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Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae

The Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae was an astronomy book on the heliocentric system published by Johannes Kepler in the period 1618 to 1621. The first volume (books I–III) was printed in 1618, the second (book IV) in 1620, and the third (books V–VII) in 1621.

The Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae was an astronomy book on the heliocentric system published by Johannes Kepler in the period 1618 to 1621. The first volume (books I–III) was printed in 1618, the second (book IV) in 1620, and the third (books V–VII) in 1621. Content The book contained in particular the first version in print of his third law of planetary motion. The work was intended as a textbook, and the first part was written by 1615. Divided into seven books, the Epitome covers much of Kepler's earlier thinking, as well as his later positions on physics, metaphysics and archetypes. In Book IV he supported the Copernican cosmology. Book V provided mathematics underpinning Kepler's views. Kepler wrote and published this work in parallel with his Harmonices Mundi (1619), the last Books V to VII appearing in 1621.Kepler introduced the idea that the physical laws determining the motion of planets around the Sun were the same governing the motion of moons around planets. He justified this claim in Book IV using the telescope observations of the moons of Jupiter made by Simon Marius in his 1614 book Mundus Iovialis. The period of orbits and relative distances of the four moons satisfied Kepler's third law and he argued the Jovian system was like a mini Solar System.The term "inertia" was first introduced in the Epitome.Due to the book's support for heliocentrism, the first volume was put on the Index of Prohibited Books on 28 February 1619. Editions 1635 reprint: Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae, Vols. 1–3, Schönwetterus. Translations 1939: Epitome of Copernican astronomy. Books IV and V, The organization of the world and the doctrine ...; trans. by Charles Glenn Wallis. Annapolis: St John's Bookstore. 1955: Reissued with Ptolemy's Almagest. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica (1955). 1995: Epitome of Copernican astronomy; & Harmonies of the world; translated by Charles Glenn Wallis. Amherst: Prometheus Books. == Notes ==

Business informatics

Business informatics (BI) is a discipline combining economics, the economics of digitization, business administration, information technology (IT), and concepts of computer science. Business informatics centers around creating programming and equipment frameworks which ultimately provide the organization with effective operation based on information technology application. The focus on programming and equipment boosts the value of the analysis of economics and information technology. The BI discipline was created in Germany (in German: Wirtschaftsinformatik). It is an established academic discipline, including bachelor, master, diploma, and PhD programs in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, The Netherlands, Russia, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland, and Turkey, and is establishing itself in an increasing number of other countries as well, including Finland, Australia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Malaysia, Mexico, Poland, and India.

Business informatics (BI) is a discipline combining economics, the economics of digitization, business administration, information technology (IT), and concepts of computer science. Business informatics centers around creating programming and equipment frameworks which ultimately provide the organization with effective operation based on information technology application. The focus on programming and equipment boosts the value of the analysis of economics and information technology. The BI discipline was created in Germany (in German: Wirtschaftsinformatik). It is an established academic discipline, including bachelor, master, diploma, and PhD programs in Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, The Netherlands, Russia, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland, and Turkey, and is establishing itself in an increasing number of other countries as well, including Finland, Australia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Malaysia, Mexico, Poland, and India. Business informatics as an integrative discipline Business informatics shows similarities to information systems (IS), which is a well-established discipline originating in North America. However, there are a few differences that make business informatics a unique discipline: Business informatics includes information technology, like the relevant portions of applied computer science, to a significantly larger extent than information systems do. Business informatics includes significant construction and implementation-oriented elements. Another thing is one major focus lies in the development of solutions for business problems rather than the ex post investigation of their impact.Information systems (IS) focus on empirically explaining the phenomena of the real world. Information systems has been said to have an "explanation-oriented" focus in contrast to the "solution-oriented" focus that dominates business informatics. Information systems researchers make an effort to explain the phenomena of acceptance and influence of IT in organizations and society by applying an empirical approach. In order to do that, usually qualitative and quantitative empirical studies are conducted and evaluated. In contrast to that, business informatics researchers mainly focus on the creation of IT solutions for challenges they have observed or assumed, and thereby they focus more on the possible future uses of IT.Tight integration between research and teaching following the Humboldtian ideal a major goal in business informatics. Insights gained in actual research projects become part of the curricula quite quickly since most researchers are also lecturers at the same time. The pace of scientific and technological progress in business informatics is quite rapid; therefore, subjects taught are under permanent reconsideration and revision. In its evolution, the business informatics discipline is fairly young. Therefore, significant hurdles have to be overcome in order to further establish its vision. Career prospects Specialists in Business Informatics can work both in research and in commerce. In business, there are various uses, which may vary depending on professional experience. Fields of employment may include: Consulting (Information) System Development Sales Systems Analysis and Organization Business Analyst IT Project Manager IT AuditorIn consulting, a clear line must be drawn between strategic and IT consulting. Journal Business & Information Systems Engineering See also Bachelor of Business Information Systems Master of Business Informatics == References ==

Samuel Kirkland Lothrop

Samuel Kirkland Lothrop (July 6, 1892 – January 10, 1965) was an American archaeologist and anthropologist who specialized in Central and South American Studies. His two-volume 1926 work Pottery of Costa Rica and Nicaragua is regarded as a pioneering study. Lothrop was a longtime research associate of Harvard's Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology and made many contributions based on fieldwork, laboratory analysis, and evaluations of private and public collections that focused on Central and South America. He is known for archaeological excavations in Argentina and Chile as well as investigations of the archaeological contexts for the stone spheres of Costa Rica. Lothrop is also known for his research on goldwork and other artifacts from Costa Rica, the Veraguas Province of Panama, and the Sacred Cenote at Chichen Itza, Mexico.

Samuel Kirkland Lothrop (July 6, 1892 – January 10, 1965) was an American archaeologist and anthropologist who specialized in Central and South American Studies. His two-volume 1926 work Pottery of Costa Rica and Nicaragua is regarded as a pioneering study. Lothrop was a longtime research associate of Harvard's Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology and made many contributions based on fieldwork, laboratory analysis, and evaluations of private and public collections that focused on Central and South America. He is known for archaeological excavations in Argentina and Chile as well as investigations of the archaeological contexts for the stone spheres of Costa Rica. Lothrop is also known for his research on goldwork and other artifacts from Costa Rica, the Veraguas Province of Panama, and the Sacred Cenote at Chichen Itza, Mexico. Early life Lothrop was a descendant of his namesake, prominent Unitarian minister Samuel Kirkland Lothrop. He was born in Milton, Massachusetts on July 6, 1892, to William and Alice Lothrop. His childhood was split between Massachusetts and Puerto Rico. Lothrop's interest in Latin America may have been sparked in his childhood as a result of his having spent time in Puerto Rico, where his father was a banker with interests in the sugarcane industry. Education Lothrop began his education at Groton School, a private boarding school in Massachusetts. He entered Harvard University in 1911, where he completed his undergraduate studies in 1915. In 1914 he married Rachel Warren, daughter of Fiske and Gretchen Osgood Warren. After completing his undergraduate studies he began graduate school at Harvard, focusing on anthropology and archaeology. He traveled extensively throughout Central America as a research associate of the Peabody Museum, excavating various areas and studying collections. His travels and excavations were interrupted by the eruption of World War I, where he served in military intelligence. After the war, he returned to his graduate work, eventually earning his Ph.D. with a doctoral dissertation, a version of which was published in 1926 as Pottery of Costa Rica and Nicaragua. Military career Lothrop was engaged in espionage for the U.S. prior to and during World War I and for the Office of Strategic Services prior to and during World War II. Using anthropologists for gathering intelligence was a common practice of the time. Given their ability to observe cultural practices as well as those useful to strategies of war, not to mention the fact that they could use their careers as a cover for their intelligence gathering, anthropologists are ideal choices for spies. During World War II, he was not excavating once again, because of the time spent working for the military. His position in the military did however give him the opportunity to travel while compositing notes on various sites. Career After completing his doctorate studies, Lothrop worked field excavations in the Yucatan and Guatemala under the employment of the Carnegie Institution's Historical Division. His research resulted in the 1924 publishing of the monograph of his mapping of the Mayan Ruin of Tulum. From 1924 until the end of the stock market crash in 1929 Samuel Kirkland Lothrop was employed by the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. It was during 1929 also that he married his second wife, Eleanor Bachman of Philadelphia. His work while he was on staff at the museum was also focused on Latin America and it was during this time that he established a relationship with Fernando Marquez Miranda. It was through this relationship that Lothrop was one of the few foreigners allowed to conduct excavations in Argentine Territory. Notable excavations Sitio Conte In the 1930s after the closing of the museum, Lothrop returned to the Peabody Museum staff as field director of the Sitio Conte in Central Panama. Before he returned, the Peabody museum had purchased a collection of jewelry excavated from a burial ground. After obtaining permission from the government and the landowner, the museum excavated the burial grounds during the dry seasons from 1930 to 1933. Stone spheres of Costa Rica In 1943 through a publication of American Antiquity by Doris Stone, Lothrop first encountered the mysterious stone spheres. In 1948 he and his wife met up with Doris Stone and she collaborated with them, setting them up with a place to excavate. The stone spheres are a topic of discussion, concerning how these objects were formed and by whom. Lothrop's research resulted in the theory that the balls were placed in alignments significant astronomically. During his research Lothrop recorded 186 balls as reported in his 1963 publication, Archaeology of the Diquís Delta. Lothrop determined that the spheres were formed over many centuries, suggesting a cultural practice and continuity over an extended period of time. His conclusions were based on analyzing the pottery types. Notable accomplishments Lothrop continued to be a contributor to the field up until his death in 1965. Late in life he wrote a book titled The Treasures of Ancient America: The Arts of the Pre-Columbian Civilizations from Mexico to Peru (1964), Editions d'Art Albert Skira, Geneva, 230 pp. As a result of his numerous publications and contributions to the field he was the recipient of numerous honors, medals, and awards. Lothrop was cited by the American Society for American Archaeology in 1960. He also received the Loubat Prize awarded by Columbia University. The Alfred Kidder Vincent Medal given by the Society of American Archaeology. The Royal Anthropological Institute awarded Lothrop the Huxley Memorial Medal. == References ==

John Rowe (merchant)

John Rowe (1715–1787) was a property developer and merchant in 18th century Boston, Massachusetts. As a merchant, John Rowe's most famous cargo was the tea that played a starring role in the Boston Tea Party. As a developer, his name is remembered to this day in the name of Rowes Wharf, a modern development in downtown Boston on the site of his original wharf.

John Rowe (1715–1787) was a property developer and merchant in 18th century Boston, Massachusetts. As a merchant, John Rowe's most famous cargo was the tea that played a starring role in the Boston Tea Party. As a developer, his name is remembered to this day in the name of Rowes Wharf, a modern development in downtown Boston on the site of his original wharf. Biography Rowe was born in Exeter, in the English county of Devon, but immigrated to Boston with his brothers at an early age. He married Hannah Speakman in 1743 and lived in Boston for the rest of his life. His diaries are kept by the Massachusetts Historical Society and include many valuable observations about people, events, and daily life in Boston. He held various posts in Boston, including serving on the Boston Board of Selectmen. Rowe was evidently a very active smuggler, avoiding British trade regulations by trading with forbidden ports. He was also an active slave dealer, shown by his advertisement in the 28 July 1746 edition of the Boston Evening Post. In the ad, Rowe listed goods for auction at his wharf, such as cocoa and rum. After the list of goods, he offered to purchase, "Some Negroes that can work at the Carpenter's Trade", and promised to "give a handsom[e] Price if he likes them." He joined protests against tightening restrictions of colonial trade, and helped incite the anti-Stamp Act riot in 1765 that destroyed Chief Justice Thomas Hutchinson's home.Carl Becker mostly ignored John Rowe in The Eve of Revolution (1918), but he did include a letter written by Thomas Hutchinson. In the letter, Hutchinson claimed that Rowe, Otis and Molineux and Davies provoked the protesters who destroyed Hutchinson's house on 26 August 1765: "When there is occasion to burn or hang effigies or pull down houses, these [rabble] are employed; but since government has been brought to a system, they are somewhat controlled by a superior set consisting of the mastermasons, and carpenters, &c., of the town of Boston. When anything of more importance is to be determined, as opening the custom-house on any matter of trade, these are under the direction of a committee of the merchants, Mr. Rowe at their head, then Molyneaux, Solomon Davies, et&,…this is proper for a general meeting of the inhabitants of Boston, where Otis, with his mob-high of eloquence, prevails in every motion… and it would be a very extraordinary resolve indeed that is not carried into execution". During the era of the American Revolution, Rowe avoided commitment to either side, and instead looked out after his business interests.Rowe was the owner of one of the tea ships, the Eleanor, involved in the Boston Tea Party. According to some accounts, at the Old South Meeting House before the Tea Party, he uttered the famous words, "perhaps salt water and tea will mix tonight," but according to his own journal, he was unwell and was not present during the meeting or the Tea Party. Because several sources placed Rowe at the meeting, it's possible to theorise that the journal entry may have been an attempt to conceal his participation in the events leading to the Tea Party.Rowe had a brother by the name of Jacob Rowe who was also a Merchant by trade. See also Rowes Wharf Little Bay Bridge, officially named for Rowe, between Dover and Newington, New Hampshire References Further reading Edward Pierce. Journal of John Rowe. Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Second Series, Vol. 10, 1895; p. 11+. Archives and records John Rowe letter book at Baker Library Special Collections, Harvard Business School.

GFL Environmental

GFL Environmental Inc. (also known as Green For Life or GFL) is a waste management company with headquarters in Toronto, Canada. GFL operates in all provinces in Canada, and currently employs more than 8,850 people. The company provides environmental services to municipal, residential, commercial, industrial and institutional customers. On July 6, 2021, the company announced the formation of the Resource Recovery Alliance (RRA) and an agreement to acquire Canadian Stewardship Services Alliance.

GFL Environmental Inc. (also known as Green For Life or GFL) is a waste management company with headquarters in Toronto, Canada. GFL operates in all provinces in Canada, and currently employs more than 8,850 people. The company provides environmental services to municipal, residential, commercial, industrial and institutional customers. On July 6, 2021, the company announced the formation of the Resource Recovery Alliance (RRA) and an agreement to acquire Canadian Stewardship Services Alliance. Company history GFL Environmental Inc. was founded in 2007 by Canadian entrepreneur and businessman Patrick Dovigi, who had previous experience in the environmental services industry and wanted to establish a company that could unlock the value in smaller waste companies in Canada.In recent history, GFL, along with subsidiaries under its control, has faced a number of workplace safety and environmental issues. Environmental issues include the spill of 200,000 gallons of used oil by a subsidiary in Illinois; a $300,000 fine from violation of federal guidelines on the sale of tetrachloroethylene (the company and its CEO, Patrick Dovigi, were charged with violation of the Canadian Environmental Protection Act); and an injunction by a Cobb County, Georgia court halting the operation of a landfill. Recent workplace deaths include that of a 31-year-old employee in an industrial accident in 2018 and a 45-year-old-employee trapped under a garbage truck in 2019. Growth GFL was originally established from the merger of several Ontario environmental services firms, including Direct Line Environmental, National Waste Services and Enviro West.The same year that GFL was founded, the company gained the investment interest of Canaccord Genuity Corp. Three years later, in 2010, Roark Capital Group, an Atlanta private equity firm, made a $105 million investment in GFL.GFL began to acquire environmental solution firms around Canada. In 2011, GFL acquired Turtle Island Recycling, a recycling company operating in Toronto.In 2014, GFL acquired the waste collection business of Contrans Group Inc., giving the company a larger solid waste management presence in Edmonton and Slave Lake, Alberta. Also in 2014, GFL purchased the business operated by Waste Management in the provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland and Labrador.A reorganization of GFL's share capital was completed in late 2014. The reorganization saw Roark Capital Group, which had provided capital to GFL since 2010, selling its stake in the company. The reorganization introduced a new investor for GFL, Highbridge Principal Strategies (HPS). GFL announced on September 30, 2016, it completed a merger of Rizzo Environmental Services, Inc. and its subsidiary companies ("Rizzo Environmental" ) with a new U.S. subsidiary of GFL. Rizzo Environmental had provided collection services to more than 40 municipalities in Southeastern Michigan. Its recycling operations, with 3 commercial recycling facilities, had served customers in lower Michigan and northern Ohio. GFL purchased Rizzo Environmental around the same time that Rizzo's CEO, Chuck Rizzo, was indicted for bribery and wire fraud, among other charges.In 2018, its U.S. subsidiary purchased Waste Industries of Raleigh, North Carolina for an undisclosed price. In March 2020, the company held its initial public offering on the Toronto Stock Exchange, pricing shares at $19 each and raising $1.4 billion, giving the company as a whole a market value of $6.1 billion.In July 2021, GFL created the Resource Recovery Alliance (RRA) in response to the Government of Ontario's extended producer responsibility (EPR) regulation requiring product and packaging producers to operate and fully finance Ontario's Blue Box program. Residential solid waste operations In 2011, GFL won a seven-year contract to collect residential garbage from approximately 165,000 homes in west Toronto, specifically in the residential neighborhoods between Yonge Street and the Humber River. The contract was expected to save the city roughly $11 million per year or $78 million over its total term. GFL's award of the contract was particularly publicized because it represented one of Toronto's first moves to privatize and outsource the city's residential garbage collection. GFL's contract with the city of Toronto to collect residential waste west of Yonge Street began in August 2012.In January 2015, the Halifax council awarded GFL three new contracts to collect residential waste in Halifax for the next four yearsIn 2016, the city of Windsor chose to keep their waste and recycling collection service outsourced and elected to retain GFL's services for the next seven years. Windsor first contracted out its waste collection to GFL in 2010 after the city's workers went on a prolonged strike. Soil remediation, excavation, shoring and foundation business. In 2011, GFL was awarded a contract by the city of Toronto to excavate the site of the Pan Am Aquatics Centre in Toronto that was opened for the Pan Am Games in July 2015. In January 2016, GFL acquired Anchor Shoring Group to expand its services offered through its soil remediation, excavation and infrastructure group. Acquisitions In February 2016, GFL completed the acquisition of Services Matrec Inc. (Matrec), the waste management division of Montreal-based TransForce. The $800 million purchase represented GFL's largest acquisition in its company history and was supported by an equity investment of $458 million made by a fund managed by Macquarie Group and an additional investment provided by Highbridge Principal Strategies and other co-investors.The Matrec acquisition also represented GFL's entrance into the Quebec and eastern Ontario markets and increased GFL's total valuation to roughly $2.4 billion.Also in 2016, a new acquisition was announced with Canadian private equity firm, Novacap and Developpement EDB Inc., agreeing to sell Corporation de Developpement de Enviro-Viridis Inc., a Quebec-based environmental services firm, to GFL. On August 17, 2021, GFL acquired solid waste business, Terrapure Environmental Ltd., and its subsidiaries for $743.8 million. The deal did not include Terrapure's battery recycling business.In May 2022, the GFL acquired Sprint Waste Services, a solid waste company with assets in Texas and Louisiana. See also Carbon Solutions Global == References ==

Maui nukupuʻu

The Maui nukupuʻu (Hemignathus affinis) is a species of nukupuʻu Hawaiian honeycreeper that was endemic to the island of Maui in the Hawaiian Islands. The small, five-inch-long bird lived only in eastern Maui, where it was dependent on high-elevation mesic and wet forests of ʻōhiʻa lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) and koa (Acacia koa). These two species of trees attract insects, causing the Maui nukupuʻu to have a higher chance of finding a meal near these trees. It was last sighted in the late 1990's, and is most likely extinct.

The Maui nukupuʻu (Hemignathus affinis) is a species of nukupuʻu Hawaiian honeycreeper that was endemic to the island of Maui in the Hawaiian Islands. The small, five-inch-long bird lived only in eastern Maui, where it was dependent on high-elevation mesic and wet forests of ʻōhiʻa lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) and koa (Acacia koa). These two species of trees attract insects, causing the Maui nukupuʻu to have a higher chance of finding a meal near these trees. It was last sighted in the late 1990's, and is most likely extinct. Description The males were colored green on the nape and head, and yellow on its face, neck, belly, and bottom. The females were completely olive green and were quieter than their male counterparts. Juveniles were gray and green. The bird's inch-long bill was used to peck for insects in the tree's bark. Population This species existed in the Hanawi Area Reserve from 3,000 feet to 4,500 feet above sea level. It formerly survived at lower elevations and even in West Maui. It has only been sighted a few times in the 20th century. It was common in the 1900s, but by 1963 it was thought to be extinct. However, a rediscovery of the species in 1980 proved that the species survived. By the 1980s, the population was thought to be 28 birds as a best estimate. By 1994, that figure dropped down to only one or so birds, a male was sighted but was never seen again. There have been reports of this bird even in 2007; however, it seems that these birds are common ʻamakihi. Any surviving population would be under continuous pressure from habitat loss, habitat degradation by introduced ungulates, and avian malaria carried by introduced mosquitoes. In 2021, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service declared that the species was most likely extinct, noting that extensive surveys for the bird had yielded no definite sightings and had only found Amakihi. On October 16, 2023, the species was delisted from the Endangered Species Act citing extinction. References External links "Maui Nuku Puʻu" (PDF). Hawaii’s Comprehensive Wildlife Conservation Strategy. State of Hawaiʻi. 2005-10-01. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-16.

Against Political Equality

Against Political Equality: The Confucian Case is a 2019 book by Tongdong Bai in which the author advocates a domestic governance that is influenced by Confucianism, possessing both meritocratic characteristics and democratic elements. Bai argues that egalitarianism and its analogous system of liberal democracy sometimes conflict with good governance and the protection of liberties, and that restriction of democracy is necessary for preservation of liberty.

Against Political Equality: The Confucian Case is a 2019 book by Tongdong Bai in which the author advocates a domestic governance that is influenced by Confucianism, possessing both meritocratic characteristics and democratic elements. Bai argues that egalitarianism and its analogous system of liberal democracy sometimes conflict with good governance and the protection of liberties, and that restriction of democracy is necessary for preservation of liberty. Reception In Financial Times, Rana Mitter billed Against Political Equality as a "powerful and lively [contribution] to a major debate that has a long way to go." == References ==

Mar Cambrollé

Mar Cambrollé Jurado (born 1957) is a Spanish trans rights activist.

Mar Cambrollé Jurado (born 1957) is a Spanish trans rights activist. Early life Mar Cambrollé Jurado was born in Seville in 1957. Her father hit her when she was a child because she was feminine. She dropped out of school at age 13, and began working as a dishwasher at age 14.Cambrollé sold crafts in Seville for 14 years, but did not make enough money to set up a storefront. She worked as a prostitute in Barcelona and Italy for a few months, then returned to Seville and used the money she had earned to buy furniture for her house and set up a store. Activity Under the Franco regime, Cambrollé organized the first gay liberation campaign in Andalusia.On October 3, 2018, Cambrollé and a group of 16 other trans people and parents with trans children began a hunger strike and called on Unidas Podemos to support the rapid passage of the Ley Integral de Transexualidad ("Comprehensive Transsexuality Law"). The hunger strike lasted eleven hours before Unidas Podemos agreed to bring the law to a debate in Congress by August 2019. Cambrollé expressed disapproval of the chosen deadline, but said that the hunger strike had been successful.As of December 2018, Cambrollé was the president of the Asociación de Transexuales de Andalucía. As of March 2020, she was the president of the Federación Plataformas Trans. Accolades In October 2018, the University of Málaga's Faculty of Psychology and Speech Therapy honored Cambrollé for her ongoing trans rights activism beginning in her youth. == References ==

Ethnohistory

Ethnohistory is the study of cultures and indigenous peoples customs by examining historical records as well as other sources of information on their lives and history. It is also the study of the history of various ethnic groups that may or may not still exist. The term is most commonly used in writing about the history of the Americas. Ethnohistory uses both historical and ethnographic data as its foundation. Its historical methods and materials go beyond the standard use of documents and manuscripts.

Ethnohistory is the study of cultures and indigenous peoples customs by examining historical records as well as other sources of information on their lives and history. It is also the study of the history of various ethnic groups that may or may not still exist. The term is most commonly used in writing about the history of the Americas. Ethnohistory uses both historical and ethnographic data as its foundation. Its historical methods and materials go beyond the standard use of documents and manuscripts. Practitioners recognize the use of such source material as maps, music, paintings, photography, folklore, oral tradition, site exploration, archaeological materials, museum collections, enduring customs, language, and placenames. Historical development Scholars studying the history of Mexico's indigenous have a long tradition, dating back to the colonial era; they used alphabetic texts and other sources to write the history of Mexico's indigenous peoples. The Handbook of Middle American Indians, edited by archeologist Robert Wauchope was involved with creating a multiple volumes on Mesoamerican ethnohistory, published as Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources, appearing in 1973. At the time that the volumes were published, "both the term 'ethnohistory' and its concepts in the sense used here have entered the literature rather recently and are not fully agreed upon." The volumes were intended to be an inventory of sources "which in later hands could utilize to produce professionally acceptable ethnohistory."In the mid to late 20th century, a number of ethnohistorians of Mexico began to systematically publish many colonial alphabetic texts in indigenous Mexican languages, in a branch of ethnohistory currently known as the New Philology. That built on an earlier tradition of practitioners writing the history of Mexico that fully integrated the history of its indigenous peoples.In the United States, the field arose out of the study of American Indian communities required by the Indian Claims Commission. It gained a pragmatic rather than a theoretical orientation, with practitioners testifying both for and against Indian claims. The emerging methodology used documentary historical sources and ethnographic methods. Among the scholars working on the cases was Latin Americanist Howard F. Cline, who was commissioned to work on Florida Indians and Jicarilla Apache and Erminie Wheeler-Voegelin, Director of the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley Research Project and founder of the American Society for Ethnohistory.The field has also reached into Melanesia, where recent European contact allowed researchers to observe the early postcontact period directly and to address important theoretical questions. Michael Harkin argues that ethnohistory was part of the general rapprochement between history and anthropology in the late 20th century.Ethnohistory grew organically thanks to external nonscholarly pressures, without an overarching figure or conscious plan; even so, it came to engage central issues in cultural and historical analysis. Ethnohistorians take pride in using their special knowledge of specific groups, their linguistic insights, and their interpretation of cultural phenomena. They claim to achieve a more in-depth analysis than the average historian is capable of doing based solely on written documents produced by and for one group. They try to understand culture on its own terms and according to its own cultural code. Ethnohistory differs from other historically-related methodologies in that it embraces emic perspectives as tools of analysis. The field and its techniques are well suited for writing histories of Native American peoples because of its holistic and inclusive framework. It is especially important because of its ability to bridge differing frameworks and access a more informed context for interpretations of the past. The definition of the field has become more refined over the years. Early on, ethnohistory differed from history proper in that it added a new dimension, specifically "the critical use of ethnological concepts and materials in the examination and use of historical source material," as described by William N. Fenton. Later, James Axtell described ethnohistory as "the use of historical and ethnological methods to gain knowledge of the nature and causes of change in a culture defined by ethnological concepts and categories." Others have focused this basic concept on previously ignored historical actors. Ed Schieffelin asserted, for example, that ethnohistory must fundamentally take into account the people's own sense of how events are constituted, and their ways of culturally constructing the past. Finally, Simmons formulated his understanding of ethnohistory as "a form of cultural biography that draws upon as many kinds of testimony as possible over as long a time period as the sources allow." He described ethnohistory as an endeavor based on a holistic, diachronic approach that is most rewarding when it can be "joined to the memories and voices of living people."Reflecting upon the history of ethnohistory as research field in the US, Harkin has situated it within the broader context of convergences and divergences of the fields of history and anthropology and the special circumstances of American Indian land claims and legal history in North American in the mid-20th century.Commenting on the possibilities for ethnohistory studies of traditional societies in Europe (such as Ireland), Guy Beiner observed that "pioneering figures in the development of ethnohistory … have argued that this approach could be fruitfully applied to the study of Western societies, but such initiatives have not picked up and very few explicitly designated ethnohistories of European communities have been written to date". See also History New Philology Aztec codices Maya codices Ethnography Ethnic group Ethnoarchaeology Indian Claims Commission History of the Romani people References Further reading Adams, Richard N. "Ethnohistoric research methods: Some Latin American features." Anthropological Linguistics 9, (1962) 179-205. Bernal, Ignacio. "Archeology and written sources.". 34th International Congress of Americanists (Vienna, 1966). Acta pp. 219–25. Carrasco, Pedro. "La etnohistoria en Meso-américa." 36th International Congress of Americanists (Barcelona, 1964). Acta 2, 109-10. Cline, Howard F. "Introduction: Reflections on Ethnohistory" in Handbook of Middle American Indians, Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources, Part 1, vol. 12. pp. 3–17. Austin: University of Texas Press 1973. Fenton, W.N. "The training of historical ethnologists in America." American Anthropologist 54(1952) 328-39. Gunnerson, J.H. "A survey of ethnohistoric sources." Kroeber Anthr. Soc. Papers 1958, 49-65. Lockhart, James "Charles Gibson and the Ethnohistory of Postconquesst Central Mexico" in Nahuas and Spaniards: Postconquest Central Mexican History and Philology. Stanford University Press and UCLA Latin American Studies, vol. 76. 1991 Sturtevant, W.C. "Anthropology, history, and ethnohistory." Ethnohistory 13(1966) 1-51. Vogelin, E.W. "An ethnohistorian's viewpoint" The Bulletin of the Ohio Valley historic Indian conference, 1 (1954):166-71. External links American Society for Ethnohistory Ethnohistory Map of Tribes in Europe

Avial NV

Avial NV, LLC (Russian: ООО «Авиакомпания «Авиаль НВ») was an airline based in Moscow, Russia. It operated charter, passenger, and cargo flights. Its main base was Domodedovo International Airport, Moscow. Operations were suspended in 2010 with debts of over 1 million roubles and operations were banned after the expiration of the license in July 2011

Avial NV, LLC (Russian: ООО «Авиакомпания «Авиаль НВ») was an airline based in Moscow, Russia. It operated charter, passenger, and cargo flights. Its main base was Domodedovo International Airport, Moscow. Operations were suspended in 2010 with debts of over 1 million roubles and operations were banned after the expiration of the license in July 2011 Fleet The Avial fleet consisted of the following aircraft (at March 2007): 6 Antonov An-12 Previously operated 1 Tupolev Tu-154B-2 (at January 2005) == References ==

K.E. on the Track

Kevin Erondu, better known as K.E. on the Track, is an American record producer.

Kevin Erondu, better known as K.E. on the Track, is an American record producer. Early life Kevin Erondu was born in Tampa, Florida. He originated in Valdosta, Georgia. Career K.E.'s breakthrough came in 2009, when he produced the single "Swag Surfin" by rap group Fast Life Yungstaz. The song received airplay and charted at No. 62 on the Billboard Hot 100.In 2010, he worked on rapper Roscoe Dash's debut album Ready Set Go!, where he produced 5 of the 9 songs, including both singles. "All the Way Turnt Up" was released in January 2010 and peaked at No. 46 on the Billboard Hot 100. It spawned multiple remixes by artists such as Ludacris, Fabolous and MGK. K.E. also co-wrote and produced the second single "Show Out", released in August the same year. In 2011, he produced the song "You the Boss" by Rick Ross and Nicki Minaj, which was originally released as the first single from Ross' fifth studio album God Forgives, I Don't. Eventually the track was taken off the final track list, even though it peaked at No. 62 on the Billboard Hot 100. It was also placed at number 33 and number 37, respectively, on the Billboard Year-end charts for Hot Rap Songs and Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs.In 2012, K.E. worked with Future on his debut album Pluto. K.E. produced the song "Magic," which appeared on Future's 2011 mixtape True Story and its remix with rapper T.I., which was featured on the album. "Magic" was released as the second single from Pluto in January 2012 and peaked at No. 69 on the Billboard Hot 100. Later in 2012, K.E. produced the track "I'm So Blessed" (featuring Big Sean, Wiz Khalifa, Ace Hood and T-Pain) from DJ Khaled's sixth studio album Kiss the Ring. After Khaled heard K.E.'s production on "You the Boss," he contacted him to get some beats and created the song, which made the cut for the album.As a lead artist and record producer, K.E. has released a number of instrumental mixtapes in the Hip hop, trap and EDM genres, such as The Art of Trap, EDM Nation 1 & 2 and the Best Beats in the World series.In November 2012, K.E. stated he was working on Future's second album, as well as tracks with, Young Jeezy, Eminem, French Montana and Kirko Bangz. In December 2013, the lead single from Rick Ross' Mastermind "The Devil Is A Lie" was released, crediting K.E. as the song's producer. In Jan. 2014 K.E. released singles with artists including Kevin Gates, Shy Glizzy, and Tracy-T. He also produced Mila J's lead single, entitled ' Pain In My Heart. In December 2014, K.E. produced three singles on rapper Shy Glizzy's mixtape "LAW 3" In January 2015, K.E. created Beat Mechanics Entertainment to sign artists and producers. He has a Grammy Award nomination for co-producing Tamar Braxton’s Love and War album. Discography 2010: Best Beats in the World 2011: Best Beats in the World 2 2012: Best Beats in the World 3 2012: Best Beats in the World 4 2012: EDM Nation 2013: EDM Nation 2 2013: The Art of Trap Production discography Singles Other songs 2009 Fast Life Yungstaz – Jamboree 02 – Bands 03 – Swag Surfin 04 – Party Time 05 – Mr. Lenox 09 – Prada WalkinLil Wayne – No Ceilings 01 – Swag Surf 2010 J.Reu – The Huggz -N- Kissez Mixtape 08 – I Ain't Even Famous 15 – All the Way Turned OutRoscoe Dash – Ready Set Go! 01 – Ready Set Go 02 – All the Way Turnt Up 03 – Show Out 08 – I Be Shopping 09 – All I KnowNicki Minaj – non-album single 01 – GirlfriendAce Hood – The Statement 05 – Why You Mad Ball Out – non-album single Wind It – non-album single 2012 Maino – The Day After Tomorrow 9 – Let It FlyChris Brown – Future: The Prequel 3 – Gettin' MoneyChris Brown – non-album single Bitch I'm PaidFuture – Astronaut Status 21 – No Matter WhatGucci Mane – Trap Back 17 – Club HoppinCash Out – It's My Time 15 – No Red LightFuture– Pluto 05 – Magic (Remix)Travis Porter – From Day 1 09 – Party TimeRick Ross – God Forgives, I Don't 00 – You the BossDJ Khaled – Kiss the Ring 06 – I'm So BlessedBobby V – Dusk Till Dawn 03 – MirrorChief Keef – Finally Rich 06 – Kay Kay2 Chainz ft. Waka Flocka Ball – non-album single 2013 Young Thug – 1017 Thug 17 – TabernacleFuture & Freeband Gang – Black Woodstock: The Soundtrack 07 – Blow Them BandsRobb Bank$ – Tha City Trust MeSD – Life of a Savage 3 04 – Gotta Get It 2021 Tommy MV$ERVTI – Tommy MV$ERVTI vs. K.E. On The Track 01 - I Get That 02 - 5Ever 03 - Meson Rey References External links K.E. on the Track on Twitter How 'Swag Surfin',' a song with Tampa Bay roots, still crushes clubs eight years later

Theramenes

Theramenes (; Greek: Θηραμένης; died 404/403 BC) was an Athenian military leader and statesman, prominent in the final decade of the Peloponnesian War. He was active during the two periods of oligarchic government at Athens, the 400 and later the Thirty Tyrants, as well as in the trial of the generals who had commanded at Arginusae in 406 BC. A moderate oligarch, he often found himself caught between the democrats on the one hand and the extremist oligarchs on the other. Successful in replacing a narrow oligarchy with a broader one in 411 BC, he failed to achieve the same end in 404 BC, and was executed by the extremists whose policies he had opposed.

