 miles through Lost Creek, Grindstone Creek, Grand River and the Missouri River. Redear sunfish (Lepomis microlophus) have been stocked in many public lakes. Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) are an exotic species which have become well established throughout the basin. Various Asian carps are also becoming established. Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) have been stocked widely throughout the basin to control aquatic vegetation. In April 1994, an angler caught a bighead carp (Hypophthalmichthys nobilis) in Grand River from a borrow ditch near Chillicothe, first documented capture of this species in the basin. Another angler caught a pallid sturgeon (Scaphirhynchus albus) on Grand River at Chillicothe. The fish was stocked in the Missouri River at Waverly. Muskellunge (Esox masquinongy) and blue catfish have been stocked in Pony Express Lake. Chances of these fish impacting stream fish communities are minimal. Plans include stocking walleye fingerlings into Grand River in June of 2000. Creel Survey Data Access point creel surveys were conducted in 1975 to determine recreational use of the Grand River (Fleener 1977). Anglers spent 69,000 hours (17,250 days) fishing on the upper Grand River (above Gallatin), and 198,700 hours (49,675 days) on the lower Grand River (below Chillicothe). Anglers harvested an estimated 267,700 fish (Table Bc06). A statewide telephone survey conducted between 1983-1986 estimated that angler effort on Grand River ranged from 12,957 days/year to 74,357 days/year (Weithman 1987).

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The leap from our universe to another is theoretically possible, say physicists. And the technology to test the idea is available today The idea that our universe is embedded in a broader multidimensional space has captured the imagination of scientists and the general population alike. This notion is not entirely science fiction. According to some theories, our cosmos may exist in parallel with other universes in other sets of dimensions. Cosmologists call these universes braneworlds. And among that many prospects that this raises is the idea that things from our Universe might somehow end up in another. A couple of years ago, Michael Sarrazin at the University of Namur in Belgium and a few others showed how matter might make the leap in the presence of large magnetic potentials. That provided a theoretical basis for real matter swapping. Today, Sarrazin and a few pals say that our galaxy might produce a magnetic potential large enough to make this happen for real. If so, we ought to be able to observe matter leaping back and forth between universes in the lab. In fact, such observations might already have been made in certain experiments. The experiments in question involve trapping ultracold neutrons in bottles at places like the Institut Laue Langevin in Grenoble, France, and the Saint Petersburg Institute of Nuclear Physics. Ultracold neutrons move so slowly that it is possible to trap them using ‘bottles’ made of magnetic fields, ordinary matter and even gravity. One reason to do this is to measure how quickly the neutrons decay by beta emission. So physicists measure the rate at which the neutrons hit the bottle walls and how quickly this drops. There are two processes at work here: the rate of neutron decay and the rate at which neutrons escape from the bottle. So in the case of an ideal bottle, the rate of decay should be equal to the beta decay rate. But the bottles are not ideal so the rate of decay is always faster. That leaves open the possibility that there might be a third process at work: that some of the extra decay might be the result of neutrons jumping from our universe to another. So Sarrazin and co have used the measured decay rates to place an upper limit on how often this can happen. Their conclusion is that the probability of a neutron jumping ship is smaller than about one in a million. That doesn’t really say anything about whether matter swapping actually takes place. Only that if it does, it doesn’t happen very often. However, Sarrazzin and co also say it should be straightforward to take better data that places stricter limits. According to their theoretical work, a change in the gravitational potential should also influence the rate of matter swapping. So one idea is to carry out a neutron trapping experiment that lasts for a year or more, allowing the Earth to complete at least one orbit of the Sun. In that time, the gravitational potential changes in a way that should influence the rate of matter swapping. Indeed, there ought to be an annual cycle. “If one can detect such a modulation it would be a strong indication that matter swapping really occurs,” they say. That would be one of the biggest and most controversial discoveries in modern physics and one that is possible with technologies available today. Anyone got an old neutron bottle lying around and a bit of spare time on their hands? Ref: arxiv.org/abs/1201.3949: Experimental Limits On Neutron Disappearance Into Another Braneworld (via Technology Review) The wavefunction is a real physical object after all, say researchers. At the heart of the weirdness for which the field of quantum mechanics is famous is the wavefunction, a powerful but mysterious entity that is used to determine the probabilities that quantum particles will have certain properties. Now, a preprint posted online on 14 November1 reopens the question of what the wavefunction represents — with an answer that could rock quantum theory to its core. Whereas many physicists have generally interpreted the wavefunction as a statistical tool that reflects our ignorance of the particles being measured, the authors of the latest paper argue that, instead, it is physically real. At the heart of the experiment is one of the weirdest, and most important, tenets of quantum mechanics: the principle that empty space is anything but. Quantum theory predicts that a vacuum is actually a writhing foam of particles flitting in and out of existence. This is the kind of news I love waking up to. Recent discoveries require us to rethink our understanding of history. “The histories of the universe,” said renowned physicist Stephen Hawking “depend on what is being measured, contrary to the usual idea that the universe has an objective observer-independent history.” Is it possible we live and die in a world of illusions? Physics tells us that objects exist in a suspended state until observed, when they collapse in to just one outcome. Paradoxically, whether events happened in the past may not be determined until sometime in your future — and may even depend on actions that you haven’t taken yet. In 2002, scientists carried out an amazing experiment, which showed that particles of light “photons” knew — in advance −- what their distant twins would do in the future. They tested the communication between pairs of photons — whether to be either a wave or a particle. Researchers stretched the distance one of the photons had to take to reach its detector, so that the other photon would hit its own detector first. The photons taking this path already finished their journeys -− they either collapse into a particle or don’t before their twin encounters a scrambling device. Somehow, the particles acted on this information before it happened, and across distances instantaneously as if there was no space or time between them. They decided not to become particles before their twin ever encountered the scrambler. It doesn’t matter how we set up the experiment. Our mind and its knowledge is the only thing that determines how they behave. Experiments consistently confirm these observer-dependent effects. More recently (Science 315, 966, 2007), scientists in France shot photons into an apparatus, and showed that what they did could retroactively change something that had already happened. As the photons passed a fork in the apparatus, they had to decide whether to behave like particles or waves when they hit a beam splitter. Later on - well after the photons passed the fork - the experimenter could randomly switch a second beam splitter on and off. It turns out that what the observer decided at that point, determined what the particle actually did at the fork in the past. At that moment, the experimenter chose his history. Of course, we live in the same world. Particles have a range of possible states, and it’s not until observed that they take on properties. So until the present is determined, how can there be a past? According to visionary physicist John Wheeler (who coined the word “black hole”), “The quantum principle shows that there is a sense in which what an observer will do in the future defines what happens in the past.” Part of the past is locked in when you observe things and the “probability waves collapse.” But there’s still uncertainty, for instance, as to what’s underneath your feet. If you dig a hole, there’s a probability you’ll find a boulder. Say you hit a boulder, the glacial movements of the past that account for the rock being in exactly that spot will change as described in the Science experiment. But what about dinosaur fossils? Fossils are really no different than anything else in nature. For instance, the carbon atoms in your body are “fossils” created in the heart of exploding supernova stars. Bottom line: reality begins and ends with the observer. “We are participators,” Wheeler said “in bringing about something of the universe in the distant past.” Before his death, he stated that when observing light from a quasar, we set up a quantum observation on an enormously large scale. It means, he said, the measurements made on the light now, determines the path it took billions of years ago. Like the light from Wheeler’s quasar, historical events such as who killed JFK, might also depend on events that haven’t occurred yet. There’s enough uncertainty that it could be one person in one set of circumstances, or another person in another. Although JFK was assassinated, you only possess fragments of information about the event. But as you investigate, you collapse more and more reality. According to biocentrism, space and time are relative to the individual observer - we each carry them around like turtles with shells. History is a biological phenomenon − it’s the logic of what you, the animal observer experiences. You have multiple possible futures, each with a different history like in the Science experiment. Consider the JFK example: say two gunmen shot at JFK, and there was an equal chance one or the other killed him. This would be a situation much like the famous Schrödinger’s cat experiment, in which the cat is both alive and dead − both possibilities exist until you open the box and investigate. “We must re-think all that we have ever learned about the past, human evolution and the nature of reality, if we are ever to find our true place in the cosmos,” says Constance Hilliard, a historian of science at UNT. Choices you haven’t made yet might determine which of your childhood friends are still alive, or whether your dog got hit by a car yesterday. In fact, you might even collapse realities that determine whether Noah’s Ark sank. “The universe,” said John Haldane, “is not only queerer than we suppose, but queerer than we can suppose.” — Robert Lanza Through the Wormhole - Season 2, Episode 1: Is There Life After Death [Full-Length] Original Air Date—8 June 2011 “In the premiere episode of the second season, Morgan Freeman dives deep into this provocative question that has mystified humans since the beginning of time. Modern physics and neuroscience are venturing into this once hallowed ground, and radically changing our ideas of life after death. Freeman serves as host to this polarized debate, where scientists and spiritualist attempt to define ‘what is consciousness,’ while cutting edge quantum mechanics could provide the answer to what happens when we die.” Love. this. show. One of the central planks of quantum mechanics was called into question in a new take on the classic two-slit experiment. One of the central notions in quantum mechanics is that light and matter can behave as both particle and wave. The principle of “complementarity” has always been understood to prevent the observation of both behaviours simultaneously. However, new research published in Science on 2 June, suggests that physicists at the University of Toronto and Griffith University in Brisbane have for the first time observed both behaviours at the same time. In Thomas Young’s 19th century “two-slit experiment”, light is passed through two tiny holes and is then viewed on a screen. The two beams interfere with each other, forming a diffraction pattern, as if the light were made of waves. If one of the slits is blocked, the light can be seen as a single beam on the screen, as if light were made of particles. The two-slit experiment shows that, depending on how it’s measured, a photon will act like either a particle or a wave, but never both. Aephraim Steinberg of the University of Toronto and Sacha Kocsis of Griffith recreated this experiment, easily observing the interference pattern indicative of the wave nature of light. But significantly, they were also able measure the path of the particles of light. Science reporter, Adrian Cho elaborates on the importance of their new research: “For decades, [the] experiment has served as physicists’ canonical example of the uncertainty principle: the law of nature that says you can’t know both where a subatomic particle is and how fast it is moving, and thus can’t trace its trajectory. But now physicists have tweaked that classic experiment to show that they can follow the average path taken by many particles.” Steinberg and his team allowed photons to pass through a calcite crystal which gave each photon a small deviation in its path. By measuring the light patterns on a camera, the team was able to deduce what paths the photons had taken. They clearly saw the interference pattern which infers the wave nature of light, but surprisingly they also could see from which slits the photons had come from, a telltale sign of the particle nature of light. Marlan Scully, a quantum physicist at Texas University, commented: “It’s a beautiful series of measurements by an excellent group, the likes of which I’ve not seen before.”, “This paper is probably the first that has really put this weak measurement idea into a real experimental realisation.” He said that the work would - inevitably - raise philosophical issues as well. “The exact way to think about what they’re doing will be researched for some time, and the weak measurement concept itself will be a matter of controversy” Professor Steinberg commented, “I feel like we’re starting to pull back a veil on what nature really is”. (via Particle Decelerator) COULD the structure of space and time be sketched out inside a cousin of plain old pencil lead? The atomic grid of graphene may mimic a lattice underlying reality, two physicists have claimed, an idea that could explain the curious spin of the electron. Graphene is an atom-thick layer of carbon in a hexagonal formation. Depending on its position in this grid, an electron can adopt either of two quantum states - a property called pseudospin which is mathematically akin to the intrinsic spin of an electron. Most physicists do not think it is true spin, but Chris Regan at the University of California, Los Angeles, disagrees. He cites work with carbon nanotubes (rolled up sheets of graphene) in the late 1990s, in which electrons were found to be reluctant to bounce back off these obstacles. Regan and his colleague Matthew Mecklenburg say this can be explained if a tricky change in spin is required to reverse direction. Their quantum model of graphene backs that up. The spin arises from the way electrons hop between atoms in graphene’s lattice, says Regan. So how about the electron’s intrinsic spin? It cannot be a rotation in the ordinary sense, as electrons are point particles with no radius and no innards. Instead, like pseudospin, it might come from a lattice pattern in space-time itself, says Regan. This echoes some attempts to unify quantum mechanics with gravity in which space-time is built out of tiny pieces or fundamental networks (Physical Review Letters, vol 106, p 116803). Sergei Sharapov of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine in Kiev says that the work provides an interesting angle on how electrons and other particles acquire spin, but he is doubtful how far the analogy can be pushed. Regan admits that moving from the flatland world of graphene to higher-dimensional space is tricky. “It will be interesting to see if there are other lattices that give emergent spin,” he says. via NewScientist COULD the structure of space and time be sketched out inside a cousin of plain old pencil lead? The atomic grid of graphene may mimic a lattice underlying reality, two physicists have claimed, an idea that could explain the curious spin of the electron. Graphene is an atom-thick layer of carbon in a hexagonal formation. Depending on its position in this grid, an electron can adopt either of two quantum states - a property called pseudospin which is mathematically akin to the intrinsic spin of an electron. Most physicists do not think it is true spin, but Chris Regan at the University of California, Los Angeles, disagrees. He cites work with carbon nanotubes (rolled up sheets of graphene) in the late 1990s, in which electrons were found to be reluctant to bounce back off these obstacles. Regan and his colleague Matthew Mecklenburg say this can be explained if a tricky change in spin is required to reverse direction. Their quantum model of graphene backs that up. The spin arises from the way electrons hop between atoms in graphene’s lattice, says Regan. So how about the electron’s intrinsic spin? It cannot be a rotation in the ordinary sense, as electrons are point particles with no radius and no innards. Instead, like pseudospin, it might come from a lattice pattern in space-time itself, says Regan. This echoes some attempts to unify quantum mechanics with gravity in which space-time is built out of tiny pieces or fundamental networks (Physical Review Letters, vol 106, p 116803). Sergei Sharapov of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine in Kiev says that the work provides an interesting angle on how electrons and other particles acquire spin, but he is doubtful how far the analogy can be pushed. Regan admits that moving from the flatland world of graphene to higher-dimensional space is tricky. “It will be interesting to see if there are other lattices that give emergent spin,” he says. Until this year, all human-made objects have moved according to the laws of classical mechanics. Back in March, however, a group of researchers designed a gadget that moves in ways that can only be described by quantum mechanics — the set of rules that governs the behavior of tiny things like molecules, atoms, and subatomic particles. In recognition of the conceptual ground their experiment breaks, the ingenuity behind it and its many potential applications, Science has called this discovery the most significant scientific advance of 2010. Physicists Andrew Cleland and John Martinis from the University of California at Santa Barbara and their colleagues designed the machine—a tiny metal paddle of semiconductor, visible to the naked eye—and coaxed it into dancing with a quantum groove. First, they cooled the paddle until it reached its “ground state,” or the lowest energy state permitted by the laws of quantum mechanics (a goal long-sought by physicists). Then they raised the widget’s energy by a single quantum to produce a purely quantum-mechanical state of motion. They even managed to put the gadget in both states at once, so that it literally vibrated a little and a lot at the same time—a bizarre phenomenon allowed by the weird rules of quantum mechanics. Science and its publisher, AAAS, the nonprofit science society, have recognized this first quantum machine as the 2010 Breakthrough of the Year. They have also compiled nine other important scientific accomplishments from this past year into a top ten list, appearing in a special news feature in the journal’s 17 December 2010 issue. Additionally, Science news writers and editors have chosen to spotlight 10 “Insights of the Decade” that have transformed the landscape of science in the 21st Century. “This year’s Breakthrough of the Year represents the first time that scientists have demonstrated quantum effects in the motion of a human-made object,” said Adrian Cho, a news writer for Science. “On a conceptual level that’s cool because it extends quantum mechanics into a whole new realm. On a practical level, it opens up a variety of possibilities ranging from new experiments that meld quantum control over light, electrical currents and motion to, perhaps someday, tests of the bounds of quantum mechanics and our sense of reality.” The quantum machine proves that the principles of quantum mechanics can apply to the motion of macroscopic objects, as well as atomic and subatomic particles. It provides the key first step toward gaining complete control over an object’s vibrations at the quantum level. Such control over the motion of an engineered device should allow scientists to manipulate those minuscule movements, much as they now control electrical currents and particles of light. In turn, that capability may lead to new devices to control the quantum states of light, ultra-sensitive force detectors and, ultimately, investigations into the bounds of quantum mechanics and our sense of reality. (This last grand goal might be achieved by trying to put a macroscopic object in a state in which it’s literally in two slightly different places at the same time—an experiment that might reveal precisely why something as big as a human can’t be in two places at the same time.) “Mind you, physicists still haven’t achieved a two-places-at-once state with a tiny object like this one,” said Cho. “But now that they have reached the simplest state of quantum motion, it seems a whole lot more obtainable—more like a matter of ‘when’ than ‘if.’” Science’s list of the nine other groundbreaking achievements from 2010 follows: Synthetic Biology: In a defining moment for biology and biotechnology, researchers built a synthetic genome and used it to transform the identity of a bacterium. The genome replaced the bacterium’s DNA so that it produced a new set of proteins—an achievement that prompted a Congressional hearing on synthetic biology. In the future, researchers envision synthetic genomes that are custom-built to generate biofuels, pharmaceuticals or other useful chemicals. Neandertal Genome: Researchers sequenced the Neandertal genome from the bones of three female Neandertals who lived in Croatia sometime between 38,000 and 44,000 years ago. New methods of sequencing degraded fragments of DNA allowed scientists to make the first direct comparisons between the modern human genome and that of our Neandertal ancestors. HIV Prophylaxis: Two HIV prevention trials of different, novel strategies reported unequivocal success: A vaginal gel that contains the anti-HIV drug tenofovir reduced HIV infections in women by 39 percent and an oral pre-exposure prophylaxis led to 43.8 fewer HIV infections in a group of men and transgender women who have sex with men. Exome Sequencing/Rare Disease Genes: By sequencing just the exons of a genome, or the tiny portion that actually codes for proteins, researchers who study rare inherited diseases caused by a single, flawed gene were able to identify specific mutations underlying at least a dozen diseases. Molecular Dynamics Simulations: Simulating the gyrations that proteins make as they fold has been a combinatorial nightmare. Now, researchers have harnessed the power of one of the world’s most powerful computers to track the motions of atoms in a small, folding protein for a length of time 100 times longer than any previous efforts. Quantum Simulator: To describe what they see in the lab, physicists cook up theories based on equations. Those equations can be fiendishly hard to solve. This year, though, researchers found a short-cut by making quantum simulators—artificial crystals in which spots of laser light play the role of ions and atoms trapped in the light stand in for electrons. The devices provide quick answers to theoretical problems in condensed matter physics and they might eventually help solve mysteries such as superconductivity. Next-Generation Genomics: Faster and cheaper sequencing technologies are enabling very large-scale studies of both ancient and modern DNA. The 1,000 Genomes Project, for example, has already identified much of the genome variation that makes us uniquely human—and other projects in the works are set to reveal much more of the genome’s function. RNA Reprogramming: Reprogramming cells—turning back their developmental clocks to make them behave like unspecialized “stem cells” in an embryo—has become a standard lab technique for studying diseases and development. This year, researchers found a way to do it using synthetic RNA. Compared with previous methods, the new technique is twice as fast, 100 times as efficient and potentially safer for therapeutic use. The Return of the Rat: Mice rule the world of laboratory animals, but for many purposes researchers would rather use rats. Rats are easier to work with and anatomically more similar to human beings; their big drawback is that methods used to make “knockout mice”—animals tailored for research by having specific genes precisely disabled—don’t work for rats. A flurry of research this year, however, promises to bring “knockout rats” to labs in a big way. Finally, to celebrate the end of the current decade, Science news reporters and editors have taken a step back from their weekly reporting to take a broader look at 10 of the scientific insights that have changed the face of science since the dawn of the new millennium. A list of these 10 “Insights of the Decade” follows. The Dark Genome: Genes used to get all the glory. Now, however, researchers recognize that these protein-coding regions of the genome account for just 1.5 percent of the whole. The rest of the genome, including small coding and non-coding RNAs—previously written off as “junk”—is proving to be just as important as the genes. Precision Cosmology: Over the past decade, researchers have deduced a very precise recipe for the content of the universe, which consists of ordinary matter, dark matter and dark energy; as well as instructions for putting it all together. These advances have transformed cosmology into a precision science with a standard theory that now leaves very little wiggle room for other ideas. Ancient Biomolecules: The realization that “biomolecules” like ancient DNA and collagen can survive for tens of thousands of years and provide important information about long-dead plants, animals and humans has provided a boon for paleontology. Analysis of these tiny time machines can now reveal anatomical adaptations that skeletal evidence simply can’t provide, such as the color of a dinosaur’s feathers or how woolly mammoths withstood the cold. Water on Mars: Half a dozen missions to Mars over the past decade have provided clear evidence that the Red Planet once harbored enough water—either on it or just inside it—to alter rock formations and, possibly, sustain life. This Martian water was probably present around the time that life was beginning to appear on Earth, but there is still enough moisture on Mars today to encourage scientists seeking living, breathing microbes. Reprogramming Cells: During the past decade, the notion that development is a one-way street has been turned on its head. Now, researchers have figured out how to “reprogram” fully developed cells into so-called pluripotent cells that regain their potential to become any type of cell in the body. This technique has already been used to make cell lines from patients with rare diseases, but ultimately, scientists hope to grow genetically matched replacement cells, tissues and organs. The Microbiome: A major shift in the way we view the microbes and viruses that call the human body home has led researchers to the concept of the microbiome—or the collective genomes of the host and the other creatures that live on or inside it. Since 90 percent of the cells in our bodies are actually microbial, scientists are beginning to understand how significantly microbial genes can affect how much energy we absorb from our foods and how our immune systems respond to infections. Exoplanets: In the year 2000, researchers were aware of just 26 planets outside our solar system. By 2010, that number had jumped to 502—and still counting. With emerging technologies, astronomers expect to find abundant Earth-like planets in the universe. But for now, the sizes and orbits of larger planets already discovered are revolutionizing scientists’ understanding of how planetary systems form and evolve. Inflammation: Not long ago, inflammation was known as the simple sidekick to our healing machinery, briefly setting in to help immune cells rebuild tissue damage caused by trauma or infection. Today, however, researchers believe that inflammation is also a driving force behind the chronic diseases that will eventually kill nearly all of us, including cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, atherosclerosis, diabetes and obesity. Metamaterials: By synthesizing materials with unconventional and tunable optical properties, physicists and engineers have pioneered new ways to guide and manipulate light, creating lenses that defy the fundamental limits on resolution. They’ve even begun constructing “cloaks” that can make an object invisible. Climate Change: Over the past decade, researchers have solidified some fundamental facts surrounding global climate change: The world is warming, humans are behind the warming and the natural processes of the Earth are not likely to slow that warming. But, the next 10 years will determine how scientists and policymakers proceed with this vital information. More information: http://www.sciencemag.org/special/insights2010/ AN IDENTICAL copy of you is also reading this story. This twin is the same in every way, living on an Earth and in a universe that looks exactly like our own. And there may be an infinite number of them. Such doppelgängers could be a natural consequence of our present conception of the universe. Now, some physicists say they could pose a serious problem for quantum mechanics. But a possible fix may also be in sight, and it could help tie abstract quantum concepts to concrete physical causes. In the uncertain, fuzzy world of quantum mechanics, particles do not have fixed properties until they are observed. Instead, objects that obey quantum rules exist in a “superposition” of all their possible states simultaneously. Schrödinger’s famous cat, for example, is both alive and dead until we take a peek inside the booby-trapped box in which it has been placed. Because the probability that the cat will be found alive is based on a quantum event - the decay of a radioactive substance within the box - it can be calculated using a principle called the Born rule. The rule is used to transform the vague “wave function” of a quantum state, which is essentially a mixture of all possible outcomes, into concrete probabilities of particular observations (in this case, the cat being alive or dead). But this staple of quantum mechanics fails when it is applied to the universe at large, says Don Page at the University of Alberta in Edmonton, Canada. At issue is the possibility that there could be a multiplicity of copies of any particular experiment floating about the universe, just as there could be a multiplicity of yous. There could even be an infinite number of them if, as is thought, the early universe underwent a period of exponential growth, called inflation. Although this period ended very soon after the big bang in our observable region of space, inflation may have continued elsewhere, giving rise to a “multiverse”, an infinite space containing infinite copies of our Earth. “In an infinite universe, every possible thing would happen, and it would happen an infinite number of times,” says cosmologist Alex Vilenkin of Tufts University in Medford, Massachusetts. The Casimir Effect: One of the measurable forces inside quantum vacuums that makes the idea of magnetoelectric quantum wheels plausible.

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- They examine problems as a whole, with careful consideration of how different parts of a situation fit together, rather than analyzing different elements in isolation. - They consider multiple avenues of causation for a problem, as well as possible nonlinear relationships between cause and effect, rather than thinking of terms of simple linear relationships between a single cause and effect. - They embrace the tension between opposing ideas, and they use that conflict to generate creative new alternatives, rather than making simple either-or decisions. In short, Martin argues that successful leaders think holistically and embrace the power of conflict. In my work, I have argued that constructive conflict within a management team leads to better decisions. Martin stresses that successful leaders also have to embrace conflict within their own mind. They must "hold two conflict ideas in constructive, amost dialectic tension." Martin points out that many people find this internal tension uncomfortable, and thus they shy away from it. While I would agree with Martin in general, I am reminded of the challenges associated with this type of integrative thinking, as described by Karl Weick in a famous 1984 article entitled "Small Wins." Weick argued that large, complex problems can sometimes be cognitively overwhelming. Thus, he argued that decision-makers should break complex problems into parts, and seek a series of "small wins" as a means of generating solutions to complicated issues. Martin explicitly argues against breaking problems into pieces. He says that holistic thinkers view problems as a whole. Here, I disagree slightly with Martin. I think one can approach a problem holistically, yet still follow Weick's advice to seek small wins while working through the organizational decision-making process required to solve the problem. Trying to achieve small wins in attacking a problem does not mean that a leader fails to think about how various elements of a problem fit together.

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Wikipedia is a free, web-based, collaborative, multilingual encyclopedia project supported by the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation. Its 20 million articles (over 3.8 million in English) have been written collaboratively by volunteers around the world. Almost all of its articles can be edited by anyone with access to the site, and it has about 100,000 regularly active contributors. As of July 2011, there are editions of Wikipedia in 282 languages. It has become the largest and most popular general reference work on the Internet, ranking sixth globally among all websites on Alexa and having an estimated 365 million readers worldwide. It is estimated that Wikipedia receives 2.7 billion monthly pageviews from the United States alone. Wikipedia was launched in January 2001 by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger. Sanger coined the name Wikipedia, which is a portmanteau of wiki (a technology for creating collaborative websites, from the Hawaiian word wiki, meaning "quick") and encyclopedia. Wikipedia's departure from the expert-driven style of encyclopedia building and the large presence of unacademic content has often been noted. In its 2006 Person of the Year article, Time magazine recognized the rapid growth of online collaboration and interaction by millions of people around the world. It cited Wikipedia as an example, in addition to YouTube, MySpace, and Facebook. Wikipedia has also been praised as a news source because of how quickly articles about recent events appear. Students have been assigned to write Wikipedia articles as an exercise in clearly and succinctly explaining difficult concepts to an uninitiated audience. Although the policies of Wikipedia strongly espouse verifiability and a neutral point of view, critics of Wikipedia accuse it of systemic bias and inconsistencies (including undue weight given to popular culture), and because it favors consensus over credentials in its editorial processes, its reliability and accuracy are also targeted. Other criticisms center on its susceptibility to vandalism and the addition of spurious or unverified information; though some scholarly work suggests that vandalism is generally short-lived. A 2005 investigation in Nature showed that the science articles they compared came close to the level of accuracy of Encyclopędia Britannica and had a similar rate of "serious errors".

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Translocation: Assessing the Effectiveness of Relocating Elephants Translocation, the capture and moving of a wild animal, frequently is used as a last resort in people-elephant conflict. A crop-raiding elephant is captured using tranquilizers and transported via truck to a more remote, less populated region, where it is released. Although this practice is fairly common throughout Asia, very few studies have assessed its effectiveness. Drs. Prithiviraj Fernando, Jenny Pastorini, and Eric Wirkramanayake of the Sri Lankan Centre for Conservation Research are working with the Sri Lankan Wildlife Department to investigate the effectiveness of translocations. Using three satellite collars provided by the National Zoo, they have started tracking the movements of translocated elephants. The bull elephant was captured because he was frequenting a garbage dump in close proximity to a settlement. He not only posed a potential threat to local people, but eating garbage also presenetd a serious health risk to him. On May 19, the elephant was captured and moved about 40 km to Yala National Park in Southeastern Sri Lanka. He was released inside the fenced park. The tracking data showed that the animal moved immediately to the fence, wandered along the fence until he found a weak spot, crossed the fence, and moved back to the garbage dump in less than ten days. Alhough expensive and potentially dangerous, the translocation was unsuccessful. Our Sri Lankan colleagues are hoping to track several other translocations to determine whether this outcome would be likely for other elephants. Read a related Voice of America article, "Sri Lanka Tsunami Survivors Learn to Live with Elephant Neighbors"

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Yosemite National Park embraces a vast tract of scenic wildlands set aside in 1890 to preserve a portion of the Sierra Nevada mountains that stretches along California's eastern flank. The park ranges from 2,000 feet above sea level to more than 13,000 feet and offers threemajor features: - alpine wilderness, - groves of Giant Sequoias, and - Yosemite Valley. The story of Yosemite began about 500 million years ago when the Sierra Nevada region lay beneath an ancient sea. Thick layers of sediment lay on the sea bed, which eventually was folded and twisted and thrust above sea level. Simultaneously molten rock welled up from deep within the earth and cooled slowly beneath the layers of sediment to form granite. Erosion gradually wore away almost all the overlying rock and exposed the granite. And even as uplifts continued to form the Sierra, water and then glaciers went to work to carve the face of Yosemite. Weathering and erosion continue to shape it today. Tuolumne Meadows and the High Country This section of Yosemite has some of the most rugged sublime scenery in the Sierra. In summer the meadows, lakes, and exposed granite slopes teem with life. Because of the short growing season, the plants and animals take maximum advantage of the warm days to grow, reproduce, and store food for the long, cold winter ahead. The Tioga Road (California 120), crosses this area. This scenic highway, originally built as a mining road in 1882-83, was realigned and modernized in 1961. The road passes through an area of sparkling lakes, fragile meadows, domes, and lofty peaks that only 10,000 years ago lay under glacial ice. Scenic turnouts along the road afford superb views. At Tioga Pass the road crosses the Sierra's crest at 9,945 feet, the highest automobile pass in California. Tuolumne Meadows (at 8,600 feet) is the largest sub-alpine meadow in the Sierra. It is 55 miles from Yosemite Valley via the Tioga Road. Long a focal point of summer activity, it is also growing in popularity as a winter mountaineering area. In the summer Tuolumne Meadows is a favorite starting point for backpacking trips and day hikes. The meadows are spectacular in early summer, abounding in wildflowers and wildlife. Rangers at the Tuolumne Meadows Visitor Center, open during the summer, can help you. Remember that Yosemite’s meadows are fragile and are easily affected by foot traffic and are closed to bicycles and autos. A trip into the high country can be rewarding. But remember that the elevation ranges from 7,000 to 13,000 feet. Even hardy visitors find that vigorous exercise can make them short of breath. Slow your pace; take time to awaken your sense of wonder. Glacier Point is one of those rare places where the scenery is so vast that it overwhelms the viewer. Below your feet a sheer rock cliff, about 3,200 feet straight down, affords you a bird's eye view of the entire Yosemite Valley. Across the valley you can see the 2,425-foot drop of Yosemite Falls. Beyond, the panoramic expanse of the High Sierra stands out in awe-inspiring clarity. Signs identify major peaks. Sunset and full moon nights are ideal times to visit the point. A full moon transforms the pastel granite landscape into a fairyland. In summer you can drive to Glacier Point (32 miles from Yosemite Valley). In winter when the road is closed at Badger Pass Ski Area Glacier Point is a favorite destination for cross-country, skiers. But no matter how you travel or when you go, Glacier Point offers what may be Yosemite's finest view. Giant Sequoia Groves The Mariposa Grove, 35 miles south of Yosemite Valley, is the largest of three Sequoia groves in Yosemite. The Tuolumne and Merced Groves are near Crane Flat. Despite human pressures, these towering trees, largest of all living things, have endured for thousands of years. Only in recent years, however, have we begun to understand the Giant Sequoia environment. During the last 100 years protection has sometimes been inadequate and sometimes excessive. For example, in the late 1800s tunnels were cut through two trees in the Mariposa Grove. Conversely, good intentions created another problem, protection from fire has resulted in adverse effects. Sequoias are wonderfully adapted to fire. The wood and bark are fire-resistant. Black scars on a number of large trees that are still prospering indicate they have survived many scorching fires. Sequoia reproduction also depends on fire. The tiny seeds require minimal soil for germination, and seedlings need sunlight. Historically, frequent natural fires opened the forest, thinned out competing plant species, and left rich mineral soil behind. But years of fire suppression have allowed debris, such as fallen branches, to accumulate, stifling reproduction and allowing shade-tolerant trees to encroach. Prescribed fires, intended to simulate natural fires and improve the health of the forest, are now set by the National Park Service. As you look at these trees, keep in mind that they have been here since the beginning of history in the western world. The Mariposa Grove's Grizzly Giant is 2,700 years old and is thought to be the oldest of all Sequoias. Private vehicles are not permitted beyond the parking area in the Mariposa Grove. You may ride the trams through the Grove from May until October. Trails are available year-round for hiking or cross-country skiing. This Indian word apparently meant "big tree". Wawona was once an Indian encampment and, later, was the site of a wayside hostel built in 1857 by Galen Clark. Known as Glares Station, it served as an overnight stop for visitors in transit between Yosemite Valley and Mariposa. In 1864, when Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove were set aside for protection, Clark became the first guardian of the area. In 1875, the year the original Wawona road opened, the Washburn brothers purchased the area and built the Wawona Hotel that is still in operation today. Wawona focuses on Yosemite's human history. It is the setting of the Pioneer Yosemite History Center, a collection of relocated historic buildings and horse-drawn coaches. Yosemite's wilderness is varied and offers day hiking and backpacking experiences for both the seasoned hiker and the novice. About 800 miles of trails offer a variety of climate, elevation, and spectacular scenery. Near the crest of the Sierra you can take both long and short trips at elevations above 9,000 feet. The higher regions offer a cool climate, while lower elevations are warmer and drier. To protect Yosemite's wilderness, there are quotas for overnight use. Free wilderness permits are required and are available at ranger stations and visitor centers. Be sure to read the information you receive with your permit and observe all regulations. Above all, remember to keep your impact to a minimum. Additionally, you will need appropriate equipment and good footgear. During winter the wilderness is receiving increased mountaineering use. Cross-country skiing and snow-shoeing have grown in popularity and open up a new world for the backpacker. The high country is a wonderland. Deep snow covers the land, and summer landmarks may be unrecognizable. But winter in the wilderness is more demanding than summer. Good equipment, warm clothing, and proper planning are essential to assure a safe and comfortable trip into the harsh Sierra winter environment. Backcountry travel both summer and winter, can be gratifying. However you are experiencing the mountains on their terms, and the mountains are not forgiving to the careless or unprepared. "The Incomparable Valley", it has been called, is probably the world's best known example of a glacier-carved canyon. Its leaping waterfalls, towering cliffs, rounded domes, and massive monoliths make it a preeminent natural marvel. These attributes have inspired poets, painters, photographers, and millions of visitors beginning with John Muir for more than one hundred years. Nowhere in Yosemite is the sense of scale so dramatic. Yosemite Valley is characterized by sheer walls and a flat floor. Its evolution began when alpine glaciers lumbered through the canyon of the Merced River. The ice carved through weaker sections of granite plucking and scouring rock but leaving harder, more solid portions—such as El Capitan and Cathedral Rocks—intact and greatly enlarging the canyon that the Merced River had carved through successive uplifts of the Sierra. Finally the glacier began to melt and the terminal moraine left by the last glacial advance into the valley dammed the melting water to form ancient Lake Yosemite, which sat in the newly carved U-shaped valley. Sediment eventually filled in the lake, forming the flat valley floor you see today. This same process is now filling Mirror Lake at the base of Half Dome. In contrast to the valley's sheer walls, the Merced Canyon along California 140 outside the park is a typical river-cut, V-shaped canyon, for the glaciers did not extend this far. Back from the rim of the valley itself, forested slopes show some glacial polish. But for the most part these areas also were not glaciated. The valley is a mosaic of open meadows sprinkled with wildflowers and flowering shrubs, oak woodlands, and mixed-conifer forests of ponderosa pine, incense-cedar, and Douglas-fir. Wildlife from monarch butterflies to mule deer and black boars flourishes in these communities. Around the valley's perimeter, waterfalls, which reach their maximum flow in May and June, crash to the floor. Yosemite, Bridalveil, Vernal, Nevada, and Illilouette are the most prominent of these falls, some of which have little or no water from mid-August through early fall. Take time to visit the Valley Visitor Center, where an orientation slide program and publications are available. Exhibits highlight the valley's natural and human history. Rangers are available to answer questions or assist you. The Indian Cultural Exhibit and the Indian Village, located behind the visitor center, display the cultural history of the native Miwok and Paiute people from 1850 to the present. Nearby, the Museum Gallery features artwork of past and current Yosemite artists. Note: When you arrive in Yosemite Valley, park your car and walk to the places you want to see. Distances are short. If you prefer, use the tree shuttle bus system that serves most of the valley. Either way, you'll save gas and frustration. It you are visiting just for the day, park your car in the day-use parking lot at Curry Village. The General park map handed out at the visitor center is available on the park's map webpage.For information about topographic maps, geologic maps, and geologic data sets, please see the geologic maps page. A general photo album for this park can be found here. For information on other photo collections featuring National Park geology, please see the Image Sources page. Currently, we do not have a listing for a park-specific geoscience book. The park's geology may be described in regional or state geology texts. Parks and Plates: The Geology of Our National Parks, Monuments & Seashores. Lillie, Robert J., 2005. W.W. Norton and Company. 9" x 10.75", paperback, 550 pages, full color throughout The spectacular geology in our national parks provides the answers to many questions about the Earth. The answers can be appreciated through plate tectonics, an exciting way to understand the ongoing natural processes that sculpt our landscape. Parks and Plates is a visual and scientific voyage of discovery! Ordering from your National Park Cooperative Associations' bookstores helps to support programs in the parks. Please visit the bookstore locator for park books and much more. Information about the park's research program is available on the park's research webpage. For information about permits that are required for conducting geologic research activities in National Parks, see the Permits Information page. The NPS maintains a searchable data base of research needs that have been identified by parks. A bibliography of geologic references is being prepared for each park through the Geologic Resources Evaluation Program (GRE). Please see the GRE website for more information and contacts. NPS Geology and Soils PartnersAssociation of American State Geologists Geological Society of America Natural Resource Conservation Service - Soils U.S. Geological Survey We believe that the stewardship of our national parks and public lands lies with today's students. It is imperative that we provoke in them today a sense of wonder and ownership of such places, in the hope that they will take this into the future. We hope that you will find that by using Yosemite National Park as an extension of your classroom, the science of the natural world will come alive. General information about the park's education and intrepretive programs is available on the park's education webpage.For resources and information on teaching geology using National Park examples, see the Students & Teachers pages.

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The evidence summarized in the preceding sections paints the following picture for the physical nature of LINERs. For reasons yet to be fully understood, the narrow emission-line regions of AGNs evidently can allow a wide range of ionization parameters (the ratio of the density of ionizing photons to the density of gas at the illuminated face of a cloud; U Lion / 4 cnr2). Those with U 10-2-10-1 are conventionally denoted ``Seyferts;'' low-ionization objects with U 10-3.5-10-2.5 are called ``LINERs'' (Halpern and Steiner 1983; Ferland and Netzer 1983; Ho et al. 1993). There is no sharp division, other than that imposed for sheer taxonomical convenience, between the two groups. Like Seyferts, some LINERs (~ 20%) come equipped with a BLR. The others either do not have BLRs, or their BLRs are obscured from the observer. At least some of the type 2 LINERs definitely have hidden BLRs that can only be seen in scattered light. Most LINERs inhabit large, bulge-dominated galaxies, the very galaxies that evidently are most prone to host supermassive black holes. Thus, LINERs can be identified with the quiescent black-hole remnants from the quasar era. In the present epoch, the supply of gas available for powering the central engines is much curtailed, and the resulting low accretion rates lead to an advection-dominated mode of accretion that manifests itself in the low luminosity output and in the peculiar SEDs of the nuclei. The diminished nuclear power naturally accounts for the low values of U in LINERs, and the likely preponderance of ADAFs in nearby galactic nuclei may explain why LINERs are so ubiquitous. Two additional effects may help to further reduce the ionization state of the line-emitting gas. The modification of the SED from UV to X-ray energies, most noticeable by the absence of the UV excess, leads to an overall hardening of the ionizing spectrum. The exceptional strength of the radio component, on the other hand, increases the effectiveness of cosmic-ray heating of the gas by the energetic electrons (e.g., Ferland and Mushotzky 1984). Both effects result in an enhancement of the low-ionization lines.

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The causes of POI are still little understood. Although many of its symptoms can be treated successfully, infertility is unavoidable in most women with POI. Understanding more about the complex biology behind the condition will help scientists as they work to devise more effective ways to treat symptoms and, ultimately, to prevent the condition from developing. The NICHD conducts and supports research on genes, hormones, and other contributory factors in its push to improve understanding and make further headway against POI. Institute Activities and Advances Researchers in the NICHD’s Division of Intramural Research (DIR) are studying genetic factors that are known to cause or contribute to POI. Researchers in the Program in Reproductive and Adult Endocrinology (PRAE) have identified several genes more common in women with POI than in women who do not have the disorder. One of these genes is FMR1, mutations in which are known to cause Fragile X syndrome; certain mutations in this gene have been linked to Fragile X-Associated POI (FXPOI). Other genes being investigated are BMP15, DAZL, and FOXO3. Researchers are also investigating the causal role of autoimmunity in POI. Researchers in the NICHD’s Section on Epigenetics and Development compared women with and without POI. They discovered that several autoimmune diseases were more common among women with POI, especially if they also had Turner syndrome. The findings suggest that factors contributing to the ovarian insufficiency seen in POI also might play a role in autoimmunity. PRAE researchers also identified the target of the autoimmune response that causes some cases of POI and were able to slow the immune system attack on the ovaries in mice with POI. For details on this finding, visit NIH Researchers Slow Immune Attack on Ovaries in Mice. Other research supported by the Fertility and Infertility (FI) Branch has addressed issues related to eggs, their quality, and their quantity in POI, as well as ways to save the eggs as a way to preserve fertility. FI Branch research also examines various methods of assisted reproductive technology and their effectiveness. In addition to the physical components of POI, the NICHD aims to reveal new evidence about the emotional aspects of the disorder so that health care providers can offer appropriate psychological support to women with POI. PRAE research has shown that women with POI are much more likely than other women to experience depression at some point during their lives.1 Future studies will investigate whether hormonal changes, perhaps combined with a particular genetic makeup, might predispose some women to depression. PRAE research also showed that two-thirds of women were dissatisfied with the way they received their POI diagnosis. In addition, research has pointed to the positive role spirituality plays in patients’ ability to cope with their diagnosis and suggest therapeutic avenues for reducing emotional suffering.2 Other Activities and Advances - Specialized Cooperative Centers Program in Reproduction and Infertility Research (SCCPIR) is a national network focused on improving human reproductive health through the accelerated transfer of basic science findings into clinical practice. The SCCPIR program, supported through the NICHD’s FI Branch, is designed to promote multidisciplinary interactions between basic and clinical scientists with the ultimate goal of improving human reproductive health. - Researchers working for and with support from across the NIH have made significant advances in the understanding of the FMR1 gene and its relationship to Fragile X syndrome, Fragile X-Associated Tremor and Ataxia Syndrome and FXPOI. The NIH Research Plan on Fragile X Syndrome and Associated Disorders outlines research opportunities related to these three disorders and helps coordinate research and promote timely detection, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of these disorders. - In 2008, the NICHD co-sponsored a conference to devise a new approach to addressing ovarian insufficiency. The Institute joined other Institutes and organizations in the field to convene the conference, Orphan Mechanisms of Primary Ovarian Insufficiency: Passion for Participatory Research. The meeting recommended establishing an international research consortium and disease registry for POI, formed under the guidance of an umbrella organization, to provide a means of increasing basic and clinical knowledge about the disease.3 - Schmidt, P. J., Luff, J. A., Haq, N. A., Vanderhoof, V. H., Koziol, D. E., Calis, K. A., et al. (2011). Depression in women with spontaneous 46, XX primary ovarian insufficiency. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 96, E278-E287. [top] - Ventura, J. L., Fitzgerald, O. R., Koziol, D. E., Covington, S. N., Vanderhoof, V. H., Calis, K. A., et al. (2007). Functional well-being is positively correlated with spiritual well-being in women with spontaneous premature ovarian failure. Fertility and Sterility, 87, 584-490. [top] - Cooper, A. R., Baker, V. L., Sterling, E. W., Ryan, M. E., Woodruff, T. K., & Nelson, L. M. (2010). The time is now for a new approach to primary ovarian insufficiency. Fertility and Sterility, 95, 1890–1897. [top]

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Information and activities are from the "Food For Thought’ tab from the NIE Institute. WHAT’S FOR DINNER? Nearly everything you eat comes from either a plant or an animal. Fruits, vegetables, nuts, and grains all come from plants. Meat, fish, eggs, and dairy foods are all animal products. Most of these foods come from farms. Some of the food you eat may be locally raised, but much of it comes from faraway places. Some foods that you eat regularly, such as bananas, even come from other countries. Plants take chemicals out of the soil and air to make their own food. The substances they contain, including sugars, starches, and minerals, nourish us when we eat them. When we eat animal products, we are getting these same nutrients indirectly, because animals eat Many different parts of a plant can be eaten. During an ordinary dinner, you might eat leaves, stems, roots, bulbs, flowers, fruits, and seeds! If you don’t believe it, think about those leaves you had for dinner the other night (lettuce). In your salad, you might also have enjoyed some delicious stems (celery), roots (carrots), and bulbs (onions). If your meal included broccoli or cauliflower, you were actually eating flowers. Grains such as wheat, corn, and rice are the seeds of grass plants. We eat grain in many forms. Wheat is usually ground into flour, which is used for baked goods. Corn may be eaten whole or ground. We usually eat rice whole, either with or without its brown husk. Meat is the flesh of an animal. The meat we usually eat is muscle, although other parts, such as the liver, are sometimes eaten as well. Cattle (beef and veal), pigs (pork), chickens, and turkeys are the most common food animals in the United States. We also eat fish and other types of seafood. Other animal products include eggs, dairy foods, and gelatin. A Fruit by Any Other Name … When is a fruit not a fruit? “Fruit” actually describes the part of a plant that contains the seeds. By that definition, tomatoes, cucumbers, and eggplants are fruits.We usually call them vegetables, however, and use the word “fruit” only for sweet-tasting plants. A vegetable is an edible plant part other than the fruit. 1. Look through your newspaper’s classified ads and circle all jobs related to food. These positions could include restaurant worker, nutritionist, caterer, and more. Which aspect of the food business is each job related to? Do any of them interest you? If so,why? 2. Even comic strip characters have to eat. Clip any food-related comic strips from the newspaper, discuss the role food plays in the comic’s story, and then design a bulletin board to display the comic strips by theme. Extend this activity by using the grocery ads to plan a special dinner for your favorite comic strip character. 3. Pick any fruit or vegetable from newspaper grocery ads and find out where it comes from. Trace its origins on a map or globe. 4. Arrange a field trip to a nearby farm. Before you go, prepare a list of questions you’d like to ask the farmer about his work. After your visit, write a feature story describing how the farm operates. 5. Many people think packaging should be kept to a minimum so that excess waste isn’t created. As an example, individual bags of potato chips packed in a plastic-wrapped box use material that wouldn’t be necessary in a single bag of potato chips. Look through your newspaper’s food advertisements for examples of efficient and inefficient packaging. Pick one package that you consider inefficient and redesign it. 6. A product’s packaging sometimes influences us. From newspaper ads, select pictures of several packaged foods and discuss with your class whether the packaging for these products is appealing.