Theramenes (; Greek: Θηραμένης; died 404/403 BC) was an Athenian military leader and statesman, prominent in the final decade of the Peloponnesian War. He was active during the two periods of oligarchic government at Athens, the 400 and later the Thirty Tyrants, as well as in the trial of the generals who had commanded at Arginusae in 406 BC. A moderate oligarch, he often found himself caught between the democrats on the one hand and the extremist oligarchs on the other. Successful in replacing a narrow oligarchy with a broader one in 411 BC, he failed to achieve the same end in 404 BC, and was executed by the extremists whose policies he had opposed. Historical record No ancient biographies of Theramenes are known, but his life and actions are relatively well documented, due to the extensive treatment given him in several surviving works. The Attic orator Lysias deals with him at length in several of his speeches, albeit in a very hostile manner. Theramenes also appears in several ancient narrative histories: Thucydides' account includes the beginnings of Theramenes' career, and Xenophon, picking up where Thucydides left off, gives a detailed account of several episodes from Theramenes career including a sympathetic and vivid description of his last actions and words; Diodorus Siculus, probably drawing his account from Ephorus at most points, provides another account that varies widely from Xenophon's at several points. Theramenes also appears in several other sources, which, although they do not provide as many narrative details, have been used to illuminate the political disputes which surrounded Theramenes' life and memory. Family Only the barest outlines of Theramenes' life outside the public sphere have been preserved in the historical record. His father, Hagnon had played a significant role in Athenian public life in the decades before Theramenes' appearance on the scene. He had commanded the group of Greek colonists who founded Amphipolis in 437–6 BC, had served as a general on several occasions before and during the Peloponnesian War, and was one of the signers of the Peace of Nicias. Hagnon's career overlapped with his son's when he served as one of the ten commissioners appointed by the government of the 400 to draft a new constitution in 411 BC. Coup of 411 BC Overthrow of the democracy Theramenes' first appearance in the historical record comes with his involvement in the oligarchic coup of 411 BC. In the wake of the Athenian defeat in Sicily, revolts began to break out among Athens' subject states in the Aegean Sea and the Peace of Nicias fell apart; the Peloponnesian War resumed in full by 412 BC. In this context, a number of Athenian aristocrats, led by Peisander and with Theramenes prominent among their ranks, began to conspire to overthrow the city's democratic government. This intrigue was initiated by the exiled nobleman Alcibiades, who was at that time acting as an assistant to the Persian satrap Tissaphernes. Claiming that he had great influence with Tissaphernes, Alcibiades promised to return to Athens, bringing Persian support with him, if the democracy that had exiled him were replaced with an oligarchy. Accordingly, a number of trierarchs and other leaders of the Athenian army at Samos began planning the overthrow of the democracy. They eventually dispatched Peisander to Athens, where, by promising that the return of Alcibiades and an alliance with Persia would follow if the Athenians would replace their democracy with an oligarchy, he persuaded the Athenian ecclesia to send him as an emissary to Alcibiades, authorized to make whatever arrangements were necessary.Alcibiades, however, did not succeed in persuading the satrap to ally with the Athenians, and, to hide this fact, demanded (claiming to be speaking for Tissaphernes) greater and greater concessions of them until they finally refused to comply. Disenchanted with Alcibiades but still determined to overthrow the democracy, Peisander and his companions returned to Samos, where the conspirators worked to secure their control over the army and encouraged a group of native Samian oligarchs to begin planning the overthrow of their own city's democracy. In Athens, meanwhile, a party of young oligarchic revolutionaries succeeded in gaining de facto control of the government through assassination and intimidation.After making arrangements to their satisfaction at Samos the leaders of the conspiracy set sail for Athens. Among them was Theramenes; Thucydides refers to him as "one of the leaders of the party that put down the democracy—an able speaker and a man with ideas." Calling the assembly together, the conspirators proposed a series of measures by which the democracy was formally replaced with a government of 400 chosen men, who were to select and convene a larger body of 5,000 as time went on. Shortly afterwards, the conspirators went, under arms, to the council chamber, where they ordered the democratic council to disperse after collecting their pay; the council did as ordered, and from this point forward the mechanism of government was fully under the control of the oligarchic conspirators; they quickly changed the laws to reflect the new form of government they had imposed. Conflict within the movement At this point, several conflicts began to develop that threatened the future of the new government at Athens. First, the planned coup at Samos was thwarted by the efforts of Samian democrats and a group of Athenians who they entrusted with helping them. When the army at Samos heard the news of the coup at Athens, which arrived along with exaggerated reports of outrages being perpetrated by the new government, they declared their loyalty to democracy and hostility to the new government. At Athens, meanwhile, a split developed between the moderate and radical oligarchs, with Theramenes emerging alongside one Aristocrates son of Scelias as the leader of the moderate faction. The extremist faction, led by Phrynichus, containing such prominent leaders of the coup as Peisander and Antiphon, and dominant within the 400, opposed broadening the base of the oligarchy, and were willing to seek peace with Sparta on almost any terms. The moderates, on the other hand, although willing to seek peace with Sparta on terms that would preserve Athens' power, were not willing to sacrifice the empire and the fleet, and wanted to broaden the oligarchy to include the putative 5,000, presumably including all men of hoplite status or higher.Shortly after taking power, the extremist leaders of the revolution had begun constructing fortifications on Eëtioneia, a dominant point in the entrance to the harbor of Piraeus, ostensibly to protect the harbor against an attack from the fleet at Samos. With internal dissent increasing, they joined these new fortifications to existing walls to form a redoubt defensible against attacks from land or sea, which contained a large warehouse into which the extremists moved most of the city's grain supply. Theramenes protested strongly against the building of this fortification, arguing that its purpose was not to keep the democrats out, but to be handed over to the Spartans; Thucydides testifies that his charges were not without substance, as the extremists were actually contemplating such an action. Initially cautious (as enemies of the regime had been executed before), Theramenes and his party were emboldened and galvanized into action by several events. First, a Peloponnesian fleet, ostensibly dispatched to assist anti-Athenian forces on Euboea, was moving slowly up the coast of the Peloponnese; Theramenes charged that this fleet was planning to seize the fortifications on Eetioneia, in collaboration with the extremists. Second, an Athenian militiaman, apparently acting on orders from conspirators higher in the ranks of the government, assassinated Phrynichus, the leader of the extremist faction. He escaped, but his accomplice, an Argive, was captured; the prisoner, under torture, refused to state the name of his employer. With the extremists unable to take effective action in this case, and with the Peloponnesian fleet overrunning Aegina (a logical stopping point on the approach to Piraeus), Theramenes and his party decided to act. Aristocrates, who was commanding a regiment of hoplites in Piraeus, arrested the extremist general Alexicles; enraged, the extremist leaders of the 400 demanded action, and made a number of threats against Theramenes and his party. To their surprise, Theramenes volunteered to lead a force to rescue Alexicles; the leaders of the extremists acquiesced, and Theramenes set out to Piraeus, sharing his command with one other moderate and one extremist, Aristarchus. When Theramenes and his force arrived at Piraeus, Aristarchus, in a rage, exhorted the men to attack the hoplites who had seized Alexicles. Theramenes feigned rage as well, but when asked by the hoplites whether he thought that the fortification on Eetioneia was a good idea, he responded that if they wanted to pull it down, he thought that would be good. Calling out that everyone who wanted the 5,000 to govern instead of the 400, the hoplites set to work. Donald Kagan has suggested that this call was probably instigated by Theramenes' party, who wanted the 5,000 to govern; the hoplites tearing down the fortification might well have preferred a return to the democracy. Several days later, the Peloponnesian fleet approached Piraeus, but, finding the fortifications destroyed and the port well defended, they sailed on to Euboea. Several days later, the 400 were formally deposed and replaced by a government of the 5,000; the most extreme of the oligarchs fled the city. In command Under the government of the 5,000 and under the democracy that replaced it in 410 BC, Theramenes served as a general for several years, commanding fleets in the Aegean Sea and the Hellespont. Shortly after the rise of the government of the 5,000, Theramenes set sail to the Hellespont to join Thrasybulus and the generals elected by the army at Samos. After the Athenian victory at Abydos, he took thirty triremes to attack the rebels on Euboea, who were building a causeway to Boeotia to provide land access to their island. Unable to stop the construction, he plundered the territory of several rebellious cities, then travelled around the Aegean suppressing oligarchies and raising funds from various cities of the Athenian Empire. He then took his fleet to Macedon, where he assisted the Macedonian king Archelaus in his siege of Pydna, but, with that siege dragging on, he sailed on to join Thrasybulus in Thrace. The fleet soon moved on from there to challenge Mindarus' fleet, which had seized the city of Cyzicus. Theramenes commanded one wing of the Athenian fleet in the resulting Battle of Cyzicus, a decisive Athenian victory. In that battle, Alcibiades (who had been recalled from exile by the fleet at Samos shortly after the coup) led a decoy force that drew the Spartan fleet out into open water, while Thrasybulus and Theramenes, each commanding an independent squadron, cut off the Spartans' retreat. Mindarus was forced to flee to a nearby beach, and vicious fighting ensued on land as the Athenians attempted to drag off the Spartan ships. Thrasybulus and Alcibiades kept the Spartans occupied while Theramenes joined up with the nearby Athenian land forces and then hurried to the rescue; his arrival precipitated a total Athenian victory, in which all the Spartan ships were captured. In the wake of this victory, the Athenians captured Cyzicus and constructed a fort at Chrysopolis, from which they extracted a customs duty of one tenth on all ships passing through the Bosporus. Theramenes and another general remained at this fort with a garrison of thirty ships to oversee the collection of the duty. At Athens, meanwhile, the government of the 5,000 was replaced by a restored democracy within a few months of this battle; Donald Kagan has suggested that the absence of Theramenes, "the best spokesman for the moderates", paved the way for this restoration.According to Diodorus and Plutarch, Theramenes participated under the command of Alcibiades to the siege of Byzantium (408 BC), winning the battle against the Peloponnesian army that was appointed to defend that city: Alcibiades was in command of the right wing, while Theramenes was in charge of the left one. Arginusae Theramenes remained a general through 407 BC, but, in that year, when the Athenian defeat at Notium led to the downfall of Alcibiades and his political allies, Theramenes was not reelected. In the next year, however, he did sail as a trierarch in the scratch Athenian relief fleet sent out to relieve Conon, who had been blockaded with 40 triremes at Mytilene by Callicratidas. That relief force won a surprising victory over the more experienced Spartan force in the Battle of Arginusae, but in the wake of that battle Theramenes found himself in the middle of a massive controversy. At the end of the battle, the generals in command of the fleet had conferred to decide on their next steps. Several pressing concerns presented themselves; 50 Peloponnesian ships under Eteonicus remained at Mytilene, blockading Conon, and decisive action by the Athenians could lead to the destruction of that force as well, but, at the same time, ships needed to be dispatched to recover the sailors of the twenty five Athenian triremes sunk or disabled in the battle. Accordingly, all eight generals, with the larger part of the fleet, set out for Mytilene, while a rescue force under Thrasybulus and Theramenes, both of whom were trierarchs in this battle but had served as generals in prior campaigns, remained behind to pick up the survivors and retrieve corpses for burial. At this point, however, a severe storm blew up, and both of these forces were driven back to shore. Eteonicus escaped, and a great number of Athenian sailors—estimates as to the precise figure have ranged from near 1,000 to as many as 5,000—drowned. Soon after the news of this public tragedy reached Athens, a massive controversy erupted over the apportionment of blame for the botched rescue. The public was furious over the loss of so many sailors, and over the failure to recover the bodies of the dead for burial, and the generals suspected that Thrasybulus and Theramenes, who had already returned to Athens, might have been responsible for stirring up the assembly against them, and wrote letters to the people denouncing the two trierarchs as responsible for the failed rescue. Thrasybulus and Theramenes were called before the assembly to defend their behavior; in their defense, Theramenes produced a letter from the generals in which they blamed only the storm for the mishap; the trierarchs were exonerated, and public anger now turned against the generals. All eight were deposed from office, and summoned back to Athens to stand trial. Two fled, but six returned as commanded to face the charges against them.Diodorus notes that the generals committed a critical error by attempting to shift the blame onto Theramenes. "For," he states, "although they could have had the help of Theramenes and his associates in the trial, men who both were able orators and had many friends and, most important of all, had been participants in the events relative to the battle, they had them, on the contrary, as adversaries and bitter accusers." When the trial came, Theramenes' numerous political allies were among the leaders of the faction seeking the generals' conviction. A bitter series of debates and legal maneuvers ensued as the assembly fought over what to do with the generals. At first, it appeared that they might be treated leniently, but in the end, public displays of bereavement by the families of the deceased and aggressive prosecution by a politician named Callixenus swung the opinion of the assembly; the six generals were tried as a group and executed. The Athenian public, as the grief and anger prompted by the disaster cooled, came to regret their action, and for thousands of years historians and commentators have pointed to the incident as perhaps the greatest miscarriage of justice the city's government ever perpetrated. Negotiating a peace In 405 BC, the Athenian navy was defeated and destroyed by the Peloponnesian fleet under Lysander at the Battle of Aegospotami in the Hellespont. Without sufficient funds to build another fleet, the Athenians could only wait as Lysander sailed westward across the Aegean towards their city. Blockaded by land and sea, with their food supplies running low, the Athenians sent ambassadors to the Spartan king Agis, whose army was camped outside their walls, offering to join the Spartan alliance if they were allowed to keep their walls and port; Agis, claiming that he had no power to negotiate, sent the ambassadors on to Sparta, but there they were told that, if they really wanted peace, they should bring the Spartans better proposals. The Athenians were initially intransigent, going so far as to imprison a man who suggested that a stretch of the long walls be torn down as the Spartans had insisted, but the reality of their situation soon compelled them to consider compromises. In this situation, Theramenes, in a speech to the assembly, requested that he be sent as an ambassador to Lysander (who was at this time besieging Samos) to determine the Spartans' intentions towards Athens; he also stated that he had discovered something that might improve the Athenians' situation, although he declined to share it with the citizenry. His request was granted, and Theramenes sailed to Samos to meet with Lysander; from there, he was sent to Sparta, perhaps stopping at Athens on the way. At Sparta, with representatives of all of Sparta's allies present, Theramenes and his colleagues negotiated the terms of the peace that ended the Peloponnesian War; the long walls and the walls of Piraeus were pulled down, the size of the Athenian fleet was sharply limited, and Athenian foreign policy was subordinated to that of Sparta; the treaty also stipulated that the Athenians were to use "the constitution of their ancestors". Theramenes returned to Athens and presented the results of the negotiations to the assembly; although some still favored holding out, the majority voted to accept the terms; the Peloponnesian War, after 28 years, was at an end. Thirty Tyrants In the wake of Athens' surrender, the long walls were torn down and the troops besieging the city returned to their various homes; a Spartan garrison probably remained in Athens to supervise the dismantling of the walls; Lysander sailed off to Samos to complete the siege of that city. Another clause of the treaty that had ended the war had allowed all exiles to return to Athens, and these men, many of them oligarchic agitators who had been cast out by the democracy, were hard at work in the months after the treaty. Five "overseers" were appointed by the members of the oligarchic social clubs to plan the transition to an oligarchy. In July 404 BC, they summoned Lysander back to Athens, where he supervised the change of government; an oligarchic politician, Dracontides, proposed in the council to place the government in the hands of thirty chosen men; Theramenes supported this motion, and, with Lysander threatening to punish the Athenians for failing to dismantle the walls quickly enough unless they assented, it passed the assembly. Thirty men were selected: ten appointed by the "overseers", ten chosen by Theramenes (including himself), and ten picked by Lysander.This government, which soon came to be known as the "Thirty Tyrants" for its excesses and atrocities, rapidly set about establishing its control over the city. The oligarchs, led by Critias, one of the "overseers" and a former exile, summoned a Spartan garrison to ensure their safety and then initiated a reign of terror, executing any men who they thought might possess sufficient initiative or a large enough following to effectively challenge them. It was this campaign that first drove a wedge between Theramenes and the leaders of the Thirty; initially a supporter of Critias, Theramenes now argued that it was unnecessary to execute men who had shown no sign of wishing the oligarchy harm just because they had been popular under the democracy. This protest, however, failed to slow the pace of the executions, so Theramenes next argued that, if the oligarchy was to govern by force, it must at least expand its base; fearful that Theramenes might lead a popular movement against them, Critias and the leaders of the Thirty issued a list of 3,000 men who would be associates in the new government. When Theramenes again objected that this number was still too small, the leaders arranged for a military review to be staged after which the citizens were ordered to pile their arms; with the help of the Spartan garrison, the oligarchs then confiscated all arms except those belonging to the 3,000. This, in turn, marked the beginning of even greater excesses; to pay the Spartan garrison's wages, Critias and the leaders ordered each of the Thirty to arrest and execute a metic, or resident alien, and confiscate his property. Theramenes, protesting that this action was worse than the worst excesses of the democracy, refused to follow the order.Critias and his compatriots, in the light of these events, decided that Theramenes had become an intolerable threat to their rule; accordingly, speaking before the assembly of the 3,000, Critias denounced Theramenes as a born traitor, always ready to shift his political allegiances with the expediencies of the moment. Famously, he branded him with the nickname "cothurnus", the name of a boot worn on the stage that could fit either foot; Theramenes, he proclaimed, was ready to serve either the democratic or oligarchic cause, seeking only to further his own personal interest. In an impassioned response, Theramenes denied that his politics had ever been inconsistent. He had always, he insisted, favored a moderate policy, neither extreme democracy nor extreme oligarchy, and held true to the ideal of a government composed of men of hoplite status or higher, who would be able to effectively serve the state. This speech had a substantial effect on the audience, and Critias saw that, if the case were brought to a vote, Theramenes would be acquitted. Accordingly, after conferring with the Thirty, Critias ordered men with daggers to line the stage in front of the audience and then struck Theramenes' name from the roster of the 3,000, denying him his right to a trial. Theramenes, springing to a nearby altar for sanctuary, admonished the assemblage not to permit his murder, but to no avail; the Eleven, keepers of the prison, entered, dragged him away, and forced him to drink a cup of hemlock. Theramenes, imitating a popular drinking game in which the drinker toasted a loved one as he finished his cup, downed the poison and then flung the dregs to the floor, exclaiming "Here's to the health of my beloved Critias!" Historiography Theramenes lived a controversial life, and his death did not end the struggle over how to interpret his actions. In the years after his death, his reputation became an item of contention as former associates of his defended themselves against prosecutors under the restored democracy. (The regime of the Thirty lasted only until 403 BC.) It would appear that, as they defended themselves before democratic-sympathizing Athenian jurymen, Theramenes' former comrades in the oligarchy attempted to exculpate themselves by associating their actions with those of Theramenes and portraying him as a steadfast defender of the Athenian democracy; examples of such accounts can be found in the Histories of Diodorus Siculus and in the "Theramenes papyrus", a fragmentary work discovered in the 1960s. An example of the sort of attack this portrayal was intended to defend against can be found in two orations of Lysias, Against Eratosthenes and Against Agoratus; there, Theramenes is portrayed as treasonous and self-interested, doing tremendous harm to the Athenian cause through his machinations. Xenophon adopts a similarly hostile attitude in the early parts of his work, but apparently had a change of heart during the chronological break in composition that divides the second book of the Hellenica; his portrayal of Theramenes during the reign of the Thirty Tyrants is altogether more favorable than that of his earlier years. A final portrayal is offered by Aristotle, who, in his Constitution of the Athenians, portrays Theramenes as a moderate and a model citizen; historians have disputed the origin of this account, with some treating it as a product of 4th-century BC propaganda by a moderate "Theramenean" party, while others, such as Phillip Harding, see no evidence for such a tradition and argue that Aristotle's treatment of Theramenes is entirely a product of his own reassessment of the man. Diodorus Siculus, a historian active in the time of Caesar, presents a generally favorable account of Theramenes, which appears to be drawn from the noted historian Ephorus, who studied in Athens under Isocrates who was taught by Theramenes. Theramenes' reputation has undergone a dramatic shift since the 19th century, when Xenophon's and Lysias' unfavorable accounts were widely accepted, and Theramenes was execrated as a turncoat and blamed for instigating the execution of the generals after Arginusae. The discovery of Aristotle's Constitution of the Athenians in 1890 reversed this trend for the broad assessment of Theramenes' character, and Diodorus' account of the Arginusae trial has been preferred by scholars since Antony Andrewes undermined Xenophon's account in the 1970s; Diodorus' more melodramatic passages, such as his elaborate presentation of Theramenes' last moments, are still discounted, but he is now preferred on a number of issues, and on the Arginusae trial in particular. Aristophanes, in The Frogs, pokes fun at Theramenes' ability to extricate himself from tight spots, but delivers none of the scathing rebukes one would expect for a politician whose role in the shocking events after Arginusae had been regarded as particularly blameworthy, and modern scholars have seen in this a more accurate depiction of how Theramenes was perceived in his time; Lysias, meanwhile, who mercilessly attacks Theramenes on many counts, has nothing negative to say about the aftermath of Arginusae.Recent works have generally accepted the image of Theramenes as a moderate, committed to the ideal of a hoplite-based broad oligarchy. Donald Kagan has said of him that "...his entire career reveals him to be a patriot and a true moderate, sincerely committed to a constitution granting power to the hoplite class, whether in the form of a limited democracy or a broadly based oligarchy", while John Fine has noted that "like many a person following a middle course, he was hated by both political extremes." The constitution of the 5,000 is recognized as his political masterpiece; his attempt to bring about a similar shift towards moderatism in 404 led directly to his death. That death, meanwhile, has become famous for its drama, and the story of Theramenes' final moments has been repeated over and over throughout classical historiography. "Because he met his death defying a tyrant," John Fine notes, "it is easy to idealize Theramenes." In the millennia since his death, Theramenes has been both idealized and reviled; his brief seven-year career in the spotlight, touching as it did on all the major points of controversy in the last years of the Peloponnesian War, has been subject to myriad different interpretations. From the polemical contemporary works which describe his career have emerged the outlines of a complex figure, charting a dangerous course through the chaos of the late 5th-century Athenian political scene; although historians from ancient times to the present have offered far more specific portraits, of one form or another, it may be that nothing more than that outline will ever be known with certainty. Notes References Ancient sources Aristotle. Athenian Constitution . Translated by Frederic George Kenyon – via Wikisource. Diodorus Siculus, Library Lysias, Against Agoratus Lysias, Against Eratosthenes Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War . Translated by Richard Crawley – via Wikisource. Xenophon (1890s) [original 4th century BC]. Hellenica . Translated by Henry Graham Dakyns – via Wikisource. Unknown author, P. Mich. 5982 De Theramene Plutarch, Life of Alcibiades Modern sources Andrewes, A. "The Arginousai Trial", Phoenix, Vol. 28 No. 1 (Spring 1974) pp. 112–122 Fine, John V.A. The Ancient Greeks: A critical history (Harvard University Press, 1983) ISBN 0-674-03314-0 Harding, Phillip. "The Theramenes Myth", Phoenix, Vol. 28, No. 1 (Spring 1974), pp. 101–111 Hornblower, Simon. The Greek World 479–323 BC (Routledge, 1991) ISBN 0-415-06557-7 Kagan, Donald. The Peloponnesian War (Penguin Books, 2003). ISBN 0-670-03211-5 Keaney, John J. "A Source/Model of Aristotle's Portrait of Theramenes". The Classical Journal, Vol. 75, No. 1 (Oct.–Nov. 1979) pp. 40–41 Peck, Harry Thurston (1898). Harper's Dictionary Of Classical Literature And Antiquities. Perrin, Bernadotte, "The Rehabilitation of Theramenes", The American Historical Review, Vol. 9 No. 4 (July 1904) pp. 649–669 External links Caspari, Maximilian Otto Bismarck (1911). "Theramenes" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). pp. 792–793.

Cassander

Cassander (Greek: Κάσσανδρος Kassandros; c. 355 BC – 297 BC) was king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia from 305 BC until 297 BC, and de facto ruler of southern Greece from 317 BC until his death.A son of Antipater and a contemporary of Alexander the Great, Cassander was one of the Diadochi who warred over Alexander's empire following the latter's death in 323 BC. Cassander later seized power by having Alexander's son and heir Alexander IV murdered. While governing Macedonia from 317 BC until 297 BC, Cassander focused on strengthening the northern borders and economic development, while founding or restoring several cities (including Thessalonica, Cassandreia, and Thebes); however, his ruthlessness in dealing with political enemies complicates assessments of his rule.

Cassander (Greek: Κάσσανδρος Kassandros; c. 355 BC – 297 BC) was king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia from 305 BC until 297 BC, and de facto ruler of southern Greece from 317 BC until his death.A son of Antipater and a contemporary of Alexander the Great, Cassander was one of the Diadochi who warred over Alexander's empire following the latter's death in 323 BC. Cassander later seized power by having Alexander's son and heir Alexander IV murdered. While governing Macedonia from 317 BC until 297 BC, Cassander focused on strengthening the northern borders and economic development, while founding or restoring several cities (including Thessalonica, Cassandreia, and Thebes); however, his ruthlessness in dealing with political enemies complicates assessments of his rule. Early history In his youth, Cassander was taught by the philosopher Aristotle at the Lyceum in Macedonia. He was educated alongside Alexander the Great in a group that included Hephaestion, Ptolemy and Lysimachus. His family were distant collateral relatives to the Argead dynasty.Cassander is first recorded as arriving at Alexander the Great's court in Babylon in 323 BC, where he had been sent by his father, Antipater, most likely to help uphold Antipater's regency in Macedon, although a later contemporary who was hostile to the Antipatrids suggested that Cassander had journeyed to the court to poison the King. Cassander left Alexander's court either shortly before or after the king's death in June of 323 BC, playing no part in the immediate power struggles over the empire. Cassander returned to Macedonia and assisted his father's governance, he was later assigned by Antipater to Antigonus as his chiliarch from 321 to 320, probably to monitor the latter's activities. Rule of Macedon As Antipater grew close to death in 319 BC, he transferred the regency of Macedon not to Cassander, but to Polyperchon, possibly so as not to alarm the other Diadochi through an apparent move towards dynastic ambition, but perhaps also because of Cassander's own ambitions. Cassander rejected his father's decision, and immediately went to seek the support of Antigonus, Ptolemy and Lysimachus as his allies. Waging war on Polyperchon, Cassander destroyed his fleet, put Athens under the control of Demetrius of Phaleron, and declared himself Regent in 317 BC. After Olympias’ successful move against Philip III later in the year, Cassander besieged her in Pydna. When the city fell in the spring of 316, Olympias was killed, and Cassander had Alexander IV and Roxana confined at Amphipolis.That year, Cassander associated himself with the Argead dynasty by marrying Alexander's half-sister, Thessalonike, and overseeing the burial of Phillip III and Eurydice in the royal cemetery at Aegae; he further cemented his authority by founding Thessalonica, Cassandreia, and rebuilding Thebes. From 314-310, Cassander campaigned to the west and north, for a time extending Macedonian power as far as Apollonia and Epidamus, but was driven out by local rulers like Glaucius; his rule in Macedonia remained firm as he resettled defeated enemies in the tradition of Phillip II and fostered trade in the regions around his new cities. Cassander had Alexander IV and Roxana secretly poisoned in either 310 BC or the following year.By 309 BC, Polyperchon had begun to claim that Heracles was the true heir to the Macedonian inheritance, at which point Cassander bribed Polyperchon to kill the boy, promising him an alliance and the return of his Macedonian estates. After this, Cassander's position in Greece and Macedonia was reasonably secure, and he proclaimed himself king in 305 BC. Diodorus Siculus relates that Cassander, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus declared their kingships in response to the assumption of royal title by Antigonus, following his victory over Ptolemy at Salamis in 306. In 307–304 BC he fought the so-called Four–Years' War against Athens. In 304 BC, his rival Antigonus Monophthalmus sent his son Demetrius Poliorcetes to aid Athens against Cassander. Demetrius succeeded in driving Cassander from central Greece and created a Hellenic League, the League of Corinth, against him. In the winter of 303–302 BC, Cassander opened negotiations with Antigonus with a view to establish peace, but Antigonus refused. At this Cassander turned to Lysimachus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus and convinced them to reform the coalition of 314–311 against Antigonus. In early 302 BC, Cassander sent one of his generals, Prepelaus, with an army from Macedon to join Lysimachus in an invasion of Antigonus's territory in Asia-Minor. Cassander himself marched with the main Macedonian field army into Thessaly to stop Demetrius from advancing into Macedon. Demetrius invaded Thessaly with a numerically superior force, Cassander stopped his advance by refusing to give battle and fortifying his positions. Lysimachus and Prepalaus had been very successful in Asia-Minor and Seleucus was marching with an army to join them. In the spring of 302 BC, Antigonus marched with an army from Syria into Asia-Minor to confront his enemies; he confronted Lysimachus and drove him from Phrygia. Antigonus realizing that the war would probably have to be decided in a major battle in Asia-Minor recalled Demetrius from Thessaly. With Demetrius gone Cassander sent part of his army with his brother, Pleistarchus, to join Prepalaus, Lysimachus and Seleucus in Asia-Minor. In 301 BC, the combined armies of Lysimachus, Seleucus, Prepalaus and Pleistarchus faced the combined armies of Antigonus and Demetrius at Ipsus. After the Battle of Ipsus in which Antigonus was killed, Cassander was undisputed in his control of Macedon; however, he had little time to savour the fact, dying of dropsy in 297 BC.Cassander's dynasty did not live much beyond his death, with his son Philip dying of natural causes, and his other sons Alexander and Antipater becoming involved in a destructive dynastic struggle along with their mother. When Alexander was ousted as joint king by his brother, Demetrius I took up Alexander's appeal for aid and ousted Antipater, killed Alexander V and established the Antigonid dynasty. The remaining Antipatrids, such as Antipater II Etesias, were unable to re-establish the Antipatrids on the throne. Legacy Cassander stood out amongst the Diadochi in his hostility to Alexander's memory. Arrian later reported that he could not pass a statue of Alexander without feeling faint. Cassander has been perceived to be ambitious and unscrupulous, and even members of his own family were estranged from him. However, historians like John D. Grainger argue this characterization owes much to stories spread by his rivals.Cassander was responsible for the deaths of more Argeads than other Diadochi, (Alexander IV, Roxana, and Alexander's supposed illegitimate son Heracles, as well as allowing Olympias to be killed by a Macedonian assembly), he was not the only one willing to kill Alexander's relatives: Polyperchon and Antigonus were just as willing to do the same when it benefitted them. From numismatic evidence, Evan Pitt argues that Cassander's actions until 311 BC were motivated more by self-preservation and maintenance of his own power rather than royal ambition and rivalry to Alexander the Great. Cassander's decision to restore Thebes, which had been destroyed by Alexander, was perceived at the time to be a snub to the deceased king, though it also had the realpolitik effect of providing a power base for Cassander in Boeotia. Like the other Diodochoi, Cassander participated in the appropriation of regal iconography which linked him to Alexander the Great. Other Diadochi depicted themselves and Alexander on their coins in profile with varying attributes, such as elephant-hide headdresses or horns; Cassander followed Alexander's own precedent and had himself or the dead king wearing a lion-skin cloak stamped on one side of his coins. These royal iconographies established by Alexander and continued by his immediate successors set patterns for royal coinage which were influential and enduring across the Mediterranean and West Asia. Also of lasting significance was Cassander's refoundation of Therma into Thessalonica, naming the city after his wife. Cassander also founded Cassandreia upon the ruins of Potidaea, as well as the city of Antipatreia in the Aspros Valley. Notes References Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca chapters xviii, xix, xx Green, Peter, Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2007. ISBN 9780297852940 Richard A. Billows, Antigonos the One-Eyed and the Creation of the Hellenistic State, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, 1990. ISBN 0-520-20880-3 Plutarch, Parallel Lives, "Demetrius", 18, 31; "Phocion", 31 Franca Landucci Gattinoni: L'arte del potere. Vita e opere di Cassandro di Macedonia. Stuttgart 2003. ISBN 3-515-08381-2 External links A genealogical tree of Cassander

Asase Ya/Afua

Asase Ya/Afua (or Asase Yaa, Asaase Yaa, Asaase Afua, Asaase Efua) is the Akan goddess of fertility, love, procreation, peace, truth and the dry and lush earth in Ghana and Ivory Coast. She is also Mother of the Dead known as Mother Earth or Aberewaa. Asase is the wife of Nyankapon, the male sky deity, and is the daughter of Nyame, the female aspect of the Nyankapon-Nyame-Odomakoma trinity, all of whom created the universe. Asase gave birth to two children, Bea and Tano. Bea is also named Bia.

Asase Ya/Afua (or Asase Yaa, Asaase Yaa, Asaase Afua, Asaase Efua) is the Akan goddess of fertility, love, procreation, peace, truth and the dry and lush earth in Ghana and Ivory Coast. She is also Mother of the Dead known as Mother Earth or Aberewaa. Asase is the wife of Nyankapon, the male sky deity, and is the daughter of Nyame, the female aspect of the Nyankapon-Nyame-Odomakoma trinity, all of whom created the universe. Asase gave birth to two children, Bea and Tano. Bea is also named Bia. In some folklore tales, Asase is also the mother of Anansi, the trickster, and divine stepmother of the sacred high chiefs. Asase is very powerful, though no temples are dedicated to her, instead, she is worshipped in the agricultural fields of the Asante and other Akans. Asase is highly respected amongst Akans. Sacrifices are given to her for favour and blessings. Asase's favoured people are the Bono people. Planet Earth is Asase Yaa's symbol whilst Venus is Asase Afua's symbol. Names The name Asase means 'Land' in Twi. The name Ya means 'one born on Thursday, meaning that Asase was created on a Thursday. However, the name Afua means 'one born on Friday', meaning that in she was created on Friday. In actuality, the Asante believe that Asase was created on a Thursday while the Fante believe that Asase was created on a Friday. Due to this, the Asante and most other Akans call Asase 'Asase Ya' meaning 'Earth born on Thursday' whilst the Fante and the other Akans call Asase 'Asase Efua (Afua)' meaning 'Earth born on Friday'The Asante also know Asase Ya as Aberewaa, meaning 'old woman'Asase is also known as 'Asase bo ne nsie' meaning 'Earth, creator of the underworld' Description Asase has two differing descriptions and, thus, two different personalities. However, they are both one deityAsase Yaa: Asase Yaa is described as an old woman, linked to the other meaning of the name Asase Yaa; Old Mother Earth, and the other name Asase Yaa is known as, Aberewaa. As such she is regarded as the Goddess of the barren places on earth and the dead (she is the mother of the Dead). Asase Yaa is also the Goddess of Truth and Peace and is consulted on matters of the community through divination. As the Goddess of Truth and the Mother of the dead, she governs the gateway to Asamando, the Akan Ancestral Realm. At death, Asase Yaa reclaims her mortal children, humanity.Asase Afua: Asase Afua, by contrast, is depicted as a youthful, incredibly beautiful woman. Due to this, she is regarded as the Goddess of the fertile places on earth, fertility, farming, love and procreation. Mmoatia are said to be her spiritual custodians similar to how baboons are the custodians of Ta Kora. Asase Afua is have said to have given birth to all of humanity, despite the Asante proverb that says that all of mankind are children of Nyame, not Asase, although this actually applies to one's Sunsum and Kra (Ego and Soul), not Mogya (blood) and Honam (body). It is this form of Asase who is the wife of Nyankapon. Asase Afua is represented by the antelope and either still is, or used to be, represented by the goat . The antelope has 10 coils on the left horn and 8 coils on the right, the right horn and the antelope with 8 coils on each of its horns represents Asase Afua as it is a symbol of fertility in the Akan religion due to Venus (the sign of Asase Afua) was said to be an eight-rayed star, with possibly cross-divided or divided eye, representing the waxing and waning moon, symbolic of fertility (Asase Afua) and death. Asase shares this animal with her mother, Nyame who represents the 10 coiled horn and the 10 coiled horned antelopes. The goat also represents (or represented) her due to goats having a procreative and sexual meaning, but it was entirely supplanted by Ta Kora whom either took the goat symbol for himself or shares it with herAll Akans, no matter if they call Asase Yaa or Afua, recognize that Asase has two personalities; One old and one youthful Asase Yaa/Afua Worship and Taboos There are many ways that Asase Yaa/Afua is worshipped. Here are some of the ways Goddess of Truth As the upholder of truth, lying is a taboo committed against Asase. When a member of the Akan people wants to prove their credibility, they touch their lips or tongue to the soil of the Earth and recite the Asase Ya Prayer-Poem as evidence of their honesty Goddess of the Earth, Fertility, Procreation and Farming As the Goddess of the Earth, she is credited as being the nurturer of the earth and is considered to provide sustenance for all. As such she is regularly worshipped so she doesn't withhold her abundance of resources. For the Asante, Bono and most other Akans, Thursday is reserved as Asase's day. On said day these Akan people generally abstain from tilling the land. However, for the Fante and few other Akans, Friday is reserved as Asase's day. On said day, Fante and other Akans generally abstain from tilling the land.No one is allowed to change or agitate the land without the consent of Asase, which can only be gained by pouring libations to Asase. Serious consequences can befall those who violate this rule. Before planting the person who is going to plant must knock upon the earth as if she was a doorDuring a child's outdooring (naming) ceremony, once the child's complete name is bestowed upon the infant, the child is placed on a mat symbolizing thanksgiving to Asase for sustaining its life and for allowing the parents to successfully procreateAs the aspect of Earth, Asase receives the deceased body for intermentThe colour marron is associated with Asase due to its link to clay (which comes from the earth) and the clay, due to its connection to Asase is seen as a healing and purifying agent in Akan culture.If a person commits a sexual in the bush, Assase Yaa must be propitiatedBefore setting up a house, a sacrifice of appeasement is made towards Assase so that the house is protected from evil spiritsWhen humans die, their honam and mogya are returned to AsaseDuring ayie (funeral rites) libations are poured so Asase can permit the grave of the deceased to be buried Goddess of Peace Asase is the God of peace, meaning that when there is a murder, war or a way where human blood is intentionally spilt, very substantial sacrifices are needed in order to appease Asase Mother of the Dead As the Mother of the Dead, she is the one who comes to fetch Akan people's souls to the otherworld (Asamando) at the time of death [cite]. Also, it is with her name that the first offerings are made to the ancestors, due to the fact that the Ancestors are looked over by Asase. During ayie libations are poured so Asase can accept and protect the person to be buried and to lead them peacefully to Asamando Libations and reverence towards Asase As the first deity to be created by Nyame, Asase is called in libations immediately after NyameThe Akan believe that everyone has the ability to show reverence towards Asase, whether by pouring libations to her or by looking after her (i.e. looking after the world)Fowls are sacrificed in her name and their blood poured onto the floor, specifically by farmers when they need Asase's permission to plough, plant and harvest Proverbs and Adinkra Here are proverbs linked to Asase: Asase Ye Duru: lit The Land has weight. This proverb and Adinkra (shown below) symbolizes the providence and the divinity of Mother Earth and this symbol represents the importance of the Earth in sustaining lifeTumi nyina ne asase: lit All power emanates from Land. This proverb attests to the power of Asase, where anything earthly that has power is part of her power Asase ye duru sen epo: lit The Land is much heavier than the Sea. This proverb shows the importance of Asase to the AkanNipa nyina ye Nyame mma, obi nye Asase ba: lit All mankind is Onyame's offspring, no one is the offspring of the Land. This means that spiritually (as far as Sunsum and Kra go) humans are not Asase's children as all sunsum and kra return to Nyame after death Songs and Prayers to Asase Asase Ya Prayer Poem Poetry to Asase O Mother Earth, who gives birth, who wed the sky, Who nurtures and sustains all, who gives us life: While we live, we depend on You; when we die, We lean on You. You taught us the tiller-knife, You give us law, order, and truth-seeing eye; Save you alone we would live in fear and strife. We press our lips to your bosom, the rich soil, Ever turn with song and smile to holy toil. Short prayer to Asase Into your womb I place the seed of self To be nurtured in goodness and grown in love. Poetry to Asase Ya and Nana Firimpong Nana Firimpong once you were here hoed the earth and left it for me green rich ready with yam shoots, the tuberous smooth of cassava; take the blood of the fowl drink take the eto, mashed plantain, that my women have cooked eat and be happy drink may you rest for the year has come round again. Asase Yaa, You, Mother of Earth, on whose soil I have placed my tools on whose soil I will hoe I will work the year has come round again; thirsty mouth of the dust is ready for water for seed; drink and be happy eat may you rest for the year has come round again. And may the year this year of all years be fruitful beyond the fruit of your labour: shoots faithful to tip juice to stem leaves to green; and may the knife or the cutlass not cut me; roots blunt, shoots break, green wither, winds shatter, damp rot, hot harmattan come drifting in harm to the crops; the tunnelling termites not raise their red monuments, graves, above the blades of our labour Family Asase is the daughter of Nyame, the female aspect of the Nyankapon-Nyame-Odomakoma trinity and the wife to Nyankapon. With him, she has had several children, the most notable being Bosomtwe, Epo, Bia, Ta Kora and possibly Ananse. Asase Ya's favorite child is most likely Bia (same as Nyame's), as Bia is the Akan God of the Wilderness, and Asase Ya represents the harsh, dry Earth Myths Asase is separated from Nyame and the tower to Nyame According to legend, Asase and Nyame were once very close. However a person, either Asase herself or someone else pounds their yam with a pestle either to prepare fufu for their children or just to annoy Nyame. Either way, the pestle routinely bumps against the heaven, hitting Nyame. Annoyed, Nyame separates himself from Asase by turning into his true creator form; Ananse Kokroko (Great Spider) and climbing on a thread to heaven. In one version of the myth, Asase attempts to reestablish her relationship with Nyame. To do that, she gets many mortars, piling them one on top of the other. In the process, she moves closer and closer to the sky. To reunite with Nyame, she needed just one more mortar. She asks a child to get one for her, but he can find none. In desperation, she tells him to take one of the mortars from the bottom of the pile. He does so, and, when the mortar is removed, the entire tower collapses, forever separating Asase and NyameIn another version the woman who pounds her pestle against heaven orders her children to build a tower of mortars, one atop another, right to Nyame. Needing one more mortar, the children took it from the bottom—and the whole tower collapsed, killing manyIn a third version of the myth, Nyame and Asase are so close, humans were squished between them. So man annoyed Nyame with cooking smoke, banging pestles, and slicing off chunks of the sky for the pot until he retreated further away from the earth. Asase and her magical sword, how Ananse stole it and the plant that cuts people According to myth, Asase had a long, sharp sword that could fight by itself. When she ordered the sword to fight, it slaughtered everyone it encountered. When she commanded the sword to stop fighting, by saying "cool down", it did. Ananse had fled to his mother, Asase's house. There were one of two reasons for this: 1) Because there was famine in the land, and the only food available was in the storehouse of Nyame. Ananse, in order to become Nyame's agent and sell his food supplies to the people, Ananse agreed to let his head be shaved daily but the shaving was painful, and people made fun of the way he looked.Or 2) Because he had tried hiding beans under his hat, but the beans were extremely hot and ended up scalding his head and hair, leading to him becoming mostly bald with a bit of oddly placed hair, where again people made fun of how it looked Either way, when Ananse could no longer stand this situation, he stole some food and fled to Asase's house. When he asked the goddess for her protection, she granted it. One day, when Asase left the house, Ananse stole her sword. He returned with it to Nyame and offered to use the sword to protect Nyame whenever he needed help. Nyame accepted Ananse's offer. When an enemy army approached, Anansi ordered the sword to fight. It slew all of the enemy forces. However, Ananse could not remember the command to make the sword stop. With no enemies left to kill, the sword turned on Nyame's army. When only Ananse was left alive, it killed him too. Then it stuck itself into the ground and turned into a plant with leaves so sharp they cut anyone who touched them. The plant still cuts people, because no one has ever given the sword the command to stop. The Abosom in the Americas (Jamaica) Worship of the Asase was transported via the transatlantic slave trade and was documented to had been acknowledged by enslaved Akan or Coromantee living in Jamaica. Jamaican slave owners did not believe in Christianity for the Coromantee and left them to their own beliefs. Hence the Akan's spiritual system was dominant on the plantation. According to Jamaican historian and slave owner Edward Long, creole descendants of the Akan coupled with other newly arrived Coromantee joined in observation and worship of the Akan goddess Asase (the English people recorded erroneously as 'Assarci'). They showed their worship by pouring libations and offering up harvested foods. Other Akan Abosom were also reported to be worshipped. This was the only deity spiritual system on the island, as other deities identities in the 18th century were obliterated because of the large population of enslaved Coromantee in Jamaica, according to Edward Long and other historians who observed their slaves. See also Nyame Akan religion Adinkra Amokye == References ==

Sudharani Raghupathy

Sudharani Raghupathy is a notable Indian classical dancer. She received Padma Shri in 1988 and Central Sangeet Natak Akademi award in 1984. She is the author of Laghu Bharatam, a handbook for Bharatanatyam Dance. She is the Founder and Trustee of Sree Bharatalaya, Chennai.

Sudharani Raghupathy is a notable Indian classical dancer. She received Padma Shri in 1988 and Central Sangeet Natak Akademi award in 1984. She is the author of Laghu Bharatam, a handbook for Bharatanatyam Dance. She is the Founder and Trustee of Sree Bharatalaya, Chennai. References External links Viswanathan, Lakshmi (7 July 1995). "A passion turns a mission". The Hindu. p. 33. Archived from the original on 22 December 1996.

Larry Parker (tennis)

Larry Parker (born October 23, 1949) is an American former professional tennis player. A native of St. Louis, Parker was a collegiate tennis player for Cal Berkeley and made some appearances in professional tennis after graduating in 1971. He featured in the singles main draw of the 1974 Australian Open. Parker and wife Chris run a bed and breakfast in Murphys, California.His brother, Jimmy, was also a professional tennis player.

Larry Parker (born October 23, 1949) is an American former professional tennis player. A native of St. Louis, Parker was a collegiate tennis player for Cal Berkeley and made some appearances in professional tennis after graduating in 1971. He featured in the singles main draw of the 1974 Australian Open. Parker and wife Chris run a bed and breakfast in Murphys, California.His brother, Jimmy, was also a professional tennis player. References External links Larry Parker at the Association of Tennis Professionals Larry Parker at the International Tennis Federation

John Shelby Spong

John Shelby "Jack" Spong (June 16, 1931 – September 12, 2021) was an American bishop of the Episcopal Church, born in Charlotte, North Carolina. He served as the Bishop of Newark, New Jersey from 1979 to 2000. Spong was a liberal Christian theologian, religion commentator, and author who called for a fundamental rethinking of Christian belief away from theism and traditional doctrines. He was known for his progressive and controversial views on Christianity, including his rejection of traditional Christian doctrines, his advocacy for LGBTQ rights, and his support for interfaith dialogue. Spong was a contributor to the Living the Questions DVD program and was a guest on numerous national television broadcasts.

John Shelby "Jack" Spong (June 16, 1931 – September 12, 2021) was an American bishop of the Episcopal Church, born in Charlotte, North Carolina. He served as the Bishop of Newark, New Jersey from 1979 to 2000. Spong was a liberal Christian theologian, religion commentator, and author who called for a fundamental rethinking of Christian belief away from theism and traditional doctrines. He was known for his progressive and controversial views on Christianity, including his rejection of traditional Christian doctrines, his advocacy for LGBTQ rights, and his support for interfaith dialogue. Spong was a contributor to the Living the Questions DVD program and was a guest on numerous national television broadcasts. Spong died on September 12, 2021, at his home in Richmond, Virginia, at the age of 90. Early life John Shelby Spong was born on June 16, 1931 in Charlotte, North Carolina. He grew up attending fundamentalist churches and was heavily influenced by his mother's religious beliefs. After his father died when he was 12 years old, Spong continued to attend church and became more involved in his faith. He attended public schools in Charlotte and later went on to study at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1952 as a Phi Beta Kappa graduate. He received his Master of Divinity degree from the Virginia Theological Seminary in 1955. Career Spong was ordained to the Episcopal priesthood in 1955. He served as rector of St. Joseph's Church in Durham, North Carolina, from 1955 to 1957; rector of Calvary Parish, Tarboro, North Carolina, from 1957 to 1965; rector of St. John's Church in Lynchburg, Virginia, from 1965 to 1969; and rector of St. Paul's Church in Richmond, Virginia, from 1969 to 1976. Spong became bishop coadjutor of Newark in 1976.Spong was the bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Newark from 1979 to 2000. He was known as a leader of the church's liberal wing. He was one of the first American bishops to ordain a woman into the clergy (in 1977), and he was the first to ordain an openly gay man (Robert Williams in 1989). In response to the Williams ordination, Spong was censured by the church's House of Bishops in 1990. Later the church followed his lead; an Episcopal court ruled that homosexuality was not counter to its principles in 1996, and the church recognized same-sex marriages in 2015. Spong held visiting positions and gave lectures at major American theological institutions, most prominently at Harvard Divinity School. He retired in 2000. As a retired bishop, he was a member of the Episcopal Church's House of Bishops.Spong described his own life as a journey from the literalism and conservative theology of his childhood to an expansive view of Christianity. In a 2013 interview, Spong credited the Anglican bishop John Robinson as his mentor in this journey and said reading Robinson's writings in the 1960s led to a friendship and mentoring relationship with him over many years.A recipient of many awards, Spong was a contributor to the Living the Questions DVD program and was a guest on numerous national television broadcasts (including The Today Show, Politically Incorrect with Bill Maher, Dateline, 60 Minutes, and Larry King Live). Spong received honorary Doctor of Divinity degrees from Virginia Theological Seminary and Saint Paul's College, Virginia, as well as an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from Muhlenberg College. In 1999, he was awarded the Humanist of the Year award by the American Humanist Association. Beliefs Spong's views on the Bible, God, and Jesus Christ challenged traditional Christian beliefs.Spong stated that he was a Christian because he believed that Jesus Christ fully expressed the presence of a God of compassion and selfless love and that this is the meaning of the early Christian proclamation, "Jesus is Lord." Elaborating on this last idea, he affirmed that Jesus was adopted by God as his son, and he says that this would be the way God was fully incarnated in Jesus Christ. He rejects the historical truth claims of some Christian doctrines, such as the virgin birth and the bodily resurrection of Jesus. In 2000, Spong was a critic of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith of the Roman Catholic Church's declaration Dominus Iesus, because it reaffirmed the Catholic doctrine that the Roman Catholic Church is the one true Church and that Jesus Christ is the one and only savior for humanity. Spong was a strong proponent of the church reflecting the changes in society at large. Towards these ends, he called for a new Reformation, in which many of Christianity's basic doctrines should be reformulated. His views on the future of Christianity were "that we have to start where we are. As I look at the history of religion, I observe that new religious insights always and only emerge from the old traditions as they begin to die. It is not by pitching the old insights out but by journeying deeply through them into new visions that we are able to change religion's direction. The creeds were 3rd- and 4th-century love songs that people composed to sing to their understanding of God. We do not have to literalize their words to perceive their meaning or their intention to join in the singing of their creedal song. I think religion in general and Christianity in particular must always be evolving. Forcing the evolution is the dialog between yesterday's words and today's knowledge. The sin of Christianity is that any of us ever claimed that we had somehow captured eternal truth in the forms we had created."Spong debated Christian philosopher and apologist William Lane Craig on the resurrection of Jesus on March 20, 2005. Views on inclusion of women and LGBT people Spong was a strong advocate for the inclusion of women in the church. He was one of the first American bishops to ordain a woman into the clergy, in 1977, and he continued to support women's ordination throughout his career. Spong argued that the church needed to be more inclusive and accepting of diversity, including gender diversity.Spong was also a strong supporter of LGBTQ rights and was the first American bishop to ordain an openly gay man, Robert Williams, in 1989. Spong argued that the church needed to be more accepting of LGBTQ people and that traditional Christian beliefs about sexuality needed to be reinterpreted in light of modern knowledge and understanding. Writings Spong's writings relied on Biblical and non-Biblical sources and were influenced by modern critical analysis of these sources. He believed in a nuanced approach to scripture, informed by scholarship and compassion, which he argued can be consistent with both Christian tradition and a contemporary understanding of the universe. He is representative of a stream of thought with roots in the medieval universalism of Peter Abelard and the existentialism of Paul Tillich, whom he called his favorite theologian.Spong's books include "A New Christianity for a New World," "Rescuing the Bible from Fundamentalism," and "Why Christianity Must Change or Die". In "A New Christianity for a New World," Spong argued for a fundamental rethinking of Christian belief away from Theism and outlined his ideas for doctrinal changes within Christianity in the modern world. In "Rescuing the Bible from Fundamentalism," Spong challenged the literal interpretation of the Bible and argued for a more nuanced approach to scripture; he also argued that St. Paul was homosexual, a theme that was satirized in Gore Vidal's novel Live from Golgotha. In "Why Christianity Must Change or Die," Spong contended that Christianity must adapt to the changing world or risk becoming irrelevant.Spong's influence on the theological debate can be seen in the work of other theologians, such as Marcus Borg, John Dominic Crossan, and Karen Armstrong, who also challenged traditional Christian beliefs and called for a more inclusive and progressive faith. Criticism New Testament Catholic scholar Raymond E. Brown was critical of Spong's scholarship, referring to his studies as "amateur night". Spong frequently praised Brown's scholarship, though the affection was not returned, with Brown having commented that "Spong is complimentary in what he writes of me as a NT scholar; ... I hope I am not ungracious if in return I remark that I do not think that a single NT author would recognize Spong's Jesus as the figure being proclaimed or written about."Spong's ideas have been criticized by some other theologians, notably in 1998 by Rowan Williams, the Bishop of Monmouth, who later became the Archbishop of Canterbury. Williams described Spong's Twelve Points for Reform as embodying "confusion and misinterpretation".During a speaking tour in Australia in 2001, Spong was banned by Peter Hollingworth, the Archbishop of Brisbane, from speaking at churches in the diocese. The tour coincided with Hollingworth leaving the diocese to become the Governor-General of Australia. Hollingworth said that it was not an appropriate moment for Spong to "engage congregations in matters that could prove theologically controversial". After Spong's book Jesus for the Non-Religious was published in 2007, Peter Jensen, the Archbishop of Sydney, banned Spong from preaching at any churches in his diocese. By contrast, Phillip Aspinall, the Primate of Australia, invited Spong in 2007 to deliver two sermons at St John's Cathedral, Brisbane.Following Spong's death, Mark Tooley told The Washington Times that Spong "claimed that he was making religion relevant for a new generation who could not believe in the supernatural, often citing his daughters. But the irony was that as he was making his case, modernity was ending and postmodernity starting, and his rationalist perspective became passé. There was new openness to the supernatural."Albert Mohler, president of the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, described Spong's teaching as constituting the historic definition of heresy. Mohler asserted that Spong had "denied virtually every major Christian doctrine". Personal life and death In 1955, Spong married Joan Lydia Ketner. She died in 1988. In 1990, Spong married Christine Mary Bridger. Spong had five children.Spong died on September 12, 2021, at the age of 90. Publications 1973 – Honest Prayer, ISBN 1-878282-18-2 1974 – This Hebrew Lord, ISBN 0-06-067520-9 1975 – Christpower, ISBN 1-878282-11-5 1975 – Dialogue: In Search of Jewish-Christian Understanding (co-authored with Rabbi Jack Daniel Spiro), ISBN 1-878282-16-6 1976 – Life Approaches Death: A Dialogue on Ethics in Medicine 1977 – The Living Commandments, ISBN 1-878282-17-4 1980 – The Easter Moment, ISBN 1-878282-15-8 1983 – Into the Whirlwind: The Future of the Church, ISBN 1-878282-13-1 1986 – Beyond Moralism: A Contemporary View of the Ten Commandments (co-authored with Denise G. Haines, Archdeacon), ISBN 1-878282-14-X 1987 – Consciousness and Survival: An Interdisciplinary Inquiry into the Possibility of Life Beyond Biological Death (edited by John S. Spong, introduction by Claiborne Pell), ISBN 0-943951-00-3 1988 – Living in Sin? A Bishop Rethinks Human Sexuality, ISBN 0-06-067507-1 1991 – Rescuing the Bible from Fundamentalism: A Bishop Rethinks the Meaning of Scripture, ISBN 0-06-067518-7 1992 – Born of a Woman: A Bishop Rethinks the Birth of Jesus, ISBN 0-06-067523-3 1994 – Resurrection: Myth or Reality? A Bishop's Search for the Origins of Christianity, ISBN 0-06-067546-2 1996 – Liberating the Gospels: Reading the Bible with Jewish Eyes, ISBN 0-06-067557-8 1999 – Why Christianity Must Change or Die: A Bishop Speaks to Believers In Exile, ISBN 0-06-067536-5 2001 – Here I Stand: My Struggle for a Christianity of Integrity, Love and Equality, ISBN 0-06-067539-X 2002 – God in Us: A Case for Christian Humanism (with Anthony Freeman), ISBN 978-0907845171 2002 – A New Christianity for a New World: Why Traditional Faith Is Dying and How a New Faith Is Being Born, ISBN 0-06-067063-0 2005 – The Sins of Scripture: Exposing the Bible's Texts of Hate to Reveal the God of Love, ISBN 0-06-076205-5 2007 – Jesus for the Non-Religious, ISBN 0-06-076207-1 2009 – Eternal Life: A New Vision: Beyond Religion, Beyond Theism, Beyond Heaven and Hell, ISBN 0-06-076206-3 2011 – Re-claiming the Bible for a Non-Religious World, ISBN 978-0-06-201128-2 2013 – The Fourth Gospel: Tales of a Jewish Mystic, ISBN 978-0-06-201130-5 2016 – Biblical Literalism: A Gentile Heresy, ISBN 978-0-06-236230-8 2018 – Unbelievable: Why Neither Ancient Creeds Nor the Reformation Can Produce a Living Faith Today, ISBN 0-06-264129-8 References External links Official website

Ethics and Language

Ethics and Language is a 1944 book by C. L. Stevenson which was influential in furthering the metaethical view of emotivism first espoused by A. J. Ayer. == References ==

Ethics and Language is a 1944 book by C. L. Stevenson which was influential in furthering the metaethical view of emotivism first espoused by A. J. Ayer. == References ==

Dick Dell

Richard Dell (born 1947) is a former professional tennis player from the United States.