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Next: Anchor text and the Up: Link analysis Previous: Link analysis Recall the notion of the web graph from Section 19.2.1 and particularly Figure 19.2 . Our study of link analysis builds on two intuitions: The Web as a graph - The anchor text pointing to page B is a good description of page B. - The hyperlink from A to B represents an endorsement of page B, by the creator of page A. This is not always the case; for instance, many links amongst pages within a single website stem from the user of a common template. For instance, most corporate websites have a pointer from every page to a page containing a copyright notice - this is clearly not an endorsement. Accordingly, implementations of link analysis algorithms will typical discount such ``internal'' links. © 2008 Cambridge University Press This is an automatically generated page. In case of formatting errors you may want to look at the PDF edition of the book.

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One of the central goals of educators and legislators is increasing overall student achievement, with a special focus on increasing learning by low performers. Concern also centers on advancing U.S. performance in relation to that of other countries, especially in mathematics, science, and technical fields. The most commonly used tools for measuring changes in achievement are standardized assessments. (The terms achievement and performance are used interchangeably in this section when discussing scores on these tests.) This section is divided into two parts. The first examines trends in mathematics and science achievement among public and private school students in the United States, using two kinds of national data. Longitudinal data follow the same group of students over several years, allowing observers to track how individual students learn over time. In some cases, longitudinal test data may also be linked to teaching practices and other factors thought to influence achievement. New test data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998–99 (ECLS-K), collected in 2007, allow study of performance changes among a kindergarten cohort through eighth grade and of changes over time in initial achievement gaps among groups of students. Cross-sectional data, in contrast to longitudinal data, provide information on particular groups' performance measured at different points in time. The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) data presented in the first section, for example, examine performance of fourth and eighth graders who were sampled in various years between 1990 and 2007. These data indicate whether and how achievement is changing over time for comparable groups of students. The second part of this section compares student achievement in the United States with that in other countries. The latest Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS:2007) allows comparisons of U.S. fourth and eighth graders with their counterparts in other countries. The Program for International Student Assessment (PISA:2006) provides test score data for 15-year-olds in the same subjects. These international assessments are both cross-sectional studies. Mathematics and Science Performance as Students Progress Through Elementary and Middle Grades ECLS-K has followed a group of students who first entered kindergarten in fall 1998 over 9 school years. (The mathematics and science education of students who are homeschooled is not addressed in this chapter; see sidebar "Homeschooling in the United States.") The study concluded in spring 2007, when most students were in eighth grade. The sample used in this analysis included roughly 8,000 students. ECLS-K is unusual among major national and international data collections not only in its focus on the earlier years of schooling but also because it allows researchers to examine students' performance in light of variables likely to influence learning. Cognitive tests measured students' mathematics knowledge in kindergarten and grades 1, 3, 5, and 8 and tracked their science understanding in grades 3, 5, and 8. The study also collected demographic and family information from a parent and surveyed teachers and schools for information about school environments, teacher qualifications, and classroom practices. Gains in Mathematics Test Scores and Gap Changes. Students begin kindergarten with differing levels of mathematics skills, and researchers have suggested several factors that may be related to these initial gaps. A body of research has focused in particular on initial gaps between white and black children. The early home environment, including how well parents prepare children for school (e.g., time spent reading to them) plays a role (Magnuson, Rosenbaum, and Waldfogel 2008; Jencks and Phillips 1998). Other reasons posited include income and education differences among parents (Magnuson, Rosenbaum, and Waldfogel 2008; Campbell et al. 2008), school segregation (Vigdor and Ludwig 2008), access to effective and well-trained teachers (Corcoran and Evans 2008), ability to listen and concentrate, and children's fine motor skills, which need to reach a certain level of development for young children to learn to write and draw (Grissmer and Eiseman 2008). Students' mathematics achievement was measured on a single scale ranging from 0 to 174 throughout the study, allowing the tracking of achievement growth and comparisons between groups as children progressed through elementary and middle grades. The 1998–99 kindergarten cohort started school with an average mathematics score of 26 and gained 113 points by the spring of eighth grade, to 139 (table For most characteristics, gaps widened during the early years of school (when the overall score changes were greater) and then stabilized or even narrowed slightly starting at grade 3 or 5, when the rate of overall growth also declined. Students' relative achievement when starting school had an influence on growth and eventual grade 8 scores, shown by the trajectories of those scoring in the lowest, middle two, and highest quartiles in kindergarten (figure In another example, white children scored 29 on the test given in the fall of their kindergarten year and Asians scored 30, compared with 22 for both black and Hispanic children. The gaps between white and black students and Hispanic and Asian students reached a certain point and then stabilized after grade 3. Gaps based on a few characteristics narrowed a little in later grades: English proficiency in kindergarten, primary language spoken at home, and the white–Hispanic gap. See appendix table Proficiency in Different Skill Areas. The ECLS-K test data also indicate whether students were proficient in nine mathematics skill areas. (The skills are arranged in a hierarchy such that proficiency in a given area presumes proficiency in the areas below it. See sidebar "Mathematics Skills Areas Assessed" for definitions.) By eighth grade, nearly all students were proficient in ordinality and sequence, addition and subtraction, and multiplication and division (appendix table Substantial differences among groups appeared in the three highest skill areas—rate and measurement, fractions, and area and volume—and differences grew as the difficulty level increased. For example, 63% of students whose mothers had a bachelor's degree were proficient in fractions, compared with 16% of students whose mothers had not completed high Differences by initial math skills in kindergarten were also considerable for the highest skill area in which students had reached proficiency by eighth grade (table Some early low achievers in kindergarten did reach proficiency in high skill areas, however: 24% achieved proficiency with rate and measurement, 7% with fractions, and 2% with area and volume, the highest skill area assessed. Thus, although most initial low-scoring students progressed relatively slowly, some managed to overcome obstacles they had at school entry. High mathematics scores in kindergarten were also strong predictors of proficiency with higher-level mathematical concepts in eighth grade. By grade 8, 37% of those who scored in the highest quartile in kindergarten had achieved proficiency in all of the skill areas shown in table Gains in Science Test Scores and Gap Changes. ECLS-K science assessments were given in grades 3, 5, and 8 and, as with mathematics, were measured on a single scale, in this case from 0 to 111. The average science score in grade 3 was 51 points, increasing to 83 by grade 8. In general, growth patterns were similar to those found with mathematics over these higher grades: few changes in gap size, and those changes that did occur were minimal (appendix table Trends in Mathematics and Science Performance in Grades 4 and 8 Through 2007 NAEP includes two assessment programs. The national (or main) NAEP assesses national samples of 4th and 8th grade students at regular intervals and 12th grade students occasionally. These assessments are updated periodically to reflect contemporary standards of what students should know and be able to do in various subjects, including science and mathematics. Student achievement measured by NAEP is documented in an ongoing series of reports, The Nation's Report Card, that first began in 1969. A second testing program, the NAEP Long-Term Trend (LTT), is based on nationally representative samples of 9-, 13-, and 17-year-olds. The mathematics content framework for NAEP LTT has remained the same since it was first given in 1973, permitting analyses of trends over more than three decades. This section briefly summarizes NAEP science trends—reported in detail in Science and Engineering Indicators 2008 (NSB 2008) and then focuses on the new mathematics score data for fourth and eighth graders in 2007 and on trends in these scores from 1990 to 2007. New data are neither available for 12th grade mathematics nor for science in any grade. The NAEP LTT scores in mathematics are also updated through 2008, for three age groups. NAEP rates students' performance in two ways: average scale scores and the percentage reaching various achievement levels. Scale scores place students along a continuous scale based on their overall performance on the assessment. A single mathematics scale of 0 to 500 points covers both grades 4 and 8. See sidebar "Development and Content of NAEP Mathematics Assessments" for further information on the assessments' content and design. The NAEP website has a searchable database of released NAEP test items (http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/itmrls). Science Performance. No new NAEP science data are available for any grade; a science assessment was conducted in early 2009 and data will be available in early 2010, too late for inclusion in this volume. As reported in Science and Engineering Indicators 2008 (NSB 2008), average NAEP science scores increased for 4th graders, held steady for 8th graders, and declined for 12th graders between 1996 and 2005 (NCES 2006a). Rising scores among lower-performing and average fourth graders were the primary drivers of the increase. The proportion of students reaching the proficient level for their grade in science held steady at grades 4 and 8, and declined a bit at grade 12. Proficiency rates were lower among 12th graders than among students in the lower grades. Mathematics Performance of Fourth and Eighth Graders. The upward achievement trends that occurred through 2005 on the NAEP fourth and eighth grade mathematics tests continued with the 2007 tests. Between 1990 and 2007, the average mathematics score for fourth graders rose from 213 to 240, and for eighth graders from 263 to 281 At both grade levels, students' scores increased in each of the five content areas tested (number sense, properties, and operations; measurement; geometry and spatial sense; data analysis, statistics, and probability; and algebra and functions) (Lee, Grigg, and Dion 2007). Performance also improved across the achievement distribution in both grades, with scores at five selected percentiles of the score distribution (10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, and 90th) all increasing consistently over these years (figure Achievement trends for nearly all demographic groups reflected the same upward movement (table The scores of fourth graders in each racial/ethnic group with 1990–2007 data available rose consistently over those 17 years. Black fourth graders had the largest score increase, at 34 points (figure NAEP 2009 results, released as this volume was going to press, show that the upward trend in fourth grade mathematics scores has halted, that mathematics scores of eighth graders have continued to improve, and that score gaps among racial/ethnic groups are unchanged (NCES 2009a). Gaps in Mathematics Performance. In most years, boys had marginally higher mathematics scores than girls, and these gaps remained about equal over the 17-year period Most gaps among racial/ethnic groups that existed in 1990 remained in 2007, but some have narrowed, especially in recent years. The average score gap between white and black fourth graders decreased from 32 to 26 scale points between 1990 and 2007. Among eighth graders, the gap increased from 1990 to 2000 but then decreased from 2000 to 2007. Similarly, the gaps between white and Hispanic students in both grades narrowed from 2000 to 2007. Score gaps related to family income, as indicated by student eligibility for subsidized lunches, also shrank between 1996 (the first year available) and 2007, as well as between 2000 and 2007 for fourth graders. For eighth graders, the gap between low-income and other students was about the same in 1996 and 2007, with some fluctuations in between. It showed a decrease from 2000 to 2007. Achievement is also measured in a different way from the scale scores discussed above: the percentages of students scoring at or above the basic and proficient levels and reaching the advanced proficiency level set by the NAEP governing board. Students also improved steadily from 1990 to 2007 on this measure (figure Long-Term Trends in Mathematics Performance. The NAEP Long-Term Trend assessment program has tested students ages 9, 13, and 17 in mathematics for more than three decades. LTT assessments differ from the main NAEP assessment, whose frameworks and tests are revised over time to follow changes in common curriculum at targeted grade levels, in that the LTT assessment for each grade level has tested the same knowledge and skills over time. Since this testing program began, 9- and 13-year-olds raised their scores, while 17-year-olds' scores were essentially flat, with no difference between the first test score (304) in 1973 and the most recent (306) in 2008 (appendix table In each age group, black students gained more points than white students over the earlier part of the period, narrowing the gaps with whites. The gap between blacks and whites for 9-year-olds narrowed from 35 points in 1973 to 26 in 2008. For 13-year-olds, the gap decreased substantially, from 46 to 28 points. For both of the younger age groups, this narrowing occurred mainly through 1986; after that, both racial groups increased their scores at roughly similar rates. Among 17-year-olds, the 1973 gap between blacks and whites of 40 points decreased to 26 points in 2008, with the smallest gap appearing in 1990. Hispanic students at all three ages gained more points over time than did whites on the mathematics assessments, particularly 13- and 17-year-olds. The score gaps with their white peers thus appeared to decrease, but none of those changes was significant, in part due to relatively small Hispanic sample sizes in some years. Parents' educational attainment, a measure of socioeconomic status, was collected from 13- and 17-year-olds. At all levels of parental education, 13-year-olds' achievement increased over the 35 years, while 17-year-olds' performance improved only among students whose parents had not finished high school. Two recent assessments place U.S. student achievement in mathematics and science in an international context: the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study and the Program for International Student Assessment. TIMSS and PISA differ in several fundamental ways; see sidebar "Differences Between TIMSS and PISA Assessments." Reports on TIMSS and PISA test results typically compare U.S. performance with that of all participating countries or with that of all members of the Group of Eight (G-8) or Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (Gonzales et al. 2008; Miller et al. 2009; Gonzales et al. 2004; Baldi et al. 2007). The differences in the characteristics of countries that participate in these two studies, however, confound comparisons between the United States' relative standing on the two assessments. This section compares U.S. performance to that of a subset of nations that either have advanced economies that compete globally in fields related to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) or have developing economies with rapidly growing capabilities in these areas. Most of the selected countries were included because of their current capabilities in science and technology. A few Asian countries that are seeking to develop such capacity were also included to highlight student performance in these highly dynamic countries. (This geographic focus is maintained where possible in the international sections of other chapters.) Not all of the 28 selected nations participated in each assessment, so the number available for comparison with the United States differs by test. Scores for all participating nations are shown in appendix tables. Results from the two assessments are contradictory: U.S. average scores on TIMSS tend to place the United States around the middle of the group of selected nations, and in mathematics, the United States improved over time. In contrast, U.S. scores on PISA were generally near the bottom of the group, and the U.S. standing relative to other nations declined in both mathematics and science. Some of these performance differences may be explained by the differences in the tests and which countries participate (see sidebars "Differences Between TIMSS and PISA Assessments" and "Sample Items From TIMSS and PISA Assessments"). Mathematics Performance of U.S. Fourth and Eighth Graders on TIMSS The fourth grade TIMSS mathematics exam covers three content areas: number, geometric shapes and measures, and data display. The eighth grade assessment addresses four content domains: number, algebra, geometry, and data and chance. Performance Trends. Over the 12 years since the first TIMSS mathematics assessments in 1995, U.S. fourth and eighth graders raised their scores and international ranking (Gonzales et al. 2008). The fourth grade average of 529 in 2007 was 11 points higher than in 1995. For eighth graders, the U.S. average of 508 in 2007 reflected a 16-point rise over 1995's score (figure Not only did U.S. fourth graders' mathematics scores increase, but the U.S. position relative to selected other nations also shifted upward from 1995 to 2007. Of the selected nations whose fourth graders participated in both the 1995 and 2007 TIMSS, four outscored the United States in 1995, compared with three in 2007 (figure Performance on the 2007 TIMSS Mathematics Tests. The fourth grade tests focused on three content domains: number, geometric shapes and measures, and data display (about half the assessment emphasized the number domain, including introductory algebra). For eighth grade, the four content domains were number, algebra, geometry, and data and chance. The cognitive domains addressed in TIMSS are the same for both grades—knowing, applying, and reasoning. U.S. fourth graders' average score on the 2007 TIMSS mathematics assessment (529) was just below the combined average for 14 selected nations (534) The U.S. eighth grade average mathematics score of 508 was also below the combined average (514) for 16 selected nations and below 5 nations' individual averages (table Although U.S. students as a whole did not lead the world in TIMSS mathematics, two U.S. states that participated individually (Massachusetts and Minnesota) provide examples of high performance (see sidebar "Two States' Performance on TIMSS: 2007"). Scores at the 90th percentile present another way to examine high-achieving students (those who scored higher than 90% of all test takers). In mathematics, the 90th percentile score for U.S. fourth graders was 625, lower than that of six other nations (table Science Performance of U.S. Fourth and Eighth Graders: TIMSS Performance Trends. In contrast to the mathematics trends, which showed improvement in both grades, the average scores of U.S. students on the TIMSS science assessment have remained flat since 1995. Fourth graders have lost ground internationally, whereas eighth graders slightly improved their position relative to other nations (Gonzales et al. 2008). At fourth grade, the United States outperformed six of seven selected nations in 1995 but only two of them in 2007. In addition, the single comparison nation that did better than the United States in 1995 (Japan) was joined by Singapore and Hong Kong in 2007. The trend in U.S. standing of eighth graders was slightly upward: nations scoring higher than the United States on the science assessment dropped from eight in 1995 to six in 2007. In addition, the United States had not outperformed any of the 10 other nations in 1995 but outscored 2 of them in 2007 (Sweden and Norway). Performance on the 2007 TIMSS Science Tests. The fourth grade science tests focused on three content areas: life, physical, and earth sciences; and on three main skills: knowing, applying, and reasoning. At eighth grade, content areas expanded to four: biology, chemistry, physics, and earth sciences. The cognitive domains underlying test development were the same for both grades: knowing, applying, and reasoning. The fourth grade tests emphasize knowing more than the eighth grade tests, while reasoning is a greater focus in eighth grade. On the 2007 TIMSS science test for fourth graders, four of the comparison nations scored higher and six scored lower than the United States, putting the United States just above the middle of the group (table The U.S. 90th percentile score for fourth graders was 643, ranking lower than in 2 other nations and higher than in 8, or above the midpoint for these 15 nations (Gonzales et al. 2008). The difference between Singapore (whose fourth graders led all countries) and the United States at the 90th percentile was 58 points. In eighth grade, U.S. students at the 90th percentile in science scored roughly in the middle of the group—lower than in six other nations and higher than in five. See sidebar "Linking NAEP and TIMSS Results." Mathematics Performance of U.S. 15-Year-Olds: PISA Performance Trends. In contrast to the TIMSS results, U.S. 15-year-olds' performance consistently dropped on the PISA tests of mathematical and scientific literacy in relation to student performance in other nations. The U.S. mathematics average of 474 in 2006 is 19 points lower than in 2000, when the first PISA exams were given, but changes in the tests mean that the scores cannot be directly compared ( OECD 2001; Baldi et al. 2007). While the United States scored below 7 nations in 2000, it scored below 15 nations in 2006 (of 19 nations with data available for both years). Performance on the 2006 PISA Mathematics Test. PISA assesses 15-year-old students in all OECD nations and a range of other nations every 3 years on literacy in mathematics, science, and reading. The mathematics test covers four content areas: space and shape, change and relationships, quantity, and uncertainty. A main mathematics skill tested is problem solving (explored in greatest depth in 2003, when math was PISA's main focus). Sjøberg (2007) and Goldstein (2004) discuss PISA's content, including challenges and critiques. On the most recent PISA tests, the U.S. score was 474, below 18 of the selected nations' scores (table The U.S. score at the 90th percentile in mathematics was 593, lower than that in 18 other nations that participated in the PISA exam and higher than in another 3 nations (Thailand, Indonesia, and Brazil) (Baldi et al. 2007). None of the OECD member nations had a lower 90th percentile score than the United States. Science Performance of U.S. 15-Year-Olds: PISA Performance Trends. The U.S. rank among selected nations declined on the PISA scientific literacy test, as on the mathematics assessment. In 2000, the United States scored below 6 other selected nations (out of 19 participating in both years), but in 2006, that number doubled to 12 (figure Performance on the 2006 PISA Science Test. To measure scientific literacy, PISA includes three skill areas: identifying and understanding scientific issues, explaining phenomena scientifically, and using scientific evidence. Students were tested on their grasp of essential scientific concepts and theories in four content areas: physical systems, living systems, earth and space systems, and technology systems. Test items probed whether students understood how scientists obtain evidence (scientific means of inquiry) and how scientists use data. The test scores range from 1 to 1,000, and the mean for the 2006 science test was set at 500. The score scale is divided into six distinct proficiency levels that measure competence in science concepts and reasoning; each proficiency level encompasses roughly 75 points (OECD 2007). To put score differences in context, the average gain from one grade to the next was 38 points, or roughly half a full proficiency level. (This one-grade gain was measured using data from nations with sufficient numbers of 15-year-olds in two consecutive grades.) The science literacy performance of U.S. 15-year-olds in 2006 placed the United States below 15 of 24 other nations and above 4, far below the midpoint (table The U.S. 90th percentile score in scientific literacy was 628, below the corresponding score in 10 of the 24 nations with data, but above it in 9, putting U.S. top-scoring students just below the middle of the 90th percentile science score distribution for these selected nations. Thus, U.S. high achievers in science placed in a better position relative to other countries than did U.S. students on average.

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Books of the New Testament - The Gospels and Acts: - Pauline Epistles: - The General Epistles: - And Revelation: The New Testament is twenty-seven separate works: the four narratives of Jesus Christ's ministry, called "Gospels"; a narrative of the Apostles' ministries, which is also a sequel to the third Gospel, written by Luke; twenty-one early letters, commonly called "epistles" in Biblical context, which were written by various authors and consisted mostly of Christian counsel and instruction; and an Apocalyptic prophecy, which is also technically the twenty-second epistle. Each of the Gospels narrates the ministry of Jesus Christ. The traditional author is listed after each entry. Modern scholarship differs on precisely by whom, when, or in what original form the various gospels were written. The Acts of the Apostles, also called the Book of Acts or just Acts, is a narrative of the Apostles' ministry after Christ's death and a sequel to the third Gospel. Holy Tradition, as well as style, phraseology, and other evidence, say that Acts and Luke have the same author, the Apostle Luke. Luke wrote down his narrative from the words of the Apostle Paul, with whom he traveled to Rome. The Pauline Epistles constitute those epistles traditionally attributed to Paul, though his authorship of some is disputed (such as Hebrews, which is oft attributed to Paul, though there was a debate even in the Early Church about its authorship). They consist mostly of moral counsel and behavioral instruction, though they do include other elements as well. Paul appears to have dictated the epistles to a scribe and some specifically mention his habit of appending a salutation in his own handwriting. The General or Catholic Epistles are those written to the church at large (Catholic in this sense simply means universal). The Book of Revelation often called just Revelation, traditionally by the Apostle John, son of Zebedee. Revelation is sometimes called The Apocalypse of John. It is the only book of the New Testament which is not read during Orthodox church services, because of various reasons such as its capacity for misinterpretation. New Testament Apocrypha In ancient times there were dozens—perhaps hundreds—of Christian writings claiming Apostolic authorship, but which were ultimately rejects by the Church Fathers in the 27-book New Testament canon. These works are considered "apocryphal", and are therefore referred to in singular as the New Testament Apocrypha. This Apocrypha includes a large amount of gnostic writings, spurious prophecy, fantasy, and in general a number of other heretical teachings. Below are some examples of early apocryphal works (please note this short list is by no means exhaustive): Gospel of Thomas - anonymous collection of (Gnostic) sayings attributed to Jesus Christ; written c. AD 50–140. Gospel of Peter, anonymous Synoptic narrative; written c. AD 70–160. Epistle of Barnabas - anonymous letter of counsel to an unknown audience; written c. AD 80–120. Greek Gospel of the Egyptians, anonymous Gospel narrative; written c. AD 80–150. Gospel of the Hebrews, anonymous Gospel narrative; written c. AD 80–150. 1 Clement, letter of counsel probably composed by Clement, Bishop of Rome, and addressed to the church in Corinth, whose teaching is orthodox but not as worthy of inclusion in the canon as the other epistles; written c. AD 95–96. Apocalypse of Peter, anonymous prophecy concerning the end times; written c. AD 100–150. The Shepherd of Hermas, anonymous Christian text purportedly by the Apostle Hermas; contains a broad range of content, including prophecy, direct instruction and parables; written c. AD 100–160. Gospel of Judas, anonymous gospel narrative attributed to Judas Iscariot; written c. AD 130–170. This "gospel," as well as several of the above like the Shepherd of Hermas, are part of the pseudepigrapha, or writings claiming to be by someone else other than their real author (generally someone more prestigious).Protoevangelion of James, a second-century text purported to have been written by James the Just, the brother of the Lord. The common language spoken in the Holy Land at the time of Jesus was Aramaic. However, the original text of the New Testament was most likely written in Koine Greek, the vernacular dialect in 1st-century Roman provinces, and has since been widely translated into other languages, most notably, Latin, Syriac, and Coptic. (However, some of the church fathers seem to imply that Matthew was originally written in Hebrew or more likely Aramaic, and there is another contention that the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews wrote in Hebrew, which was translated into Greek by Luke. Neither view holds much support among contemporary scholars, who argue that the literary facets of Matthew and Hebrews suggest that they were composed directly in Greek, rather than being translated.) It is notable that many books of the New Testament, especially the Gospel of Mark and the book of Revelation, are written in relatively poor Greek. They are far from the refined Attic Greek or Classical Greek found composed by the higher classes, ruling elites, and trained philosophers of the time. Relative exceptions to this include the gospels of Luke and John and the Acts of the Apostles.

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Despite China's booming economy, many poor individuals continue to use traditional stoves that burn low-grade solid fuels like charcoal and coal. Such stoves generate high levels of indoor air pollution that cause dire health problems, especially in women and children. These health concerns include asthma, bronchitis, and heart disease. By 2030, a new study predicts, nearly a quarter of the rural population and one-sixth of city dwellers could still be using such stoves. However, with a relatively small per capita investment, the study suggests, those values could drop to zero. The study, led by Brijesh Mainali of the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, Sweden, appears in a special issue of the American Institute of Physics' Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy (JRSE) that focuses on emerging energy trends in China. Mainali, who has been working in the field of rural energy for the past 15 years, along with senior researcher Shonali Pachauri and researcher Yu Nagai both from the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis in Vienna, Austria modeled cooking fuel and stove choices in both rural and urban Chinese populations. Choices were modeled to depend on standard economic variables such as income, technology costs, and fuel prices, along with some variables unique to developing countries such as inconvenience costs. The analysis revealed that, under a business-as-usual scenario, 24 percent of the rural and 17 percent of the urban population might still depend on solid fuels in 2030. For an annual cost of just $2.39 per person, the researchers found, universal access to modern fuels could be achieved by that date in urban areas. Providing such fuels to rural areas would cost substantially more an estimated $10.75 per person but, Mainali notes, "the associated reductions in the adverse impacts on health and emissions of greenhouse gases, as well as general improvements in socio-economic welfare that are likely to accompany any access policies, justify such investment." Once there is access to modern fuels, he says, "the change that it brings to lives and society also changes prosperity levels and thus, in the long run, the required subsidies could be phased out or reduced." Explore further: Poland may delay launch of nuclear plants More information: "Analyzing Cooking Fuel and Stove Choices in China Till 2030", Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy

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There is a lot of new data from the various extrasolar planet projects including NASA's Kepler mission on extra-solar planets. Based on our current data what is the probability that a star of each of the main spectral types (O, B, A, etc) will have a planetary system? Almost all exoplanets observed are near F, G, and K stars. In part, this is because astronomers are looking for earth-like planets, so they look at stars similar to our Sun, but there are also some physical reasons. Sahu et al (2006) have provided some evidence that red dwarfs (class M) are more likely to have planets than other spectral types, though it is hardly conclusive; in any case, planets have been observed around red dwarfs. No exoplanets have been observed around very massive UV stars (O and B spectral types), and only a few around still-large A-stars. This is probably because very massive stars blast away the protoplanetary disk before accretion allows formation of planets. This was covered in a recent paper by Gorti and Hollenbach (2009). Incidentally, the most important predictor of whether a given star will have planets is its metallicity. This has been known for quite a while, but Geoff Marcy and company found this most dramatically in a 2005 survey - they estimate that 25% of high-metallicity stars have planets, while only 3% of low-metallicity stars have planets. It's not totally understood why planetary formation depends so strongly on metallicity, but many reasons have been proposed: metallic stars have lower stellar winds, less total UV flux, and their protoplanetary disks are probably more enriched with silicon and iron, which speeds up planet formation. |show 1 more comment| Given what we know about planetary formation (Link 1, Link 2, Link 3 and Link 4), and the theories around it, it would probably be a safe bet to say that ALL stars end up having some left over material that might become planets. I think the bigger question is how many of those planetary orbits stay stable enough throughout the life of the star? All these links aside, I think that it would just be supposition to declare with any certainty that the chance is 100% or 90%, or whatever number you want to choose. We are still trying to gather the data. And our instrumentation is inadequate to the task at hand. We have a bias towards detecting larger planets (up until the Kepler mission). And the Kepler mission is only looking at a small portion of the sky, and will only detect transiting planets, thereby missing all the systems that are tilted relative to us. The intellectually honest answer is, "We don't know." However, it's a great excuse to explore more and find out. This question was asked a couple of years ago and things have changed since then. We now know that small planets are found around stars across a broad range of metallicities and that it is only the existence of giant planets that are affected by low metallicity. Nature article here. It was previously thought that small planets were more common around small stars but the latest Kepler results show that small planets are equally common around stars of all spectral types. See this AAS press conference.

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http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/24866/what-is-the-probability-that-a-star-of-a-given-spectral-type-will-have-planets

2013-06-18T23:26:31Z

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Individual differences | Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology | Persecution is a form of antisocial behavior, the persistent mistreatment of an individual or group by another group. The most common forms are religious persecution, ethnic persecution, and political persecution, though there is naturally some overlap between these terms. The most common scenario is a majority/ingroup persecuting a minority/outgroup, since the reverse is usually impractical, although Apartheid in South Africa is considered an exception. Majority groups, however, can inspire resentment where they are locally a minority and find themselves persecuted; persons of an ethnic majority who venture within a large minority neighborhood may experience or perceive a hostility towards them. See reverse discrimination. The crimes hereinafter set out are punishable as crimes under international law:... (c)Crimes against humanity: - Murder, extermination, enslavement, deportation and other inhumane acts done against any civilian population, or persecutions on political, racial, or religious grounds, when such acts are done or such persecutions are carried on in execution of or in connection with any crime against peace or any war crime. There are various possible origins of persecutory behavior. For instance, a movement which is publicly or implicitly identified with a minority group — such as a religion, a genetic heritage, a region, or other traditional distinction — might be successful enough to disrupt the status quo or become associated with violent acts. A reflective persecutory movement might then arise within the majority, not necessarily distinguishing between those who are and are not part of the movement. This persecution might in turn radicalize the minority group, resulting in a feedback cycle. So-called opportunistic persecution occurs when someone exploits and stirs up an existing current of resentment to enhance his own political power. This opportunism can be applied "in reverse", as where a minority orator provokes persecution in order to unify a minority movement. Persecution and identity Edit Past persecutions can become important elements of a persecuted group's identity. Members of many ethnic groups and religions can name at least one time when their group was persecuted by others. Periods of persecution may include martyrdom, in which a person killed by the persecutor becomes a powerful cultural symbol for the persecuted group. The historical memory of persecution may long outlast a group's status as an oppressed minority, becoming a symbol of group membership. 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The historical background of neurotic states and conduct disorders in childhood: Magyar Pszichologiai Szemle Vol 44(3) 1987-1988, 227-244. - Walinski-Kiehl, R. (2004). Males, "Masculine Honor," and Witch Hunting in Seventeenth-Century Germany: Men and Masculinities Vol 6(3) Jan 2004, 254-271. - Walston, F., Blennerhassett, R. C., & Charlton, B. G. (2000). "Theory of mind", persecutory delusions and the somatic marker mechanism: Cognitive Neuropsychiatry Vol 5(3) Aug 2000, 161-174. - Walston, F., David, A. S., & Charlton, B. G. (1998). Sex differences in the content of persecutory delusions: A reflection of hostile threats in the ancestral environment? : Evolution and Human Behavior Vol 19(4) Jul 1998, 257-260. - Wangh, M. (1973). Psychiatric misjudgments in German restitution proceedings: Blindness or spite? : Journal of Psychiatry & Law Vol 1(1) Spr 1973, 39-48. - Waska, R. (2002). Fragmentation, persecution and primitive guilt: Clinical and theoretical issues with psychotic patients: Psychodynamic Practice: Individuals, Groups and Organisations Vol 8(2) May 2002, 147-162. - Waska, R. (2003). Fragmented attachments: The paranoid-schizoid experience of loss and persecution: Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic Vol 67(1) Mar 2003, 50-64. - White, J. D., & Marsella, A. J. (2007). Fear of persecution: Global human rights, international law, and human well-being. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books/Rowman & Littlefield. - Xie, F. T. (2007). Falun Gong and the world: How many eight-years do we need? -- Comment on Langone (2007): Cultic Studies Review Vol 6(3) 2007, 286-294. - Yakushko, O. (2008). The impact of social and political changes on survivors of political persecutions in rural Russia and Ukraine: Political Psychology Vol 29(1) Feb 2008, 119-130. - Young, S. (1998). The support group approach to bullying in schools: Educational Psychology in Practice Vol 14(1) Apr 1998, 32-39. - Yung, A. R., Buckby, J. A., Cotton, S. M., Cosgrave, E. M., Killackey, E. J., Stanford, C., et al. (2006). Psychotic-like experiences in nonpsychotic help-seekers: Associations with distress, depression, and disability: Schizophrenia Bulletin Vol 32(2) Apr 2006, 352-359. - Zolotova, J., & Brune, M. (2006). Persecutory delusions: Reminiscence of ancestral hostile threats? : Evolution and Human Behavior Vol 27(3) May 2006, 185-192. - Zuk, G. H. (1990). Murder in the family: An analysis of two Poe short stories: Contemporary Family Therapy: An International Journal Vol 12(6) Dec 1990, 467-476. - Adam, B. D. (1979). Social psychology of inferiorized peoples: Dissertation Abstracts International. - Chin, T. L. (2004). An investigation of the effects of political persecution in Chinese immigrant women and their daughters. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. - Davoudi, M. (2004). Spiritual dimension of adaptation to persecution and torture among Iranian Bahai women. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. - Grinkis, C. M. (2001). Delusions of persecution: An existential-phenomenological study of persons diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. - Jackson, K. A. (1992). Trauma survivors: Adult children of McCarthyism and the Smith Act: Dissertation Abstracts International. - Karr, S. D. (1973). Second-generation effects of the Nazi holocaust: Dissertation Abstracts International. - Key, F. A. (2001). Using fear-reduction techniques to treat paranoid ideations and persecutory delusions in schizophrenic patients. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. - Murati, S. G. (2003). A cultural psychological study of the narratives of the ex-politically persecuted people of Albania: Toward a national narrative. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences. - Ogunyemi, E. S. (1977). A content analysis of selected documents dealing with some relationships between Christians and Romans during the first three centuries: Dissertation Abstracts International. - Tausend, S. A. (1980). Determinants of undesirability: Development and expansion of the stigma process model: Dissertation Abstracts International. |This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).|

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Adaptive Sort: A sorting algorithm that can take advantage of existing order in the input, reducing its requirements for computational resources as a function of the disorder in the input. Backtracking: Backtracking is a type of algorithm that is a refinement of brute force search. In backtracking, multiple solutions can be eliminated without being explicitly examined, by using specific properties of the problem. Clique : A clique in a graph is a set of pairwise adjacent vertices, or in other words, an induced subgraph which is a complete graph. In the graph at the right, vertices 1, 2 and 5 form a clique, because each has an edge to all the others. Deterministic Algorithm: Deterministic algorithm is an algorithm which, in informal terms, behaves predictably. Given a particular input, it will always produce the same output, and the underlying machine will always pass through the same sequence of states. Deterministic algorithms are by far the most studied and familiar kind of algorithm, as well as one of the most practical, since they can be run on real machines efficiently. Edge Coloring: edge coloring is one type of the graph coloring problem. A coloring of a graph’s edges assigns a “color” to each edge of the graph. The objective is to color the graph’s edges so that no vertex has two edges leaving it that have the same “color” and to use as few colors as possible. For example, the figure to the side shows a proper edge coloring, where no two edges out of the same vertex share the same color. In this example, the graph required three different colors, and could not be colored properly in any fewer. Finite State Machine: A finite state machine (FSM) or finite state automaton (plural: automata) or simply a state machine, is a model of behavior composed of a finite number of states, transitions between those states, and actions. A finite state machine is an abstract model of a machine with a primitive internal memory. Greedy Algorithms: Greedy algorithms are simple and straightforward. They are shortsighted in their approach in the sense that they take decisions on the basis of information at hand without worrying about the effect these decisions may have in the future. They are easy to invent, easy to implement and most of the time quite efficient. Many problems cannot be solved correctly by greedy approach. Greedy algorithms are used to solve optimization problems. Heap : A heap is a specialized tree-based data structure that satisfies the heap property: if B is a child node of A, then key(A) ? key(B). This implies that an element with the greatest key is always in the root node, and so such a heap is sometimes called a max heap. (Alternatively, if the comparison is reversed, the smallest element is always in the root node, which results in a min heap.) Independent Set: an independent set or stable set is a set of vertices in a graph no two of which are adjacent. That is, it is a set V of vertices such that for every two vertices in V, there is no edge connecting the two. Equivalently, each edge in the graph has at most one endpoint in V. The size of an independent set is the number of vertices it contains. Johnson’s Algorithm: Johnson’s algorithm is a way to find shortest paths between all pairs of vertices in a sparse directed graph. It allows some of the edge weights to be negative numbers, but no negative-weight cycles may exist. Karnaugh Map: Karnaugh map, also known as a Veitch diagram (KV-map or K-map for short), is a tool to facilitate the simplification of Boolean algebra IC expressions. The Karnaugh map reduces the need for extensive calculations by taking advantage of human pattern-recognition and permitting the rapid identification and elimination of potential race hazards. Linear probing: Linear probing is a scheme in computer programming for resolving hash collisions of values of hash functions by sequentially searching the hash table for a free location. This is accomplished using two values – one as a starting value and one as an interval between successive values in modular arithmetic. The second value, which is the same for all keys and known as the stepsize, is repeatedly added to the starting value until a free space is found, or the entire table is traversed. Master Theorem: Master theorem, which is a specific case of the Akra-Bazzi theorem, provides a cookbook solution in asymptotic terms for recurrence relations of types that occur in practice. It was popularized by the canonical algorithms textbook Introduction to Algorithms by Cormen, Leiserson, Rivest, and Stein, which introduces and proves it in sections 4.3 and 4.4, respectively. Nevertheless, not all recurrence relations can be solved with the use of the master theorem. Non-Deterministic Algorithm: A non-deterministic algorithm is an algorithm with one or more choice points where multiple different continuations are possible, without any specification of which one will be taken. Open Addressing: Open addressing, or closed hashing, is a method of collision resolution in hash tables. With this method a hash collision is resolved by probing, or searching through alternate locations in the array (the probe sequence) until either the target record is found, or an unused array slot is found, which indicates that there is no such key in the table. Well known probe sequences include: Polynomial Time: polynomial time refers to the computation time of a problem where the run time, m(n), is no greater than a polynomial function of the problem size, n. Written mathematically using big O notation, this states that m(n) = O(nk) where k is some constant that may depend on the problem. For example, the quicksort sorting algorithm on n integers performs at most An2 operations for some constant A. Thus it runs in time O(n2) and is a polynomial time algorithm. Quadtree : A quadtree is a tree data structure in which each internal node has up to four children. Quadtrees are most often used to partition a two dimensional space by recursively subdividing it into four quadrants or regions. The regions may be square or rectangular, or may have arbitrary shapes. This data structure was named a quadtree by Raphael Finkel and J.L. Bentley in 1974. Recursive Tree: A recursive tree is a non-planar labeled rooted tree. A size-n recursive tree is labeled by distinct integers 1, 2, …, n, where the labels are strictly increasing starting at the root labeled 1. Recursive trees are non-planar, which means that the children of a particular node are not ordered. Simulated annealing: Simulated annealing (SA) is a generic probabilistic meta-algorithm for the global optimization problem, namely locating a good approximation to the global optimum of a given function in a large search space. It is often used when the search space is discrete (e.g., all tours that visit a given set of cities). For certain problems, simulated annealing may be more effective than exhaustive enumeration — provided that the goal is merely to find an acceptably good solution in a fixed amount of time, rather than the best possible solution. Traveling Salesman Problem : The traveling salesman problem (TSP) in operations research is a problem in discrete or combinatorial optimization. It is a prominent illustration of a class of problems in computational complexity theory which are classified as NP-hard. The problem is given a number of cities and the costs of traveling from any city to any other city, what is the least-cost round-trip route that visits each city exactly once and then returns to the starting city? Undecidable Problem : An undecidable problem is a problem whose language is not a recursive set. More informally, such problems cannot be solved in general by computers; see decidability. Venn Diagram: Venn diagrams or set diagrams are diagrams, that show the logical relations of classes, a collection of sets (groups of things). Venn diagrams are invented around 1880 by John Venn, and nowadays used in many fields, including set theory, probability, logic, statistics, and computer science. weighted Graph: A weighted graph associates a label (weight) with every edge in the graph. Weights are usually real numbers. They may be restricted to rational numbers or integers. Certain algorithms require further restrictions on weights, for instance, the Dijkstra algorithm works properly only for positive weights. XOR: The logical operation exclusive disjunction, also called exclusive or (symbolized XOR or EOR), is a type of logical disjunction on two operands that results in a value of “true” if and only if exactly one of the operands has a value of “true”. Yule–Simon distribution: In probability and statistics, the Yule–Simon distribution is a discrete probability distribution named after Udny Yule and Herbert Simon. Simon originally called it the Yule distribution. The probability mass function of the Yule–Simon (?) distribution is for integer and real ? > 0, where B is the beta function. Equivalently the pmf can be written in terms of the falling factorial as where ? is the gamma function. Thus, if ? is an integer, The probability mass function f has the property that for sufficiently large k we have This means that the tail of the Yule–Simon distribution is a realization of Zipf’s Law: f(k;?) can be used to model, for example, the relative frequency of the kth most frequent word in a large collection of text, which according to Zipf’s law is inversely proportional to a (typically small) power of k.

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Aging is a fact of life, but how quickly we age is not just a function of genetic disposition. How we choose to live, as much as who we are, can determine how we age and whether we will live a longer and healthier life. Aging factors that tend to accelerate the aging process-factors that we can control-include: - Lack of regular exercise - Poor dietary habits - Failing to consume an optimal level of vitamins and nutrients - Being overweight - Failing to get enough sleep - Failing to drink sufficient amounts of water - Exposure to excessive amounts of stress - Exposure to toxins - Engaging in unhealthy habits (smoking, excessive drinking) To increase your odds of living longer and living a better quality of life as you age, take control of your life and counter the factors that contribute to premature aging by adopting the following nine steps to a healthier life. Exercise Regularly - Regular exercise and physical activity are key factors in maintaining health. Particularly with older adults, regular physical activity increases the chances of continuing to be able to do the things we enjoy and to remain independent. Studies show that regular exercise can benefit people with arthritis, heart disease, high blood pressure, sleep apnea, and diabetes. And exercise doesn’t have to be intense; find the right level of physical activity for you and do it regularly. Adopt a Healthy Diet – Consuming a lower calorie diet rich in nutrients and fiber but low in fat and sugar is a key factor in maintaining a healthy weight and enhancing your quality of life. Eat a nutritious breakfast every day. Avoid sodas and drink lots of water. Eat lean foods low in fat and sugar and get lots of fiber and protein. Enjoy healthy snacks between meals. Supplement Your Diet with Essential Vitamins, Minerals and Nutrients – As a consequence of current food processing techniques and mineral deficient soil, many of us are not getting the proper amount of vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients essential to optimal health. And an optimal dose of essential vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients decrease the risk of chronic degenerative diseases linked to nutritional deficiencies. The combination of a healthy diet with daily supplements provides the best opportunity for optimal nutrition and health. Maintain a Healthy Weight – Being overweight may put you at increased risk for heart disease, diabetes, high blood pressure, some types of cancer, arthritis, and other chronic diseases. If you don’t know it already, you should know your BMI, or Body Mass Index, which measures your weight relative to your height. You should strive to maintain a BMI below 25, which is generally considered healthy. If your BMI is above 25, you may be considered overweight or even obese, conditions that increase your risk of health problems. Although we cannot control all of the factors that lead to weight gain, regular exercise and a healthy diet are key factors in maintaining a healthy weight. Get the Proper Amount of Sleep – Adequate sleep in an essential factor in our well-being. Cell regeneration and cell growth occur primarily during periods of rest. Certain hormones critical to the proper functioning of the body are produced only during certain phases of deep sleep. If you have problems sleeping, or getting the proper amount of sleep, address them. Drink Lots of Water - It is no secret that water is a key essential to life. What is less well known is that most of us don’t drink enough water on a daily basis. Every system in your body depends on water. Water flushes toxins out of vital organs, helps to carry nutrients to your cells, and provides fluids essential to bodily functions. Water also has no calories and is sugar free. How much water you should drink varies depending on a number of factors, including your health, how much you exercise, and where you live. But make sure you drink enough water every day. Avoid Stress – Stress is a natural reaction to external factors, but failing to deal with excessive amounts of stress can lead to stomach disorders, shortness of breath, back pain, headaches and insomnia and, indirectly an increased risk of chronic degenerative disease that can lead to premature aging. The best approach to coping with stress, in addition to exercising stress management skills, is to exercise regularly, eat properly, and obtain proper amounts of sleep. Reduce Exposure to Toxins – Exposure to toxins and chemicals in today’s world is unavoidable, but you can reduce your exposure to unhealthy levels of toxins and maintain a healthy lifestyle that supports the body’s natural ability to cleanse itself of toxins. Eating the right foods, particularly organic foods, avoiding excessive amounts of processed foods, and drinking purified water can help to reduce the amount of toxins your body takes in. And exercising regularly, staying hydrated, and getting the proper amount of sleep will help your body cleanse itself of toxins and chemicals harmful to your health. Don’t Smoke; Only Consume Alcohol in Moderation - Smoking not only contributes to increased risk of chronic, life shortening degenerative diseases such as heart related illnesses, stroke, and cancer, but also is a key factor in premature aging and is associated with shorter lifespans. If you don’t smoke, don’t start. If you do smoke, stop. Research indicates that excessive alcohol consumption can lead not only to an increased risk of degenerative disease that may shorten your lifespan, but also to an increased risk of premature aging, where the symptoms of aging appear earlier than normal or where the symptoms of aging are more pronounced than would otherwise be the case. If you drink, drink in moderation. Aging Factors have a cumulative effect Research shows that aging is due to the cumulative effect of a number of aging factors; no single factor is the sole or even primary factor in how we age and how long we will live. Accordingly, there is no single product or magic bullet that can guarantee longer life. But you can-and should-take steps to increase your odds of living longer and healthier by taking charge of your life and following the nine steps summarized above. Here’s a quick video on “What’s Aging You”:

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The following pictures are of Feral Cats who were adopted. You can see how the ears have been tipped. Tarzan, a male cat with Jane, a female cat with What are Feral Cats? Feral cats are cats that are afraid of people. An abandoned cat becomes a stray. A stray begins to fend for itself and eventually learns to distrust human beings. Her kittens will be even more wary of humans. Over time, there will be a whole colony of feral cats. The feral colony will have a food source, which is often a kind-hearted person who cannot afford to have the cats spayed and neutered, and could not catch them even if the money were available. What is TNR? TNR is a method of controlling the feral cat population by humanely Trapping them, having them Neutered, vaccinating them, and Returning them to their familiar habitat. TNR is effective because it produces healthy but diminishing feral cat colonies that do not exhibit the nuisance behaviors of unaltered cats. What is the RCHS Feral Cat Program? In Rutherford County, we have an abundant feral cat population. Our RCHS uses TNR (Trap/Neuter/Return) to deal with this problem. We have various means of trapping, tailoring our approach to the individual colony. We transport the trapped cats in carriers to several local veterinarians. The cats are surgically sterilized, given rabies and PVR shots and flea treatment, and ear-tipped. By removing the tip of one ear (left ear for males, right for females), we are able to mark the cat for later identification as a cat that is sterile and vaccinated. Female cats are sutured with "super glue" rather than conventional stitches so that they are free to go the day after surgery. We return all cats to their original colony location unless we find that a tame, adoptable cat is in the group. What do we do with tame cats and kittens? Tame cats and kittens small enough to be tamed are removed from their feral colony and adopted out through the RCHS or local veterinarians whenever possible, unless the caretaker prefers to keep them. What About a Single Stray Cat?Free roaming and stray cats also come under our feral cat program. A stray cat left unaltered and unfed is a feral cat in the making! We have helped with small and single cat groups all over Rutherford County. What about the long-term care of these cats?The RCHS always makes plans with a caretaker for the continued care of the cats we TNR. Feral colonies that are cared for by elderly or indigent caretakers fall under our "Feral Meals on Wheels" program. Local grocery stores give us dry food from damaged bags, but Humane Society members purchase the bulk of this food themselves. This food project is a good way to visit lonely elders in our county as well as to keep up with their colonies, which sometimes attract new strays that need TNR.How many feral cats has the RCHS TNR'ed so far?The Rutherford County Humane Society began assisting a few caretakers of feral colonies in 1999. By the end of 2003 we had TNRed 134 cats and kittens. In 2004 we increased our efforts and with the help of several grants and with contributions to the Feral Cat Program, we have been able to TNR 1,838 feral and stray cats by the end of April 2009. As the number grows we will keep you posted on this website.