Richard Dell (born 1947) is a former professional tennis player from the United States. Biography Dell, who won a gold medal at the 1965 Summer Universiade in the men's doubles with Allen Fox, attended the University of Michigan from 1965 to 1969. A member of the varsity tennis team, Dell was the Big Ten Singles Champion in 1969. As he was beginning a law degree at the University of Virginia his number was called out in the Vietnam War draft. Following basic training, Dell became a squash and tennis coach at the United States Military Academy at West Point.He created history in 1967 when he took part in the longest ever doubles match. Partnering Dick Leach at the Newport Casino Invitational, the pair defeated Tommy Mozur and Lenny Schloss, 3–6, 49–47, 22–20.On the Grand Prix tennis circuit he won two titles, both in the doubles with Sherwood Stewart. They won their first title together in Tokyo in 1972 then a second in Cincinnati in 1974. As a singles player he made the second round of the US Open on three occasions and came close to getting a win over Rod Laver in Hong Kong in 1973 when he was a set and a break up. He had his most noted singles performances on tour in 1974, when he upset John Alexander at a WCT tournament in Washington DC and made the semi-finals in Chicago, after beating Raúl Ramírez in the quarter-finals. At the 1975 Wimbledon Championships, Dell and Stewart made it to the third round of the doubles, where they took former champions Bob Hewitt and Frew McMillan to five sets.Dell retired from tennis in 1977 and took up a coaching job in Maui. He returned to the University of Virginia in the 1980s and completed a Doctor of Law.For many year he was the agent of Gabriela Sabatini, while working for ProServ, a company founded by his elder brother Donald Dell. Grand Prix career finals Doubles: 2 (2–0) References External links Dick Dell at the Association of Tennis Professionals Dick Dell at the International Tennis Federation

Operation Manna

Operation Manna was the codeword for a Second World War operation by the British and Greek forces in Greece in mid-October 1944, following the gradual withdrawal of the German occupying forces from the country. The operation included an airborne element, which was conducted by the British 2nd Independent Parachute Brigade on 12 October, when elements of the 4th Parachute Battalion parachuted onto the Megara airfield 28 miles (45 km) outside of Athens. The prevailing weather conditions forced the abandonment of further parachute operations and it was not until 14 October that the rest of the brigade, less the 5th Parachute Battalion, arrived. After landing, the 4th and 6th Parachute Battalions marched on Athens. On 16 October, the 5th Battalion and the brigade's glider-borne element arrived.

Operation Manna was the codeword for a Second World War operation by the British and Greek forces in Greece in mid-October 1944, following the gradual withdrawal of the German occupying forces from the country. The operation included an airborne element, which was conducted by the British 2nd Independent Parachute Brigade on 12 October, when elements of the 4th Parachute Battalion parachuted onto the Megara airfield 28 miles (45 km) outside of Athens. The prevailing weather conditions forced the abandonment of further parachute operations and it was not until 14 October that the rest of the brigade, less the 5th Parachute Battalion, arrived. After landing, the 4th and 6th Parachute Battalions marched on Athens. On 16 October, the 5th Battalion and the brigade's glider-borne element arrived. The 2nd Para Brigade was reinforced by the British 23rd Armoured Brigade, and the British force took over the protection of the city.The British and Free Greek navies transported British and Greek troops, as well as the Greek government in exile, to Athens. Background The last months of the war In September 1944, the withdrawal of German troops from Greece began. Wherever possible, ELAS units struck the retreating German troops. However, as historian T. Gerozisis writes, there was at least a "strange" phenomenon. The German army was leaving Greece, but the British air force and navy, dominant in the air and at sea, offered no resistance to the Germans. Gerozisis writes of a unique "agreement" between the British and Germans during the war. Albert Speer confirms that in the summer of 1944 the Germans and British came to an unsigned "Gentlemen's Agreement" in Lisbon.The British were not to prevent the Germans from evacuating. In turn, the Germans were to hand over a number of Greek cities and positions to the British. "German troop transports from the Greek islands passed unimpeded under the eyes of the British and British U-boats in the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas in the autumn of 1944." German planes carried 50,000 troops from Crete and 17,000 troops from Rhodes unimpeded. This provoked protests from the Soviet commanders. British General Scobie negotiated the handing over of Greek cities to him to prevent their occupation by ELAS forces. Churchill himself wrote to Eden on 13 September: "there is a widespread belief in headquarters that we shall soon be fighting a bear and that we are in a better position to do so today than we were two months earlier". Patras Patras was one of the few, if not the only, city in Greece where the British supported the ELAS guerrillas in salvaging the infrastructure, especially the port, due to the importance of this "western gateway" of the country for further British plans. Even before Churchill's trip to Moscow and before the organisation of Operation Manna, a group of British Special Boat Service landed at the coastal airstrip of Araxos, near Patras. Notes References Cole, Howard N. (1963). On wings of healing: the story of the Airborne Medical Services 1940–1960. Edinburgh, United Kingdom: William Blackwood. OCLC 29847628.

Kōji (Heian period)

Kōji (康治) was a Japanese era name (年号,, nengō,, lit. "year name") after Eiji and before Ten'yō. This period spanned the year from April 1142 through February 1144. The reigning emperor was Konoe-tennō (近衛天皇).

Kōji (康治) was a Japanese era name (年号,, nengō,, lit. "year name") after Eiji and before Ten'yō. This period spanned the year from April 1142 through February 1144. The reigning emperor was Konoe-tennō (近衛天皇). Change of Era January 29, 1142 Kōji gannen (康治元年): The new era name was created to mark an event or series of events. The previous era ended and a new one commenced in Eiji 2, on the 28th day of the 4th month of 1142. Events of the Kōji Era 1143 (Kōji 2, 1st month): Cloistered Emperor Go-Toba-in, now known by the title Daijō Tennō or Daijō Hōō (太上法皇) or Hōō, visited his mother. 1143 (Kōji 2, 5th month): Emperor Konoe passed his days praying at Tōdai-ji and also at the temples on Mount Hiei (比叡山, Hiei-zan). Notes References Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). Gukanshō: The Future and the Past. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03460-0; OCLC 251325323 Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01753-5; OCLC 58053128 Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Odai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 5850691 Varley, H. Paul. (1980). A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231049405; OCLC 6042764 External links National Diet Library, "The Japanese Calendar" -- historical overview plus illustrative images from library's collection

Saint John the Baptist Church, Yerevan

Saint John the Baptist Church (Armenian: Սուրբ Հովհաննես Մկրտիչ Եկեղեցի, Surp Hovhannes Mkrtich) is an active church in the old area of Kond, Yerevan, Armenia. First, it was built on the height of Kond district, in 1710, in the place of a medieval church ruined as the result of a 1689 earthquake. It was built by a rich man, Melik Aghamal, living in Yerevan. Like the other medieval churches, this is a three-nave basilic church. The rectangular plan of the church includes the prayer-hall and the main altar on the eastern side, attached to which are the sacristies.

Saint John the Baptist Church (Armenian: Սուրբ Հովհաննես Մկրտիչ Եկեղեցի, Surp Hovhannes Mkrtich) is an active church in the old area of Kond, Yerevan, Armenia. First, it was built on the height of Kond district, in 1710, in the place of a medieval church ruined as the result of a 1689 earthquake. It was built by a rich man, Melik Aghamal, living in Yerevan. Like the other medieval churches, this is a three-nave basilic church. The rectangular plan of the church includes the prayer-hall and the main altar on the eastern side, attached to which are the sacristies. History Being concerned by the unattractive state of the church, in 1973, architect Rafael Israelyan presented to Catholicos of All Armenians Vazgen I a project of basic reconstruction of the church. The plan was improved, but unfortunately, the architect died the same year. After 10 years author's son, architect Areg Israyelian turned his father's initiative into a technical project, which was allowed to realize. The work project was prepared by the honored architect Baghdasar Arzoumanian and designing engineer Avetik Tekevejian. In 1980s the Church was entirely reconstructed and restored under the direct leadership of the civil engineer Mikayel Hovhannissian. The dome and the walls of the church were faced with tuff stone. Large-scale works were realized inside the church. In the western side an additional storey was built for the choir, the floor was paved with marble, the wall of the main altar was ornamented, the interior was renovated. Also the bell-tower of the church was built. In 2000 the educational-cultural center “Hovhannes Kozern” was built nearby the church where foreign language and computer courses are organized, the school of Icon art functions. Gallery External links About Saint John the Baptist Church in Yerevan Yerevan Municipality

Janeshwar Mishra Park

Janeshwar Mishra Park is an urban park operating in Gomti Nagar in Lucknow, India. It was named in memory of late politician Janeshwar Mishra from Samajwadi Party.

Janeshwar Mishra Park is an urban park operating in Gomti Nagar in Lucknow, India. It was named in memory of late politician Janeshwar Mishra from Samajwadi Party. History The chief minister of Uttar Pradesh, Akhilesh Yadav (session 2012–2017) laid the foundation stone of the park on 6 August 2012. The park was a dream project of SP chief Mulayam Singh Yadav who had asked his son and UP CM Akhilesh Yadav to dedicate a park in the name of Janeshwar Mishra. It was developed with a cost of 168 crores ($276,026.668). The park was modeled with Hyde Park in London as an inspiration. Features The architectural and development blueprint has been drafted by the prestigious New Delhi–based School of Planning and Architecture. The park has a long meandering walkway. There is an exclusive cycle track running over with cycle parking facility. Also, there are jogging track that can be used by professional athletes. The park boasts the following features: Green belt spread across the park. Lakes Sports centre and playground Gymnasium Cycle track Jogging track Theme park Lawns Gondola Water bodies recharged through rain water harvesting Entire park is solar powered == References ==

Saheonbu

Saheonbu (Korean: 사헌부; Hanja: 司憲府, lit. 'Office of the Inspector-General') administered inspections during Goryeo and Joseon dynasty in Korea. This branch of government inspected Hanyang, the capital, and periphery. It was also responsible for licensing officials, impeachment and legal inquiries, which also extended to the control of King's relatives. An important duty was to remonstrate with the king.Since this office had judicial responsibility for officials and the subjects, the ethos was strict.

Saheonbu (Korean: 사헌부; Hanja: 司憲府, lit. 'Office of the Inspector-General') administered inspections during Goryeo and Joseon dynasty in Korea. This branch of government inspected Hanyang, the capital, and periphery. It was also responsible for licensing officials, impeachment and legal inquiries, which also extended to the control of King's relatives. An important duty was to remonstrate with the king.Since this office had judicial responsibility for officials and the subjects, the ethos was strict. History The board of inspection (as a governmental instrument) actually began several centuries earlier. During Silla dynasty, the title was converted to Saganwon during the reign of Gongmin of Goryeo (reigned 1351 - 1374). Taejo of Joseon established the office immediately following the foundation of Joseon Dynasty in 1392. The standard organization was one head officer and 12 officials with about 40 other bureaucrats. Responsibility Regular meeting of royal court Payment of national debts Tributes Administration of Gwageo (civil service exams)The system began in China, where the office played a wider role at the royal court. In this sense, the office and its responsibility was in line with Saganwon where the subjects remonstrate the order of King. The issue of royal court was to control over the power between the king and the subjects, keeping abreast of the order of the government, which later produced severe side effects in some cases. Its work was somewhat similar to the board of audits and inspection in current time. See also Uigeumbu Seungjeongwon == References ==

William Gambel

William Gambel (June 1823 – December 13, 1849) was an American naturalist, ornithologist, and botanist from Philadelphia. As a young man he worked closely with the renowned naturalist Thomas Nuttall. At the age of eighteen he traveled overland to California, becoming the first botanist to collect specimens in Santa Fe, New Mexico and parts of California.

William Gambel (June 1823 – December 13, 1849) was an American naturalist, ornithologist, and botanist from Philadelphia. As a young man he worked closely with the renowned naturalist Thomas Nuttall. At the age of eighteen he traveled overland to California, becoming the first botanist to collect specimens in Santa Fe, New Mexico and parts of California. Biography Gambel was born William Gamble Jr. in Philadelphia in June 1823. His father, William Gamble Sr., had immigrated from Northern Ireland and served in the War of 1812. After the death of his first wife, Gamble Sr. moved to Philadelphia where he married Elizabeth Gamble in August 1822. They had three children, William and two daughters. Gamble Sr. died of pneumonia in 1832 and Elizabeth Gamble was left to raise the children on her own. William proved to be a good student, perhaps influenced by his mother, who worked as a school teacher. For unexplained reasons, he also began spelling his surname Gambel. In 1838 Gambel met the renowned naturalist Thomas Nuttall and they quickly became friends. Nuttall had a broad expertise in all aspects of natural history and through his influence, Gambel developed an affinity for botany, mineralogy, and ornithology. For the next few years Gambel served as a sort of apprentice for Nuttall. In late 1838, they traveled together on a collecting trip to the Carolinas and the southern Appalachians. They returned to Philadelphia in April 1839 and then quickly set off again for a field trip to New Jersey to study and collect pre-Cambrian limestone minerals. In October 1839 they were back in Philadelphia to attend a meeting of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences where Gambel presented a gold nugget from North Carolina for the museum collection. In February 1840, Gambel accompanied Nuttall to Cambridge, Massachusetts where Nuttall had been invited to present a series of lectures at the Lowell Institute. They also made a couple of field trips to Maine where they collected mineral specimens. By August 1840 the lecture series had ended and they returned to Philadelphia. In March 1841, at the age of eighteen, Gambel set off on his own for California to collect plants and other specimens for Nuttall. He planned to take a more southerly route than that taken in 1834 by Nuttall and John Kirk Townsend. Upon reaching Independence, Missouri he joined a group of traders and headed for Santa Fe following the Santa Fe Trail. Gambel reached Santa Fe in June and spent the next couple months collecting plants. In September Gambel joined a party heading to California and accompanied them along the Old Spanish Trail, arriving in Mexican Alta California in early November, 1841, becoming the first botanist to enter California overland from the east. Gambel spent the next year collecting along the coast from Los Angeles up to Monterey. In February, 1842 he became the first botanist to collect on Santa Catalina Island off the coast of California. In addition to plants, Gambel collected bird specimens and observed them in their habitat. He later published his observations in Remarks on birds observed in Upper California, with descriptions of new species(1847/1849). The new bird species he collected included Gambel's quail (Callipepla gambelii), mountain chickadee (Parus gambeli) and Nuttall's woodpecker (Picoides nuttallii). By midsummer Gambel was out money and became a clerk on the US Navy ship, Cyane, commanded by Thomas ap Catesby Jones. For the next three years Gambel served on several navy ships, visiting Mexico, the Hawaiian Islands, Tahiti, the Marquesas Islands, Peru and Chile. In a letter to his mother, Gambel said he had "sailed farther than twice around the world." In March 1845 his ship left Chile and sailed to the East Coast via Cape Horn. Gambel returned to Philadelphia by July 1845. While Gambel was in California, Nuttall returned home to England where he remained for the rest of his life. In Philadelphia, Gambel published some of his zoological findings and sent many of his botanical specimens to Nuttall for publication. In 1845 Gambel entered the medical school at the University of Pennsylvania and received a medical degree in March 1848. He married Catherine Towson, a childhood sweetheart, in October. He also served briefly as the Recording Secretary at the Academy of Natural Sciences. Gambel soon encountered difficulty in establishing a medical practice in Philadelphia. California was booming because of the Gold Rush and presented an opportunity for a new doctor. He shipped his medical books and equipment by sea and made arrangements for his wife to join him after he became settled. On April 5, 1849, Gambel and an acquaintance, Isaac Wistar, left for the difficult overland journey to California. In Independence, Missouri, they formed a larger party led by Wistar and made good progress westward. However, Gambel grew tired of the group's fast pace and joined a slower-moving ox-train led by Captain Boone of Kentucky. Boone offered to relieve Gambel of any camp-duties in exchange for his medical services. The Boone party did not fare well crossing the deserts and mountains of the Great Basin. Most of the livestock and wagons were lost by the time they reached the Sierra Nevada range in October. Early snows were already falling in the high country but Gambel and a few others pushed on to the western slopes. In December, Gambel reached Rose's Bar, a gold mining camp on the Yuba River. The settlement was in the midst of a typhoid epidemic. Gambel tried to treat the ill miners but he became sick himself and died December 13, 1849. He was buried at the base of a giant ponderosa pine but the entire site was soon washed away by hydraulic mining. Animals named in his honor include the Gambel's quail and Gambelia, the genus of lizards. Also in 1848, a genus of flowering plants, Gambelia (plant), from California and Mexico, was named after him. Notes References Beidleman, Richard G. (2006). California's Frontier Naturalists. University of California Press. pp. 141–150. Jercinovic, Gene. "William Gambel: New Mexico Plant Specimens" (PDF). NewMexicoFlores.com. McKelvey, Susan Delano (1955). Botanical exploration of the trans-Mississippi West, 1790-1850. Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. pp. 731–752.

Daphne

Daphne (; DAFF-nee; Greek: Δάφνη, Dáphnē, lit. 'laurel'), a figure in Greek mythology, is a naiad, a variety of female nymph associated with fountains, wells, springs, streams, brooks and other bodies of freshwater. There are several versions of the myth in which she appears, but the general narrative, found in Greco-Roman mythology, is that due to a curse made by the fierce wrath of the god Cupid, son of Venus, on the god Apollo (Phoebus), she became the unwilling object of the infatuation of Apollo, who chased her against her wishes. Just before being kissed by him, Daphne invoked her river god father, who transformed her into a laurel tree, thus foiling Apollo. Thenceforth Apollo developed a special reverence for laurel.

Daphne (; DAFF-nee; Greek: Δάφνη, Dáphnē, lit. 'laurel'), a figure in Greek mythology, is a naiad, a variety of female nymph associated with fountains, wells, springs, streams, brooks and other bodies of freshwater. There are several versions of the myth in which she appears, but the general narrative, found in Greco-Roman mythology, is that due to a curse made by the fierce wrath of the god Cupid, son of Venus, on the god Apollo (Phoebus), she became the unwilling object of the infatuation of Apollo, who chased her against her wishes. Just before being kissed by him, Daphne invoked her river god father, who transformed her into a laurel tree, thus foiling Apollo. Thenceforth Apollo developed a special reverence for laurel. At the Pythian Games, which were held every four years in Delphi in honour of Apollo, a wreath of laurel gathered from the Vale of Tempe in Thessaly was given as a prize. Hence it later became customary to award prizes in the form of laurel wreaths to victorious generals, athletes, poets and musicians, worn as a chaplet on the head. The Poet Laureate is a well-known modern example of such a prize-winner, dating from the early Renaissance in Italy. According to Pausanias the reason for this was "simply and solely because the prevailing tradition has it that Apollo fell in love with the daughter of Ladon (Daphne)". Most artistic depictions of the myth focus on the moment of Daphne's transformation. Family Daphne is said by ancient sources variously to have been a daughter of the (1) Thessalian river god Peneus by the nymph Creusa, or of (2) another Arcadian river-deity Ladon (Orontes) by Ge and Stymphalis, or lastly, King Amyclas of Amyclae. Mythology The earliest source of the myth of Daphne and Apollo is Phylarchus, quoted by Parthenius of Nicaea. Later, the Roman poet Ovid does a retelling of this Greek legend, which appears in his work Metamorphoses. Ovid The pursuit of a local nymph by an Olympian god, part of the archaic adjustment of religious cult in Greece, was given an arch anecdotal turn in the Metamorphoses by the Roman poet Ovid (died AD 17). According to this version Apollo's infatuation was caused by a golden-tipped arrow shot at him by Cupid, son of Venus, who wanted to punish Apollo for having insulted his archery skills by commenting "What hast thou to do with the arms of men, thou wanton boy?", and to demonstrate the power of love's arrow. Eros also shot Daphne, but with a leaden-tipped arrow, the effect of which was to make her flee from Apollo. Elated with sudden love, Apollo chased Daphne continually. He tried to make her cease her flight by saying he did not wish to hurt her. When she kept fleeing, Apollo lamented that even though he had the knowledge of medicinal herbs, he had failed to cure himself from the wound of Cupid's arrow. When Apollo finally caught up with her, Daphne prayed for help to her father, the river god Peneus of Thessaly, who immediately commenced her transformation into a laurel tree (Laurus nobilis): a heavy numbness seized her limbs, thin bark closed over her breast, her hair turned into leaves, her arms into branches, her feet so swift a moment ago stuck fast in slow-growing roots, her face was lost in the canopy. Only her shining beauty was left. Even this did not quench Apollo's ardour, and as he embraced the tree, he felt her heart still beating. He then declared: "My bride," he said, "since you can never be, at least, sweet laurel, you shall be my tree. My lure, my locks, my quiver you shall wreathe." Upon hearing his words, Daphne bends her branches, unable to stop it. Parthenius A version of the attempt on Daphne's sworn virginity that has been less familiar since the Renaissance was narrated by the Hellenistic poet Parthenius, in his Erotica Pathemata, "The Sorrows of Love", which he attributes to Hellenistic historian Phylarchus. In this, which is the earliest written account, Daphne is a mortal girl, daughter of Amyclas, fond of hunting and determined to remain a virgin; she is pursued by the boy Leucippus ("white stallion"), who disguises himself in a girl's outfit in order to join her band of huntresses. He is also successful in gaining her innocent affection. This makes Apollo angry and he puts it into the girl's mind to stop to bathe in the river Ladon; there, as all strip naked, the ruse is revealed, as in the myth of Callisto, and the affronted huntresses plunge their spears into Leucippus. At this moment Apollo's attention becomes engaged, and he begins his own pursuit. Daphne, fleeing to escape Apollo's advances, prays to Zeus to help. Zeus turns her into laurel tree. Parthenius' modern editor remarks on the rather awkward transition, linking two narratives. Pausanias Parthenius' tale was known to Pausanias, who recounted it in his Description of Greece (2nd century AD). According to him, Leucippus was a son of the prince of Pisa, whose attempts to woo her by open courtship all failed, as Daphne avoided all males. Leucippus then thought of the following trick; he grew his hair and wore women's clothes, and this way managed to get close to Daphne, to whom he introduced himself as a daughter of the prince. As he was the highest-ranking and best huntsman of Daphne's company, he became good friends with her. Apollo, himself in love with Daphne too, was jealous of Leucippus' success in love, however Leucippus' ruse was soon discovered when the girls took a bath in a lake; they stripped a reluctant Leucippus naked, and upon discovering his true sex, killed him with javelins and daggers. Hyginus When Apollo pursued the virgin Daphne, who in Hyginus' version is a daughter of the river god Peneus, it was the earth goddess Gaia to whom she begged for protection. Gaia then received her, changing her into a laurel tree, while Apollo created a wreath with one of its branches. Other authors Philostratus in his Life of Apollonius of Tyana says the Assyrians, who worshipped Apollo Daphnaeus ("Apollo of the Laurel") place the site of Daphne's transformation from Arcadia to Antioch (modern day Antakya in Turkey).Nonnus also placed Daphne's dwellings near the Orontes River, and says that it was Gaia who swallowed up the girl before she knew marriage; Apollo always blamed Gaia for this.In his Dialogues of the Gods, satirical author Lucian of Samosata has Apollo call Daphne and Hyacinthus his two greatest loves, and regret losing them both; he declares himself unlucky in love, especially since Daphne found the option of becoming a tree more attractive than him. Eros also mentions to Zeus Daphne not falling for Apollo.A sixth century AD poet, Dioscorus of Aphrodito, composed a poem where Apollo calls Daphne and Hyacinthus his two greatest loves, and mourns their loss. Laurel varieties The name Daphne, in Greek Δάφνη, means "laurel. While the story of Daphne is traditionally connected with the bay laurel (Laurus nobilis), almost 90 species of evergreen shrubs noted for their scented flowers and poisonous berries are grouped under the genus Daphne—including the garland flower (Daphne cneorum); the February Daphne or mezereon (Daphne mezereum); and spurge laurel or wood laurel (Daphne laureola). These species are in the family Thymelaeaceae and are native to Asia, Europe and North Africa. Temples Artemis Daphnaia Artemis Daphnaia, who had her temple among the Lacedemonians, at a place called Hypsoi in antiquity, on the slopes of Mount Cnacadion near the Spartan frontier, had her own sacred laurel trees. Apollo Daphnephoros, Eretria At Eretria the identity of an excavated 7th- and 6th-century BCE temple to Apollo Daphnephoros, "Apollo, laurel-bearer", or "carrying off Daphne", a "place where the citizens are to take the oath", is identified in inscriptions. Cultural depictions Dafne (1598), opera by Jacopo Peri and Jacopo Corsi to a libretto by Ottavio Rinuccini La Dafne (1608), opera by Marco da Gagliano to a libretto Ottavio Rinuccini Die Dafne (1627), lost opera by Heinrich Schütz to a libretto by Martin Opitz, a translation of Rinuccini's libretto Daphne (1938), opera by Richard Strauss about the legend based on accounts by both Ovid and Euripides A famous rendition of the subject is Gian Lorenzo Bernini's sculpture Apollo and Daphne. In the WEBTOON comic Lore Olympus, Daphne is a fashion model, yoga instructor, and social media influencer who's dating Thanatos, the god of death. Daughter of Sparta (2021), young adult historical fantasy novel by Claire M. Andrews that reimagines the story of Apollo and Daphne. Daphne is a young Spartan warrior who must work with Apollo to save Olympus and all of Greece. Gallery Daphne's transformation in art See also Syrinx Pitys Leucothoe and Clytie Bolina Arethusa Corone Notes References Ovid. Metamorphoses, Volume I: Books 1–8. Translated by Frank Justus Miller. Revised by G. P. Goold. Loeb Classical Library No. 42. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1977, first published 1916. ISBN 978-0-674-99046-3. Online version at Harvard University Press. Hyginus, Gaius Julius, The Myths of Hyginus. Edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. Pausanias, Pausanias' Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Parthenius of Nicaea, Parthenius of Nicaea: the poetical fragments and the Erōtika pathēmata J.L. Lightfoot, 2000, ISBN 0-19-815253-1. Reviewed by Christopher Francese at The Bryn Mawr Classical Review Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods; translated by Fowler, H. W. and F. G. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. 1905. Philostratus, Philostratus: Apollonius of Tyana. Letters of Apollonius, Ancient Testimonia, Eusebius's Reply to Hierocles, ed. Christopher P. Jones. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 2006 (Loeb Classical Library no. 458), ISBN 0-674-99617-8. (Greek texts and English translations) Nonnus, Dionysiaca; translated by Rouse, W H D, III Books XVI–XXXV. Loeb Classical Library No. 354, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann Ltd. 1940. Internet Archive. External links DAPHNE from the Theoi Project Apollo and Daphne – statue by Gian Lorenzo Bernini The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (ca 260 images of Daphne)

Burnside Brewing Company

Burnside Brewing Company was a brewery based in Portland, Oregon.

Burnside Brewing Company was a brewery based in Portland, Oregon. History Established in 2010 by Jay Gilbert and Jason McAdam, the company hosted several beer festivals, including the Fruit Beer Festival each June and the Fresh Hop Pop-Up Beer Fest.Burnside was featured on the television series Man Finds Food in 2015.The company's pub, located at 701 E. Burnside, closed in 2019. Reception Burnside's Sweet Heat apricot wheat ale won gold at the Great American Beer Festival in 2012. In 2017, the company received three medals at the Best of Craft Beer Awards, as well as two Oregon Beer Awards.Burnside was included in Willamette Week's 2016 lists of "Beer Bars with the Best Happy Hours" and "Portland Bars Where You Can Bring Kids". In 2017, the newspaper's Adrienne So said Burnside's tap list is "like Willie Wonka's fridge", and Martin Cizmar ranked Burnside number three in his list of "The 16 Best Brewery Burgers in Portland". Willamette Week's Matthew Korfage wrote in 2018, "No Other Portland Brewery Does Food Like Burnside". See also Brewing in Oregon List of companies based in Oregon References External links Official website

Berkut Air

State Air Company Berkut, commonly known as Berkut Air, was an airline based in Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan, operated Government charter flights out of Nursultan Nazarbayev International Airport.

State Air Company Berkut, commonly known as Berkut Air, was an airline based in Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan, operated Government charter flights out of Nursultan Nazarbayev International Airport. History Berkut was founded in 1999. except all other commercial Kazakh airlines, it was not banned from entering EU airspace in April 2009, due to the high standards of technical maintenance . Fleet Current Fleet The Berkut Air fleet consisted of the following aircraft (as of August 2019): Former fleet The airline previously operated the following aircraft: 1 Antonov An-12, UP-AN205, Cargo 1 Fokker 100, UP-F1004, Charter 1 Yakovlev Yak-40, UP-Y4023, Charter 1 Tupolev Tu-154M, UN-85713, Charter 1 Boeing 747-200, 9G-MKS, Cargo References == External links ==

Community development

The United Nations defines community development as "a process where community members come together to take collective action and generate solutions to common problems." It is a broad concept, applied to the practices of civic leaders, activists, involved citizens, and professionals to improve various aspects of communities, typically aiming to build stronger and more resilient local communities. Community development is also understood as a professional discipline, and is defined by the International Association for Community Development as "a practice-based profession and an academic discipline that promotes participative democracy, sustainable development, rights, economic opportunity, equality and social justice, through the organisation, education and empowerment of people within their communities, whether these be of locality, identity or interest, in urban and rural settings".Community development seeks to empower individuals and groups of people with the skills they need to effect change within their communities. These skills are often created through the formation of social groups working for a common agenda. Community developers must understand both how to work with individuals and how to affect communities' positions within the context of larger social institutions.

The United Nations defines community development as "a process where community members come together to take collective action and generate solutions to common problems." It is a broad concept, applied to the practices of civic leaders, activists, involved citizens, and professionals to improve various aspects of communities, typically aiming to build stronger and more resilient local communities. Community development is also understood as a professional discipline, and is defined by the International Association for Community Development as "a practice-based profession and an academic discipline that promotes participative democracy, sustainable development, rights, economic opportunity, equality and social justice, through the organisation, education and empowerment of people within their communities, whether these be of locality, identity or interest, in urban and rural settings".Community development seeks to empower individuals and groups of people with the skills they need to effect change within their communities. These skills are often created through the formation of social groups working for a common agenda. Community developers must understand both how to work with individuals and how to affect communities' positions within the context of larger social institutions. Community development as a term has taken off widely in anglophone countries, i.e. the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, as well as other countries in the Commonwealth of Nations. It is also used in some countries in Eastern Europe with active community development associations in Hungary and Romania. The Community Development Journal, published by Oxford University Press, since 1966 has aimed to be the major forum for research and dissemination of international community development theory and practice.Community development approaches are recognised internationally. These methods and approaches have been acknowledged as significant for local social, economic, cultural, environmental and political development by such organisations as the UN, WHO, OECD, World Bank, Council of Europe and EU. There are a number of institutions of higher education offer community development as an area of study and research such as the University of Toronto, Leiden University, SOAS University of London, and the Balsillie School of International Affairs, among others. Definitions There are complementary definitions of community development. The United Nations defines community development broadly as "a process where community members come together to take collective action and generate solutions to common problems." and the International Association for Community Development defines it as both a practice based profession and an academic discipline. Following the adoption of the IACD definition in 2016, the association has gone on to produce International Standards for Community Development Practice. The values and ethos that should underpin practice can be expressed as: Commitment to rights, solidarity, democracy, equality, environmental and social justice. The purpose of community development is understood by IACD as being to work with communities to achieve participative democracy, sustainable development, rights, economic opportunity, equality and social justice. This practice is carried out by people in different roles and contexts, including people explicitly called professional community workers (and people taking on essentially the same role but with a different job title), together with professionals in other occupations ranging from social work, adult education, youth work, health disciplines, environmental education, local economic development, to urban planning, regeneration, architecture and more who seek to apply community development values and adopt community development methods. Community development practice also encompasses a range of occupational settings and levels from development roles working with communities, through to managerial and strategic community planning roles. The Community Development Challenge report, which was produced by a working party comprising leading UK organizations in the field including the (now defunct) Community Development Foundation, the (now defunct) Community Development Exchange and the (now defunct) Federation for Community Development Learning defines community development as: A set of values and practices which plays a special role in overcoming poverty and disadvantage, knitting society together at the grass roots and deepening democracy. There is a community development profession, defined by national occupational standards and a body of theory and experience going back the best part of a century. There are active citizens who use community development techniques on a voluntary basis, and there are also other professions and agencies which use a community development approach or some aspects of it. Community Development Exchange defines community development as: both an occupation (such as a community development worker in a local authority) and a way of working with communities. Its key purpose is to build communities based on justice, equality and mutual respect. Community development involves changing the relationships between ordinary people and people in positions of power, so that everyone can take part in the issues that affect their lives. It starts from the principle that within any community there is a wealth of knowledge and experience which, if used in creative ways, can be channeled into collective action to achieve the communities' desired goals. Community development practitioners work alongside people in communities to help build relationships with key people and organizations and to identify common concerns. They create opportunities for :the community to learn new skills and, by enabling people to act together, community development practitioners help to foster social inclusion and equality. Different approaches There are numerous overlapping approaches to community development. Some focus on the processes, some on the outcomes/ objectives. They include: Arts, Culture, and Development; focuses on the role of arts and culture in community development, social transformation Community Engagement; focuses on relationships at the core of facilitating "understanding and evaluation, involvement, exchange of information and opinions, about a concept, issue or project, with the aim of building social capital and enhancing social outcomes through decision-making” (p. 173). Women Self-help Group; focusing on the contribution of women in settlement groups. Community capacity building; focusing on helping communities obtain, strengthen, and maintain the ability to set and achieve their own development objectives. Large Group Capacitation; an adult education and social psychology approach grounded in the activity of the individual and the social psychology of the large group focusing on large groups of unemployed or semi-employed participants, many of whom with Lower Levels of Literacy (LLLs). Social capital formation; focusing on benefits derived from the cooperation between individuals and groups. Nonviolent direct action; when a group of people take action to reveal an existing problem, highlight an alternative, or demonstrate a possible solution to a social issue which is not being addressed through traditional societal institutions (governments, religious organizations or established trade unions) to the satisfaction of the direct action participants. Economic development, focusing on the "development" of developing countries as measured by their economies, although it includes the processes and policies by which a nation improves the economic, political, and social well-being of its people. Community economic development (CED); an alternative to conventional economic development which encourages using local resources in a way that enhances economic outcomes while improving social conditions. For example, CED involves strategies which aim to improve access to affordable housing, medical, and child care.A worker cooperative is a progressive CED strategy that operates as businesses both managed and owned by their employees. They are beneficial due to their potential to create jobs and providing a route for grassroots political action. Some challenges that the worker cooperative faces include the mending of the cooperative’s identity as both business and as a democratic humanitarian organization. They are limited in resources and scale. Sustainable development; which seeks to achieve, in a balanced manner, economic development, social development and environmental protection outcomes. Community-driven development (CDD), an economic development model which shifts overreliance on central governments to local communities. Asset-based community development (ABCD); is a methodology that seeks to uncover and use the strengths within communities as a means for sustainable development. Faith-based community development; which utilizes faith-based organizations to bring about community development outcomes. Community-based participatory research (CBPR); a partnership approach to research that equitably involves, for example, community members, organizational representatives, and researchers in all aspects of the research process and in which all partners contribute expertise and share decision making and ownership, which aims to integrate this knowledge with community development outcomes. Community organizing; an approach that generally assumes that social change necessarily involves conflict and social struggle in order to generate collective power for the powerless. Participatory planning including community-based planning (CBP); involving the entire community in the strategic and management processes of urban planning; or, community-level planning processes, urban or rural. Town-making; or machizukuri (まちづくり) refers to a Japanese concept which is "an umbrella term generally understood as citizen participation in the planning and management of a living environment". It can include redevelopment, revitalization, and post-disaster reconstruction, and usually emphasizes the importance of local citizen participation. In recent years, cooperation between local communities and contents tourism (such as video games, anime, and manga) has also become a key driver of machizukuri in some local communities, such as the tie-up between CAPCOM's Sengoku Basara and the city of Shiroishi. Language revitalization focuses on the use of a language so that it serves the needs of a community. This may involve the creation of books, films and other media in the language. These actions help a small language community to preserve their language and culture. Methodologies focusing on the educational component of community development, including the community-wide empowerment that increased educational opportunity creates. Methodologies addressing the issues and challenges of the Digital divide, making affordable training and access to computers and the Internet, addressing the marginalisation of local communities that cannot connect and participate in the global Online community. In the United States, nonprofit organizations such as Per Scholas seek to “break the cycle of poverty by providing education, technology and economic opportunities to individuals, families and communities” as a path to development for the communities they serve.There are a myriad of job titles for community development workers and their employers include public authorities and voluntary or non-governmental organisations, funded by the state and by independent grant making bodies. Since the nineteen seventies the prefix word 'community' has also been adopted by several other occupations from the police and health workers to planners and architects, who have been influenced by community development approaches. History Amongst the earliest community development approaches were those developed in Kenya and British East Africa during the 1930s. Community development practitioners have over many years developed a range of approaches for working within local communities and in particular with disadvantaged people. Since the nineteen sixties and seventies through the various anti poverty programmes in both developed and developing countries, community development practitioners have been influenced by structural analyses as to the causes of disadvantage and poverty i.e. inequalities in the distribution of wealth, income, land, etc. and especially political power and the need to mobilise people power to affect social change. Thus the influence of such educators as Paulo Freire and his focus upon this work. Other key people who have influenced this field are Saul Alinsky (Rules for Radicals) and E.F. Schumacher (Small Is Beautiful). There are a number of international organisations that support community development, for example, Oxfam, UNICEF, The Hunger Project and Freedom from Hunger, run community development programs based upon community development initiatives for relief and prevention of malnutrition. Since 2006 the Dragon Dreaming Project Management techniques have spread to 37 countries and are engaged in an estimated 3,250 projects worldwide. In the global North In the 19th century, the work of the Welsh early socialist thinker Robert Owen (1771–1851), sought to develop a more perfect community. At New Lanark and at later communities such as Oneida in the USA and the New Australia Movement in Australia, groups of people came together to create utopian or intentional communities, with mixed success. Some such communities, formed ex nihilo, contrast the concepts of the development of a community at a later stage. United States In the United States in the 1960s, the term "community development" began to complement and generally replace the idea of urban renewal, which typically focused on physical development projects - often at the expense of working-class communities. One of the earliest proponents of the term in the United States was social scientist William W. Biddle (100-1973). In the late 1960s, philanthropies such as the Ford Foundation and government officials such as Senator Robert F. Kennedy took an interest in local nonprofit organizations. A pioneer was the Bedford Stuyvesant Restoration Corporation in Brooklyn, which attempted to apply business and management skills to the social mission of uplifting low-income residents and their neighborhoods. Eventually such groups became known as "Community development corporations" or CDCs. Federal laws, beginning with the 1974 Housing and Community Development Act, provided a way for state and municipal governments to channel funds to CDCs and to other nonprofit organizations. National organizations such as the Neighborhood Reinvestment Corporation (founded in 1978 and known since 2005 as NeighborWorks America), the Local Initiatives Support Corporation (LISC) (founded in 1980), and the Enterprise Foundation (founded in 1981) have built extensive networks of affiliated local nonprofit organizations to which they help provide financing for numerous physical- and social-development programs in urban and rural communities. The CDCs and similar organizations have been credited by some with starting the process that stabilized and revived seemingly hopeless inner-city areas such as the South Bronx in New York City. United Kingdom In the UK, community development has had two main traditions. The first was as an approach for preparing for the independence of countries from the former British Empire in the 1950s and 1960s. Domestically, community development first came into public prominence with the Labour Government's anti deprivation programmes of the latter 1960s and 1970s. The main example of this activity, the CDP (Community Development Programme), piloted local area-based community development. This influenced a number of largely urban local authorities, in particular in Scotland with Strathclyde Region's major community-development programme (the largest at the time in Europe). The Gulbenkian Foundation was a key funder of commissions and reports which influenced the development of community development in the UK from the latter 1960s to the 1980s. This included recommending that there be a national institute or centre for community development, able to support practice and to advise government and local authorities on policy. This resulted in the forma establishment in 1991 of the Community Development Foundation. In 2004 the Carnegie UK Trust established a commission of inquiry into the future of rural community development, examining such issues as land reform and climate change. Carnegie funded over sixty rural community-development action-research projects across the UK and Ireland and national and international communities of practice to exchange experiences. This included the International Association for Community Development (IACD). In 1999 the Labour Government established a UK-wide organisation responsible for setting professional-training standards for all education and development practitioners working within local communities. This organisation, PAULO – the National Training Organisation for Community Learning and Development, was named after Paulo Freire (1921-1997). It was formally recognised by David Blunkett, the Secretary of State for Education and Employment. Its first chair was Charlie McConnell, the Chief Executive of the Scottish Community Education Council, who had played a lead role in bringing together a range of occupational interests under a single national-training standards body, including community education, community development and development education. The inclusion of community development was significant as it was initially uncertain as to whether it would join the National Training Organisation (NTO) for Social Care. The Community Learning and Development NTO represented all the main employers, trades unions, professional associations and national-development agencies working in this area across the four nations of the UK. The new body used the wording "community learning and development" to acknowledge that all of these occupations worked primarily within local communities, and that this work encompassed not just providing less formal learning support but also a concern for the wider holistic development of those communities – socio-economically, environmentally, culturally and politically. By bringing together these occupational groups this created for the first time a single recognised employment-sector of nearly 300,000 full- and part-time paid staff within the UK, approximately 10% of these staff being full-time. The NTO continued to recognise the range of occupations within it, for example specialists who work primarily with young people, but all agreed that they shared a core set of professional approaches to their work. In 2002 the NTO became part of a wider Sector Skills Council for lifelong learning. The UK currently hosts the only global network of practitioners and activists working towards social justice through community development approach, the International Association for Community Development (IACD). IACD, formed in the USA in 1953, moved to Belgium in 1978 and was restructured and relaunched in Scotland in 1999. Canada Community development in Canada has roots in the development of co-operatives, credit unions and caisses populaires. The Antigonish Movement which started in the 1920s in Nova Scotia, through the work of Doctor Moses Coady and Father James Tompkins, has been particularly influential in the subsequent expansion of community economic development work across Canada. Australia Community development in Australia has often focussed on Aboriginal Australian communities, and during the period of the 1980s to the early 21st century funds channelled through the Community Employment Development Program, where Aboriginal people could be employed in "a work for the dole" scheme, gave the chance for non-government organisations to apply for a full or part-time worker funded by the Department for Social Security. Dr Jim Ife, formerly of Curtin University, organised a ground-breaking text-book on community development. In the "Global South" Community planning techniques drawing on the history of utopian movements became important in the 1920s and 1930s in East Africa, where community development proposals were seen as a way of helping local people improve their own lives with indirect assistance from colonial authorities.Mohandas K. Gandhi adopted African community development ideals as a basis of his South African Ashram, and then introduced it as a part of the Indian Swaraj movement, aiming at establishing economic interdependence at village level throughout India. With Indian independence, despite the continuing work of Vinoba Bhave in encouraging grassroots land reform, India under its first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru adopted a mixed-economy approach, mixing elements of socialism and capitalism. During the fifties and sixties, India ran a massive community development programme with focus on rural development activities through government support. This was later expanded in scope and was called integrated rural development scheme [IRDP]. A large number of initiatives that can come under the community development umbrella have come up in recent years. The main objective of community development in India remains to develop the villages and to help the villagers help themselves to fight against poverty, illiteracy, malnutrition, etc. The beauty of Indian model of community development lies in the homogeneity of villagers and high level of participation. Community development became a part of the Ujamaa Villages established in Tanzania by Julius Nyerere, where it had some success in assisting with the delivery of education services throughout rural areas, but has elsewhere met with mixed success. In the 1970s and 1980s, community development became a part of "Integrated Rural Development", a strategy promoted by United Nations Agencies and the World Bank. Central to these policies of community development were: Adult literacy programs, drawing on the work of Brazilian educator Paulo Freire and the "Each One Teach One" adult literacy teaching method conceived by Frank Laubach. Youth and women's groups, following the work of the Serowe Brigades of Botswana, of Patrick van Rensburg. Development of community business ventures and particularly cooperatives, in part drawn on the examples of José María Arizmendiarrieta and the Mondragon Cooperatives of the Basque region of Spain Compensatory education for those missing out in the formal education system, drawing on the work of Open Education as pioneered by Michael Young. Dissemination of alternative technologies, based upon the work of E. F. Schumacher as advocated in his book Small Is Beautiful: A Study of Economics As If People Mattered Village nutrition programs and permaculture projects, based upon the work of Australians Bill Mollison and David Holmgren. Village water supply programsIn the 1990s, following critiques of the mixed success of "top down" government programs, and drawing on the work of Robert Putnam, in the rediscovery of social capital, community development internationally became concerned with social capital formation. In particular the outstanding success of the work of Muhammad Yunus in Bangladesh with the Grameen Bank from its inception in 1976, has led to the attempts to spread microenterprise credit schemes around the world. Yunus saw that social problems like poverty and disease were not being solved by the market system on its own. Thus, he established a banking system which lends to the poor with very little interest, allowing them access to entrepreneurship. This work was honoured by the 2006 Nobel Peace Prize. Another alternative to "top down" government programs is the participatory government institution. Participatory governance institutions are organizations which aim to facilitate the participation of citizens within larger decision making and action implementing processes in society. A case study done on municipal councils and social housing programs in Brazil found that the presence of participatory governance institutions supports the implementation of poverty alleviation programs by local governments.The "human scale development" work of Right Livelihood Award-winning Chilean economist Manfred Max Neef promotes the idea of development based upon fundamental human needs, which are considered to be limited, universal and invariant to all human beings (being a part of our human condition). He considers that poverty results from the failure to satisfy a particular human need, it is not just an absence of money. Whilst human needs are limited, Max Neef shows that the ways of satisfying human needs is potentially unlimited. Satisfiers also have different characteristics: they can be violators or destroyers, pseudosatisfiers, inhibiting satisfiers, singular satisfiers, or synergic satisfiers. Max-Neef shows that certain satisfiers, promoted as satisfying a particular need, in fact inhibit or destroy the possibility of satisfying other needs: e.g., the arms race, while ostensibly satisfying the need for protection, in fact then destroys subsistence, participation, affection and freedom; formal democracy, which is supposed to meet the need for participation often disempowers and alienates; commercial television, while used to satisfy the need for recreation, interferes with understanding, creativity and identity. Synergic satisfiers, on the other hand, not only satisfy one particular need, but also lead to satisfaction in other areas: some examples are breastfeeding; self-managed production; popular education; democratic community organizations; preventative medicine; meditation; educational games. India Community development in India was initiated by Government of India through Community Development Programme (CDP) in 1952. The focus of CDP was on rural communities. But, professionally trained social workers concentrated their practice in urban areas. Thus, although the focus of community organization was rural, the major thrust of Social Work gave an urban character which gave a balance in service for the program. Vietnam International organizations apply the term community in Vietnam to the local administrative unit, each with a traditional identity based on traditional, cultural, and kinship relations. Community development strategies in Vietnam aim to organize communities in ways that increase their capacities to partner with institutions, the participation of local people, transparency and equality, and unity within local communities.Social and economic development planning (SDEP) in Vietnam uses top-down centralized planning methods and decision-making processes which do not consider local context and local participation. The plans created by SDEP are ineffective and serve mainly for administrative purposes. Local people are not informed of these development plans. The participatory rural appraisal (PRA) approach, a research methodology that allows local people to share and evaluate their own life conditions, was introduced to Vietnam in the early 1990s to help reform the way that government approaches local communities and development. PRA was used as a tool for mostly outsiders to learn about the local community, which did not effect substantial change.The village/commune development (VDP/CDP) approach was developed as a more fitting approach than PRA to analyze local context and address the needs of rural communities. VDP/CDP participatory planning is centered around Ho Chi Minh's saying that "People know, people discuss and people supervise." VDP/CDP is often useful in Vietnam for shifting centralized management to more decentralization, helping develop local governance at the grassroots level. Local people use their knowledge to solve local issues. They create mid-term and yearly plans that help improve existing community development plans with the support of government organizations. Although VDP/CDP has been tested in many regions in Vietnam, it has not been fully implemented for a couple reasons. The methods applied in VDP/CDP are human resource and capacity building intensive, especially at the early stages. It also requires the local people to have an "initiative-taking" attitude. People in the remote areas where VDP/CDP has been tested have mostly passive attitudes because they already receive assistance from outsiders. There also are no sufficient monitoring practices to ensure effective plan implementation. Integrating VDP/CDP into the governmental system is difficult because the Communist Party and Central government's policies on decentralization are not enforced in reality.Non-governmental organizations (NGO) in Vietnam, legalized in 1991, have claimed goals to develop civil society, which was essentially nonexistent prior to the Đổi Mới economic reforms. NGO operations in Vietnam do not exactly live up to their claimed goals to expand civil society. This is mainly due to the fact that NGOs in Vietnam are mostly donor-driven, urban, and elite-based organizations that employ staff with ties to the Communist Party and Central government. NGOs are also overlooked by the Vietnam Fatherland Front, an umbrella organization that reports observations directly to the Party and Central government. Since NGOs in Vietnam are not entirely non-governmental, they have been coined instead as 'VNGOs.' Most VNGOs have originated from either the state, hospital or university groups, or individuals not previously associated with any groups. VNGOs have not yet reached those most in need, such as the rural poor, due to the entrenched power networks' opposition to lobbying for issues such the rural poor's land rights. Authoritarianism is prevalent in nearly all Vietnamese civic organizations. Authoritarian practices are more present in inner-organizational functions than in organization leaders' worldviews. These leaders often reveal both authoritarian and libertarian values in contradiction. Representatives of Vietnam's NGO's stated that disagreements are normal, but conflicts within an organization should be avoided, demonstrating the one-party "sameness" mentality of authoritarian rule. See also References Further reading Towards Shared International Standards for Community Development Practice. IACD. 2018 External links The Citizens' Handbook – A large collection practices and activities for citizens' groups National Civic League – US organization that promotes partnerships between government and citizens' groups Shelterforce – A nonprofit magazine on community development, affordable housing, and neighborhood stabilization.

Paul Budnitz

Paul Budnitz (born September 14, 1967) is an American entrepreneur. He is the founder and CEO of global entertainment brand, Superplastic. He is the founder of retailer Kidrobot, and the social network Ello. He also owns Budnitz Bicycles in Burlington, Vermont.

Paul Budnitz (born September 14, 1967) is an American entrepreneur. He is the founder and CEO of global entertainment brand, Superplastic. He is the founder of retailer Kidrobot, and the social network Ello. He also owns Budnitz Bicycles in Burlington, Vermont. Biography Early life and education Paul Budnitz grew up in Berkeley, California in a Jewish family. His father was a nuclear physicist, and his mother was a social worker. He graduated from Berkeley High School and eventually transferred to Yale University in Connecticut. Career Budnitz is also a film director, and in 1996 he directed the film 93 Million Miles from the Sun. In 2001, he directed Ultraviolet, a 13-minute short film.Budnitz is the founder of Kidrobot, Ello, Budnitz Bicycles, and Superplastic. Superplastic is known for creating synthetic celebrities with millions of followers worldwide, who appear in social media, music, gaming, high-end collectibles, fashion, animated entertainment, web3 and live experiences. The company sells real and virtual products, and has collaborated with Gucci, Fortnite, Mercedes-Benz, Tommy Hilfiger, Christie's, J. Balvin, Paris Hilton, and Vince Staples. Personal life Budnitz has lived in Boulder, Colorado; New York City; Montana; and Shelburne, Vermont. He is married to Sabine "Sa Budnitz" and the couple split their time between Vermont and New York City. References External links PaulBudnitz.com Paul Budnitz at IMDb "Paul Budnitz from Kidrobot interviewed by Steven Heller", Core77, 27 August 2007. Steven Heller, "Toy story" (review of I am Plastic), The New York Times, 28 January 2007. "Paul Budnitz: Kidrobot", Nylon, 27 September 2007.

Francis I, Duke of Brittany

Francis I (in Breton Fransez I, in French François I) (11 May 1414 – 17 July 1450), was Duke of Brittany, Count of Montfort and titular Earl of Richmond, from 29 August 1442 to his death. He was born in Vannes, the son of John V, Duke of Brittany and Joan of France, the daughter of King Charles VI of France.

Francis I (in Breton Fransez I, in French François I) (11 May 1414 – 17 July 1450), was Duke of Brittany, Count of Montfort and titular Earl of Richmond, from 29 August 1442 to his death. He was born in Vannes, the son of John V, Duke of Brittany and Joan of France, the daughter of King Charles VI of France. Family Francis I was originally engaged to Bonne of Savoy, the daughter of Amadeus VIII, Duke of Savoy, and his wife Mary of Burgundy. She died just before their marriage in 1430, at the age of 15.Francis I's first marriage was to Yolande of Anjou, daughter of Louis II, Duke of Anjou and Yolande of Aragon; they were married in Nantes in August 1431. Francis and Yolande had a son, Renaud, Count of Montfort. His son Renaud died young and his wife Yolande died in 1440.His second marriage was to Isabel of Scotland (daughter of James I, King of Scots and Joan Beaufort); he married Isabel at the Château d'Auray on 30 October 1442. Francis and Isabel had two daughters: Margaret of Brittany (1443–1469, Nantes), married Francis II, Duke of Brittany. Marie of Brittany (1444–1506), married John II, Viscount of Rohan and Count of Porhoët. Succession Francis I died on 17 July 1450 at the Château de l'Hermine, being only 36 years of age. Because he had no surviving male heirs at the time of his death, he was succeeded as Duke of Brittany by his younger brother, Peter II of Brittany. During his time, the residences of the Dukes of Brittany consisted of: the Château de l'Hermine; the Château de Nantes; the Château de Clisson; and the Château de Suscinio. Ancestry See also Dukes of Brittany family tree == References ==

Hyperion (Titan)

In Greek mythology, Hyperion (; Greek: Ὑπερίων, 'he who goes before') was one of the twelve Titan children of Gaia (Earth) and Uranus (Sky). With his sister, the Titaness Theia, Hyperion fathered Helios (Sun), Selene (Moon) and Eos (Dawn).Hyperion was, along with his son Helios, a personification of the sun, with the two sometimes identified. John Keats's abandoned epic poem Hyperion is among the literary works that feature the figure.

In Greek mythology, Hyperion (; Greek: Ὑπερίων, 'he who goes before') was one of the twelve Titan children of Gaia (Earth) and Uranus (Sky). With his sister, the Titaness Theia, Hyperion fathered Helios (Sun), Selene (Moon) and Eos (Dawn).Hyperion was, along with his son Helios, a personification of the sun, with the two sometimes identified. John Keats's abandoned epic poem Hyperion is among the literary works that feature the figure. Etymology "Hyperion" means "he that walks on high" or simply "the god above", often joined with "Helios". There is a possible attestation of his name in Linear B (Mycenaean Greek) in the lacunose form ]pe-rjo-[ (Linear B: ]𐀟𐁊-[), found on the KN E 842 tablet (reconstructed [u]-pe-rjo-[ne]) though it has been suggested that the name actually reads "Apollo" ([a]-pe-rjo-[ne]). Mythology Hyperion is one of the twelve or thirteen Titans, the children of Gaia and Uranus. In the Theogony, Uranus imprisoned all the children that Gaia bore him, before he was overthrown. According to Apollodorus, Uranus only imprisoned the Hecatoncheires and the Cyclopes but not the Titans, until Gaia persuaded her six Titan sons to overthrow their father Uranus and "they, all but Ocean, attacked him" as Cronus castrated him. Afterwards, in the words of Hesiod, Hyperion subjected his sister Theia to his love, and fathered three children with her, who became the lights of heaven: Helios (Sun), Selene (Moon), and Eos (Dawn). As is the case for most of the Titans, there are no myths or functions for Hyperion. He seems to exist only to provide a father for the three celestial deities. As a Titan, one of the oldest generation of gods, Hyperion was a fitting father for these three sky-gods who, as elements of the natural world, must have been conceived of as having come into being near the beginning of the cosmos. Helios Hyperion and Helios were both sun-gods. Early sources sometimes present the two as distinct personages, with Hyperion being the father of Helios, but sometimes they were apparently identified, with "Hyperion" being simply a title of, or another name for, Helios himself. Hyperion is Helios' father in Homer's Odyssey, Hesiod's Theogony, and the Homeric Hymn to Demeter. But in the Iliad and elsewhere in the Odyssey, Helios is also called "Helios Hyperion" with "Hyperion" here being used either as a patronymic or as an other epithet. In the Homeric epics, and in the Homeric Hymn to Apollo, besides being called "Helios", Hyperion is sometimes also called simply "Hyperion". In later sources the two sun-gods are distinctly father and son. In literature, the sun is often referred to as "Hyperion's bright son." Diodorus Siculus According to the rationalizing historian Diodorus Siculus, Hyperion was the name of the first person to understand the movement of the sun and moon, and their effect on the seasons, and explains that, because of this, he was said to be their "father": Of Hyperion we are told that he was the first to understand, by diligent attention and observation, the movement of both the sun and the moon and the other stars, and the seasons as well, in that they are caused by these bodies, and to make these facts known to others; and that for this reason he was called the father of these bodies, since he had begotten, so to speak, the speculation about them and their nature. Diodorus also recorded an unorthodox version of the myth, in which Hyperion married his sister Basileia and had two children by her, Helios and Selene; their brothers, envious of their happy issue and fearful that Hyperion would divert the royal power to himself, conspired and killed Hyperion along with his two children (which then went on to transform into the Sun and the Moon), leaving Basileia in great distress. Legacy Hyperion, one of the moons of Saturn, is named after this god. Saturn itself is named after the Roman equivalent of Hyperion's brother Cronus, Saturnus. Genealogy See also List of solar deities Notes References External links HYPERION from The Theoi Project HYPERION from greekmythology.com HYPERION from Mythopedia

Laudatio Iuliae amitae

The laudatio Iuliae amitae ("Eulogy for Aunt Julia") is a funeral oration that Julius Caesar said in 68 BC to honor his dead aunt Julia, the widow of Marius. The introduction of this laudatio funebris is reproduced in the work Divus Iulius by the Roman historian Suetonius:When quaestor, he pronounced the customary orations from the rostra in praise of his aunt Julia and his wife Cornelia, who had both died, and in the eulogy of his aunt he spoke in the following terms of her paternal and maternal ancestry and that of his own father: The family of my aunt Julia is descended by her mother from the kings and on her father's side is akin to the immortal gods. For the Marcii Reges go back to Ancus Marcius, and the Iulii, the family of which ours is a branch, to Venus. Our stock therefore has at once the sanctity of kings, whose power is supreme among mortal men, and the claim to reverence which attaches to the gods, who hold sway over kings themselves.

The laudatio Iuliae amitae ("Eulogy for Aunt Julia") is a funeral oration that Julius Caesar said in 68 BC to honor his dead aunt Julia, the widow of Marius. The introduction of this laudatio funebris is reproduced in the work Divus Iulius by the Roman historian Suetonius:When quaestor, he pronounced the customary orations from the rostra in praise of his aunt Julia and his wife Cornelia, who had both died, and in the eulogy of his aunt he spoke in the following terms of her paternal and maternal ancestry and that of his own father: The family of my aunt Julia is descended by her mother from the kings and on her father's side is akin to the immortal gods. For the Marcii Reges go back to Ancus Marcius, and the Iulii, the family of which ours is a branch, to Venus. Our stock therefore has at once the sanctity of kings, whose power is supreme among mortal men, and the claim to reverence which attaches to the gods, who hold sway over kings themselves. See also Poetry by Julius Caesar References This article incorporates material from the Citizendium article "Laudatio Iuliae amitae", which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License but not under the GFDL.

Timeline of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster

Fukushima Daiichi is a multi-reactor nuclear power site in the Fukushima Prefecture of Japan. A nuclear disaster occurred there after a 9.0 magnitude earthquake and subsequent tsunami on 11 March 2011. The earthquake triggered a scram shut down of the three active reactors, and the ensuing tsunami crippled the site, stopped the backup diesel generators, and caused a station blackout. The subsequent lack of cooling led to explosions and meltdowns, with problems at three of the six reactors and in one of the six spent-fuel pools. Times are given in Japan Standard Time (JST), unless noted, which is UTC plus nine hours.

Fukushima Daiichi is a multi-reactor nuclear power site in the Fukushima Prefecture of Japan. A nuclear disaster occurred there after a 9.0 magnitude earthquake and subsequent tsunami on 11 March 2011. The earthquake triggered a scram shut down of the three active reactors, and the ensuing tsunami crippled the site, stopped the backup diesel generators, and caused a station blackout. The subsequent lack of cooling led to explosions and meltdowns, with problems at three of the six reactors and in one of the six spent-fuel pools. Times are given in Japan Standard Time (JST), unless noted, which is UTC plus nine hours. March 2011 Monday, 7 March Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) submits a report to Japan's nuclear safety agency which predicts the possibility of a tsunami up to 10.2 metres high at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant in the event of an earthquake similar to the magnitude 7.2 earthquake with accompanying tsunami that devastated the area in 1896. TEPCO actually made this prediction in 2008 but delayed in submitting the report because they "did not feel the need to take prompt action on the estimates, which were still tentative calculations in the research stage". Friday, 11 March 14:46: A 9.1 magnitude earthquake strikes off the coast of Honshu Island at a depth of about 24 kilometres (15 mi). The Fukushima I power plant's nuclear reactors 1, 2, and 3 are automatically shut down by the tremor. Nuclear reactors 4, 5, and 6 were undergoing routine maintenance and were not operating (reactor 4 was defueled in November 2010). The tremor also cut the power plant off from the Japanese electricity grid; however, backup diesel generators kicked in to continue cooling. See extract from earthquake log below (the numbers e.g. D564, indicate the PID controller triggering the log event). 14:46:46: 400 ms D564 Seismic (sensor) Trip 14:46:46: 410 ms D534 Reactor SCRM A Trip (Reactor A SCRAM started) 14:46:58: 420 ms D563 Seismic (sensor) Trip 14:46:58: 420 ms D535 Reactor SCRM B Trip (Reactor B SCRAM started) 14:47: A553 ALL CR FULL IN (all control rods full in) ON 14:47: G002 GENERATOR VOLT 18.56 > 18.50 kV (indicates the diesel generators are running above minimum voltage) 14:47: Nuclear reaction has stopped, however decay heat generation continues. At SCRAM, 6.5% of the previous output power is still generated, falling to 1.5% after an hour, and approximately 0.4% after 24 hours. 14:52: Reactor 1's emergency cooling system, which was capable of running without external power, turned on automatically. 15:03: Reactor 1's emergency cooling system was manually shut down to avoid reactor damage (temperature was not critical at this point). The operators following the manual, shutting down the emergency cooling system as reactor temperature dropped sharply. 15:08: 7.4 magnitude aftershock 15:15: 7.9 magnitude aftershock 15:26: 7.7 magnitude aftershock 15:27: The first tsunami wave, of a series of seven waves, struck the plant. This wave was measured by the tidal gauge at 4 m (13 ft) and did not overcome the site design of 5.7 m (18.7 ft), being mitigated by the seawall. Further waves arrive, ultimately a major wave destroys the tidal gauge. 15:30: The emergency condenser designed to cool the steam inside the pressure vessel of the No. 1 reactor fails. 15:35: A major wave arrives, exact height is unknown as the tidal gauge failed after providing a maximum reading of 7.5 m (24.5 ft). Estimates based on water damage on buildings indicate at least one wave arrived at the station of 14 m to 15 m approximately (46 to 49 ft). Water surged over the site to a depth of 4 m to 5 m (13 to 16 ft), Unit 1 reactor building and turbine hall were the lowest relative to sea level. Water flooded the turbine halls via generator air intakes, doors and once the surge reached the rear of the building, an access hatch. The basement housing the emergency diesel generators starts to flood, the generators being located at the seaward side (front) of the turbine halls basement, with switchgear adjacent. The battery room was located below the control room at the rear basement of the turbine hall, with switchgear adjacent. Sea water intake structures on the shoreline for all six units are unavailable due to damage to pumps, strainers and equipment and flooding caused electrical faults. The wave also washes away or damages the diesel fuel tanks, located below the turbine halls, one tank washing up and blocking an access road. With the loss of all electrical power supply, the low-pressure core spray, the residual heat removal and low-pressure coolant injection system main pumps, and the automatic depressurization systems all failed (most of the emergency core cooling system). Only the steam-powered pump systems (isolation condenser in reactor 1, high-pressure coolant injection and reactor core isolation cooling system in reactors 2 and 3) remained available. Later, as the temperature rose, a system started that used steam-powered pumps and battery-powered valves. 15:37: Unit 1 AC power loss 15:38: Unit 3 AC power loss 15:40: Unit 2 AC power loss 15:36:45: Unit 2 D/G 2A (diesel generator) output drops from 7 kV to 0 V, full load switches to 2B 15:40:19: Unit 2 D/G 2B (diesel generator) output drops from 7 kV to 0 V, Unit 2 total AC power loss Units 1 & 2 125-volt DC back-up batteries flooded and failed, Unit 3 batteries provide power for 30 more hours 15:46 (approximate): Reactors 1 to 4 lose both AC power (from the external grid, and internal emergency diesel generators), and DC power from the battery banks. Reactor 1 & 2 control room also loses all DC power. Electrical cooling pumps fail, electrically operated valves are disabled and instruments in the control room fail. Reactor 1 Isolation Condensor (IC) valves fail – close with loss of power, disabling the IC cooling system. Reactor decay heat is at approximately 1.5% prior output (22 MW Unit 1, 33 MW Units 2 & 3). This causes the reactor temperature and pressure to start rising.According to a report in the New York Times, "... at the start of the crisis Friday, immediately after the shattering earthquake, Fukushima plant officials focused their attention on a damaged storage pool for spent nuclear fuel at the No. 2 reactor at Daiichi, said a nuclear executive who requested anonymity ... The damage prompted the plant's management to divert much of the attention and pumping capacity to that pool, the executive added. The shutdown of the other reactors then proceeded badly, and problems began to cascade." 16:00: The Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency of Japan (NISA) initiates an emergency headquarters in an attempt to gather information on the 55 nuclear reactors in Japan. There is no report that radiation was detected outside power-plant borders. 18:00 (estimated): The falling water level in reactor 1 reaches the top of the fuel, and the core temperature starts climbing. 18:18: Operators attempted to start reactor 1's emergency cooling system, but it did not function. 19:03: Prime Minister Naoto Kan declares a nuclear emergency status announced by Yukio Edano, Chief Cabinet officer in Japan. Japanese government officials try to comfort the people of Japan by telling them that the proper procedures are being undertaken. They also announce that no radioactive leaks have been detected. 19:30 (estimated): The fuel in reactor 1 becomes fully exposed above the water surface, and fuel damage in the central core begins soon after. 21:00: An evacuation order is issued by the government to persons within a radius of 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from the Fukushima I station. Those within a radius of 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) are told that they can remain in their homes, and carry on with regular activities, until told otherwise. TEPCO announces that the pressure inside reactor unit 1 of Fukushima I is more than twice normal levels. 21:00: The first mobile generator sets arrive onsite, further units arriving through the night. Workers check motors and switchgear in attempt to restart cooling of the reactors, testing reveals Unit 2 standby liquid control (SLC) pumps to be undamaged, the first mobile generator is placed adjacent to Unit 2 and workers start to run cable to the SLC pump distribution panel. Saturday, 12 March 05:30: Despite the risk of hydrogen (produced from the water in the reactor) igniting after combining with oxygen, and in order to release some of the pressure inside the containment at unit 1, the decision is taken to vent some of the steam (which contained a small amount of radioactive material) into the air. 05:50: Fresh water injection into reactor 1 is started. 06:50: Although unknown at the time, the core of reactor 1 has now completely melted and falls to the bottom of the reactor pressure vessel. 10:09: TEPCO confirms that a small amount of vapor has been released into the air to release pressure in reactor unit 1 at Fukushima I. 10:58: Pressure still remains too high inside reactor unit 2 at Fukushima I. In order to alleviate some of this pressure, a consensus is reached to vent radioactive vapor into the air. 14:00: Operators open the containment venting line of unit 1 and receive confirmation of steam release to the atmosphere at 14:30. 14:50: Fresh water injection into reactor 1 is halted. 15:30: Evacuation of residents within 3 km of Fukushima II and within 10 km of Fukushima I are underway. 15:30: Workers complete connection cabling to the Unit 2 SLC pumps, powering up the mobile generator outside Unit 2. 15:36: There is a massive hydrogen explosion in the reactor building of unit 1. The primary containment is not damaged, but there is extensive damage to the secondary containment (the reactor building). Five workers are injured.The mobile generator and cabling to Unit 2 SLC pump are damaged. Hoses providing seawater injection to Unit 1 and Unit 2 are also damaged in the blast. Debris cover the site, some of which is highly radioactive. Workers are evacuated to the Emergency Response Center for headcounts and to treat the wounded. 19:00: Seawater injection into reactor 1 is started. TEPCO orders Daiichi to cease seawater injection at 19:25, but Daiichi plant boss Masao Yoshida orders workers to continue with the seawater injection. 21:40: The evacuation zone around Fukushima I is extended to 20 km, while the evacuation zone around Fukushima II is extended to 10 km.To release pressure within reactor unit 1 at Fukushima I, steam is released out of the unit into the air. This steam contains water vapor, hydrogen, oxygen and some radioactive material. TEPCO engineers decided to directly inject seawater inside the pressure vessel of the reactors by means of the mobile trucks of the firemen. The pressure relief was also necessary to allow the firemen to inject seawater into the reactors vessels. Sunday, 13 March 02:42: The high pressure coolant injection system for reactor 3 stops and, shortly thereafter, the water level within the reactor starts falling. 05:10: Fukushima I Unit 1 is declared as an INES Level-4 "accident with local consequences" event. 07:00 (approximate): The water level in reactor 3 reaches the top of the fuel. 09:00: Core damage starts occurring in reactor 3.A partial meltdown was reported to be possible at unit 3. At 13:00 JST reactors 1 and 3 are vented to release overpressure and then re-filled with water and boric acid for cooling, and to inhibit further nuclear reactions. Unit 2 was possibly suffering a lower than normal water level, but was thought to be stable; although pressure inside the containment vessel was high. The Japan Atomic Energy Agency announced that it was rating the situation at unit 1 as level 4 (an accident with local consequences) on the International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale. Monday, 14 March 11:01: The unit 3 reactor building explodes. According to TEPCO, there was no release of radioactive material beyond that already being vented, but blast damage affected the water supply to unit 2. 11 workers were injured in the explosion. 13:15: The reactor core isolation cooling system for reactor 2 stops and, shortly afterwards, the water level within the reactor starts falling. 15:00: A major part of the fuel in reactor 3 drops to the bottom of the reactor pressure vessel. 18:00 (approximate): The water level in reactor 2 reaches the top of the fuel. 20:00: Core damage starts occurring in reactor 2.The president of the French nuclear safety authority, Autorité de sûreté nucléaire (ASN), said that the accident should be rated as a 5 (an accident with wider consequences) or even a 6 (a serious accident) on INES. Tuesday, 15 March 06:00 (approx.): According to TEPCO, an explosion damaged the 4th floor area above the reactor and spent-fuel pool of the Unit 4 reactor. 20:00: A majority of the fuel in reactor 2 drops to the bottom of the reactor pressure vessel.Damage to the temporary cooling systems on unit 2 from the explosion in unit 3, plus problems with its venting system, meant that water could not be added to the extent that unit 2 was in the most severe condition of the three reactors. Initially, it was thought that an explosion had occurred at unit 2 because its pressure indicator dropped at the same time as unit 4 exploded. However, later it was confirmed that there was no explosion at unit 2. A fire breaks out at unit 4. Radiation levels at the plant rise significantly but subsequently fall. Radiation equivalent dose rates of 400 millisieverts per hour (400 mSv/h) are observed at one location in the vicinity of unit 3. Wednesday, 16 March At approximately 14:30 TEPCO announces its belief that the fuel rod storage pool of unit 4 – which is located outside the containment area – may have begun boiling. By midday NHK TV is reporting white smoke rising from the Fukushima I plant, which officials suggest is likely coming from reactor 3. Shortly afterwards all but a small group of remaining workers at the plant are placed on standby because of the radiation rising to a dangerous level of up to 1 Sv/h. TEPCO temporarily suspended operations at the facility. A TEPCO press release states that workers had been withdrawn at 06:00 because of abnormal noises coming from one of the reactor pressure suppression chambers. Late in the evening Reuters reports that water is being poured into reactors 5 and 6. Thursday, 17 March During the morning Self-Defense Force helicopters drop water four times on the spent-fuel pools of units 3 and 4. They measure radiation field of 3.75 Sv/h above Unit 3. In the afternoon it is reported that the unit 4 spent-fuel pool was filled with water and none of the fuel rods were exposed. Construction work is started to supply a working external electrical power source to all six units of Fukushima I. Starting at 7 pm, police and fire water trucks attempt to spray water into the unit 3 reactor with high pressure hoses. Japanese authorities inform the IAEA that engineers are laying an external grid power line cable to unit 2. After watching the helicopter effort on TV Kazunori Hasegawa, president of Chuo Construction, calls the government and offers the use of his two truck-mounted concrete boom pumps to spray water directly into the reactors. TEPCO did not respond for three days, and then stated it would wait for the arrival of similar pumps obtained elsewhere. Friday, 18 March Tokyo Fire Department dispatches thirty fire engines with 139 fire-fighters and a trained rescue team at approximately 03:00 JST, including a fire truck with a 22-metre water tower. For the second consecutive day, high radiation levels are detected in an area 30 kilometres (19 mi) northwest of the damaged Fukushima I nuclear plant at 150 μSv/h. Japanese authorities upgrade INES ratings for cooling loss and core damage at unit 1 to level 5, and issue the same rating for units 2 and 3. The loss of fuel pool cooling water at unit 4 is classified as a level 3. In a 24-hour period ending at 11 am local time, radiation levels near the plant decline from 351.4 to 265 μSv/h, but it is unclear if the water spraying efforts were the cause of the decrease. Saturday, 19 March A second group of 100 Tokyo and 53 Osaka firefighters replaces the previous team. They use a vehicle that projects water from a height of 22 meters to cool spent nuclear fuel in the storage pool inside the reactor of unit 3. Water is sprayed into the reactor for a total of 7 hours during the day. TEPCO reports that the water was effective in lowering the temperature around the spent fuel rods to below 100 °C. Sunday, 20 March External power is reconnected to unit 2, but work continues to make the equipment operational. Repaired diesel generators at unit 6 provide power to restart the cooling on units 5 and 6, both of which are returned to cold shutdown and their fuel cooling ponds returned to normal operating temperatures. TEPCO announces that the pressure in reactor 3's containment vessel is rising, and that it might be necessary to vent air containing radioactive particles to relieve pressure, as reported by Japanese broadcaster NHK at 1:06. The operation is later aborted as TEPCO deems it unnecessary. While joining in a generally positive assessment of progress toward overall control, Japanese chief cabinet secretary Edano confirms, for the first time, that the heavily damaged and contaminated complex will be closed once the crisis is over. Monday, 21 March Ongoing repair work is interrupted by a recurrence of grey smoke from the south-east side of unit 3 (the general area of the spent-fuel pool) seen at 15:55 and dying down by 17:55. Employees are evacuated from unit 3, but no changes in radiation measurements or reactor status are seen. No work was going on at the time (such as restoring power) which might have accounted for the fire. White smoke, probably steam, is also seen coming from unit 2 at 18:22 JST, accompanied by a temporary rise in radiation levels. A new power line is laid to unit 4 and unit 5 is transferred to its own external power from a transmission line instead of sharing the unit 6 diesel generators.Officials learn that the crisis will not end with power recovery as the cooling pumps are damaged beyond repair and must be replaced. An emergency order was placed for new pumps for unit 2 which had suffered less damage than units 1 and 3. Tuesday, 22 March Smoke is still rising from units 2 and 3, but is less visible, and is theorized to be steam following operations to spray water onto the buildings. Repair work resumes, after having been halted because of concerns over the smoke; it is felt safe because no significant changes in radiation levels have occurred. Work continues to restore electricity, and a supply cable is connected to unit 4. Injection of seawater into units 1–3 continues. External power cables are reported to be connected to all six units and lighting is back on again in the control room of unit 3. Wednesday, 23 March Smoke again starts belching from reactor 3 in the late afternoon, this time black and grey smoke, causing another evacuation of workers from around the area. Aerial video from the plant shows what appears to be a small fire at the base of the smoke plumes in the heavily damaged reactor building. Feed water systems in unit 1 are restored allowing an increase in the rate that water can be added to the reactor. The Japanese Chief Cabinet Secretary also advises that high levels of radioactivity have been found in Tokyo's drinking water and that it should not be used to reconstitute baby formula as it is around twice the legal limit for children. Thursday, 24 March Seawater injection to units 1, 2 and 3 continues, and radiation levels near the plant decline to 200 μSv/h, while lighting is restored to the unit 1 control room. Three workers are exposed to high levels of radiation which cause two of them to require hospital treatment, after radioactive water seeps through their protective clothes. The workers are exposed to an estimated equivalent dose of 2–6 Sv to the skin below their ankles. They were not wearing protective boots, as their employing firm's safety manuals "did not assume a scenario in which its employees would carry out work standing in water at a nuclear power plant". The activity concentration of the water is about 3.9 GBq/L. Infra-red surveys of the reactor buildings, obtained by helicopter, show that the temperatures of units 1, 2, 3 and 4 continue to decrease, ranging from 11–17 °C, and the fuel pool at unit 3 is recorded at 30 °C. Friday, 25 March NISA announces a possible breach in the containment vessel of the unit 3 reactor, though radioactive water in the basement might alternatively have come from the fuel storage pool. Highly radioactive water is also found in the turbine buildings of units 1 and 2. The US Navy sends a barge with 1,890 cubic metres (500,000 US gal) of fresh water, expected to arrive after two days. Japan announces transportation will be provided in a voluntary evacuation zone of 30 kilometres (19 mi). Tap water is reported to be safe for infants in Tokyo and Chiba by Japanese authorities, but still exceeds limits in Hitachi and Tokaimura. Iodine-131 in the ocean near the plant measures 50,000 Bq/L, 1,250 times normal levels. Saturday, 26 March Fresh water becomes available again for use instead of seawater to top up reactor water levels. The fresh water is provided by two United States Navy barges holding a total of 2,280 metric tons of fresh water which were towed by the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force from the United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka Naval Base to Fukushima. Radiation levels near the plant decline to a still relatively high 170 μSv/h. Sunday, 27 March Levels of "over 1000" and 750 mSv/h are reported from water within unit 2 (but outside the containment structure) and 3 respectively. Japan's Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency indicate that "The level of radiation is greater than 1,000 millisieverts. It is certain that it comes from atomic fission ... But we are not sure how it came from the reactor." The high radiation levels cause delays for technicians working to restore the water cooling systems for the troubled reactors. United States Air Force technicians at Yokota Air Base complete the fabrication of compatibility valves to allow the connection of deployed pump systems to the existing infrastructure at Fukushima. An aerial video recorded by a Ground Self-Defense Force helicopter reveals, according to NHK, the clearest and most detailed view of the damaged plant to date. Significant observations include: White vapour, possibly steam, emanating from the buildings of reactors 2, 3, and 4. The roof of the reactor 2 building has been badly damaged but is still intact. Monday, 28 March The Japanese Nuclear Safety Commission states that it "assumed" melted fuel rods in unit 2 have released radioactive substances into the coolant water, which subsequently leaked through an unknown route to the unit 2 turbine building basement. To reduce the amount of leaking water, TEPCO reduced the amount of water pumped into the unit 2 reactor, from 16 tons per hour to 7 tons per hour, which could lead to higher reactor temperatures. The highly radioactive water halts work on restoring the cooling pumps and other powered systems to reactors 1–4. TEPCO confirms finding low levels of plutonium in five samples during 21 and 22 March. Enriched levels of Plutonium-238, relative to Plutonium-239 and Plutonium-240, at two of the sites in the plant (solid waste area and field) indicate that contamination has occurred at those sites due to the "recent incident". Nonetheless, the overall levels of plutonium for all samples are about the same as background Pu levels resulting from atmospheric nuclear bomb testing in the past. However, these weapons did not use fuel that has decayed significantly. Such nuclear accidents as this one are a potent source of biologically accumulating isotopes of transuranic elements such as curium and americium which are incorporated into bones, complexed into the Ca/PO4 hydroxide. Tuesday, 29 March TEPCO continues to spray water into reactors 1–3 and discovers that radioactive runoff water is beginning to fill utility trenches outside the three reactor buildings. The highly radioactive water in and around the reactor buildings continues to limit progress of the technicians in restoring the cooling and other automated systems to the reactors. Wednesday, 30 March At a news conference TEPCO Chairman Tsunehisa Katsumata announces that it is unclear how the problems at the plant will be resolved. An immediate difficulty is the removal of large quantities of radioactive water in the basement buildings, but also salt build up inside the reactors, from using seawater for cooling, will need to be removed. Building concrete walls to enclose the reactors in a shield is being considered, as had been done at Chernobyl. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) finds traces of radioactive iodine in milk in the United States. The amount is "well below levels of public health concerns". Thursday, 31 March Workers pump radioactive water from a utility trench near reactor 1 into a storage tank near reactor 4. Water in the condensers for reactors 2 and 3 is shifted to outside storage tanks so that the condensers can remove more contaminated water from inside the reactors. The world's largest concrete pumping truck is shipped from the United States to Fukushima. The truck has been slightly modified to be able to pump cooling water initially, then will later possibly to be used to pump concrete for any eventual permanent containment structure. A 62-metre-tall pumping truck, donated by Chinese manufacturer SANY is also used. April 2011 Friday, 1 April TEPCO says that groundwater near unit 1 contains radioiodine at levels 10,000 times normal, but NISA later disputes the numbers. The Japanese government is reported to be considering injecting nitrogen into the reactor vessels. Two more concrete pumping trucks, used initially to pump cooling water, are shipped to Japan from the Putzmeister factory in Germany. Saturday, 2 April TEPCO observes for the first time that contaminated water from the unit 2 is flowing into the sea. Workers discover a crack about 20 cm (8 inches) wide in the maintenance pit, which lies between the reactor 2 and the sea, and holds cables used to power seawater pumps. Workers were preparing to pour concrete into the crack to stop the water, which was emitting radiation at 1 Sv/h. Sunday, 3 April The attempt to plug the leak near unit 2 fails when the concrete fails to set. TEPCO then reattempts to plug up the trench that leads to the damaged storage pit with a combination of superabsorbent polymer, sawdust and shredded newspaper, which also fails. Radioactive water continues to leak into the sea. Radiation levels around the plant are estimated at 1 Sv/h and continue to decrease.TEPCO confirms the first deaths at the Fukushima facility, two workers who had been missing since 11 March and appear to have died in the basement of reactor 4 from bleeding due to multiple injuries inflicted by the tsunami.Japanese government officials say the Daiichi plant may continue to release dangerous radiation into the air for several months. Monday, 4 April TEPCO begins dumping water from storage tanks tainted with low levels of radioactivity into the Pacific Ocean on Monday night. Officials say this is needed to make room in a central waste facility to store water with a higher radioactive level. This more highly radioactive water is preventing workers from making progress on restoring the cooling and other systems to reactors 1–4. Samples of seawater near the plant reveal radioactive caesium at 1.1 million times the legal limit.The company says it could release up to 11,500 tons of radioactive water into the sea. A spokeswoman for Japan's Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency says the less-contaminated water must be disposed of so that workers can secure a place to store more highly contaminated water on the site.Engineers consider plans to inject inert nitrogen gas into the containment buildings of units 1, 2 and 3 to expel atmospheric oxygen and to dilute accumulated hydrogen, which combine explosively. Tuesday, 5 April It is determined that the leak into the cable storage pit from unit 2 was likely due to a faulty joint where the pit meets a duct. The pit leads to a gravel layer beneath, resulting in highly radioactive water pouring directly into the sea.Levels of radioactive iodine-131 in seawater near the facility are found to be 7.5 million times the legal limit. TEPCO drills a hole into the pit near reactor 2, from which highly radioactive water is leaking, and injects water glass (sodium silicate) into the pit to prevent further leaking. Wednesday, 6 April TEPCO announces that an injection of 6,000 litres (1,600 US gal) of polymer coagulant into the pit mitigated the leaking; however, the IAEA and others credit additional factors. Sodium silicate ("water glass") and additives are injected into the ground in order to stop the leakage of radioactive water. The residual heat carried by the water used for cooling the damaged reactors accelerates the setting of the injected mixture. Despite protests from the South Korean government, Russian scientists, and Japanese fishermen, Japan authorizes the release of 11,500 tonnes (12,700 tons) of less radioactive water into the ocean to make room to store the more highly contaminated water.Iodine-131 levels reach 7.5 million times the legal limit in a seawater sample taken near the facility.TEPCO announces that the leak of highly radioactive water from the utility pit near reactor 2 has stopped. According to U.S. Representative Ed Markey, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission says that the core of unit 2 has become so hot that part of it has melted through the reactor pressure vessel; however, a NRC spokesperson says, "That's not clear to us, nor is it clear to us that the reactor has penetrated the vessel." TEPCO begins injection of nitrogen into unit 1 to lower the possibility of hydrogen explosions. Thursday, 7 April Nitrogen injection into the pressure containment vessel of unit 1 commences at 01:31.Workers are evacuated following a magnitude 7.1 aftershock off the north-eastern coast of Japan, 118 kilometers from the plant. TEPCO reports communications and power were not affected and no additional damage was observed as a result. A tsunami warning is also issued, but is lifted after 90 minutes. Most of the workers at the nuclear plant were evacuated.Official measures at Fukushima I reactor unit 1, however, show a rise in temperature following the aftershock and a spiking amount of radiation in the Dry Well, which exceeds the instrument maximum of 100 Sv/h. Gauge B, in the meantime, records a steady increase in pressure for the previous ten days in the same reactor. Reporting the rise to 100 Sv/h from the earlier 30 Sv/h, TEPCO declares that the "validity of the measurement is questioned" both for radiation levels and pressure. Friday, 8 April Before the crisis evaluation was elevated by Japanese authorities to level 7, the highest level, experts already recognized that Fukushima is the most complicated nuclear accident. Saturday, 9 April Japan struggles to keep water on the reactors to cool them and prevent further meltdown. Russian Antonov An-124 cargo planes fly out of Atlanta and Los Angeles, each carrying a huge concrete boom pump. The two 95-ton boom pumps, which TEPCO purchased for $2 million each, can be operated from two miles away by remote control. Each boom pump can direct focused streams of water into the damaged reactors.TEPCO does not plan to take a Chernobyl approach to resolving the nuclear power plant crisis by entombing the radioactive material in concrete. If this decision were to change, the boom pumps could be retrofitted to deliver concrete for that purpose.Prior to the elevation to level 7 by the Japanese authorities James Acton, Associate of the Nuclear Policy Program at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, was of the opinion that "Fukushima is not the worst nuclear accident ever but it is the most complicated and the most dramatic, This [sic] was a crisis that played out in real time on TV. Chernobyl did not."A survey of radiation in seawater outside unit 2 shows radioactive isotope concentrations (iodine-131, caesium-134 and caesium-137) falling for the third consecutive day since the leak was plugged. However, the levels are still high at several thousand times legal levels. Other nuclides are being investigated, but Japanese regulator NISA has flagged problems with TEPCO's sampling methodology. Monday, 11 April Coolant injection into reactors 1 and 3 is interrupted for 50 minutes due to a loss of power after a strong earthquake in the region.Workers plan to pump water into turbine condensers, but need to pump water out of them first. Work to transfer water from the unit 2 and unit 1 condensers to a central storage tank was completed on 9 and 10 April. Workers have also knocked holes through the turbine hall buildings of units 2 and 4 to accommodate hoses for the water transfer. At unit 3, work continues to make space for water in the turbine condenser by pumping existing water into other tanks. Japanese news wire NHK reports that workers are laying hoses to transfer water to an LLW waste processing facility, which continues to be inspected. TEPCO says that it cannot start work switching on emergency systems on site until the turbine hall is dry. NHK also reported that radioactive water filling a tunnel near unit 2 has risen 12 cm since a leak in a trench was stopped on Wednesday 6 April. Tuesday, 12 April Japan officially raises Fukushima to INES Level 7, the same as Chernobyl. This new rating considers the accidents as a single event and uses estimated total release to the atmosphere as a justification.Following the hydrogen explosion in the reactor 1 building on 12 March and releases from the reactor 3 building, the equivalent of 190,000 terabecquerels of radioactive iodine had been released from the reactor buildings by 15 March, according to calculations by the Nuclear Safety Commission of Japan. A terabecquerel is equivalent to 1 trillion becquerels. The high level meant that by 15 March the Fukushima plant accident had already reached the worst level 7 on the International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale, matching the assessment given to the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster. Since that time the Fukushima reactors have continued to emit radiation; including atmospheric, water, and gamma ray releases. At Chernobyl, approximately 10 times the amount of radiation was released into the atmosphere as was released from Fukushima I through 12 April 2011. The total amount of radioactive material still stored at Fukushima is about 8 times that stored at Chernobyl, and leakage at Fukushima continues. After cooling efforts at spent-fuel pool 4 were halted, due to an erroneous warning about the pool filling up, the temperature of the pool rises to 90 °C and the dose rate 6 meters above the pool spikes at 84 mSv/h. Friday, 15 April Nuclear fuel is reported to have melted and fallen to the lower containment sections of reactors 1, 2 and 3. The melted material is not expected to breach a container (which might cause a massive radiation release). Instead, the melted fuel is thought to have dispersed fairly uniformly across the lower portions of the containers of the three reactors, which would make the resumption of the fission process, to the extent of a recriticality accident, 'most unlikely'; however, it is only during future dismantling of the three damaged reactors that it would be possible to verify this hypothesis and to know what really occurred inside the reactor cores. Saturday, 16 April Plans are announced for a large-scale study on the environmental and health effects of radioactive contamination from the nuclear plant. Academics and researchers from across Japan will work with the Fukushima Prefectural Government starting in May. Monday, 18 April The Associated Press reports that two PackBot ground robots from iRobot have entered unit 1 and unit 3 of the crippled Fukushima nuclear power plant and performed temperature, pressure, and radioactivity measurements. The remote-controlled robots entered the two reactors over the preceding weekend. The devices opened closed doors and explored the insides of the reactor buildings, coming back with radioactivity readings of up to 49 mSv/h inside unit 1 and up to 57 mSv/h inside unit 3. TEPCO officials say that the radiation data from the robots do not change their plans for shutting down the plant by the end of this year. Though more robots will be used, a TEPCO official, Takeshi Makigami, says that robots are limited in what they can do, and eventually "people must enter the buildings". Robots also entered unit 2, but the probe was hindered by fogging of the robot's camera lens from the high humidity, over 90%, inside the building.Test spraying of an "anti-scattering agent" on the ground to prevent further spread of radioactive materials from the site is carried out over an area of about 1200 m2. Tuesday, 19 April TEPCO begins transferring excess radioactive cooling water from the reactor 2's basement and maintenance tunnels to a waste processing facility. Operations to pump radioactive water in the basements of buildings of units 1, 2, 3 and their associated tunnels start with unit 2. Friday, 22 April Japanese Prime Minister Naoto Kan states additional towns might be asked to evacuate, which largely involves agricultural lands. The government also plans to build 30,000 temporary homes by the end of May, and an additional 70,000 will follow. The president of the Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO), Masataka Shimizu, formally apologizes at the prefectural government office in Fukushima to the Fukushima Governor Yuhei Sato for the nuclear crisis following the 11 March 2011 earthquake and tsunamis. In response, the Governor requests better working conditions for the workers. Tuesday, 26 April To prevent the proliferation of dust, TEPCO initiates spraying a synthetic resin to contain contaminated dust. Wednesday, 27 April Junichi Matsumoto, a general manager at Tokyo Electric Power Co., reports that radiation readings taken by two iRobot PackBot robots inside the reactor 1 building are as high as 1120 mSv/h, the highest level disclosed to date. May 2011 Monday, 2 May T. Matsui of the University of Tokyo Institute of Physics releases a scientific paper analysing the ratio of iodine-131 to caesium-137 taken from water samples, which concludes that a recriticality may have occurred at least 10–15 days after the attempted shutdown. Thursday, 5 May Workers enter the reactor 1 building. This is the first time since the start of the crisis that a reactor building in the plant is visited by a human being. The workers will connect a ventilation system that should absorb radiation inside the building for the next 4–5 days, allowing them to start installation of the cooling system replacement. Because of protective gear, the workers are only exposed to a small amount of radiation (about 2 mSv). TEPCO expects to bring the plant into a cold shutdown within six to nine months. IAEA releases a briefing. Tuesday, 10 May In a press release, TEPCO reports that levels of caesium-134, caesium-136, caesium-137, and iodine-131 (half-life of ~ 8 days), had spiked since last sampled on 2 March 2011, when these four nuclides were below detection limits. TEPCO's report gives the newly measured concentration (Bq/cm3) of each nuclide as of sampling date, 8 May. Thursday, 12 May TEPCO engineers confirm that a meltdown occurred, with molten fuel having fallen to the bottom of the reactor's containment vessel. The utility says fuel rods of the No. 1 reactor are fully exposed with the water level 1 meter (3.3 feet) below the base of the fuel assembly. The government and TEPCO are described as "consistently appeared to be underestimating the severity of the situation." According to a Japanese press report, there are holes in the base of the pressure vessel, and most of the fuel has likely melted. The nuclear fuel has possibly leaked into the containment vessel, which was damaged by an explosion during the crisis. However, the Nuclear Energy Institute, a nuclear lobbying firm, states that the situation "is in no way alarming. It was anticipated that there was fuel damage in reactors 1, 2 and 3. This is confirmation." Saturday, 14 May A third TEPCO (contractor) employee dies, after falling ill at 06:50, being brought to the plant's medical room unconscious. The likely cause of death is a heart attack. TEPCO says he was exposed to 0.17 millisieverts of radiation on Saturday. Sunday, 15 May A robot sent to the first floor of unit 1 records a radiation level of 2,000 mSv/h. At this level, workers would only be allowed to stay in the area for 8 minutes. In addition, the reactor's containment vessel is leaking large amounts of water into the basement. A TEPCO worker is able to peer into the basement and determines that the 11 m deep basement is approximately half full of water.TEPCO releases a report on the core status of reactor 1, revealing that fuel elements had become exposed above the water just 4 hours after the earthquake and SCRAM, and had fully melted after 16 hours. Wednesday, 18 May Four workers in protective suits and SCBA enter unit 2 for the first time since the 15 March explosion, to check on radiation levels and other conditions inside the building. The workers receive a dose of between 3 and 4 mSv each. Friday, 20 May TEPCO president Masataka Shimizu resigns after reporting the largest financial losses in the company's history. Sunday, 22 May TEPCO reports that reactor 3 leaked at least 250 tons of radioactive water into the Pacific Ocean over a period of 41 hours beginning on 10 May 2011. Tuesday, 24 May On the eve of the arrival in Tokyo of a delegation from the International Atomic Energy Agency, TEPCO admits that the cores of reactor 2 and reactor 3 also melted in the days immediately following the earthquake in mid-March 2011. 16 hours after the earthquake and SCRAM, the fuel rods of reactor 1 had "mostly melted and fallen into a lump at the bottom of the pressure vessel – a state that TEPCO officials have described as a 'meltdown'". A TEPCO spokesman Yoshimi Hitosugi stated last night, "The situation inside two and three is almost the same." TEPCO further stated that the fuel in reactor three took about 60 hours to melt and that the reactor melted down 100 hours after the magnitude nine quake struck. Wednesday, 25 May TEPCO informs the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency and the government of Fukushima Prefecture of the results of soil tests for plutonium (238Pu, 239Pu and 240Pu) carried out around the Fukushima Daiichi plant. While the levels were comparable to the fallout in Japan from atmospheric nuclear testing, TEPCO deemed that the plutonium had originated from the accidents. Saturday, 28 May TEPCO informs the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency and the government of Fukushima Prefecture of the results of soil tests for uranium (234U, 235U and 238U) carried out around the Fukushima Daiichi plant. The uranium found was considered to be natural, as its isotope ratios were consistent with the natural abundance.At 21:14 a cooling pump at reactor five stops. At 08:12 the next day, work began on a spare pump, and cooling was restored at 12:49. The reactor temperature had risen to 92.2 °C. The cause of the outage is suspected to be motor failure. Sunday, 29 May It is reported that 22 out of 23 radiation monitoring systems around the Fukushima plants were disabled by the earthquake and tsunami. Some were directly damaged, but most were disabled due to communication and power lines being cut. Even monitors equipped with backup satellite links failed, probably due to antenna damage. In Miyagi prefecture, 4 out of 7 were disabled by the tsunami, with the remaining three stopping after three hours. In Ibaraki, some 40 monitors stopped working for three hours until power could be restored.The first of the typhoons of the season is due to strike the area, while Japan states radiation levels at the seabed are several hundreds of times above normal levels off the coast of Fukushima. "The Science Ministry announced late on Friday highly radioactive materials were detected in a 300-km north-south stretch from Kesennuma in Miyagi Prefecture to Choshi in Chiba Prefecture, the Kyodo news agency reported."TEPCO reports that cooling has been restored for spent-fuel pools 1 to 4. Tuesday, 31 May An oil spill near reactors 5 and 6 is detected at 8:00 am, as well as an explosion heard at 2:30 pm near reactor 4. TEPCO reports that the explosion was the bursting of an oxygen cylinder damaged by unmanned machinery during debris removal.TEPCO states that there was a temporary oil leak into the sea near the plant, from an oil pipe that may have been damaged in the March disaster. It is stated as being an extremely small leak, possibly caused by recent rainy weather from Typhoon Songda. TEPCO says that the leak has stopped and oil fences have been installed to prevent the liquid from spreading into the Pacific Ocean. June 2011 Friday, 3 June The first case is confirmed where radiation levels in humans have exceeded limits since the accident at the plant. One worker in his thirties received 678 mSv, while another one in his forties received 643 mSv. Before the accident the limit for emergency situations was 100 mSv, but it was raised by the government to 250 mSv just after the accident. The two TEPCO workers were on duty in the central control rooms of reactors Nos. 3 and 4 and told the health and labor ministry that they didn't remember whether they wore protective masks or not when a hydrogen explosion occurred at reactor No. 1 on 12 March. Saturday, 4 June Air radiation readings of up to 4000 millisieverts per hour are recorded in the reactor 1 building. Monday, 6 June Japan's Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA) gives new estimates of the times at which the reactor pressure vessels were damaged and possibly dropped fuel into the containment vessels: 5 hours after the initial earthquake for reactor 1 (20:00 March 11); 80 hours for reactor 2 (22:50 March 14); and 79 hours for reactor 3 (22:10 March 14). In addition, NISA more than doubles its original estimate of radiation that escaped into the atmosphere in the first six days, from 370,000 terabecquerels to 770,000 terabecquerels. Wednesday, 8 June The ministry of education says that strontium 89Sr and 90Sr have been detected in soil samples collected from late March to early May and 22–62 km away from the Fukushima Daiichi plant. The highest values are reported in Namie town at 1,500 Bq/kg of strontium 89Sr, and 250 Bq/kg of strontium 90Sr.The Japanese government's report on the Fukushima disaster to IAEA is described in an article in the Yomiuri newspaper. The government report states that nuclear fuel has possibly melted through the base of the pressure vessels in the first three reactors. With data from the government report, the newspaper compares the March timelines provided by TEPCO and by NISA, which had performed further analysis; there were differences in the theoretical timing of events of up to 29 hours in the days following the tsunami. Thursday, 9 June A spokesman for TEPCO says the company is revising its earlier road-map for bringing the plant under control, including the time expected to achieve cold shutdown. Tuesday, 14 June From 00:44 to 02:35 there is a massive steam and smoke release from unit 3, recorded by the TEPCO live cam. No explanation has been given yet by TEPCO officials. Wednesday, 15 June TEPCO begins a trial run of a radioactive water treatment system in an effort to break away from the cycle of injecting water into reactors to cool them and ending up with more contaminated water. While contaminated water is treated, the system is expected to produce about 2,000 cubic meters of radioactive sludge by the end of 2011. Saturday, 18 June The radioactive water treatment system is forced to shut down because a filter exceeds its radioactivity limit. The separation unit, which removes caesium from the water, had been expected to last about a month before its cartridge required replacing—at a radiation level of 4 millisieverts per hour. The radiation levels near the filter cartridge replacement valves reach 4.7 millisieverts per hour after just 5 hours of operation, reportedly due to oil and sludge in the water which contained more radioactivity than expected. Sunday, 19 June Radiation in some areas of Tsukidate, 50 km NW of the Fukushima 1 plant, exceeds the legal limit. The government plans to help households in designated areas to evacuate, raising concern among residents. Although the Tsukidate elementary school has not detected radiation levels in excess of the legal limit, about 80 parents and teachers thoroughly wash windows and verandas with high-pressure water jets and brushes and the school suspends activities on the playground in response to concern by parents. Tuesday, 21 June A radiation reading of 430 millisieverts per hour is recorded in a mezzanine between the first floor and basement of reactor 2. This is the highest level measured up to this point in the reactor 2 building, and marks the first time that workers have entered the basement of this building since the beginning of the crisis. Monday, 27 June Although the radioactive water treatment system has not yet started full-scale operation, a total of 1,850 tons of radioactive water has been processed during test runs of the system. Today this decontaminated water is used to cool the reactors for the first time. TEPCO states that it will continue injecting 16 tons of water per hour for cooling the 3 reactors, and that 13 tons of this will be made up from the decontaminated water. The recycling system operates for only 90 minutes before it is halted due to a burst connection which leaks about one ton of water. Wednesday, 29 June TEPCO reports that tellurium-129m is found at 720 becquerels per litre of seawater collected on 4 June, detected near the water intake for the reactor 1; about 2.4 times safe levels. Though tellurium-129m has a short half-life of about 34 days, TEPCO denied that its detection indicated the possibility of a new leak of radioactive water into the sea. Thursday, 30 June The Itabashi Ward Office announces that a concentration of caesium-134 at 2,700 becquerels per kilogram – in excess of the government's provisional limit – was detected in tea processed from leaves picked on 9 May in Tokyo. July 2011 Sunday, 3 July The water decontamination and water recycling systems are now both functional. 100% recycled water is now used for reactor cooling, and no additional volume of contaminated water is being generated. Monday, 4 July Radioactive caesium-137 is found in Tokyo's tap water for the first time since April. Radioactive caesium from Fukushima was expected to enter the Japanese seafood supply, and was projected to reach the US West Coast in 5 years. Wednesday, 13 July The Japanese Nuclear Safety Commission publishes a report dated 11 June 1993, (Heisei 5) whose title literally translates to The event of entire alternating current station blackout on the nuclear power plant (原子力発電所における全交流電源喪失事象について) conducted by a working group. This reports the results of an evaluation of the regulations to prevent and handle an occurrence of the full loss of alternating current (Station Blackout or SBO) in nuclear power plants in Japan and other countries. It concludes that further discussion is needed on methods to avoid or recover from such accidents. It also reports that the probability of an SBO in Japan is lower than in other countries. Thursday, 14 July The number of people actively working at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant is about 3,000. NISA orders TEPCO to boost the number of safety managers to support this large number of workers.The water decontamination systems continue to be plagued by leaks and filter problems. Over the last week they had been operating at an average of 73% capacity, below the target of 90% which is required to meet the current timetable. Saturday, 16 July In a joint assessment the Japanese government and TEPCO say they have completed the first step of a 3-month plan outlined in mid-April for a complete cold shutdown. Reactors 1, 2 and 3 have been cooled to a stable level and nitrogen has been injected into their containment vessels to prevent hydrogen explosions; however, the assessment admits that contaminated water has leaked out of storage tanks, and that water level settings at its water purification facilities were incorrect. August 2011 Monday, 1 August A radiation level of 10 sieverts per hour is read at a ventilation shaft between reactors 1 and 2. The area is subsequently sealed. The reading of 10 Sv is the maximum for many Geiger counters, including those used for these readings. One official states that it is entirely possible that the radiation readings were higher since the counter was reading its maximum. Radiation has been impeding attempts to replace cooling systems. These are the highest readings logged indoors since the initial March 2011 explosions. Tuesday, 2 August On Tuesday, 2 August, a radiation level of 5 sieverts per hour is detected on the second floor of the turbine building in reactor 1. The radioactivity rates detected on 2 and 1 August are considered lethal for even brief human exposures, an exposure of 0.1 Sv being the normal accepted workplace exposure over 5 years and 8 Sv being a 100% lethal dose. Wednesday, 10 August Installation of the new, closed circulation cooling system is finished for all four damaged reactors (1–4), reactor 1 being the last. Previously, cooling was achieved with water injection by giant pump trucks. The water decontamination system is not working as well as expected, operating at roughly 66% of expected performance and suffering from numerous malfunctions. The system is necessary to decontaminate the large amount of radioactive water that remains on the site. September 2011 Thursday, 8 September The Japan Atomic Energy Agency calculates that a total of 15,000 terabecquerels of radiation has been released into the sea from the crippled Fukushima Daiichi power plant. Friday, 16 September Research indicates that the meltdown of reactor number 2 could have been avoided if water was injected to cool the reactor 4 hours earlier. Water injection was started at 8 pm on 14 March after the cooling system failed at 1 pm that day. The meltdown could have been avoided if injection had started by 4 pm. Wednesday, 21 September Typhoon Roke brings strong winds and up to 42 cm of rain to some areas of northeast Japan. At the same time a magnitude 5.3 earthquake strikes just south of Fukushima. No significant problems are reported at the Fukushima Daiichi plant. Thursday, 29 September The measured core temperature falls below 100 degrees Celsius for all 3 damaged reactors with reactor number 2 finally achieving this status; reactors 1 and 3 had been below 100 degrees since August.Hydrogen is found at concentrations of 61 to 63 percent in pipes connected to the reactor 1 containment vessel. Plans are made to check for hydrogen in the pipes of all reactors and flush if necessary to prevent the possibility of another explosion. October 2011 Saturday, 8 October The Economist reports that high levels of radioactive particles, including plutonium have been found in an extended irregular zone that extends well outside the 30 km evacuation radius around the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear power plant. Monday, 31 October A French study by the Institute for Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety revealed that the Fukushima nuclear disaster caused the biggest discharge of radioactive material into the ocean in history. The radioactive caesium that flowed into the sea from the Fukushima Dai-Ichi nuclear plant was 20 times the amount estimated by its owner, Tokyo Electric Power Co. Atmospheric releases were cited as amounting to 35,800 terabecquerels of caesium-137 by the Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics journal—an estimate about 42 percent of that released into the atmosphere in the Chernobyl explosion in 1986. Caesium-137 has a half-life of 30 years. November 2011 Tuesday, 1 November TEPCO reports the completion of a cover for the reactor unit 1, which is 54 metres high, 47 metres wide and 42 metres deep. The cover has a built-in ventilation system that is supposed to filter radioactive material. Wednesday, 2 November Boric acid is injected into reactor number 2 after the discovery of xenon in its containment vessel. The presence of xenon may be an indication that a self-sustained fission reaction has been occurring. Friday, 4 November TEPCO retracts Wednesday's statement about a possible self-sustained fission reaction, and now claims that the xenon was a result of the normal decay of radioisotopes in the fuel. Thursday, 17 November The Japanese government bans shipments of rice from a farm near the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear plant. 630 becquerels of caesium per kilogram was found in the rice, over the 500 becquerels of caesium per kilogram allowed for human consumption. (From hundreds of spots tested around Fukushima, none had previously exceeded the limit.) Tuesday, 29 November TEPCO now claims that there was no explosion at reactor number 2 on 15 March as previously reported, and that instead the explosion occurred at reactor number 4. However, TEPCO has no explanation for the observed rise in radioactive emissions from reactor 2 at this time. Wednesday, 30 November TEPCO reports that a new computer simulation of the meltdown shows nuclear fuel rod material melting through the pressure vessel and deep inside the concrete of the primary containment vessel, within a foot of breaching it fully in Reactor No. 1. In the pessimistic scenario, all of the fuel of Reactor No. 1 has escaped the pressure vessel, as well as a majority of the fuel for Reactor No. 2 and 3. December 2011 Saturday, 3 December Forty-five tons of highly radioactive water leaked from the apparatus being used to decontaminate the water at the plant. Plant workers attempted to contain the leak, but it was unknown if any of the water escaped into the water table or the ocean. Thursday, 15 December A long-range timetable is announced for the decommissioning of the Fukushima Daiichi reactors. The plan is to repair the damaged containment vessels and determine the condition of the melted fuel by the end of 2021, then begin the retrieval of this fuel in 2022. The full duration of the schedule is 40 years, with the decommissioning work to be completed by 2052. Friday, 16 December In a joint statement by TEPCO and the Japan government it is announced that the reactors have achieved a state of cold shutdown. Temperatures in the containment vessels were 38.9 degrees Celsius for reactor one, 67.5 degrees for reactor two, and 57.4 degrees for reactor 3. This announcement failed to lay to rest substantial concerns arising from TEPCO's inability to directly measure temperatures at the bottoms of the containment vessels, and the fact that the site is too radioactive for visual confirmation of the fuel rods' status. Sunday, 18 December 230 tons of highly radioactive water are discovered in a tunnel below a building that stores contaminated water, raising questions about TEPCO's inspection and management capabilities. TEPCO admits that this radioactive water may be mixing with the ground water, yet claims that the tunnel is not connected to the sea. Tuesday, 20 December US Nuclear Regulatory Commission Chairman Gregory Jaczko, visiting Japan, confirmed that the Daiichi reactors were stable. Said Jaczko, "The temperatures have decreased significantly, the amount of heat that's being produced from the reactor fuel itself is very, very low now. So it simply doesn't have the kind of energy, if you will, that's needed to have any kind of off-site releases of radiation. I feel very comfortable with the (government's cold shutdown) decision." Monday, 26 December An interim report was issued by the investigative panel headed by Yotaro Hatamura. In the report, the panel concluded that poor internal communication by the Japanese government and faulty knowledge and actions by TEPCO employees contributed to the disaster. The Japanese cabinet was not informed of the government's System for Prediction of Environmental Emergency Dose Information, which could have told them of the wind direction's effect on the spread of radiation, which would have allowed them to make better decisions on which areas to evacuate around Fukushima Daiichi. TEPCO workers mistakenly believed that the isolation condenser for reactor No. 1 was still working, when it was not, delaying efforts to try other methods to cool the reactor. TEPCO workers turned off an emergency cooling system on reactor No. 3 for seven hours to try to switch to another system that was not working, allowing the reactor to overheat more quickly. 2012 19 January An attempt is made to view the state of the melted fuel in reactor 2 using a fibre-optic endoscope, however clear images of the water level and fuel location could not be obtained, probably due to the harsh environment inside the containment vessel.After radioactive water was discovered in a tunnel under reactor 2 on 18 December, the government directed TEPCO to survey the plant's underground facilities and check for more accumulation of radioactive water. TEPCO finds an additional 500 tons of water containing 16,200 Bq/cm3 of radioactive caesium in a pit near reactor 2, and 600 tons of 860 Bq/cm3 water near reactor 3. 22 February TEPCO begins pouring a 60-centimetre-thick layer of concrete over 70,000 square metres of the ocean seabed near the Fukushima Daiichi power plant in an effort to contain contaminated sediments. 27 March TEPCO measures atmospheric radiation at several points inside the containment vessel of reactor 2 for the first time, and reports values of 31.1 and 72.9 Sv/h. The utility states that radiation is too high for robots, endoscopes, and other devices to work properly. 5 April For the second time in 10 days highly radioactive wastewater is accidentally discharged into the sea. About 12 tons of wastewater leaks from a disconnected joint, a large portion of which flows into the sea through a drainage ditch. 5 May Japan's last remaining active nuclear reactor goes offline. Since the Fukushima Daiichi incident, nuclear reactors have not been allowed to restart after being shut down for maintenance or safety checks. One by one the number of active nuclear reactors has steadily decreased until the last of Japan's 54 nuclear reactors is finally taken offline. 22 May Japanese scientists report that the water depth inside the containment of unit 1 is only 40 cm; much lower than expected, and low enough to expose some fuel. From this observation, it is concluded that a 2 cm hole may exist in a pipe that is 40 cm from the bottom of the vessel. 24 May TEPCO releases new estimate of 900,000 terabecquerels for the total amount of radioactive material released from this facility into the environment. 5 July Japan once again has a working nuclear reactor as the number 3 reactor at the Ohi nuclear plant begins generating power. This is the first reactor to be restarted since the tsunami, and marks the end of two months without nuclear power for Japan. 12 October TEPCO admits for the first time that it had failed to take stronger measures to prevent disasters for fear of inviting lawsuits or protests against its nuclear plants. TEPCO's internal reform task force, led by company President Naomi Hirose, said in a report TEPCO had feared efforts to better protect nuclear facilities from severe accidents such as tsunamis would trigger anti-nuclear sentiment, interfere with operations or increase litigation risks. TEPCO could have mitigated the impact of the accident if it had diversified power and cooling systems by paying closer attention to international standards and recommendations, the report said. TEPCO also should have trained employees with practical crisis management skills rather than conduct obligatory drills as a formality, it said. In the internal report TEPCO said that before the accident it had been afraid to consider the risk of such a large tsunami as the one in March 2011 which hit Fukushima, fearing admissions of risk could result in public pressure to shut down plants. "There were concerns that if new countermeasures against severe accidents were installed, concern would spread in host communities that the current plants had safety problems," the report said. TEPCO said in the report that "severe accident measures" were taken in 2002, which included "containment venting and power supply cross-ties between units," but additional measures were never put in place. TEPCO added that taking such measures could also add to "public anxiety and add momentum to anti-nuclear movements." 2013 18 March Public trust in TEPCO further declines as cooling systems for several spent-fuel pools go down for more than 29 hours after a power interruption that may have been caused by a rat in a switchboard. 9 July Levels of caesium in groundwater from monitoring wells around the reactors jumps by 90 times compared with the levels 3 days earlier. The contamination is now measured at 9,000 becquerels of caesium-134 and 18,000 becquerels of caesium-137 per litre of water. As well, tritium levels in seawater from the port next to the plant have been increasing since May, and a water sample taken on 3 July showed 2,300 becquerels per litre, the highest measurement since the start of the nuclear crisis in March 2011. 10 July Japanese government admits Fukushima Daiichi may have been leaking radioactive water into ground water and into the ocean since 2011. 22 July TEPCO admits that since the 2011 reactor breaches, radioactive water has continued to leak from the plant into groundwater, making the groundwater radioactive, with implications for drinking water and for the Pacific. 19 August It is discovered that 300 tonnes of highly contaminated water (80 MBq/L) had leaked from a storage tank and seeped into the ground. 21 August Japan's Nuclear Regulation Authority raises the severity of the contaminated water leaks at Fukushima to INES level 3 "serious incident". 26 August The Japanese government takes charge in dealing with the contaminated water situation. Trade minister Toshimitsu Motegi says "We've allowed Tokyo Electric to deal with the contaminated water situation on its own and they've essentially turned it into a game of Whack-a-Mole". 15 September Japan is once again nuclear free as its only working reactor goes offline for refuelling and maintenance. 18 November Workers begin removing fuel rods from a storage pond at the Unit 4 reactor building. About 1,500 rods, some of them damaged, must be removed in a risky and dangerous operation set to take a year. Removed rods will then be moved into a more secure storage. 2014 6 February The reanalysis of a groundwater sample taken from a well in July 2013 updates its measurement from 900,000 Bq/L total beta radioactivity to a record-high 5 MBq/L of strontium-90 only (corresponding to about 10 MBq/L total beta radioactivity), after a problem with the measuring devices was found in October. 13 February It is revealed that TEPCO had concealed for months the increase in measured groundwater radioactivity. 21 May TEPCO begins operation to bypass groundwater flow around the reactor by pumping upstream groundwater to storage tanks, then discharging directly to the sea after measuring the contamination levels. 3 June TEPCO begins to construct facilities to establish an ice wall within the ground around the reactors to prevent contaminated water to mix with groundwater flowing under the area. 7 July TEPCO has switched off the cooling system at reactor 5 due to a 3mm leak near a flow valve. Approximately 1,300-litre of water has spilled. They have approximately 9 days to repair it before water temperature reaches 65 degrees Celsius 17 July TEPCO launches another campaign to contain the spread of contaminated sediments in the sea near the power plant, this time coating 180,000 square meters of sea floor with cement. 20 December TEPCO reports that all spent fuel rods have now been safely removed from the storage pool at reactor 4. 2015 10 January TEPCO begins operation of a new reverse-osmosis system to remove strontium from contaminated water. The new system was built to treat 500 to 900 cubic metres of water per day, and reduce the strontium levels in the water by a factor of 100 to 1000. 10 April A robot designed to withstand intense heat and radiation is sent into Reactor 1 to locate the melted fuel. It covers 14 of 18 locations before it stops functioning and has to be abandoned. 5 September The evacuation order is lifted for Naraha Town in Fukushima Prefecture. 10 September The Sendai-1 nuclear reactor resumes commercial operation for the first time since the earthquake in May 2011. This ends almost 2 years with no Japan nuclear power plants in commercial operation since Ohi-1 was halted on 15 September 2013. 26 October After a 3+1⁄2-year construction project, TEPCO completes a 780 m seaside shielding wall to reduce the amount of contaminated water leaking into the sea. 2016 16 February TEPCO estimates that 749,000 cubic metres of contaminated debris from Fukushima Daiichi will be produced by the year 2027, and releases a plan for incineration and storage of this waste. 2017 3 February TEPCO said the radiation level in the containment vessel of reactor 2 at the crippled Fukushima No. 1 power plant was 530 sieverts per hour, the highest recorded level since the triple core meltdown in March 2011. This is however the first measurement of the radiation level within the reactor area and as such is likely lower than in the initial period after the meltdown. TEPCO also announced that there is a 2-meter hole in a metal grating under the pressure vessel in the reactor's primary containment vessel. 20 June A recent investigation by TEPCO using temperature measurements has determined the probable location of the cores for reactors 1–3. They believe that most of the core debris has breached the pressure vessel and lays at the bottom of the containment vessel for reactors 1 and 3, although some debris seems to be lodged in the control rod drive mechanism for reactor 1. However, they believe that most debris may remain at the bottom of the pressure vessel for reactor 2. 19–21 July A remote operated robot takes the first pictures of the melted core of reactor 3. Some melted material hangs from the control-rod insertion mechanism under the pressure vessel, and there are piles of rocky objects at the bottom of the primary containment vessel that are thought to be melted core. 26 September A revised decommissioning roadmap has the removal of fuel rods from reactor 3 storage pool starting in 2018, but the removal of fuel rods from the reactor 1 and 2 storage pools will be delayed until 2023. Removal of melted fuel debris from one of the reactors is expected to begin by 2021. 2018 19 January Unit 2 containment is investigated with a camera. The containment floor below the reactor is found to be covered with sandy and clay-like deposits that are thought to be fuel debris. Some fuel assembly components are seen on the floor. No significant damage is seen on the inner wall. The radiation dose rate in the containment varies between 7 and 42 grays per hour, depending on the location. 2019 15 February A robot with two "fingers" makes first contact with the fuel debris in the primary containment vessel (PCV) of reactor 2. The robot was able to move loose debris at 7 of the 10 locations probed, providing hope that it may be possible to remove these deposits from the PCV. 2021 28 February Removing all 566 spent fuel assemblies from the storage pool of unit 3 is completed. See also 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster Radiation effects from Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster Fukushima 50 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami List of civilian nuclear incidents (2010s) Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents Nuclear safety Notes References Wang, John X. and Marvin L. Roush (2000) What every engineer should know about risk engineering and management. London: CRC Press. ISBN 9781420026962; OCLC 5030452 電気新聞, ed. (June 2011). 東日本大震災の記録 −原子力事故と計画停電−. （社）日本電気協会新聞部. (Japanese) External links Webcam Fukushima nuclear power plant I TEPCO near real-time radiation sensor data in English and Japanese; brief instructions Archived 26 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine for English-speaking readers on how to interpret the Japanese table data NISA Information update, Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency, the nuclear safety authority of Japan JAIF Information update, Japan Atomic Industrial Forum JAEA Information update, Japan Atomic Energy Agency IAEA Update on Japan Earthquake, International Atomic Energy Agency Nature Journal – Specials: Japan earthquake and nuclear crisis Fukushima Diary | Fukushima accident to go-on 40 more years [sic] "Inside Japan's Nuclear Meltdown", Season 2012, Episode 4, PBS Frontline