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The funny thing is that my classes in Lubbock at Texas Tech would be startled and appalled that Serbs would look fondly back 600 years to a battle they lost, but they were blind to the reality that many of them seemed to view the Civil War in a somewhat similar light--as a noble defeat, mostly forgetting about the defeat part. There are three parts to this issue (well more than that, but three I want to focus on now): the South lost; that the stakes very much included slavery; and that the civil war was incredibly costly. Perhaps the American Civil War is part of the long tradition of poor loser-ness. Why did the South lose the war? Wars are won and lost by a combination of things, including demography, economics, allies and leadership. In terms of military leadership, the record is fairly clear that the South had far more depth and breadth. Demography disadvantaged the South since the North had more people and a significant part of the South's population were not going to be reliable fighters since they were enslaved. Economics favored the North as well since it was in the middle of the industrial revolution, while the South was agrarian/feudal. Finally, despite much sympathy abroad, the South had a hard time getting significant assistance because of its essential identity--as an aspiring country that sought to keep alive slavery. So, in many ways, the South was doomed to fail precisely because of its essential core political grievance--the right to perpetuate slavery. I am not going to go into the weeds on the role of Slavery as the stakes, but the history is clear on this--there were many differences between north and south, but slavery was at the heart of it. Finally, the Civil War was no walk in the woods. Somewhere around 620,000 American soldiers died during the war, representing almost half of all Americans who died in combat in its entire history. And this does not include civilians who lost their lives along the way. So, spare me any notion that the Civil War was a noble war fought for States' Rights. It was a supreme act of Treason, inflicting tremendous damage upon the South and the rest of the country. Ironically, the war forced the Union to develop capacities to fight the war, ultimately strengthening the Federal Government at the cost of "state's rights." We might have had a weaker federal government until the depression or beyond, if the South had not forced Washington, DC to develop more tools, more resources, more ways to intervene in the affairs of states and the lives of citizens. If we want to take the "heritage" folks at their word--that it is not about slavery, but about a war for state's rights, then we can still find their "heritage" something that is not worth commemorating. Celebrating self-inflicting defeat for the sake of a cause that the effort actually undermined? At least the Serbs can say that they tried to stop an invasion of an alien culture. All the South did was kill lots of Americans for a cause that was part of the source of its defeat. In other words: We cannot allow the story of the emancipation of a people and the expiation of America’s original sin to become fodder for conservative politicians playing to their right-wing base. [NYT Op-ed]

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Painter; born in 1594 in Villers, near Rouen, France; died in 1666 in Rome, Italy. After several attempts as a young artist to reach Rome, he finally succeeded in 1624, and the study of antiquity developed the devotion to classic ideals that characterizes all his work. Choosing subjects from mythology and the Old Testament he attained such fame by 1639 that he was invited to the French court by Louis XIII. The jealousy of rival painters influenced his return to Rome, where he remained till his death. His landscapes are a notable part of his work. The Louvre has many of his canvases, among them The Finding of Moses, Eliezer and Rebecca, and The Blind Men of Jericho. Other works are The Rape of the Sabines, The Childhood of Jupiter, Moses Striking the Rock, Et in Arcadia Ego, and the set called The Seven Sacraments. New Catholic Dictionary

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Shetlopedia - The Shetland Encyclopaedia Revision as of 05:49, 24 June 2012 by EM A skeo was a type of stone larder used to preserve unsalted meat or fish. They tended to be used before the early 19th century. The gaps in the stone walls of some of the more primitive ones allowed for meat or fish to be wind dried.

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From the moment of conception, the minute cluster of cells that is a baby, starts to develop rapidly into a fully formed human being. A baby takes all the nourishment from the mother in order to bring about the miracle of a new life. In the first 12 weeks of life, a baby changes rapidly from an indistinct bundle of cells into an identifiable human form. During this time, the body starts to form and all the major organs are developing. By eight weeks, the four chambers of of the heart have formed and it can be seen beating on an ultrasound. At this stage the baby can be called a “fetus”. The baby, now called a fetus, loses its tail and limbs and starts the process of forming a body. By 12 weeks, the end of the first tri-mester, your baby is fully formed; facial features are developing and the major organs are beginning to function. The second tri-mester, from weeks 13-27 weeks, is a period of rapid growth as a baby grows from 2 in (6cm) each month. This is when a baby starts to move and can swallow and hear sounds outside the womb. By 24 weeks, most body systems are formed and, except for the lungs, the major organs are all working. By the third tri-mester a baby is now much more in proportion. A greasy protective substance called vernix covers the skin. By the third tri-mester, at 28 weeks, a baby has put on considerable weight and and if born can possibly survive outside the womb with the proper medical care. During the last tri-mester, a baby becomes much more active and and is likely to have some sort of sleeping and waking routine. The baby may also start to fill out and resemble a newborn as fat deposits are laid down. The organs continue to mature and the body systems are becoming more and more complex. The brain and nervous system develop rapidly and the brain will still continue to develop in a baby after birth. By 36 weeks, the liver and kidneys are fully developed and the liver is starting to process waste products. The digestive system has formed and the intestines are filled with meconium, a dark green substance made of waste products. The lungs are among the last organs to fully develop, but by only 40 weeks these are fully functioning and a baby starts to practice small breaths.

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http://sonographydegree.net/2011/10/how-a-baby-forms/

2013-06-18T23:25:24Z

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Within twenty-four hours, the Aurora Borealis electrified the skies glowing in red, green, and purple colors so bright that newspaper print appeared as if it were daylight in numerous locations throughout North America. The aurora was witnessed as far south as Cuba outside the normal Arctic Polar Regions. The lights resulted from the electromagnetic energy fields created by the solar wind plasma colliding with the Earth's upper magnetosphere on a significant larger planetary scale, as told in Clark's 189-page book published in 2007. The 1859 solar event was disconcerting as telegraph systems worldwide went haywire for several hours. Spark discharges shocked telegraph operators and set the telegraph paper on fire. Even when the telegraphers disconnected the batteries powering the lines, aurora-induced electric currents in the wires still allowed messages to transmit. Even simple magnetic compasses ceased to point north for hours. Society of 1859 did not notice the solar storm the way it would today. The telegraph signal system of the Morse code was only 15-years old. There was no satellite TV feeds, no automated teller machines, no Internet, no cellular telephones, no iPads, no major electric power grids existing, and no GPS satellite navigation systems. There were no modern telecommunications disruptions; none of any significance had yet manifested into existence - save the telegraph. Fast-forward one hundred and fifty three years to late 2012 or 2013. A globalized world is extremely dependent upon electronic communications to operate banking, communications, health care, computers, transportation systems, and a massive electric grid serving billions of people. A super solar flare on the scale of the one in 1859 could shut down modernity for days, weeks, perhaps months depending on the size of the white solar flare eruption from within a sunspot. One could equate such a possible episode as a Cosmic Katrina-like event on a nearly global scale happening in say less than twenty-four hours and possibly affecting millions of people. A giant solar storm is expected in the range of every one-to-five hundred years but scientists today have no means to predict them only observe them hours before the electric charge hits the upper atmosphere of Earth. There may be sufficient time to power-down a few hundred of the orbiting satellites but electric power would probably be lost and the hard-drives of computers and servers may crash without hardened back-ups somewhere underground or otherwise properly shielded from the magnetic field.

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http://spaceports.blogspot.com/2010/08/is-carrington-flare-possible-this-cycle.html

2013-06-18T23:17:59Z

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A disaster plan can help save the lives of your family in the event of an emergency such as a hurricane or flood, White said. It also can help children cope with fears and worries they might have about safety or getting separated during the disaster. “To create a family disaster plan you need information about disasters that may occur in your area,” she said. You can do this by contacting your local emergency management office or going to the Federal Emergency Management Agency website at www.fema.gov. Then hold a family meeting and develop your plan. “In the event of a disaster, everyone in your family should know what to do, where to go and who to call,” said White. She suggests establishing two family meeting places in the event of a disaster. One should be a designated place outside your house. The other meeting place should be somewhere outside your neighborhood in case you are away from home or must leave your home when a disaster happens. “If you must evacuate, identify your evacuation routes and places where your family can go,” White said. “Also, select an out-of-state relative or family friend as a point of contact for your family in case you get separated. Make sure each family member knows two ways to contact that person — phone numbers and address.” As you develop your plan, be sure to think about family members who may have special needs, White said. “Someone may need a cane for walking or a wheelchair,” she said. “For others, eyeglasses may be essential. In some cases special medical equipment or medicines are important to remember in planning.” Some municipalities keep a list of patients with special medical equipment. This helps them to know which electrical circuits need priority. Contact your municipality to see if such a list exists in your area. If you have pets, plan for their safety as well. Remember, if you have to evacuate to a public shelter, you may not be able to bring your pets. “Family members may not always be together when disaster strikes, but families can get back together if they have a plan and it is followed,” White said.

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2013-06-18T23:18:33Z

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en

On This Date in History: In 1810, a young man graduated from Yale and immediately went to England to study art. He created a giant painting and a small sculpture and called them both “the Dying Hercules.” These were his most significant works and I suppose that he figured that was the best he could do and so he came home to America. He decided to paint portraits for a living. He had some works that were considered outstanding including one of Lafayette and other historical figures that were recognized for the extreme detail. Among his portraits of famous people was one of Eli Whitney. The young man gained a pretty big reputation but also was known as a man with a small income. That makes me think that if he was such a big painter, then maybe he would figure out that he needed to charge more for his paintings. I guess perhaps his reputation was good at the price he charged. Had he charged more, then maybe he wouldn’t have been so popular. Well, its a good thing for him, and for the rest of the world, that he had other pursuits to relieve his creative mind. The word “telegraph” derives from the Greek word, “to write far.” Pretty good description. Before there was electricity, there was a communication system that fit that description. It was in the form of tall poles that put up different arms and other signals. It could be seen at a distance. It was used during the Battle of Waterloo to let the folks know back in London what was going on with the struggle against Napoleon. I suppose that has its use but for long distances, you probably would need a series of big poles with a guy hanging around each one and waiting for a signal to be seen from one direction so he could then relay it to someone in the other direction. I suppose it was better than nothing and probably faster than relying on a guy on a horse, like Paul Revere…though Paul was pretty fast and he could travel at night, which obviously was a limitation for this early form of “telegraph.” So, along comes electricity. Now, a bunch of inventors had figured out the basic principals involved but it was left to the somewhat successful American painter, Samuel Finley Breese Morse, to understand the practical application of those principals and the first to take pragmatic steps to invent a way to take exploit those principals. While at Yale, Morse had taken a keen interest in electricity but was lured by his love for art. He studied under Benjamin West and Washington Allston, who were considered two of the better painters of the day. He got married in 1818 but, while he was working on his painting of the Marquis de Lafayette, he got news his wife died. He left the painting unfinished and became an artistic recluse in his grief. But an odd thing happened, in his grief, he rediscovered his interest in electricity. He attended some lectures of academics but eventually returned to art. In 1829, he went back to Europe to study art. Had he not done that, he may never had received the inspiration of the telegraph. You see…in 1832 he was on board a ship returning to America when he came upon some scientists who were discussing the properties of electricity. One man queried whether electricity lost its velocity over a long distance. When another remarked that in Ben Franklin’s experiments, he had noted that a captured electrical current traveled over several miles of wire without any time differential as the reaction at the end of the wire seemed to be coincidental with the intialization of the current. That statement triggered the small spark of inspiration in Sam Morse’s head. That left Morse with a tough choice. If he wanted to immerse himself in electricity, then he had to give up painting but, with no painting, he had no income. He was already rather poor, often skipping meals for extended periods or depending on the help from friends. In 1835, he was granted a teaching position in the Art Department of the State University of New York. That gave him access to the facilities and faculty at the University and afforded him the opportunity to expand his electrical research. With the help of a colleague, he made numerous successful experiments and developed a code of communication, known today as the Morse Code. In 1842, Morse went to Washington to build a telegraph line. In early 1843, he convinced Congress to grant him $30,000 to build a line from Washington to Baltimore. And finally, on this date in 1843, Samuel F.B. Morse demonstrated his telegraph to the world. His friend, Miss Ellsworth, came up with the first words to be transmitted. It was “What Hath God Wrought?” Indeed…what? It was the beginning of the information age that eventually progressed from communications by telegraph to radio to television and now the internet. All because a painter became heartbroken by his wife’s death and because he had run off to Europe as part of his grief. I suppose, this might be an example of “don’t give up.” Difficult situations today might make you say “why me?” or make you angry. But, it could be that circumstance that proves necessary for your later success and happiness. Weather Bottom Line: Everything is going right along as scheduled. However, it got a bit warmer sooner than I expected. Snow White and I were out and about on Sunday afternoon. Even though we officially hit 90, I think just about everyone was in the mid to upper 80′s since no one lives at the airport where they decided a few years ago to keep the official records. Necessarily, that means that the temperatures will be hotter. It’s going to be very difficult for Louisville to break all time low temperature records. Anyway, my thinking was that there would be so much humidity that it would be difficult to get to 90 this week and I still think that is the case. But…whatever. Its going to be pretty warm and humid. Having said that, isolated afternoon t’showers will be possible..the exception not the rule. One way you can tell if they are going to be an issue if, at noon time you see any towering cumulus clouds. If you do, then there is a good bet that there will be storms in the afternoon. If not…if you just see puffy cumulus or ones that are kinda flattened out, that would suggest that there is somewhat of a cap and that storms aren’t likely. Now, at the end of the week, there is a frontal boundary that will be approaching that may bring a better chance for general rain and t’storm activity. As mentioned yesterday, there is a little system north of the Bahamas. I’ve seen it show up on the models for several days. Generally they only take it to 1004 mb and keeps it meandering offshore of the SE US before it scoots away. I found several news outlets though that, last Friday, claimed that we could have a tropical storm over the weekend. The Palm Beach Post said “…there’s a chance the first storm of the season will form this weekend.” That was such nonsense except that 1% chance I suppose qualifies as a “chance.” There was nothing to suggest that. Even the guy from the local NWS office didn’t say that. They just made it up. And they weren’t alone. It’s headline writers and producers in news rooms that often give meteorologists a bad name because they write things that are not accurate. Now, WXJT in Jacksonville has one of several headlines put out by various media outlets today that are just as far off base. They show a picture of a very mature and completely developed hurricane, which who knows when that was taken, but its not this one and they know it but a casual reader may not. All they see is the photo and a headline that reads, “Tropical System Brewing in Atlantic?” If the TV station bothered to read the first sentence of the special statement put out by the National Hurricane Center (found below) it says “…the non-tropical low pressure system….” That should answer their question mark. They suggest that there is less than a one in three chance for it to acquire subtropical characteristics in the next few days… nothing about tropical. Now, last night, I found one model run that wanted to run this guy off the Virginia coast and then deepen it quickly to about 984mb as it ran up just offshore the Northeast and New England coast. Seemed a bit odd and now that abherration is no where to be found. Every model that i looked at today still has a 1004-1008 mb low wandering about for a few days off the South Carolina and Georgia Coast before it moves northeast. From the satellite picture,even an untrained eye like a news producer can see it looks nothing like a tropical cyclone. Is it possible for it to acquire those characteristics? Yes. Probable? NO. And it would have to become a fully developed major tropical cyclone to affect the oil slick operations in the Gulf, and that seems very unlikely…though I suppose the headline writers might say there’s a chance if I said it was .00025% chance. They like to scare people so they will buy the news paper, read their webpage or watch their news. Don’t worry about it. Having said all of that, I have seen in the past where an early storm of dubious distinction was given a name with the “subtropical” modifier. I have speculated that if there is an excuse for a name, they find it early on just to make people more aware of the season’s start. I have no proof but, I have sometimes wondered if a couple of storms have actually met the criteria and qualified for a name. So, I won’t be surprised to see a name, deservedly or not…but either way…..there is no indication at all that it will be anything but a moot point. 1. SATELLITE IMAGES AND SURFACE OBSERVATIONS INDICATE THAT THE NON-TROPICAL LOW PRESSURE SYSTEM CENTERED ABOUT 475 MILES SOUTHWEST OF BERMUDA HAS NOT BECOME BETTER ORGANIZED SINCE YESTERDAY. THIS SYSTEM IS PRODUCING A LARGE AREA OF DISORGANIZED SHOWERS AND THUNDERSTORMS OVER THE SOUTHWESTERN ATLANTIC OCEAN ALONG WITH WINDS TO GALE FORCE. THE LOW IS EXPECTED TO MOVE SLOWLY TOWARD THE NORTH-NORTHWEST AND IT STILL HAS THE POTENTIAL TO ACQUIRE SUBTROPICAL CHARACTERISTICS DURING THE NEXT DAY OR SO. THERE IS A MEDIUM CHANCE…30 PERCENT… OF THIS SYSTEM BECOMING A SUBTROPICAL CYCLONE DURING THE NEXT 48 HOURS. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION… PLEASE SEE HIGH SEAS FORECASTS ISSUED BY THE NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE…UNDER AWIPS HEADER NFDHSFAT1 AND WMO HEADER FZNT01 KWBC. ANOTHER STATEMENT WILL BE ISSUED BY THE NATIONAL HURRICANE CENTER

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2013-06-18T23:38:45Z

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A Genetic Algorithm may find a good enough answer for a variety of search problems that are too large to be solved in a reasonable time. The algorithm does this by generating candidate solutions, which an application evaluates and scores for acceptability. This is called determining their fitness. The GA crosses and mutates the fittest solutions in an attempt to better them and so builds a population of the best answers to the problem. Here are three such applications. This is the simplest of all ordering, or combinatorial, problems. A salesman must visit some cities in a journey, or tour, of the shortest distance. This is similar to commercial software that finds the shortest or fastest route between two locations. There are many standard problems in the literature: those in Karg and Thompson are often investigated, such as their Ten City Problem. More ambitious problems contain 33, 42 and 57 cities in the United States. Another good test is a lattice, reported in Suh and Van Gucht . This can have any number of cities forming a rectangle, and the rough length of the shortest tour is easy to work out. If either side of the rectangle has an even number of cities, the shortest length is the number of cities in the lattice multiplied by the distance between them. A tour can always be constructed. The 25-city problem is not so easy to calculate, although the route puts an easily constructed upper limit on the shortest distance. The GA must produce a list of cities such that each city appears once and once only. This is an important constraint, and if it is violated, the list is illegal. Desirable constraints are rarely considered in this problem, but may include the time of the journey, priorities for cities and so on. The time may not be solely dependent on the length for many reasons: if public transport is used; if delays are known to occur in certain cities, such as at rush hours; etc. The Ten City Problem has a search space of about 180,000 permutations from a fixed city of departure. Tours that differ only in their direction are treated as the same solution, although any extra constraints may discriminate between them. An enumerative search on even a modest computer should find a solution to this one, and it is more often used as a test of techniques. The 25-City Lattice however has roughly 3×1023 possible tours. More sophistication is needed here. Web Search Problems Search, for text and increasingly for image or video, on Google and other search engines is a problem that a GA could tackle. Finding pages that match words or phrases (collectively keywords) is not an issue. Sifting quality pages from the morass of possible candidates is. Too often directories, shopping sites and plain old link farms occupy the pole positions. We want well-written, solid information. This is a fuzzy problem that only a human can judge, at the moment. So the job of the algorithm is to produce candidate strings of keywords for input to the search engine. The human guinea-pig then scores the strings based on the relevance of the resulting pages. This fitness function for the GA is the subjective opinion of the searcher rather than a hard-coded routine. (We can see how easy it is to write such an automatic function for the Travelling Salesman, for instance.) An interesting corollary of this search is the teasing out of keywords to place in a website to boost its likelihood of being found, especially by the right people. The heuristics that the engines use are closely guarded secrets but they are just that: hard-coded heuristics, and the GA can at least explore the keyword part of them. It can’t do anything about other parts such as page rank, back-links and so on. Searching for keywords is an instance of what I term a manual genetic algorithm. In such a system the user defines the variables that constitute the problem and then responds to each solution the GA tries. So the variables here would be sets of keywords and the solutions, combinations of them. The toolkit as it stands has a menu entry for defining integer variables. Another one is needed for… the temptation is to call them strings but that’ll get confusing with the algorithm’s own internal strings, so let’s call them phrases.

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http://theandygibb.com/applications-of-genetic-algorithms

2013-06-18T23:32:12Z

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Put an end to 'fracking' Attention those living in the Tennessee region. Take a lighter or match and turn on your faucet while holding the flame to the water. If your water catches fire, then your water has been subjected to heavy contamination thanks to the process known as hydraulic fracturing, or "fracking." Fracking involves pumping large amounts of water, gas and toxic chemicals at a high pressure into the ground to extract shale gas from shale rock formations, used for natural gas. Drilling in Tennessee on the Chattanooga Shale has created serious threats to ground and surface water contamination. A case study by the Harpeth River Watershed Association says in many places, the Chattanooga Shale is separated from the water supply by just 100 feet. Despite recent attempts in the House of Representatives to force the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation to more stringent guidelines, they've been largely unregulated. Proposed TDEC rules say public notice will only be required for wells with 200,000 gallons of water or more, which is hardly ever the case. Fracking already has caused environmental damage in the United States. Now they want to move it here. Do we really want to risk our health? Contact your House representative to help put an end to this catastrophe. Art education highly beneficial A great emphasis is put on the arts in Chattanooga, therefore without such things as the sculptures and artwork found throughout the city or the art district downtown our lovely city would be dull and boring. Our public schools without the arts incorporated into our children's learning would also be lacking in life and spirit. Unfortunately, after the No Child Left Behind Act, art was considered unimportant and unnecessary. It became optional when it really needed to be required due to all of the benefits that come from art. Art helps to develop cognitive skills, critical thinking skills, problem-solving skills, language skills, self-discipline, cultural appreciation, and goal-setting skills. Also, young people who participate in art are four times more likely to be recognized for an academic achievement, elected to class office, participate in a math or science fair, and win an award for writing. Furthermore, it improves attendance and participation in class. At-risk youth show signs of improvement when enrolled in art programs as well. To support art in public schools and art programs, you can visit www.artsusa.org/get_involved or enroll your loved ones or yourself in an art class to enjoy the benefits of art education.

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2013-06-18T23:05:28Z

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From: Bon Mo ([email protected]) Date: Thu Mar 08 2001 - 10:39:18 GMT Searle: Is the Brain a Digital Computer? > A thought is itself a conscious process, because its part of > reasoning or is it unconscious because it happens naturally? No-one > ever pre-defines what thought he/she is going to have. If doing it, > they would be processing a thought as well. What matters here is > which of these can be algorithmically defined. If assuming that both > could be described as an algorithm, they would then be computational > and thus we could simulate them on a digital computer. A thought has to be part of a conscious process, it may not be pre-defined, but instead it is selected as it has relevance to the processes at hand. Say you were walking down the street and you see someone familiar, you first try to associate the face to a name, but then you may try to think of something you know about that person. These thoughts are from your associative memory banks. These calls are often from long term memory. Most thoughts are from routines that you have performed many times. The unconscious thought process may actually be a layer behind the conscious level. It could be more abstract and recall more random memory sources, this is why people believe that they are not really thinking, as these thoughts have no relevance to what they are doing. Assuming that consciousness exists, there is still a large barrier for saying that these thoughts can be described algorithmically. We do not know how the brain works explicitly at present and we so cannot assume that these thoughts can be written as a set of rules and facts, that can be carried out using a UTM. > Can we actually generalise the human brain to one human brain as we can > with a mechanical computer? If we took several mechanical computers > that were found to have the same internal processes as the human brain, > would we then get different results from the mechanical computers as we > would if checking what different people would think or do in the same As there are billions of humans, all with unique upbringings, education and social interactions. You can see that human beings are very individualised. Each problem we come across we use our previous knowledge to find a optimal solution, the way we can solve a single problem may be varied. There may literally be billions of ways a human brain can be modeled. So how could they be generalised to such an abstract level that more one brain may work the same? The main worry is that with such abstraction there may be over generalisation which removes functionality. What functions would need to be generalised from the human brain? and how would they interact to give any reasonable representation to how the human brain works? > A person tends to react in the same way that is defined by its > personality. But what exactly is personality? There is no way to physically > describe it and, as such, to explain the events that are processed in the Is personality as unique as the individual human brain? Is how you react to an event based entirely on previous circumstances? and if it is can a personality trait be modeled to any arbitrary closeness? > When considering the brain, who is the homunculus? Its obviously the > owner of the brain. If we now consider a brain without a homunculus > what would it be? How can it still compute? Would it compute? The thing > is that physically we cannot envision a brain working without a person, > or even, a person being alive without a human brain. But we do not know > what happens if the brain is considered a separate entity. Most of the brain is just sensory material connected to external sensory devices. If these devices were removed the brain would be starved of external stimulus. The functionality of these sections of the brain may degrade over time. The problem with would we be able to compute, could be based on if we have already grounded certain meanings. Say an able bodied person lost one of their sensors i.e. sight. Now the way I see it is that if when you had sight and knew what a tree looked like, when you have lost your sight you can still recall images based on the reference of a tree. For someone that has been blind all there life they would never know what a tree looks like, but could still form an approximation to what people describe a tree to look like. I believe that you could still use the brain to recall what you have learnt, but if you never knew it, then you could only approximate. The other scenario is a human without a brain. There has been cases in the past of babies born without a brain. Medically there are declared brain dead, but they still live, their other organs still work and so there body can function. All their bodies do is to react to stimulus without the intervention of the brain. They cannot function at a social level and live out their short lives in medical care. Basically a human body cannot function with any intelligence without a brain. So the brain must be the organ that gives us intelligence. This archive was generated by hypermail 2.1.4 : Tue Sep 24 2002 - 18:37:21 BST

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When I was a philosophy student in college, one of my professors articulated a principle of argument which I have remembered ever since: attack your opponent’s assumptions and his inferences. I have taught logic for some 15 years now, but when I find myself in an actual debate, this is the only thing I consciously bring with me. This principle is based on a fundamental distinction in logic and this is reflected in the two branches of traditional logic. The first branch of traditional logic is formal logic. Formal logic has to do with the structure of an argument. In formal logic, truth is secondary, because the primary concern is whether the conclusion follows from the premises—whether the premises are true or false. In material logic, on the other hand, which is the second branch of traditional logic, it is the truth of the premises that is primary. Let’s say I have the following argument: Taking an innocent human life is wrongFormal logic asks whether the conclusion, “Abortion is wrong,” follows from the two premises, “Taking an innocent human life is wrong” and “Abortion is the taking of an innocent human life.” It does not ask whether the premises themselves are true or false. If the conclusion does follow, then we say the argument is valid. If it does not, it is invalid. The student studying formal logic would study the seven rules of validity. He would also memorize the nineteen valid argument forms as a sort of shortcut so he could see an argument’s validity at a glance. Abortion is the taking of an innocent human life Therefore, abortion is wrong A good logic student would quickly see that the above argument is indeed valid: its conclusion does follow logically from the two premises. But material logic would ask the further question: “Are the two premises really true?” Is it true to say that taking an innocent human life is wrong, and is it also true that abortion takes an innocent human life? Material logic, too, has its rules, which involve definition and division. If, in addition to being valid, the argument’s premises are true, then we say that the argument is sound. When my philosophy professor said “attack the assumptions and the inferences,” he was assuming this distinction between an argument’s structure and its content. He was saying, in effect, “Ask if the premises in your opponent’s argument are true, and also whether or not the argument as a whole is valid.” By “assumptions” we mean the premises of the argument; by “inferences” we mean what would also follow from the premises if the argument were, in fact, valid. Let’s try this method of attacking the assumptions and inferences on another argument we often hear today: There is a right to same-sex marriageNow, I have never seen the argument stated exactly this way. Often it is stated in an invalid form (this is the case with most arguments you hear, unfortunately). But if I were an advocate of same sex marriage, this is the way I would state it. When Thomas Aquinas argued for the truths of Christianity, he always put his opponents’ arguments in the best light; he always gave them the benefit of the doubt, if it was possible. As a matter of ethics, we should always try to do this. All rights should be protected by law Therefore, the right to same-sex marriage should be protected by law In the above case, then, how do we attack the assumptions and the inferences? Let’s attack the assumptions first. The most common situation is that there is one true premise and one false premise, and often it is the first premise (called the “major” premise in logic) that is the problem. If we have stated the argument properly and put the major premise (the most general one) first, that is the most likely place our opponent may have gone wrong. If we apply that to this argument, then we want to look at the premise that states that same-sex marriage is a “right.” Well, is it? Notice that at this point we seem to have gone well outside the boundaries of logic. A premise in an argument can be gotten from anywhere. It could be a statement of science, or of history, or of economics. But there are still principles of material logic we can apply here. One of the aspects of material logic is definition, which has to do simply with what words mean. In this case, we can ask whether, given the meaning of the word, same-sex marriage could qualify as a “right” or not. So the first question to ask is, “What is a right, and how do we know if something qualifies as one?” There are many ways of addressing this question. Just for fun, I am going to employ the most sophisticated and beautiful of all logical arguments: the dilemma. The dilemma is a way of putting your opponent in a box; it is a way of showing him that, no matter what in fact is the case, his assumption leads to an unacceptable conclusion. Again, there are numerous ways of attacking the truth of a statement—this is only one of them. If I am making this argument, here’s how I do it: There are only two kinds of rights: those that originate in divine law and those that originate in human law. If the claim is that same-sex marriage is a right originating in divine law, then it must be false, since (if it is addressed at all) it is precluded by the holy books of all major religions. If the claim is that same-sex marriage is a right originating in human law, then it must, again, be false, since the law of the land (at least in the United States) does not acknowledge it. Therefore, in either case—whether the appeal is to divine or human law—the claim is false. Now there are complicating factors here. The supporter of same-sex marriage could support his case by saying that it is a right originating in human law and that it can be found in the Constitution itself (either a state constitution or the federal Constitution). In fact, this is exactly the argument some make. The weakness of that position, however, is that they would then commit themselves to abandoning their belief in this right as soon as the constitution in question is amended. At that point, their only refuge would be in some sort of metaphysical, God-given right, which is a much harder assertion to establish--particularly for people who, like many of those who take this position, either do not believe in metaphysics or are not terrible good at it. There are many ways to attack the truth of an opponent’s premise. The above example is just one way to do it. Let’s look now at how to attack the inferences. Attacking the inferences of an argument involves taking the logic of your opponent’s argument and applying it to something else. The object here is to use your opponent’s logic to produce a conclusion that even he will find unacceptable. This procedure is called reductio ad absurdum, which is Latin for “reduction to absurdity.” It is a very concrete way of showing how ridiculous your opponent’s argument is. Let’s try this on another argument. Recently, the issue of Intelligent Design has been the subject of a vigorous national debate. Its proponents claim that there is a way to scientifically prove that certain things in the universe—or the universe as a whole—are the product of design. Its opponents charge that Intelligent Design is not science: In order for a theory to be scientific it must be falsifiableIn appealing to falsifiability, the opponents of Intelligent Design are employing the criterion for science laid down by philosopher Karl Popper (who said that science, broadly speaking, is whatever holds itself out for potential falsification). If someone claims that there is a law of gravity, he climbs to the top of a building and drops things over the side and they fall to the ground. And every time he does this the same thing happens. The theory is scientific because it could be shown false by something being dropped from the top of the building and not falling to the ground. In this way, the law of gravity is falsifiable. Intelligent Design is not falsifiable Therefore, Intelligent Design is not science The debate now is whether Intelligent Design is falsifiable in the same way. We could attack one of the assumptions here (like we attacked the assumption of the previous argument about same-sex marriage) by questioning the second premise. But let’s try attacking the inferences. How would we do this? We would simply ask, if we accept the argument that Intelligent Design is not science because it is not falsifiable, then what else does not qualify as science? The idea here is to come up with something your opponent would say is science that is not science by the criteria he has laid out. It is to show him his logic is wrong because, if he applies it consistently, he will have to accept a conclusion he doesn’t want to accept. Is there one? The best place to look for scientific theories that are not falsifiable is physics. Everyone accepts that physics, and the theories that are included under it, are scientific. But many of them are not falsifiable—at least not now. The most famous of these is superstring theory. Superstring theory is the theory that particles and fundamental forces in the universe can be explained by the vibration of very tiny symmetrical strings. The problem is that the theory is not only not falsifiable, but, as some scientists have pointed out, it isn’t even conceivably falsifiable. Some of Einstein’s thought experiments (many of which he later set forth as full scientific theories), the scientific status of which have never been questioned, are not falsifiable either. Your opponent could swallow hard and say that these things are not science, but he will know he is on shaky ground—and he will know you know he knows it. This simple principle, this logical shortcut, does not replace logic, and, in fact, can be performed much better and more easily if you know logic. But it is still useful to both the experienced logic student and the person with little formal logical training.

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http://vereloqui.blogspot.com/2009/05/first-lesson-in-practical-logic.html?showComment=1243303834645

2013-06-18T23:25:21Z

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en

Since tomorrow is Robert Lewis Stevenson's birthday and the day in 1750 that treasure stolen from ships anchored at Ocracoke was buried in the Carribean, John Amrhein, author of Treasure Island: The Untold Story has declared November 13th to be Treasure Island Day. "A new history has come to light about [Robert Lewis Stevenson's] Treasure Island. It was real. On November 13, 1750, fifty chests of treasure that had been stolen from a Spanish galleon at Ocracoke Inlet, North Carolina, were buried on a deserted island in the Caribbean. And because of Stevenson’s family ties to the Caribbean, he had to have known about it." (from John Amrhein's website: http://www.treasure-island-day.com/) When you read the original Treasure Island by Robert Lewis Stevenson, keep an eye out for the name Israel Hands. Stevenson got the name from a member of Blackbeard's crew: "[Blackbeard's] air of intimidation extended to his own crew. Just before he was killed at Ocracoke, Blackbeard had sat down to some drinking with some of his crew. He secretly pulled out two pistols under the table, blew out the candle, crossed the pistols and fired, hitting his master, Israel Hands, in the knee and maimed him for life. When asked why he did it his response was to say that if he did not now and then kill one of them, they would forget who he was. That wound may have been responsible for Hands being ashore at Bath when Blackbeard was killed. He was later pardoned. Had he been hanged or killed with Blackbeard, Robert Louis Stevenson would probably not have borrowed his character for Treasure Island. He was killed by Jim Hawkins at Treasure Island." (from John Amrhein's website: http://www.treasureislandtheuntoldstory.com/blackbeard.htm) Our latest Ocracoke Newsletter is the story of Ocracoke and the War of 1812. You can read it here: http://www.villagecraftsmen.com/news102112.htm.

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http://villagecraftsmen.blogspot.com/2012/11/treasure-island-day.html

2013-06-18T23:32:22Z

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en

The UN’s Rio+20 agenda would harm health, welfare and nature – and make poverty permanent Guest post by David Rothbard and Craig Rucker Twenty years ago, the Rio de Janeiro “Earth Summit” proclaimed that fossil fuel-induced climate change had brought our planet to a tipping point, human civilization to the brink of collapse, and numerous species to the edge of extinction. To prevent these looming disasters, politicians, bureaucrats and environmental activists produced a Declaration on Environment and Development, a biodiversity treaty, Agenda 21 and a framework for the Kyoto climate change treaty. In developed nations, government responses to the purported crises sent prices soaring for energy, increasing the cost of everything we make, ship, eat and do – and crippling economic growth, killing jobs and sending families into fuel poverty. In developing countries, governments restricted access to electricity generation and other technologies – forcing the world’s poorest families to continue trying to eke out a living the old-fashioned way: turning forest habitats into firewood, cooking over wood and dung fires, and living with rampant poverty and disease. This year, recognizing that people are no longer swayed by claims of climate cataclysms, Rio+20 organizers repackaged their little-changed agenda to emphasize “sustainable development” and the need to preserve “biodiversity.” To garner support, they professed a commitment to poverty reduction, “social justice” and the right of all people to “fulfill their aspirations for a better life.” However, mostly far-fetched or exaggerated environmental concerns remained their focal point, and (as always) they have been willing to address today’s pressing needs only to the extent that doing so will not “compromise the ability of future generations to meet their needs.” Of course, no one can foresee what technologies future generations will develop, or which raw materials those technologies will require. Sacrificing the needs of current generations to safeguard unpredictable future needs thus makes little sense. Moreover, preventing energy and mineral exploration in hundreds of millions of wilderness, park and other “protected” areas today could well foreclose access to raw materials that will be vital for technologies of tomorrow – itself a violation of sustainability dogma. It is equally difficult to determine what resource uses are “not sustainable.” If changing economics, new discoveries or new extraction methods (like hydraulic fracturing) mean we now have 100-200 years of oil and natural gas, for example, that would appear to make hydrocarbon use quite sustainable – at least long enough for innovators to develop new technologies and sources of requisite raw materials. By contrast, wind, solar and biofuel projects impact millions of acres of wildlife habitats, convert millions of additional acres from food crops to biofuels, and kill millions of birds and bats. Calling those projects “eco-friendly” or “sustainable” may be inappropriate – a misnomer. Of equal or greater concern, activists have repeatedly abused the term “sustainability” to justify policies and programs that obstruct energy, mineral and economic development, and thereby prevent people from fulfilling their “aspirations for a better life.” Set forth in a 99-page report, the UN’s latest “blueprint for sustainable development and low-carbon prosperity” continued this practice. “Resilient People, Resilient Planet: A future worth choosing” (RP2) called for a global council, new UN agencies, expanded budgets and powers, greater control over energy development and other economic activities, and “genuine global actions” by every nation and community – supposedly to ensure “social justice,” poverty eradication, climate protection, biodiversity, “green growth,” renewable energy, an end to “unsustainable patterns of consumption and production,” and other amorphous and self-contradictory goals. RP2 also sought to prevent “irreversible damage” to Earth’s ecosystems and climate, as defined and predicted by UN-approved scientists, activists and virtual reality computer models. Reports and campaigns by the UN, World Wildlife Fund, Sierra Club, Greenpeace and similar groups supported the agenda. To ensure that they would have sufficient funds to implement the agenda – without having to rely on dues or grants from developed nations – the Rio+20 organizers also wanted the power to tax global financial transactions and other activities, with revenues flowing directly to the United Nations. Rio+20 was clearly not about enabling countries, communities and companies to do a better job of protecting environmental values, while helping families to climb out of poverty. It was about using sustainable development pieties to target development projects, limit individual liberty and market-based initiatives, and provide sufficient wind and solar power to generate and demonstrate modest improvements in developing countries’ living conditions – while ensuring that poor families never become middle class, and communities never actually conquer poverty, misery and disease. Advancing “social equity” and “environmental justice,” in ways that Rio+20 sought to do, would actually have meant perpetuating poverty for developing countries, and reducing living standards in wealthier countries. The goal, as in all previous incarnations of Rio+20, was to ensure more equal sharing of increasing scarcity – except for ruling elites. The real “stakeholders” – the world’s poorest people – were barely represented at Rio+20. Their health and welfare, dreams and aspirations, pursuit of justice and happiness were given only lip service – then brushed aside and undermined. The proceedings were controlled by bureaucrats who do not know how to generate new wealth, generally oppose efforts by those who do know, and see humans primarily as consumers and polluters, rather than as creators and innovators, protectors and stewards. If Rio+20 had achieved what its organizers had set out to accomplish, citizens of still wealthy nations would now have to prepare for new assaults on their living standards. Impoverished people in poor nations would now have to prepare for demands that they abandon their dreams for better lives. That is neither just nor sustainable. It is a good thing that the radical Rio+20 agenda was largely rejected. Now we must all work together to find and implement constructive and sustained solutions to the real problems that continue to confront civilization, wildlife and the environment. This essay was originally published in National Review on June 20, 2012, as “The UN’s Rio+20 Agenda: The “sustainable development” agenda will harm health, welfare, and nature.

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http://wattsupwiththat.com/2012/06/23/sustainable-development-the-latest-un-scare/

2013-06-18T23:06:41Z

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In a new book, MIT’s Ethan Zuckerman asserts that we need to overcome the Internet’s sorting tendencies and create tools to make ourselves ‘digital cosmopolitans.’ Hundreds of insect species spend much of their time underwater, where food may be more plentiful. MIT mathematicians have now figured out exactly how those insects breathe underwater. By virtue of their rough, water-repellent coat, when submerged these insects trap a thin layer of air on their bodies. These bubbles not only serve as a finite oxygen store, but also allow the insects to absorb oxygen from the surrounding water. "Some insects have adapted to life underwater by using this bubble as an external lung," said John Bush, associate professor of applied mathematics, a co-author of the recent study. Thanks to those air bubbles, insects can stay below the surface indefinitely and dive as deep as about 30 meters, according to the study co-authored by Bush and Morris Flynn, former applied mathematics instructor. Some species, such as Neoplea striola, which are native to New England, hibernate underwater all winter long. This phenomenon was first observed many years ago, but the MIT researchers are the first to calculate the maximum dive depths and describe how the bubbles stay intact as insects dive deeper underwater, where pressure threatens to burst them. The new study, which appears in the Aug. 10 issue of the Journal of Fluid Mechanics, shows that there is a delicate balance between the stability of the bubble and the respiratory needs of the insect. The air bubble's stability is maintained by hairs on the insects' abdomen, which help repel water from the surface. The hairs, along with a waxy surface coating, prevent water from flooding the spiracles--tiny breathing holes on the abdomen. The spacing of these hairs is critically important: The closer together the hairs, the greater the mechanical stability and the more pressure the bubble can withstand before collapsing. However, mechanical stability comes at a cost. If the hairs are too close together, there is not enough surface area through which to breathe. "Because the bubble acts as an external lung, its surface area must be sufficiently large to facilitate the exchange of gases," said Flynn, who is now an assistant professor of mechanical engineering at the University of Alberta. The researchers developed a mathematical model that takes these factors into account and allows them to predict the range of possible dive depths. They found that there is not only a maximum depth beyond which the bubble collapses, but a minimum depth above which the bubble cannot meet the insect's respiratory needs. Though the researchers found that the insects can go as deep as 30 meters below the surface, they rarely venture deeper than several meters, due to environmental factors such as amount of sunlight, availability of prey and the presence of predators. The researchers first took an interest in the external lung phenomenon when they accidentally captured one of the underwater breathers while looking for water striders. A few years ago, Bush and colleagues figured out how the striders use surface tension to glide across the water's surface. Other researchers have explored systems that could replicate the external lung on a larger scale, for possible use by diving humans. A team at Nottingham Trent University showed that a porous cavity surrounded by water-repellent material is supplied with oxygen by the thin air layer on its surface. The surface area required to support human respiration is impractically large, in excess of 100 square meters; however, other avenues for technological application exist. For example, such a device could supply the oxygen needed by fuel cells to power small autonomous underwater vehicles. The research was funded by the National Science Foundation.

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2013-06-18T23:18:35Z

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A VCR (videocassette recorder) is an electromechanical device for recording and playing back full-motion audio-visual programming on cassettes containing magnetic tape. Most videocassettes have tape measuring 1/2 inch (1.27 cm) in width. The most common application of the VCR is its use by consumers for the purpose of playing and recording television (TV) programs and for creating home video recordings. A TV camera equipped with a VCR is called a camcorder . The abbreviation VCR can also stand for videocassette recording. The first VCRs were designed and built in the 1960s, and became available to the public around 1970. The technology rapidly evolved and the equipment came down in price, so by the mid-1970s it was within the reach of the average consumer. Today there are two major types of VCR technology in use, known as VHS (Video Home System) and Betamax . Both types were developed in Japan, VHS by Japan Victor Company (JVC) and Betamax by Sony. VHS systems are far more popular among home TV viewers. Betamax equipment is still used by some professional production engineers, many of whom believe that Betamax offers better image quality. The Betamax tape takes a more direct path through the recording and playback apparatus than a VHS tape, so recording and playback operations are faster and more convenient with Betamax than with VHS. But less wear occurs on a VHS tape, so VHS cassettes last longer. Also, VHS cassettes have more capacity (in terms of recording time) than Betamax cassettes. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the VHS and Betamax formats became competitive. For complex legal reasons, VHS captured the home video recording and reproduction market. By 1993, Betamax was essentially obsolete among consumers in the United States. In recent years, the use of video tape has become less common because of the widespread availability and popularity of DVD technology.

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http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/VCR-videocassette-recorder

2013-06-18T23:11:37Z

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en

Although brain death, which is an “irreversible cessation of all the functions of the brain, including the brain stem” (see article), has been used as a pretty safe definition of a person’s death, transplant advocates are calling to revive a different definition of death, namely cardiac death or circulatory death, which is “an irreversible cessation of circulation and heartbeat and breathing” (see article). In such cases, CPR is not performed and after a short wait, organs are removed. However, the problem is that there is no guarantee that the heart won’t restart by itself, so the question of how long to wait becomes a tricky one. Some hospitals wait five minutes while others only two. The trouble with waiting too long is that organs cut off from a nourishing blood supply cannot last very long. Surgeons in Michigan are starting to place donors on ECMOs (heart-lung machines) even before the donor’s heart stops beating. This ensures that the organs are not deprived of nourishment, but it also further blurs the line between life and death. The Michigan doctors say the approach is a blessing. Family members have more time to say goodbye and a chance at getting some solace from their loss. “They are so pleased that the last act of the person’s life on Earth was to donate organs and save other people’s lives,” Punch said. Transplant surgeons say the chance to turn a death into an opportunity for life is a godsend. (See article) Defining death is not as straight forward as it might seem. Of course, there are certainly clear cut cases. Taking a stroll through a cemetery reveals hundreds such cases. However, the moment that marks the exact boundary between life and death is much harder to define. Perhaps this is because there is no such moment, death being a process of a certain duration. Technological advancements such as ECMOs, however, can extend this process far beyond the short period it would normally take. Are such patients essentially in a state of dying, but not really dead or are they essentially alive due to the fact that the process of dying had been interrupted by the machines? Just because machines are doing the breathing does not mean that the person is dead. By that definition, artificial hearts or pace makers would make the people who have them into walking corpses. Also, just because someone is in a coma, does not mean that they are ready to be harvested for organs. Perhaps an argument for the practice of recirculating blood in order to keep organs nourished hangs on the irreversibility of the donor’s condition. But again, not only is “irreversibility” not a certainty in all cases, but irreversibility itself does not seem to be reason enough to harvest organs from a living human being. We don’t generally think that extracting organs from patients in permanent vegetative states is permissible, even if such states are by definition irreversible and if such patients happen to be organ donors. This is certainly a tricky question, especially since the patients involved are donors who have agreed to donate their organs after they die, but unless their advance directives state that organs are to be extracted while alive as long as it happens at the discretion of the doctors or family, the problem with the definition of death will continue to be an issue. Citing the number of lives that can be saved by the practice of extracting organs from a living person (even if irreversibly damaged), should not be used as an argument for such a practice particularly since the same argument can apply to extracting organs from any living person (I have in mind the classic objection to utilitarianism here). I am not entertaining slippery slope worries, but I think that it is important to stress that the subtle details regarding our practices of extracting organs for transplantation should be thoughtfully considered, reasoned through, and explained. One moral worry I have is that such patients may not be viewed as persons by doctors eagerly waiting to extract vital organs in order to save the lives of other (more obvious?) persons. Can what the Michigan doctors are doing be done with a genuine air of respect and dignity that is owed to persons? Perhaps it can, but the reasons for such practices must reflect this respect and dignity. I am simply not convinced that, at least in all cases, merely focusing on what the family and other patients get out of it constitutes reasons that are saturated with genuine respect for the personhood of the donor.