Amyntas of Galatia

Amyntas (Ancient Greek: Ἀμύντας), Tetrarch of the Trocmi was a King of Galatia and of several adjacent countries between 36 and 25 BC, mentioned by Strabo as contemporary with himself. He was the son of Brogitarus, king of Galatia, and Adobogiona, daughter of king Deiotarus Philoromaeus. Amyntas seems to have first possessed Lycaonia, where he maintained more than 300 flocks. To this he added the territory of Derbe by the murder of its prince, Antipater of Derbe, the friend of Cicero, and Isaura and Cappadocia by Roman favour. Originally he had been the king of Cappadocia Deiotarus secretary (γραμματεύς), and was made by Amyntas commander in chief (στρατηγός) of the Galatian auxiliaries sent to help Brutus and Cassius against the Triumvires, but deserted to Mark Anthony just before the battle of Philippi in 42 BC.

Amyntas (Ancient Greek: Ἀμύντας), Tetrarch of the Trocmi was a King of Galatia and of several adjacent countries between 36 and 25 BC, mentioned by Strabo as contemporary with himself. He was the son of Brogitarus, king of Galatia, and Adobogiona, daughter of king Deiotarus Philoromaeus. Amyntas seems to have first possessed Lycaonia, where he maintained more than 300 flocks. To this he added the territory of Derbe by the murder of its prince, Antipater of Derbe, the friend of Cicero, and Isaura and Cappadocia by Roman favour. Originally he had been the king of Cappadocia Deiotarus secretary (γραμματεύς), and was made by Amyntas commander in chief (στρατηγός) of the Galatian auxiliaries sent to help Brutus and Cassius against the Triumvires, but deserted to Mark Anthony just before the battle of Philippi in 42 BC. After the death of Deiotarus, Amyntas was made king of Cappadocia in 37 as a client ruler of Mark Antony. Plutarch enumerates him among the adherents of Mark Antony at Actium and is mentioned as deserting to Octavian, just before the battle.While pursuing his schemes of aggrandizement, and endeavoring to reduce the refractory highlanders around him, Amyntas made himself master of Homonada or Hoinona, and slew the prince of that place; but his death was avenged by his widow, and Amyntas fell a victim in 25 to an ambush which she laid for him. On his death Galatia became a Roman province. Amyntas was the father of Artemidoros of the Trocmi, a Galatian nobleman, who married a princess of the Tectosagi, the daughter of Amyntas, Tetrarch of the Tectosagii. They were the parents of Gaius Julius Severus, a nobleman from Acmonia in Galatia, who was in turn the father of Gaius Julius Bassus, proconsul of Bithynia in 98, and Gaius Julius Severus, a Tribune of the Legio VI Ferrata. Notes References Smith, William (editor); Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, "Amyntas (6)", Boston, (1867) Head, Barclay; Historia Numorum, "Galatia", (1911) Settipani, Christian, Les Ancêtres de Charlemagne (France: Éditions Christian, 1989). This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). "Amyntas (6)". Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology.

Alchuka language

Alchuka (Chinese: 阿勒楚喀; pinyin: Ālèchǔkā; Manchu: Alcuka, Alcuha) is an extinct Tungusic language that was spoken near Harbin in Heilongjiang Province, northeastern China. A detailed overview of Alchuka can be found in Hölzl (2020).

Alchuka (Chinese: 阿勒楚喀; pinyin: Ālèchǔkā; Manchu: Alcuka, Alcuha) is an extinct Tungusic language that was spoken near Harbin in Heilongjiang Province, northeastern China. A detailed overview of Alchuka can be found in Hölzl (2020). Name Alchuka is the historical name of a town, now called Acheng District. Classification Alchuka belongs to the Jurchenic subgroup of Tungusic. Other Jurchenic languages include Written Manchu, Bala, and Chinese Kyakala. Documentation Alchuka has been documented in the 1980s by Mu Yejun (穆晔骏), in Mu (1981: 72; 1985; 1986a; 1986b; 1987; 1988). At the time, only very few elderly speakers were left. Alchuka has also been discussed in Ikegami (1994, 1999: 321–343) and Hölzl (2017, 2020). == References ==

Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes

Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes is an 1824 book by Lewis Gompertz, an early animal rights advocate and vegan. In the book, Gompertz lays out a moral framework for the treatment of and obligations towards humans and other animals, arguing against the consumption of meat, milk, eggs, silk and leather, denouncing vivisection and arguing for aiding animals suffering in the wild.

Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes is an 1824 book by Lewis Gompertz, an early animal rights advocate and vegan. In the book, Gompertz lays out a moral framework for the treatment of and obligations towards humans and other animals, arguing against the consumption of meat, milk, eggs, silk and leather, denouncing vivisection and arguing for aiding animals suffering in the wild. Reception One contemporary reviewer called the structuring of the book "puzzling", yet felt that Gompertz laid out "excellent principles, as applied to all points of a public nature" and that the "tendency of most of the author's proposals and observations is humane and laudable"; they concluded that despite certain faults in the book's judgements, that it deserved the "attention of magistrates and men in power". Legacy In 1839, the astronomer and naturalist T. Forster published a treatise addressed to Gompertz, titled Philozoia, or Moral Reflections on the actual condition of the Animal Kingdom, and the means of improving the same.Henry S. Salt included Gompertz's book in his bibliography of animal rights, within his 1892 work Animals' Rights: Considered in Relation to Social Progress.Gary L. Francione and Anne E. Charlton describe the book as "one of the most progressive and radical books on animal ethics ever written, yet is virtually unknown". Peter Singer, in the foreword to the 1992 edition of the book, details his surprise at having discovered Gompertz's work and recognising Gompertz's arguments as being very similar to his own, which have been taken up by the animal liberation movement.Stephen Bostock draws attention to how Gompertz's investigation of ethics "attempts to argue rigorously from firm foundations with an elaborate apparatus of definitions, axioms and theorems". He also praises the fairness Gompertz gives to his opponents and his honesty about his doubts. Bostock also asserts that Gompertz's answers to a number of contemporary ethical questions are "well worth the attention of anyone tackling these questions today." Editions In 1992, Centaur Press published a new edition of the book, which was edited by Peter Singer; this was followed by a 1997 edition published by Edwin Mellen Press and edited by Charles R. Magel. References External links Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes at the Internet Archive

National Industrial Exhibitions

The National Industrial Exhibitions (内国勧業博覧会, Naikoku Kangyō Hakurankai) were a series of five exhibitions in Meiji Japan, staged between 1877 and 1903, the first three in Tokyo, the fourth in Kyoto, the last in Osaka.

The National Industrial Exhibitions (内国勧業博覧会, Naikoku Kangyō Hakurankai) were a series of five exhibitions in Meiji Japan, staged between 1877 and 1903, the first three in Tokyo, the fourth in Kyoto, the last in Osaka. First National Industrial Exhibition (1877) Staged in Ueno Park in Tokyo from 21 August to 30 November 1877, the first National Industrial Exhibition ran for 102 days and drew 454,168 visitors, an average of 4,453 visitors per day. Sponsored by Ōkubo Toshimichi, first head of the Home Ministry, it was inspired by Japan's participation in the 1873 Vienna World's Fair. The venue included a Fine Art Building, Japan's first so-called bijutsukan or art gallery, a term coined in relation to the National Industrial Exhibitions, and later repurposed for more permanent art museums. There was also an Agricultural Production Building, Machinery Building, Horticultural Building, and Animal Building. Exhibits were judged based on their "materials, manufacturing methods, quality, adjustment, effectiveness, value and price". Second National Industrial Exhibition (1881) Staged in Ueno Park in Tokyo from 1 March to 30 June 1881, the second National Industrial Exhibition ran for 122 days and drew 823,094 visitors (including the Meiji Emperor and Empress Shōken), an average of 6,747 visitors per day. It was sponsored by the Ministry of Finance as well as the Home Ministry, and featured four times as many exhibits as the first, this time arranged by categories rather than prefectures, so as to encourage competition between exhibitors. Third National Industrial Exhibition (1890) Staged in Ueno Park in Tokyo from 1 April to 31 July 1890, the third National Industrial Exhibition ran for 122 days and drew 1,023,693 visitors, an average of 8,391 visitors per day. With the backing of Sano Tsunetami, it was initially planned as an Asian Exposition (アジア博覧会), but due to the opposition of Finance Minister Matsukata Masayoshi and others, it was eventually held as the Third National Industrial Exhibition, although a foreign flavour was retained, with invitations sent and attendees from abroad. The Exhibition featured the country's first electric tram. Fourth National Industrial Exhibition (1895) Staged in Okazaki Park (岡崎公園) to the south of Heian Jingū in Kyoto from 1 April to 31 July 1895, the fourth National Industrial Exhibition ran for 122 days and drew 1,136,695 visitors, an average of 9,317 visitors per day. At the Machinery Building, electricity replaced coal, while an electric tram operated outside the venue for the first time domestically. Display of a painting of a nude, Kuroda Seiki's Morning Toilette (destroyed in the Second World War), occasioned a press furore, with scandalized critics condemning the decline in public standards of decency. Fifth National Industrial Exhibition (1903) Staged in Tennōji-ku, Osaka, from 1 March to 31 July 1903, the fifth and final National Industrial Exhibition ran for 153 days and drew 4,350,693 visitors, an average of 28,436 visitors per day. For the first time, overseas exhibitors were permitted (eight foreign cars featured). There was some controversy over the Human Pavilion (人類館事件). Subsequent exhibitions Due to financial constraints after the Russo-Japanese War, a planned sixth National Industrial Exhibition was cancelled, and the next nation-wide initiative of this order was the 1970 Osaka Expo, Japan's first world's fair. See also Yushima Seidō Exhibition History of Museums in Japan Meiji Restoration References External links National Diet Library pages on the National Industrial Exhibitions

Marie Antoinette (1938 film)

Marie Antoinette is a 1938 American historical drama film produced by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. It was directed by W. S. Van Dyke and starred Norma Shearer as Marie Antoinette. Based upon the 1932 biography of the ill-fated Queen of France by the Austrian writer Stefan Zweig, it had its Los Angeles premiere at the legendary Carthay Circle Theatre, where the landscaping was specially decorated for the event. The film was the last project of Irving Thalberg who died in 1936 while it was in the planning stage. His widow, Norma Shearer, remained committed to the project even while her enthusiasm for her film career in general was waning following his death.

Marie Antoinette is a 1938 American historical drama film produced by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. It was directed by W. S. Van Dyke and starred Norma Shearer as Marie Antoinette. Based upon the 1932 biography of the ill-fated Queen of France by the Austrian writer Stefan Zweig, it had its Los Angeles premiere at the legendary Carthay Circle Theatre, where the landscaping was specially decorated for the event. The film was the last project of Irving Thalberg who died in 1936 while it was in the planning stage. His widow, Norma Shearer, remained committed to the project even while her enthusiasm for her film career in general was waning following his death. With a budget over two million dollars, it was one of the more expensive films of the 1930s, but also one of the bigger successes. Plot In 1769 Vienna, Empress Maria Theresa of Austria tells her daughter Maria Antonia she is to marry the Dauphin Louis-Auguste. Marie is excited to become the future Queen of France but grows dismayed upon learning her husband is a shy man more at home with locksmithing than attending parties. After countless attempts to please him, Louis reveals he cannot produce heirs, prompting Marie to associate with the power-hungry Duc d'Orleans. On her second wedding anniversary, Madame du Barry, King Louis XV's mistress, gifts Marie with an empty cradle and a poem critical of her inability to produce an heir. Despite Marie's Distress, Louis proves to be too weak to stand up to his grandfather. Sometime later, Marie meets Swedish Count Axel Fersen at a costume ball, during which she wagers and loses an expensive necklace. Count Mercy, the Austrian ambassador, scolds her for her wanton behaviour, but she pays him little mind. Marie hosts a ball in an attempt to make amends with du Barry and please Count Mercy. However, the attempt fails when du Barry draws attention to Louis's absence, and Marie responds with reference to du Barry's past. The King decides to annul the marriage, prompting Louis to defend Marie. Meanwhile, Marie flees to Count Mercy's residence after learning she is to be sent back to Austria. While there, she reunites with Fersen, who professes his love for her. Realising she too has fallen in love with Fersen, Marie goes to tell Louis but learns she cannot leave him as the King is dying of smallpox and Louis himself is still fond of her. She agrees to remain, and they ascend to the throne following the King's death. Despite Marie's attempts to continue their relationship, Fersen refuses to risk ruining her reputation and tells her to fulfill her duties as France's Queen. She goes on to give birth to daughter Marie Thérèse and son Louis Charles. Years later, when the Dauphin has grown into a young boy, peasants throw stones at Marie's carriage while taking her children for a drive. She is shocked at the intense dislike displayed by the people of France. She blames d'Orleans for inciting them. Marie later rejects a jeweller's expensive and elaborate necklace. Still, she is framed by court insiders plotting to acquire the necklace for themselves, and the Affair of the Diamond Necklace erupts. Marie is outraged, but d'Orleans tells the royal couple to abdicate the throne in favour of the Dauphin under the regency of d'Orleans. The French Revolution comes, and the royal family is taken prisoner. Fersen returns with a plan of escape, but when the Dauphin tells a guard that his father is a locksmith, the King is recognised and arrested after a former priest at Versailles identifies him. The King is put on trial and sentenced to death and spends his last night with his family, his children not realising this is the last night they will spend with their father. Marie is heartbroken but is then separated from her children, put on trial, and condemned to death. The Dauphin, too young to understand what is going on around him, is forced to testify against his mother. The night before she is executed, Fersen goes to the prison and pledges their love to each other, with Marie telling him that she will never say goodbye. The next morning she goes bravely to her execution, which Fersen witnesses from a distance. As Marie gazes at the guillotine she thinks back to the day her mother told her that she was to become the future queen of France, and how excited she was at the prospect. Cast Norma Shearer as Marie Antoinette Tyrone Power as Count Axel von Fersen John Barrymore as King Louis XV Robert Morley as King Louis XVI Anita Louise as Princesse de Lamballe Joseph Schildkraut as Duc d’Orléans Gladys George as Madame du Barry Henry Stephenson as Count Mercey Cora Witherspoon as Countess De Noailles Barnett Parker as Prince de Rohan Reginald Gardiner as Comte d'Artois Henry Daniell as La Motte Leonard Penn as Toulan Albert Van Dekker as Comte de Provence Alma Kruger as Empress Maria Theresa Joseph Calleia as Drouet George Meeker as Robespierre Scotty Beckett as The Dauphin Marilyn Knowlden as Princesse Thérèse Harry Davenport as Monsieur de Cosse (uncredited) Nigel De Brulier as Archbishop (uncredited) Walter Walker as Benjamin Franklin (uncredited) Rafaela Ottiano as Louise (uncredited) Background William Randolph Hearst originally planned this film as a vehicle for Marion Davies as early as 1933. However, a clash with Louis B. Mayer after the failure of her film Operator 13 led to the couple switching to neighboring Warner Bros. Norma Shearer was the wife of MGM studio head Irving Thalberg when this project was greenlit sometime before his death in 1936. This was reportedly Shearer's favorite role. Originally to be directed by Sidney Franklin, the job was given to W.S. Van Dyke. Irving Thalberg originally planned for Charles Laughton to play the role of Louis XVI, but Laughton, after lengthy deliberations, finally declined. Costumes and set designs The film boasted thousands of expensive costumes and lavish set design. The array of costumes created for the film are among the most expensive in film history. Costume designer Adrian visited France and Austria in 1937 to research the period. While there he purchased vast quantities of antique materials, French lace, and period accessories for use in the film. He studied the paintings of Marie Antoinette, even using a microscope on them, so that the embroidery could be identical. Fabrics were specially woven and subsequently embroidered with stitches sometimes too fine to be seen with the naked eye. The studio raged at the amount of money being spent on costumes for the film. The attention to detail was extreme, from the framework to hair. Some gowns were extremely heavy due to the amount of embroidery, fabric and precious stones used in their creation. Ms. Shearer's gowns alone had the combined weight of over 1,768 pounds, the heaviest being the 108 pound wedding dress created using hundreds of yards of white silk satin hand embroidered in gilt thread. Originally slated to be shot in Technicolor, many of the gowns were specially dyed. The fur trim on one of Ms. Shearer's capes was therefore dyed the exact shade of her eyes.The elaborate costumes were subsequently reused multiple times in other period films to offset the cost of their creation. Many have survived and exist in both museum and private costume collections internationally. The ballroom at Versailles was built to be twice as large as the original to give the ball sequences a grander scale. Genuine French furniture from the period was purchased and shipped to Hollywood, some of it thought to have originally been from Versailles. The budget was a then-enormous $2.9 million. After calculating the huge expense of costume and set design, plans to render it in color were scrapped because of concerns it would cost even more to add Technicolor. Reception The film premiered on July 8, 1938, at the Carthay Circle Theatre in Los Angeles following a lavish outdoor red carpet ceremony for which the nearby lawns were transformed into an imitation of the gardens of the Palace of Versailles. The premiere, including the preparations of the grounds, is depicted in a short black-and-white newsreel film, Hollywood Goes to Town, produced by M-G-M. According to MGM records Marie Antoinette took in $1,633,000 in theater rentals from the United States and Canada and an additional $1,323,000 from foreign rentals, but because of its enormous cost recorded a loss of $767,000. Home media Sofia Coppola released her 2006 film version of the life of the queen at Versailles, causing Warner Bros. to release its 1938 vault version of Marie Antoinette on DVD. Extras are sparse, with two vintage shorts included on the disc: "Hollywood Goes to Town" provides a glimpse of the elaborate premiere for the movie, while a trailer is also included. Academy Award nominations Best Actress – Norma Shearer Best Supporting Actor – Robert Morley Best Art Direction – Cedric Gibbons Best Music, Original Score – Herbert Stothart References External links Marie Antoinette at IMDb Marie Antoinette at the TCM Movie Database Marie Antoinette at AllMovie Marie Antoinette at the American Film Institute Catalog

Skejby Church

Skejby Church (Danish: Skejby Kirke) is a church in Skejby Parish in Aarhus, Denmark. The parish lies in Aarhus N three kilometers north-west of Aarhus city centre on the outskirts of the urban area. The parish has 816 inhabitants of which 655 are members of the Church of Denmark.

Skejby Church (Danish: Skejby Kirke) is a church in Skejby Parish in Aarhus, Denmark. The parish lies in Aarhus N three kilometers north-west of Aarhus city centre on the outskirts of the urban area. The parish has 816 inhabitants of which 655 are members of the Church of Denmark. History Skejby Church was built in the 12th century but not much is known from this period. Skejby was at the time a village, since incorporated as a neighbourhood in Aarhus, and the church functioned as the local church for that village. On 26 May 1420, Skejby Church was annexed by the bishop of the Diocese of Aarhus in order to establish a parish and control the appointment of the priest. Between 1620 and 1631, the priest of Skejby Parish also became priest of the villages in Hasle and Lisbjerg. During the Swedish Wars in the 1630s and 1660s, the church suffered from pillaging and loss of tithe as members of the congregation were impoverished. The church and parish has since been controlled by Aarhus bishopric until the state confiscated it during the reformation. In 1912, it became self-owning. The parish was annexed to Aarhus in 1962, and in 1966, Lisbjerg and Hasle were separated into independent parishes. Church The church is whitewashed with many visible granite ashlars and consists of a romanesque choir and nave. The tower with pinnacle adorned gables was built in 1910, and the whitewashed chapel in gothic style in 1904. Originally, the church had a porch but it was torn down in 1816. The church is oriented towards the sun. See also List of Churches in Aarhus References External links Parish information

Holy Transfiguration Church, Gjirokastër

Holy Transfiguration Church, also known as Church of Gjirokastër (Albanian: Kisha e Shpërfytyrimit) is an Orthodox church in Gjirokastër, Albania. The church was built in 1784. It is a Cultural Monument of Albania since 1963. == References ==

Holy Transfiguration Church, also known as Church of Gjirokastër (Albanian: Kisha e Shpërfytyrimit) is an Orthodox church in Gjirokastër, Albania. The church was built in 1784. It is a Cultural Monument of Albania since 1963. == References ==

Charkaoui v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)

Charkaoui v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), 2007 SCC 9, is a landmark decision of the Supreme Court of Canada on the constitutionality of procedures for determining the reasonableness of a security certificate and for reviewing detention under a certificate. The Court held that the security certificate process, which prohibited the named individual from examining evidence used to issue the certificate, violated the right to liberty and habeas corpus under section 7, 9 and 10 of the Canadian Charter. The Court however rejected the appellant arguments that the extension of detentions violated the right against indefinite detention, that the differential treatment violated equality rights, and that the detention violated the rule of law. As remedy, the Court declared the "judicial confirmation of certificates and review of detention" to be of no force and effect, striking down articles 33 and 77 to 85 of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, but suspended the ruling for one year.

Charkaoui v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration), 2007 SCC 9, is a landmark decision of the Supreme Court of Canada on the constitutionality of procedures for determining the reasonableness of a security certificate and for reviewing detention under a certificate. The Court held that the security certificate process, which prohibited the named individual from examining evidence used to issue the certificate, violated the right to liberty and habeas corpus under section 7, 9 and 10 of the Canadian Charter. The Court however rejected the appellant arguments that the extension of detentions violated the right against indefinite detention, that the differential treatment violated equality rights, and that the detention violated the rule of law. As remedy, the Court declared the "judicial confirmation of certificates and review of detention" to be of no force and effect, striking down articles 33 and 77 to 85 of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, but suspended the ruling for one year. Background Charkaoui In 2003, Adil Charkaoui, a permanent resident in Canada since 1995, was arrested and imprisoned under a security certificate issued by the Solicitor General of Canada (then Wayne Easter) and the Minister of Immigration (then Denis Coderre). The evidence upon which the certificate was issued is secret, disclosed neither to Charkaoui nor his lawyers. Public summaries of the evidence issued by the Federal Court alleged a connection with "the bin Laden network". Charkaoui appealed his detention three times before being released on the fourth try in February 2005, having spent almost two years in Rivière-des-Prairies prison in Montreal. He was released under severely restrictive bail conditions. Charkaoui has never been charged or tried. The certificate against Charkaoui has never undergone any judicial review; the Federal Court suspended its review process in March 2005, pending a new decision from the Minister of Immigration on Charkaoui's deportability (a decision which evaluates, inter alia, risk to Mr. Charkaoui). Almrei Hassan Almrei is a foreign national who was granted refugee status in Canada in June 2000. It was later reported that Almrei was potentially involved with a terrorist network that supported Osama bin Laden and was further involved in forging travel documentation. Almrei was arrested on October 19 of 2001 on a security certificate. The certificate has since been upheld as valid by the Federal Court. In December 2001 the government attempted to have Almrei declared a "danger to Canadian security" thereby be deported to Syria. In December 2003 the declaration was given. Almrei sought judicial review of the decision to deport him and a stay was granted in November 2003. Canadian certificates was enacted in this case. Harkat The Minister of Citizenship and Immigration issued a security certificate under section 34 of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act (IRPA) for Mohamed Harkat, an Algerian living in Canada, on the basis that they reasonably believed he was supporting terrorist activity. The certificate was reviewed by a Federal Court judge under section 77 of IRPA. The Federal judge found that the certificate was reasonable. Harkat challenged constitutionality of the provisions of IRPA under which the security certificate was reviewed. Leave to appeal to the Supreme Court was granted on October 20, 2005. Decision of the Court Chief Justice McLachlin, writing for a unanimous court, holds that sections 33 and 77 to 85 of the IRPA unreasonably violates sections 7, 9 and 10 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. On the section 1 analysis for justification of the violation the Court held that the certificate process was not minimally impairing. The Court cited a clearance system in the United Kingdom that would designate certain lawyers to view the evidence on behalf of the accused. The court also found that s. 84(2) of the IRPA was unconstitutional because it denied a prompt hearing to foreign nationals by imposing a 120-day embargo on any application for release. The court corrected this defect by removing this mandatory waiting-period. Events subsequent to the decision On 26 July 2008, the means by which Charkaoui was detained known as a security certificate was vitiated in Charkaoui v. Canada (Citizenship and Immigration) 2008 SCC 38.On 31 July 2009, the Crown admitted to Justice Tremblay-Lamer that there was insufficient evidence to uphold the security certificate against Mr. Charkaoui. This followed the Crown withdrawing much of its evidence in the face of Court orders for greater transparency. In response Tremblay-Lamer J. issued a directive on August 5, 2009 saying she would consider whether she should quash the certificate or order the Ministers to revoke it themselves on her return from holidays, in early September.On 24 September 2009, Tremblay-Lamer J. announced she would lift all restrictions on Mr. Charkaoui by the end of the day. See also List of Supreme Court of Canada cases Notes External links Court documents SCC Full text of Supreme Court of Canada decision available at LexUM and CanLII Charkaoui's SCC factum (French) BC Civil Liberties intervener factum Application for leave to intervene from BC Civil Liberties Association Supporting affidavit for leave to intervene from BC Civil Liberties AssociationFederal Court of Appeal Harkat Federal Court of Appeal decision 2005 FCA 285Federal Court Charkaoui Federal Court decision 2006 FC 555 Harkat Federal Court decision 2005 FC 393 Commentary The Court blog (Osgoode Hall)

Fritzens-Sanzeno culture

The Fritzens-Sanzeno culture is an archaeological culture attested in the second Iron Age, from ca. 500 BC until the end of the first century BC, in the Alpine region of Trentino and South Tyrol; in the period of maximum expansion it also reached the Engadin region to the west and East Tyrol. It takes its name from the two towns of Fritzens (Austria) and Sanzeno (Trentino), where important archaeological excavations were carried out at the beginning of the 20th century. The Fritzens-Sanzeno culture replaced the Laugen-Melaun culture in South Tyrol and Trentino and the Inntal culture (associated with the Urnfield and Hallstatt cultures) in the Austrian Tyrol, merging the two cultures together. It also had some impact on East Tyrol.

The Fritzens-Sanzeno culture is an archaeological culture attested in the second Iron Age, from ca. 500 BC until the end of the first century BC, in the Alpine region of Trentino and South Tyrol; in the period of maximum expansion it also reached the Engadin region to the west and East Tyrol. It takes its name from the two towns of Fritzens (Austria) and Sanzeno (Trentino), where important archaeological excavations were carried out at the beginning of the 20th century. The Fritzens-Sanzeno culture replaced the Laugen-Melaun culture in South Tyrol and Trentino and the Inntal culture (associated with the Urnfield and Hallstatt cultures) in the Austrian Tyrol, merging the two cultures together. It also had some impact on East Tyrol. The culture has been identified with the Raeti and it ceased to exist in the period following the conquest of the Alps by Augustus in 15 BC, which also marks the end of the Iron Age in the region. Assemblage The artefacts, burial customs, and religion of the Fritzens-Sanzeno culture, associated with the Raeti people, were strongly influenced by their neighbours, the Veneti, Etruscans, and Celts, but there are a number of distinguishing features, such as the style of housing (casa retica) and some aspects of the material culture. These include some typical pottery forms, like the stamped Fritzner / Sanzeno bowls (Fritzner- or Sanzenoschale) and the alpine Leistenkeramik. In the 4th century BC, Celtic weapons were adopted. Numerous inscriptions have been found, dating from the 5th century onwards. The fibulae are the Celtic-inspired "mandolin fibula" and a series of other forms conforming to early and middle La Tène types. Modifications of Celtic disc neck-rings (Scheibenhalsringe) are found in both the northern and southern parts of the culture. Their high point coincides closely with that of the oppidum culture in Bavaria. From the Middle La Tène period onwards, graphite pottery, glass jewellery, and occasionally bronze jewellery was imported from the Celtic regions. The jewellery in particular might indicate marriage alliances. Fritzens-Sanzeno culture remains disappear abruptly following the Alpine campaign of Drusus and Tiberius in 15 BC. Extent The area of the Fritzens-Sanzeno culture covers Trentino, South Tyrol, most of North Tyrol, part of the lower Engadin valley, and East Tyrol. The most important excavations for the culture in the area south of the Alps are: Sanzeno in the Non Valley (Trentino), the settlements at Ganglegg and Tartscher Bichl (Vinschgau, South Tyrol), the Rungger Egg in Seis am Schlern, and Brizen-Stufels (Eisacktal), as well as the grave fields at Stadlhof in Vadena and Mortizing in the South Tyrolean Unterland. In the north, the key sites are: the grave fields at Kundl and Egerndorfer Feld (both in the Lower Inn Valley), the settlements at Bergisel, Goldbichl, and Pfaffenhofen-Hörtenberg (all near Innsbruck), as well as Pirchboden in Fritzens, and Himmelreich in Volders. The best known and published religious sites are the Sanctuary at Demlfeld in Ampass, the offering place at Aldrans-Innsbruck, Egerdach, the sanctuary at Pillerhöhe in the Upper Inn Valley, and the Himmelreich terrace in Volders (a site for burnt offerings). South of the Alps, there are also religious sites at Rungger Egg and Hahnehütter Bödele near Ganglegg. On the margins of the Fritzens-Sanzeno culture is the well-known burnt offering site at Spielleitenköpfl in Farchant near Garmisch-Partenkirchen in Bavaria. Objects from the Fritzens-Sanzeno culture, mainly fibulae and pottery have also been found in southern Bavaria at the oppidum of Manching, Dürrnberg at Hallein, and in Lower Austria at Mannersdorf am Leithagebirge. History of research The first finds to be associated with the Fritzens-Sanzeno culture were discovered in Fritzens in the Inn river valley in 1920 by Karl Stainer, the local doctor for the neighbouring village of Wattens. In 1924, he presented his finds at the 88th Congress of German Natural Scientists and Doctors, but little notice was taken of them. Subsequently, he published his observations in the archaeological journal Fundberichten aus Österreich (Vol. I, pp. 136, 192; II. pp. 47, 102, 177, 187; III [1948], p. 154). He also combed the soil layer of Himmelreich field in Volders (located opposite Fritzens in the Inn valley) and collected a large number of finds from the late Iron Age and Roman Imperial period over a number of years. This was an important site for making burnt offerings, a fact that was not realised at the time. The finds were noted briefly by Gero von Merhart and then published fully in the 1950s by Leonhard Franz. The pottery from Fritzens and other findspots in Tyrol were named the "Fritzener type". In 1955, Benedikt Frei was the first person to speak of a "Fritzens and Sanzeno-pottery horizon" and he was able to separate it from the older "Melaun horizon." This pottery has proven the most important find group for archaeologists' assessments of the Fritzens-Sanzeno culture, showing that it formed both north and south of the Alps in the decades around 500 BC. Gallery References Bibliography Hans Appler: Neue Forschungen zur Vorgeschichte und Römerzeit in Nordtirol. H. Appler, Wattens u. a. 2010, ISBN 978-3-200-01923-2. Hans Appler: Fibeln der Bronze- und Eisenzeit des Alttiroler Raumes.. Wattens/Wien 2018, ISBN 978-3-200-05723-4. Markus Egg: "Spätbronze- und eisenzeitliche Bewaffnung im mittleren Alpenraum." in Ingrid R. Metzger, Paul Gleirscher (ed.): Die Räter. = I Reti. Verlagsanstalt Athesia, Bozen 1992, ISBN 88-7014-646-4, S. 401–438. Peter Gamper. Die latènezeitliche Besiedlung am Ganglegg in Südtirol. Neue Forschungen zur Fritzens-Sanzeno-Kultur. Leidorf, Rahden/Westfalen 2006, ISBN 3-89646-363-2. Paul Gleirscher. Die Räter. Rätisches Museum, Chur 1991. Paul Gleirscher, Hans Nothdurfter. "Zum Bronze- und Eisenhandwerk der Fritzens-Sanzeno-Gruppe." in Ingrid R. Metzger, Paul Gleirscher (ed.), Die Räter.. Verlagsanstalt Athesia, Bozen 1992, ISBN 88-7014-646-4, S. 349–367. Paul Gleirscher, Hans Nothdurfter, Eckehart Schubert: Das Rungger Egg: Untersuchungen an einem eisenzeitlichen Brandopferplatz bei Seis am Schlern in Südtirol. von Zabern, Mainz 2002, ISBN 3-8053-2826-5. Amei Lang: Das Gräberfeld von Kundl im Tiroler Inntal. Studien zur vorrömischen Eisenzeit in den zentralen Alpen. Leidorf, Rahden/Westfalen 1998, ISBN 3-89646-531-7 (Zugleich: München, Universität, Habilitations-Schrift, 1996). Reimo Lunz: Studien zur End-Bronzezeit und älteren Eisenzeit im Südalpenraum. Sansoni, Florenz 1974 (Zugleich: Innsbruck, Universität, Dissertation, 1971). Franco Marzatico, Il gruppo di Fritzens-Sanzeno in Die Räter/I Reti, Bolzano, Athesia, 1992. Franco Marzatico: I materiali preromani della valle dell’Adige nel Castello di Buonconsiglio. 3 Volumes. Provincia autonoma di Trento – Ufficio beni archeologici, Trento 1997, ISBN 88-7702-062-8. Johann Nothdurfter. Die Eisenfunde von Sanzeno im Nonsberg. von Zabern, Mainz 1979, ISBN 3-8053-0403-X (Zugleich: Innsbruck, Universität, Dissertation, 1979). Hubert Steiner (ed.). Alpine Brandopferplätze. Archäologische und naturwissenschaftliche Untersuchungen.. Editrice Temi, Trient 2010, ISBN 978-88-89706-76-3. External links Biljana Schmid-Sikimić "Fritzens-Sanzeno-Kultur" in Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz. Florian Hitz: "Graubünden – Bronze- und Eisenzeit" in Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz.

Sha'arai Shomayim Cemetery

Sha'arai Shomayim Cemetery, also known as the Reformed Temple Jewish Cemetery, is a historic Jewish cemetery located in Mobile, Alabama, United States. It was established by Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim in 1876 after their previous cemetery, Jewish Rest in the adjacent Magnolia Cemetery, was filled to capacity. The cemetery is situated on 15 acres (6.1 ha) and is surrounded by a 19th-century cast-iron fence and live oak trees. The entrance is through an ornamental arched gate inscribed with the congregation name in Hebrew letters.

Sha'arai Shomayim Cemetery, also known as the Reformed Temple Jewish Cemetery, is a historic Jewish cemetery located in Mobile, Alabama, United States. It was established by Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim in 1876 after their previous cemetery, Jewish Rest in the adjacent Magnolia Cemetery, was filled to capacity. The cemetery is situated on 15 acres (6.1 ha) and is surrounded by a 19th-century cast-iron fence and live oak trees. The entrance is through an ornamental arched gate inscribed with the congregation name in Hebrew letters. The congregation Mobile's Reform Jewish community had its beginnings in the 1820s. The Sha'arai Shomayim congregation was the first Jewish congregation in Alabama and one of the oldest Reform congregations in the United States. It was made up of German Jewish immigrants. It was granted a charter by the state on January 25, 1844, with 52 families under the name of Sha'arai Shomayim Umaskil el Dol, or Gates of Heaven and Society of Friends of the Needy. They organized the first synagogue in Alabama, the St. Emanuel Street Temple, dedicated on December 27, 1846. They went on to build three more synagogues, after outgrowing the others. They moved to the Springhill Avenue Temple on September 2, 1955. History The Sha'arai Shomayim congregation's first cemetery was a section in Magnolia Cemetery that was deeded to them by the city of Mobile on 22 June 1841. It would later come to be referred to as "Jewish Rest." The Jewish Rest section was full after only a few decades and led to the establishment of Sha'arai Shomayim Cemetery to the south of Magnolia.The congregation purchased the land for the new cemetery from William and Caroline Leinkauf on March 17, 1876. They adopted a number of resolutions for governing the new cemetery and placed the lot prices at $50 per lot. The site was consecrated on December 3, 1876. The cemetery was laid out by Samuel Brown, the congregation's vice president. He had live oaks planted around the perimeter of the grounds, and in 1890 the ornamental cast-iron gate and fence was installed. The first burial was that of Israel Jones, on December 28, 1876. One of the most notable interments to ever take place in the cemetery was that of Esau Frohlichstein on May 14, 1914. He was one of 14 American soldiers killed in the U.S. siege of Veracruz during the Mexican Revolution. Thousands of Mobilians took part in his burial service and his marker is inscribed with a letter that he wrote to his parents the night before the attack. In part it reads, "Don't be afraid if I get killed. For the old saying 'Rather die a hero than live a coward' will land at Vera Cruz in about four hours."The grave plots within the site are laid out in an east–west configuration with paved lanes running between them. A lawn-covered central avenue divides the cemetery and features a large cast-iron gazebo in the center. Many elaborately carved headstones and mausolea fill the cemetery. The most elaborate markers represent the Ark of the Covenant with classical detailing, many examples are present within the grounds. Many other markers feature Hebrew inscriptions. The cemetery has a large number of mausolea, one of the most notable being the Eichold-Haas-Brown mausoleum. It was designed by architect George B. Rogers and features many Middle Eastern design motifs and the Star of David. Gallery == References ==

William Blagrove

William Blagrove was a bookseller, publisher and librarian in Boston, Massachusetts, in the early 19th century. He ran the Union Circulating Library, a subscription library on School Street, from 1804 through 1811. As a publisher, he issued "a chaste collection of amatory and miscellaneous songs, designed chiefly for the ladies" in 1808.In 1805 his uncle, William Pelham, published The Elements of Chess, "one of the earliest works upon chess published in the United States, and the first of its kind printed at Boston. The editor of this volume — (that the book was edited by some chessplayer at the time of its publication is apparent from an exceedingly interesting appendix, containing much new and original matter) — was undoubtedly a nephew of Mr. Pelham's, named William Blagrove, who is known to have been an enthusiast of chess, and a player of merit. "Blagrove married Nancy Pelham; children included William Pelham (b.

William Blagrove was a bookseller, publisher and librarian in Boston, Massachusetts, in the early 19th century. He ran the Union Circulating Library, a subscription library on School Street, from 1804 through 1811. As a publisher, he issued "a chaste collection of amatory and miscellaneous songs, designed chiefly for the ladies" in 1808.In 1805 his uncle, William Pelham, published The Elements of Chess, "one of the earliest works upon chess published in the United States, and the first of its kind printed at Boston. The editor of this volume — (that the book was edited by some chessplayer at the time of its publication is apparent from an exceedingly interesting appendix, containing much new and original matter) — was undoubtedly a nephew of Mr. Pelham's, named William Blagrove, who is known to have been an enthusiast of chess, and a player of merit."Blagrove married Nancy Pelham; children included William Pelham (b. 1808). See also List of booksellers in Boston Notes References Further reading The Elements of Chess, a Treatise combining Theory with Practice, and comprising the whole of Philidor's Games and explanatory Notes, new modelled and arranged upon an original Plan, Boston: William Blagrove, 1805. Possibly edited by Blagrove. Catalogue of the Union Circulating Library, no. 5 School-Street, Boston: Munroe & Francis, printers, 1806 The Nightingale; or, Polite amatory songster. A selection of delicate, pathetic, and elegant songs, designed chiefly for the ladies. To which is added an appendix, containing some of the most popular new songs, Boston: Wm. Blagrove, 1808 Catalogue of the Union Circulating Library, No. 3, School-Street, Boston: W. Blagrove, 1810

Muthuswamy Pillai

Vaitheeswarankoil Sethuraman Muthuswamy Pillai (24 October 1921 – 18 January 1992) was a Bharatanatyam guru.

Vaitheeswarankoil Sethuraman Muthuswamy Pillai (24 October 1921 – 18 January 1992) was a Bharatanatyam guru. Early life V. S. Muthuswamy Pillai hails from an hereditary family of musicians, dancers and nattuvanars. When he was 5, after the death of his mother Sethuramu, his mother's uncle nattuvanar Vaitheeswarankoil Meenakshisundaram Pillai became his foster father. Muthuswamy Pillai observed him when he was teaching or conducting dance, and also got initiated in various aspects of music. He helped his foster father fulfilling hereditary temple duties: singing, reciting shollukatus and playing cymbals, and sometimes accompanying dance by devadasis. He felt the stigma attached to the hereditary practitioners of the performing arts as they were given little respect when they performed with devadasis as a form of entertainment.When he was 15, he moved with his foster parents to Madras, but after the death of his younger sister Muthulakshmi, he decided to leave and settle in Mayavaram where he became the disciple of Kattumannarkoil Muthukumara Pillai, a highly respected nattuvanar. In his gurukul, he learnt the nuances of the art of bharatanatyam while he was taught a Margam (a sequence of dance compositions for the stage). Career After his marriage to Valambal, daughter of Milagu Nattuvanar Ramaswami Pillai (1911-1991), he accepted to become a faculty at Nrithyodaya, the dance school of the film director K. Subrahmanyam in Madras. He was also associated to the performing group of this school, Natana Kala Seva. There, he was exposed to a fusion of various Indian classical dance styles and he could experiment with group choreography and dance dramas.Similarly as other nattuvanars like Vazhuvoor Ramiah Pillai and his foster father Vaitheeswarankoil Meenakshisundaram Pillai, Muthuswamy Pillai became a sought after choreographer for the film industry. He was the dance director for movies in Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu and Hindi from the 1940s until the middle of the 1960s. He choreographed for more than 30 movies. The French connection As the need for bharatanatyam choreographies was declining in the film industry, Muthuswamy Pillai was forced to enter a sabbatical period. While his family was staying in the village of Kuttalam, he settled in a small place in 7, East Mada Street, Mylapore and focused on his art. He developed his creativity on European students, mostly French, who came to Madras in order to learn from him in the 1970s and 1980s. They had to abandon the material comfort of their rich country of origin in order to live in Madras on small amounts of money even though some of them could rely on scholarships from the Indian Council for Cultural Relations and the French Government. Many of them were given Indian names that most of them are still using after returning to Europe : Menaka, Shakuntala, Maïtreyi, Padmavati, Kunti, Kalpana, etc. Other of his students are known by their original names like Tiziana Leucci, Élisabeth Petit, Armelle Choquard and Dominique Delorme. Indian students Sayee–Subbulakshmi learnt from Muthuswamy Pillai and performed his choreographies on stage and for the cinema. Pratibha Prahlad. Bragha Bessell learnt a full Margam from Muthuswamy Pillai with the permission of her guru Adyar K. Lakshman Jayalalithaa received some classes from Muthuswamy Pillai. Choreographic style In 1989, the Sruti Foundation organised the Parampara Seminar where eminent gurus from five bharatanatyam traditions demonstrated their art. In this seminar, Muthuswamy Pillai demonstrated the style of his guru Kattumannarkoil Muthukumara Pillai and his own ideas.Adavus are the basic steps of the bharatanatyam dance. Muthuswamy Pillai is known for elaborating countlessly many new variations of adavus. In some adavus families like Kutta (also named Ta-tai-ta-ha), he introduced variations of adavus that use only one hand. He also explored symmetry and asymmetry in the body and the stage space. The dancer may travel in any direction and may even turn their back to the audience.He introduced new ideas in the Alarippu (which is the first dance items in a dance recital). The most traditional choreographies of this item use only a reduced movement vocabulary. While preserving the core structure of the Alarippu, Muthuswamy Pillai extended significantly the dance vocabulary used in this dance item.As a master of rhythm, Muthuswamy Pillai choreographed using syncopated rhythmic patterns. In some dance compositions, he used all the five gatis (or panch-nadais), demonstrating five different ways of subdividing the main pulse into 4, 3, 7, 5 or 9 subdivisions. He used this procedure in different compositions, like the purely rhythmic Tala-Vadyam performed by his student Kalpana, or as Kalpanaswarams in the Kirtana Tamasam en swamy performed by Shakuntala.Most of Muthuswamy Pillai's students had a separate guru for Abhinaya. Several of his French disciples learnt Abhinaya from Kalanidhi Narayanan. Awards Kalaimamani title awarded in 1972 by the Tamil Nadu Iyal Isai Nataka Manram Sangeet Natak Akademi Award for Bharatanatyam in 1989 conferred by the Central Government of India, New Delhi Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres awarded in 1990 by the French Government References == Sources ==

Batman: Hush (film)

Batman: Hush is a 2019 American animated superhero film featuring the DC Comics superhero Batman and loosely based on the 2002 comic book story arc of the same name. It is the thirteenth installment of the DC Animated Movie Universe and the 36th overall film of the DC Universe Animated Original Movies. In the film, Batman forms an alliance with Catwoman to defeat a new villain named Hush, who knows all of Batman's secrets and targets key figures in his life.

Batman: Hush is a 2019 American animated superhero film featuring the DC Comics superhero Batman and loosely based on the 2002 comic book story arc of the same name. It is the thirteenth installment of the DC Animated Movie Universe and the 36th overall film of the DC Universe Animated Original Movies. In the film, Batman forms an alliance with Catwoman to defeat a new villain named Hush, who knows all of Batman's secrets and targets key figures in his life. Plot After Batman rescues an abducted child from Bane for a ransom, Lady Shiva informs him of an unknown Lazarus Pit intruder and requests his help in identifying them. Batman agrees to do so as Catwoman steals the ransom. While pursuing her, a masked vigilante shoots through Batman's grapple line, causing him to fall onto the sidewalk and crack his skull. Catwoman rescues him from a gang of criminals who tried to unmask him, but Batgirl chases her away. Batgirl takes Batman back to the Batcave where Alfred and Dick Grayson create an alibi for how Bruce Wayne suffered the injury. Alfred contacts Bruce's childhood friend Thomas Elliot, a renowned brain surgeon, to treat him. When Bruce declares himself ready to be Batman again two weeks earlier than Thomas advised him to, Alfred gives him a new bulletproof batsuit with a padded cowl for better skull protection. Meanwhile, Catwoman delivers the ransom to Poison Ivy, who has been controlling her with a hypnotic kiss. The masked vigilante who shot Batman then arrives to confront Ivy about the ransom and gives her Kryptonite. Batman helps Amanda Waller retrieve Bane from police custody in return for information. Waller uses the special tranquilizers supplied by him to stop Bane from escaping police custody and capture him herself. Batman later reluctantly works with Catwoman to find Ivy, following a lead given by her to Metropolis. There, Batman confronts probationary Justice League member Lex Luthor, about the delivery list of an ethylene compound utilized by Ivy. Ivy uses Kryptonite lipstick to control Superman and orders him to kill both Catwoman and Batman. Catwoman pushes Lois Lane off a building to stop Superman and free him from the mind control. After Ivy is defeated, she reveals she was acting on the orders of a supervillain known only as "Hush". Hush later kidnaps the Joker to persuade Harley Quinn into attacking an opera Bruce Wayne, Selina Kyle, and Thomas Elliot are attending. During the commotion, Hush lures Thomas outside and kills him, framing the Joker for the murder, much to Batman's anger. The Joker attempts to claim his innocence before Batman brutally beats him and nearly kills him. Following the Joker's arrest and Thomas' funeral, Bruce deduces that Hush knows he is Batman. While on patrol, Hush catches Batman's attention and confronts him, although Hush tricks him by using mirrors. He then threatens to hurt everyone close to him, prompting Batman to reveal his identity to Catwoman. Bruce takes Selina to the Batcave, where she meets Dick and Alfred and learns of Bruce's son Damian. The two become a crime-fighting couple, but Hush later lures Dick and Selina to Thomas’ grave, where they are attacked by Scarecrow. Dick is incapacitated by Scarecrow's fear toxin while Hush kidnaps Selina. Shortly after, Commissioner Gordon informs Bruce of a break-in at Thomas’ office. While investigating, Batman learns that one of Thomas' patients was someone using the alias of crossword puzzle inventor Arthur Wynne, leading him to suspect Edward Nygma aka the Riddler was behind the break-in. At Arkham Asylum, Batman interrogates the Riddler, who reveals that he had deduced his secret identity while using the Lazarus Pit to cure his untreatable brain tumor, and took on the identity of Hush due to his lack of respect among other villains. However, Batman deduces that this "Riddler" is actually Clayface in disguise and, after defeating him, learns where the real Riddler has taken Selina: a factory whose name is an anagram of Arthur Wynne. At the factory, Batman rescues Selina and defeats the Riddler, who is growing weaker as the Lazarus Pit's effects wear off. With the building about to explode, Batman risks his own life to try and save the Riddler from falling into a vat of molten metal. Realizing this, Selina cuts the grapple line holding the Riddler and lets him fall to his death to allow Batman to escape. Once they reach safety, Batman and Selina argue over the latter's actions and decide to call off their relationship due to Selina being unable to cope with Bruce's moral code. Voice cast Penguin, Two-Face, and Mr. Freeze make non-speaking cameo appearances in a montage of Batman and Catwoman fighting crime together. Production Batman: The Animated Series alumni Kevin Conroy (Batman) and Mark Hamill (the Joker) teased an animated adaptation of Hush during a panel at Canada's Fan Expo in 2016. In 2018, an animated adaptation of Batman: Hush was announced.Jason O'Mara, Jerry O'Connell, Rebecca Romijn, Rainn Wilson, Sean Maher, Bruce Thomas, Vanessa Williams, and Stuart Allan reprise their roles from previous DCAMU films, while the new additions include Jennifer Morrison, Peyton R. List, Maury Sterling, Geoffrey Arend, Jason Spisak, Adam Gifford, Peyton List, and Sachie Alessio. Peyton List reprises her role as Poison Ivy, after previously appearing in the role in Gotham. Release The film had its world premiere at the San Diego Comic-Con on July 19, 2019. The film was made available through digital streaming outlets one day later. It was released on 4K UHD Blu-ray, Blu-ray, and DVD on August 6. Reception On Rotten Tomatoes, it has an approval rating of 88% based on reviews from 17 critics with an average rating of 7/10.The film earned $3,581,562 from domestic Blu-ray sales. Notes References External links DC page Batman: Hush at IMDb Batman: Hush at The World's Finest

Desktop Publishing Magazine

Desktop Publishing magazine (ISSN 0884-0873) was founded, edited, and published by Tony Bove and Cheryl Rhodes of TUG/User Publications, Inc., of Redwood City, California.). Its first issue appeared in October 1985, and was created and produced on a personal computer with desktop publishing software (PageMaker on a Macintosh), preparing output on a prototype PostScript-driven typesetting machine from Mergenthaler Linotype Company. Erik Sandberg-Diment, a columnist at The New York Times, tried to buy the venture outright when he saw an early edition.Its premier issue included an interview with John Warnock of Adobe Systems (creator of PostScript) by August Mohr, an article about the first electronic news column for the computer industry (Newsbytes published by Wendy Woods), and a review of PageMaker. The editors defined desktop publishing as a new application for producing words and pictures using personal computers. "It has become cost-effective for almost anyone using a personal computer to prepare documents that appear professionally published.

Desktop Publishing magazine (ISSN 0884-0873) was founded, edited, and published by Tony Bove and Cheryl Rhodes of TUG/User Publications, Inc., of Redwood City, California.). Its first issue appeared in October 1985, and was created and produced on a personal computer with desktop publishing software (PageMaker on a Macintosh), preparing output on a prototype PostScript-driven typesetting machine from Mergenthaler Linotype Company. Erik Sandberg-Diment, a columnist at The New York Times, tried to buy the venture outright when he saw an early edition.Its premier issue included an interview with John Warnock of Adobe Systems (creator of PostScript) by August Mohr, an article about the first electronic news column for the computer industry (Newsbytes published by Wendy Woods), and a review of PageMaker. The editors defined desktop publishing as a new application for producing words and pictures using personal computers. "It has become cost-effective for almost anyone using a personal computer to prepare documents that appear professionally published. The new publishing tools put book making, newsletter publishing, magazine design, ad layout, manual production, and promotional literature publishing into the hands of personal computer users who never before had the opportunity to do these things." Contributing editors and columnists included Paul Saffo, Ted Nelson, Ron Jeffries, Ted Nace, August Mohr, David Needle, Steve Rosenthal, and Arthur Naiman.Three issues were published before the magazine was purchased in March 1986 by PC World Communications, the San Francisco-based subsidiary of IDG and the parent company of PC World. (The magazine was then renamed Publish! with Bove and Rhodes staying as contributing editors.) == References ==

Andrew Broughton

Andrew Broughton (1602/03–1687) was Clerk of the Court at the High Court of Justice for the trial King Charles I of England.

Andrew Broughton (1602/03–1687) was Clerk of the Court at the High Court of Justice for the trial King Charles I of England. Biography There are not many records of his early life. He was probably born in Seaton, Rutland as the younger son of Richard Broughton (d. 1635). By 1627 Broughton was living in Maidstone, Kent and in 1639 he was appointed clerk of the peace for the county of Kent by the Earl of Pembroke who was at that time Lord Chamberlain. He lost this position under the machinations surrounding the start of the English Civil War, specifically his involvement in the impeachment of Earl of Strafford and the imprisonment of Geoffrey Palmer for protesting against the Grand Remonstrance."Broughton was a member of the Kent county committee from 1643. He acted as attorney on behalf of the corporation of Maidstone during the First English Civil War. In November 1648 he was elected Mayor of the town. Two months later he was appointed Clerk of the Court at the High Court of Justice for the trial of King Charles I of England. As Clerk of the Court, it was Broughton who read out the charge against the king and required him to plead, and at the end of the trial declared the court's sentence of death.During the English Interregnum he served as a member of the Barebones Parliament, on the Council of State between 14 July 1653 and November 1653, and in the Third Protectorate Parliament in which "Towards Richard himself he was positively insulting" (Woolrych, 222).At the Restoration Broughton, was exempted from the general pardon under the Indemnity and Oblivion Act, and was likely to lose his life—The other clerk at the trial, John Phelps was also exempted but only for "penalties not extending to Life"—so Broughton and Phelps fled, reports in 1662 placed them in Hamburg, but later that year Broughton arrived in Lausanne in Switzerland where several other regicides were residing. In 1664 he travelled to Bern with Edmund Ludlow and Nicholas Love, to thank the senate of Bern for their offer of sanctuary. Broughton remained in exile for 25 years dying peacefully in Vevey, where he was buried in the church of St Martin. == References ==

List of bridges in Laos

== Major bridges == This table presents a non-exhaustive list of the road and railway bridges with spans greater than 100 metres (328 ft) or total lengths longer than 1,000 metres (3,281 ft).

== Major bridges == This table presents a non-exhaustive list of the road and railway bridges with spans greater than 100 metres (328 ft) or total lengths longer than 1,000 metres (3,281 ft). See also Transport in Laos Rail transport in Laos List of crossings of the Mekong River Geography of Laos List of rivers of Laos Notes and References Nicolas Janberg. "International Database for Civil and Structural Engineering". Structurae.com. Others references External links "Map of major projects". Ltec.com.la. Lao Transport Engineering Consultant. "Brücken in der Laos" [Bridges in Laos]. Brueckenweb.de (in German). Denenberg, David. "Suspension Bridges of Laos". Bridgemeister.com.

Bela Marsh

Bela Marsh (1797-1869) was a publisher and bookseller in Boston, Massachusetts, in the 19th century. Authors under his imprint included spiritualists and abolitionists such as John Stowell Adams, Adin Ballou, Warren Chase, Lysander Spooner, and Henry Clarke Wright. Marsh kept offices on Washington Street (ca.1820-1832), Cornhill (ca.1847-1852), Franklin Street (ca.1854-1856), and Bromfield Street (ca.1858-1868). Among his business partners were Nahum Capen, Gardner P. Lyon, T.H. Webb, and George W. Williams.

Bela Marsh (1797-1869) was a publisher and bookseller in Boston, Massachusetts, in the 19th century. Authors under his imprint included spiritualists and abolitionists such as John Stowell Adams, Adin Ballou, Warren Chase, Lysander Spooner, and Henry Clarke Wright. Marsh kept offices on Washington Street (ca.1820-1832), Cornhill (ca.1847-1852), Franklin Street (ca.1854-1856), and Bromfield Street (ca.1858-1868). Among his business partners were Nahum Capen, Gardner P. Lyon, T.H. Webb, and George W. Williams. He belonged to the Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic Association and the Physiological Society.Marsh was the defendant in the seminal copyright case, Folsom v. Marsh (C.C.D. Mass. 1841), for publishing a two-volume abridgment of George Washington's letters, where the Justice Joseph Story found he had infringed the copyright in the 12-volume set of the same edited by Jared Sparks. References External links WorldCat. Marsh, Bela 1797-1869 Open Library. Bela Marsh, publisher Library of Congress. Position of the Democratic Party in 1852. "Freemen of America, how long will you be ledd by such leaders" (item sold by Marsh)

Bala (1976 film)

Bala is a 1976 documentary film made by Satyajit Ray, about a Bharatanatyam dancer, Balasaraswati, fondly known as "Bala". The film was jointly produced by National Centre for the Performing Arts and Government of Tamil Nadu. The thirty-three-minute documentary features the life and some of the works by Balasaraswati in the form of narration and dance, starring herself. At the age of fourteen, Ray had seen a performance of Balasaraswati in Kolkata, then known as "Calcutta", in 1935, when she was seventeen years old.Ray had initially planned to make a film on Bala in 1966, when she was in her prime, however he could not start filming until 1976. Though Bala was often called "a revolutionary Bharatanatyam dancer", she had never been filmed till she was 58 years old, in spite of having a career spanned over four decades.

Bala is a 1976 documentary film made by Satyajit Ray, about a Bharatanatyam dancer, Balasaraswati, fondly known as "Bala". The film was jointly produced by National Centre for the Performing Arts and Government of Tamil Nadu. The thirty-three-minute documentary features the life and some of the works by Balasaraswati in the form of narration and dance, starring herself. At the age of fourteen, Ray had seen a performance of Balasaraswati in Kolkata, then known as "Calcutta", in 1935, when she was seventeen years old.Ray had initially planned to make a film on Bala in 1966, when she was in her prime, however he could not start filming until 1976. Though Bala was often called "a revolutionary Bharatanatyam dancer", she had never been filmed till she was 58 years old, in spite of having a career spanned over four decades. Ray decided to make the film on Bala, "the greatest Bharatanatyam dancer ever" according to him, to document her art for future generations with the "main value as archival". When Ray filmed the then 58-year-old Bala for the documentary, she wore the same pair of anklets which she had worn more than fifty years before for her debut performance, at the age of seven. Ray is reported to have said about the delayed filming of the documentary that "Bala filmed at 58 was better than Bala not being filmed at all."The film's script was included in a book named Original English Film Scripts Satyajit Ray, put together by Ray's son Sandip Ray along with an ex-CEO of Ray Society, Aditinath Sarkar, which also included original scripts of Ray's other films. Background Tanjore Balasaraswati, fondly known as Balasaraswati or Bala, was born on 13 May 1918 in Chennai, then known as Madras. Seven earlier generations of her family worked predominantly in dance and music, Bala started her Bharatanatyam training at the age of five, under Nattuvanar Kandappa Pillai and made her dancing debut in 1925, at the age of seven, at Kancheepuram at the Kamakshi Amman Temple. Her mother, Jayammal was a singer who encouraged Bala's musical training and was her accompanist in the dance concerts. Bala continued to do stage performance around the world along with her brothers, Mridangam player T. Ranganathan and flautist T. Viswanathan. Bala and her famous contemporary Rukmini Devi Arundale are often called as revolutionary Bharatanatyam dancers. She was awarded the second highest civilian honour given by the Government of India, the Padma Vibhushan, in 1977. Bala died on 9 February 1984, at the age of 65. Synopsis The film begins with the introduction of Bharatanatyam since its inception. It also explains the various hand gestures, known as Mudra and Bala demonstrates one of them, "Mayura Mudra" ("Peacock Mudra"). Narrated by Satyajit Ray, the film describes Bala's lineage and her debut performance in 1925, at the age of seven, at Kancheepuram at the Kamakshi Amman Temple. A noted Sanskrit scholar and musicologist explains Bala's dancing style and an Indian dancer, Uday Shankar talks of his association with Bala. The film then showcases Bala's "one of the most acclaimed" performance Krishna Ni Begane Baaro in the background of the ocean. It mentions that Bala got international acclaim through "The Festival of Arts, Edinburgh" in 1963, where other Indian artists also performed like Sitar player Ravi Shankar, classical vocalist M. S. Subbulakshmi and Sarod player Ali Akbar Khan. She performed eight solo recitals at the festival. The film showcases her daily routine with her brothers, Mridangam player T. Ranganathan and flautist T. Viswanathan, and her only daughter Lakshmi Knight, also a Bharatanatyam dancer. The final segment of the film showcases Bala's solo performance of a pada varnam, which is based on Carnatic music, known as "raagamaalika" (garland of ragas). For this performance, Bala uses the same pair of anklets she had used for her debut performance at the age of seven. Credits Music K. Ramaiah (Nattuvanar) M. S. Ramadas (Vocal) T. Viswanathan (Flute) T. R. Murthy (Flute) V. Tyagarajan (Violin) T. Kuppuswamy (Mridangam) T. Janardan (Tambura) T. Ranganathan (Mridangam) Restoration After the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences awarded Satyajit Ray an honorary Academy Award in 1992 for his lifetime achievements, the Academy Film Archive, part of the Academy Foundation which mainly works with the objectives as "preservation, restoration, documentation, exhibition and study of motion pictures", took an initiative to restore and preserve Ray's films. Josef Lindner was appointed as a preservation officer and as of October 2010 the Academy has successfully restored 19 titles. However, the Academy could not restore Bala yet as the negative of the film was not found. References External links Bala at IMDb Official website for Balasaraswati

List of Mass Effect media

Mass Effect is a science fiction media franchise set in an alternate universe in the 3rd millennium developed by the Canadian video game company BioWare. Composed of multi-platform video games and associated media, the core of the franchise is an eponymous trilogy of action role-playing third-person shooter video games, released between 2007 and 2012, which follow Commander Shepard's mission to save the galaxy from a race of mechanical beings known as the Reapers. A fourth main series game, Mass Effect: Andromeda, was released in 2017. The Mass Effect franchise also includes three mobile games, each with a different gameplay style; seven novels, some written by BioWare writers and some by science fiction authors; four art books; ten comic book series or mini-comics and their anthologies; a coloring book; an animated film; a 3D theme park ride; and eleven soundtrack albums or singles. The video games have had high sales, with the last major game of the original trilogy, Mass Effect 3, shipping over 3.5 million copies in its first week of release.

Mass Effect is a science fiction media franchise set in an alternate universe in the 3rd millennium developed by the Canadian video game company BioWare. Composed of multi-platform video games and associated media, the core of the franchise is an eponymous trilogy of action role-playing third-person shooter video games, released between 2007 and 2012, which follow Commander Shepard's mission to save the galaxy from a race of mechanical beings known as the Reapers. A fourth main series game, Mass Effect: Andromeda, was released in 2017. The Mass Effect franchise also includes three mobile games, each with a different gameplay style; seven novels, some written by BioWare writers and some by science fiction authors; four art books; ten comic book series or mini-comics and their anthologies; a coloring book; an animated film; a 3D theme park ride; and eleven soundtrack albums or singles. The video games have had high sales, with the last major game of the original trilogy, Mass Effect 3, shipping over 3.5 million copies in its first week of release. Reception of other media in the franchise has been mixed: the comics, such as Mass Effect: Redemption, have been praised for their writing, and novels such as Mass Effect: Revelation have been recommended to fans of the games; but Mass Effect: Deception was derided as inconsistent with the main trilogy. The first part of the franchise—the first game—was published in 2007, while the latest game was published in 2017 and the latest piece of media in 2018. Video games Main series Other games Printed media Books Comics Film Amusement park Soundtracks References External links Official website

Mexicana Cargo

Mexicana Cargo was an airline based in Mexico City. It started operations in the 1980s and ceased operations in 1987. It was a Mexicana de Aviación subsidiary and operated cargo flights in Mexico and the United States.

Mexicana Cargo was an airline based in Mexico City. It started operations in the 1980s and ceased operations in 1987. It was a Mexicana de Aviación subsidiary and operated cargo flights in Mexico and the United States. Destinations Domestic Cancún Guadalajara Mexico City Monterrey TijuanaInternational Chicago Los Angeles Miami Havana Fleet 3 Douglas DC-8 == References ==

Nondelegation doctrine

The doctrine of nondelegation (or non-delegation principle) is the theory that one branch of government must not authorize another entity to exercise the power or function which it is constitutionally authorized to exercise itself. It is explicit or implicit in all written constitutions that impose a strict structural separation of powers. It is usually applied in questions of constitutionally improper delegations of powers of any of the three branches of government to either of the other, to the administrative state, or to private entities. Although it is usually constitutional for executive officials to delegate executive powers to executive branch subordinates, there can also be improper delegations of powers within an executive branch. In the United Kingdom, the non-delegation principle refers to the prima facie presumption that statutory powers granted to public bodies by Parliament can not be delegated to other people or bodies.