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2013-06-18T23:24:30Z

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The Caucasus mountain range in the northern border of Azerbaijan was a natural defensive obstacle form the foreign campaigns. On the territory of Azerbaijan the most acceptable way for invasions was the Caspian plain, which finished the mountain range. Through this narrow Caspian plain passed the most important trade wav. which united Azerbaijan and Middle Asia with the South-west Europe. In the northern part of Azerbaijan on the Caspian Shore territory, as the result of historical urgency there was established the complex of defensive constructions, which had military, strategical, trade and economic importance. This complex consists of 000 defensive obstacles, town stronghold palaces and towers. The geographical boundary of Caspian Shore defensive constructions occupies the territory from Derbent city to Apsheron peninsula. In order to protect such big territory, there has been built. huge constructions, extending on many kilometers, composing united defensive system. Between Behsbarmag Mountain, located in the end of the Caucasus range,, in the southeast part, and the Caspian shore exists the narrowest passage (11.75 km). This passage was built from the raw brick and finished by two parallel walls, which were at the distance of 200 meters from each other. Taking the name from Beshbarmag Mountain, according to the writing sources, Beshbarmag barrier was built in the period of Shah Sasanid Yezdegird 2 (438-457). In this barrier, in the mountain, separately was built a stone stronghold, and on the caravan way, at the foot of the mountain was a caravan shed. Beshbarmag is also a place of imposing warship. In the north from Beshbarmag, there is the Gil-gilchay barrier, which is the biggest monument among the Caspian Shore defensive constructions. The Gil-gilchay defensive barrier was built in the period of Shah Gubad, from Sasanid dynasty(488-531). The Gil-gilchay barrier, which in Arabic sources called "Sur attin" or "Gil divar", closing the Caspian Shore passage and the Gilgilchay pond, extends through all law south-east parts of Big Caucasus, and finishes in the Babadag mountain. That part of the barrier, which closes the Caspian plain has been made from the raw bricks, but the biggest part of the Gil-gilchay barrier in the mountain was made of stone "of long walls", and that walls consisted of towers and strongholdes, which gave the firmness to the fortification works. In the strategically important places of the barrier were the special town strongholdes, and also were established many defensive stations, where the guardsmen lived. The rest of the stronghold walls and guardhouses can be seen in a big territory. The best preserved of them is Chiraggala stronghold, which is located in the Devenchy region, in the Chirag village. Being not far from the Gilgilchay barrier, Shabran town, in some sources was called as "Shabran barrier or "Shabran walls". Shabran town was founded at the same period as Gilgilchay barrier in the century and it as a very important place, where all international caravan ways joined. Shabran was the biggest province in Azerbaijan, producing raw silk, which took an active part in the international transitive trade. Apsheron peninsula, which was in Caucasus Albany, and then in Shirvanshah's State, was rich in strategically products (gas, salt, saffron), and was very often exposed to Russian, Cossacks, Turkmens, and even Italian brigand invasions. In order to interrupt those invasions, defensive constructions were built, and together with Caspian Shore barriers, they acted as united defensive system. In XX century, Shirvanshahs began to fortify a defensive system in Baku and it's environs. In order to become the biggest and the most acceptable harbor on the Caspian seashore, Baku turned into a strong town stronghold after Derbend. A great and important role in the defensive system of Baku stronghold played Maiden tower (5-12) and Bayil (Sabayil) palace, which protected Baku from the sea. Bayil palace was built in 12-')4. This palace was supposed to be the gate for the international sea-trade and the first strong stronghold in Baku bay protecting from invasions from the sea, and also to be the residence of Shirvanshah. But as the result of strong earthquake in 1306, and the rise of water level in the Caspian Sea, this palace went down. All big villages on Apsheron peninsula historically consisted of stronghold constructions. Some of them named as palaces still exist. The strongholdes in the defensive system of the Apsheron peninsula, which were built at the same period near to each other, occupy a very important place in Mardakan village. The oldest of them is Mardakan stronghold, which was built in 11 87-1188 in the period of Akhista II Shirvanshah shah. Gershasb in 1204 from Shirvanshahs dynasty built the other stronghold named as Small Mardakan stronghold. Near to the Mardakan stronghold on the seashore of the Shagan village can be seen the ruins of the old stronghold (XIII). The stronghold of Nardaran village was built in 1301. One of the Absheron monumental constructions is Romana palace (XIV). According to the calculations, there were more than 30 strongholdes in Absheron peninsula. The largest number of palaces on Absheron peninsula were built in the villages, in the north seashore. This is because the main danger came from sea, and also because the stronghold towers received the dangerous signals from the northern Caspian Shore defensive barriers and could pass them to other towers on the peninsula. The dangerous signals were pass with the help of the fire at nights, and the smoke in the afternoons. So, the news about the threat spread all over the territory and population, and the army was ready to defend.

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2013-06-18T23:40:19Z

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“..The popular image of robotics research involves big budgets, state-of-the-art technology and the latest materials. But in fact, a lot of cutting-edge research is done on the cheap, using things you probably have around the house. Coming up with ways to build simple, inexpensive prototypes makes it possible for researchers try lots of variations quickly and easily. Once perfected, these designs can be applied to more complex machines – although some researchers are looking into low-tech robots as an end in themselves! Having spent the last year working on a kids’ book of simple robotics projects – I’ve been fascinated to discover how many robotics innovators are using everyday crafts materials and basic components in their work. When I started, I despaired of finding “cardboard-and-duct tape” type projects that kids would still find impressive. Boy, was I wrong! With just a little tweaking and substitution, I was able to adapt many of these real experimental robots into projects kids can readily do at home. Here are a few I found particularly inspiring:..” go to source/story>>>

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en

Book and game The book and game idea is simply to require that the player must have read a book because otherwise the related game remains unplayable. A book could be a novel with educational content. The educational content would be equally required to play the game so the player would be motivated to train reading skills by reading the novel and to learn the educational content. Unlike similar educational games, such as, for instance, Mathica, parts of a novel would be required as a precondition to be able to play the game. The OLPC would, of course, have the advantage of being the book at the same time, so the player could switch conveniently from playing the game to reading the novel and the novel would then contain educational content and riddles that required understanding for earlier information. The game could then rely on both. One could give the novel and the game a timeline and the player would be in the future (lacking relevant information) if he had not read the novel. This way the motivation to want to know what is in the novel becomes the pupil's own motivation, not a homework assignment, and the educational riddles become a part of reading the novel. Detail ideas Secret language A book could also introduce its own secret language, [secret languages] which would become more and more intelligible throughout the book. The game would then assume the language to be known. Secret languages can fascinate children and young teenagers and can promote involvement. A secret language can also promote abstract thought. Other concepts that promote abstract thought can also be introduced into the story of a book. Book, game and exercise Hard science fiction stories can invite the reader to consider the scientific background of the story. To take the idea further a reader could be required to think about the scientific background presented. An e-book on the OLPC could have the unique feature to require the reader to solve an exercise with a strong relation to the story. Such a feature could also be combined with a game/simulation stage during which the reader could have to solve problems or discover information required to continue reading the story. Chapters, game stages and exercises could require the reader to progress sequentially. Exercises could require unique solutions by altering parameters or questions according to the academic level of the user and at random. A game embedded into a story (as in some of the later Infocom adventures) would also have the advantage of being limited in scope. The player would not be invited to play the game continually until it got boring but only to solve a puzzle within the story. The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (computer game) could be seen as an anti-pattern here, because book and game are redundant or contradict each other (instead of complementing each other) and the characters could be seen as having psychological conditions (even consult psychologists during the story) but do not show any realistic psychology. (See also: In-game psychology) The game also contains a motivation to re-play almost the entire game even after it should have become boring (Simple mistakes made during the beginning can make completion impossible). Hard educational science fiction This section proposes a set of criteria for hard educational science fiction. |Age group specification and specification of required knowledge| |Glossary of technical terms| |Interactive experiments and simulations||(only possible in electronic publications or as add-ons on the web page or CD of the book)| |Scientific errors in the story are explained| |Recommended exercises are present in the text and are interesting for the reader| |Motivation to think further||e.g. a cliffhanger requires the solution of an exercise (only possible in electronic publications or as add-ons on the web page or CD of the book)| |Soft sciences are not ignored (social sciences, philosophy, ethics)| |Mentoring and scientific discussions between characters are present in the story| |Intercultural competence criteria apply| |Realistic psychology is presented in the story with occasional discussion of psychological issues.| It is recommend that evaluation based on this criteria catalogue should use a range of 0 to 3 points per criterion, resulting in a range from 0 to 30 points. 0 points would mean "not present at all"; 3 points would mean "very well done". A value of -1 can be assigned to state that the criterion is not met but that the opposite (if that is possible) appears to apply. See also - Database of personal vocabulary#Wikifier - A Wikifier could allow children to read a book in a foreign language more conveniently and to learn the vocabulary more reliably (instead of guessing some words).

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RECOGNIZING 50TH ANNIVERSARY OF ROSA LOUISE PARKS' REFUSAL TO GIVE UP HER SEAT ON THE BUS AND THE SUBSEQUENT DESEGREGATION OF AMERICAN SOCIETY -- (House of Representatives - September 14, 2005) Mr. SENSENBRENNER. Mr. Speaker, I move to suspend the rules and agree to the concurrent resolution (H. Con. Res. 208) recognizing the 50th anniversary of Rosa Louise Parks' refusal to give up her seat on the bus and the subsequent desegregation of American society. The Clerk read as follows: H. Con. Res. 208 Whereas most historians date the beginning of the modern-day Civil Rights Movement in the United States to December 1, 1955; Whereas December 1, 1955, is the date of Rosa Louise Parks' refusal to give up her bus seat to a white man and her subsequent arrest; Whereas Rosa Louise Parks was born on February 4, 1913, as Rosa Louise McCauley to James and Leona McCauley in Tuskegee, Alabama; Whereas Rosa Louise Parks was educated in Pine Level, Alabama, until the age of 11, when she enrolled in the Montgomery Industrial School for Girls and then went on to attend the Alabama State Teachers College's High School; Whereas on December 18, 1932, Rosa Louise McCauley married Raymond Parks and the two settled in Montgomery, Alabama; Whereas, together, Raymond and Rosa Parks worked in the Montgomery, Alabama, branch of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), where Raymond served as an active member and Rosa served as a secretary and youth leader; Whereas on December 1, 1955, Rosa Louise Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat in the ``colored'' section of the bus to a white man on the orders of the bus driver because the ``white'' section was full; Whereas the arrest of Rosa Louise Parks led African Americans and others to boycott the Montgomery city bus line until the buses in Montgomery were desegregated; Whereas the 381-day Montgomery bus boycott encouraged other courageous...

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2013-06-18T23:25:29Z

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en

Conservation goes 3D The boys are in their own huddle across the room, strewn with pots of paste and pieces of torn rice paper. With fingers deft at whittling crossbows and arrows from forest trees, they are skilfully cutting cardboard, following the fine lines traced by the girls. Despite appearances, these Vietnamese school kids are not in art class. Instead, they at the headquarters of the Song Thanh Nature Reserve, helping to construct a 3D model of their commune — a unique exercise to bring ethnic minorities and local authorities together in order to protect and manage the area's forests. "We'd tried to engage local communities in forest management using village sketch maps, 2D scale maps, satellite images, and various other maps, but their interest was limited," says James Hardcastle, a conservationist working for the international conservation organization WWF in Vietnam. "With the 3D model, it's like opening up the floodgates." Diverse animals and people Located in the heart of the Central Annamite mountains on the border of Vietnam and Laos, the forests in which the students live are a biological and cultural wonder. Local climate conditions created by the marble and limestone mountains have sustained a wet tropical rainforest for millennia. This rainforest not only houses a diverse group of ethnic people, each with their own language, dress, and customs, but also the greatest concentration of endemic species on any continental setting. These include the douc, possibly prettiest monkey of them all, as well as four large mammal species that were unknown to science until very recently. The saola, a relative of the cow that looks like a deer, was discovered in 1992, while the dark annamites muntjac, the latest to be discovered in 1997 and known by locals as the "deer that lives in the deep, thick forest", has never been seen alive by scientists. More familiar animals also roam here, such as tigers, Asian elephants, and gibbons. But human activities are taking their toll. These same forests took a direct hit during the Vietnam war. Site of the Ho Chi Minh Trail, large areas of the Central Annamites were wiped out when the Americans dropped millions of litres of Agent Orange and other toxic defoliants. Decades later, the effects are still being felt — not only by the children born each year with deformities, but also by the forests, which still have not recovered, and the freshwater ecosystems, into which the toxins have seeped. The animals and people living in the area also face the ever-present danger of unexploded ordinances that litter these mountains. Along with the lingering legacy from the war are new threats. Many people in the area, particularly ethnic minorities, still suffer from poverty, so there's an understandable push for development. But the construction of roads has fragmented the forests and cornered wildlife in pockets too small to sustain them, and given easy access for hunters and poachers who profit from the domestic and international wildlife trade. The need for power to fuel economic development is threatening the mountain rivers and streams, many of which are slated for hydroelectric development. Local farmers who still practise slash and burn agriculture are clearing the foothills, where most of the larger mammals reside, to give agricultural land. As a result, the annual floods and subsequent soil erosion have increased, leaving not only the people but the landscape even more impoverished and in greater peril. The ethnic people in the higher mountains are facing the most hardships. Many are hungry for nearly half the year. And the forest that for centuries has provided wood, food, and medicine can no longer sustain them. Working in 3D The 3D model being built by the school children aims to counter this — to help both conserve the forest and at the same time, ensure that people receive social and economic benefits from it. The model is one part of a project led by WWF's Indochina Programme, which is working with ethnic communities and forestry officials in and around the Song Thanh Nature Reserve, located in the middle of the Central Annnamites in Quang Nam province. "Models are an amazing tool for extracting information from local people," says Le Van Lanh, secretary general of the Vietnam National Parks and Protected Areas Association. "They know everything. We don’t know what's in the forest, what's under its canopy. But the local people do." This is evident a few days later, when 70 people from nine villages belonging to Tabhing commune, located within the 300km2 depicted by the model, arrive to finish the work of the students. The villagers, mostly Ka Tu people, have no problem conceptualizing their land. Using pins and pieces of yarn, they mark the areas covered by natural forest, as well as rice fields, pastures, grasslands, barren land, household gardens, cinnamon plantations, and hillsides that have been slashed and burned. Lengths of coloured yarn are next used to lay down the roads, streams, and dirt paths that run through their territory in the buffer zone just outside Song Thanh Nature Reserve. Finally, an array of bright beads and pins are added to represent the local school, post office, graveyards, traditional long houses, uranium and gold mines, and even the old helicopter pad, another remnant of the war. There is much discussion among the villagers but little disagreement. Only when it comes to the boundary of the nature reserve is there some contention. Laid down on the model by reserve staff the previous day, the boundary line, represented by coloured string, is resolutely moved by the villagers. They want an area of rich flat soil — which has long been cultivated on a rotational basis by farmers — to be excluded from the reserve. Their wishes are not ignored. The reserve’s vice director agrees to the change, to the villagers' great satisfaction. The 3D model also provokes discussions between villagers and authorities about other touchy issues, such as illegal gold mining, the zoning of forests for use by the villagers, and access routes used by hunters and loggers from outside the commune. Plans are made to follow up on these issues. A stimulating, constructive tool This is only the second time in Vietnam that such a tool has been used in conservation. But it's been so successful that forest officials have asked to do the same in other villages and communes. "The policy of Quang Nam province is to dismantle state forest enterprises and reallocate forest land to the ethnic minorities," says James Hardcastle. "Forest officials recognize that the 3D model can be an effective — not to mention easy and cheap — way to work with local people as they implement this." "This is an extremely important opportunity for conservation because it involves communities in managing their own forests," he adds. "Strictly protected areas that prohibit people from using forests don’t work in Vietnam." Thai Truyen, Vice Director of the Provincial Forest Protection Department of Quang Nam, echoes the importance of local people in protecting the forests. "Without their participation, we cannot carry out our activities effectively," he says. "Quang Nam has 795,000ha of forest — and with only 296 staff, each has a large area to look after, about 2,700ha. Also, we cannot protect the forest without being concerned about the livelihoods of local people, who are poor and depend on the forest. The main thing, therefore, is the involvement of these people." While the idea of involving local people in the protection of natural resources has only recently become a mainstream part of conservation work, the villagers have long recognized the connection between themselves and the forest. "The value of forest resources represents the value of our life," goes an old Ka Tu saying. And they value the new collaboration between themselves and forest officials. Says A’Viet Bu, a local villager who took part in developing the 3D model: "It is good that the government and the people are able to work together to protect the forest. Everyone is happy about this." * Jane Story is Communications Officer at WWF Indochina, based in Hanoi, Vietnam. The Central Annamites are part of the Greater Annamites, a chain of mountains that stretch like a spine from the north to south of Vietnam. The moist forests of these mountains are one of WWF's Global 200 Ecoregions — a science-based global ranking of the world's most biologically outstanding habitats and the regions on which WWF concentrates its effort. These forests are some of the last relatively intact moist forests in Indochina and still harbour large mammals, including several newly discovered species. Many endemic mammals and birds live in the forests, as well as a number of endangered and threatened species. A total of 8 million people belonging to 37 ethnic minority groups live in the Central Annamites, with 1.2 million in the province of Quang Nam alone. Population densities are highest in the narrow coastal belt of the South China Sea, decreasing as the land rises to the Annamites Mountains. WWF's work in the Central Annamites WWF-Indochina’s MOSAIC project (Management of Strategic Areas for Integrated Conservation) works with local villagers and forest officials in the Central Annamites to design and implement sustainable management practices. The goal is for the forests and rivers of global conservation significance in Quang Nam province to be managed in a way that sustains the social, economic, and environmental values of the region's biodiversity for future generations. The project team for the 3D model work is made up of WWF staff, experts from Vietnam's Centre for Environment and Tourism Development, Hanoi Geographic and the Institute, the Association of Vietnam's Parks and Protected Areas, and a prominent Vietnamese artist. Other work with local communities includes the establishment of village anti-poaching patrols. WWF is also carrying out research to assess the status of and threats to the wildlife in Quang Nam province.

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2013-06-18T23:39:21Z

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en

Dr. Hossein Eslambolchi Grid computing architecture is a collaborative, network-based model that enables the sharing of computing resources: data, applications, storage and computing cycles. Distributed computing serves as the core of grid computing. Using IP-based networks, a grid links hundreds or thousands of servers and desktop computers into a supercomputing engine capable of delivering massive amounts of computational power and other IT resources. • Grid computing creates a distributed network of computers so that applications can share resources. • In general, sharing can occur over diverse operating systems (e.g. Linux, Solaris, UNIX and Windows). • The sharing involved in grid technologies is not primarily file exchange, but rather direct access to computers, storage, software, data and other resources. • Some supporters – including HP, IBM, Sun Microsystems and Platform Computing – now say that grid computing is ready for primetime. But serious limits to the technology remain. • Major hurdles for grid computing include nonfunctional system attributes such as security, reliability, execution latency, etc. Likewise, grid computing requires a communications infrastructure that can support large-scale sharing of data. • Technical and economic concerns, including end-to-end security and usage metering, need to be addressed before widespread adoption is possible. • Traditional business software is generally poorly suited for grid computing. However, new versions are being developed to harness grid power. The licensing of grid application business software is still an open issue. • Some industries have successfully adopted grid computing technology. The financial services industry uses it for derivatives analysis, statistical analysts and portfolio risk analysis. The insurance industry uses it for certain tasks. Life sciences use grid technology to carry out cancer research and protein sequencing and folding. The current grid computing model emphasizes the sharing of computational cycles, and is tailored to compute-intensive and parallelizable applications. As this model evolves, it will allow systems to share other resources, such as storage, data and software. This evolution will increase the requirement for high bandwidth communications across the grid – and increase its relevance as a possible source of revenue. Grids create a distributed network of computers that share resources over a heterogeneous set of systems, pooling resources so that many computers can share work and conveniently access remote resources. There is a clear need for grid computing in drug design, geophysical prospecting, and mechanical engineering. Grid computing harnesses the idle time of hundreds or thousands of servers that can be rented out to anyone who needs massive processing power. In an enterprise, servers often sit idle, with only 10 percent to 20 percent of servers utilized. Personal computer resources are even less utilized – about 1 or 2 percent of these resources are used on average. This means that grid computing can leverage significant amounts of idle enterprise resources. By pooling IT assets across servers, storage systems, computational resources, networks and data centers, grids may help reduce IT complexity. Resources can be quickly allocated, used as needed, and reallocated to address the changing infrastructure needs of an enterprise. As a consequence, fewer boxes and fewer management systems are required to meet overall computing needs. In this model, grid technologies serve as the infrastructure for utility or “on-demand” computing. Advocates like HP, IBM, Sun Microsystems and Platform Computing believe that grid computing is ready for primetime, but there are still many limits to what current grid computing architectures can accomplish in a business environment. Grid computing is still in the early adoption phase, and pieces of the infrastructure are still being developed. It will take a few years before grids are deployed on a large scale. Major issues related to grid computing include nonfunctional system attributes. Security, reliability, execution and latency all pose challenges. The necessary communications infrastructure to support large-scale grid computing has not yet been developed. Security is a prime concern; it may be difficult to talk corporate buyers into investing in a technology that seems to provide outsiders with access to their servers. Sophisticated resource management is also necessary in the architecture of the grid. Network limitations will not hamper the ability of users to access computational power, but these limitations will be a constraining factor in the final development of complete resource-sharing models. Finally, broad adoption of grid computing depends on solving technical and economic concerns, including end-to-end security and usage metering. Another challenge is posed by traditional business software, which is not tailored to support the grid model. It is crucial for grids to have interoperability standards that accommodate components from different vendors. XML is beginning to play an important role in solving this problem. Real-world examples of grid deployments include: • Hartford Life is using a grid network to handle intensive financial analytics, measuring market conditions and market behavior. • Entelos, a biotechnology firm in California, uses a grid structure to speed the process of drug discovery. It can run simulations in a matter of hours or days with its network. • Wachovia’s fixed-income derivatives trading unit runs trading simulations on a grid network to reduce risks and enable the firm to make larger trades. • Cadence Design Systems integrates grids into every aspect of its production environment. In particular, it incorporates grid technology into its software development and chip design processes. • Johnson & Johnson uses grid technology to run powerful applications that model clinical trials of pharmaceuticals. • Pharmaceutical giant Novartis has linked nearly 3,000 of its researchers’ personal computers in a grid that delivers more than 5 teraflops of computing power. This enables their researchers to examine bigger data sets with greater precision and to target new problems. • Bank One is using grid middleware technology to distribute risk-analytics processing. It aims to cut hardware costs while increasing performance of analytics for its interest-rate derivatives trading business. Leading vendors in grid computing include: • DataSynapse offers its Grid Server software for commercial applications. Grid Server creates a self-managed grid computing infrastructure. • HP has endorsed grid technology in a big way. Their current support includes grid-enabled systems running HP-UX, Linux and Tru64 UNIX using the Globus Toolkit for HP Platforms. • IBM offers grid products based on DataSynapse middleware for the banking and financial industries, including risk management and customer analytics products. The company has landed hundreds of millions of dollars in contracts to build grid infrastructures for universities and governments. IBM has relationships with leading grid tool and application providers. • Oracle provides substantial grid computing technology. The Oracle Database 10g leverages grid-enabling hardware innovations and automatically provisions clustered storage and servers to different databases running in a grid. • Platform Computing has developed distributed computing software since 1992. Its commercial software, the LSF line, is running in about 1,500 of the Fortune 2000 companies. Leading grid standardization bodies include: • Globus Consortium – This non-profit organization was launched by IBM, HP, Intel and Sun Microsystems to champion open-source grid technologies in the enterprise. It aims to advance the use of the Globus Toolkit in the enterprise by drawing together the resources of interested parties throughout the community, including vendors, enterprise IT groups and open source developers. • Globus Alliance – This international organization conducts research and development to create fundamental grid technologies. Its members contribute to the development of the Globus Toolkit. • Global Grid Forum – An international organization working to address grid architecture, infrastructure, and standards issues. Community-initiated working groups carry out the work of GGF, developing best practices and specifications. • Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information (OASIS) – This international consortium drives the development, convergence and adoption of e-business standards. The web services developed by OASIS now form the foundation for the grid computing standards developed by Global Grid Forum. • Enterprise Grid Alliance – This non-profit group was founded in April 2004 to develop enterprise grid solutions and accelerate the development of grid computing in enterprises. It addresses the near-term requirements for deploying commercial applications in a grid environment. Initial focus areas include reference models, provisioning, security and accounting. The group unveiled its first reference model in May 2008. • Open Grid Services Architecture (OGSA) is a product of the grid community at large, and is a major focal point of the Global Grid Forum. It represents an evolution toward a grid system architecture based on Web Services concepts and technologies. OGSA defines mechanisms to create, manage and exchange information between grid services, a special type of web service. Notable projects include: • Condor – The goal of this project is to develop, implement, deploy and evaluate mechanisms and policies that support high throughput computing on large collections of distributively owned computing resources. Condor is a specialized workload management system for compute-intensive jobs. Like other full-featured batch systems, Condor provides a job queuing mechanism, scheduling policy, priority scheme, and resource monitoring and resource management. The Condor Team continues to build software tools that enable scientists and engineers to increase their computing throughput. • TeraGrid – This project is an open scientific discovery infrastructure combining resources at eight partner sites to create an integrated, persistent computational resource. It is coordinated through the Grid Infrastructure Group at the University of Chicago, working in partnership with the Resource Provider sites that participated in the TeraGrid construction project. Deployment was completed in September 2004, bringing more than 40 teraflops of computing power, nearly 4 petabytes of rotating storage, and specialized data analysis and visualization resources into production. A dedicated national network interconnects the whole at 10-30 gigabits per second. • NEES – NEES’s grid links earthquake researchers across the United States with computing resources and research equipment, allowing collaborative teams to plan, perform and publish their experiments. It is maintained by the NEES consortium. • Bioinformatics Information Research Network – BIRN is a National Institutes of Health initiative that fosters distributed collaborations in biomedical science. The BIRN data grid is used for computational and data sharing. Grid computing promises to deliver to the computing world what it successfully delivered to the networking world: an information technology service based on distributed architecture that is ubiquitous, flexible, and always available. This promise cannot be realized without a network able to support and link the various elements that make up the grid – in a secure, reliable, scalable and billable way. The need for such a network – and higher level associated services or capabilities that may exploit the network – represent the key opportunities for grid technologies.

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2013-06-18T23:37:26Z

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en

Science Fair Project Encyclopedia Sufism (Arabic تصوف taṣawwuf) is a system of esoteric philosophy commonly associated with Islam. In modern language it might also be referred to as "Islamic spirituality" or "Islamic mysticism". Some non-Islamic Sufi organizations also exist, especially in the West Many Sufi practitioners are organized into a very diverse range of brotherhoods and sisterhoods. Although many orders ("tariqas") can be classified as Shi'a or Sunni or even both, there are a few that are clearly neither Shiah nor Sunni and so constitute a separate sphere of Islamic faith. Sufis believe that their teachings are the essence of every religion, and indeed of the evolution of humanity as a whole. The central concept in Sufism is "love". Dervishes -- the name given to initiates of sufi orders -- believe that love is a projection of the essence of God to the universe. They believe that God desires to recognize beauty, and as if one looks at a mirror to see oneself, God "looks" at itself within the dynamics of nature. Since they believe that everything is a reflection of God, the school of Sufism practices to see the beauty inside the apparently ugly, and to open arms to what they believe as even the most evil one. This religious tolerance is expressed in Sufism by the famous Sufi philosopher and poet Mevlana Rumi : "Come, come, whoever you are. Worshiper, Wanderer, Lover of Leaving; ours is not a caravan of despair. Though you have broken your vows a thousand times...Come, come again, Come." (In many Unitarian Universalist youth groups this poem is sung with minor alterations) Sufis teach in personal groups, believing that the intervention of the master is necessary for the growth of the pupil. They make extensive use of parables and metaphors, in such a way that the meaning is only reachable through a process of seeking for the utmost truth and knowledge of oneself. Although philosophies vary between different Sufi sects, Sufism as a whole is primarily concerned with direct personal experience, and as such is often compared to Zen Buddhism and Gnosticism. The following metaphor, credited to an unknown Sufi scholar, helps describe this line of thought. "There are three ways of knowing a thing. Take for instance a flame. One can be told of the flame, one can see the flame with his own eyes, and finally one can reach out and be burned by it. In this way, we Sufis seek to be burned by God." A large part of Muslim literature comes from the Sufis, who created great books of poetry (which include for example the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, the Conference of the Birds and the Masnavi), all of which contain the profound, and hardly graspable, teachings of the Sufis. Offshoots of Sufism in Africa include, for example, the Muslim brotherhoods of Senegal. The word Sufism The word Sufism is an anglicised form of the word Sufi, which in turn has its origin in Tasawwuf. The root word of Tasawwuf is the Arabic word Saaf, meaning pure, clean or blank. So the word tasawwuf means purifying or making clean. A Sufi is a person who practices purification of heart. There is another view about the origin of the word Sufi, according to which it originated from Suf (صوف), the Arabic word for "wool", in the sense of "cloak", referring to the simple cloaks the original Sufis wore. Given the Sufis' use of composing letters of words to express hidden meanings, the word is simultaneously taken to mean 'occlusion' and 'enlightenment'. In fact, the Greek terms Sofos/Sofia literally imply "wisdom" or "enlightenment". But most Sufis agree with the first definition. Sufism is usually seen in relation to Islam. There is a major line of Non-Islamic or offshoot-Islamic Sufi thought that sees Sufism as predating Islam and being in fact universal and, therefore, independent of the Qur'an and the teachings of Prophet Muhammad. This view of Sufism has understandably been popular in the West and has been always opposed by Traditional Sufis who practice it in the framework of Islam. Major exponents of this universal Sufism were Inayat Khan and Idries Shah. There is also an attempt to reconsider Sufism in contemporary Muslim thought. According to this view, Sufism represents the core sense of Islam that gives insight to Allah and His creation. In Bangladesh, there is a young group, named 'Sanskriti O Biddya CharchaPit', that claims that Sufi insight is the core of Islamicity and that it could help to realize the cosmos that includes not only religiosity but also polity. This attempt could be marked as 'de-divinization of Sufism'. Orders of Sufism - Sarwari Qadiri - Sh.Nadzir As Saghir PHILTAR (Philosophy of Theology and Religion at the Division of Religion and Philosophy of St Martin's College) has a very useful Graphical illustration of the Sufi schools. Non-Islamic Sufi Groups - Sufi Order International - Mevlevi Order of America - Sufi Ruhaniat International - International Sufi Movement - The Golden Sufi Center - Sufi Foundation of America - Sufism Reoriented The Traditional Islamic Schools of Thought and Sufism The relationship between traditional Islamic Schools and Sufism is complicated by at least three important factors. Firstly, Sufism as a separate movement within Islam makes its appearance quite late, so we cannot know for sure how the very earliest of the scholars would have treated it. Secondly, the founders and earlier scholars of the schools have displayed mixed opinions towards Sufism. Thus, although some of them recognized Sufism, illustrated e.g. by Imam Hambal's frequent visits to the Sufi master Bishr al Hafi, there are others who considered Sufism to be heretical, to the extent of leading to disbelief. Thirdly, the term Sufism has had such a wide range of connotations attached to it, mostly emotive definitions rather than theological or logical ones, that a comparison to traditional Islam is essentially not possible except in a strictly defined context. Although there is no consensus with regard to Sufi cosmology, one can disentangle various threads that led to the crystallization of more or less coherent mythic cosmological doctrines. The first is based on purely Quranic notions of the Afterworld (Ahiret), the Hidden (Ghayb- sometimes associated with “hidden” or “invisible” dimensions of human existence, but, more frequently with the state of God before creation or Unmanifest Absolute. Another term for the latter is “Amma”, ie. Divine Darkness) and seven-storeyed Universe explicitly referenced in the Qur’an (and cherished in Prophet Mohammad’s “Miraj” or ascent to the God’s face -- the powerful spiritual motif that inspired generations of later Sufis and ordinary believers). However, these relatively simple Quranic concepts that gave basic structure to Islamic worldview had soon become exposed to Neoplatonist and Gnostic influences, as well as Zoroastrian religious imagery. As a consequence, Sufism developed a welter of frequently contradictory cosmological doctrines. Nevertheless, one can point out a few basic features: - One of the most influential early Sufis, Mansur Al-Hallaj (martyred in 922. C.E. for the supposed adherence to the heterodox doctrine of “hulul” or incarnationism, according to which Divine nature can take possession or overwhelm human nature) exposed the psychospiritual doctrine of “two natures”. Technical terms were “Lahut” for the Divinity, and “Nasut” for humanity). Ironically, it seems that Al-Hallaj only affirmed the separateness between God and Man: his two natures are polar principles that cannot be mixed or fused. From these rather simple metaphors, Sufis later developed an intricate Kabbalah-like cosmology. - Suhrawardi Maqtul (martyr), the highly imaginative Iranian philosopher from 12th century C.E. completed this variant of cosmology. Although nominally not a Sufi (Suhrawardi Maqtul is the founder of Ishraqi or Illuminationist school of Islamic philosophy), his expansion and revision of rudimentary concepts early Sufis had bequeathed to their esoteric posterity played the crucial role in forming the dominant Sufi mythic cosmological Weltanschauung. In his visionary cosmography old Hermetic Ptolemaic cosmos of seven onion-like spheres has dissolved and a vast spiritual universe was revealed to the later generations of Sufis. Abstract concepts of “Lahut” and “Nasut”, designating fuzzy metaphors for divinity and humanity, have grown into full-fledged worlds, or dimensions of existence, quite similar to quasi-emanationist “worlds” of Neoplatonism and Kabbalah. Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi Maqtul imagined two more worlds between physical (Alam-I-Nasut) and Divine (Alam-I-Lahut): imaginal or subtle world, corresponding to Western medieval “mundus imaginalis”- Alam-I-Malakut (literally, “world of Angels”) and world of power, Alam-I-Jabarut, resembling Platonic Nous or “world of archetypal ideas”, the source of other worlds two rungs “down” in the emanationist ladder. So, fourfold emanationist universe was conceived in this spectacular cosmography- to stay with the Sufism for later generations. The fifth “world” was equated with unknowable God’s essence and named Alam-I-Hahut (the world of “He-ness”: etymologically, Arabic root word for God with attributes or Manifest Absolute is Al-Lah or “the Divinity” (hence Lahut) and Hu (“He”) for Unmanifest Absolute, naked essence of Godhead nothing can be said about (similar to Christian polarity of Deus revelatus and Deus absconditus, or Hindu notions of Saguna and Nirguna Brahman). - Yet other schools of Sufi thought came under Neoplatonist influence and operated with concepts like Aql-I-Awwal (Primary Intellect) and Nafs-I-Kulli (Universal Soul), which strictly correspond to the emanationist scheme of Plotinus and his followers. This, as well as other, more orthodox variants of Quranic Sufism, also adopted Hermetic scheme of Ptolemaic spherical cosmos with planetary spheres serving as worlds of the created universe. The fixed stars (originating in ancient Sumero-Mesophotamian tradition) were a sort of limit of Hermetic cosmos: beyond lay the Quranic “Arsh” or God’s throne. Such a picture was integrated into Sufi mythic cosmography and is very similar to the image of the universe one can find in Dante’s “Divine Comedy”. The Sufi cosmology is not a uniform and coherent doctrine. But, reading various authoritative texts, one can see that practitioners of Sufism were not much bothered with inconsistencies and contradictions that have arisen due to juxtaposition and superposition of at least three different cosmographies: Ishraqi visionary universe as expounded by Suhrawardi Maqtul, Neoplatonic view of cosmos cherished by Islamic philosophers like Ibn Sina/Avicenna (and later assimilated into majestic metaphysical edifice of Ibn al-Arabi) and Hermetic-Ptolemaic spherical geocentric world. All these doctrines (and each one of them claiming to be impeccably orthodox) were freely mixed and juxtaposed, frequently with confusing results- a situation one encounters in other esoteric doctrines, from Hebrew Kabbalah and Christian Gnosticism to Vajrayana Buddhism and Trika Shaivism. The term "Sufi psychology" is probably a deceptive one, because it implies that there is a relatively homogenous doctrine of the psyche the majority of the Sufis would subscribe to. It is not the case. However, one can point out the terms most frequently used and expound on the meanings of these notions Drawing from Qur'anic verses, virtually all Sufis distinguish Lataif-e-Sitta (The six subtleties), Nafs, Qalb, Sirr, Ruh, Khafi & Akhfa. These lataif (sing : latifa) designate various psychospiritual "organs" or, sometimes, faculties of sensory and suprasensory perception In general, sufic development involves the awakening in a certain order of these spiritual centers of perception that lie dormant in every person.. Each center is associated with a particular color and general area of the body, as well as oft times with a particular prophet. The help of a guide is considered necessary to help activate these centers. The activation of all these "centers" is part of the special, inner methodology of the sufi way or "Work", and cannot be counterfeited. After undergoing this process, the dervish is said to reach a certain type of "completion" or becomes the Complete Man. Lataif-e-sitta (The six Subtleties) This is the first of these Lataif, located slightly below the navel, & is associated with yellow color. Its energies are increased by meditation. The word nafs is usually translated as self or psyche. Its etymology is rooted in "breath" (similar to Biblical or Kabbalistic nefesh) and is common to virtually all archaic psychologies where the act of breathing was connected with life, animating otherwise lifeless object. In this respect, ancient notions of "Atman" in Hinduism (cf. German noun "Atem", breath, respiration) or Greek "pneuma" (as well as Latin "spiritus")-all equate the basic visible process of breathing with energizing principle that confers existence to an individual human being. Some Sufis consider under the term "Nafs" the entirety of psychological processes, encompassing whole mental, emotional and volitional life; however, the majority of Quranic-based Sufis are of the opinion that Nafs is a "lower", egotistical and passionate human nature which, along with Tab (literally, physical nature), comprises vegetative and animal aspects of human life. Synonyms for Nafs are devil, passion, greed, avarice, ego-centeredness etc. The central aim of the Sufi path is transformation of Nafs (technical term is "Tazkiya-I-Nafs"' or "purgation of the soul'") from its deplorable state of ego-centredness through various psycho-spiritual stages to the purity and submission to the will of God. Although the majority of the Sufi orders have adopted convenient 7 maqams (maqams are permanent stages on the voyage towards spiritual transformation), and some still operate with 3 stages, the picture is clear: the Sufi’s journey begins with Nafs-e-Ammara (self-accusing soul), Nafs-e-lawwama, and ends in Nafs-e-Mutma’inna (satisfied soul)-although some Sufis’s final stage is, in their technical vocabulary, Nafs-I-Safiya wa Kamila (soul restful and perfected in God’s presence). In essence, this is almost identical to Christian paradigm of "vita purgativa" and various stages the spiritual aspirant traverses in the journey towards God. The second faculty is located in the left of Chest & is associated with red color. In Latifa-e-Qalbi man witnesses his deeds. By awakening it man also gets the knowledge of the realm of Jins. The word Qalb, stands for heart. In Sufi terminology, this spiritual heart (not to be confused with the blood pumping organ) is again variously described. For some, it is the seat of beatific vision. Others consider it the gate of Ishq or Divine love. Yet, for the majority, it is the battleground of two warring armies: those of Nafs and Ruh or spirit. Here, one again encounters terminological confusion: for the Sufis influenced by Neoplatonism, a "higher" part of Nafs is equated to the Aql or intellect (called Nafs-I-Natiqa) or "rational soul" and is the central active agent in spiritual battle: Ruh or spirit, notwithstanding its name, is rather passive in this stage. In short, cleansing of the Qalb or heart is a necessary spiritual discipline for travellers on the Sufi path. The term for this process is Tazkiah-I-Qalb and the aim is the erasure of everything that stands in the way of purifying God’s love or Ishq Qalb & Nafs form the “Rooh-e-haivani” (Animal Soul). This part of the soul has the record of every activity of life. It is also termed as Joviya (Confluence). The third faculty is ruh, located in the center of the chest & color is green. After its activation the human gets acquainted with Alam-e-Aaraf (the place where man resides after death) Ruh or spirit is the second contender in the battle for human life. Again, opinions on Ruh differ among Sufis. Some deem it coeternal with God; others consider it a created entity. Be as it may, Ruh is the plateau of consensus for the majority of Sufis, especially the early ones (before 11th/12th century C.E.). For those Sufis with Gnostic leanings (which can be found in Bektashi or Mevlevi orders), Ruh is a soul-spark, immortal entity and transegoic "true self", similar to the Christian concepts of "synteresis" or "Imago Dei", or Vedantist notion of "jiva", as well as Tibetan Buddhist "shes-pa", principle of consciousness and Taoist "shen" or spirit. But, the majority of the Sufis would consider this an unnecessarily extravagant speculation and would stick to the more orthodox notion of dormant spiritual faculty that needs to be worked upon by constant vigil and prayer in order to achieve the Tajliyya-I-Ruh, or Illumination of the spirit. Ironically, this spiritual faculty is frequently referred to in terms one encounters in connection with Nafs- "blind" life force or life current that needs to be purified by strict religious observances in order to achieve illumination. The forth faculty is Sirr, located at the right side of the chest & is associated with white color. It records the orders of Allah for the individual in similitude to that which is originally present in Loh-e-mehfooz (Preserved Scripturum). After its activation, human being gets acquainted with Aalam-e-Misal (The Allegorical realm - Reflection of knowledge of the preserved Scripturum.) Sirr, literally means "the secret". Emptying of the Sirr (Taqliyya-I-Sirr) is basically focusing on God’s names and attributes in perpetual remembrance or Dhikr, hence diverting one’s attention from the mundane aspects of human life and fixing it on the spiritual realm. The "emptying" signifies negation and obliteration of ego-centred human propensities. Sirr & Rooh form “Rooh-e-Insani (Human soul) or Ayan. This part of the soul is inscribed with commands characterizing the life. It is also termed as Ayan. When a human being gets acquainted with it, he can witness the record & scheme of “all that exists”, written on loh-e-mahfooz. It is located in the middle of eyebrows & associated with blue color. It’s the equivalent of Kitab-e-Marqoom (The written book) The term Khafi means mysterious, arcane or Latent Subtlety The tem Akhfa means most arcane, deeply mysterious or obscure Subtlety. It is located above the head & is associated with violet color. It’s the Nuqta-e-wahida (point of unity) in every human where the Tajalliat (Beatific visions) of Allah are directly revealed. It has got recorded information about the hidden knowledge of universe. By entering into this point, the human being enters the system of universe & laws governing the universe & he understands the meaning of “ for you we(allah) have revealed whatever is in the earth & the heavens “. Akhfa & khafa form “Rooh-e-azam” (the great soul), also called sabita. It is a bright ring of light in which all the information pertaining to the unseen & seen cosmos are inscribed. The Attributes of God that have been transferred to the existents and have become parts of the mechanism of the universe are collectively known as the Incumbent Knowledge (Ilm-e-wajib). The knowledge of Incumbent means that knowledge that has been transferred to the existents, that is, it refers to those Attributes of God with which existents enjoy an affinity and correlation. The Knowledge of Incumbent is also known as the Knowledge of the Pen (Ilm-e-Qalum}. First Descent is that state when God exhibited the program present in His Mind as He Willed. The creative formulae of the cosmos are the secrets of the First Descent. Why did God opt to create the universe and what is the Will of God, which He intends to accomplish? Reflection of all these things is found in the Great Soul; The Firmly Affixed Inscription. One side of Great Soul is the Obscure Subtlety (akhfa) and the other side is the Latent Subtlety (khafi) Great Soul is the storehouse of eleven thousand Beatific Visions of God. The person, who manages to have the acquaintance of these two subtleties, can observe these eleven thousand Beatific Visions. It will not be out of place to remind that these two subtleties of akhfa and khafi are found in every human being irrespective of the fact that who he is, what he is or to where does he belong. So, in these six "organs" or faculties: Nafs, Qalb, Ruh, Sirr, Khafi & Akhfa, and the purificative activities applied to them, the basic orthodox Sufi psychology is contained. The purification of elementary passionate nature (Tazkiya-I-Nafs), followed by cleansing of the spiritual heart so that it may acquire a mirror-like purity of reflection (Tazkiya-I-Qalb) and become the receptacle of God’s love (Ishq), illumination of the spirit (Tajjali-I-Ruh), fortified by emptying of egoic drives (Taqliyya-I-Sirr) and remembrance of God’s attributes (Dhikr), & completion of journey with purification of the last two faculties, Khafi & Akhfa. Through these "organs" or faculties the transformative results from their activation, the basic Sufi psychology is outlined and bears some resemblance to the schemata known as the kabbalah or to some the Indian chakra system It is important to mention that “ Great Soul ”, “ Human Soul “ & “ Animal Soul “ are actually “levels of functioning” of the same soul & not three different souls. These three parts of soul are like three rings of light infused in one another and are collectively called the soul, the indivisible entity, Lord’s edict of simply the man. Man gets acquainted with them one by one by Muraqaba ( Sufi Meditation ) , Dzikr ( Remembrance of God ) & purification of one’s psyche/life from negative thinking patterns (fear, depression), negative emotions (hate, contempt, anger, lust) & negative practices (hurting others psychologically or physically). Loving God & loving/helping every human being without considering for any reward, irrespective of his race, religion or nationality is the key to ascension according to Sufis. - List of famous Sufis - Qawwali Sufi devotional music from The Subcontinent - Sufi Sufi Taqaruf In East Asia - Graphical illustration of the Sufi schools - Tasawwuf -- Sufism Sufism & Sufi Orders in Islam - Sufism -- Sufis -- Sufi Orders by Dr. Alan Godlas, University of Georgia - Islam Way Online - Allah Muslims Spiritual Healing and al Quran - Excerpts from 'The Conference of the Birds' by Fariduddin-al-Attar - Sufi Practices Practices of the Friends - The Sufi Study Circle of the University of Toronto - BBC - Religion & Ethics - Sufism - Sh.Nadzir As Saghir Sufi Order - The Islamic Science of Spirituality (Sufism) Audio and articles on true Sufism in accordance to traditional Islam. - Muraqaba, Sufi Meditation - Owaisiah Order A Naqshbandi order - Nimatollahi Order - Sufi Order International, Universal Sufism, founded by Hazrat Inayat Khan, currently led by Pir Zia Inayat Khan. - Sufi Ruhaniat International, Universal Sufism, founded by Murshid Samuel Lewis, a student of Hazrat Inayat Khan. - The Sufi Movement, Universal Sufism, founded by Hazrat Inayat Khan, currently led by Hidayat Inayat Khan. - The Threshold Society & The Mevlevi Order - SH. NADZIR AS SAGHIR SUFI ORDER - The Naqshbandi-Haqqani Sufi Order of America - The Halveti-Jerrahi Order of America - The Nur Ashki Jerrahi Sufi Order - Mevlevi order of America - Azeemia Order UK - Azeemia spiritual library Books on sufism from silsila-e-azeemia - www.al-baz.comBooks by Abdul Qadir Jilani - www.sacred-texts.comSome books by Rumi, Saadi, Kabir, Khyyam & Ghazali - Collection of Sufi Poetry Scholars/Imams on tasawuf Audio files about Sufism The contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details

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Science Fair Project Encyclopedia The Red Shoes The inventive, self-referential plot of this film tells the story of a young ballerina forced to perform in a ballet called The Red Shoes, based on a story by Hans Christian Andersen about a woman who cannot stop dancing. The film stars Anton Walbrook, Marius Goring and Moira Shearer . It was adapted by Powell and Pressburger, with additions by Keith Winter and (uncredited) Marius Goring. The script by Pressburger was originally written for Alexander Korda as a vehicle for Korda's future wife Merle Oberon. After some years had passed with no film having been made, Powell and Pressburger bought the script back, rewrote it to make it a more heavyweight affair and include more dancing, and made it themselves. To create such a realistic idea of a ballet company at work and to be able to include a 15 minute ballet as the high point of the film, Powell & Pressburger decided to create a ballet company of over 50 dancers. They decided early on that they had to use dancers who could act rather than actors who could dance a bit. The film didn't do very well at first in the UK, not because it wasn't liked, more because the Rank Organisation had severe financial problems exacerbated by the expense of Caesar and Cleopatra (1945) by Gabriel Pascal so they could afford to promote it very well. The financial directors also didn't understand a film about the importance of art such as The Red Shoes. It did reasonable business in the UK and was liked by the public. But when it was released in the USA it was only after an independent US distributor showed it for an unbroken 110 week run in an off Broadway theater (The Bijou) that Universal realised that it was a worthwhile film after all. Universal took over the US distribution in 1951. Since then it has continued to be one of the highest earning British films of all time. When it was first previewed a lot of ballet critics (in the UK and in the USA) wrote very good reviews about it, pleased to see ballet portrayed so well on screen. But when they realised that it was universally popular their reviews suddenly became quite dismissive of the film. The Red Shoes led to quite a few other films being able to treat ballet and dance seriously. It was only after he made the studio executives watch The Red Shoes a few times that Gene Kelly was able to include the ballet in An American in Paris. Song and album There is also a song and an album called The Red Shoes by Kate Bush, in reference to the film. There was also a Broadway musical The Red Shoes by Jule Styne, author of classics like Funny Girl and Gypsy. The Gershwin Theatre, New York City, showed this musical. Steve Barton played the main role of the ballet impresario Boris Lermontov. Margaret Illmann played the role of Victoria Page, the dance star in this great piece. The choreography was given the Astaire Award of the Theatre Development Fund. The premiere was on Thursday, December 16th, 1993. The musical, after 51 previews, closed after 5 performances. The contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details

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Load capacity is expressed in pounds, and listed for individual casters. To establish the appropriate caster capacity for a load, you need to determine how many casters are required, and how much weight will be placed upon the casters. To determine the required caster capacity, divide the maximum weight of the load by the number of casters used for the application. Caster capacity must be equal to, or greater than, the result. Consideration should be given to floor surfaces (rough or smooth), environmental conditions such as temperature, and possible obstructions such as thresholds, joints, and floor plates. Possibility of shock loads (impact of a dropped load) will affect load capacity. Wheel diameter and tread width can also affect the determination of appropriate load capacity. Load capacities vary, depending on light, medium, heavy-duty, and specialty applications such as industrial operations. Manufacturer load capacity application range varies greatly within the caster industry.