The doctrine of nondelegation (or non-delegation principle) is the theory that one branch of government must not authorize another entity to exercise the power or function which it is constitutionally authorized to exercise itself. It is explicit or implicit in all written constitutions that impose a strict structural separation of powers. It is usually applied in questions of constitutionally improper delegations of powers of any of the three branches of government to either of the other, to the administrative state, or to private entities. Although it is usually constitutional for executive officials to delegate executive powers to executive branch subordinates, there can also be improper delegations of powers within an executive branch. In the United Kingdom, the non-delegation principle refers to the prima facie presumption that statutory powers granted to public bodies by Parliament can not be delegated to other people or bodies. Australia Australian federalism does not permit the federal Parliament or Government to delegate its powers to state or territorial parliaments or governments, nor territorial parliaments or governments to delegate their powers to the federal Parliament or Government, but the states parliaments delegate its powers to the federal parliament by means of section 51 subsection (xxxvii) of the Constitution Act 1901. Canada Canadian federalism does not permit Parliament or the provincial legislatures to delegate their powers to each other. See: Attorney General of Nova Scotia v. Attorney General of Canada, [1951] S.C.R. 31 United States In the Federal Government of the United States, the nondelegation doctrine is the theory that the Congress of the United States, being vested with "all legislative powers" by Article One, Section 1 of the United States Constitution, cannot delegate that power to anyone else. The scope of this restriction has been the subject of dispute. The Supreme Court ruled in J. W. Hampton, Jr. & Co. v. United States (1928) that congressional delegation of legislative authority is an implied power of Congress that is constitutional so long as Congress provides an "intelligible principle" to guide the executive branch: "'In determining what Congress may do in seeking assistance from another branch, the extent and character of that assistance must be fixed according to common sense and the inherent necessities of the government co-ordination.' So long as Congress 'shall lay down by legislative act an intelligible principle to which the person or body authorized to [exercise the delegated authority] is directed to conform, such legislative action is not a forbidden delegation of legislative power.'" Posner and Vermeule in 2002 further argued that the restriction is only that the legislature cannot delegate the authority to vote on legislation or execute other de jure powers of the legislature. Further, they argue that the grant of power to the executive branch is never a transfer of legislative power but rather an exercise of legislative power.For example, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is an agency in the executive branch created by Congress with the power to regulate food and drugs in the United States. Congress has given the FDA a broad mandate to ensure the safety of the public and prevent false advertising, but it is up to the agency to assess risks and announce prohibitions on harmful additives, and to determine the process by which actions will be brought based on the same. Similarly, the Internal Revenue Service has been given the responsibility of collecting taxes that are assessed under the Internal Revenue Code. Although Congress has determined the amount of the tax to be assessed, it has delegated to the IRS the authority to determine how such taxes are to be collected. The nondelegation doctrine has been used in such cases to argue against the constitutionality of expanding bureaucratic power. Some scholars argue the nondelegation doctrine has proven popular in state courts, but with two exceptions in 1935, legal scholars argue that the doctrine is not evident in federal courts. This trend began to reverse due to the views of Chief Justice John Roberts, who joined Justice Gorsuch's dissenting opinion in Gundy v. United States. In Gundy, the Court upheld a provision of the Sex Offender Registration and Notification Act, authorizing the attorney general “to prescribe rules” concerning offenders who would have to register as sex offenders. However, Gorsuch argued that the statutory provision violated the nondelegation doctrine because it was not one of three exceptions to the nondelegation doctrine. Case law Pre-1935 The origins of the nondelegation doctrine, as interpreted in U.S., can be traced back to at least 1690, when John Locke wrote: The Legislative cannot transfer the Power of Making Laws to any other hands. For it being but a delegated Power from the People, they, who have it, cannot pass it over to others. ... And when the people have said, We will submit to rules, and be govern'd by Laws made by such Men, and in such Forms, no Body else can say other Men shall make Laws for them; nor can the people be bound by any Laws but such as are Enacted by those, whom they have Chosen, and Authorised to make Laws for them. The power of the Legislative being derived from the People by a positive voluntary Grant and Institution, can be no other, than what the positive Grant conveyed, which being only to make Laws, and not to make Legislators, the Legislative can have no power to transfer their Authority of making laws, and place it in other hands. One of the earliest cases involving the exact limits of nondelegation was Wayman v. Southard (1825). Congress had delegated to the courts the power to prescribe judicial procedure; it was contended that Congress had thereby unconstitutionally clothed the judiciary with legislative powers. While Chief Justice John Marshall conceded that the determination of rules of procedure was a legislative function, he distinguished between "important" subjects and mere details. Marshall wrote that "a general provision may be made, and power given to those who are to act under such general provisions, to fill up the details." In 1892, the Court in Field v. Clark, 143 U.S. 649, noted "That congress cannot delegate legislative power to the president is a principle universally recognized as vital to the integrity and maintenance of the system of government ordained by the constitution" while holding that the tariff-setting authority delegated in the McKinley Act "was not the making of law," but rather empowered the executive branch to serve as a "mere agent" of Congress. 1935 During the 1930s, Congress provided the executive branch with wide powers to combat the Great Depression. The Supreme Court case of Panama Refining v. Ryan, 293 U.S. 388 (1935) involved the National Industrial Recovery Act, which included a provision granting the President the authority to prohibit the interstate shipment of petroleum in excess of certain quotas. In the Panama Refining case, however, the Court struck down the provision on the ground that Congress had set "no criterion to govern the President's course." Other provisions of the National Industrial Recovery Act were also challenged. In Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States (1935), the Supreme Court considered a provision which permitted the President to approve trade codes, drafted by the businesses themselves, so as to ensure "fair competition." The Supreme Court found that, since the law sets no explicit guidelines, businesses "may roam at will and the President may approve or disapprove their proposal as he may see fit." Thus, they struck down the relevant provisions of the Recovery Act. Post-1935 In the 1989 case Mistretta v. United States, the Court stated that: Applying this "intelligible principle" test to congressional delegations, our jurisprudence has been driven by a practical understanding that in our increasingly complex society, replete with ever changing and more technical problems, Congress simply cannot do its job absent an ability to delegate power under broad general directives. Accordingly, this Court has deemed it "constitutionally sufficient" if Congress clearly delineates the general policy, the public agency which is to apply it, and the boundaries of this delegated authority. The Supreme Court has never found a violation of the nondelegation doctrine outside of Panama Refining and Schechter Poultry in 1935. Exemplifying the Court's legal reasoning on this matter, it ruled in the 1998 case Clinton v. City of New York that the Line Item Veto Act of 1996, which authorized the President to selectively void portions of appropriation bills, was a violation of the Presentment Clause, which sets forth the formalities governing the passage of legislation. Although the Court noted that the attorneys prosecuting the case had extensively discussed the nondelegation doctrine, the Court declined to consider that question. However, Justice Kennedy, in a concurring opinion, wrote that he would have found the statute to violate the exclusive responsibility for laws to be made by Congress. Important cases Cargo of the Brig Aurora v. United States, 11 U.S. (7 Cranch) 382 (1813) Wayman v. Southard, 23 U.S. (10 Wheat.) 1 (1825) Field v. Clark, 143 U.S. 649 (1892) Buttfield v. Stranahan, 192 U.S. 470 (1904) United States v. Grimaud, 220 U.S. 506 (1911) Mahler v. Eby, 264 U.S. 32 (1924) J. W. Hampton, Jr. & Co. v. United States, 276 U.S. 394 (1926) New York Central Securities Corp. v. United States, 287 U.S. 12 (1932) Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan, 293 U.S. 388 (1935) A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, 295 U.S. 495 (1935) Carter v. Carter Coal Co., 298 U.S. 238 (1936) United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp., 299 U.S. 304 (1936) Currin v. Wallace, 306 U.S. 1 (1939) Sunshine Anthracite Coal Co. v. Adkins, 310 U.S. 381 (1940) OPP Cotton Mills, Inc. v. Administrator of Wage and Hour Div., Dept. of Labor, 312 U.S. 126 (1941) National Broadcasting Co. v. United States, 319 U.S. 190 (1943) Yakus v. United States, 321 U.S. 414 (1944) Lichter v. United States, 334 U.S. 742 (1948) U.S. ex rel. Knauff v. Shaughnessy, 338 U.S. 537 (1950) National Cable Television Assn. v. United States, 415 U.S. 336 (1974) FPC v. New England Power Co., 415 U.S. 345 (1974) Federal Energy Administration v. Algonquin SNG, Inc., 426 U.S. 548 (1976) United States v. Batchelder, 442 U.S. 114 (1979) Industrial Union Department v. American Petroleum Institute, 448 U.S. 607 (1980) American Textile Mfrs. Inst., Inc. v. Donovan, 452 U.S. 490 (1981) Mistretta v. United States, 488 U.S. 361 (1989) Skinner v. Mid-America Pipeline Co., 490 U.S. 212 (1989) Touby v. United States, 500 U.S. 160 (1991) Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority v. Citizens for Abatement of Aircraft Noise, Inc., 501 U.S. 252 (1991) Loving v. United States, 517 U.S. 748 (1996) Clinton v. City of New York, 524 U.S. 417 (1998) Whitman v. American Trucking Ass'ns, Inc., 531 U.S. 457 (2001) Department of Transportation v. Association of American Railroads, No. 13-1080, 575 U.S. ___ (2015) Coventry Health Care of Mo., Inc. v. Nevils, No. 16-149, 581 U.S. ___ (2017) Gundy v. United States, No. 17-6086, 588 U.S. ___ (2019) Paul v. United States, No. 17-8830, 589 U.S. ___ (2019) Haaland v. Brackeen, No. 21-376, 599 U.S. ___ (2023) SEC v. Jarkesy, No. 22-859, 601 U.S. ___ (2024) Major questions doctrine The major questions doctrine is a rough analogue to the nondelegation doctrine. It says that when a government agency seeks to decide an issue of "vast economic or political significance," a vague or general delegation of authority from Congress is not enough. Rather, the agency must have clear statutory authorization to decide the issue.The major questions doctrine serves as an exception to the Chevron doctrine, which ordinarily requires courts to defer to an agency's interpretation of a statute it enforces, so long as the statute is ambiguous and the agency's interpretation is reasonable. However, it goes further than just negating deference to the agency. Even if the most reasonable interpretation of the statute allows the agency to take an action, it will not be enough unless that delegation of authority is clearly stated. In explaining the major questions doctrine in UARG v. EPA (2014), the Supreme Court explained that "We expect Congress to speak clearly if it wishes to assign to an agency decisions of vast 'economic and political significance.'" Similarly, in Whitman v. American Trucking Associations (2001), the Court stated that Congress "does not alter the fundamental details of a regulatory scheme in vague terms or ancillary provisions—it does not, one might say, hide elephants in mouseholes.”The Supreme Court first explicitly embraced the phrase "major questions doctrine" in West Virginia v. Environmental Protection Agency (2022), the decision which held that the EPA's Clean Power Plan, requiring energy producers to shift from fossil fuels to renewable sources, was not authorized by the Clean Air Act.With the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022, some commentators argued that Congress overruled the Court by clarifying that carbon dioxide is one of the pollutants covered by the 1970 Clean Air Act. However, the Supreme Court had already held that greenhouse gasses are pollutants in Massachusetts v. EPA (2007), and the Supreme Court did not overrule that holding in West Virginia v. EPA. Important cases MCI Telecommunications Corp. v. AT&T Co., 512 U.S. 218 (1994) FDA v. Brown & Williamson Tobacco Corp., 529 U.S. 120 (2000) Gonzales v. Oregon, 546 U.S. 243 (2006) Utility Air Regulatory Group v. Environmental Protection Agency, 573 U.S. 302 (2014) King v. Burwell, No. 14-114, 576 U.S. ___ (2015) Gundy v. United States, No. 17-6086, 588 U.S. ___ (2019) (Gorsuch, dissenting) (dicta) Alabama Assn. of Realtors v. Department of Health and Human Servs., No. 21A23, 594 U.S. ___ (2021) Biden v. Missouri, No. 21A240, 595 U.S. ___ (2022) National Federation of Independent Business v. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration, No. 21A244, 595 U.S. ___ (2022) West Virginia v. EPA, No. 20-1530, 597 U.S. ___ (2022) Biden v. Nebraska, No. 22-506, 600 U.S. ___ (2023) United Kingdom In general, powers granted by Parliament are presumed to only be exercisable by the body which is given those powers and can not be delegated. This is known as the "non-delegation principle" or the "presumption against delegation".For example, in Barnard v National Dock Labour Board [1953] 2 QB 18, the Court of Appeal held that the delegation of disciplinary powers originally granted to the London Dock Labour Board to the port manager was unlawful. In his judgment, Lord Denning argued that the power of suspension was a judicial function. The dock labour board had to receive reports from employers and investigate them, they had to inquire whether the accused was guilty of misconduct, and they had to decide the appropriate disciplinary action to take. And as "[n]o judicial tribunal can delegate its functions unless it is enabled to do so expressly or by necessary implication", the delegation of the disciplinary powers was held to be unlawful. Exceptions to the non-delegation principle Consultation as opposed to delegation English courts have made a distinction between seeking consultation and the delegation of powers, the former of which is deemed to be permissible as decision making does not happen within an "institutional bubble". The important factor in deciding whether a public body is seeking consultation or whether they have delegated those powers is examining whether the powers are ultimately at the hands of the decision-maker in practice, as opposed to de jure.In R (New London College) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2013] UKSC 51, the Supreme Court held that the Home Secretary did not unlawfully delegate her powers to control entry into the UK to sponsoring institutions. Immigration rules dictated that all student visa applicants had to produce a "Confirmation of Studies" (CAS) which is produced by sponsoring institutions like universities. As part of the application process, institutions must make judgements whether they had an intention to study there. The Supreme Court rejected arguments that this was tantamount to the delegation of powers to sponsoring institutions. Lord Sumption, in his judgment, noted that "a significant number of Tier 4 (General) migrants with a CAS are in fact refused leave to enter or remain on these grounds". This, according to the Supreme Court, showed that the Home Secretary de facto exercised powers of final decision and therefore was merely consulting sponsoring institutions, not delegating her powers. The Carltona doctrine The Carltona doctrine (or Carltona principle) is the idea that when powers are granted to departmental officials, they can be lawfully delegated to their civil servants. See also Whitman v. American Trucking Associations, Inc. Amalgamated Meat Cutters v. Connally Chevron deference INS v. Chadha (1983) References External links "The Role of Congress in Monitoring Administrative Rulemaking" − Testimony of Jerry Taylor, Cato Institute, before the Subcommittee on Commercial and Administrative Law, Committee on the Judiciary, September 12, 1996. [1] "The Delegation Doctrine", Madelon Lief, Wisconsin Legislative Reference Bureau, January 2004, Vol. IV, No. 1. [2] "The Recent Controversy Over the Non Delegation Doctrine", Jeffrey Clark, 2001. [3] "Hot Oil and Hot Air: The Development of the Nondelegation Doctrine through the New Deal, a History 1813-1944," Andrew J. Ziaja, 35 Hastings Const. L.Q. 921 (2008). [4]

Goli (dance)

Goli is a traditional African dance and masquerade of the Baoulé people of the Ivory Coast. A single performance of a goli lasts an entire day.The goli originated among the Wan people, neighbours of the Baoulé. It was adopted by the Baoulé between 1900 and 1910, perhaps in response to the disruption caused by European colonialism. Today it is the dominant traditional dance form, gradually replacing all others. It may be performed on important occasions, such as funerals, or for entertainment.The two dancers in a goli wear four different types of traditional masks in a prescribed order: first the disc-shaped kple kple, then the antelope-and-crocodile-inspired goli glen, then the ram-horned kpan pre and finally the human-faced kpan with crested hair.

Goli is a traditional African dance and masquerade of the Baoulé people of the Ivory Coast. A single performance of a goli lasts an entire day.The goli originated among the Wan people, neighbours of the Baoulé. It was adopted by the Baoulé between 1900 and 1910, perhaps in response to the disruption caused by European colonialism. Today it is the dominant traditional dance form, gradually replacing all others. It may be performed on important occasions, such as funerals, or for entertainment.The two dancers in a goli wear four different types of traditional masks in a prescribed order: first the disc-shaped kple kple, then the antelope-and-crocodile-inspired goli glen, then the ram-horned kpan pre and finally the human-faced kpan with crested hair. The masks have complex symbolism. At each stage, one mask is "male" and another "female", although the differences between them are subtle, since they represent aspects of one individual. For example, the male kple kple is red and the female is black. The kple kple and the goli glen together constitute the "female" half of the dance, while the later masks are "male". Each mask is also conceived of as having male and female aspects. == References ==

The Green Bird (film)

The Green Bird (German: Der grüne Vogel) is a 1980 West German drama film directed by István Szabó and starring Hannelore Elsner, Péter Andorai and Krystyna Janda.

The Green Bird (German: Der grüne Vogel) is a 1980 West German drama film directed by István Szabó and starring Hannelore Elsner, Péter Andorai and Krystyna Janda. Cast Hannelore Elsner as Dr.Renate Winter-Ewald Péter Andorai as Jan Widuchowski Krystyna Janda as Katzka Widuchowski Danuta Szaflarska as Polnische Professorin Johanna Elbauer as Barbara Rolf von Sydow as Deutscher Professor Andreas Briegel as Dr. Werner Ewald Angela Jaffé as Annette Ewald, Renates Kind References Bibliography Hans-Michael Bock & Tim Bergfelder. The Concise Cinegraph: An Encyclopedia of German Cinema. Berghahn Books, 2009. Ewa Mazierska & Michael Goddard. Polish Cinema in a Transnational Context. Boydell & Brewer, 2014. External links The Green Bird at IMDb

Rauraci

The Rauraci or Raurici were a small Gallic tribe dwelling in the Upper Rhine region, around the present-day city of Basel, during the Iron Age and the Roman period.

The Rauraci or Raurici were a small Gallic tribe dwelling in the Upper Rhine region, around the present-day city of Basel, during the Iron Age and the Roman period. Name They are mentioned as Rauracis and Rauracorum by Caesar (mid-1st c. BC), Raurici (var. -aci) by Pliny (1st c. AD), and as Rauracense in the Notitia Dignitatum (5th c. AD).The ethnonym Rauraci derives from the ancient Celtic name of the river Ruhr, Raura.The city of Augst, attested in the 2nd century AD as Augoústa Rhauríkōn (Αὐγούστα Ῥαυρίκων), is indirectly named after the tribe. Geography Territory Their name seems to indicate an original homeland near the river Ruhr, further north of their attested territory. After their failed migration towards southwestern Gaul was repelled by the Romans in 58 BC, the Rauraci settled in the Upper Rhine area, with a territory stretching from the foothills of the Jura Massif, around the modern city of Basel, to the regions of Upper Alsace and South Baden.The Rauraci dwelled south of the Leuci and Brisigavi, north of the Helvetii, east of the Lingones, and west of the Lentienses. They were probably clients of the larger Helvetii. Settlements The oppidum of Basel-Münsterhügel, occupied since at least the mid-1st century BC, was their pre-Roman chief town. The archaeological site of Basel-Gasfabrik (ca. 150–80 BC) is also attributed to the Rauraci.In 44 BC, the Roman consul L. Munatius Plancus founded within their territory the settlement of Augusta Raurica (or Colonia Raurica; modern Augst and Kaiseraugst). The city was located at the crossroad of two trading routes: between the Great St Bernard Pass and the Rhine, and between Gaul and the Danube. It reached 106ha at its height in 200 AD. A great part of Augusta Raurica was destroyed by an earthquake in 240–250. Under Diocletian (284–295), it was incorporated into the province of Maxima Sequanorum. The Castrum Rauracense, erected in 290–300, became the core of the city in Late Antiquity.Another town, known as Argentovaria (modern Oedenburg, in Biesheim) and mentioned by Ptolemy ca. 150 AD, probably served as the capital of the civitas Rauricorum, or else of an unattested pagus of the Rauraci. Religion The temple at the forum of Augusta Raurica was dedicated to Romae et Augusto. The temple of Schönbühl replaced indigenous shrines around 70 AD. Inscriptions give evidence of the Imperial cult and of dedications to various Graeco-Roman deities. Native Gaulish deities include Epona, Sirona and the quadruviae. The cult of the snake was popular in Augusta Raurica. The Oriental cults of Mithra, Sabatius and Harpocrates are also attested. History In 58 BC, the Raurici were part of a failed migration attempt towards southwestern Gaul, alongside the Helvetii, Tulingi and Latobrigi. After their defeat by Caesar at the Battle of Bibracte in the same year, they were sent back as a foederati (allies bound by a treaty), probably to their territory of departure.In 52 BC, they provided 1,000 men to the Gallic coalition against Caesar. References Bibliography

United States Postal Service

The United States Postal Service (USPS), also known as the Post Office, U.S. Mail, or Postal Service, is an independent agency of the executive branch of the United States federal government responsible for providing postal service in the U.S., its insular areas, and its associated states. It is one of the few government agencies explicitly authorized by the Constitution of the United States. The USPS, as of 2021, has 516,636 career employees and 136,531 non-career employees.The USPS has a monopoly on traditional letter delivery within the U.S. and operates under a universal service obligation (USO), both of which are defined across a broad set of legal mandates, which obligate it to provide uniform price and quality across the entirety of its service area. The Post Office has exclusive access to letter boxes marked "U.S. Mail" and personal letterboxes in the U.S., but has to compete against private package delivery services, such as United Parcel Service, FedEx, and DHL.