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Though Greenland has been home-ruled since 1979, on June 21, 2009, the Danish government made steps toward granting Greenland full independence. In a 2008 referendum, 76% of the 58,000 residents of the sparsely populated island voted for self-rule and the Danish government has been handing over control of services to the local government and making symbolic changes, like changing the official language to Kalaallisut (the Inuit language of most Greenlanders) and renaming the country Naalakkersuisut. Every schoolchild has at least a vague awareness of Greenland, that conspicuously white island (decidedly not green) near the top of most globes. According to Eiríks saga rauða (the saga of Eric the Red) and Íslendingabók (the book of Icelanders), the name was chosen to attract settlement by promoting Greenland as an attractive place to live. Although part of the North American Tectonic plate, Eurocentric models of North American discovery either credit Columbus or Bjarni Herjólfsson with discovering the New World when they sighted the Caribbean and Canada, respectively. As Wikipedia's entry on the Norwegian explorer states, "Bjarni is believed to be the first European to see North America," which he did in the summer of 986 on the way to visit his parents in Greenland, and island which is itself part of North America. So Europeans (including Herjólfsson’s parents) had already "discovered" Greenland, although many before have quite reasonably questioned one's ability to discover something already known for thousands of years to many people.

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St. Patrick's Day coloring pages make great mouse practice activities for toddlers, preschool, and elementary children. They can also be used with beginning readers. If children are unable to read the sentence that goes with the coloring page, have them click on each word to hear the sentence. This activity reinforces reading skills. Most St. Patrick's Day coloring pages come with a selection of sentences. Check out our literacy ideas on how to use our coloring page readers. Our St. Patrick's Day coloring pages are literacy builders, too! All of our St. Patrick's Day coloring page readers print crisp and clean. To print your St. Patrick's Day coloring page reader, follow the directions on the specific page you want to print by clicking on the printer icon that says "Full Page Print." Check out all our St. Patrick's Day Thematic Unit Activities - Irish fairy tales, Irish symbols game, short stories, poems, childrens' thematic book list, scrambler puzzles, interactive games, printables, worksheets, word jumbles, word search puzzles and more.

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Mercury not like other planets MESSENGER finds Only six months into its Mercury orbit, the tiny MESSENGER spacecraft has shown scientists that Mercury doesn’t conform to theory. Its surface material composition differs in important ways from both those of the other terrestrial planets and expectations prior to the MESSENGER mission, calling into question current theories for Mercury’s formation. Its magnetic field is unlike any other in the Solar System, and there are huge expanses of volcanic plains surrounding the north polar region of the planet and cover more than 6% of Mercury’s surface. These findings and other surprises are revealed in seven papers in a special section of the September 30, 2011, issue of Science. |Red circles show the locations of impact craters larger than 20 km in diameter. The area of contiguous northern high-latitude smooth plains mapped by MESSENGER from orbit (inside the black line) covers 4.7 million square kilometers, over 6% of the surface of Mercury. Note that the number of craters superposed on the plains is much less than in the surrounding areas, indicating the relative youth of the plains. Credit: Courtesy of Science/AAAS and Brown University Two of the seven papers indicate that the surface material is more like that expected if Mercury formed from similar, but less oxidized, building blocks than those that formed its terrestrial cousins, perhaps reflecting a variable proportion of ice in the initial accretionary stages of the planets. Measurements of Mercury’s surface by MESSENGER’s X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Spectrometers also reveal substantially higher abundances of sulfur and potassium than previously predicted. Both elements vaporize at relatively low temperatures, and their abundances thus rule out several popular scenarios in which Mercury experienced extreme high-temperature events early in its history. “Theorists need to go back to the drawing board on Mercury’s formation,” remarked the lead author of one of the papers, Carnegie’s Larry Nittler. “Most previous ideas about Mercury’s chemistry are inconsistent with what we have actually measured on the planet’s surface.” For decades scientists had puzzled over whether Mercury had volcanic deposits on its surface. MESSENGER’s three flybys answered that question in the affirmative, but the global distribution of volcanic materials was not well constrained. New data from orbit show a huge expanse of volcanic plains surrounding the north polar region of Mercury. These continuous smooth plains cover more than 6% of the total surface of Mercury. Another lead author, James Head of Brown University, said that the deposits appear typical of flood lavas, like those found in the few-million-year-old Columbia River Basalt Group on Earth. “Those on Mercury appear to have poured out from long, linear vents and covered the surrounding areas, flooding them to great depths and burying their source vents,” |Galactic cosmic rays interact with the surface of Mercury to a depth of tens of centimeters, producing high-energy (“fast”) neutrons. These neutrons further interact with surface material, resulting in the emission of gamma rays with energies characteristic of the emitting elements and low-energy (“slow”) neutrons. Naturally occurring radioactive elements such as potassium (K), thorium (Th), and uranium (U) also emit gamma rays. Detection of the gamma rays and neutrons by GRS allows determination of the chemical composition of the surface. Credit: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington Scientists have also discovered vents, measuring up to 25 kilometers (km) (15.5 miles) in length, that appear to be the source of some of the tremendous volumes of very hot lava that have rushed out over the surface of Mercury and eroded the substrate, carving valleys and creating teardrop-shaped ridges in the underlying terrain. MESSENGER revealed an unexpected class of landform on Mercury and suggests that a previously unrecognized geological process is responsible for its formation. Images collected during the Mariner 10 and MESSENGER flybys of Mercury showed that the floors and central mountain peaks of some impact craters are very bright and have a blue color relative to other areas of Mercury. These deposits were considered to be unusual because no craters with similar characteristics are found on the Moon. But without higher-resolution images, the bright crater deposits remained a curiosity. Now MESSENGER’s orbital mission has provided close-up, targeted views of many of these craters. The bright areas are composed of small, shallow, irregularly shaped depressions that are often found in clusters said David T. Blewett, a planetary scientist at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) and lead author of one of the Science reports. “The science team adopted the term ‘hollows’ for these features to distinguish them from other types of pits that are found on Mercury.” Hollows have been found over a wide range of latitudes and longitudes, suggesting that they are fairly common across Mercury. Many of the depressions have bright interiors and halos, and Blewett says the ones detected so far have a fresh appearance and have not accumulated small impact craters, indicating that they are relatively young. “Analysis of the images and estimates of the rate at which the hollows may be growing lead to the conclusion that they are actively forming today,” Blewett says. “The old conventional wisdom was that ‘Mercury is just like the Moon.’ But from its vantage point in orbit, MESSENGER is showing us that Mercury is radically different from the Moon in just about every way we can measure.” Earth, Mercury, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune all have intrinsic magnetic fields, but MESSENGER found that Mercury’s weak field is different. So too are particle acceleration processes in Mercury’s magnetosphere, as described in a paper by lead author George Ho of APL. MESSENGER’s observations of energetic electrons indicated that their distribution is not consistent with what are known as Van Allen radiation belts. These belts are bands of charged particles that interact with the magnetic field and surround the planets. |Mercury’s planetary magnetic field largely shields the surface from the supersonic solar wind emanating continuously from the Sun. MESSENGER has been in a near-polar, highly eccentric orbit (dashed red line) since 18 March 2011. Maxima in heavy ion fluxes observed from orbit are indicated in light blue. Credit: Courtesy of Science/AAAS Mercury’s magnetic equator is also well to the north of the planet’s geographic equator. The best-fitting internal dipole magnetic field is located about 480 km (298 miles), northward of the planet’s center. The team found that sodium is the most important plasma ion contributed by the planet to the magnetosphere. “We had previously observed neutral sodium from ground observations, but up close we’ve discovered that charged sodium particles are concentrated near Mercury’s polar regions where they are likely liberated by solar wind ion sputtering, effectively knocking sodium atoms off Mercury’s surface” notes the University of Michigan’s Thomas Zurbuchen, author of one of the Science reports. “We were able to observe the formation process of these ions, one that is comparable to the manner by which auroras are generated in the Earth atmosphere near polar regions.” MESSENGER’s Fast Imaging Plasma Spectrometer detected helium ions throughout the entire volume of Mercury’s magnetosphere. “Helium must be generated through surface interactions with the solar wind,” says Zurbuchen. “We surmise that the helium was delivered from the Sun by the solar wind, implanted on the surface of Mercury, and then fanned out in all directions.” “Our results tell us is that Mercury’s weak magnetosphere provides very little protection of the planet from the solar wind,” he continued. “Extreme space weather must be a continuing activity at the surface of the planet closest to the Sun.” “In the history of exploration of our planetary system, the first spacecraft to orbit a planet has always yielded stunning surprises, and MESSENGER has been true to that pattern,” notes Carnegie’s Sean Solomon, MESSENGER Principal Investigator. “Our first good views of the polar regions, our first high-resolution images, our first continuous observations of the exosphere and magnetosphere, and our first opportunity to collect time-consuming measurements of surface composition have all returned unexpected results. Mercury is not the planet described in the textbooks. Although a true sibling of Venus, Mars, and Earth, the innermost planet has had a much more exciting life than anyone predicted.”

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The most allergenic pollen comes from non-flowering trees, grasses, and low-growing weeds. (Pollen from flowering plants is spread by insects — rather than becoming airborne — so it doesn't tend to cause allergies.) In the spring, trees such as oak, elm, and birch cause all the fuss, whereas in summertime, grasses such as timothy, Bermuda, and orchard are problematic. From the late summer through fall, the main culprits tend to be weeds such as ragweed (the most common allergen), sagebrush, and Russian thistle. Weed pollen is small, light, dry, and abundant — and therefore easily disseminated through the air. About half of people with hay fever are sensitive to grass pollens. Molds are microscopic fungi related to mushrooms. Outdoor molds grow on soil, grass, fallen leaves, and rotting logs — any damp area with high humidity where air can't circulate well. Molds can also be found indoors in attics, basements, bathrooms, refrigerators and other food storage areas, garbage containers, carpets, and upholstery. During the warm months, there are actually more mold spores in the air than pollen. In fact, mold spore counts are usually in the thousands per cubic meter (they can reach over 15,000 per cubic meter), while tree pollen counts reach 3,000 to 4,000 per cubic meter and grass counts only climb to the hundreds per cubic meter. Fortunately, most mold spores are not allergenic. Seasonal allergies rarely develop before age 3. That's because very young children spend most of their time indoors, says Sami Bahna, professor of pediatrics and medicine and chief of the allergy and immunology section at Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center in Shreveport. Though a person's tendency to be allergic stays consistent through her lifetime, allergic symptoms can wax and wane, says Y. Howard Pung, director of the pediatric allergy and immunology clinic at Georgetown University Hospital in Washington, D.C. "The hormonal changes during pregnancy could bring relief from allergies for one person and intensify those symptoms for someone else, for example. It's very individual," Pung says.

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Science is not just about molecules and atoms, but about biology, and our most budding scientists are young, so it makes perfect sense to find time to involve children by using birdwatching for kids. Finding time to explain each of the birds you see in your yard, buy them some binoculars that are their own, can allow them the empowerment of learning, from their own back yard. Birds are a great way to learn about species, latin or scientific nomenclature for birding, and bring new skills for emerging biologists in your neighborhood. Birdwatching for Kids begins with Biology Birdwatching for Kids Begins with Biology Your new bird watcher can learn about species, types of birds, and the way they live in the wild with a simple set of tools. Heading to the library, you can check out some bird reference books, and learn about basics of birds or the science of Ornithology, starts with learning about the parts of a bird. Birdwatching for kids involves more than seeing the brown bird, but understanding the actual ways to recognize the different species, by visual cues like their anatomical features. Birdwatching for kids can be greatly improved by watching, and reviewing these anatomical sections of each bird you see in your back yard: Crown: top of the head Eye stripe: Usually the mark on top of the beak or forehead Nares: directly on top of the beak, the little transition from eye stripe to beak Auriculars: the Upper Mandible and Lower Mandible is the top and the bottom section of the beak Nape: the back of the head Chin: under the beak Side of Neck: either side of the bird between chin and nape Throat: front of the bird below chin Mantle: Area on back, above wings Back: just below mantle Breast: Across from back and mantle under throat Scapulars: the bend of the wings Shoulder: The upper top of the wings Wing Covers: the loose upper feathers that float over the wings Side: Lower sections of the breast Secondaries: The second tier feathers of the wings Rump: the longer back feathers on the back above the tail Abdomen: Below breast, or belly of the bird Upper tail coverts: the Longer feathers of the back close to tail Under tail coverts: Under longer feathers of the tail top Rectrices: the Tail feathers that create the beauty of the bird Birdwatching for Kids involves some tools Now that you have some terms to use in your birdwatching experiences, a set of binoculars, a good bird field guide with pictures and descriptions, and a comfortable chair, is a great way to start. Begin with adjusting the binoculars for your little ones eyes, and let them try them out in a stationary position. Do not let them wander the yard with the binoculars glued to their eyes, as it will be important to show them that this can be too dangerous, as they could walk into obstacles or fall in a dip in the yard. Birdwatching for Kids with Binoculars Sitting in a chair is a great way to adjust to using the binoculars with the book. A little table for a drink and a place to place the tools is important too. The weather should be considered, and there is no reason you can’t do this in the winter as well, as the empty trees often are a better way to see the birds. A cloudy day is sometimes better, as it makes it easier to spot the birds, and to see them in the trees without glare from the sun. When you spot a bird, confirm with your own set of binoculars, and see if you can locate the bird in the book. Learning about that bird can then begin to start the biology training. The size, shape and the calls of the birds can be witnessed in real time. A journal for your child can be helpful too, as birdwatching for kids can be a way for them to be apart of the birdwatching community. Once a species is spotted, they can log into a web site like the Cornell Lab of Ornithology, and begin their career as a bird watcher or spotter. Birdwatching for Kids can be Fun While they are learning about birds, they are learning to love nature, find a way to be quiet, and encounter a patience that can assist them in life. Being a bird watcher requires this quality and talent, and it can be a great way to see that the best things in life come to those who wait. If you are interested in becoming a birdwatcher, you must endure some time between birds. Another option is to place a feeder, some water, and that will help your new bird watch to become more active. Find some time with your children, by finding time during your week to experience birdwatching for kids in the near future!

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Darwin claimed that all living species attained their present complex structures by undergoing small, gradual changes. According to his imaginary claim, an extremely lengthy evolutionary process must have taken place, and primitive and half-developed transitional life forms must once have existed in the past. In addition, there should be a large number of fossils belonging to such creatures in the geologic strata of the Earth. However, the fossil record provides not a single example of any semi-developed or supposedly "primitive" life forms whose discovery Darwin predicted. As can clearly be seen in the fossil record, as well as in the 45-million-year-old deathwatch beetle pictured, the fact is that living fossils reveal the fact of Creation.

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Charles Robert Darwin (18091882). The Voyage of the Beagle. The Harvard Classics. 190914. Strait of MagellanPort FamineAscent of Mount TarnForestsEdible FungusZoologyGreat Sea-weedLeave Tierra del FuegoClimateFruit-trees and Productions of the Southern CoastsHeight of Snow-line on the CordilleraDescent of Glaciers to the SeaIcebergs formedTransportal of BouldersClimate and Productions of the Antarctic IslandsPreservation of Frozen CarcassesRecapitulation IN the end of May, 1834, we entered for a second time the eastern mouth of the Strait of Magellan. The country on both sides of this part of the Strait consists of nearly level plains, like those of Patagonia. Cape Negro, a little within the second Narrows, may be considered as the point where the land begins to assume the marked features of Tierra del Fuego. On the east coast, south of the Strait, broken park-like scenery in a like manner connects these two countries, which are opposed to each other in almost every feature. It is truly surprising to find in a space of twenty miles such a change in the landscape. If we take a rather greater distance, as between Port Famine and Gregory Bay, that is about sixty miles, the difference is still more wonderful. At the former place, we have rounded mountains concealed by impervious forests, which are drenched with the rain, brought by an endless succession of gales; while at Cape Gregory, there is a clear and bright blue sky over the dry and sterile plains. The atmospheric currents,1 although rapid turbulent, and unconfined by any apparent limits, yet seem to follow, like a river in its bed, a regularly determined course. During our previous visit (in January), we had an interview at Cape Gregory with the famous so-called gigantic Patagonians, who gave us a cordial reception. Their height appears greater than it really is, from their large guanaco mantles, their long flowing hair, and general figure: on an average, their height is about six feet, with some men taller and only a few shorter; and the women are also tall; altogether they are certainly the tallest race which we anywhere saw. In features they strikingly resemble the more northern Indians whom I saw with Rosas, but they have a wilder and more formidable appearance: their faces were much painted with red and black, and one man was ringed and dotted with white like a Fuegian. Captain Fitz Roy offered to take any three of them on board, and all seemed determined to be of the three. It was long before we could clear the boat; at last we got on board with our three giants, who dined with the Captain, and behaved quite like gentlemen, helping themselves with knives, forks, and spoons: nothing was so much relished as sugar. This tribe has had so much communication with sealers and whalers that most of the men can speak a little English and Spanish; and they are half civilized, and proportionally demoralized. The next morning a large party went on shore, to barter for skins and ostrich-feathers; fire-arms being refused, tobacco was in greatest request, far more so than axes or tools. The whole population of the toldos, men, women, and children, were arranged on a bank. It was an amusing scene, and it was impossible not to like the so-called giants, they were so thoroughly good-humoured and unsuspecting: they asked us to come again. They seem to like to have Europeans to live with them; and old Maria, an important woman in the tribe, once begged Mr. Low to leave any one of his sailors with them. They spend the greater part of the year here; but in summer they hunt along the foot of the Cordillera: sometimes they travel as far as the Rio Negro, 750 miles to the north. They are well stocked with horses, each man having, according to Mr. Low, six or seven, and all the women, and even children, their one own horse. In the time of Sarmiento (1580), these Indians had bows and arrows, now long since disused; they then also possessed some horses. This is a very curious fact, showing the extraordinarily rapid multiplication of horses in South America. The horse was first landed at Buenos Ayres in 1537, and the colony being then for a time deserted, the horse ran wild;2 in 1580, only forty-three years afterwards, we hear of them at the Strait of Magellan! Mr. Low informs me, that a neighbouring tribe of foot-Indians is now changing into horse-Indians: the tribe at Gregory Bay giving them their worn-out horses, and sending in winter a few of their best skilled men to hunt for them. June 1st.We anchored in the fine bay of Port Famine. It was now the beginning of winter, and I never saw a more cheerless prospect; the dusky woods, piebald with snow, could be only seen indistinctly, through a drizzling hazy atmosphere. We were, however, lucky in getting two fine days. On one of these, Mount Sarmiento, a distant mountain 6800 feet high, presented a very noble spectacle. I was frequently surprised in the scenery of Tierra del Fuego, at the little apparent elevation of mountains really lofty. I suspect it is owing to a cause which would not at first be imagined, namely, that the whole mass, from the summit to the waters edge, is generally in full view. I remember having seen a mountain, first from the Beagle Channel, where the whole sweep from the summit to the base was full in view, and then from Ponsonby Sound across several successive ridges; and it was curious to observe in the latter case, as each fresh ridge afforded fresh means of judging of the distance, how the mountain rose in height. Before reaching Port Famine, two men were seen running along the shore and hailing the ship. A boat was sent for them. They turned out to be two sailors who had run away from a sealing-vessel, and had joined the Patagonians. These Indians had treated them with their usual disinterested hospitality. They had parted company through accident, and were then proceeding to Port Famine in hopes of finding some ship. I dare say they were worthless vagabonds, but I never saw more miserable-looking ones. They had been living for some days on mussel-shells and berries, and their tattered clothes had been burnt by sleeping so near their fires. They had been exposed night and day, without any shelter, to the late incessant gales, with rain, sleet, and snow, and yet they were in good health. During our stay at Port Famine, the Fuegians twice came and plagued us. As there were many instruments, clothes, and men on shore, it was thought necessary to frighten them away. The first time a few great guns were fired, when they were far distant. It was most ludicrous to watch through a glass the Indians, as often as the shot struck the water, take up stones, and, as a bold defiance, throw them towards the ship, though about a mile and a half distant! A boat was sent with orders to fire a few musket-shots wide of them. The Fuegians hid themselves behind the trees, and for every discharge of the muskets they fired their arrows; all, however, fell short of the boat, and the officer as he pointed at them laughed. This made the Fuegians frantic with passion, and they shook their mantles in vain rage. At last, seeing the balls cut and strike the trees, they ran away, and we were left in peace and quietness. During the former voyage the Fuegians were here very troublesome, and to frighten them a rocket was fired at night over their wigwams; it answered effectually, and one of the officers told me that the clamour first raised, and the barking of the dogs, was quite ludicrous in contrast with the profound silence which in a minute or two afterwards prevailed. The next morning not a single Fuegian was in the neighbourhood. When the Beagle was here in the month of February, I started one morning at four oclock to ascend Mount Tarn, which is 2600 feet high, and is the most elevated point in this immediate district. We went in a boat to the foot of the mountain (but unluckily not to the best part), and then began our ascent. The forest commences at the line of high-water mark, and during the first two hours I gave over all hopes of reaching the summit. So thick was the wood, that it was necessary to have constant recourse to the compass; for every landmark, though in a mountainous country, was completely shut out. In the deep ravines, the death-like scene of desolation exceeded all description; outside it was blowing a gale, but in these hollows, not even a breath of wind stirred the leaves of the tallest trees. So gloomy, cold, and wet was every part, that not even the fungi, mosses, or ferns could flourish. In the valleys it was scarcely possible to crawl along, they were so completely barricaded by great mouldering trunks, which had fallen down in every direction. When passing over these natural bridges, ones course was often arrested by sinking knee deep into the rotten wood; at other times, when attempting to lean against a firm tree, one was startled by finding a mass of decayed matter ready to fall at the slightest touch. We at last found ourselves among the stunted trees, and then soon reached the bare ridge, which conducted us to the summit. Here was a view characteristic of Tierra del Fuego; irregular chains of hills, mottled with patches of snow, deep yellowish-green valleys, and arms of the sea intersecting the land in many directions. The strong wind was piercingly cold, and the atmosphere rather hazy, so that we did not stay long on the top of the mountain. Our descent was not quite so laborious as our ascent; for the weight of the body forced a passage, and all the slips and falls were in the right direction. I have already mentioned the sombre and dull character of the evergreen forests,3 in which two or three species of trees grow, to the exclusion of all others. Above the forest land, there are many dwarf alpine plants, which all spring from the mass of peat, and help to Wompose it: these plants are very remarkable from their close alliance with the species growing on the mountains of Europe, though so many thousand miles distant. The central part of Tierra del Fuego, where the clay-slate formation occurs, is most favourable to the growth of trees; on the outer coast the poorer granitic soil, and a situation more exposed to the violent winds, do not allow of their attaining any great size. Near Port Famine I have seen more large trees than anywhere else: I measured a Winters Bark which was four feet six inches in girth, and several of the beech were as much as thirteen feet. Captain King also mentions a beech which was seven feet in diameter, seventeen feet above the roots. There is one vegetable production deserving notice from its importance as an article of food to the Fuegians. It is a globular, bright yellow fungus, which grows in vast numbers on the beech-trees. When young it is elastic and turgid, with a smooth surface; but when mature it shrinks, becomes tougher, and has its entire surface deeply pitted or honey-combed, as represented in the accompanying wood-cut. This fungus belongs to a new and curious genus;4 I found a second species on another species of beech in Chile; and Dr. Hooker informs me, that just lately a third species has been discovered on a third species of beech in Van Diemans Land. How singular is this relationship between parasitical fungi and the trees on which they grow, in distant parts of the world! In Tierra del Fuego the fungus in its tough and mature state is collected in large quantities by the women and children, and is eaten uncooked. It has a mucilaginous, slightly sweet taste, with a faint smell like that of a mushroom. With the exception of a few berries, chiefly of a dwarf arbutus, the natives eat no vegetable food besides this fungus. In New Zealand, before the introduction of the potato, the roots of the fern were largely consumed; at the present time, I believe, Tierra del Fuego is the only country in the world where a cryptogamic plant affords a staple article of food. The zoology of Tierra del Fuego, as might have been expected from the nature of its climate and vegetation, is very poor. Of mammalia, besides whales and seals, there is one bat, a kind of mouse (Reithrodon chinchilloides), two true mice, a ctenomys allied to or identical with the tucutuco, two foxes (Canis Magellanicus and C. Azaræ), a sea-otter, the guanaco, and a deer. Most of these animals inhabit only the drier eastern parts of the country; and the deer has never been seen south of the Strait of Magellan. Observing the general correspondence of the cliffs of soft sandstone, mud, and shingle, on the opposite sides of the Strait, and on some intervening islands, one is strongly tempted to believe that the land was once joined, and thus allowed animals so delicate and helpless as the tucutuco and Reithrodon to pass over. The correspondence of the cliffs is far from proving any junction; because such cliffs generally are formed by the intersection of sloping deposits, which, before the elevation of the land, had been accumulated near the then existing shores. It is, however, a remarkable coincidence, that in the two large islands cut off by the Beagle Channel from the rest of Tierra del Fuego, one has cliffs composed of matter that may be called stratified alluvium, which front similar ones on the opposite side of the channel,while the other is exclusively bordered by old crystalline rocks: in the former, called Navarin Island, both foxes and guanacos occur; but in the latter, Hoste Island, although similar in every respect, and only separated by a channel a little more than half a mile wide, I have the word of Jemmy Button for saying that neither of these animals are found. The gloomy woods are inhabited by few birds: occasionally the plaintive note of a white-tufted tyrant-flycatcher (Myiobius albiceps) may be heard, concealed near the summit of the most lofty trees; and more rarely the loud strange cry of a black wood-pecker, with a fine scarlet crest on its head. A little, dusky-coloured wren (Scytalopus Magellanicus) hops in a skulking manner among the entangled mass of the fallen and decaying trunks. But the creeper (Oxyurus tupinieri) is the commonest bird in the country. Throughout the beech forests, high up and low down, in the most gloomy, wet, and impenetrable ravines, it may be met with. This little bird no doubt appears more numerous than it really is, from its habit of following with seeming curiosity any person who enters these silent woods: continually uttering a harsh twitter, it flutters from tree to tree, within a few feet of the intruders face. It is far from wishing for the modest concealment of the true creeper (Certhia familiaris); nor does it, like that bird, run up the trunks of trees, but industriously, after the manner of a willow-wren, hops about, and searches for insects on every twig and branch. In the more open parts, three or four species of finches, a thrush, a starling (or Icterus), two Opetiorhynchi, and several hawks and owls occur. The absence of any species whatever in the whole class of Reptiles, is a marked feature in the zoology of this country, as well as in that of the Falkland Islands. I do not ground this statement merely on my own observation, but I heard it from the Spanish inhabitants of the latter place, and from Jemmy Button with regard to Tierra del Fuego. On the banks of the Santa Cruz, in 50° south, I saw a frog; and it is not improbable that these animals, as well as lizards, may be found as far south as the Strait of Magellan, where the country retains the character of Patagonia; but within the damp and cold limit of Tierra del Fuego not one occurs. That the climate would not have suited some of the orders, such as lizards, might have been foreseen; but with respect to frogs, this was not so obvious. Beetles occur in very small numbers: it was long before I could believe that a country as large as Scotland, covered with vegetable productions and with a variety of stations, could be so unproductive. The few which I found were alpine species (Harpalidæ and Heteromidæ) living under stones. The vegetable-feeding Chrysomelidæ, so eminently characteristic of the Tropics, are here almost entirely absent;5 I saw very few flies, butterflies, or bees, and no crickets or Orthoptera. In the pools of water I found but a few aquatic beetles, and not any fresh-water shells: Succinea at first appears an exception; but here it must be called a terrestrial shell, for it lives on the damp herbage far from the water. Land-shells could be procured only in the same alpine situations with the beetles. I have already contrasted the climate as well as the general appearance of Tierra del Fuego with that of Patagonia; and the difference is strongly exemplified in the entomology. I do not believe they have one species in common; certainly the general character of the insects is widely different. If we turn from the land to the sea, we shall find the latter as abundantly stocked with living creatures as the former is poorly so. In all parts of the world a rocky and partially protected shore perhaps supports, in a given space, a greater number of individual animals than any other station. There is one marine production which, from its importance, is worthy of a particular history. It is the kelp, or Macrocystis pyrifera. This plant grows on every rock from low-water mark to a great depth, both on the outer coast and within the channels.6 I believe, during the voyages of the Adventure and Beagle, not one rock near the surface was discovered which was not buoyed by this floating weed. The good service it thus affords to vessels navigating near this stormy land is evident; and it certainly has saved many a one from being wrecked. I know few things more surprising than to see this plant growing and flourishing amidst those great breakers of the western ocean, which no mass of rock, let it be ever so hard, can long resist. The stem is round, slimy, and smooth, and seldom has a diameter of so much as an inch. A few taken together are sufficiently strong to support the weight of the large loose stones, to which in the inland channels they grow attached; and yet some of these stones were so heavy that when drawn to the surface, they could scarcely be lifted into a boat by one person. Captain Cook, in his second voyage, says, that this plant at Kerguelen Land rises from a greater depth than twenty-four fathoms; and as it does not grow in a perpendicular direction, but makes a very acute angle with the bottom, and much of it afterwards spreads many fathoms on the surface of the sea, I am well warranted to say that some of it grows to the length of sixty fathoms and upwards. I do not suppose the stem of any other plant attains so great a length as three hundred and sixty feet, as stated by Captain Cook. Captain Fitz Roy, moreover, found it growing7 up from the greater depth of forty-five fathoms. The beds of this sea-weed, even when of not great breadth, make excellent natural floating breakwaters. It is quite curious to see, in an exposed harbour, how soon the waves from the open sea, as they travel through the straggling stems, sink in height, and pass into smooth water. The number of living creatures of all Orders, whose existence intimately depends on the kelp, is wonderful. A great volume might be written, describing the inhabitants of one of these beds of seaweed. Almost all the leaves, excepting those that float on the surface, are so thickly incrusted with corallines as to be of a white colour. We find exquisitely delicate structures, some inhabited by simple hydra-like polypi, others by more organized kinds, and beautiful compound Ascidiæ. On the leaves, also, various patelliform shells, Trochi, uncovered molluscs, and some bivalves are attached. Innumerable crustacea frequent every part of the plant. On shaking the great entangled roots, a pile of small fish, shells, cuttle-fish, crabs of all orders, sea-eggs, star-fish, beautiful Holuthuriæ, Planariæ, and crawling nereidous animals of a multitude of forms, all fall out together. Often as I recurred to a branch of the kelp, I never failed to discover animals of new and curious structures. In Chiloe, where the kelp does not thrive very well, the numerous shells, corallines, and crustacea are absent; but there yet remain a few of the Flustraceæ, and some compound Ascidiæ; the latter, however, are of different species from those in Tierra del Fuego: we see here the fucus possessing a wider range than the animals which use it as an abode. I can only compare these great aquatic forests of the southern hemisphere with the terrestrial ones in the intertropical regions. Yet if in any country a forest was destroyed, I do not believe nearly so many species of animals would perish as would here, from the destruction of the kelp. Amidst the leaves of this plant numerous species of fish live, which nowhere else could find food or shelter; with their destruction the many cormorants and other fishing birds, and otters, seals, and porpoises, would son perish also; and lastly, the Fuegian savage, the miserable lord of this miserable land, would redouble his cannibal feast, decrease in numbers, and perhaps cease to exist. June 8th.We weighed anchor early in the morning and left Port Famine. Captain Fitz Roy determined to leave the Strait of Magellan by the Magdalen Channel, which had not long been discovered. Our course lay due south, down that gloomy passage which I have before alluded to as appearing to lead to another and worse world. The wind was fair, but the atmosphere was very thick; so that we missed much curious scenery. The dark ragged clouds were rapidly driven over the mountains, from their summits nearly down to their bases. The glimpses which we caught through the dusky mass were highly interesting; jagged points, cones of snow, blue glaciers, strong outlines, marked on a lurid sky, were seen at different distances and heights. In the midst of such scenery we anchored at Cape Turn, close to Mount Sarmiento, which was then hidden in the clouds. At the base of the lofty and almost perpendicular sides of our little cove there was one deserted wigwam, and it alone reminded us that man sometimes wandered into these desolate regions. But it would be difficult to imagine a scene where he seemed to have fewer claims or less authority. The inanimate works of naturerock, ice, snow, wind, and water all warring with each other, yet combined against manhere reigned in absolute sovereignty. June 9th.In the morning, we were delighted by seeing the veil of mist gradually rise from Sarmiento, and display it to our view. This mountain, which is one of the highest in Tierra del Fuego, has an altitude of 6800 feet. Its base, for about an eighth of its total height, is clothed by dusky woods, and above this a field of snow extends to the summit. These vast piles of snow, which never melt, and seem destined to last as long as the worlds holds together, present a noble and even sublime spectacle. The outline of the mountain was admirably clear and defined. Owing to the abundance of light reflected from the white and glittering surface, no shadows were cast on any part; and those lines which intersected the sky could alone be distinguished: hence the mass stood out in the boldest relief. Several glaciers descended in a winding course from the upper great expanse of snow to the sea-coast: they may be likened to great frozen Niagaras; and perhaps these cataracts of blue ice are full as beautiful as the moving ones of water. By night we reached the western part of the channel; but the water was so deep that no anchorage could be found. We were in consequence obliged to stand off and on in this narrow arm of the sea, during a pitch-dark night of fourteen hours long. June 10th.In the morning we made the best of our way into the open Pacific. The western coast generally consists of low, rounded, quite barren hills of granite and greenstone. Sir J. Narborough called one part South Desolation, Because it is so desolate a land to behold: and well indeed might he say so. Outside the main islands, there are numberless scattered rock son which the long swell of the open ocean incessantly rages. We passed out between the East and West Furies; and a little farther northward there are so many breakers that the sea is called the Milky Way. One sight of such a coast is enough to make a landsman dream for a week about shipwrecks, peril, and death; and with this sight we bade farewell for ever to Tierra del Fuego. The following discussion on the climate of the southern parts of the continent with relation to its productions, on the snow-line, on the extraordinarily low descent of the glaciers, and on the zone of perpetual congelation in the antarctic islands, may be passed over by any one not interested in these curious subjects, or the final recapitulation alone may be read. I shall, however, here give only an abstract, and must refer for details to the Thirteenth Chapter and the Appendix of the former edition of this work. On the Climate and Productions of Tierra del Fuego and of the South-west Coast.The following table gives the mean temperature of Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands, and, for comparison, that of Dublin: Mean of Summer and Winter Tierra del Fuego 53° 38' S. 51 38 S. 53 21 N. Hence we see that the central part of Tierra del Fuego is colder in winter, and no less than 9.5° less hot in summer, than Dublin. According to von Buch, the mean temperature of July (not the hottest month in the year) at Saltenfiord in Norway, is as high as 57°.8°, and this place is actually 13° nearer the pole than Port Famine!8 Inhospitable as this climate appears to our feelings, evergreen trees flourish luxuriantly under it. Humming-birds may be seen sucking the flowers, and parrots feeding on the seeds of the Winters Bark, in lat. 55° S. I have already remarked to what a degree the sea swarms with living creatures; and the shells (such as the Patellæ, Fissurellæ, Chitons, and Barnacles), according to Mr. G. B. Sowerby, are of a much larger size and of a more vigorous growth, than the analogous species in the northern hemisphere. A large Voluta is abundant in southern Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands. At Bahia Blanca, in lat. 39° S., the most abundant shells were three species of Oliva (one of large size), one or two Volutas, and a Terebra. Now, these are amongst the best characterized tropical forms. It is doubtful whether even one small species of Oliva exists on the southern shores of Europe, and there are no species of the two other genera. If a geologist were to find in lat. 39° on the coast of Portugal a bed containing numerous shells belonging to three species of Oliva, to a Voluta and Terebra, he would probably assert that the climate at the period of their existence must have been tropical; but judging from South America, such as inference might be erroneous. The equable, humid, and windy climate of Tierra del Fuego extends, with only a small increase of heat, for many degrees along the west coast of the continent. The forests for 600 miles northward of Cape Horn, have a very similar aspect. As a proof of the equable climate, even for 300 or 400 miles still further northward, I may mention that in Chiloe (corresponding in latitude with the northern part of Spain) the peach seldom produces fruit, whilst strawberries and apples thrive to perfection. Even the crops of barley and wheat9 are often brought into the houses to be dried and ripened. At Valdivia (in the same latitude of 40°, with Madrid) grapes and figs ripen, but are not common; olives seldom ripen even partially, and oranges not at all. These fruits, in corresponding latitude in Europe, are well known to succeed to perfection; and even in this continent, at the Rio Negro, under nearly the same parallel with Valdivia, sweet potatoes (convolvulus) are cultivated; and grapes, figs, olives, oranges, water and musk melons, produce abundant fruit. Although the humid and equable climate of Chiloe, and of the coast northward and southward of it, is so unfavourable to our fruits, yet the native forest, from lat. 45° to 38°, almost rival in luxuriance those of the glowing intertropical regions. Stately trees of many kinds, with smooth and highly coloured barks, are loaded by parasitical monocotyledonous plants; large and elegant ferns are numerous, and arborescent grasses entwine the trees into one entangled mass to the height of thirty or forty feet above the ground. Palm-trees grow in lat. 37°; an arborescent grass, very like a bamboo, in 40°; and another closely allied kind, of great length, but not erect, flourishes even as far south as 45° S. An equable climate, evidently due to the large area of sea compared with the land, seems to extend over the greater part of the southern hemisphere; and, as a consequence, the vegetation partakes of a semi-tropical character. Tree-ferns thrive luxuriantly in Van Diemens Land (lat. 45°), and I measured one trunk no less than six feet in circumference. An arborescent fern was found by Forster in New Zealand in 46°, where orchideous plants are parasitical on the trees. In the Auckland Islands, ferns, according to Dr. Dieffenbach10 have trunks so thick and high that they may be almost called tree-ferns; and in these islands, and even as far south as lat. 55° in the Macquarrie Islands, parrots abound. On the Height of the Snow-line, and on the Descent of the Glaciers in South America.For the detailed authorities for the following table, I must refer to the former edition: Height in feet at Snow-line Equatorial region; mean result Bolivia, lat. 16° to 18° S. Central Chile, lat. 33° S 14,500 to 15,000 Gillies, and the Author. Chiloe, lat. 41° to 43° S. Officers of the Beagle, and the Author. Tierra del Fuego, 54° 3,500 to 4,000 As the height of the plane of perpetual snow seems chiefly to be determined by the extreme heat of the summer, rather than by the mean temperature of the year, we ought not to be surprised at its descent in the Strait of Magellan, where the summer is so cool, to only 3500 or 4000 feet above the level of the sea; although in Norway, we must travel to between lat. 67° and 70° N., that is, about 14° nearer the pole, to meet with perpetual snow at this low level. The difference in height, namely, about 9000 feet, between the snowline on the Cordillera behind Chiloe (with its highest points ranging from only 5600 to 7500 feet) and in Central Chile11 ( a distance of only 9° of latitude), is truly wonderful. The land from the southward of Chiloe to near Concepcion (lat. 37°) is hidden by one dense forest dripping with moisture. The sky is cloudy, and we have seen how badly the fruits of southern Europe succeed. In central Chile, on the other hand, a little northward of Concepcion, the sky is generally clear, rain does not fall for the seven summer months, and southern European fruits succeed admirably; and even the sugarcane has been cultivated.12 No doubt the plane of perpetual snow undergoes the above remarkable flexure of 9000 feet, unparalleled in other parts of the world, not far from the latitude of Concepcion, where the land ceases to be covered with forest-trees; for trees in South America indicate a rainy climate, and rain a clouded sky and little heat in summer. The descent of glaciers to the sea must, I conceive, mainly depend (subject, of course, to a proper supply of snow in the upper region) on the lowness of the line of perpetual snow on steep mountains near the coast. As the snow-line is so low in Tierra del Fuego, we might have expected that many of the glaciers would have reached the sea. Nevertheless, I was astonished when I first saw a range, only from 3000 to 4000 feet in height, in the latitude of Cumberland, with every valley filled with streams of ice descending to the sea-coast. Almost every arm of the sea, which penetrates to the interior higher chain, not only in Tierra del Fuego, but on the coast for 650 miles northwards, is terminated by tremendous and astonishing glaciers, as described by one of the officers on the survey. Great masses of ice frequently fall from these icy cliffs, and the crash reverberates like the broadside of a man-of-war through the lonely channels. These falls, as noticed in the last chapter, produce great waves which break on the adjoining coasts. It is known that earthquakes frequently cause masses of earth to fall from sea-cliffs: how terrific, then, would be the effect of a severe shock (and such occur here13) on a body like a glacier, already in motion, and traversed by fissures! I can readily believe that the water would be fairly beaten back out of the deepest channel, and then, returning with an overwhelming force, would whirl about huge masses of rock like so much chaff. In Eyres Sound, in the latitude of Paris, there are immense glaciers, and yet the loftiest neighbouring mountain is only 6200 feet high. In this Sound, about fifty icebergs were seen at one time floating outwards, and one of them must have been at least 168 feet in total height. Some of the icebergs were loaded with blocks of no inconsiderable size, of granite and other rocks, different from the clay-slate of the surrounding mountains. The glacier furthest from the pole, surveyed during the voyages of the Adventure and Beagle, is in lat. 46° 50', in the Gulf of Penas. It is 15 miles long, and in one part 7 broad and descends to the sea-coast. But even a few miles northward of this glacier, in the Laguna de San Rafael, some Spanish missionaries14 encountered many icebergs, some great, some small, and others middle-sized, in a narrow arm of the sea, on the 22nd of the month corresponding with our June, and in a latitude corresponding with that of the Lake of Geneva! In Europe, the most southern glacier which comes down to the sea is met with, according to Von Buch, on the coast of Norway, in lat. 67°. Now, this is more than 20° of latitude, or 1230 miles, nearer the pole than the Laguna de San Rafael. The position of the glaciers at this place and in the Gulf of Penas may be put even in a more striking point of view, for they descend to the sea-coast within 7.5° of latitude, or 450 miles, of a harbour, where three species of Oliva, a Voluta, and a Terebra, are the commonest shells, within less than 9° from where palms grow, within 4.5° of a region where the jaguar and puma range over the plains, less than 2.5° from arborescent grasses, and (looking to the westward in the same hemisphere) less than 2° from orchideous parasites, and within a single degree of tree-ferns! These facts are of high geological interest with respect to the climate of the southern hemisphere at the period when boulders were transported. I will not here detail how simply the theory of icebergs being charged with fragments of rock, explain the origin and position of the gigantic boulders of eastern Tierra del Fuego, on the high plain of Santa Cruz, and on the island of Chiloe. In Tierra del Fuego, the greater number of boulders lie on the lines of old sea-channels, now converted into dry valleys by the elevation of the land. They are associated with a great unstratified formation of mud and sand, containing rounded and angular fragments of all sizes, which has originated15 in the repeated ploughing up of the sea bottom by the stranding of icebergs, and by the matter transported on them. Few geologists now doubt that those erratic boulders which lie near lofty mountains have been pushed forward by the glaciers themselves, and that those distant from mountains, and embedded in subaqueous deposits, have been conveyed thither either on icebergs or frozen in coast-ice. The connection between the transportal of boulders and the presence of ice in some form, is strikingly shown by their geographical distribution over the earth. In South America they are not found further than 48° of latitude, measured from the southern pole; in North America it appears that the limit of their transportal extends to 53.5° from the northern pole; but in Europe to not more than 40° of latitude, measured from the same point. On the other hand, in the intertropical parts of America, Asia, and Africa, they have never been observed; nor at the Cape of Good Hope, nor in Australia.16 On the Climate and Productions of the Antarctic Islands.Considering the rankness of the vegetation in Tierra del Fuego, and on the coast northward of it, the condition of the islands south and south-west of America is truly surprising. Sandwich Land, in the latitude of the north part of Scotland, was found by Cook, during the hottest month of the year, covered many fathoms thick with everlasting snow; and there seems to be scarcely any vegetation. Georgia, an island 96 miles long and 10 broad, in the latitude of Yorkshire, in the very height of summer, is in a manner wholly covered with frozen snow. It can boast only of moss, some tufts of grass, and wild burnet; it has only one land-bird (Anthus correndera), yet Iceland, which is 10° nearer the pole, has, according to Mackenzie, fifteen land-birds. The South Shetland Islands, in the same latitude as the southern half of Norway, possess only some lichens, moss, and a little grass; and Lieut. Kendall17 found the bay, in which he was at anchor, beginning to freeze at a period corresponding with our 8th of September. The soil here consists of ice and volcanic ashes interstratified; and at a little depth beneath the surface it must remain perpetually congealed, for Lieut. Kendall found the body of a foreign sailor which had long been buried, with the flesh and all the features perfectly preserved. It is a singular fact, that on the two great continents in the northern hemisphere (but not in the broken land of Europe between them), we have the zone of perpetually frozen undersoil in a low latitudenamely, in 56° in North America at the depth of three feet,18 and in 62° in Siberia at the depth of twelve to fifteen feetas the result of a directly opposite condition of things to those of the southern hemisphere. On the northern continents, the winter is rendered excessively cold by the radiation from a large area of land into a clear sky, nor is it moderated by the warmthbringing currents of the sea; the short summer, on the other hand, is hot. In the Southern Ocean the winter is not so excessively cold, but the summer is far less hot, for the clouded sky seldom allows the sun to warm the ocean, itself a bad absorbent of heat; and hence the mean temperature of the year, which regulates the zone of perpetually congealed under-soil, is low. It is evident that a rank vegetation, which does not so much require heat as it does protection from intense cold, would approach much nearer to this zone of perpetual congelation under the equable climate of the southern hemisphere, than under the extreme climate of the northern continents. The case of the sailors body perfectly preserved in the icy soil of the South Shetland Islands (lat. 62° to 63° S.), in a rather lower latitude than that (lat. 64° N.) under which Pallas found the frozen rhinoceros in Siberia, is very interesting. Although it is a fallacy, as I have endeavoured to show in a former chapter, to suppose that the larger quadrupeds require a luxuriant vegetation for their support, nevertheless it is important to find in the South Shetland Islands, a frozen under-soil within 360 miles of the forest-clad islands near Cape Horn, where, as far as the bulk of vegetation is concerned, any number of great quadrupeds might be supported. The perfect preservation of the carcasses of the Siberian elephants and rhinoceroses is certainly one of the most wonderful facts in geology; but independently of the imagined difficulty of supplying them with food from the adjoining countries, the whole case is not, I think, so perplexing as it has generally been considered. The plains of Siberia, like those of the Pampas, appear to have been formed under the sea, into which rivers brought down the bodies of many animals; of the greater number of these, only the skeletons have been preserved, but of others the perfect carcass. Now, it is known that in the shallow sea on the Arctic coast of America the bottom freezes,19 and does not thaw in spring so soon as the surface of the land; moreover at greater depths, where the bottom of the sea does not freeze, the mud a few feet beneath the top layer might remain even in summer below 32°, as in the case on the land with the soil at the depth of a few feet. At still greater depths, the temperature of the mud and water would probably not be low enough to preserve the flesh; and hence, carcasses drifted beyond the shallow parts near an Arctic coast, would have only their skeletons preserved: now in the extreme northern parts of Siberia bones are infinitely numerous, so that even islets are said to be almost composed of them;20 and those islets lie no less than ten degrees of latitude north of the place where Pallas found the frozen rhinoceros. On the other hand, a carcass washed by a flood into a shallow part of the Arctic Sea, would be preserved for an indefinite period, if it were soon afterwards covered with mud sufficiently thick to prevent the heat of the summer-water penetrating to it; and if, when the sea-bottom was upraised into land, the covering was sufficiently thick to prevent the heat of the summer air and sun thawing and corrupting it. Recapitulation.I will recapitulate the principal facts with regard to the climate, ice-action, and organic productions of the southern hemisphere, transposing the places in imagination to Europe, with which we are so much better acquainted. Then, near Lisbon, the commonest sea-shells, namely, three species of Oliva, a Voluta, and a Terebra, would have a tropical character. In the southern provinces of France, magnificent forests, intwined by arborescent grasses and with the trees loaded with parasitical plants, would hide the face of the land. The puma and the jaguar would haunt the Pyrenees. In the latitude of Mont Blanc, but on an island as far westward as Central North America, tree-ferns and parasitical Orchideæ would thrive amidst the thick woods. Even as far north as central Denmark, humming-birds would be seen fluttering about delicate flowers, and parrots feeding amidst the evergreen woods; and in the sea there, we should have a Voluta, and all the shells of large size and vigorous growth. Nevertheless, on some islands only 360 miles northward of our new Cape Horn in Denmark, a carcass buried in the soil (or if washed into a shallow sea, and covered up with mud) would be preserved perpetually frozen. If some bold navigator attempted to penetrate northward of these islands, he would run a thousand dangers amidst gigantic icebergs, on some of which he would see great blocks of rock borne far away from their original site. Another island of large size in the latitude of southern Scotland, but twice as far to the west, would be almost wholly covered with everlasting snow, and would have each bay terminated by ice-cliffs, whence great masses would be yearly detached: this island would boast only of a little moss, grass, and burnet, and a titlark would be its only land inhabitant. From our new Cape Horn in Denmark, a chain of mountains, scarcely half the height of the Alps, would run in a straight line due southward; and on its western flank every deep creek of the sea, or fiord, would end in bold and astonishing glaciers. These lonely channels would frequently reverberate with the falls of ice, and so often would great waves rush along their coasts; numerous icebergs, some as tall as cathedrals, and occasionally loaded with no inconsiderable blocks of rock, would be stranded on the outlying islets; at intervals violent earthquakes would shoot prodigious masses of ice into the waters below. Lastly, some missionaries attempting to penetrate a long arm of the sea, would behold the not lofty surrounding mountains, sending down their many grand icy streams to the sea-coast, and their progress in the boats would be checked by the innumerable floating icebergs, some small and some great; and this would have occurred on our twenty-second of June, and where the Lake of Geneva is now spread out!21 Note 1. The south-westerly breezes are generally very dry. January 29th, being at anchor under Cape Gregory: a very hard gale from W. by S., clear sky with few cumuli; temperature 57°, dew-point 36°,difference 21°. On January 15th, at Port St. Julian: in the morning, light winds with much rain, followed by a very heavy squall with rain,settled into heavy gale with large cumuli,cleared up, blowing very strong from S.S.W. Temperature 60°, dew-point 42°,difference 18°. [back] Note 2. Rengger, Natur. der Saugethiere von Paraguay. S. 334. [back] Note 3. Captain Fitz Roy informs me that in April (our October), the leaves of those trees which grow near the base of the mountains change colour, but not those on the more elevated parts. I remember having read some observations, showing that in England the leaves fall earlier in a warm and fine autumn than in a late and cold one. The change in the colour being here retarded in the more elevated, and therefore colder situations, must be owing to the same general law of vegetation. The trees of Tierra del Fuego during no part of the year entirely shed t heir leaves. [back] Note 4. Described from my specimens and notes by the Rev. J. M. Berkeley, in the Linnean Transactions (vol. xix. p. 37), under the name of Cyttaria Darwinii the Chilian species is the C. Berteroii. This genus is allied to Bulgaria. [back] Note 5. I believe I must except one alpine Haltica, and a single specimen of a Melasoma. Mr. Waterhouse informs me, that of the Harpalidæ there are eight or nine speciesthe forms of the greater number being very peculiar; of Heteromera, four or five species; of Rhyncophora, six or seven; and of the following families one species in each: Staphylinidæ, Elateridæ, Cebrionidæ, Melolonthidæ. The species in the other orders are even fewer. In all the orders, the scarcity of the individuals is even more remarkable than that of the species. Most of the Coleoptera have been carefully described by Mr. Waterhouse in the Annals of Nat. Hist. [back] Note 6. Its geographical range is remarkably wide; it is found from the extreme southern islets near Cape Horn, as far north on the eastern coast (according to information given me by Mr. Stokes) as lat. 43°,but on the western coast, as Dr. Hooker tells me, it extends to the R. San Francisco in California, and perhaps even to Kamtschatka. We thus have an immense range in latitude; and as Cook, who must have been well acquainted with the species, found it at Kerguelen Land, no less than 140° in longitude. [back] Note 7. Voyages of the Adventure and Beagle, vol. i. p. 363.It appears that sea-weed grows extremely quick.Mr. Stephenson found (Wilsons Voyage round Scotland, vol. ii. p. 228) that a rock uncovered only at spring-tides, which had been chiselled smooth in November, on the following May, that is, within six months afterwards, was thickly covered with Fucus digitatus two feet, and F. esculentus six feet, in length. [back] Note 8. With respect to Tierra del Fuego, the results are deduced from the observations by Capt. King (Geographical Journal, 1830), and those taken on board the Beagle. For the Falkland Islands, I am indebted to Capt. Sulivan for the mean of the mean temperature (deduced from careful observation three times: midnight, 8 A.M., noon, and 8 P.M.) of the three hottest months, viz., December, January, and February. The temperature of Dublin is taken from Barton. [back] Note 9. Agüeros, Descrip. Hist. de la Prov. de Chiloé, 1791, p. 94. [back] Note 10. See the German Translation of this Journal; and for the other facts, Mr. Browns Appendix to Flinderss Voyage. [back] Note 11. On the Cordillera of central Chile, I believe the snow-line varies exceedingly in height in different summers. I was assured that during one very dry and long summer, all the snow disappeared from Aconcagua, although it attains the prodigious height of 23,000 feet. It is probable that much of the snow at these great heights is evaporated rather than thawed. [back] Note 12. Mierss Chile, vol. i p. 415. It is said that the sugar-cane grew at Ingenio, lat. 32° to 33°, but not in sufficient quantity to make the manufacture profitable. In the valley of Quillota, south of Ingenio, I saw some large date palm-trees. [back] Note 13. Bulkeleys and Cummins Faithful Narrative of the Loss of the Wager. The earthquake happened August 25, 1741. [back] Note 16. I have given details (the first, I believe, published) on this subject in the first edition, and in the Appendix to it. I have there shown that the apparent exceptions to the absence of erratic boulders in certain hot countries, are due to erroneous observations; several statements there given I have since found confirmed by various authors. [back] Note 18. Richardsons Append. to Backs Exped., and Humboldts Fragm. Asiat., tom. ii. p. 386. [back] Note 19. Messrs. Dease and Simpson, in Geograph. Journ., vol. viii. pp. 218 and 220. [back] Note 20. Cuvier (Ossemens Fossiles, tom. i. p. 151), from Billings Voyage. [back] Note 21. In the former edition and Appendix, I have given some facts on the transportal of erratic boulders and icebergs in the Antarctic Ocean. This subject has lately been treated excellently by Mr. Hayes, in the Boston Journal (vol. iv. p. 426). The author does not appear aware of a case published by me (Geographical Journal, vol. ix. p. 528) of a gigantic boulder embedded in an iceberg in the Antarctic Ocean, almost certainly one hundred miles distant from any land, and perhaps much more distant. In the Appendix I have discussed at length the probability (at that time hardly thought of) of icebergs, when stranded, grooving and polishing rocks, like glaciers. This is now a very commonly received opinion; and I cannot still avoid the suspicion that it is applicable even to such cases as that of the Jura. Dr. Richardson has assured me that the icebergs off North America push before them pebbles and sand, and leave the submarine rocky flats quite bare; it is hardly possible to doubt that such ledges must be polished and scored in the direction of the set of the prevailing currents. Since writing that Appendix, I have seen in North Wales (London Phil. Mag., vol. xxi. p. 180) the adjoining action of glaciers and floating icebergs. [back]

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Like this page? Send it to a friend! Replica of Eleanor's Cross Where Is The Centre Of London? Ever wondered where the distance to and from London is measured? Find out here… Whether it is the distance from Brighton, Manchester or Glasgow, the actual point for measuring the distance to and from London is located at Charing Cross, Westminster. Why Charing Cross? Even though it is quite central it is not because of its geographical location, the real reason goes back over 700 years to the reign of Edward I. Eleanor's Cross outside Charing Cross In the year 1290 King Edward was in Scotland on an important trip awaiting the arrival of his wife, Queen Eleanor. On her journey to meet him she was taken ill with a fever and died shortly after at a manor house near Lincoln. The Queen's body was to be taken from Lincoln to Westminster Abbey for a state burial. The grief stricken King decided that twelve memorial crosses would be installed at each stopping point of her funeral procession. The twelve sites for memorial crosses were: The original cross was south of Trafalgar Square where the statue of King Charles I now stands. A plaque can be found on the floor behind the statue stating that mileage distances on road signage are still measured from this point. Only three of the original crosses remain at Geddington, Hardingstone and Waltham. The cross outside Charing Cross Station is a replica made in 1863 of the original that stood at the original site a few hundred metres away. Historians believe the original was not as ornate as the one seen today. The original memorials were large stone structures towering many feet high with carvings of the queen on each of the sides. Distances from London; The site of the original cross last updated: 31/07/2008 at 13:46

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All Blue Whales in the Northern Hemisphere produce sounds with generally similar features. Common sound types include: long, constant frequency (CF) moans; long, frequency-modulated (FM) moans; and long, amplitude-modulated purrs. All such sounds typically have durations of 5-25 seconds with fundamentals below 25 Hz, and harmonics are sometimes emphasized. Various combinations of these basic sound types occur in deliberate, patterned sequences lasting many tens of minutes, and these sequences are repeated in bouts lasting up to many days. In the Atlantic Ocean, Blue Whales make moans at a frequency range of 10 to 39 Hz, with dominant frequencies of 16 to 28 Hz. The illustration below, Figure 1, is a sound spectrogram of a 6.7-minute recording of a Blue Whale, made by Navy ocean-bottom surveillance microphones in the western North Atlantic. To hear the recording, click on the spectrogram below. The sound you will hear is speeded up twenty times faster than normal speed, which also raises the pitch of the whale sounds by a factor of twenty. If this recording were played at normal speed, you would not be able to hear anything, because the frequencies at which they call are below the range humans can perceive. Blue Whales in the Pacific Ocean produce trills ("A" calls) and moans ("B" calls) in the frequency range of 10 to 39 Hz, with dominant frequencies of 16 to 28 Hz. The sound spectrogram below, Figure 2, is of a Pacific Blue Whale recorded off the coast of California by underwater microphones towed by a Navy surveillance vessel. It shows a pattern of "A, "B", "B", "B" calls. Because of the loudness of the calls in this recording, the calls appear as harmonics at mutiples of the frequencies of the primary call. To hear the recording, click on the spectrogram. The sound of the whale is so low it is barely audible to humans; the sound you will hear has been speeded up ten times, which raises the pitch three and a half octaves, to make it more clearly audible. The sound consists of four parts: first, a trill, or series of click-like sounds, followed by three repetitions of a moan like a foghorn.

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http://www.birds.cornell.edu/brp/listen-to-project-sounds/blue-whale

2013-06-18T23:04:46Z

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Body Mass Index or BMI is a tool for indicating weight status in adults over 20. It is a measure of weight for height. BMI correlates with body fat. The relation between fatness and BMI differs with age and gender. For example, women are more likely to have a higher percent of body fat than men for the same BMI. On average, older people may have more body fat than younger adults with the same BMI. The BMI ranges are based on the effect body weight has on disease and death. As BMI increases, the risk for some disease increases. Some common conditions related to overweight and obesity include: - Premature death - Cardiovascular disease - High blood pressure - Some cancers BMI is only one of many factors used to predict risk for disease. BMI cannot be used to tell if a person has a disease such as diabetes or cancer. It is important to remember that weight is only one factor that is related to chronic disease. Other factors that may be important to look at when assessing your risk for chronic disease include: - Physical activity - Waist circumference - Blood pressure - Blood sugar level - Cholesterol level - Family history of disease All persons who are obese or overweight should try not to gain additional weight. In addition, those who are obese or who are overweight with other risk factors should consider losing weight. A complete health assessment by a physician is the best way to decide the right steps for you. Whatever your BMI, talk to your doctor to see if you are at an increased risk for disease and if you should lose weight. Even a small weight loss (just 10 percent of your current weight) may help to lower your risk of disease. Physical activity and good nutrition are key factors in leading a healthy lifestyle and reducing risk for disease. enter your height in inches enter your weight in pounds

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http://www.bjc.org/behavioralhealth_wellness.aspx?id=2228

2013-06-18T23:19:25Z

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Arya SamajArticle Free Pass Arya Samaj, ( Sanskrit: “Society of Nobles”) vigorous reform sect of modern Hinduism, founded in 1875 by Dayananda Sarasvati, whose aim was to reestablish the Vedas, the earliest Hindu scriptures, as revealed truth. He rejected all later accretions to the Vedas as degenerate but, in his own interpretation, included much post-Vedic thought, such as the doctrines of karman (effect of past deeds) and of rebirth. The Arya Samaj has always had its largest following in western and northern India. It is organized in local samajas (“societies”) that send representatives to provincial samajas and to an all-India samaja. Each local samaja elects its own officers in a democratic manner. The Arya Samaj opposes idolatry, animal sacrifice, ancestor worship, a caste system based on birth rather than on merit, untouchability, child marriage, pilgrimages, priestly craft, and temple offerings. It upholds the infallibility of the Vedas, the doctrines of karman and rebirth, the sanctity of the cow, the importance of the individual sacraments (samskaras), the efficacy of Vedic oblations to the fire, and programs of social reform. It has worked to further female education and intercaste marriages, has built missions, orphanages, and homes for widows, and has undertaken famine relief and medical work. It also established a network of schools and colleges. From its beginning it was an important factor in the growth of nationalism. It has been criticized, however, as overly dogmatic and militant on occasion and as having exhibited an aggressive intolerance toward both Christianity and Islam. What made you want to look up "Arya Samaj"? Please share what surprised you most...

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http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/37454/Arya-Samaj

2013-06-18T23:13:22Z

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Roman road systemArticle Free Pass Roman road system, outstanding transportation network of the ancient Mediterranean world, extending from Britain to the Tigris-Euphrates river system and from the Danube River to Spain and northern Africa. In all, the Romans built 50,000 miles (80,000 km) of hard-surfaced highway, primarily for military reasons. The first of the great Roman roads, the Via Appia (Appian Way), begun by the censor Appius Claudius Caecus in 312 bce, originally ran southeast from Rome 162 miles (261 km) to Tarentum (now Taranto) and was later extended to the Adriatic coast at Brundisium (now Brindisi). The long branch running through Calabria to the Straits of Messina was known as the Via Popilia. By the beginning of the 2nd century bce, four other great roads radiated from Rome: the Via Aurelia, extending northwest to Genua (Genoa); the Via Flaminia, running north to the Adriatic, where it joined the Via Aemilia, crossed the Rubicon, and led northwest; the Via Valeria, east across the peninsula by way of Lake Fucinus (Conca del Fucino); and the Via Latina, running southeast and joining the Via Appia near Capua. Their numerous feeder roads extending far into the Roman provinces led to the proverb “All roads lead to Rome.” The Roman roads were notable for their straightness, solid foundations, cambered surfaces facilitating drainage, and use of concrete made from pozzolana (volcanic ash) and lime. Though adapting their technique to materials locally available, the Roman engineers followed basically the same principles in building abroad as they had in Italy. In 145 bce they began the Via Egnatia, an extension of the Via Appia beyond the Adriatic into Greece and Asia Minor, where it joined the ancient Persian Royal Road. In northern Africa the Romans followed up their conquest of Carthage by building a road system that spanned the south shore of the Mediterranean. In Gaul they developed a system centred on Lyon, whence main roads extended to the Rhine, Bordeaux, and the English Channel. In Britain the purely strategic roads following the conquest were supplemented by a network radiating from London. In Spain, on the contrary, the topography of the country dictated a system of main roads around the periphery of the peninsula, with secondary roads developed into the central plateaus. The Roman road system made possible Roman conquest and administration and later provided highways for the great migrations into the empire and a means for the diffusion of Christianity. Despite deterioration from neglect, it continued to serve Europe throughout the Middle Ages, and many fragments of the system survive today. What made you want to look up "Roman road system"? Please share what surprised you most...

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http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/508316/Roman-road-system

2013-06-18T23:07:04Z

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zemsky soborArticle Free Pass zemsky sobor , (“assembly of the land”), in 16th- and 17th-century Russia, an advisory assembly convened by the tsar or the highest civil authority in power whenever necessary. It was generally composed of representatives from the ecclesiastical and monastic authorities, the boyar council, the landowning classes, and the urban freemen; elections for representatives and the sessions of each group were held separately. Zemskie sobory were first called by Ivan IV the Terrible, and the assemblies met often during his reign; the most important one (1566) considered the Livonian War against Poland. After a zemsky sobor confirmed the accession of Fyodor I in 1584, none was called until the assembly that elected Boris Godunov tsar in 1598. During the Time of Troubles (1598–1613), the assemblies were again convened frequently and were highly influential; the zemsky sobor that assembled in 1613 elected Michael Romanov tsar. Several others subsequently assisted with internal reforms, but after 1622 the zemsky sobor declined in importance; the last one was convened in 1653. In the 19th century the Slavophiles revived the concept of the zemsky sobor, considering it a reflection of the ideal union between the tsar and the Russian people; a proposal to reestablish the institution resulted in the dismissal of the minister who suggested it, N.P. Ignatiev. What made you want to look up "zemsky sobor"? Please share what surprised you most...

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/656405/zemsky-sobor

2013-06-18T23:26:46Z

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Research Paper Guidelines What is a Research Paper? A research paper is much like the papers that students often write as part of their coursework in disciplines such as Political Science, History, or International Relations. Students choose a topic, work with their adviser to refine the topic and develop an argument, and then compose a compelling analysis of the issue. In general, students should avoid a purely historical paper and aim for a topic which has clear relevance to the current day. Research papers should concentrate on analysis rather than policy prescriptions. The goal of the paper should be a rigorous examination of the causes and effects of important international events, trends, and/or policies. Examples of Research Issues The following are examples of topics of recent research papers done by some of our graduates. These examples should help students to understand the range of possible topics that can be investigated in a research paper. Students are, of course, in no way limited to the following examples – they are provided simply to help students in developing their own topics. - Effects of Trade Liberalization on the Pollution Intensity of the Manufacturing Sector in Latin America - A Comparative Study of the 1925 Iraqi Constitution and the 2004 Interim Iraqi Constitution - The Transformation of UN Peacekeeping in the Post-bipolar Era - An Analysis of Energy Policy in India from the 1970′s to the Present Day - Internet Control in China - Changing Internal Factors and Russian Foreign Policy - Human Rights and Religion Under the United Nations - Democratization in Africa - Changes in the U.S. – Japan Security Alliance from 1994 to the Present Format for the Research Paper For the most part, the structure of the research paper is up to students and their advisers. There are, however, a few firm format requirements, as follows. - The paper should be 60-65 pages in length. See the General Guidelines section for more information on page lengths. - Follow all of the general guidelines on formatting given on the General Guidelines page. Pay attention to the details of what information should appear on the title page. - Include an abstract prior to the body of your paper. Students should talk with their advisers about how to write an abstract. - Be certain to provide complete documentation of the sources of all facts and analysis. - Parts one through three of the original paper proposal must be attached as an appendix to the Four Bound Copies submitted to the department. Although not firm guidelines, the following recommendations will help in researching and writing the paper. - Start the paper with a review of existing analyses. This is often called a literature review in academic papers, but it is relevant to policy-oriented research papers and presentations as well. The purpose is to show the various ways in which other people have already approached the problem - Consider alternative hypotheses. Without considering counter-arguments, it is impossible to say that this synthesis is the best. Having the literature review at the beginning makes this easier, because the paper can regularly compare its interpretation against existing ones, whether implicitly or explicitly. Example of a Research Paper and a Proposal Proposals can be found at the end of the papers.

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http://www.bu.edu/ir/graduate/current/papers/research/

2013-06-18T23:33:46Z

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February is Black History month in Canada. This is a fairly new recognition despite the fact that people of African descent have been playing a role in Canadian history since the time of Samuel de Champlain. Alberta is a fairly young province and most of us are descendents of immigrants of either internal or external. Our people came from all over the world, but we are often unaware of the history of black people in our province. Most of us know about John Ware, a former slave, who became a legendary cowboy and rancher in Southern Alberta. But many of us do not know of the settlers who came and established towns such as Breton, Campsie, Wildwood and Amber Valley. Many came from Oklahoma, which became a state in 1907. The government there made it quite clear that black people would be segregated and treated differently from the white settlers who were rushing in to homestead. Many of the state’s black residents fled to Canada, about 1000 to Alberta and Saskatchewan. They did not have an easy time of it. Canadians were alarmed by the influx of these immigrants and tried various measures to keep them out. In 1911 an Order in Council was passed which deemed African Americans unsuitable for the climate in Canada and prohibited their immigration. When they did arrive, they faced the difficult reality of the land which they were homesteading. They were in heavy bush which had to be cleared by hand. The land was not exactly productive and many men had to work in Edmonton to support their families. In spite of this they stayed and Amber Valley, alone among the other primarily black settlements, survived into the middle of the 20th century. The history of the immigration of African Americans into the Prairie Provinces is a story of determination and courage. You can find out more about it in the Community Heritage and Family History collection at the Central Library. We have The Window of our Memories volumes 1 and 2 , by Velma Carter, which is the story of Black pioneers in Alberta and includes the stories of those pioneers and their descendants. Another very interesting book in our Local History collection is Deemed Unsuitable by R. Bruce Shepard which looks at the problem of racism on both sides of the border and how it affected the immigration of African-Americans into the Canadian Prairies For an interesting twist on the John Ware story, we have a graphic novel by a local author, The Duchess Ranch of Old John Ware by James Davidge and Bob Prodor. (You can find other works by searching the library catalogue using the subject terms “Black Canadians History”). We have also included a list of related works in our History and Current Events NextReads newsletter for February. You can sign up for these newsletters here. These works tell us a lot about the immigration of black people into Canada, but they also have a lot to tell us about ourselves and how Canada came to be. It is not always easy to read, but it is crucial to our understanding of our history and our future. You can find out about related programs on the Calgary Public Library website. Information about the nation-wide celebration can be found on the Government of Canada Citizenship and Immigration website. The theme for this year’s celebration is Black Canadians in Law Enforcement and Black soldiers in the War of 1812 You can also find interesting facts and stories at the Historica site.

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http://www.calgarypubliclibrary.com/blogs/community-heritage-and-family-history?m=201302&p=3177

2013-06-18T23:25:26Z

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A recent report from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found that cases of measles, a virus that can cause serious side effects and sometimes death, has made a sharp climb in the United States. In most years, about 60 cases are reported nationwide; however, in 2011, the country saw 222 cases, and health officials worry the trend will continue. It has often been true that the vast majority of cases of measles in the United States are brought into the country by travelers from places where the vaccination rate is not as large as here. The same holds true for almost all disease for which Americans routinely get vaccinated, such as chickenpox and whooping cough. What's different is that the countries of origin are not the usual suspects of Third World poverty. People from Western Europe are bringing the measles virus into the country with them and finding a larger share of the American population without the immunizations needed to ward off the disease. Such developments are troubling. Some in the population still believe there are connections between immunizations and conditions such as autism, even though those who touted such links have been rebuked and refuted. Others greatly overestimate the true incidence of side effects. There was a time in which there was no vaccine for the disease, and hundreds of otherwise healthy children died every year. Those times should be long past. If you have a child, make sure he or she is current on vaccinations. The progress of health should not be thwarted by baseless fears.

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http://www.canoncitydailyrecord.com/opinion/editorial/ci_20524983/rise-u-s-measles-cases-worrisome

2013-06-18T23:11:27Z

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Public Information Office Advice on Rattlesnake Safety, Snake Bite First-Aid By ALEXIA RETALLACK California Department of Fish & Game Information Officer The warmer weather calls to outdoors enthusiasts and snakes alike, making encounters of the slithering kind inevitable. California has a variety of snakes, most of which are benign. The exception is California's only native venomous snake - the rattlesnake. Rattlesnakes can cause serious injury to humans -- on rare occasions even death, as was evidenced in May when a rattlesnake bite killed a Riverside County man. Generally not aggressive, rattlesnakes strike when threatened or deliberately provoked, but given room they will retreat. Most snake bites occur when a rattlesnake is handled or accidentally touched by someone walking or climbing. Approximately 8,000 people annually are treated for poisonous snake bites in the United States. However, the California Poison Control Center notes that rattlesnakes only account for about 800 of those bites each year with about one to two deaths. California rattlesnake species include the northern Pacific rattlesnake in northern California, and in Southern California the Western Diamondback, Sidewinder, Speckled rattlesnake, Red Diamond rattlesnake, Southern Pacific, Great Basin rattlesnake and the Mojave rattlesnake. The potential of running into a rattlesnake should not deter anyone from venturing outdoors, but there are several precautions that can be taken to lessen the chance of being bitten when out in snake country - which is just about anywhere in California. Rattlesnakes live from sea level to the inland prairies and desert areas to the mountains at elevations of more than 10,000 feet. The Dos And Don'ts In Snake Country When hiking, stick to well-used trails and wear over-the-ankle boots and loose-fitting long pants. Do not step or put your hands where you cannot see, and avoid wandering around in the dark. Step ON logs and rocks, never over them, and be especially careful when climbing rocks or gathering firewood. Always avoid walking through dense brush or willow thickets. Be careful when stepping over the doorstep as well. Snakes like to crawl along the edge of buildings where they are protected on one side. Is It a Rattlesnake or Isn't It? Many a useful and non-threatening snake has suffered a quick death from a frantic human who has mistakenly identified a gopher snake, racer or other as a rattlesnake. This usually happens when a snake assumes an instinctual defensive position used to bluff adversaries. A gopher snake has the added unfortunate trait of imitating a rattlesnake by flattening its head and body, vibrating its tail, hissing and actually striking if approached too closely. Keeping Snakes Out of the Yard The best protection against rattlesnakes in the yard is a "rattlesnake proof" fence. It can be expensive and require maintenance, however. The fence should either be solid or with mesh no larger than 1/4 inch. It should be at least three feet high with the bottom buried a few inches in the ground. Slanting your snake fence outward about a 30-degree angle will help. Vegetation should be kept away from the fence since the snake could crawl to the top of an adjacent tree or shrub. Discourage snakes by removing piles of boards or rocks around the home. Use caution when removing those piles - there may already be a snake there. Encouraging and protecting natural competitors like gopher snakes, king snakes and racers will reduce the rattlesnake population in the immediate area. And, king snakes actually kill and eat rattlesnakes. What to Do in the Event of a Snake Bite Because most Californians live in rattlesnake country, a snakebite emergency plan should be developed before it is needed. If you are less than one hour from the nearest emergency room, initial treatment is relatively simple: - Try to calm the victim. - Gently wash the area with soap and water. - Apply a cold, wet cloth over the bite. - Call 9-1-1. What Should NOT be Done After a Rattlesnake Bite? - DON'T apply a tourniquet. - DON'T pack the bite area in ice. - DON'T cut the wound with a knife or razor. - DON'T use your mouth to suck out the venom. - DON'T let the victim drink alcohol. - DON'T apply electric shock. The preceding treatments will NOT help the victim and are dangerous. Applying ice or a tourniquet can block circulation, which can result in gangrene and eventual loss of the limb due to amputation. Cutting the wound can cause excessive bleeding. Because human mouths are full of bacteria, sucking the venom from the wound can cause infection, making treatment more difficult. What Can be Done to Prevent a Bite? Hands, feet, and ankles are the most common sites for rattlesnake bites. Using some common sense rules can prevent most snake bites. - Never go barefooted or wear sandals when walking in the rough. Always wear hiking boots. - Always stay on paths. Avoid tall grass, weeds and heavy underbrush where there may be snakes. - Use a walking stick when hiking. If you come across a snake, it can strike the stick instead of you. - Always look for concealed snakes before picking up rocks, sticks or firewood. - Always check carefully around stumps or logs before sitting. - When climbing, always look before putting your hands in a new location. Snakes can climb walls, trees and rocks and are frequently found at high altitudes. - Never grab "sticks" or "branches" while swimming. Rattlesnakes are excellent swimmers. - Baby rattlesnakes are poisonous! They can and do bite. Leave them alone. - Never hike alone. Always have a buddy to help in case of an emergency. Learn basic life-saving methods. - Don't handle fresh killed snakes. You may still be bitten. - Never tease a snake to see how far it can strike. You can be several feet from the snake and still be within striking distance. - Don't keep rattlesnakes as pets. The majority of rattlesnake bites occur when people (usually intoxicated young men in their 20s) tease or play with their "pet" rattlesnake. - Teach children to respect snakes and to leave snakes alone. Curious children who pick up snakes are frequently bitten. - Always give snakes the right of way! And, remember, the only good snake is one that is alive and well. Snakes, even rattlesnakes, provide humans with a tremendous service -- they eat rodents, other reptiles, and insects, and are in turn eaten by other predators. Additional information can be found at: http://www.alongtheway.org/rattlesnakes/faq.html

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2013-06-18T23:06:12Z

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Assessment accommodations are changes in testing materials or procedures that enable students to participate in assessments in a way that assesses abilities rather than disabilities. Without accommodations, the assessment may not accurately measure the student's knowledge and skills. Assessment accommodations are generally grouped into the following categories: Some test changes affect item or test validity. These test changes are often called modifications, or non-standard accommodations. Several federal laws address the provision of accommodations for students with disabilities. Under the 2004 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), states must have accommodation guidelines for assessments and report the number of students using accommodations during state and district assessments. All 50 states now have written guidelines to indicate which assessment accommodations are allowed. Some states' policies also address instructional accommodations. States develop these guidelines to ensure that test scores appropriately reflect what students know and are able to do. Research on accommodations is growing rapidly. The research includes policy studies, evaluation studies, and experimental comparisons.

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http://www.cehd.umn.edu/NCEO/TopicAreas/Accommodations/Accomtopic.htm

2013-06-18T23:19:12Z

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PART 2: A Short History of Sex Studies There have been many surveys and studies on sex – but only in recent times. Sex was always a taboo subject, so it took a brave few to start educating society about sex and how it not only is part of our make up as human beings, but keeps us healthy and fit. Perhaps the first scientific survey of human sexuality was conducted by Stanford University’s Dr. Clelia Duel, a physician, hygienist and women's health advocate, who between 1892 and 1920, interviewed women about their sexuality. This was an era when talking about sex, let alone studying it, was practically taboo. One of Duel’s studies involved menstruation, gathering data from 2,000 women over 12,000 menstrual cycles. A cultural backlash and bashfulness about sex helps explain why Duel’s data was never published while she was alive. She died in 1940. But her records were later discovered in Stanford’s archives in 1973. Her notes described many intimate thoughts from women, mostly born before 1870, along with sexual habits and appetites, spousal relationships, and contraception. It appeared that Victorian women weren’t all that prudish. Her findings were finally published in 1980. Another female healthcare professional from England, Dr. Marie Carmichael Stopes, published a best-selling book on human sexuality called “Married Love, or Love in Marriage” in 1918. It provided much-needed information about sexuality and human sexual response for a population that knew little or nothing about it. Stopes was one of the earliest writers to emphasize that women should experience sexual desire, that the sexual response of women is different than men, and that sexual intercourse should be a source of mutual pleasure for both sexes. Beginning in the late 1930s in the United States, Dr. Alfred Kinsey and his research team at the University of Indiana performed their groundbreaking work on human sexuality. Until this time, little was known about what men or women actually did sexually. Kinsey’s team conducted thousands of interviews in the 1930’s and through the1940’s, objectively examining the least studied of all human biological functions—sex. The result was the first large-scale systematic body of research of human sexual behavior, and the findings were released in 1947. The first report was limited to men, but in 1953 a separate study highlighted sexual activity in women. Both studies were later turned into national bestsellers, causing public shock and widespread moral outrage. Yet an important outcome of Kinsey’s research was that it replaced ignorance about sex with facts. Kinsey’s work helped usher in the sexual revolution of the 1960s, and the new professional field of sex therapy. Kinsey was far from being alone in placing sex under the microscope. Beginning in 1957, William Masters and Virginia Johnson pioneered research into the nature of human sexual response and the diagnosis and treatment of sexual disorders. Their work began in the Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology at Washington University in St. Louis, and eventually they started a not-for-profit research institution, which was eventually named the Masters and Johnson Institute. Through direct observations in the laboratory, Masters and Johnson evaluated thousands of sexual responses in men and women. Among their many findings were that women were capable of being multi-orgasmic, dispelling the longstanding misconception that they were not. Their books, “Human Sexual Response” in 1966, and “Human Sexual Inadequacy” in 1979, both became national best sellers. In 2010, Indiana University’s School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, published a mammoth-size study on human sexual behavior. Its National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior gathered data from the sexual experiences of 5,865 adolescents and adults ages 14 to 94. It provided an updated and much-needed snapshot of contemporary Americans’ sexual behaviors, including a description of more than 40 combinations of sex acts that people perform during sexual events. These studies are not done just because men and women, and adolescents, are interested and curious about personal comparisons—knowing who does what sexually and how often. But rather, the many studies performed since Duel and Kinsey’s research serve a more important purpose. They have relevance for the development of sex education for all ages, reproductive health, and potential treatments for sexual disorders. Because research shows that partners who are healthy and fit have more sexual pleasures and with less complications, and are sexually active well into their later years of life, these reports may also help individuals with their own personal sex strategies. For couples in their 60’s, 70’s, and even beyond; sex can and should be a part of their lives. In the next article on Healthy Sex, I’ll discuss many of its physiological and psychological benefits. Dr. Phil Maffetone is a world-renowned fitness expert who has not only coached some of the greatest endurance athletes to ever have competed, but also helped turn Davide's life around. Circuit25 uses a number of Dr. Phil's coaching philosophies and eating plans in its methods to help people live fit and healthier lives.

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http://www.circuit25.com/la/page/articles-1/healthy-sex-2-2

2013-06-18T23:11:35Z

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en

Minnesota is named the "Land of a Thousand Lakes,'' and is perhaps the state with the most water within its borders. Part of Minnesota has the Mississippi River running through it, as well as the St. Croix River. The St. Croix River is in fact a tributary of the Mississippi River. The river runs 164 miles from Wisconsin to Minnesota, with 123 miles on the state line. It is one of the National Scenic River's that has the protection of the National Park Service. Minnesotans believe in conservation, but also use the water for a hydroelectric plant which supplies Minneapolis- Saint Paul with power. St. Croix River begins in Wisconsin moving out of Wisconsin's Upper St. Croix Lake in Douglas County. It is located near Solon Springs and is 20 miles from Lake Superior. The river flows south to Gordon before moving in a southwest direction. It is joined by Namekagon River allowing St. Croix River to widen in this area for several miles before meeting the boundary between the states. For another 130 miles it continues through Minnesota before it meets and becomes part of the Mississippi River. It is just one of the many tributaries that move about in Minnesota. Other tributaries are Kettle, Snake, Sunrise, Apple, Willow, and Kinnickinnic Rivers. In Stillwater, Minnesota the river will widen until it becomes Lake St. Croix. This is again before the tributary makes it into the Mississippi River at Prescott. This is 20 miles south east of St. Paul. There are only eight rivers that were placed under protection in 1964 by the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act. St. Croix River was one of the original to be added to this list. The upper river to the St. Croix Flowage, and downstream 15 miles from the source are protected under the act. The Namekagon River is also part of the St. Croix National Scenic River-way. Another section of the river protected is the Lower St. Croix section with the Dalles of the St. Croix, Interstate Park, and South of St. Croix Falls, Wisconsin. The river is historically significant, as well as a resource for Saint Paul. It was used by the American Indian tribes for trading and growing wild rice. They used to fish and catch game along the banks. The most notable tribes to use the River were the Ojibwe and Dakota. Fur trading became another important feature of the river. The first Europeans in the area were the Sieur du Lhut and his men. Fur traders spent 80 years hunting beaver pelts and other trappings. St. Croix River was part of a treaty signed in 1837 by the US and the Ojibwe tribe. In the treaty the government was able to use land in Wisconsin to log and send the logs down through the river to reach the mill. For visitors to Saint Paul a trip along the St. Croix River section in the city can be a scenic and historical driver to take. Read about other St. Paul tourist attractions: Review, comment, or add new information about this topic: Discuss this city on our hugely popular Minnesota forum |Business Search - 14 Million verified businesses|

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http://www.city-data.com/articles/St-Croix-River-Saint-Paul-MN.html

2013-06-18T23:27:25Z

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en

Aquatic ecosystems threatened by the size of non-native fish 14 April 2010 Fish that were introduced into streams and rivers over the past 150 years have altered the average size of fish in many areas of the world. A study published in Ecology Letters shows that the species of introduced fish are larger than those found naturally in the water courses, which poses a heightened risk of modifying aquatic ecosystems. Researchers from CNRS, University of Toulouse, IRD and the National Museum of Natural History in France, the University of Anvers in Belgium and the University of Utrecht in the Netherlands, cross-referenced data on fish in 1,050 rivers all over the world and found that non-native fish were on average 12 cm larger than native species. This raised the average size of fish in a river by about 2 cm across the board, contravening Bergmann’s empirical rule that, among living creatures, individuals in cooler environments tend to be larger. Moreover, the introduction of non-native species whose ecological characteristics differ from those of native species can also affect how an ecosystem functions. Some of the large species that have been widely introduced (trout, black bass, catfish, etc.) are predators while others (carp, tilapia, etc.) feed on detritus or plants. These ecological traits are likely to alter the food chain and cycling of organic material. Changes in the average size of fish in communities in rivers at a global scale could entail changes in how ecosystems function. “Non-native species disrupt the worldwide patterns of freshwater fish body size: implications for Bergmann's rule,” S. Blanchet, G. Grenouillet, O. Beauchard, P. A. Tedesco, F. Leprieur, H. H. Dürr, F. Busson, T. Oberdorff; S. Brosse, Ecology Letters, April 2010.

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http://www.cousteau.org/news/non-native-fish

2013-06-18T23:06:08Z

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en

- Enter a word for the dictionary definition. From The Collaborative International Dictionary of English v.0.48: Force \Force\, n. [F. force, LL. forcia, fortia, fr. L. fortis strong. See Fort, n.] 1. Capacity of exercising an influence or producing an effect; strength or energy of body or mind; active power; vigor; might; often, an unusual degree of strength or energy; especially, power to persuade, or convince, or impose obligation; pertinency; validity; special signification; as, the force of an appeal, an argument, a contract, or a term. [1913 Webster] He was, in the full force of the words, a good man. --Macaulay. [1913 Webster] 2. Power exerted against will or consent; compulsory power; violence; coercion; as, by force of arms; to take by force. [1913 Webster] Which now they hold by force, and not by right. --Shak. [1913 Webster] 3. Strength or power for war; hence, a body of land or naval combatants, with their appurtenances, ready for action; -- an armament; troops; warlike array; -- often in the plural; hence, a body of men prepared for action in other ways; as, the laboring force of a plantation; the armed forces. [1913 Webster] Is Lucius general of the forces? --Shak. [1913 Webster] 4. (Law) (a) Strength or power exercised without law, or contrary to law, upon persons or things; violence. (b) Validity; efficacy. --Burrill. [1913 Webster] 5. (Physics) Any action between two bodies which changes, or tends to change, their relative condition as to rest or motion; or, more generally, which changes, or tends to change, any physical relation between them, whether mechanical, thermal, chemical, electrical, magnetic, or of any other kind; as, the force of gravity; cohesive force; centrifugal force. [1913 Webster] Animal force (Physiol.), muscular force or energy. Catabiotic force [Gr. ? down (intens.) + ? life.] (Biol.), the influence exerted by living structures on adjoining cells, by which the latter are developed in harmony with the primary structures. Centrifugal force, Centripetal force, Coercive force, etc. See under Centrifugal, Centripetal, etc. Composition of forces, Correlation of forces, etc. See under Composition, Correlation, etc. Force and arms [trans. of L. vi et armis] (Law), an expression in old indictments, signifying violence. In force, or Of force, of unimpaired efficacy; valid; of full virtue; not suspended or reversed. "A testament is of force after men are dead." --Heb. ix. 17. Metabolic force (Physiol.), the influence which causes and controls the metabolism of the body. No force, no matter of urgency or consequence; no account; hence, to do no force, to make no account of; not to heed. [Obs.] --Chaucer. Of force, of necessity; unavoidably; imperatively. "Good reasons must, of force, give place to better." --Shak. Plastic force (Physiol.), the force which presumably acts in the growth and repair of the tissues. Vital force (Physiol.), that force or power which is inherent in organization; that form of energy which is the cause of the vital phenomena of the body, as distinguished from the physical forces generally known. Syn: Strength; vigor; might; energy; stress; vehemence; violence; compulsion; coaction; constraint; coercion. Usage: Force, Strength. Strength looks rather to power as an inward capability or energy. Thus we speak of the strength of timber, bodily strength, mental strength, strength of emotion, etc. Force, on the other hand, looks more to the outward; as, the force of gravitation, force of circumstances, force of habit, etc. We do, indeed, speak of strength of will and force of will; but even here the former may lean toward the internal tenacity of purpose, and the latter toward the outward expression of it in action. But, though the two words do in a few cases touch thus closely on each other, there is, on the whole, a marked distinction in our use of force and strength. "Force is the name given, in mechanical science, to whatever produces, or can produce, motion." --Nichol. [1913 Webster] Thy tears are of no force to mollify This flinty man. --Heywood. [1913 Webster] More huge in strength than wise in works he was. --Spenser. [1913 Webster] Adam and first matron Eve Had ended now their orisons, and found Strength added from above, new hope to spring Out of despair. --Milton. [1913 Webster] . From The Collaborative International Dictionary of English v.0.48: Vital \Vi"tal\, a. [F., fr. L. vitalis, fr. vita life; akin to vivere to live. See Vivid.] 1. Belonging or relating to life, either animal or vegetable; as, vital energies; vital functions; vital actions. [1913 Webster] 2. Contributing to life; necessary to, or supporting, life; as, vital blood. [1913 Webster] Do the heavens afford him vital food? --Spenser. [1913 Webster] And vital virtue infused, and vital warmth. --Milton. [1913 Webster] 3. Containing life; living. "Spirits that live throughout, vital in every part." --Milton. [1913 Webster] 4. Being the seat of life; being that on which life depends; mortal. [1913 Webster] The dart flew on, and pierced a vital part. --Pope. [1913 Webster] 5. Very necessary; highly important; essential. [1913 Webster] A competence is vital to content. --Young. [1913 Webster] 6. Capable of living; in a state to live; viable. [R.] [1913 Webster] Pythagoras and Hippocrates . . . affirm the birth of the seventh month to be vital. --Sir T. Browne. [1913 Webster] Vital air, oxygen gas; -- so called because essential to animal life. [Obs.] Vital capacity (Physiol.), the breathing capacity of the lungs; -- expressed by the number of cubic inches of air which can be forcibly exhaled after a full inspiration. Vital force. (Biol.) See under Force. The vital forces, according to Cope, are nerve force (neurism), growth force (bathmism), and thought force (phrenism), all under the direction and control of the vital principle. Apart from the phenomena of consciousness, vital actions no longer need to be considered as of a mysterious and unfathomable character, nor vital force as anything other than a form of physical energy derived from, and convertible into, other well-known forces of nature. Vital functions (Physiol.), those functions or actions of the body on which life is directly dependent, as the circulation of the blood, digestion, etc. Vital principle, an immaterial force, to which the functions peculiar to living beings are ascribed. Vital statistics, statistics respecting the duration of life, and the circumstances affecting its duration. Vital tripod. (Physiol.) See under Tripod. Vital vessels (Bot.), a name for latex tubes, now disused. See Latex. [1913 Webster]

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2013-06-18T23:18:22Z

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Could the Large Hadron Collider destroy Earth? Now that the European Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is completed and ready to fire up in August, a slew of articles have popped up quoting doomsayers. An AP article from this weekend was the most recent example of critics warning that the 17-mile, $5.8 billion supercollider – which will slam protons together in an attempt to learn more about the building blocks of the universe – will inadvertently create a black hole that will gobble up the Earth.Skip to next paragraph Subscribe Today to the Monitor So, will the most ambitious science project in human history end human history? No. I should say "no, according to scientists working on the LHC." But the evidence points to a resounding "no." A study released last month disassembled the arguments against powering up the collider. The report found "no basis for concerns that [small] black holes from the LHC could pose a risk to Earth on timescales shorter than the Earth's natural lifetime." In other words: Yes, it could happen, but chances are the sun will burn out before this collider can have an Earth-ending mishap. Their reasoning? Slashdot puts it best: "Everything that will be created at the LHC is already being created by cosmic rays. If a black hole created by the LHC is interactive enough to destroy the world within the lifetime of the sun, similar black holes are already being created by cosmic rays." If such black holes were naturally flinging around in the universe, they would bump up against "dense cosmic objects," such as neutron stars, and over time the black holes would swallow the star. But, from looking through telescopes we know that there are plenty of old neutron stars around. So, if it's safe for them, it's also safe for us. "Any black hole that could be created at the LHC, even if it is stable, would have no effect on the earth on any meaningful timescale," Slashdot says. This conclusion is backed by the European agency that runs the LHC, a panel of independent scientists, the US Department of Energy, the US National Science Foundation, and science star Stephen Hawking – who argues that even if black holes developed, "they would instantly evaporate." That's good enough for me.

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2013-06-18T23:33:50Z

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en

Treatments - Crowns What is a crown? A crown is a cap that is placed over a tooth and held in place by dental adhesive or cement. Crowns are used for several reasons: - as a protective cover for badly decayed teeth or fractured teeth - as a permanent restoration for teeth with large fillings - to correct minor problems in natural teeth like spacing and irregular shape or severe discolouration. What are crowns made from? Crowns can be made from a variety of materials. They can be made from plastic, ceramic or metal alloys. A combination of metal and ceramic is also possible to maximise strength and simulate the appearance of natural teeth. How are crowns made? Firstly, a thorough clinical examination is conducted with radiographs, by the dentist. The suitability for crowns is assessed and any preparatory work is carried out. Your dentist will also be able to advise on material choices, treatment sequence and any other concerns you may have. At the second appointment, the teeth to be crowned are prepared. This involves reduction of the tooth size (usually under local anaesthesia) followed by an impression or mould of the prepared tooth. This trimming of the tooth is required to create space for the crown to be fitted. The mould taken is then sent to a laboratory where skilled technicians will fabricate the crown. In the meantime, a temporary crown is made and fitted onto the trimmed tooth. At the third appointment, the temporary crown is removed and the tooth surfaces cleaned. The completed crown is tried on the tooth for fit, harmony with the bite, and appearance. Finally, the crown is cemented onto the prepared tooth with dental cement. How long do crowns last and how do I care for them? Crowns are made of inert materials that do not deteriorate over time. However, the underlying tooth is still prone to decay and gum disease. Ceramic on the surface may chip or fracture. Avoid chewing excessively-hard substances like ice or bones. Daily brushing and flossing are essential for maintaining good oral health as well as keeping the crown trouble-free. The most vulnerable portion of the crown is the margin or the junction between tooth and crown. Regular check-ups will enable your dentist to detect any problems with your crown and recommend necessary treatment.

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2013-06-18T23:38:09Z

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en

Act 101 mandates recycling in Pennsylvania`s larger municipalities, requires counties to develop municipal waste management plans, and provides for grants to offset expenses. The goals of the Act are to reduce Pennsylvania`s municipal waste generation; recycle at least 25% of waste generated; procure and use recycled and recyclable materials in state governmental agencies; and educate the public as to the benefits of recycling and waste reduction. The benefits of recycling and waste reduction include reduced pollution risks; conservation of natural resources, energy and landfill space; and reduced disposal costs. Municipalities with populations of at least 10,000 had to implement curbside recycling programs by September 26, 1990. Municipalities with populations between 5,000 and 10,000 and more than 300 persons per square mile had to implement curbside programs by September 26, 1991. Grants are available to all municipalities to establish recycling programs. All disposal facilities provide recycling drop-off centers. Mandated municipalities collect at last 3 of the following materials: clear glass; colored glass; plastics; aluminum; steel and bimetallic cans; high grade office paper; corrugated paper and newsprint. Commercial, municipal and institutional establishments within a mandated municipality are required to recycle aluminum, high-grade office paper and corrugated paper in addition to other materials chosen by the municipality. Mandated municipalities are required to separate leaf waste from other municipal wastes. Since September 26, 1990, no waste disposal facility accepts shipments comprised primarily of leaf wastes unless a separate composting facility has been provided. The Act makes it illegal to discard automotive and other lead acid batteries. These batteries must be recycled through (1) an automotive battery retailer or wholesaler, (2) a secondary lead smelter permitted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or (3) a collection or recycling facility authorized to accept them. In both retail and wholesale outlets, customers must be able to recycle at least the same number of used batteries as the number of new ones purchased. Household hazardous waste (HHW) is comprised of household products that are either reactive when mixed with other products, corrosive, flammable, or poisonous. The Act encourages HHW collection programs to ensure recycling or safe disposal of these wastes, and requires program sponsors to register with DEP. Pennsylvania citizens are encouraged to help reduce waste by purchasing products that are durable, repairable, recycled, recyclable and/or have minimal packaging, and to find other uses for surplus goods instead of throwing them away. Manufacturers are encouraged to design their products with recycling in mind and assess their processes to minimize discards. The Act requires counties to develop formal plans for managing municipal wastes. Plans are subject to municipal ratification and DEP approval. Each county must ensure 10 years of available disposal capacity and establish a post-closure care trust fund for landfills. Counties may (1) require licensing for collecting and transporting municipal waste and (2) adopt ordinances and regulations for recycling and source separation, provided they do not interfere with implementation of required recycling programs. Act 101 increases environmental protection measures for municipal waste management facilities. These measures include the following: The Act imposes a $2per-ton fee on municipal waste entering landfills and resource recovery facilities. The fee is in effect until October 26, 1998. Monies generated by the Recycling Fee are deposited in the Act 101 Recycling Fund, which is allocated as follows: PLANNING GRANTS: Counties are reimbursed for 80% of approved costs to prepare municipal waste management plans and related studies. RECYCLING GRANTS: Counties and municipalities are reimbursed for 90% of approved costs to establish municipal recycling programs. Municipalities defined as financially distressed under Act 47 of 1987 may receive funding for 100% of approved costs. RECYCLING COORDINATOR GRANTS: Counties are reimbursed up to 50% of approved salary and expenses for a county recycling coordinator. RECYCLING PERFORMANCE GRANTS: Municipalities are awarded these grants for their recycling programs. The amount of the grant is based on type and weight of materials recycled and on the percentage of recyclables diverted from landfilling and incineration. HOST MUNICIPALITY INSPECTOR GRANTS: A host municipality is awarded 50% of the approved costs of employing a certified host municipality inspector for landfills and resource recovery facilities. Training of inspectors is also available under this grant program. INDEPENDENT PERMIT APPLICATION REVIEW GRANTS: A municipality may be reimbursed up to $10,000 for each review by a professional engineer of a waste management facility`s permit application. HOUSEHOLD HAZARDOUS WASTE COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL GRANTS: Municipalities and counties that establish HHW collection programs may be reimbursed up to 50% of approved costs for collection programs. This cannot exceed $100,000. *Grants are available to Pennsylvania municipalities only [Next Page ] [Previous Page] [Recycling Home Page] [Fact Sheets] Department of Environmental Protection Bureau of Land Recycling and Waste Management Division of Waste Minimization and Planning Recycling and Markets Section PO Box 8472 Harrisburg, PA 17105-8472 Hotline Number in Pennsylvania only: 800-346-4242 Please Print on Recycled Paper

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Driving medium-voltage motors, especially stepper and brushless dc (BLDC) motors, can be a control engineering nightmare. As these motors become more popular in everything from radio-controlled cars, electric razors, and car water pumps, it’s a challenge that must be met with minimal cost, board area, and complexity. Stepper motors also can be found in everyday products like video surveillance products, micro-printers, and cash machines. In addition, stepper motors are a hobbyist’s dream for pursuing a variety of home projects like computer numerical control (CNC) machines or 3D printers. Today’s integrated circuits have accepted the challenge with highly integrated control engines that reduce development time, cost, and board area. At the heart of a stepper motor is an H-bridge for directing bi-directional current across the motor windings. For stepper motor applications requiring some degree of microstepping, it’s necessary to implement some sort of current control to accurately and smoothly step the motor from one position to the next. In a discrete solution, you implement this with a gate driver, some MOSFETs in the bridge, current sense resistors in series with the low-side MOSFETs across the winding, an operational amplifier (op amp) to measure the voltage across the sense resistor, and finally a microcontroller (MCU) capable of measuring this voltage (integrated analog-to-digital converter, or ADC) and acting upon it. Close the loop with a proportional-integral controller in a microprocessor with high-resolution pulse-width modulation (PWM) outputs, and you’re done. This sounds expensive, area-consuming, and most certainly time-consuming -- unless you stayed awake during all those control-theory classes. And we haven’t even begun to include protection on the MOSFETs for shoot through, thermal run-away, and over-current. Figure 1: Example of a stepper motor driver system block diagram. The good news is that there’s an easier way. Integrated solutions are available that can simplify all of the above to a simple pulse input from a microprocessor when you want your stepper motor to take a step. Let’s take a look at the interface (Figure 1). The Step and Direction pins can be connected to standard general-purpose input/output (GPIO) pins on your processor. A rising edge on the Step input indexes one position into the logic table and increases (or decreases) the current in each phase, as needed to commutate with the motor. An example of this lookup table is shown in Table 1. The resulting current in the winding for a given step input depends on the microstepping mode you chose for the device. Speed is determined by how fast you issue the step pulses. The Direction pin is simply set high, or low, depending on which way you want to move. Finally, Vref is a voltage that can be derived from a simple voltage divider to set the maximum, or full-scale, current in each phase. This is the reference for the internal DAC that dynamically changes the voltage on the internal comparator. By comparing this voltage with the voltage across the external sense resistor, current is regulated at each step per Table 1. This technique is commonly referred to as current chopping. Choose your microstepping mode with a set of high-low digital input pins and you are spinning in record time! It really is that easy, and evaluation boards with a graphical user interface (GUI) makes it that much easier. BLDC Motor Drive Moving to a more complicated beast, the BLDC motor requires all of the previously mentioned discrete components necessary for a stepper motor, plus a way to detect back electromotive force (BEMF). This is commonly done with zero-crossing comparators to detect when the trapezoidal voltage waveforms of each phase cross through a zero voltage point. After all the discrete blocks are in place, it’s time to delve into the dark world of firmware development in your MCU. Here’s where you generate 120-degree phase-shifted PWM bursts to move the electric field precisely around the stator of your motor to lead the rotor around at the speed you desire. Simple enough, if you have done it before, and have time to tune the loop to your motor parameters to avoid miscommutation on every cycle.

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2013-06-18T23:38:51Z

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en

Plasma membrane or cell membrane is the outer most boundary of the cell. However, in most plant cells, it is covered by a cell wall. Cell membrane is chemically composed of lipids and proteins; 60 – 80% are proteins, while 20-40% are lipids. In addition there is a small quantity of carbohydrates. Fig. 4.4 Unit membrane Many biologists contributed to establish the structural organization of cell membrane. It was proposed earlier that cell membrane is composed of lipid bilayer sandwiched between inner and outer layers of protein (Fig.4.4). this basic structure is called the nut membrane and is present in all the cellular organelles. Te modern technology has revealed that lipid bilayers are not sandwiched between two protein layers. The protein layers are not continuous and are not confined to the surface of the membrane but are embedded in lipid layers in a mosaic manner (fig. 4.5). this discovery led to the proposal of Fluid Mosaic Model. This model at present is the most accepted one. Cell membrane also contains charged pores through which movement of materials takes place, both by active and passive transport. Fig. 4.5 Fluid Mosaic Model Transport of materials is one of the vital roles it plays for the cell. It offers a barrier between the cell contents and their environment, allowing only selective substances to pass through it, thus it is known as differentially permeable or selectively permeable membrane. The substances which are lipid soluble cross it more easily than others, therefore, it regulates the flow of materials and ions to maintain a definite gradient. Many small gas molecules, water, glucose etc. being neutral can easily cross while ions, being charged particles, have some difficulty in crossing. Many substances which are not needed, constantly enter the cell by passive transport, ethers are taken up against the concentration gradient (they move from the area of low concentration to the area of high concentration). This uphill movement of materials requires energy and is termed as active transport. The energy used for this movement is provided by ATP. In many animal cells, the cell membrane helps to take in materials by infolding in the form of vacuoles. This type of intake is termed as endocytosis which can be either phagocytosis (to engulf solid particles) or pinocytosis (to take in liquid material). In neurons (nerve cells) the cell membrane transmits nerve impulses from one part of the body to the other to keep coordination.

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2013-06-18T23:31:57Z

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en

An introduction to XML In the beginning, there was HTML. It was simple, easy to learn, and anyone with an editor could create files that were instantly publishable on the World Wide Web. Unfortunately, users have continually demanded more sophistication and control over what they wish to publish and browser makers have responded by introducing a plethora of their own vendor-specific tags in order to satisfy these needs. Now we have entire sites that are optimized for one browser and not another, and designing pages that work well on all browsers is something of a lost art. Scripting languages and technologies, such as plug-ins, Java applets and ActiveX controls, bind the presentation aspects of data ("how" something is displayed within Web browsers) more tightly to the data itself ("what" is being displayed). XML (eXtensible Markup Language) championed by the W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) represents a significant industry-wide attempt to stop this conflation of features within single HTML files, and separate presentation from data. XML is simple and complex at the same time. The language itself is quite easy to learn and use, given that browsers from Microsoft and Netscape both have built-in support for parsing and rendering XML. It is targeted to provide the basic support needed to describe complex structured data, and give you the ability to create your own tags. It can also be described as a simpler descendant of SGML (the Standard Generalized Markup Language). But XML is also complex. As a developer you now have several options to write Web pages to publish and present the data. The three options described below provide increasing levels of sophistication, flexibility and user interaction capability. You can: - write Web pages at the markup level by using XSL (eXtensible Style Language) to specify how XML documents ought to appear - write Web pages that operate on XML data using scripting languages supported by the browsers using the DOM (Document Object Model) supported by XML parsers and documents - write Java applets that parse the XML data and provide sophisticated GUI interfaces through which a user might interact with this data The examples below rely upon Microsoft IE 4.0 and the built-in XML and XSL software provided by Microsoft. The W3C has numerous ongoing projects to standardize XML, XSL and related standards and it can therefore be expected that similar support will be forthcoming from Netscape and other browser vendors. High quality parsers for XML and toolkits are also available from vendors such as IBM and DataChannel. This zip file contains the samples for this tutorial. Download it and edit the samples provided to experiment with various options. I also recommend downloading the XML Java Parser from Microsoft (and related software), and the XSL Technology Preview -- see the links at the end of this article. The former contains Java classes that can parse your XML and DTD files, and generate verbose errors that can help you considerably in debugging such files; you invoke the utility with the "jview" command line utility as: jview msxml -d will provide a brief synopsis of all of the command line options available. The XSL technology preview contains the "msxsl" utility which is a command line program that can read an XML and related XSL file and generate the corresponding HTML file as it would appear within a browser. Since the ActiveX control we will use in IE to render XML/XSL combinations does not provide any error messages, using this utility is the only way you can debug your more complex XSL scripts, until better tools (such as XMLStyler from Arbortext) become more widely available. You can use this tool by typing: Backward compatibility and benefits Before we begin, it is wise to consider the question: should you really learn XML, and begin upgrading your Web site and pages to XML, XSL and all these new technologies? It is perhaps obvious that there is a lot of HTML out there and all these Web pages are not going to be converted overnight to XML. However, even though HTML is subsumed by XML and will probably be supported by browsers for some time to come, you can realistically expect that over time, more and more pages will be in XML. As tools mature, support for contenders such as CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) which attempt(ed) to provide separation of presentation from data, but not exensibility, will likely dwindle, and XML data and applications will proliferate even though competitors may co-exist for some time to come. The benefits of XML are many: - By separating presentation and data, XML makes it easier to change GUI aspects without having to modify data that is being rendered. It therefore makes developing and maintaining Web pages a whole lot simpler. - XML enables domain specific extension tags through which more specific markup languages (such as those specialized for mathematics or chemistry) can be defined and evolved. - As extension tags become standardized, it will become easier to interchange data between Web pages. Such acts as dragging and dropping products into shopping carts, or your personal data from a rolodex into a Web form, will all become much simpler. As with any new technology, however, XML is not without its drawbacks. The masses may not rush to embrace it in spite of Microsoft's and Netscape's efforts, and standardization of tags through accepted DTD's may never materialize. Even though several XML and XSL tools have been announced, many are immature and some can only be characterized as "idea"ware. You may also have to sift through the tremendous hype surrounding it in order to learn what's useful about XML. With those caveats, let us begin to see what it can do for us. XML at work Consider the simple example of a personal address database. Here's a typical entry from such a database ("addresses.xml"). If you have worked with HTML files, several differences should immediately be apparent. Besides the lack of presentation-related tags, the example illustrates how every XML tag is neatly bracketed by <TAG> </TAG> (Note: to handle HTML tags that are often not so neatly bracketed, XML allows a tag to be completed as <TAG/>), and the use of a nested tree structure (i.e., in the above example, an ADDRESS contains a WORK and HOME block, each of which in turn contains a STREET, CITY, STATE and COUNTRY elements). Much of HTML is subsumed by such syntax (you only have to remember to replace those pesky IMG tags with IMG .. / tags to convert them to valid XML). The example data we will use will be a list of addresses of the form given above, bracketed as shown below (which forms a complete XML file -- named "addresses.xml"): In essence, XML files are not much more complicated than that. Even such simple recursive tree structures allow for the specification of complex structured data, using tags that are specifically intended to convey the meaning of the data (in the example above, a tag named CITY is much more descriptive of a portion of someone's address than the bold tag, or whatever formatting element a Web author might have chosen to use). The first line specifies the version of XML that is used. Document Type Definition (DTD) and Document Object Model (DOM) There are two important points to note about the tree structured form in which an XML file presents itself: - What goes in each element (or place) in the tree can be described by a simple grammar. Such a grammar (or specification) is called a Document Type Definition. Even though it is not mandatory, specifying a DTD will allow parsers to "validate" your XML file. For example, the grammar may specify that WORK addresses may have an associated COMPANY tag, but not HOME addresses. The appearance of a COMPANY element within a HOME address would trigger an error in validating XML parsers. The XML specification allows for DTDs to be contained within or without an XML file. - From the tree-structure representation it should also be apparent that a parser can expose data contained in an XML document using very few objects. The Microsoft parser parses every XML document into a a set of such objects. An "XMLDocument" object corresponds to an XML file and contains a single root "XMLElement." Each such XMLElement can contain an XMLElementCollection which, in turn, comprises of one or more XMLElements. This set of objects is said to form the DOM or Document Object Model for XML. Elements have properties such as "text" and "children" through which the entire DOM can be traversed. They also hav methods through which these properties may be manipulated. Thus it is through this DOM that scripting languages or programming languages such as Java access and manipulate the contents of XML documents. To reference a DTD corresponding to our "addresses.xml" file, we modify it to include: The second line references a file called "AddressList.dtd", whose root element is an ADDRESSLIST. (The Microsoft tools require the root element's name to be the same as that of the DTD file name). Here's what this file looks like: The first line states that an ADDRESSLIST is comprised of one or more ADDRESS blocks. Each ADDRESS element is then defined to contain one or more WORK or HOME elements. This element is also defined to have an attribute named NAME that is required to be present in each ADDRESS definition. Subsequent lines describe the WORK element as having STREET, CITY, STATE, and COUNTRY elements, and then each of these elements is defined as a textual element (as indicated by PCDATA?). Note that WORK and HOME can also have a piece of text associated with them. DTDs can get quite complex. There is now an effort called XML-Data within the W3C to describe schemas (entities and relations) using XML itself. As the authors of this submission realize, this submission allows DTDs to be specified in XML itself, and hence replace the DTD syntax. Please see Microsoft's Web site in the URLs provided at the end of this article for details. DTDs can also be embedded inline within an XML document, by modifying the second line in "addresses.xml", to contain: .. and so on.. How can we look at these XML files? We now have a cursory understanding of "addresses.xml" and "AddressList.dtd". But how do we look at them from within a Web browser (say IE 4.0)? This is where XSL (or eXtensible Style Language) comes in. You can think of an XSL processor (embedded within an ActiveX control -- which we'll cover shortly) as a piece of code within your browser that uses an XSL file to interpret and convert an XML file to HTML. (Note: Remember that you can use the "msxsl" utility to generate HTML files from XML/XSL files). It is important to note that XSL is an evolving standard. The approaches taken by browser makers such as Microsoft and Netscape are different today. However, under the W3C's guidance, you can expect XSL to be standardized soon. Each XSL file contains a list of patterns and actions (several examples are presented below) combined in the form of rules. "Address1.xsl" in the zip file below presents the XML data we have as simple HTML. This entire file is bracketed with: The first rule of interest is the rule for the root element: My address book As the comments indicate, the root element pattern is indicated by the present of the token "<root/> ". The action taken for this rule is to emit the HTML text included below this token. All the interesting work is done by specifying "<children/> " -- which instructs the XSL processor to insert the result of processing the children of the root element in the body of the HTML text. Let us now look at a few simple examples of how we might process some of the XML elements in our address book. This rule specifies that CITY and STATE elements should be output in italic font. Note that if you omit the "<children/>" specifier, the result of processing these elements will be empty; This feature can be used to restrict your HTML output to contain only relevant data from the XML file -- in effect, to contain simple filtered views of your address book. The "target-element" tags that are used to specify patterns allows wild-carding. For example, you can use the following rule while debugging your XSL files. This rule will output all the elements for which you have not specified any tags in red. Note that by not specifying any type or other qualifiers to the target-element tag you will match on "every" element if a more specific rule for that element is not found in your XSL file. You may be wondering how you might format the CITY field in a WORK address different from the CITY field in a HOME address. The rule I specified above matches the CITY element regardless of context. In order to specify a context you can use the "element" tag as shown below: You can have several "element" tags in order to specify a target at a specific level. For example, you may want to format TITLE tags within sections of chapters in books specifically. Now let us look at how we format a work or home address The interesting action items are bracketed by the "eval" tag. The first one specifies that we want to include the "tagName", which will be WORK or HOME followed by the position of this element within its parent. This enables multiple work addresses to be formatted as "WORK1", "WORK2", etc. Note that what goes within the "eval" tags is really ECMAScript (see link below) and this gives you an enormously powerful capability within your pattern's action rules. The other interesting bit about that last rule is the "select-elements" tag. For example, the line instructs the XSL processor to process this elements children one level down, and insert the results of processing such elements which match the target-element pattern STREET at the place indicated in the HTML output. To get ALL the STREET elements below a particular element, use The rule for ADDRESS elements is not much more complicated. It illustrates how you use to get the NAME attribute inside of an ADDRESS element. XSL rules also allow you to process different occurrences of a particular pattern differently. For example, we use to indicate that the last ADDRESS should be formatted slightly differently. You can use this feature to generate totals and roll-up output in reports. Rule order and evaluation may seem complex, but if you follow the order presented here (i.e., start with a root pattern, then the leaf XML elements and then the higher level groupings) you will see that XSL files are easy to master and you can get predictable results. You can do far more than what we've indicated with XSL files since, unlike CSS scripts, XSL files can re-order the data that is being output. Presenting the same data using HTML tables "Address2.xsl" in the zip file at the end of this article presents WORK addresses in the same XML data, only now as HTML tables. This is perhaps not illustrative of the best HTML around, but the flexibility with XSL styles should indicate how trivial it is to re-format the data without touching the XML data contained in your address book. This, after all, is what separation of presentation from data is all about. This latter file also illustrates the use of "style-rules" which can be used to specify the style associated with XML elements. The Microsoft tutorial on XSL referenced below illustrates other powerful features supported within XSL which allow it to provide capabilities far exceeding those targeted by CSS (Cascading Style Sheets). Using XSL you can sort, reformat XML documents and even include things such as table of contents, report rollups or summary and totalling information. Putting it all together Now that we have the XML, DTD, and XSL files we are ready to create the HTML file that puts it all together (see address1.html in the zip file). When you browse this file, it will load the ActiveX control containing the XSL processor which will then proceed to load the XML file indicated in the documentURL parameter using the XSL file specified in the styleURL parameter. The remaining lines are not that important. They basically instruct the ActiveX control to parse the result of the XML/XSL combination on loading the Web page, and the DIV tag instructs the browser to place the "xslTarget" item as the main contents of the page. You can browse this HTML file and you will be able to see the XML/XSL combination rendered using the first style sheet we created. By changing "Address1.xsl" to "Address2.xsl" you can see the same data, formatted as an HTML table. I have provided "address2.html" that does this in the sample zip file. XML and XSL provide sophisticated capabilities and you can be sure that vendors are scrambling to support them better even as you read this article. Once they mature, you may not have to directly edit XML or XSL files anymore, in the same that sophisticated Web page design tools hide much of the complexity inherent in HTML today. This article has hopefully have given you a headstart on understanding the nuts and bolts behind these powerful new technologies. Links on this article - The recommended XML standard from the W3C - Starting point for XSL at the W3C - XMLStyler from Arbortext - Starting point at Microsoft for XML, XSL etc. - XML at Netscape - XML software from IBM -- validating XML parser - The XML FAQ by Peter Flynn and others Sundar Narasimhan got his Ph.D. from MIT in 1994, and is now Chief Scientist at Ascent Technology Inc., where he works on real-time resource allocation and database mining systems. You can reach him at: [email protected].

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Definition of tool : 1. A machine for cutting or shaping materials; - also called machine tool. 2. A person used as an instrument by another person; - a word of reproach; as, men of intrigue have their tools, by whose agency they accomplish their purposes. 3. A weapon. 4. An instrument such as a hammer, saw, plane, file, and the like, used in the manual arts, to facilitate mechanical operations; any instrument used by a craftsman or laborer at his work; an implement; as, the tools of a joiner, smith, shoe- maker, etc.; also, a cutter, chisel, or other part of an instrument or machine that dresses work. 5. Hence, any instrument of use or service. 6. To drive, as a coach. 7. To shape, form, or finish with a tool. 8. To travel in a vehicle; to ride or drive. putz, stooge, patsy, accomplice, dig, stopcock, diaphysis, over, beam, instrumental role, scape, beast, chump, boner, shot, soft touch, animal, son of a bitch, slam, bus, cocksucker, ray of light, quill, balls, cat's-paw, hireling, means, legal document, shit, accessory, puppet, beak, dent, auxiliary, prick, come-on, creature, nib, bypass, pushover, gumshoe, brute, tool around, cervical, hayseed, barb, sitting target, dupe, machine tool, intermediary, musical instrument, bollocks, block in, marionette, servant, carve up, peter, beam of light, pigeon, ray, legal instrument, carry, automation, rooster, automaton, beaver, spear, accouterments, array, sucker, pawn, bits, lay figure, motor, back up, big beast, light beam, stool pigeon, weapon, move, mug, rotating shaft, dickhead, animate being, shaft of light, calamus, gull, car-pool, jay, bastard, mechanism, gadgetry, power tool, irradiation, bill, joyride, wight, lance, cojones, change down, drive, box in, slit, shaft, pricking, scratch, dick, prey, woodpecker, greenhorn, sitting duck, pecker, cock, turncock, jibe, asshole, pilot, cervix, clunker, messenger, incision, buckle up, neb, clitoris, sap, gibe, whoreson, official document, black box, peckerwood, fauna, wheel, agent, hawkshaw instrument (part of speech: noun) tool (part of speech: noun) grindstone, posthole auger, band saw, shovel, mallet, hedge trimmer, file, lathe, scythe, spoke shave, hatchet, chain saw, crosscut saw, cold chisel, spanner, planer, tire iron, level, hacksaw, snips, wedge, square, calipers, jointer, auger, bow saw, shears, wrecking bar, sickle, claw hammer, emery wheel, scissors, chisel, trowel, miter box, welder, handsaw, crowbar, ball-peen hammer, sledgehammer, back saw, scroll saw, ripsaw, spade, saw, lug wrench, plane, coping saw, tin snips, vise, grapnel, punch, jackknife, screwdriver, hammer, circular saw, edger, wrench, axe, pickax, drill, machete, awl, pick, bench drill, buzz saw, arc welder, jigsaw, stapler, drill press, table saw, hoe, keyhole saw, pliers, pipe wrench, knife, monkey wrench, radial arm saw, gouge intervention (part of speech: noun) - It was originally designed to act as a tool of social control. - "The Sword", Frank Quattrocchi. - The Tool Department was being stripped of everything that could be used as a weapon, too. - "Null-ABC", Henry Beam Piper and John Joseph McGuire. - Apply not to Lerma; he is the tool of Calderon. - "Calderon The Courtier A Tale", Edward Bulwer-Lytton.

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Difference Between Lying and Laying Lying vs Laying When writing or speaking the English language, the difference between lying and laying is commonly misconstrued, and misused. The more you can connect to the actual definitions of lying and laying, the easier it becomes to use each word correctly for the specific acts. Lying has basically two definitions. The first is the easiest to distinguish, because it means to tell an untruth knowingly. She was lying when she said she didn’t take the money from my wallet. The second definition of lying is, quite simply, to be horizontal in your position. Lying down for a nap will help me feel better. It’s not uncommon for people to use laying when referring to being in a horizontal position. It seems to be the easiest of the definitions to get mixed up. The definitions for laying become simple when you look at them in their root form. Lay means the place. Used in a sentence, you could say: Lay the school books on the table and then go up to clean your room. Adding the ING suffix is simply a function of sentence structure. Laying the school books on the table she went up to clean her room. Most often you can check your use of the word by replacing the word in the sentence with place. Placing the books on the table she went up to clean her room. Laying is also defined as producing eggs. The chickens are laying more eggs than we can eat. Another good way to remember the difference between lying and laying, is whether there is an object in the sentence. Since we lay thing down, we need to have an object. Whether the object is a book, a brick, or a person (laying her down for a nap), you have to make sure in the sentence that you are laying something down. Alternatively, lying has no object. It has to do with the state of one’s position. I am lying next to him listening to the snoring. You are referring to the state of your body’s position. Simple tricks like this make it easier to distinguish the two words. A simple note: Do not always rely on your Word program’s green underline marking to recognize the difference. This is one commonly mis-corrected grammar highlights, for which Word is notorious. 1. Lying means to state an untruth knowingly. 2. Lying refers to the body’s horizontal position. 3. Laying can be interchanged with placing. 4. Laying also refers to the production of eggs. 5. Laying refers to an object, while lying refers to the person. 6. Do not rely on Word programs to accurately correct this grammatical issue. Search DifferenceBetween.net : Email This Post : If you like this article or our site. Please spread the word. Share it with your friends/family. Leave a Response

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Link: Added by: 12 events that occurred during the civil rights movement. Created by Roper on Mar 25, 2011 Last updated: 03/25/11 at 09:28 PM Civil Rights Movement has no followers yet. Be the first one to The Native American Activist Organized in the United States. President Johnson signed the bilingual education act legalized teaching in other languages other than english. Chicanos was a deragotory term used to tear down some hispanics. R. Martin Luther King Jr gave his "I Have a Dream" speech for desegregation in the U.S. Social Secuirty Amendments extended the Social Secuirty Disability Insurance (SSDI) program for disabled workers from ages 50 to 64. Nine black students integrated in Central Rock High School. Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white man. To Declear that the system of segregation in public schools in the U.S was unconstitutional. The people felt the president should have ha balanced power. It was legal to have segregation in public facilities. The school segregation was established in almost every southern state. This amendment was written for anyone who was born in the United States is a U.S citizen and has American/Human rights.

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Learn about la Catedral de Santa María de la Sede. It is the largest gothic cathedral in Spain and in the world. Find out more about its history Located in Seville, Spain is the largest gothic cathedral in the world: La catedral de Santa María de la Sede. The cathedral in Seville was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987. Among the many Spanish cathedrals, the Seville Cathedral is a true national treasure. According to legend, construction on the Seville Cathedral began at the beginning of the 15th century, in 1401. However, the first verifiable testimonies mention that the building began on this famous Spanish cathedral in 1433. The cathedral was build over the space where the Aljama Mosque once stood, destroyed when the city was re-conquered by the Christians. On October 10, 1506 the last Stone of the dome was placed which effectively culminated the construction of the grand Seville cathedral, although latter work was done including decoration and various expansions. Later, restoration was done on this Spanish cathedral, mainly fixing small flaws that were caused by natural disasters such as the Lisbon earthquake in 1755. Inside Seville´s cathedral are the graves of two of the most important figures in Spanish history: the tomb of King St. Ferdinand II of Castile (1199-1252) and that of Christopher Columbus, the discoverer of America. For many years historians argued whether or not the remains of the famous explorer were authentic, as many believed that his body was laid to rest in the Cathedral of Santo Domingo. However, DNA testing done by the University of Granada confirmed that Columbus's remains in Seville are, in fact, authentic. The tower of the Seville cathedral in Spain, known as the Giralda, is formed by the ancient minaret of the mosque that once stood in its place and now serves as a cathedral's bell tower. The Giralda tower, at 104 meters (341 ft) high, is visible from any point of Seville. According to common belief, the mosque occupied 15,000 m² (161,458 ft²) and was made up of 17 large naves decorated with keyhole arches. The old courtyard of ablutions is still conserved, although it was transformed into the actual Patio de los Naranjos. The patio can be accessed from the street through the Puerta del Perdón (Sorrow Gate), a fantastic example of 7th century architecture from the Almohad Dynasty. Seville's famous cathedral is divided into 5 naves facing the East and, since it was built over the ruins of an ancient mosque, lacks an ambulatory, which is a typical feature of gothic cathedrals. The floor is a perfect rectangle, 116 meters (380 ft) long and 76 meters (249 ft) wide. The central nave is the highest point of the Spanish cathedral and contains the Choir and Main Chapel. These two parts are separated by the crossing which, at its highest point, reaches 37 meters (121 ft) in height. The altarpiece that decorates the Main Chapel is a historically important piece of artwork, particularly the carved scenes from the life of Christ by artist Pierre Dancart. The Choir is decorated by marquetry work, covered in scenes from both the Old and the New Testaments and many representations of aesthetically unpleasing characters. The side walls of the Seville Cathedral are lined with chapels dedicated to the many saints and other important figures in the history of the Spanish cathedral. It is also noteworthy to mention the Spanish cathedral's magnificent and priceless collection of beautiful stained-glass windows. They prove to be a historical testament to the art of stained glass, as the cathedral features pieces that date back to the 14th century all the way through to the 20th century.

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india / waste management starting from August 2001, only biodegradable waste from the residential and commercial complexes of Mumbai will be managed by the Brihan-Mumbai Municipal Corporation ( bmc ). Mumbai residents will have to make their own arrangements to dump the non-biodegradable waste. This directive was recently passed by bmc in accordance with Section 368 of the city's Municipal Corporation Act. However, many residents are confused about the proposed system of segregation. "The basic requirements are two containers: one for biodegradable waste such as vegetable skins, and the other for garbage like plastic and glass," explains a bmc official. Another important agenda of bmc is to get rid of all community dustbins. In fact, the process is already functioning in some areas. "When cities like Chennai, Hyderabad and Kolkata can do it, why not Mumbai?," questioned Chandra-shekhar Rokde, the city's deputy municipal commissioner.

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Bosonic String Theory: 25 Space Dimensions In 1974, Claude Lovelace discovered that bosonic string theory could only be physically consistent if it were formulated in 25 spatial dimensions, but so far as anyone knows, we only have three spatial dimensions! Dimensions are the pieces of information needed to determine a precise point in space. (Dimensions are generally thought of in terms of up/down, left/right, forward/backward.) Relativity treats space and time as a continuum of coordinates, so this means that the universe has a total of 26 dimensions in string theory, as opposed to the four dimensions it possesses under Einstein’s special and general relativity theories. Einstein’s relativity has three spatial dimensions and one time dimension because those are the conditions used to create the theory. He didn’t begin working on relativity and just happen to stumble upon three spatial dimensions, but rather intentionally built it into the theory from the beginning. If he’d wanted a 2-dimensional or 5-dimensional relativity, he could have built the theory to work in those dimensions. With bosonic string theory, the equations actually demanded a certain number of dimensions to be mathematically consistent. The theory falls apart in any other number of dimensions! The reason for extra dimensions The reason for these extra dimensions can be seen by analogy. Consider a long, loose spring (like a Slinky), which is flexible and elastic, similar to the strings of string theory. If you lay the spring in a straight line flat on the floor and pull it outward, waves move along the length of the spring. These are called longitudinal waves and are similar to the way sound waves move through the air. The key thing is that these waves, or vibrations, move only back and forth along the length of the spring. In other words, they’re 1-dimensional waves. Now imagine that the spring stays on the floor, but someone holds each end. Each person can move the ends of the spring anywhere they want, so long as it stays on the floor. They can move it left and right, or back and forth, or some combination of the two. As the ends of the spring move in this way, the waves that are generated require two dimensions to describe the motion. Finally, imagine that each person has an end of the spring but can move it anywhere — left or right, back or forth, and up or down. The waves generated by the spring require three dimensions to explain the motion. Trying to use 2-dimensional or 1-dimensional equations to explain the motion wouldn’t make sense. In an analogous way, bosonic string theory required 25 spatial dimensions so the symmetries of the strings could be fully consistent. (Conformal symmetry is the exact name of the type of symmetry in string theory that requires this number of dimensions.) If the physicists left out any of those dimensions, it made about as much sense as trying to analyze the 3-dimensional spring in only one dimension . . . which is to say, none at all. Dealing with the extra dimensions The physical conception of these extra dimensions was (and still is) the hardest part of the theory to comprehend. Everyone can understand three spatial dimensions and a time dimension. Given a latitude, longitude, altitude, and time, two people can meet anywhere on the planet. You can measure height, width, and length, and you experience the passage of time, so you have a regular familiarity with what those dimensions represent. What about the other 22 spatial dimensions? It was clear that these dimensions had to be hidden somehow. The Kaluza-Klein theory predicted that extra dimensions were rolled up, but rolling them up in precisely the right way to achieve results that made sense was difficult. This was achieved for string theory in the mid-1980s through the use of Calabi-Yau manifolds. No one has any direct experience with these strange other dimensions. For the idea to come out of the symmetry relationships associated with a relatively obscure new theoretical physics conjecture certainly didn’t offer much motivation for physicists to accept it. And for more than a decade, most physicists didn’t.

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2013-06-18T23:08:17Z

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en

Targeting Mississippi for African American Voter Registration: Freedom Summer In the summer of 1964, Mississippi, where countless individuals were boldly murdered without consequence, continued its reign as a segregationist stronghold. Bob Moses, a former SCLC volunteer and a Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) leader, believed that change in Mississippi would greatly influence the nation. The goal? Register black voters. During that eventful summer, known as Freedom Summer, volunteers poured into the state determined to make a difference. As more and more whites, especially students, signed up for duty in the fight for black equality, civil rights leaders shifted their goal from desegregation to voting rights. Although the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments established voting rights for African Americans, whites in many Southern states either intimidated blacks or established roadblocks such as poll taxes and literacy tests to keep them from voting. Before Freedom Summer began Beginning a voter registration project in Mississippi was daunting, to say the least. On the surface, McComb, a small town in rural Mississippi, wasn’t an ideal place to launch a voter registration campaign: Shortly after New York math teacher Bob Moses’s arrival, a Mississippi state legislator who shot a black man for registering to vote was acquitted. When an FBI agent tipped off local police that another black man who witnessed the shooting intended to testify, the witness was beaten and killed. Initially African Americans in McComb, understandably cautious considering the racial climate, welcomed Moses and provided him with financial and other resources. Less cautious than the older community, McComb’s black youth eagerly embraced change. One ambitious youth lied about her age and led a sit-in that got her expelled from high school and sent to reform school. Some parents were outraged, but many students kept on agitating, even choosing civil rights work over school. Harassment, murders, and beatings didn’t deter them. Throughout the state, black Mississippians stepped up. Medgar Evers is probably the best-known, but Aaron Henry, Fannie Lou Hamer, Dr. T.R.M. Howard, and Amzie Moore were also noted local leaders in the voter registration campaign, not to mention countless others whose names don’t grace the history books. Promised much-needed funding by Robert Kennedy, the Voter Education Project launched in April 1962. A mock election called Freedom Vote held in 1963 drew almost 80,000 black voters, proving that black Mississippians wanted to vote. Encouraged by this and the presence of white volunteers, Bob Moses proposed Freedom Summer. Organizing the Freedom Summer volunteers Robert Kennedy, who arranged funding for black voter registration campaigns, wouldn’t commit federal protection for volunteers. Moses was convinced that placing college students, preferably white, in black communities throughout Mississippi to register black residents to vote as well as teach them reading and math would secure federal protection. At orientation sessions held in Ohio, Freedom Summer organizers emphasized potential risks such as arrest, jail time, or death to volunteers. The volunteers were also required to bring $500 in bail money and instructed not to antagonize Mississippi police officers who arrested them. In June, hundreds of volunteers, mostly white, poured into Mississippi. Given Mississippi’s volatile racial history, the Johnson administration worried about the safety of Freedom Summer participants and the potential impact on the nation. By the time Freedom Summer kicked off, 900 volunteers had signed up for the fight. The central battleground became Greenwood, Mississippi, situated in the notorious Mississippi Delta region between Memphis, Tennessee, and Jackson, Mississippi, in the notorious Mississippi Delta region. Tragedies of the Freedom Summer campaign Tragedy struck early for the volunteers pouring into Mississippi. On June 21, after investigating a church bombing in Lawndale, local police stopped two white Northerners Andrew Goodman and Michael Schwerner and black Mississippian James Chaney for speeding and took them to jail. Although reportedly released that same night, the three men disappeared. Instead of investigating, state police claimed that the trio staged their own disappearance as a publicity stunt. The FBI got involved, and as the investigation dragged on, public outcry pressed the search on. On August 4, just days before the all-important Democratic National Convention, the three bodies surfaced just outside Philadelphia, Mississippi. Their deaths shifted public attention to Freedom Summer and its mission in Mississippi. By the end of the year, the FBI arrested 18 people, mostly Ku Klux Klan members, in relation to the murders. Although most of the people arrested received convictions, the convictions were for breach of civil rights, not murder (this case is the basis for the 1988 film Mississippi Burning). A murder conviction came decades later in January 6, 2005, when mastermind Edgar Ray Killen, a minister, finally received justice. The success of Freedom Summer Prior to Freedom Summer, just under 7 percent of Mississippi’s voting-age black population had registered to vote. By 1969, that number had climbed to nearly 67 percent. The 17,000 black Mississippians who attempted to vote during the turbulent project helped achieve these numbers; so did the 1,600 who actually voted. This success rate contributed to the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Forty-one freedom schools helped educate black Mississippians about much more than learning how to vote. Likewise, black Mississippians taught the students and the world that hope could thrive in the direst circumstances. Most important, Freedom Summer demonstrated the positive impact that all Americans, be they white and privileged or black and poor, could have on the nation overall.

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2013-06-18T23:35:37Z

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en

Finding an Earthquake's Epicenter Subjects: Science: Earth Science; Social Sciences: Geography This lesson helps students understand the processes used to identify the location of an earthquake's epicenter and how the Richter magnitude of the earthquake is determined. understand the economic, societal, and geological impact of earthquakes; interpret a seismograph reading to determine distance to an earthquake's epicenter; interpret a seismograph reading to determine the Richter magnitude of an earthquake; pinpoint an earthquake's epicenter using a minimum of three seismograph readings. earthquake, epicenter, Richter, Richter scale, seismograph computers with Internet access Generate interest in earthquakes by showing the students pictures, simulations, and maps of historic earthquakes in the United States and around the world. Data, such as damage estimates in dollars, number of deaths, and Richter magnitude, show the importance of specific events and the reasons for studying the causes and characteristics. The following resources will be helpful: Direct the students to several Web sites showing the most current seismic activity. Students can view maps showing the location of the epicenter of a recent earthquake in the United States or another location, along with locations of past earthquakes in those areas. Links to actual seismograph readings (seismograms) recorded by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) are also displayed. The following resource will be helpful: Instruct the students on how to determine the distance to an epicenter using one seismograph reading. This is accomplished using a time-travel graph, which is a graph that shows the relationship between the difference in arrival times of the primary seismic wave and the secondary seismic wave and the distance to the earthquake's epicenter. By interpreting the difference in arrival times of the two seismic waves, one seismograph reading can determine the distance to an epicenter. However, it does not determine the direction the seismic waves came from. Therefore, at least three seismographs are necessary to pinpoint an epicenter, which is accomplished by drawing a circle around each seismograph location at the correct distance. The location of an earthquake's epicenter is where the three circles come in contact with one another. The Richter magnitude of the earthquake is determined by measuring the amount of movement at an individual seismograph station. The following resources will be helpful: Direct students to the Virtual Earthquake Web site, which is a tutorial to guide students through the process of determining earthquake epicenters and magnitudes, as discussed in the previous activity. This tutorial is both a problem-solving activity as well as an active learning activity. Students are first presented with the problem of determining the epicenter of a past earthquake. A student chooses an area of the world to study, then uses three seismograph readings and a time-travel graph to locate the epicenter and determine the Richter magnitude. Students must manipulate the data by reading seismographs, entering data, and drawing circles around stations. This activity is found at the following resource: To practice the skills obtained in the previous activities, students will choose another location in the world and complete the tutorial again. Following tutorial completion, students will print out certificates of completion that contain their results. Use the certificates as a performance-based assessment. Lesson Plan Source Virtual Courseware, Geology Labs Online Tim Leister, Garden Spot High School, New Holland, Pennsylvania Links last updated 8/23/2011 To help us keep our Lesson Plan Database as current as possible, please e-mail us to report any links that are not working.

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2013-06-18T23:38:59Z

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en

Cancer Staging and Grading Knowing the stage and grade of a person's cancer helps doctors know what treatment to use. It also helps predict how long the person will survive or whether there is a good chance for a cure. Staging is a process that doctors use to describe how far cancer has spread. Grading is a process that helps predict how fast the cancer will grow and spread. In general, the stages of most cancers break down this way: Although there are several methods of staging, most doctors now use the TNM method. The TNM method is based on the size of the tumor (T), the spread of the cancer into nearby lymph nodes (N), and the spread of the cancer to other body parts (M, for metastasis). Most cancers can be described using the TNM system. But certain cancers—for example, cancers of the blood, bone marrow, or brain—use other staging systems. A tumor's grade, from 1 to 4, describes how its cells look under a microscope. The more these cells look like normal cells, the lower the grade and the lower the likelihood that the cancer will spread quickly. Tumor cells that look like normal cells are called grade 1 tumors. They usually grow slowly. A grade 4 tumor, on the other hand, has cells that look very different from normal cells. Grade 4 tumors often grow quickly and spread rapidly. For certain types of cancer, doctors use other grading methods. For example, in prostate cancer, the doctor gives the cancer a Gleason score. Prostate cancer cells that have a low Gleason score grow more slowly than cells that have a higher score. Breast cancer and kidney cancer also use other grading methods. What tests are used to find a cancer's stage and grade? eMedicineHealth Medical Reference from Healthwise To learn more visit Healthwise.org © 1995-2012 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated. Get the latest treatment options. Most Popular Topics Pill Identifier on RxList - quick, easy, Find a Local Pharmacy - including 24 hour, pharmacies

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

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2013-06-18T23:34:00Z

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en

Family: Pinaceae, Pine view all from this family Description Small to medium small, narrow, evergreen conifer. Often shrubby; gnarled, leaning, or stunted. Crown dense, pointed or flat. Bark charcoal grey to reddish brown. Branc.) long. Cones in whorls, yellow brown, 4–8 cm. (1.6–3.1 in.) Scales long, prickled . Dimensions Height: 9-21 m. (30-70 ft.) Diameter: 0.3-0.5 m. (1-1 1/2 ft.). Habitat Scrub, shrub & brushlands. Range Southeast, Florida. Discussion Over much of its range, it is fire-adapted to stand-replacing wildfires, with the cones remaining closed for many years until a natural forest fire kills the mature trees and opens the cones. These then reseed the burnt ground. Some populations differ in having cones that open at maturity, with seed dispersal not relying on fires. Pinus clausa (clausa = closed).

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2013-06-18T23:38:02Z

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en

New Breeding Habits Emerge for the Wandering Albatross Flying around the Southern Ocean is one of the largest bird species on Earth, the Wandering Albatross, also known as the Snowy Albatross or White-winged Albatross. They are a predator and keystone species of their circumpolar range. Like all polar species, they are feeling the effects of a warming climate, and it is beginning to cause some very fundamental changes to their behavior. Typically, the Wandering Albatross lay their eggs between December 10 and January 5, at the start of the Southern Summer. A new study from the British Antarctic Survey (BAS) has shown that these breeding times have been slowly inching back. Breeding habits for this bird have been cemented over time through many generations of evolution. Every other year, the Wandering Albatross return to one of several colonies on isolated islands in the Southern Ocean. These include the South Georgia Islands, Prince Edward Islands, Marion Island, Crozet Islands, Kergulen Islands, and even Macquarie Island. There are an estimated 26,000 in the wild. The monogamous adults lay one egg between December 10 and January 5, of which only 30 percent survive to breeding age. These birds typically do not breed until age 11-15. The BAS study found that the average egg laying date has moved back by 2.2 days earlier within the last 30 years. Specific reasons for this change remain unclear. According to lead author, Dr. Sue Lewis at the University of Edinburgh's School of Biological Sciences, "Our results are surprising. Every year we can determine when the birds return to the island after migration, and the exact day they lay their egg. We knew that some birds were laying earlier — those who were older or had recently changed partner - but now we see that those which haven't bred successfully in the past are also laying earlier, and these birds are effectively driving this trend in earlier laying." BAS researchers monitored nest sites on Bird Island, part of South Georgia during pre-laying, laying, hatching, and fledging periods. The birds have taken a special interest of late. Their numbers have been dropping because they swallow baited hooks from fishing vessels, are dragged under and drowned. Reasons for the shift in behavior include a wide range of environmental changes. However, the BAS researchers are unsure if this is related to changing weather, changing oceanographic conditions, or changes in food availability. Wandering Albatross image via Shutterstock

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2013-06-18T23:26:56Z

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en

See additional articles on Nature's Hazards. Hurricanes and Coastal Storms Why Cover Hurricanes? Hurricanes are among the most violent storms people suffer in the U.S. Gulf and Atlantic states. They are news before they happen, while they are happening, and sometimes for years after they happen. Some hurricanes, like Hurricane Andrew, are mostly wind events. Others carry their punch with water. Last year’s Hurricane Floyd was such a water event -- unleashing torrents of muddy, polluted water upon thousands of people in North Carolina, Virginia, and New Jersey. Born far out in the Atlantic, Floyd generated winds topping 135 knots as it advanced upon the southeast U.S. coast September 13, 1999. After menacing Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina, Floyd made landfall near Cape Fear, North Carolina, on September 16 with sustained winds near 110 mph. The maximum storm surge struck at high tide, contributing to extensive overwash, dune retreat, and damage to homes on barrier islands. The water dumped by Floyd was devastating. Rainfall totaled a record 15 to 20 inches. Storm surges reached 10 feet in coastal North Carolina. This rain fell on lands still saturated from Hurricane Dennis less than two weeks earlier, and runoff was greater because water could not soak in. A month later, Hurricane Irene dumped another 5-10 inches of new rain on some of the areas hardest by Floyd. Floyd killed 57 people -- the deadliest U.S. hurricane since Agnes in 1972. Most of those killed drowned in North Carolina as rivers unable to handle the deluge swelled beyond known flood plains. Damage estimates topped $3 billion to $6 billion. Even though hurricanes are a normal late-summer visitor to the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, Floyd taught savage lessons about expecting the unexpected. Beyond the lives lost and the homes and businesses destroyed, Floyd’s flood waters killed 100,000 hogs in North Carolina, and washed out many of the huge lagoons where hog wastes were kept. Waters overflowed municipal wastewater systems, chemical storage areas, and farms. Nitrogen, phosphorus, bacteria, viruses, pesticides, heavy metals, ammonia, and fuel oil all poisoned the waters. Last year’s hurricanes also left ugly scars on the east coast. While Hurricane Dennis was not a particularly strong storm, its week-long meandering off the coast, battering the shoreline with huge waves, produced some of the highest wave run-up ever recorded along the Outer Banks of North Carolina, changing the coastal geology of that area. Dunes, the first line of defense against the mighty power of the ocean, were washed away, destroying roads and making homes, businesses, and lives along the fragile, but popular coastline, especially vulnerable. Hurricanes are worth covering because they hit people where they live. The triple whammy of Dennis-Floyd-Irene damaged roughly 40,000 homes -- some 10,000 of them beyond repair. 1. Once a hurricane hits your region, you will probably not be hurting for story ideas. But here are some before- and after-hurricane story ideas. 2. What should coastal residents be doing to prepare for a hurricane? Structures? Supplies? Communication? Evacuation? 3. What hurricane disaster plans are already in effect by local and state governments? Are those plans up-to-date and adequate? What should the public know about them? Are roads and bridges adequate for evacuation? 4. What were the "lessons learned" locally from the last hurricane? Have they been applied? Sept. 8-9, 2000, is the 100th anniversary of the Galveston hurricane, which was the worst natural disaster in U.S. history. What were the lessons learned from Galveston? 5. Has your community qualified for flood insurance? What are the details of your community’s "floodplain management ordinance?" What do your local zoning laws and building codes require? 6. Has development taken place locally in vulnerable areas? Beach homes and businesses on barrier islands? Homes and industries in flood plains? Areas vulnerable to storm surge? How does the geology of your area affect flood plains? Barrier islands? 7. What will happen to your community’s drinking water and sewage treatment systems during catastrophic storms and flooding? Are they in flood plains? How long might they be out? How hard will it be to get them back on line? What alternative water sources are available? What would happen to chlorine tanks in a flood? 8. What special hazards in your area could be affected by a hurricane -- including accompanying rain, flooding, storm surge, tornadoes, and flying debris? Petrochemical plants? Fuel storage? Nuclear power plants? Unstable landforms prone to landslides or mudflows? New communities or densely populated areas like those affected by Hurricane Andrew in South Florida? 9. What natural resources are at risk? Parks and wildlife areas? Sensitive breeding grounds for threatened and endangered species? How will massive quantities of floodwaters affect aquatic life in bays, rivers, and estuaries in your area? 10. What does the latest and best research say about the possible effect of global climate change on the frequency and intensity of hurricanes? How about the effects of the El Niño/La Niña cycle? How has long-range and short-range forecasting of hurricanes changed in the past decades? What does more preparation time mean for local emergency managers and businesses? 11. How costly are evacuations? Does better forecasting of landfall mean that fewer people are likely to lose money or be hurt in evacuations? What are the trade-offs between early evacuation and loss of dollars, especially in tourist areas? 12. How have hurricanes changed coastal landforms in your area in the past? How might they be expected to do so in the future? What do they build and what do they destroy? How is fish and wildlife habitat affected? How do human changes to the land affect its response to hurricanes? Background and Context "Hurricane" is the name given to the tropical cyclones with winds above 74 mph that hit the U.S. Gulf and Atlantic Coasts. Such storms draw their energy from the warm surface layer of tropical seas. As air warmed and moistened by the sea rises, it whirls into a vortex often hundreds of miles across. Perhaps only a third of the hurricanes that form will actually strike land. Hurricane winds can be violently destructive. Winds are 131-155 mph for storms ranked category 4 on the Saffir-Simpson Scale -- which are unusually intense. Winds go even higher for category 5 hurricanes, which are extremely rare. Hurricane winds can whip up waves of 50 feet or higher in the open sea. Convection creates an area of low pressure in the center of the vortex. This low-pressure area, along with high winds, creates a bulge-like rise in local sea level known as a storm surge. Storm surges are greatest on the right front side of the hurricane in the Northern hemisphere as water is pushed ahead of the storm. Severe storm surges can deliver a 20-foot or greater rise in sea level -- and when this is combined with a high lunar tide and the pounding of enormous waves, the damage can be devastating. A key to saving the human lives at risk in hurricanes is accurate, timely warning and evacuation. The Galveston hurricane of 1900 killed some 6,000 people largely because there was no warning system. The U.S. National Weather Service and related NOAA agencies have made enormous strides in measuring, understanding, and predicting hurricanes in recent decades -- leading to much more effective warnings. But even as improved warnings have been reducing deaths in the U.S., hurricane damage to property has been rising. This is not from any worsening of hurricane frequency or intensity but because of burgeoning population growth and building development in vulnerable coastal areas. A recent study estimated that there are 338,000 buildings within 500 feet of the nation’s coastlines. The FEMA study estimates that some 87,000 homes and other structures in that zone -- more than a quarter of the total -- are threatened by the erosion that severe coastal storms bring. About 60 million people live in coastal areas vulnerable to hurricanes, according to the Insurance Information Institute. Despite some colossal disasters, climatologists say the past three decades have probably been a period of lower-than-normal hurricane activity (although it has been higher than normal in the last five years). Most current residents moved to coastal areas during this period of low hurricane activity, and NOAA estimates that 80 to 90 percent of them have never experienced a direct strike from a major hurricane. The result may be a false sense of security -- not only affecting decisions on where to build and settle, but also affecting decisions on whether and when to evacuate. The torrential rains that accompany hurricanes can often drop 6-12 inches of water in a very short time on areas far inland. In the last 30 years, inland flooding has been responsible for more than half the deaths associated with tropical cyclones in the United States. Floods like the ones that came with Floyd illustrate the secondary hazards hurricanes can bring. In North Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, and New Jersey, floods brought additional threats of infection and ecological havoc. Storm surges and the incessant pounding by waves changed the coastline of North Carolina for years. In Honduras, the rains from Hurricane Mitch in 1998 unleashed a series of deadly landslides. Once they reach land, hurricanes may spawn tornadoes even as their maximum sustained winds are dying down. - Do the news media play a role that encourages loss of life by covering ... or even celebrating, the old folks and die-hards who refuse to evacuate? - Do news agencies contribute to the lives lost when cars drive through flooded areas by showing other people doing that highly risky activity on television? - Do news media promote needless property loss (and taxpayer subsidies) by playing up federal disaster aid after a storm, but giving scant attention to flood insurance and flood plain management before storms hit? - Has your news organization given as much thought as the National Hurricane Center has to balancing the risks of "overwarning" and "underwarning" (see http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/hurfam.pdf)? Could a false sense of security caused by unfulfilled warnings cause people to die in the next hurricane? - National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (National Weather Service, National Hurricane Center, etc.) - Federal Emergency Management Agency (disaster relief and flood insurance) - U.S. Geological Survey - State public safety, disaster, and insurance agencies - Local emergency responders (fire, police, rescue, etc). Sources on the Web ... and Phone Contacts - National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. A wide array of NOAA agencies collects data and does research relevant to hurricanes and coastal storms (http://www.noaa.gov). NOAA Public Affairs lists many press contacts at http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/reporters.html. Phone: (202) 482-6090. - The National Weather Service has a substantial central press office and a system of regional press offices as well. Press Contacts: Curtis Carey, John Leslie, Susan Weaver. Phone: (301) 713-0622 The NWS Warnings & Forecasts page neatly packages all sorts of weather-related warnings (http://www.nws.noaa.gov/pa/). The NWS also maintains a Hurricane Watch page at http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/hurrwtch.htm, which collects storm tracking and background information for members of Congress and government agencies. - The National Hurricane Center/Tropical Prediction Center (http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/) is the operational nerve center for tracking and warning during an actual hurricane. Press contact: Frank Lepore, (305) 229-4404, [email protected]. NHC maintains a great collection of links at http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutlink.html. - The US Geological Survey is an excellent source of information on coastal geology, erosion, flooding, landslides and water quality. USGS maintains a network of 7,000 real-time streamflow gages (online at http://water.usgs.gov/realtime.html) which can help you track flooding as it happens. USGS is also the principal scientific agency investigating the interactions between coastal storms and coastal ecosystems, hydrologic systems, and landforms. For example, the agency studies how barrier islands are damaged by hurricanes and how those same barrier islands protect the mainland from hurricane impacts. Studies include everything from wetlands, vegetation, and sand circulation to flooding and landslides. Many are listed at http://www.usgs.gov/hurricanes.html and http://coastal.er.usgs.gov/hurricanes/, and USGS has a good set of links at http://coastal.er.usgs.gov/hurricanes/links.html. Press contact: Butch Kinerney, 703-648-4732, [email protected] or Marion Fisher, 703-648-4583, [email protected]. - FEMA focuses mainly on preventing and mitigating damage from tropical storms, and on disaster aid when they do occur (http://www.fema.gov/fema/trop.htm). FEMA Hurricane Fact Sheet: http://www.fema.gov/library/hurricaf.htm. Hurricane Backgrounder http://www.fema.gov/library/hurrica.htm. Complete list of FEMA press contacts by subject and region at http://www.fema.gov/media/paolist.htm. FEMA headquarters public affairs: (202) 646-4600. FEMA maintains a photo desk and video library. - Dr. Gray’s Forecast. Prof. William M. Gray at Colorado State University is the unofficial but acknowledged Guru of Atlantic seasonal hurricane prediction. His forecasts are online at http://tropical.atmos.colostate.edu/forecasts/. Press contacts: David Weymiller and Thomas Milligan, (970) 491-6432). - FAQ: Hurricanes, Typhoons and Tropical Cyclones. Everything you ever need to know about hurricanes, based on the best science and written in plain English, by Christopher W. Landsea of NOAA’s Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory in Miami. Online at http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/tcfaqHED.html, or contact (305) 361-4357, [email protected]. Reprinted with permission. Published in Environment Writer newsletter July/August 2000, by the National Safety Council's Environmental Health Center.

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2013-06-18T23:11:26Z

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Development of Mathematics The earliest records of mathematics show it arising in response to practical needs in agriculture, business, and industry. In Egypt and Mesopotamia, where evidence dates from the 2d and 3d millennia B.C., it was used for surveying and mensuration; estimates of the value of π (pi) are found in both locations. There is some evidence of similar developments in India and China during this same period, but few records have survived. This early mathematics is generally empirical, arrived at by trial and error as the best available means for obtaining results, with no proofs given. However, it is now known that the Babylonians were aware of the necessity of proofs prior to the Greeks, who had been presumed the originators of this important step.Greek Contributions A profound change occurred in the nature and approach to mathematics with the contributions of the Greeks. The earlier (Hellenic) period is represented by Thales (6th cent. B.C.), Pythagoras, Plato, and Aristotle, and by the schools associated with them. The Pythagorean theorem, known earlier in Mesopotamia, was discovered by the Greeks during this period. During the Golden Age (5th cent. B.C.), Hippocrates of Chios made the beginnings of an axiomatic approach to geometry and Zeno of Elea proposed his famous paradoxes concerning the infinite and the infinitesimal, raising questions about the nature of and relationships among points, lines, and numbers. The discovery through geometry of irrational numbers, such as The later (Hellenistic) period of Greek science is associated with the school of Alexandria. The greatest work of Greek mathematics, Euclid's Elements (c.300 B.C.), appeared at the beginning of this period. Elementary geometry as taught in high school is still largely based on Euclid's presentation, which has served as a model for deductive systems in other parts of mathematics and in other sciences. In this method primitive terms, such as point and line, are first defined, then certain axioms and postulates relating to them and seeming to follow directly from them are stated without proof; a number of statements are then derived by deduction from the definitions, axioms, and postulates. Euclid also contributed to the development of arithmetic and presented a geometric theory of quadratic equations. In the 3d cent. B.C., Archimedes, in addition to his work in mechanics, made an estimate of π and used the exhaustion theory of Eudoxus to obtain results that foreshadowed those much later of the integral calculus, and Apollonius of Perga named the conic sections and gave the first theory for them. A second Alexandrian school of the Roman period included contributions by Menelaus (c.A.D. 100, spherical triangles), Heron of Alexandria (geometry), Ptolemy (A.D. 150, astronomy, geometry, cartography), Pappus (3d cent., geometry), and Diophantus (3d cent., arithmetic). Following the decline of learning in the West after the 3d cent., the development of mathematics continued in the East. In China, Tsu Ch'ung-Chih estimated π by inscribed and circumscribed polygons, as Archimedes had done, and in India the numerals now used throughout the civilized world were invented and contributions to geometry were made by Aryabhata and Brahmagupta (5th and 6th cent. A.D.). The Arabs were responsible for preserving the work of the Greeks, which they translated, commented upon, and augmented. In Baghdad, Al-Khowarizmi (9th cent.) wrote an important work on algebra and introduced the Hindu numerals for the first time to the West, and Al-Battani worked on trigonometry. In Egypt, Ibn al-Haytham was concerned with the solids of revolution and geometrical optics. The Persian poet Omar Khayyam wrote on algebra. Word of the Chinese and Middle Eastern works began to reach the West in the 12th and 13th cent. One of the first important European mathematicians was Leonardo da Pisa (Leonardo Fibonacci), who wrote on arithmetic and algebra ( Liber abaci, 1202) and on geometry ( Practica geometriae, 1220). With the Renaissance came a great revival of interest in learning, and the invention of printing made many of the earlier books widely available. By the end of the 16th cent. advances had been made in algebra by Niccolò Tartaglia and Geronimo Cardano, in trigonometry by François Viète, and in such areas of applied mathematics as mapmaking by Mercator and others. The 17th cent., however, saw the greatest revolution in mathematics, as the scientific revolution spread to all fields. Decimal fractions were invented by Simon Stevin and logarithms by John Napier and Henry Briggs; the beginnings of projective geometry were made by Gérard Desargues and Blaise Pascal; number theory was greatly extended by Pierre de Fermat; and the theory of probability was founded by Pascal, Fermat, and others. In the application of mathematics to mechanics and astronomy, Galileo and Johannes Kepler made fundamental contributions. The greatest mathematical advances of the 17th cent., however, were the invention of analytic geometry by René Descartes and that of the calculus by Isaac Newton and, independently, by G. W. Leibniz. Descartes's invention (anticipated by Fermat, whose work was not published until later) made possible the expression of geometric problems in algebraic form and vice versa. It was indispensable in creating the calculus, which built upon and superseded earlier special methods for finding areas, volumes, and tangents to curves, developed by F. B. Cavalieri, Fermat, and others. The calculus is probably the greatest tool ever invented for the mathematical formulation and solution of physical problems. The history of mathematics in the 18th cent. is dominated by the development of the methods of the calculus and their application to such problems, both terrestrial and celestial, with leading roles being played by the Bernoulli family (especially Jakob, Johann, and Daniel), Leonhard Euler, Guillaume de L'Hôpital, and J. L. Lagrange. Important advances in geometry began toward the end of the century with the work of Gaspard Monge in descriptive geometry and in differential geometry and continued through his influence on others, e.g., his pupil J. V. Poncelet, who founded projective geometry (1822). The modern period of mathematics dates from the beginning of the 19th cent., and its dominant figure is C. F. Gauss. In the area of geometry Gauss made fundamental contributions to differential geometry, did much to found what was first called analysis situs but is now called topology, and anticipated (although he did not publish his results) the great breakthrough of non-Euclidean geometry. This breakthrough was made by N. I. Lobachevsky (1826) and independently by János Bolyai (1832), the son of a close friend of Gauss, whom each proceeded by establishing the independence of Euclid's fifth (parallel) postulate and showing that a different, self-consistent geometry could be derived by substituting another postulate in its place. Still another non-Euclidean geometry was invented by Bernhard Riemann (1854), whose work also laid the foundations for the modern tensor calculus description of space, so important in the general theory of relativity. In the area of arithmetic, number theory, and algebra, Gauss again led the way. He established the modern theory of numbers, gave the first clear exposition of complex numbers, and investigated the functions of complex variables. The concept of number was further extended by W. R. Hamilton, whose theory of quaternions (1843) provided the first example of a noncommutative algebra (i.e., one in which ab ≠ ba). This work was generalized the following year by H. G. Grassmann, who showed that several different consistent algebras may be derived by choosing different sets of axioms governing the operations on the elements of the algebra. These developments continued with the group theory of M. S. Lie in the late 19th cent. and reached full expression in the wide scope of modern abstract algebra. Number theory received significant contributions in the latter half of the 19th cent. through the work of Georg Cantor, J. W. R. Dedekind, and K. W. Weierstrass. Still another influence of Gauss was his insistence on rigorous proof in all areas of mathematics. In analysis this close examination of the foundations of the calculus resulted in A. L. Cauchy's theory of limits (1821), which in turn yielded new and clearer definitions of continuity, the derivative, and the definite integral. A further important step toward rigor was taken by Weierstrass, who raised new questions about these concepts and showed that ultimately the foundations of analysis rest on the properties of the real number system. In the 20th cent. the trend has been toward increasing generalization and abstraction, with the elements and operations of systems being defined so broadly that their interpretations connect such areas as algebra, geometry, and topology. The key to this approach has been the use of formal axiomatics, in which the notion of axioms as "self-evident truths" has been discarded. Instead the emphasis is on such logical concepts as consistency and completeness. The roots of formal axiomatics lie in the discoveries of alternative systems of geometry and algebra in the 19th cent.; the approach was first systematically undertaken by David Hilbert in his work on the foundations of geometry (1899). The emphasis on deductive logic inherent in this view of mathematics and the discovery of the interconnections between the various branches of mathematics and their ultimate basis in number theory led to intense activity in the field of mathematical logic after the turn of the century. Rival schools of thought grew up under the leadership of Hilbert, Bertrand Russell and A. N. Whitehead, and L. E. J. Brouwer. Important contributions in the investigation of the logical foundations of mathematics were made by Kurt Gödel and A. Church. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. More on mathematics Development of Mathematics from Fact Monster: See more Encyclopedia articles on: Mathematics

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2013-06-18T23:33:43Z

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Japan's farming population has been declining steadily and was less than 5% of the total population in 2004; agriculture accounted for less than 2% of the gross domestic product. Arable land is intensively cultivated; farmers use irrigation, terracing, and multiple cropping to coax rich crops from the soil. Rice and other cereals, sugar beets, vegetables, and fruit are the main crops; some industrial crops, such as mulberry trees (for feeding silkworms), are also grown, and livestock is raised. Fishing is highly developed, and the annual catch is one of the largest in the world. The decision by many nations to extend economic zones 200 mi (322 km) offshore has forced Japan to concentrate on more efficiently exploiting its own coastal and inland waters. In the late 19th cent. Japan was rapidly and thoroughly industrialized. Textiles were a leading item; vast quantities of light manufactures were also produced, and in the 1920s and 1930s heavy industries were greatly expanded, principally to support Japan's growing imperialistic ambitions. Japan's economy collapsed after the defeat in World War II, and its merchant marine, one of the world's largest in the 1930s, was almost totally destroyed. In the late 1950s, however, the nation reemerged as a major industrial power. By the 1970s it had become the most industrialized country in Asia, and in the early 21st cent. it was the third greatest economic power in the world after the United States and a rapidly developing China. Japanese industry is concentrated mainly in S Honshu and N Kyushu, with centers at Tokyo, Yokohama, Osaka, Kobe, and Nagoya. In the 1950s and 1960s textiles became less important in Japanese industry while the production of heavy machinery expanded. Japanese industry depends heavily on imported raw materials and fuels, which make up a large share of the country's imports. Japan receives all of its bauxite, phosphate, steel scrap, and iron ore from imports, as well as virtually all of its crude oil and copper ore. Manufactured goods make up the vast majority of the nation's exports. Japan became one of the world's leading producers of machinery, transportation equipment, motor vehicles, steel, and ships, and by the 1980s it had become a leading exporter of high-technology goods, including semiconductors and electrical and electronic appliances. Japan has increasingly shifted some of its industries overseas through outsourcing and has made massive capital investments abroad, especially in the United States and the Pacific Rim. With the recession of 2001, the closing of manufacturing plants in Japan accelerated, as did the opening of plants abroad, particularly in China, but the economy remains export-driven. Since the late 1960s Japan's economy has been marked by a large trade surplus, with China, the United States, and South Korea being its largest trading partners. Japan has also become a global leader in financial services, with some of the world's largest banks, but for many years after the collapse of the stock and real estate markets in the early 1990s many of Japan's banks were burdened with high numbers of nonperforming loans. Sections in this article: More on Japan Economy from Fact Monster: See more Encyclopedia articles on: Japanese Political Geography

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2013-06-18T23:28:01Z

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The 700 MHz band is an important swathe of spectrum available for both commercial wireless and public safety communications. The Band consists of 108 megahertz of spectrum running from 698-806 MHz and was freed up as a result of the Digital Television transition. The location of the 700 MHz Band -- just above the remaining TV broadcast channels -- give it excellent propagation characteristics. This allows the 700 MHz signals to penetrate buildings and walls easily and to cover larger geographic areas with less infrastructure (relative to frequencies in higher bands). Since 2007, the FCC has worked toward establishing - in portions of the 700 MHz band - a nationwide, interoperable wireless broadband communications network that will benefit state, local and tribal public safety users. In addition, in 2008, the FCC auctioned licenses to use other portions of the 700 MHz Band for commercial purposes. Some mobile wireless service providers have since begun using this spectrum to offer mobile broadband services for smartphones, tablets, laptop computers, and other mobile devices.

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2013-06-18T23:28:13Z

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The Astronomical Dial face of the famous Astronomical Clock of Prague (Pražský orloj) in Praha, Česká Republika. The medieval astronomical clock that is on the southern wall of the the Old Town City Hall in the Old Town Square and is composed of three main components: the astronomical dial, a clockwork hourly show of figures of the Apostles and other moving sculptures, and this calendar dial whose medallions represent the months. The Prague Astronomical Clock is one of the oldest European clocks of its kind and is unique in being the oldest where the original clockwork has been in operation from the beginning to the present time. The astronomical dial is the oldest part of the clock, dating to 1410, when it was made by clockmaker Mikuláš of Kadaň and Jan Šindel, the latter a professor of mathematics and astronomy at Charles University. The astronomical dial is flanked by sculptures representing the four things that were most despised at the time: Vanity, Greed, Death and the Heathen. These sculptures are animated: Death pulls the bell cord, the Heathen shakes his head, Vanity admires himself in his mirror and Greed watches his bag of gold. The Astronomical dial of the clock is a form of mechanical astrolabe and has a background that represents the Earth and sky, surrounded by the four main moving components: the zodiacal ring, an outer rotating ring, an icon representing the Sun, and an icon representing the Moon. The background represents the Earth and the local view of the sky. The blue circle directly in the center represents the Earth, and the upper blue is the portion of the sky above the horizon. The red and black areas indicate portions of the sky below the horizon. During the daytime, the sun is over the blue and at night it sits over the black. At dawn and dusk, the sun is over the red background. Written on the eastern (left) part of the horizon is aurora (dawn in Latin) and ortus (rising). On the western (right) part is occasus (sunset), and crepusculum (twilight). The Roman numbers represent the timescale of a normal 24 hour day in local Prague time and the golden hand indicates the time. The movable circle marked with the signs of the zodiac is the Zodiac ring which indicates the location of the sun on the ecliptic. The sun is currently seen in Libra and moves through the signs in anticlockwise order so it will enter Scorpio next. The small golden star shows the position of the vernal equinox, and sidereal time can be read on the scale with golden Roman numerals. At the outer edge of the clock, golden Schwabacher numerals indicate Old Czech Time (also known as Italian hours), with 24 indicating the time of sunset. This ring moves back and forth during the year to coincide with the time of sunset. The position of the golden hand over the outer ring indicates the hours passed after sunset in Old Czech Time. The movement of the Moon on the ecliptic is shown similarly to that of the Sun, although the speed is much faster. The half-silvered sphere of the moon also shows the Lunar phase. For a helpful animation of the clock in action (sped up so that it is easier to understand its motion) visit: www.praguealacarte.com/orloj/orlojLoader.html Processed in Adobe Photoshop CS2. Contact me for high resolution versions for nonpersonal use. DSC_7652 mc lr

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2013-06-18T23:39:56Z

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What are performance measures? Performance measures demonstrate how well the transportation system is doing its job of meeting public goals and expectations of the transportation network. Some methods used to measure performance include tracking average speeds and crash rates. Many states and metropolitan areas monitor how close they are to achieving specific goals, such as accessibility to key regional population, employment, cultural, and recreational centers, the mobility of disadvantaged populations, levels of air quality, and the health of the economy, by using performance measures. Measuring performance is a way to gauge the impacts of the decisionmaking process on the transportation system. Performance measures aim to answer questions about whether the performance of the transportation system (or economy, air quality, etc.) is getting better or worse over time; and whether transportation investments are correlated or linked to stated goals and outcomes.

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2013-06-18T23:31:45Z

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Ten thousand years ago the great ice sheet covering eastern South Dakota retreated leaving behind in its path poorly drained and frequently flooded depressions called potholes. At the time of the European settlement, these depressions, being surrounded by a sea of grass, became known as "prairie potholes". It is estimated that over 35% of these pothole wetlands were drained since the turn of the century. Today, there exists approximately 1.7 million acres of wetlands in eastern South Dakota. Restoring, enhancing, and protecting wetland and grassland communities provides habitat for a vast array of indigenous wildlife species. Although projects may target a specific species, such as planting grass seed to provide nesting habitat for waterfowl, all species that evolved in a grassland/wetland complex will benefit from grass seeding projects. Native ground nesting birds will be provided additional nesting habitat, threatened or endangered species will be provided restored habitat to pioneer, and prairie stream species will be afforded cleaner runoff from their contributing watersheds.

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2013-06-18T23:24:47Z

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Spots on the Sun 20 December 2001 For most Australians, summer means days spent by the beach and nights spent nursing our sunburn. Too much exposure to the sun can result in the appearance of 'sunspots' on our skin. The Sun itself sometimes also has spots on its surface, which appear as irregular shapes with dark centres and lighter outer areas. Sunspots occur in active, stormy regions of the Sun where magnetic fields have become concentrated. Sunspot activity can result in magnetic storms here on the Earth. Magnetic storms bring about disturbances in the Earth's upper atmosphere, which in turn can have hazardous effects on radio and satellite communications, radar, GPS, spacecraft, power-lines and pipelines. The last large magnetic storm occurred on 24 November 2001 and prior to that the 6 November 2001. Geoscience Australia maintains a network of geomagnetic observatories that measure changes in the Earth's magnetic field across Australia and in Antarctica, as well as providing magnetometer calibration and a compass capability. NASA's spaceweather website gives daily updates on sunspot activity and advises on the potential threat from magnetic storms. Nb: Never look directly at the Sun with the naked eye or with any optical instrument. You must be familiar with the safe observing methods before attempting to observe the Sun. Topic contact: [email protected] Last updated: May 31, 2012

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2013-06-18T23:04:31Z

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One of the main problems with conventional wireless signals is that they can be obstructed, and pretty easily at that. You can very, very rarely get cell service in a subway, and sometimes just being inside a building can make things difficult. Unlike radio waves however, neutrinos can power through just about anything, making them a great potential vehicle for wireless communications. Now, the first ever neutrino beam message has been sent, and it was delivered through 240 meters, 262 yards, or 787 feet of solid stone. This successful test transmission took place at Fermi National Accelerator Lab outside of Chicago, and was overseen by researchers from the University of Rochester and North Carolina State University, who have been working on the project for a while now. The message, delivered as a binary stream of neutrinos in a sort of morse-code like fashion, read simply “Neutrino.” It’s tempting to think of the message being sent one neutrino at a time, but in fact, the message was represented by massive clusters of neutrinos because even the FermiLab’s state of the art, several-ton detector can only pick up one neutrino out of every 10 billion or so. Still, it’s an accomplishment. “Using neutrinos, it would be possible to communicate between any two points on Earth without using satellites or cables,” says Dan Stancil, of North Carolina State and lead author of the paper on this research. “Neutrino communication systems would be much more complicated than today’s systems, but may have important strategic uses.” Considering the first successful message was only just sent, the technology is pretty primitive. While the benefits of neutrino based technology depends their ability to go through just about anything, that quality also makes them pretty hard to detect, at least with conventional equipment. Viable neutrino-based communication is still a long, long way off, but that doesn’t have to keep you from fantasizing about how awesome it would be. Viable neutrino-based communication would effectively end the now common issue of signal strength. A neutrino beam message could travel, effortlessly, through the center of the Earth and can easily pass through any readily available material. Neutrinos’ neutral charge almost non-existent mass leave them mostly untouched by forces like magnetism and gravity, so they’re pretty hard to stop. Now that could be a double-edged sword if you’re in the market of trying to block signals and communication for whatever reason, but for most of us it would just be heavenly. Maybe someday we’ll get find out just how great it would be first hand. (story and image via University of Rochester) - For a while, it was thought that a neutrino might have broken the speed of light - But it was probably just a loose cable - The Super-K Neutrino Detector is ridiculous

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2013-06-18T23:31:36Z

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Join others teachers in this online workshop. Started This Week. Enroll Today. Children and Teens already know how important it is to appreciate and take care of the environment. They enjoy Art projects that teach recycling and celebrate the natural life around them. Learn how to recycle fast food containers, newspapers, old books, plastic bottles and other throw aways into fun and interesting recycled art objects. Gardening, ocean, and other themes that teach appreciation for the natural environment will also be included. This is your opportunity to develop a portfolio of green art project ideas. This 4 week online workshop is taught by an art professor who has first hand experience developing art programs. Valerie Colston is an author and artprofessor. The online class is open 24/7. Access the online workshop at your convenience.

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2013-06-18T23:26:03Z

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Carnivorous plant inspires new super-slippery material By Ben Coxworth September 23, 2011 Who doesn't like carnivorous plants? They eat pesky bugs, they look like something out of Flash Gordon, and now it turns out that one of them has inspired a new type of liquid-repellent surface. The inspirational flora is the pitcher plant, which is shaped like - well, like a water pitcher, or perhaps a wide-end-up trumpet. When insects step onto its slippery inner surface, they lose their footing and fall down into a pool of collected rainwater in its base, where they are digested. Scientists from Harvard University's School of Engineering and Applied Sciences (SEAS) have copied the structure of that inner surface and come up with a material that resists not only most liquids, but also ice and bacteria, and it does so under a wide range of conditions. The secret of the pitcher plant's surface lies in the fact that it does take in a small amount of water, which it keeps in a thin layer on the very outside. In the same way that car tires can hydroplane on an only slightly-wet road, this layer of liquid keeps the oil on insect feet from making secure contact with the plant's actual surface. The SEAS researchers copied this concept, by infusing an unnamed nanostructured porous material with a lubricating fluid. The resulting technology is known as SLIPS, which stands for Slippery Liquid-Infused Porous Surfaces. Previous experiments with liquid-repellent surfaces have replicated the surface of the lotus leaf, the microtextured surface of which creates a cushion of air that causes water to bead up. According to SEAS, however, man-made versions of this surface don't perform well with organic or complex liquids, they're expensive to create, they don't stand up to physical damage or extreme conditions, and the liquid droplets tend to soak in instead of rolling away. On the other hand, besides shrugging off the previously-mentioned substances, SLIPS is said to be inexpensive, self-healing, and able to work in high pressure environments, humid conditions, and freezing temperatures. Possible applications include self-cleaning windows, anti-fouling coatings for ships' hulls, ice- and graffiti-resistant products, and low-friction linings for pipelines and medical tubing. SEAS is presently in the process of seeking a patent for the technology. The research was published yesterday in the journal Nature. Just enter your friends and your email address into the form below For multiple addresses, separate each with a comma

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2013-06-18T23:11:10Z

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Respiratory System Anatomy The cells of the human body run on oxygen much like a car runs on gas. There are parts of the cell called mitochondria that use the oxygen to generate ATP, the energy currency of cells. How do the cells get their oxygen? The body takes in air rich in oxygen through the nose and mouth. It then travels down through the air tubes (the pharynx and larynx), through the trachea, the bronchial tubes, and into the alveolar spaces. The alveolar spaces are millions of tiny air sacs that have a very thin wall. The alveolar capillary rests immediately on the other side of the alveolar wall. Oxygen readily transfers from the alveolar space through the thin alveolar wall into the oxygen-depleted red blood cells in the capillary. The oxygen-rich blood then returns to the heart and is pumped throughout the body. Waste in the form of carbon dioxide transfers from the blood into the alveolar space and is exhaled from the body. The lungs are the body's major organs of respiration. The two vital parts that make up the lungs are located on each side of the chest within the rib cage. They are separated by the heart and other contents of the mediastinumthe tissues and organs of the middle chest (e.g., the heart and large vessels, windpipe). The lungs are shaped rather like an upside-down butterfly. The top, or apex, of each lung extends into the lowest part of the neck, just above the level of the first rib. The bottom, or base, of each lung extends down to the diaphragm, which is the major breathing-associated muscle that separates the chest from the abdominal cavity. Each lung is divided into upper and lower lobes, although the upper lobe of the right lung contains another triangular subdivision known as the middle lobe. The right lung is larger and heavier than the left lung, which is somewhat smaller in size because of the position of the heart. At birth, the lungs are pinkish-white in color; however, with age, the lungs darken to gray or mottled black because of deposits of carbon and other particles that are inhaled over the years. The root connects the lungs to the heart and the trachea (windpipe). Each root is made up of a main stem bronchus (large air passage connecting the windpipe to the right or left lungs), pulmonary artery (major artery that brings oxygen-poor blood back to the right or left lungs), pulmonary vein (major vein receiving oxygen-rich blood from the lobes of the right or left lungs), the bronchial arteries and veins, as well as nerves and lymphatic vessels. A clear, thin, shiny covering known as the serous coat, or pleura, covers the lungs. The inner, visceral layer of the pleura is attached to the lungs and the outer, parietal layer is attached to the chest wall. Both layers are held in place by a film of pleural fluid in a manner similar to two glass microscope slides that are wet and stuck together. Beneath the pleura is a layer of elastic fibers that span the lung surface and extend down into its subdivisions. The trachea splits into right and left main stem bronchi. These are the major air passages from the trachea to the lungs and are similar to the trachea in tissue composition. The main stem bronchi enter each lung and progressively branch off into more than 23 paired subdivisions. At every branching, the number of airways increases greatly. The entire structure, from the trachea to the smallest bronchioles, resembles an upside-down branching tree, with the branches getting smaller and smaller as they get further from the trunk (the tracheobronchial tree). The tracheobronchial tree conducts, humidifies, and heats air that is breathed in, or inspired. At its endpoints, the tracheobronchial tree connects with the blood vessels. The lining of the tracheobronchial tree is composed of columnar epithelium (column-shaped surface cells) and glands that produce mucus and serous (clear plasma) fluid. The cilia (hair-like projections on columnar epithelium) move in a constant, beating motion to cleanse the airways of foreign bodies and infectious organisms. A watery "mucous blanket" - a gel-like liquid - covers and is moved by the cilia and aids the lungs' self-cleaning. Coughing triggers a high-speed flow of air that mobilizes the mucous blanket. The sputum produced by such mobilization contains mucus, nasal secretions, and saliva. The essential tissue of the lunglung parenchymais made up of clusters of spongy air sacs called lobules. There are about 130,000 primary lobules in each lung. Each lobule is approximately 3.5 millimeters in diameter and contains about 2,200 alveoli (air sacs and ducts). Tracheobronchial branches that are larger than 1 millimeter in diameter and have connective tissue coverings are called segmental bronchi. The smallest subdivisions, which are less than 1 millimeter in diameter and do not have connective tissue coverings, are called bronchioles. The final branches of the bronchioles are called terminal bronchioles. The bronchioles end in irregular, swollen projections known as alveolar ducts (terminal branches composed of special gas-exchanging tissue) and alveolar sacs (blind passages of alveolar ducts). The alveolar sacs are tiny, thin-walled, cup-shaped structures (250–300 mm2) are lined with a detergent-like substance known as surfactant, which reduces surface tension and prevents them from collapsing during breathing. Another substance in the alveolar wall, elastin, applies an elastic force to "shrink" the alveoli during exhalation. There are approximately 3,000,000 alveoli in the lungs. Anatomy of the Respiratory Muscles Air is inhaled by the active contraction of the respiratory muscles. The major respiratory muscle is the diaphragm, a large muscular partition that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity. It lies beneath the lungs and is dome shaped, with the apex of the dome in approximation with the lower portion of the lungs. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts downward and away from the lungs, creating more space in the chest cavity. This lowers the pressure in the chest cavity relative to the pressure outside the body, and air moves into the lungs. The diaphragm receives help from accessory muscles. The muscles in the neck that attach to the upper part of the sternum and clavicles, such as the sternocleidomastoid muscle, and the muscles between the ribs, called the intercostal muscles, increase the diameter of the chest wall, which helps lower the pressure in the chest. Intercostal muscles contract and shrink the chest wall during forced exhalation. Anatomy of the Blood Vessels Oxygen-poor blood is brought back to the lungs by the pulmonary artery. The pulmonary artery divides into branches that parallel the bronchial tubes and ends in a network of pulmonary capillaries (tiny blood vessels) within the walls of the small air passages and alveoli of the lungs. The pulmonary veins carry oxygen-rich blood away from the lungs. They begin in the pulmonary capillaries, unite to form larger branches (e.g., the left and right superior and inferior pulmonary veins), and eventually lead into the left atrium of the heart. The heart then pumps the oxygenated blood out to the body via the aorta (the great artery arising from the left ventricle of the heart). The bronchial arteries are blood vessels that branch off from the aorta to supply blood and nutrition for the lung itself and the bronchial tubes. The bronchial vein begins at the root of the lung and receives blood from vessels near the bronchial arteries. Anatomy of the Lymphatic System Lymphatic vessels are structures that drain lymph, the clear, yellowish fluid containing lymphocytes (white blood cells that fight disease) from the tissues of the body. The lungs have two sets of lymphatic vessels - a surface, or superficial set, and a deep set. The surface lymphatic vessels are located beneath the pleura (thin, serous covering of the lungs), whereas the deep-set vessels follow the blood vessels and extend along the bronchi. Both sets end at the root of the lungs, within the bronchial glands. Two or three efferent (outward-leading) vessels travel up the trachea (windpipe) to the base of the neck, where they cross the trachea and esophagus (tube that passes from the mouth to the stomach). These vessels end at either the thoracic duct (passage that empties a large amount of lymph and lymph-related compounds into the blood) on the left side or the lymphatic duct on the right. Anatomy of the Nerves The lungs receive their nerve supply from the anterior (front) and posterior (back) nerve networks, called pulmonary plexuses. These plexuses are offshoots of larger nerves - e.g., the sympathetic nerves of the trunk and the pneumogastric (tenth cranial, or vagus) nerve. The nerves of the lung contain small, knotty masses called ganglia. The diaphragm receives its nerve supply from the phrenic nerves, which descend from the upper neck.

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Overview, Causes, & Risk Factors Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is a disorder that results in abnormal hormone levels in a woman. In a normal ovary, a single egg develops and is released during ovulation each month. A polycystic ovary will have many eggs that are never released. What is going on in the body? Polycystic ovarian syndrome often begins with and worsens with time. The cause of PCOS has not yet been completely identified. The symptoms of PCOS are related to an excess of the hormone androgen. This hormone can cause male features such as facial hair and male-pattern baldness in women. Polycystic ovaries may be normal in size, or they may be enlarged, with smooth, thick coverings. What are the causes and risks of the disease? The exact cause of PCOS is not clear. Some of the possible causes include: certain medicines, such as those used for seizure disorders or mood disorders an enzyme abnormality that causes an excess of the hormone androgen genetic disorders that cause an increase in the production of the hormone testosterone inherited metabolic disorders that interfere with the body's normal use of insulin The risk of PCOS increases in women who also have one of these conditions: high blood pressure Symptoms & Signs What are the signs and symptoms of the disease? The symptoms of polycystic ovarian syndrome include: amenorrhea, or the lack of excess body hair scanty or irregular menstruation The woman may have several ovarian cysts, or fluid-filled sacs. Small ovarian cysts usually don't produce symptoms. Large cysts or multiple cysts may cause: abnormal uterine bleeding low back pain Ovarian cysts may sometimes rupture, although this is rare. They may also start to twist. This can cause sudden abdominal pain, bloating, and stiffness. Diagnosis & Tests How is the disease diagnosed? Diagnosis of PCOS begins with a medical history and physical exam. A pelvic exam may reveal enlarged ovaries. Ovarian cysts may be detected using ultrasound. Laparoscopy, or the placement of a scope through a small incision in the abdomen, can be used to look directly at the ovaries. A biopsy of the ovary may be performed. This involves taking a small sample of ovarian tissue to be checked in a laboratory. Blood and urine tests may be used to check hormone levels. Prevention & Expectations What can be done to prevent the disease? There is no known way to prevent polycystic ovarian syndrome. A woman may be able to lower her risk factors with good weight management. It's also important to seek effective treatment for breast cancer or high blood pressure. What are the long-term effects of the disease? The long-term effects of polycystic ovarian syndrome depend on the woman's condition and her response to treatment, but they may include: endometrial hyperplasia, or a buildup of cells that line the uterus, which increases her risk for cancer of the uterus heart disease later in life insulin resistance, which can contribute to obesity and diabetes What are the risks to others? Polycystic ovarian syndrome is not contagious and poses no risk to others. Treatment & Monitoring What are the treatments for the disease? There are many ways to treat polycystic ovarian syndrome, depending on a woman's symptoms. Treatment can include: bleaching, electrolysis, waxing, and other cosmetic treatment of unwanted hair diet and exercise for weight loss oral contraceptives and progesterone to regulate menstrual periods and reduce male hormone levels spironolactone, a mild diuretic that blocks the effects of male surgery, such as ovarian wedge resection or ovarian drilling Newer treatments focus on lowering insulin levels in the blood. This may help reduce the production of male hormones. It may also lessen the symptoms of PCOS. Metformin is one medicine that has been used for this. What are the side effects of the treatments? Surgery may cause bleeding, infection, and allergic reaction to anesthesia. Medicine side effects will vary, but they include allergic reactions. What happens after treatment for the disease? The symptoms of polycystic ovarian syndrome can often be managed over time with proper treatment. How is the disease monitored? A woman's healthcare provider will monitor her condition with regular pelvic exams and other tests. Any new or worsening symptoms should be reported to the healthcare provider.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.healthexpertadvice.org/health_topics/Ovarian-Cancer/Stein-Leventhal-Syndrome-Polycystic-Ovarian-Syndrome-375.htm

2013-06-18T23:38:45Z

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From Pac Man to Public Health: Virtual Disaster Planning Technologies For example, Zero Hour: America's Medic is a single-player game designed to give EMT/Paramedics the chance to test their skills in response to four different scenarios—a SARS-like pandemic, earthquake, a derailment with chemical leak, and a sports complex explosion. The game, designed by George Washington University, provides first responders the opportunity to practice and refine their skills in four key areas: CBRNE (chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, and explosives) detection, triage, information collection and threat recognition, and information sharing and collaboration. Players encounter different patients, scene hazards, and have different resources to call upon each time they play the game. The Stanford University Medical Media and Instructional Technology group has also developed "virtual worlds" in which the patient, the clinical facility, and all personnel are represented as an avatar on the screen. Stanford's 3-D virtual ED, for example, can help train medical students and residents in different trauma scenarios. Similarly, Noblis researchers developed HotZone, a game that allows first responders to react to a chemical and explosive attack in a virtual shopping mall. The game includes data extraction technology, which can be analyzed to see which strategy saved the most lives. "One team did the exercise in 20 minutes and had zero fatalities and another took 30 minutes longer and had five fatalities," Breslin says. "The real value is having 50 people playing their roles in an event, looking at same scenario, making their own decision, and seeing how it might impact someone else," he says. The benefit of this type of gaming technology is organizations can run drills over and over again and evaluate the data to see what strategies have the best results. "That is too cost prohibitive in manual events." Breslin says. Note: You can sign up to receive HealthLeaders Media IT, a free weekly e-newsletter that features news, commentary and trends about healthcare technology. Carrie Vaughan is a senior editor with HealthLeaders magazine. She can be reached at [email protected]. - Healthcare Leaders Seek Strategic Sweet Spot - 3 Reasons Wellness Programs Fail - CMS Issues Health Insurance Exchange Proposed Rules - Patients Shoulder Nearly 25% of Medical Bills - ACOs Widespread, Yet Challenged - MGMA: Physician Compensation Increasingly Based on Quality Measures - HFMA: Patient Financial Interaction Guidelines Sharpened - Data Collaborative Taps Predictive Analytics to Coordinate Care - Physician Pay Will Soon Depend on Outcomes - HFMA: Revenue Cycle, Reimbursements Share the Spotlight

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http://www.healthleadersmedia.com/page-2/TEC-233315/From-Pac-Man-to-Public-Health-Virtual-Disaster-Planning-Technologies

2013-06-18T23:12:42Z

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Kavadi (Kavadi). . Cowri, a shell. Khetaka (Khetaka). . A shield. Kirtan (Kirtan) . . A concert in which the performer narrates a mythological story to illustrate and expand a religious theme or some philosophical thought. Krodha (Krodha). . Anger or spite. Kshama (Ksama). . Mercy or pity. Kshatriya (Ksatriya). . The warrior caste. Kshaur (Ksaura). . Shaving ones hair, a religious rite performed after the death of a near relative. Kshetra (Ksetra). . A religious centre. Kshetropadhyaya (Ksetropadhyaya). . A priest acting as a professional host at a kshetra. Panth (Pantha). . A school of thought.

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