The United States Postal Service (USPS), also known as the Post Office, U.S. Mail, or Postal Service, is an independent agency of the executive branch of the United States federal government responsible for providing postal service in the U.S., its insular areas, and its associated states. It is one of the few government agencies explicitly authorized by the Constitution of the United States. The USPS, as of 2021, has 516,636 career employees and 136,531 non-career employees.The USPS has a monopoly on traditional letter delivery within the U.S. and operates under a universal service obligation (USO), both of which are defined across a broad set of legal mandates, which obligate it to provide uniform price and quality across the entirety of its service area. The Post Office has exclusive access to letter boxes marked "U.S. Mail" and personal letterboxes in the U.S., but has to compete against private package delivery services, such as United Parcel Service, FedEx, and DHL. History The USPS was founded by the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia in 1775, at the beginning of the American Revolution. Benjamin Franklin was appointed the first postmaster general; he also served a similar position for the American colonies. The Post Office Department was created in 1792 with the passage of the Postal Service Act. The appointment of local postmasters was a major venue for delivering patronage jobs to the party that controlled the White House. Newspaper editors often were named. It was elevated to a cabinet-level department in 1872, and was transformed by the Postal Reorganization Act of 1970 into the U.S. Postal Service as an independent agency. Since the early 1980s, many direct tax subsidies to the USPS (with the exception of subsidies for costs associated with disabled and overseas voters) have been reduced or eliminated.On March 18, 1970, postal workers in New York City—upset over low wages and poor working conditions, and emboldened by the Civil Rights Movement—organized a strike. The strike initially involved postal workers in only New York City, but it eventually gained support of over 210,000 postal workers across the nation. While the strike ended without any concessions from the federal government, it did ultimately allow for postal worker unions and the government to negotiate a contract which gave the unions most of what they wanted, as well as the signing of the Postal Reorganization Act by President Richard Nixon on August 12, 1970. The act replaced the cabinet-level Post Office Department with a new federal agency, the U.S. Postal Service, and took effect on July 1, 1971.See also: 2020 United States Postal Service crisis Postal Service Reform Act of 2022 Current operations Deliveries As of 2021, the USPS operates 31,330 post offices and locations in the U.S., and delivers 128.8 billion pieces of mail annually, to 163 million delivery points (as of 2022).USPS delivers mail and packages Monday through Saturday as required by the Postal Service Reform Act of 2022; on Sundays only Priority Express and packages for Amazon.com are delivered. The USPS delivers packages on Sundays in most major cities. During the four weeks preceding Christmas since 2013, packages from all mail classes and senders were delivered on Sunday in some areas. Parcels are also delivered on holidays, with the exception of Thanksgiving and Christmas. The USPS started delivering Priority Mail Express packages on Christmas Day in select location for an additional fee.The period between Thanksgiving and Christmas is the busiest time of the year for the USPS with the agency delivering an estimated 900 million packages during the period of 2018. Fleet The USPS operates one of the largest civilian vehicle fleets in the world, with over 200,000 vehicles, the majority of which are the distinctive and unique Chevrolet/Grumman LLV (long-life vehicle), and the similar, newer Ford-Utilimaster FFV (flexible-fuel vehicle), originally also referred to as the CRV (carrier route vehicle). The LLVs were built from 1987 to 1994 and lack air conditioning, airbags, anti-lock brakes, and space for the large modern volume of e-commerce packages, the Grumman fleet ended its expected 24-year lifespan in fiscal year 2017. The LLV replacement process began in 2015, and after numerous delays, a $6 billion contract was awarded in February 2021 to Oshkosh Defense to finalize design and produce 165,000 vehicles over 10 years. The Next Generation Delivery Vehicle (NGDV), will have both gasoline and battery electric versions. Half of the initial 50,000 vehicles will be electric, as will all vehicles purchased after 2026.The number of gallons of fuel used in 2009 was 444 million, at a cost of US$1.1 billion. For every penny increase in the national average price of gasoline, the USPS spends an extra US$8 million per year to fuel its fleet. Starting in 2026, all delivery truck purchases are scheduled to be electric vehicles, partly in response to criticism from the Environmental Protection Agency and an environmental lawsuit.The fleet is notable in that many of its vehicles are right-hand drive, an arrangement intended to give drivers the easiest access to roadside mailboxes. Some rural letter carriers use personal vehicles. All contractors use personal vehicles. Standard postal-owned vehicles do not have license plates. These vehicles are identified by a seven-digit number displayed on the front and rear. Military mail The Department of Defense and the USPS jointly operate a postal system to deliver mail for the military; this is known as the Army Post Office (for Army and Air Force postal facilities) and the Fleet Post Office (for Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard postal facilities). Operation and budget In Fiscal Year 2022, the Postal Service had $78.81 billion in revenue and expenses of $79.74 billion. Accounting for savings generated by the Postal Service Reform Act of 2022, the agency reported a net income of $56.04 billion. Revenue decline and planned cuts In 2016, the USPS had its fifth straight annual operating loss, in the amount of $5.6 billion, of which $5.8 billion was the accrual of unpaid mandatory retiree health payments. Declining mail volume First-class mail volume peaked in 2001 to 103.65 billion declining to 52.62 billion by 2020 due to the increasing use of email and the World Wide Web for correspondence and business transactions. USPS also almost delivered the first email but did not do so.Private courier services, such as FedEx and United Parcel Service (UPS), directly compete with USPS for the delivery of urgent letters and packages. Lower volume means lower revenues to support the fixed commitment to deliver to every address once a day, six days a week. According to an official report on November 15, 2012, the U.S. Postal Service lost $15.9 billion its 2012 fiscal year. Internal streamlining and delivery slowdown In response, the USPS has increased productivity each year from 2000 to 2007, through increased automation, route re-optimization, and facility consolidation. Despite these efforts, the organization saw an $8.5 billion budget shortfall in 2010, and was losing money at a rate of about $3 billion per quarter in 2011.On December 5, 2011, the USPS announced it would close more than half of its mail processing centers, eliminate 28,000 jobs and reduce overnight delivery of First-Class Mail. This will close down 252 of its 461 processing centers. (At peak mail volume in 2006, the USPS operated 673 facilities.) As of May 2012, the plan was to start the first round of consolidation in summer 2012, pause from September to December, and begin a second round in February 2014; 80% of first-class mail would still be delivered overnight through the end of 2013. New delivery standards were issued in January 2015, and the majority of single-piece (not presorted) first-class mail is now being delivered in two days instead of one. Large commercial mailers can still have first-class mail delivered overnight if delivered directly to a processing center in the early morning, though as of 2014 this represented only 11% of first-class mail. Unsorted first-class mail will continue to be delivered anywhere in the contiguous United States within three days. Post office closures In July 2011, the USPS announced a plan to close about 3,700 small post offices. Various representatives in Congress protested, and the Senate passed a bill that would have kept open all post offices farther than 10 miles (16 km) from the next office. In May 2012, the service announced it had modified its plan. Instead, rural post offices would remain open with reduced retail hours (some as little as two hours per day) unless there was a community preference for a different option. In a survey of rural customers, 54% preferred the new plan of retaining rural post offices with reduced hours, 20% preferred the "Village Post Office" replacement (where a nearby private retail store would provide basic mail services with expanded hours), 15% preferred merger with another Post Office, and 11% preferred expanded rural delivery services. In 2012, USPS reported that approximately 40% of postal revenue comes from online purchases or private retail partners including Walmart, Staples, Office Depot, Walgreens, Sam's Club, Costco, and grocery stores. The National Labor Relations Board agreed to hear the American Postal Workers Union's arguments that these counters should be staffed by postal employees who earn far more and have "a generous package of health and retirement benefits". Elimination of Saturday delivery averted On January 28, 2009, Postmaster General John E. Potter testified before the Senate that, if the Postal Service could not readjust its payment toward the contractually funding earned employee retiree health benefits, as mandated by the Postal Accountability & Enhancement Act of 2006, the USPS would be forced to consider cutting delivery to five days per week during June, July, and August. H.R. 22, addressing this issue, passed the House of Representatives and Senate and was signed into law on September 30, 2009. However, Postmaster General Potter continued to advance plans to eliminate Saturday mail delivery.On June 10, 2009, the National Rural Letter Carriers' Association (NRLCA) was contacted for its input on the USPS's current study of the effect of five-day delivery along with developing an implementation plan for a five-day service plan. A team of Postal Service headquarters executives and staff was given a time frame of sixty days to complete the study. The current concept examines the effect of five-day delivery with no business or collections on Saturday, with Post Offices with current Saturday hours remaining open. On Thursday, April 15, 2010, the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform held a hearing to examine the status of the Postal Service and recent reports on short and long-term strategies for the financial viability and stability of the USPS entitled "Continuing to Deliver: An Examination of the Postal Service's Current Financial Crisis and its Future Viability". At which, PMG Potter testified that by 2020, the USPS cumulative losses could exceed $238 billion, and that mail volume could drop 15 percent from 2009.In February 2013, the USPS announced that in order to save about $2 billion per year, Saturday delivery service would be discontinued except for packages, mail-order medicines, Priority Mail, Express Mail, and mail delivered to Post Office boxes, beginning August 10, 2013. However, the Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 2013, passed in March, reversed the cuts to Saturday delivery. Retirement funding and payment defaults The Postal Accountability and Enhancement Act of 2006 (PAEA) obligated the USPS to fund the present value of earned retirement obligations (essentially past promises which have not yet come due) within a ten-year time span.The U.S. Office of Personnel Management (OPM) is the main bureaucratic organization responsible for the human resources aspect of many federal agencies and their employees. The PAEA created the Postal Service Retiree Health Benefit Fund (PSRHB) after Congress removed the Postal Service contribution to the Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS). Most other employees that contribute to the CSRS have 7% deducted from their wages. Currently, all new employees contribute into Federal Employee Retirement System (FERS) once they become a full-time regular employees.Running low on cash, in order to continue operations unaffected and continue to meet payroll, the USPS defaulted for the first time on a $5.5 billion retirement benefits payment due August 1, 2012, and a $5.6 billion payment due September 30, 2012.On September 30, 2014, the USPS failed to make a $5.7 billion payment on this debt, the fourth such default. In 2017, the USPS defaulted on some of the last lump-sum payments required by the 2006 law, though other payments were also still required.Proposals to cancel the funding obligation and plan a new schedule for the debt were introduced in Congress as early as 2016. A 2019 bill entitled the "USPS Fairness Act", which would have eliminated the pension funding obligation, passed the House but did not proceed further. As of March 8, 2022, the Postal Service Reform Act of 2022, which includes a section entitled "USPS Fairness Act" cancelling the obligation, has passed both the House and the Senate; President Joe Biden signed the bill into law on April 6, 2022. Rate increases Congress has limited rate increases for First-Class Mail to the cost of inflation, unless approved by the Postal Regulatory Commission. A three-cent surcharge above inflation increased the 1 oz (28 g) rate to 49¢ in January 2014, but this was approved by the commission for two years only. As of January 9, 2023, first-class postage for up to 1 ounce is $0.63. Reform proposals and delivery changes During the Obama administration Comprehensive reform packages considered in the 113th Congress include S.1486 and H.R.2748. These include the efficiency measure, supported by Postmaster General Patrick Donahoe of ending door-to-door delivery of mail for some or most of the 35 million addresses that currently receive it, replacing that with either curbside boxes or nearby "cluster boxes". This would save $4.5 billion per year out of the $30 billion delivery budget; door-to-door city delivery costs annually on average $353 per stop, curbside $224, and cluster box $160 (and for rural delivery, $278, $176, and $126, respectively).S.1486, also with the support of Postmaster General Donahoe, would also allow the USPS to ship alcohol in compliance with state law, from manufacturers to recipients with ID to show they are over 21. This is projected to raise approximately $50 million per year. (Shipping alcoholic beverages is currently illegal under 18 U.S.C. § 1716(f).) In 2014, the Postal Service was requesting reforms to workers' compensation, moving from a pension to defined contribution retirement savings plan, and paying senior retiree health care costs out of Medicare funds, as is done for private-sector workers. During the Trump administration As part of a June 2018 governmental reorganization plan, the Donald Trump administration proposed turning USPS into "a private postal operator" which could save costs through measures like delivering mail fewer days per week, or delivering to central locations instead of door to door. There was strong bipartisan opposition to the idea in Congress.In April 2020, Congress approved a $10 billion loan from the Treasury to the post office. According to The Washington Post, officials under Treasury Secretary Steven Mnuchin suggested using the loan as leverage to give the Treasury Department more influence on USPS operations, including making them raise their charges for package deliveries, a change long sought by President Trump.In May 2020, in a controversial move, the Board of Governors of the United States Postal Service appointed Louis DeJoy, the first postmaster general in the last two decades who did not emerge from the postal bureaucracy. Instead he had three decades of experience in the private delivery sector where he created a new national corporation with 80,000 employees.DeJoy—until 2014 CEO of New Breed Logistics (a controversial Postal Service contractor), and until 2018 a board member its new parent, XPO Logistics, whose postal contracts expanded during DeJoy's postmaster general role—was a major donor and fundraiser for the Republican Party (from 2017, a deputy finance chairman of the Republican National Committee, until appointed postmaster general, and later million-dollar donor to the 2020 Trump campaign while postmaster general).DeJoy immediately began taking measures to reduce costs, such as banning overtime and extra trips to deliver mail. While DeJoy admitted that these measures were causing delays in mail delivery, he said they would eventually improve service.More than 600 high-speed mail sorting machines were scheduled to be dismantled and removed from postal facilities, raising concerns that mailed ballots for the November 3 election might not reach election offices on time.Mail collection boxes were removed from the streets in many cities; after photos of boxes being removed were spread on social media, a postal service spokesman said they were being moved to higher traffic areas but that the removals would stop until after the election.The inspector general for the postal service opened an investigation into the recent changes. On August 16 the House of Representatives was called back from its summer recess to consider a bill rolling back all of the changes.On August 18, 2020, after days of heavy criticism and the day after lawsuits against the Postal Service and DeJoy personally were filed in federal court by several individuals, DeJoy announced that he would roll back all the changes until after the November election. He said he would reinstate overtime hours, roll back service reductions, and halt the removal of mail-sorting machines and collection boxes. However, 95 percent of the mail sorting machines that were planned for removal had already been removed, and according to House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, DeJoy said he has no intention of replacing them or the mail collection boxes.On December 27, 2020, the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2021 forgave the previous $10 billion loan. Coronavirus pandemic and voting by mail Voting by mail has become an increasingly common practice in the United States, with 25% of voters nationwide mailing their ballots in 2016 and 2018. The coronavirus pandemic of 2020 was predicted to cause a large increase in mail voting because of the possible danger of congregating at polling places. For the 2020 election, a state-by-state analysis concluded that 76% of Americans were eligible to vote by mail in 2020, a record number. The analysis predicted that 80 million ballots could be cast by mail in 2020 – more than double the number in 2016. The Postal Service sent letters to 46 states in July 2020, warning that the service might not be able to meet each state's deadlines for requesting and casting last-minute absentee ballots. The House of Representatives voted to include an emergency grant of $25 billion to the post office to facilitate the predicted flood of mail ballots, but the bill never reached the Senate floor for a vote.A March 2021 report from the Postal Service's inspector general found that the vast majority of mail-in ballots and registration materials in the 2020 election were delivered to the relevant authorities on time. The Postal Service handled approximately 135 million pieces of election-related mail between September 1 and November 3, delivering 97.9% of ballots from voters to election officials within three days, and 99.89% of ballots within seven days. Governance and organization The Board of Governors of the United States Postal Service sets policy, procedure, and postal rates for services rendered. It has a similar role to a corporate board of directors. Of the eleven members of the Board, nine are appointed by the president and confirmed by the U.S. Senate (see 39 U.S.C. § 202). The nine appointed members then select the United States postmaster general, who serves as the board's tenth member, and who oversees the day-to-day activities of the service as chief executive officer (see 39 U.S.C. §§ 202–203). The ten-member board then nominates a deputy postmaster general, who acts as chief operating officer, to the eleventh and last remaining open seat. The independent Postal Regulatory Commission (formerly the Postal Rate Commission) is also controlled by appointees of the president confirmed by the Senate. It oversees postal rates and related concerns, having the authority to approve or reject USPS proposals. The USPS is often mistaken for a state-owned enterprise or government-owned corporation (e.g., Amtrak) because it operates much like a business. It is, however, an "establishment of the executive branch of the Government of the United States", (39 U.S.C. § 201) as it is controlled by presidential appointees and the postmaster general. As a government agency, it has many special privileges, including sovereign immunity, eminent domain powers, powers to negotiate postal treaties with foreign nations, and an exclusive legal right to deliver first-class and third-class mail. Indeed, in 2004, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in a unanimous decision "The Postal Service is not subject to antitrust liability. In both form and function, it is not a separate antitrust person from the United States but is part of the Government, and so is not controlled by the antitrust laws" such as the Sherman Antitrust Act. Unlike a state-owned enterprise, the USPS lacks a transparent ownership structure and is not subject to standard rules and norms that apply to commercial entities. The USPS also lacks commercial discretion and control.The U.S. Supreme Court has also upheld the USPS's statutory monopoly on access to letter boxes against a First Amendment freedom of speech challenge; it thus remains illegal in the U.S. for anyone, other than the employees and agents of the USPS, to deliver mail pieces to letter boxes marked "U.S. Mail".The Postal Service also has a Mailers' Technical Advisory Committee and local Postal Customer Councils, which are advisory and primarily involve business customers.The USPS assigns city names to various postal addresses; these assignments do not always correspond with municipal boundaries. Mailing address names may stay the same even if city boundaries change. Privatization proposals Since the 1990s, Republicans have been discussing the idea of privatizing the U.S. Postal Service. President Trump's administration proposed turning USPS into "a private postal operator" as part of a June 2018 governmental reorganization plan, although there was strong bipartisan opposition to the idea in Congress.On December 17, 2017, President Trump criticized the postal service's relationship with Amazon. In a post on Twitter, he stated: "Why is the United States Post Office, which is losing many billions of dollars a year, while charging Amazon and others so little to deliver their packages, making Amazon richer and the Post Office dumber and poorer? Should be charging MUCH MORE!" Amazon maintains that the Postal Service makes a profit from its contract with the company. On June 21, 2018, Trump proposed a sweeping reorganization but Congress did not act.Lisa Graves has documented decades-long efforts to privatize the U.S. Postal Service through driving the public service to financial collapse. The Council on Foreign Relations brings up the idea of bringing USPS online with a digital identity via an email address. USPS explored a digital identity using an email address in its "Digital Identity – Opportunities for the Postal Service" report in 2012. Universal service obligation and monopoly status Legal basis and rationale Article I, section 8, Clause 7 of the U.S. Constitution grants Congress the power to establish post offices and post roads, which has been interpreted as a de facto Congressional monopoly over the delivery of first-class residential mail—which has been defined as non-urgent residential letters (not packages). Accordingly, no other system for delivering first-class residential mail—public or private—has been tolerated, absent Congress's consent. The mission of the Postal Service is to provide the American public with trusted universal postal service. While not explicitly defined, the Postal Service's universal service obligation (USO) is broadly outlined in statute and includes multiple dimensions: geographic scope, range of products, access to services and facilities, delivery frequency, affordable and uniform pricing, service quality, and security of the mail. While other carriers may claim to voluntarily provide delivery on a broad basis, the Postal Service is the only carrier with a legal obligation to provide all the various aspects of universal service.Proponents of universal service principles claim that since any obligation must be matched by the financial capability to meet that obligation, the postal monopoly was put in place as a funding mechanism for the USO, and it has been in place for over a hundred years. It consists of two parts: the Private Express Statutes (PES) and the mailbox access rule. The PES refer to the Postal Service's monopoly on the delivery of letters, and the mailbox rule refers to the Postal Service's exclusive access to customer mailboxes.Proponents of universal service principles further claim that eliminating or reducing the PES or mailbox rule would affect the ability of the Postal Service to provide affordable universal service. If, for example, the PES and the mailbox rule were to be eliminated, and the USO maintained, then either billions of dollars in tax revenues or some other source of funding would have to be found.Some proponents of universal service principles suggest that private communications that are protected by the veil of government promote the exchange of free ideas and communications. This separates private communications from the ability of a private for-profit or non-profit organization to corrupt. Security for the individual is in this way protected by the United States Post Office, maintaining confidentiality and anonymity, as well as government employees being much less likely to be instructed by superiors to engage in nefarious spying. It is seen by some as a dangerous step to extract the universal service principle from the post office, as the untainted nature of private communications is preserved as assurance of the protection of individual freedom of privacy.However, as the recent notice of a termination of mail service to residents of the Frank Church–River of No Return Wilderness indicates, mail service has been contracted to private firms such as Arnold Aviation for many decades. KTVB-TV reported: "We cannot go out every week and pick up our mail ... it's impossible", said Heinz Sippel. "Everyone gets their mail. Why can't we?" said Sue Anderson. Getting mail delivered, once a week, by airplane is not a luxury, it's a necessity for those who live in Idaho's vast wilderness—those along the Salmon and Selway rivers. It's a service that's been provided to them for more than half a century—mostly by Ray Arnold of Arnold Aviation. The decision was reversed; U.S. Postmaster General John Potter indicated that acceptable service to back country customers could not be achieved in any other fashion than continuing an air mail contract with Arnold Aviation to deliver the mail. 2008 report on universal postal service and the postal monopoly The Postal Act of 2006 required the Postal Regulatory Commission (PRC) to submit a report to the president and Congress on universal postal service and the postal monopoly in December 2008. The report must include any recommended changes. The Postal Service report supports the requirement that the PRC is to consult with and solicit written comments from the Postal Service. In addition, the Government Accountability Office was required to evaluate broader business model issues by 2011. On October 15, 2008, the Postal Service submitted a report to the PRC on its position related to the Universal Service Obligation (USO). It said no changes to the USO and restriction on mailbox access were necessary at that time, but increased regulatory flexibility was required to ensure affordable universal service in the future. In February 2013, the Postal Service announced that starting August 2013, Saturday delivery would be discontinued. Congress traditionally includes a provision in an annual continuing resolution that requires six-day delivery; it did so again in March 2013, and the Postal Service was forced to continue Saturday delivery.Obligations of the USO include uniform prices, quality of service, access to services, and six-day delivery to every part of the country. To assure financial support for these obligations, the postal monopoly provides the Postal Service the exclusive right to deliver letters and restricts mailbox access solely for mail. The report argued that eliminating or reducing either aspect of the monopoly "would have a devastating impact on the ability ... to provide the affordable universal service that the country values so highly". Relaxing access to the mailbox would also pose security concerns, increase delivery costs, and hurt customer service, according to the Post Office. The report notes: It is somewhat misleading to characterize the mailbox rule as a "monopoly," because the enforcement of 18 U.S.C. § 1725 leaves customers with ample alternative means of delivering their messages. Customers can deliver their messages either by paying postage, by placing messages on or under a door or a doormat, by using newspaper or non-postal boxes, by telephoning or emailing, by engaging in person-to-person delivery in public areas, by tacking or taping their notices on a door post, or by placing advertisements in local newspapers. These methods are comparable in efficacy to communication via the mailbox. Most of these alternatives are not actually free in some communities. For example, in the Chicago metropolitan area and many other major metros one must get a background check from police and pay a daily fee for the right to solicit or post commercial messages on private property.Regarding the monopoly on delivery of letters, the report notes that the monopoly is not complete, as there is an exception for letters where either the amount paid for private carriage of the letter equals at least six times the current rate for the first ounce of a single-piece First-Class Mail letter (also known as the "base rate" or "base tariff") or the letter weighs at least 12.5 ounces. The Postal Service said that the USO should continue to be broadly defined and there should be no changes to the postal monopoly. Any changes would have far-reaching effects on customers and the trillion dollar mailing industry. "A more rigidly defined USO would ... ultimately harm the American public and businesses," according to the report, which cautions that any potential change must be studied carefully and the effects fully understood. Competitors FedEx and United Parcel Service (UPS) directly compete with USPS Express Mail and package delivery services, making nationwide deliveries of urgent letters and packages. Due to the postal monopoly, they are not allowed to deliver non-urgent letters and may not directly ship to U.S. Mail boxes at residential and commercial destinations. However, both companies have transit agreements with the USPS in which an item can be dropped off with either FedEx or UPS who will then provide shipment up to the destination post office serving the intended recipient where it will be transferred for delivery to the U.S. Mail destination, including Post Office Box destinations. These services also deliver packages which are larger and heavier than USPS will accept. DHL Express was the third major competitor until February 2009, when it ceased domestic delivery operations in the United States. A variety of other transportation companies in the United States move cargo around the country, but either have limited geographic scope for delivery points, or specialize in items too large to be mailed. Many of the thousands of courier companies focus on same-day delivery, for example, by bicycle messenger. Although USPS and FedEx are direct competitors, USPS contracts with FedEx for air transport of 2–3 Day Priority Mail and Priority Mail Express (typically delivered overnight). Amazon controls one-fifth of the delivery market, and is on track to overtake UPS and even the US Postal Service (USPS), according to data from the logistics firm Pitney Bowes. Amazon Drone Delivery service is in USPS territory as well. Alternative transmission methods The Post Office Department owned and operated the first public telegraph lines in the United States, starting in 1844 from Washington to Baltimore, and eventually extending to New York, Boston, Buffalo, and Philadelphia. In 1847, the telegraph system was privatized, except for a period during World War I, when it was used to accelerate the delivery of letters arriving at night.Between 1942 and 1945, "V-Mail" (for "Victory Mail") service was available for military mail. Letters were converted into microfilm and reprinted near the destination, to save room on transport vehicles for military cargo.In 1970, Western Union in co-operation with the Postal Service introduced the "Mailgram", a special type of telegram offered by Western Union intended for bulk mailing to multiple addressees. The sender would contact WU and submit to them the message to be sent and a list of addressees to mail the requested Mailgrams to. The message and address data were then sent electronically over Western Union's terrestrial network normally used for standard telegrams, with WU's Westar 1 satellite used instead starting in 1974 with its launch, for Mailgram transmission to participating Postal Service centers, who would then print and mail the Mailgrams to the requested addressees. Similar to WU's Mailgrams was Electronic Computer Originated Mail, offered by the Postal Service from 1982 to 1985. Also known as E-COM, it too was used for bulk mailings. Text was transmitted electronically to one of 25 post offices nationwide. The Postal Service would print the mail and put it in special envelopes bearing a blue E-COM logo. Delivery was assured within two days.To improve accuracy and efficiency, the Postal Service introduced the Intelligent Mail program to complement the ZIP code system. This system, which was intended to replace the deprecated POSTNET system, allows bulk mailers to use pre-printed bar codes to assist in mail delivery and sorting. Additional features, called Enhanced, or Full-Service, Intelligent Mail Barcodes allow for mail tracking of bulk mail through the postal system up to the final delivery Post Office. Criticism of the universal service requirement and the postal monopoly Critics of the universal service requirement and the statutory postal monopoly include several professional economists advocating for the privatization of the mail delivery system, or at least a relaxation of the universal service model that currently exists. Rick Geddes argued in 2000: First, basic economics implies that rural customers are unlikely to be without service under competition; they would simply have to pay the true cost of delivery to them, which may or may not be lower than under monopoly. Second, basic notions of fairness imply that the cross-subsidy should be eliminated. To the extent that people make choices about where they live, they should assume the costs of that decision. Third, there is no reason why the government monopoly is necessary to ensure service to sparsely populated areas. The government could easily award competitive contracts to private firms for that service. Fourth, early concerns that rural residents of the United States would somehow become isolated without federally subsidized mail delivery today are simply unfounded. ... Once both sender and receiver have access to a computer, the marginal cost of sending an electronic message is close to zero. Furthermore, some economists have argued that because public enterprises may pursue objectives different from profit maximization, they might have more of an incentive than profit-maximizing firms to behave anticompetitively through policies such as predatory pricing, misstating costs, and creating barriers to entry. To resolve those issues, one economist proposes a cost-allocation model that would determine the optimal allocation of USPS's common costs by finding the share of costs that would maximize USPS profits from its competitive products. Postal regulators could use such a cost model to ensure that the Postal Service is not abusing its statutory monopoly by subsidizing price cuts in competitive product markets with revenue obtained from the monopolized market. Law enforcement agencies Under the Mail Cover Program USPS photographs the front and back of every piece of U.S. mail as part of the sorting process, enabling law enforcement to obtain address information and images of the outsides of mail as part of an investigation without the need for a warrant. Postal Inspection Service The United States Postal Inspection Service (USPIS) is one of the oldest law enforcement agencies in the U.S. Founded by Benjamin Franklin on August 7, 1775, its mission is to protect the Postal Service, its employees, and its customers from crime and protect the nation's mail system from criminal misuse.Postal Inspectors enforce over 200 federal laws providing for the protection of mail in investigations of crimes that may adversely affect or fraudulently use the U.S. Mail, the postal system or postal employees. The USPIS has the power to enforce the USPS monopoly by conducting search and seizure raids on entities they suspect of sending non-urgent mail through overnight delivery competitors. According to the American Enterprise Institute, a private conservative think tank, the USPIS raided Equifax offices in 1993 to ascertain if the mail they were sending through FedEx was truly "extremely urgent". It was found that the mail was not, and Equifax was fined $30,000.The PIS oversees the activities of the Postal Police Force who patrol and secure major postal facilities in the United States. Office of Inspector General The United States Postal Service Office of Inspector General (OIG) was authorized by law in 1996. Prior to the 1996 legislation, the Postal Inspection Service performed the duties of the OIG. The inspector general, who is independent of postal management, is appointed by and reports directly to the nine presidentially appointed, Senate–confirmed members of the Board of Governors of the United States Postal Service. The primary purpose of the OIG is to prevent, detect and report fraud, waste and program abuse, and promote efficiency in the operations of the Postal Service. The OIG has "oversight" responsibility for all activities of the Postal Inspection Service. How delivery services work Elements of addressing and preparing domestic mail All mailable articles (e.g., letters, flats, machinable parcels, irregular parcels, etc.) shipped within the United States must comply with an array of standards published in the USPS Domestic Mail Manual (DMM). Before addressing the mailpiece, one must first comply with the various mailability standards relating to attributes of the actual mailpiece such as: minimum/maximum dimensions and weight, acceptable mailing containers, proper mailpiece sealing/closure, utilization of various markings, and restrictions relating to various hazardous (e.g., explosives, flammables, etc.) and restricted (e.g., cigarettes, smokeless tobacco, etc.) materials, as well as others articulated in § 601 of the DMM.Mail going to naval vessels is known as the Fleet Post Office (FPO) and to Army or Air Force installations use the city abbreviation APO (Army Post Office or Air Force Post Office). Undeliverable mail that cannot be readily returned, including mail without a return address, is treated as dead mail at a Mail Recovery Center in Atlanta, Georgia or Saint Paul, Minnesota. The USPS maintains a list of proper abbreviations.The format of a return address is similar. Though some style manuals recommend using a comma between the city and state name when typesetting addresses in other contexts, for optimal automatic character recognition, the Post Office does not recommend this when addressing mail. The official recommendation is to use all upper case block letters with proper formats and abbreviations, and leave out all punctuation except for the hyphen in the ZIP+4 code. If the address is unusually formatted or illegible enough, it will require hand-processing, delaying that particular item. The USPS publishes the entirety of their postal addressing standards.Postal address verification tools and services are offered by the USPS and third-party companies to help ensure mail is deliverable by fixing formatting, appending information such as ZIP Code and validating the address is a valid delivery point. Customers can look up ZIP Codes and verify addresses using USPS Web Tools available on the official USPS website and Facebook page, as well as on third-party sites. Delivery Point Validation Delivery Point Validation (DPV) provides the highest level of address accuracy checking. In a DPV process, the address is checked against the AMS data file to ensure that it exists as an active delivery point. The USPS provides DPV on their website as part of the ZIP Code Lookup tool; there are also companies that offer services to perform DPV in bulk. Paying postage The actual postage can be paid via: Stamps purchased online at usps.com, at a post office, from a stamp vending machine or "Automated Postal Center" which can also handle packages, or from a third party (such as a grocery store) Pre-cancelled stamps for bulk mailings Postal meter Prepaid envelope Shipping label purchased online and printed by the customer on standard paper (e.g., with Click-N-Ship, or via a third-party such as PayPal or Amazon shipping)All unused U.S. postage stamps issued since 1861 are still valid as postage at their indicated value. Stamps with no value shown or denominated by a letter are also still valid, although the value depends upon the particular stamp. For some stamps issued without a printed value, the current value is the original value. But some stamps beginning in 1988 or earlier, including Forever Stamps (issued from April 2007) and all first-class, first-ounce stamps issued from January 21, 2011, the value is the current value of a first-class-mail first-ounce stamp. The USPS calls these Forever Stamps but the generic name is non-denominated postage. Forever stamps are sold at the First-Class Mail postage rate at the time of purchase, but will always be valid for First-Class Mail, up to 1 ounce (28 g), no matter how rates rise in the future. Britain has had a similar stamp since 1989. The cost of mailing a 1 oz (28 g) First-Class letter increased to 66¢ on July 9, 2023. Postage meters A postage meter is a mechanical device used to create and apply physical evidence of postage (or franking) to mailed matter. Postage meters are regulated by a country's postal authority; for example, in the United States, the United States Postal Service specifies the rules for the creation, support, and use of postage meters. A postage meter imprints an amount of postage, functioning as a postage stamp, a cancellation and a dated postmark all in one. The meter stamp serves as proof of payment and eliminates the need for adhesive stamps. PC Postage In addition to using standard stamps, postage can now be printed in the form of an electronic stamp, or e-stamp, from a personal computer using a system called Information Based Indicia. This online PC Postage method relies upon application software on the customer's computer contacting a postal security device at the office of the postal service. Other electronic postage payment methods Electronic Verification System (eVS) is the Postal Service's integrated mail management technology that centralizes payment processing and electronic postage reports. Part of an evolving suite of USPS electronic payment services called PostalOne!, eVS allows mailers shipping large volumes of parcels through the Postal Service a way to circumvent use of hard-copy manifests, postage statements and drop-shipment verification forms. Instead, mailers can pay postage automatically through a centralized account and track payments online. Beginning in August 2007, the Postal Service began requiring mailers shipping Parcel Select packages using a permit imprint to use eVS for manifesting their packages. Stamp copyright and reproduction All U.S. postage stamps issued under the former United States Post Office Department and other postage items that were released before 1978 are not subject to copyright, but stamp designs since 1978 are copyrighted. The United States Copyright Office in section 313.6(C)(1) of the Third Edition of the Compendium of U.S. Copyright Office Practices holds that "Works prepared by officers or employees of the U.S. Postal Service ... are not considered works of the U.S. Government" and are therefore eligible for registration. Thus, the USPS holds copyright to such materials released since 1978 under Title 17 of the United States Code. Written permission is required for use of copyrighted postage stamp images, although under USPS rules, permission is "generally" not required for "educational use", "news reporting" or "philatelic advertising use", but users must cite USPS as the source of the image and include language such as "United States Postal Service. All rights reserved." International services In May 2007, the USPS restructured international service names to correspond with domestic shipping options. Formerly, USPS International services were categorized as Airmail (Letter Post), Economy (Surface) Parcel Post, Airmail Parcel Post, Global Priority, Global Express, and Global Express Guaranteed Mail. The former Airmail (Letter Post) is now First-Class Mail International, and includes small packages weighing up to four pounds (1.8 kg). Economy Parcel Post was discontinued for international service, while Airmail Parcel Post was replaced by Priority Mail International. Priority Mail International Flat-Rate packaging in various sizes was introduced, with the same conditions of service previously used for Global Priority. Global Express is now Express Mail International, while Global Express Guaranteed is unchanged. The international mailing classes with a tracking ability are Express, Express Guaranteed, and Priority (except that tracking is not available for Priority Mail International Flat Rate Envelopes or Priority Mail International Small Flat Rate Boxes).One of the major changes in the new naming and services definitions is that USPS-supplied mailing boxes for Priority and Express mail are now allowed for international use. These services are offered to ship letters and packages to almost every country and territory on the globe. The USPS provides much of this service by contracting with a private parcel service, FedEx. The USPS provides an M-bag service for international shipment of printed matter; previously surface M-bags existed, but with the 2007 elimination of surface mail, only airmail M-bags remain. The term "M-bag" is not expanded in USPS publications; M-bags are simply defined as "direct sacks of printed matter ... sent to a single foreign addressee at a single address"; however, the term is sometimes referred to informally as "media bag", as the bag can also contain "discs, tapes, and cassettes", in addition to books, for which the usual umbrella term is "media"; some also refer to them as "mail bags". Military mail is billed at domestic rates when being sent from the United States to a military outpost, and is free when sent by deployed military personnel. The overseas logistics are handled by the Military Postal Service Agency in the Department of Defense. Outside of forward areas and active operations, military mail First-Class takes 7–10 days, Priority 10–15 days, and Parcel Post about 24 days.Three independent countries with a Compact of Free Association with the U.S. (Palau, the Marshall Islands, and the Federated States of Micronesia) have a special relationship with the United States Postal Service: Each associated state maintains its own government-run mail service for delivery to and pickup from retail customers. The associated states are integrated into the USPS addressing and ZIP code system. The USPS is responsible for transporting mail between the United States and the associated states, and between the individual states of the Federated States of Micronesia. The associated states synchronize postal services and rates with the USPS. The USPS treats mail to and from the associated states as domestic mail. Incoming mail does require customs declarations because, like some U.S. territories, the associated states are outside the main customs territory of the United States. The discontinuation of international surface mail In 2007, the US Postal Service discontinued its outbound international surface mail ("sea mail") service, mainly because of increased costs. Returned undeliverable surface parcels had become an expensive problem for the USPS, since it was often required to take such parcels back.Domestic surface mail (now "Retail Ground" or "Commercial Parcel Select") remains available. Alternatives to international surface mail include: International Surface Air Lift (ISAL). The service includes neither tracking nor insurance; but it may be possible to purchase shipping insurance from a third-party company. USPS Commercial ePacket. The service is trackable. Ordinary first-class international airmail.Senders can access the International Surface Air Lift and ePacket services through postal wholesalers. Some examples of such wholesalers include: Asendia USA (accessible through the Shippo website to users who have an Asendia account), Globegistics (now owned by Asendia), and APC Postal Logistics.If a sender sends an ISAL mailing directly through the USPS (without a wholesaler as an intermediary), the minimum weight is 50 pounds per mailing. Sorting and delivery process Processing of standard sized envelopes and cards is highly automated, including reading of handwritten addresses. Mail from individual customers and public USPS mailboxes is collected by letter carriers into plastic tubs, which are taken to one of approximately 251 Processing and Distribution Centers (P&DCs) across the United States. Each P&DC sorts mail for a given region (typically with a radius of around 200 miles (320 km)) and connects with the national network for interregional mail.Since the late 20th century, the USPS has been reducing point-to-point links in favor of a spoke-hub distribution paradigm, with sorting work tightly concentrated at the hubs. During the 2010s, the USPS consolidated mail sorting for large regions into the P&DCs on the basis that most mail is addressed to faraway destinations, but for cities at the edge of a P&DC's region, this means all locally addressed mail must now travel long distances (that is, to and from the P&DC for sorting) to reach nearby addresses.At the P&DC, mail is emptied into hampers which are then automatically dumped into a Dual Pass Rough Cull System (DPRCS). As mail travels through the DPRCS, large items, such as packages and mail bundles, are removed from the stream. As the remaining mail enters the first machine for processing standard mail, the Advanced Facer-Canceler System (AFCS), pieces that passed through the DPRCS but do not conform to physical dimensions for processing in the AFCS (e.g., large envelopes or overstuffed standard envelopes) are automatically diverted from the stream. Mail removed from the DPRCS and AFCS is manually processed or sent to parcel sorting machines. In contrast to the previous system, which merely canceled and postmarked the upper right corner of the envelope, thereby missing any stamps which were inappropriately placed, the AFCS locates indicia (stamp or metered postage mark) regardless of the orientation of the mailpiece as it enters the machine, and cancels it by applying a postmark. Detection of indicia enables the AFCS to determine the orientation of each mailpiece and sort it accordingly. The AFCS rotates and flips over mailpieces as needed, so all mail is sorted right-side up and faced in the same direction in each output bin. Mail is sorted by the AFCS into three categories: mail already affixed with a bar code and addressed (such as business reply envelopes and cards); mail with machine printed (typed) addresses; and mail with handwritten addresses. Mail with typed addresses goes to a Multiline Optical Character Reader (MLOCR) which reads the ZIP Code and address information and prints the appropriate bar code onto the envelope (formerly POSTNET, now Intelligent Mail). Mail with handwritten addresses and illegible typed addresses is diverted from the mailstream to the Remote Bar Coding System (RBCS). Images of such mailpieces are transmitted through RBCS to the Remote Encoding Center, where humans (data entry clerks) read each image and type in the most likely address. Each mailpiece held for RBCS processing is sprayed with an ID Tag, a fluorescent bar code. When address data comes back from the Remote Encoding Center, RBCS uses the ID Tag bar code to identify the corresponding mailpiece and prints the appropriate bar code, then returns the mailpiece to the mailstream. Processed mail is imaged by the Mail Isolation Control and Tracking (MICT) system to allow easier tracking of hazardous substances. Images are taken at more than 200 mail processing centers, and are destroyed after being retained for 30 days.If a customer has filed a change of address card and his or her mail is detected in the mailstream with the old address, the mailpiece is sent to a machine that automatically connects to a Computerized Forwarding System database to determine the new address. If this address is found, the machine will paste a label over the former address with the current address and the appropriate bar code. The mail is returned to the mailstream to be forwarded to the addressee's new location. Mail with addresses that cannot be read and bar coded by any of the foregoing automated systems is separated for human intervention. Local postal workers can read the address and manually codes and sorts mail according to the ZIP Code on the article. If the address still cannot be read, mail is either returned to the sender (First-Class Mail with a valid return address) or is sent to the Mail Recovery Center in Atlanta, Georgia (formerly known as the dead letter office). At this office, the mail is opened to try to find an address to forward to. If an address is found, the contents are resealed and delivered. Otherwise, the items are held for 90 days in case of inquiry by the customer; if they are not claimed, they are either destroyed or auctioned off at the monthly Postal Service Unclaimed Parcel auction to raise money for the service. Once the mail is bar coded, it is automatically sorted by a Delivery Bar Code Sorter (DBCS) that reads the bar code, identifies the destination of the mailpiece, and sends it to an appropriate tray that corresponds to the next segment of its journey. There are necessarily two P&DCs for every domestic mailpiece which correspond to the regions in which the sender and recipient are located. The USPS calls these, respectively, the origin and destination P&DCs. Mail for which they are the same (because the senders are located in the same region as the recipients) is either trucked to the appropriate local post office, or kept in the building for carrier routes served directly from the P&DC itself. Out-of-region mail is trucked to the closest airport and then flown, usually as baggage on commercial airlines, to the airport nearest the destination station. At the destination P&DC, mail is once again read by a DBCS which sorts items to local post offices; this includes grouping mailpieces by individual letter-carrier route. At the carrier route level, 95% of letters arrive pre-sorted; the remaining mail must be sorted by hand. In 2009, the Post Office was working to increase the percentage of automatically sorted mail, including a pilot program to sort "flats".FedEx provides air transport service to USPS for Priority and Express Mail. Priority Mail and Express Mail are transported from Priority Mail processing centers to the closest FedEx-served airport, where they are handed off to FedEx. FedEx then flies them to the destination airport and hands them back to USPS for transport to the local post office and delivery. After consolidating sorting work into the P&DCs, the USPS in August 2022 initiated a pilot program to consolidate delivery work into Sorting and Delivery Centers (S&DCs). As of 2022, the USPS was still running "delivery units" out of most of its post offices, meaning that most carrier routes are based at post offices and there are dozens of delivery units in each metropolitan area. The USPS plans to merge many delivery units in each metropolitan area into S&DCs, which implies many letter carriers will have to endure longer commutes to S&DCs and drive longer delivery routes, while many post offices will be reduced to retail stores with no back-end mail processing capability on site. However, the USPS hopes to save money on the trucking fleet moving mail between its facilities. A 2023 audit by the USPS inspector general found that the facilities selected to serve as the initial S&DCs were operating smoothly and functioning as expected, but criticized the USPS for consolidating workers into the S&DCs before they had been upgraded with adequate amenities like restrooms, break rooms, and locker rooms appropriately sized for such large numbers of employees. Types of postal facilities Although its retail postal facilities are called post offices in regular speech, the USPS recognizes several types of postal facilities, including the following: A main post office (formerly known as a general post office) is the primary postal facility in a community. A station or post office station is a postal facility that is not the main post office, but that is within the corporate limits of the community. A branch or post office branch is a postal facility that is not the main post office and that is outside the corporate limits of the community. A classified unit is a station or branch operated by USPS employees in a facility owned or leased by the USPS. A contract postal unit (or CPU) is a station or branch operated by a contractor, typically in a store or other place of business. A community post office (or CPO) is a contract postal unit providing services in a small community in which other types of post office facilities have been discontinued. An approved shipper is an independent shipping business licensed to use certain USPS branding and signage, but which does not receive any financial compensation from USPS and may opt to charge higher rates for postage. Approved Shippers may also accept packages for other carriers such as UPS or FedEx. A finance unit is a station or branch that provides window services and accepts mail, but does not provide delivery. A village post office (VPO) is an entity such as a local business or government center that provides postal services through a contract with the USPS. First introduced in 2011 as an integral part of the USPS plan to close low volume post offices, village post offices will fill the role of the post office within a ZIP Code. A processing and distribution center (P&DC, or processing and distribution facility, formerly known as a General Mail Facility) is a central mail facility that processes and dispatches incoming and outgoing mail to and from a designated service area (251 nationwide). A sectional center facility (SCF) is a P&DC for a designated geographical area defined by one or more three-digit ZIP Code prefixes. An international service center (ISC) is an international mail processing facility. There are only five such USPS facilities in the continental United States, located in Chicago, New York, Miami, Los Angeles and San Francisco. A network distribution center, formerly known as a bulk mail center (BMC), is a central mail facility that processes bulk rate parcels as the hub in a hub and spoke network. An auxiliary sorting facility (ASF) is a central mail facility that processes bulk rate parcels as spokes in a hub and spoke network. A remote encoding center (REC) is a facility at which clerks receive images of problem mail pieces (those with hard-to-read addresses, etc.) via secure Internet-type feeds and manually type the addresses they can decipher, using a special encoding protocol. The mail pieces are then sprayed with the correct addresses or are sorted for further handling according to the instructions given via encoding. The total number of RECs is down from 55 in 1998 to just 1 center in December 2016. The last REC is in Salt Lake City, Utah.While common usage refers to all types of postal facilities as "substations", the USPS Glossary of Postal Terms does not define or even list that word. Post Offices often share facilities with other governmental organizations located within a city's central business district. In those locations, often Courthouses and Federal Buildings, the building is owned by the General Services Administration while the U.S. Postal Services operates as a tenant. The USPS retail system has approximately 36,000 post offices, stations, and branches. Automated Postal Centers In the year 2004, the USPS began deploying Automated Postal Centers (APCs). APCs are unattended kiosks that are capable of weighing, franking, and storing packages for later pickup as well as selling domestic and international postage stamps. Since its introduction, APCs do not take cash payments – they only accept credit or debit cards. Similarly, traditional vending machines are available at many post offices to purchase stamps, though these are being phased out in many areas. Due to increasing use of Internet services, as of June 2009, no retail post office windows are open 24 hours; overnight services are limited to those provided by an Automated Postal Center. Evolutionary Network Development (END) program In February 2006, the USPS announced that they plan to replace the nine existing facility-types with five processing facility-types: Regional Distribution Centers (RDCs), which will process all classes of parcels and bundles and serve as Surface Transfer Centers; Local Processing Centers (LPCs), which will process single-piece letters and flats and cancel mail; Destination Processing Centers (DPC), sort the mail for individual letter-carrier route; Airport Transfer Centers (ATCs), which will serve as transfer points only; and Remote Encoding Centers (RECs).Over a period of years, these facilities are expected to replace Processing & Distribution Centers, Customer Service Facilities, Bulk Mail Centers, Logistic and Distribution Centers, annexes, the Hub and Spoke Program, Air Mail Centers, and International Service Centers. The changes are a result of the declining volumes of single-piece First-Class Mail, population shifts, the increase in drop shipments by advertising mailers at destinating postal facilities, advancements in equipment and technology, redundancies in the existing network, and the need for operational flexibility. The program was ended in early 2007 after an analysis revealed that the significant amount of capital investment required to implement the END network concept would not generate the benefits originally anticipated. Airline and rail division The United States Postal Service does not directly own or operate any aircraft or trains, although both were formerly operated. The mail and packages are flown on airlines with which the Postal Service has a contractual agreement. The contracts change periodically. Contract airlines have included: UPS, FedEx Express, American Airlines, United Airlines. The last air delivery route in the continental U.S., to residents in the Frank Church–River of No Return Wilderness, was scheduled to be ended in June 2009. The weekly bush plane route, contracted out to an air taxi company, had in its final year an annual cost of $46,000, or $2400/year per residence, over ten times the average cost of delivering mail to a residence in the United States. This decision has been reversed by the U.S. postmaster general. Parcel forwarding and private interchange Private US parcel forwarding or US mail forwarding companies focusing on personal shopper, relocation, Ex-pat and mail box services often interface with the United States Postal Service for transporting of mail and packages for their customers. Delivery timing Delivery days From 1810, mail was delivered seven days a week. In 1828, local religious leaders noticed a decline in Sunday-morning church attendance because of local post offices' doubling as gathering places. These leaders appealed to the government to intervene and close post offices on Sundays. The government, however, declined, and mail was delivered seven days a week until 1912.Today, U.S. Mail (with the exception of Express Mail) is not delivered on Sunday. Saturday delivery was temporarily suspended in April 1957, because of lack of funds, but quickly restored.Budget problems prompted consideration of dropping Saturday delivery starting around 2009. This culminated in a 2013 announcement that regular mail services would be cut to five days a week, which was reversed by Congress before it could take effect. (See the section Revenue decline and planned cuts.) Direct delivery vs. customer pickup Originally, mail was not delivered to homes and businesses, but to post offices. In 1863, "city delivery" began in urban areas with enough customers to make this economical. This required streets to be named, houses to be numbered, with sidewalks and lighting provided, and these street addresses to be added to envelopes. The number of routes served expanded over time. In 1891, the first experiments with Rural Free Delivery began in less densely populated areas. To compensate for high mail volume and slow long-distance transportation which saw mail arrive at post offices throughout the day, deliveries were made multiple times a day. This ranged from twice for residential areas to up to seven times for the central business district of Brooklyn, New York. In the late 19th century, mail boxes were encouraged, saving carriers the time it took to deliver directly to the addressee in person; in the 1910s and 1920s, they were phased in as a requirement for service. In the 1940s, multiple daily deliveries began to be reduced, especially on Saturdays. By 1990, the last twice-daily deliveries in New York City were eliminated. Today, mail is delivered once a day on-site to most private homes and businesses. The USPS still distinguishes between city delivery (where carriers generally walk and deliver to mailboxes hung on exterior walls or porches, or to commercial reception areas) and rural delivery (where carriers generally drive). With "curbside delivery", mailboxes are at the ends of driveways, on the nearest convenient road. "Central point delivery" is used in some locations, where several nearby residences share a "cluster" of individual mailboxes in a single housing. Some customers choose to use post office boxes for an additional fee, for privacy or convenience. This provides a locked box at the post office to which mail is addressed and delivered (usually earlier in the day than home delivery). Customers in less densely populated areas where there is no city delivery and who do not qualify for rural delivery may receive mail only through post office boxes. High-volume business customers can also arrange for special pick-up.Another option is the old-style general delivery, for people who have neither post office boxes nor street addresses. Mail is held at the post office until they present identification and pick it up. Some customers receive free post office boxes if the USPS declines to provide door-to-door delivery to their location or a nearby box. People with medical problems can request door-to-door delivery. Homeless people are also eligible for post office boxes at the discretion of the local postmaster, or can use general delivery. Special delivery From 1885 to 1997, a service called special delivery was available, which caused a separate delivery to the final location earlier in the day than the usual daily rounds. Same-day trials In December 2012, the USPS began a limited one-year trial of same-day deliveries directly from retailers or distribution hubs to residential addresses in the same local area, a service it dubbed "Metro Post". The trial was initially limited to San Francisco and the only retailer to participate in the first few weeks was 1-800-FLOWERS.In March 2013, the USPS faced new same-day competition for e-commerce deliveries from Google Shopping Express. In November 2013, the Postal Service began regular package delivery on Sundays for Amazon customers in New York and Los Angeles, which it expanded to 15 cities in May 2014. Amazon Sunday delivery has now been expanded to most major markets as of September 2015. Other competition in this area includes online grocers such as AmazonFresh, Webvan, and delivery services operated by grocery stores like Peapod and Safeway. Forwarding and holds Residential customers can fill out a form to forward mail to a new address, and can also send pre-printed forms to any of their frequent correspondents. They can also put their mail on "hold", for example, while on vacation. The Post Office will store mail during the hold, instead of letting it overflow in the mailbox. These services are not available to large buildings and customers of a commercial mail receiving agency, where mail is subsorted by non-Post Office employees into individual mailboxes. First-class packages In April 2022, the USPS announced it would slow deliveries of almost one third of first-class packages as it sought to rely less on air transportation and find cost savings. Financial services Postal money orders provide a safe alternative to sending cash through the mail, and are available in any amount up to $1,000. Like a bank check, money orders are cashable only by the recipient. Unlike a personal bank check, they are prepaid and therefore cannot be returned because of insufficient funds. Money orders are a declining business for the USPS, as companies like PayPal, Venmo and others are offering electronic replacements. From 1911 to 1967, the Postal Service also operated the United States Postal Savings System, not unlike a savings and loan association with the amount of the deposit limited.A January 2014 report by the inspector general of the USPS suggested that the agency could earn $8.9 billion per year in revenue by providing financial services, especially in areas where there are no local banks but there is a local post office, and to customers who currently do not have bank accounts. Employment The Postal Service is the nation's second-largest civilian employer. As of 2020, it employed 495,941 career employees and 148,092 non-career personnel, divided among offices, processing centers, and actual post offices. The United States Postal Service would rank 44th on the 2019 Fortune 500 list, if considered a private company and ranks 136 on Global Fortune 500 list.Labor unions representing USPS employees include: The American Postal Workers Union (APWU), which represents postal clerks and maintenance, motor vehicle, mail equipment shops, material distribution centers, and operating services and facilities services employees, postal nurses, and IT and accounting; the National Association of Letter Carriers (NALC), which represents city letter carriers; the National Rural Letter Carriers' Association (NRLCA), which represents rural letter carriers; and the National Postal Mail Handlers Union (NPMHU). USPS employees are divided into major crafts according to the work they engage in: Letter carriers, also referred to as mailmen or mail carriers, prepare and deliver mail and parcels. They are divided into two categories: City Letter Carriers, who are represented by the NALC, and Rural Letter Carriers, who are represented by the NRLCA. City Carriers are paid hourly with automatic overtime paid after 8 hours or 40 hours a week of duty. City Carriers are required to work in any kind of weather, daylight or dark and carry three bundles of mail (letters in one hand with magazines and other larger mail pieces) on the forearm carrying the mail. Advertisement mail, Every door direct (EDD) and smaller parcels all go in the carriers satchel). Larger parcels, up to a total of 70 lbs. may be delivered at various times of the day or with the mail. Mail routes are outfitted with a number of scanpoints (mailbox barcodes) on random streets every 30 to 40 minutes apart to keep track of the carriers whereabouts in real-time. Rural carriers are under a form of salary called "evaluated hours", usually with overtime built into their pay. The evaluated hours are created by having all mail counted for a period of two or four weeks, and a formula used to create the set dollar amount they will be paid for each day worked until the next time the route is counted. Mail handlers and processors, prepare, separate, load and unload mail and parcels, by delivery ZIP code and station, for the clerks. They work almost exclusively at the plants or larger mail facilities now after having their duties excessed and reassigned to clerks in Post Offices and Station branches. Clerks, have a dual function by design of where their assignment is. Window clerks directly handle customer service needs at the counter, sort box mail and sort first-class letters, standard and bulk-rate mail for the carriers on the work floor. Clerks may also work alongside mail handlers in large sorting facilities, outside of the public view, sorting mail. Data Conversion Operators, who encode address information at Remote Encoding Centers, are also members of the clerk craft. Mail handlers and Clerks are represented by the NPMHU and the APWU, respectively.Other non-managerial positions in the USPS include: Maintenance and custodians, who see to the overall operation and cleaning of mail sorting machines, work areas, public parking and general facility operations. City Carrier Assistants. (CCAs) With the Das Arbitration award the designation of PTF City Carrier has been abolished. TE City Carriers will have the opportunity to become CCAs. A CCA is a non-career employee who is hired for a 360-day term, similar to what TEs had. CCAs earn annual leave. CCAs, unlike TEs do have a direct path to becoming career employees. When excess City Carrier positions exist the CCA in that work installation with the highest "relative standing" will be promoted to a career employee and be assigned to the vacant position. Career, Part Time Flexible and Transitional employees (Career, PTF & TE) There are a variety of other non-managerial positions in such crafts as accounting, information technology, and the remote encoding center. These are under a different contract than plant workers or letter carriers. Contractors are not USPS employees, but work for the USPS under a written contract and usually paid per mile. They do not get benefits including health insurance, leave, life insurance, and pension. They must use their own vehicle and pay any cost to maintain, insure, or replace. Contractors generally make less than employees. Just like regular carriers they deliver packages and letters to mailboxes and doors.Though the USPS employs many individuals, as more Americans send information via email, fewer postal workers are needed to work dwindling amounts of mail. Post offices and mail facilities are constantly downsizing, replacing craft positions with new machines and consolidating mail routes through the MIARAP (Modified Interim Alternate Route Adjustment Process) agreement. A major round of job cuts, early retirements, and a construction freeze were announced on March 20, 2009. Workplace violence In the early 1990s, widely publicized workplace shootings by disgruntled employees at USPS facilities led to a Human Resource effort to provide care for stressed workers and resources for coworker conflicts. Due to media coverage, postal employees gained a reputation among the general public as more likely to be mentally ill. The USPS Commission on a Safe and Secure Workplace found that "Postal workers are only a third as likely as those in the national workforce to be victims of homicide at work." In the documentary Murder by Proxy: How America Went Postal, it was argued that this number failed to factor out workers killed by external subjects rather than by fellow employees. This series of events in turn has influenced American culture, as seen in the slang term "going postal" and the computer game Postal. Also, in the opening sequence of Naked Gun 33+1⁄3: The Final Insult, a yell of "Disgruntled postal workers" is heard, followed by the arrival of postal workers with machine guns. In an episode of Seinfeld, the mailman character, Newman, explained in a dramatic monologue that postal workers "go crazy and kill everyone" because the mail never stops. In The Simpsons episode "Sunday, Cruddy Sunday", Nelson Muntz asks Postmaster Bill if he has "ever gone on a killing spree"; Bill replies, "The day of the gun-toting, disgruntled postman shooting up the place went out with the Macarena".The series of massacres led the USPS to issue a rule prohibiting the possession of any type of firearms (except for those issued to Postal Inspectors) in all designated USPS facilities. In fiction In the film Miracle on 34th Street (1947), the identity of Kris Kringle (played by Edmund Gwenn) as the one and only "Santa Claus" was validated by a state court, based on the delivery of 21 bags of mail (famously carried into the courtroom) to the character in question. The contention was that it would have been illegal for the United States Post Office to deliver mail that was addressed to "Santa Claus" to the character "Kris Kringle" unless he were, in fact, the one and only Santa Claus. Judge Henry X. Harper (played by Gene Lockhart) ruled that since the U.S. Government had demonstrated through the delivery of the bags of mail that Kris Kringle was Santa Claus, the State of New York did not have the authority to overrule that decision. The novel Post Office (1971), written by poet and novelist Charles Bukowski, is a semi-autobiographical account of his life over the years as a letter carrier. Bukowski would, under duress, quit and years later return as a mail clerk. His personal account would detail the work at lengths as frustrating, menial, boring, and degrading. David Brin's novel The Postman (1985) portrays the USPS and its returned services as a staple to revive the United States government in a post-apocalyptic world. It was adapted as a film starring Kevin Costner and Larenz Tate in 1997. The comedy film Dear God (1996), starring Greg Kinnear and Laurie Metcalf, portrays a group of quirky postal workers in a dead letter office that handle letters addressed to the Easter Bunny, Elvis, and even God himself. In 2015, The Inspectors, which depicts a group of postal inspectors investigating postal crimes, debuted on CBS. The series uses the USPIS seal and features messages and tips from the Chief Postal Inspector at the end of each episode. Signed, Sealed, Delivered (original title: Dead Letters), also known as Lost Letter Mysteries, is an American-Canadian drama/romantic comedy television series that aired on the Hallmark Channel from April 20 through June 22, 2014. In the NBC sitcom Cheers, Cliff Clavin (played by John Ratzenberger) was a know-it-all bar regular and letter carrier. In the NBC sitcom Seinfeld, Newman (played by Wayne Knight) was an apartment neighbor and foil to Jerry Seinfeld and a letter carrier. See also Postage stamps and postal history of the United States Postal Union of the Americas, Spain and Portugal References Further reading Adelman, Joseph M. "'A Constitutional Conveyance of Intelligence, Public and Private': The Post Office, the Business of Printing, and the American Revolution", Enterprise & Society (2010) 11#4 pp 709–52. in Project MUSE Aneja, Abhay, and Guo Xu. Strengthening state capacity: Postal reform and innovation during the Gilded Age (No. w29852. National Bureau of Economic Research, 2022), uses advanced statistics. online Bergmann, William H. "Delivering a Nation through the Mail: The Post Office in the Ohio Valley, 1789–1815." Ohio Valley History 8.3 (2008): 1–18. [online] Carpenter, D. "State Building through Reputation Building: Coalitions of Esteem and Program Innovation in the National Postal System, 1883–1913". Studies in American Political Development, (2000) 14#2, 121–155. doi:10.1017/S0898588X00003382| DeBlois, Diane, Robert Dalton Harris, and West Sand Lake. "Newspapers in the Mails: Strategic Unification under the Franklin/Hunter Dual Postmaster Generalship." Postal History Symposium (2016) it started in 1758. online Devin, Leonard. Neither Snow Nor Rain: A History of the United States Postal Service (Grove Atlantic, 2016) popular history excerpt Foley, Michael S. "A mission unfulfilled: the post office and the distribution of information in rural New England, 1821–1835." Journal of the Early Republic 17.4 (1997): 611–650. online Fuller, Wayne. American Mail: Enlarger of the Common Life (1972) [1] Fuller, Wayne E. Morality and the mail in nineteenth-century America (University of Illinois Press, 2003) online. Fuller, Wayne E. RFD, the changing face of rural America (1964) online Fuller, Wayne E. "Good roads and rural free delivery of mail." Mississippi Valley Historical Review 42.1 (1955): 67–83. online Fuller, Wayne E. "The south and the rural free delivery of mail." Journal of Southern History 25.4 (1959): 499–521. online Fuller, Wayne E. "The populists and the post office." Agricultural history 65.1 (1991): 1–16. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3743678online] Gallagher, Winifred. How the Post Office Created America (New York: Penguin, 2017). 326 pp Hafen, LeRoy R. The Overland Mail, 1849–1869: Promoter of Settlement, Precursor of Railroads (1926) online reprint Henkin, David M. The Postal Age: The Emergence of Modern Communications in Nineteenth-Century America (2007) excerpt and text search Hoyos, Roman J. "The People's Privilege: The Franking Privilege, Constituent Correspondence, and Political Representation in Mid-Nineteenth Century America." Law and History Review 31.1 (2013): 101–138. John, Richard R. Spreading the News: The American Postal System From Franklin to Morse (1998) excerpt and text search Kielbowicz, R. (1994). Government Goes into Business: Parcel Post in the Nation's Political Economy, 1880–1915. Studies in American Political Development, 8(1), 150–172. Kielbowicz, Richard. "The Press, Post Office, and Flow of News in the Early Republic", Journal of the Early Republic (1983) 3: 255–80. Kielbowicz, Richard. News in the Mail: The Press, Post Office, and Public Information, 1700–1860s (1989) excerpt and text search Kernell, Samuel, and Michael P. McDonald. "Congress and America's political development: The transformation of the post office from patronage to service." American Journal of Political Science (1999): 792–811. online, focus on Rural Free Delivery issue in 1890s. Leonard, Devin (2016). Neither Snow nor Rain: A History of the United States Postal Service. Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-2458-6. McCaleb, Walter Flavius (1906). "The Organization of the Post-Office Department of the Confederacy". The American Historical Review. 12 (1): 66–74. doi:10.2307/1832885. JSTOR 1832885. Musacco Ph.D., Stephen. "Beyond Going Postal: Shifting from Workplace Tragedies and Toxic Work Environments to a Safe and Healthy Organization", (2009) Booksurge Publishing, Book Trailer Priest, George L. "The history of the postal monopoly in the United States." The Journal of Law and Economics 18.1 (1975): 33–80. online Rich, Wesley Everett. The History of the United States Post Office to the Year 1829 (Harvard University Press, 1924) online Rubio, Philip F. Undelivered: From the great postal strike of 1970 to the manufactured crisis of the US postal service (UNC Press Books, 2020) online. Rubio, Philip F. "Unintended Consequences: the US Postal Service Conundrum of Service, Business, Labor, and Politics." Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal 33 (2021): 125–141. On the postal crisis of 2020 online Scheele, Carl H. A Short History of the Mail Service (Smithsonian Institution Press, 1970), with long bibliography online Shaw, Christopher W. First Class: The US Postal Service, Democracy, and the Corporate Threat (City Lights Books, 2021) online. Smith, William (1916). "The Colonial Post-Office". The American Historical Review. 21 (2): 258–75. doi:10.2307/1835049. JSTOR 1835049. The United States Postal Service: An American History (PDF). Washington, D.C.: United States Postal Service. 2022. ISBN 978-0-9630952-5-1. Retrieved November 19, 2022. Publication 100 White, Leonard D. The Federalists: A study in administrative history: 1789–1801 (1948), pp 173–98 online White, Leonard D. The Jeffersonians: A study in administrative history: 1801–29 (1950), pp 299–335 online White, Leonard D. The Jacksonians: A study in administrative history: 1829–61 (1954), pp 251–83 online White, Leonard D. The Republican Era: A study in administrative history: 1869–1901 (1963), pp 257–77 online External links Official website United States Postal Service in the Federal Register

Reginald Pelham Bolton

Reginald Pelham Bolton (1856–1942) was an Anglo-American engineer, archaeologist and historian who conducted many digs in northern Manhattan during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He and his fellow "Relic Hunters" uncovered thousands of artifacts. Bolton donated photographs and artifacts from his digs to the Dyckman Farmhouse Museum.Bolton was born in London, England, to Rev. James Jay Bolton, and worked in England before coming to America. In 1878 he married Katherine (Kate) Alice Behenna (daughter of Captain James Behenna R.A.), and they were the parents of Ivy May and Guy Bolton, both of whom became writers.

Reginald Pelham Bolton (1856–1942) was an Anglo-American engineer, archaeologist and historian who conducted many digs in northern Manhattan during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He and his fellow "Relic Hunters" uncovered thousands of artifacts. Bolton donated photographs and artifacts from his digs to the Dyckman Farmhouse Museum.Bolton was born in London, England, to Rev. James Jay Bolton, and worked in England before coming to America. In 1878 he married Katherine (Kate) Alice Behenna (daughter of Captain James Behenna R.A.), and they were the parents of Ivy May and Guy Bolton, both of whom became writers. In 1892 he married Ethelind Huyck.He was the vice president of the American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society and the City History Club of New York City, and president and chairman of the board of the Electric Motor Corporation. As the chairman of a committee of the Washington Heights Taxpayer's Association, he led an unsuccessful campaign to prevent the demolition of the home of John James Audubon but was able to prevent the demolition of both Poe Cottage and the Dyckman House. He also donated collections to the Jumel Mansion and the American Museum of Natural History.Bolton was the author of over twenty books. References External links Works by or about Reginald Pelham Bolton at Internet Archive

Kretschmarr Cave mold beetle

The Kretschmarr Cave mold beetle (Texamaurops reddelli) is a small mold beetle.

The Kretschmarr Cave mold beetle (Texamaurops reddelli) is a small mold beetle. Biology It is less than 1⁄8 inch long and their body color can range from a dark purple to a light reddish-brown color and is sparsely and weakly dotted with small pits. They have short wings and long legs. The beetle lives under rocks and logs, in sinkholes, rotting wood, termite nest, and caves, although it is now only known to still exist in three caves in the Edwards Plateau, Travis County, Texas. Not all caves in the region have been surveyed, so this may be an underestimate. It lives in total darkness so there is no use for eyes and uses elaborate appendages and beefed up nerve centers to interpret slight air-pressure or temperature changes, sounds, and smells. This sensory equipment helps the beetle travel, sense objects, and ambush prey. There is no distinct reproduction pattern for the beetle and may reproduce at any time of the year if conditions are steady in the cave. Little is known about daily life of the mold beetle because of their secretive habitats. When going to observe them they are rarely found and when they are found it is usually only one to two specimens. They are so secretive that finding an individual is a rare event. It is also very hard to distinguish Texamaurops reddelli from other beetles in the Pselaphinae subfamily. Only upon microscopic study can the beetle be distinguished by its ocular knobs on its head. This makes it hard to identify the beetles in the field. Other endangered karst invertebrates (troglobites) There are several other karst invertebrates that are also endangered in Travis County and neighboring Williamson County. They include Texella reddelli (Bee Creek cave harvestman), Texella reyesi (Bone Cave harvestman), Tartarocreagris texana (Tooth Cave pseudoscorpion), Neoleptoneta myopica (Tooth Cave spider), Rhadine persephone (Tooth Cave ground beetle), Batrisodes texanus (Coffin Cave mold beetle). All of these karst invertebrates are considered troglobites, which are characterized by living their entire lives underground, have small or absent eyes, elongated appendages, and other adaptations to their subterranean environment. A widely accepted theory for the evolution of troglobites is that during a series of climatic changes in the Pleistocene epoch, certain creatures wandered into the caves for a more stable environment and over time evolved into the invertebrates they are today. Troglobites prefer to inhabit the dark zone of the cave where the humidity and temperature are relatively constant. High temperatures nearly 100% humidity is required for most troglobites. There are some 7,700 species of troglobites, but this is probably only a small portion of the population because most of them have not been discovered. Even though they spend their entire life under ground in total darkness they depend very much on the world above. Rootlets from the trees above crawl down into the caves providing bug food. The bugs that feed on these rootlets are the troglobites prey. Moisture and heat from above and the natural springs within the caves provide the humidity that is needed to support their life. Because all of these invertebrates share similar habitats, they face many of the same threats as the Kretschmarr Cave mold beetle that has led to their endangerment. Threats The Kretschmarr Cave mold beetle was first listed on the endangered species list on September 16, 1988. Threats to the beetle include loss of habitat due to urban development, invasive species, and mining. Urban development is the number one threat to the beetle and affects their karst environment in many different ways. For instance, urban development may lead to the filling in or collapse of caves, alteration of drainage patterns, alteration of surface plant and animal communities, as well as contamination and human visitation. Many caves are filled in or collapsed during road and building construction. A solid foundation is required for construction to take place so if there is a cave in the way it will be collapsed and filled for a sturdy foundation. Road development destroys a majority of the karst habitats where the beetles live. It is estimated that 10% of all caves in Travis County are destroyed every ten years. Some ranchers even lead to the problem. Many of them fill the entrances to the caves so their livestock do not roam into the caves. This blocks the air movement in the cave changing the conditions in the cave. If conditions are not just right the beetle will die. Large paved areas and drainage systems that are put in during urban development alter the natural drainage patterns causing major problems to karst environments. This environment depends on air filled gaps and infiltration from water above, diverting water away from a cave can dry it up killing all the species inside. If water is diverted into a cave it can flood and alter living conditions. Altering surface plant and animal communities affects karst environments as well. When these communities are removed for development many of the nutrients that originally entered the cave are now lost. Without nutrients the beetle and other karst invertebrates can not survive. If a substantial amount of vegetation is removed, infiltration will increase changing their delicate habitat. The caves also face the threat of contamination when developing close to their habitat. Karst is very susceptible to groundwater contamination so when sewer and drainage systems are put in contaminated water can enter the caves. Many of the caves in Travis County are used for disposal of refuse and have probable killed most organisms within the cave. Farming as well leads to the contamination of habitat. Fertilizers, pesticides, and other agricultural waste can infiltrate through the ground contaminating the groundwater that enters the cave. The final way urban development has increased the loss of habitat is by increased human visitation. When humans build close to a species habitat it likely that visitation to the cave will increase. Some species are scared off by this new visitation. If one species leaves it often affects the whole chain of that ecosystem. Some caves are vandalized so much so that it changes the environment in which the beetle lives. The introduction of invasive species, mainly the red fire ant, has been known to disrupt the beetle's environment. Shallow caves in which the beetle live are relatively easy to enter and make them vulnerable to invasion of fire ants and other exotic species. Fire ant colonies occur in two different forms: single-queen colonies and multiple-queen colonies. It is the multiple-queen colonies that pose a threat because they occur in very dense concentrations of about 750–5000 mounds per acre. They can enter through the cave entrance or crawl through small holes or cracks and attack the karst species where humans cannot observe. Slow moving adults, nymphs, and eggs are most vulnerable to fire ant predation. More than 50% of the caves observed had fire ants present. This is a large sign that the fire ant has taken over or will eventually take over the habitat. Even if the fire ant does not prey on the beetle it is likely to change the links that are critical in the food chain. Mining and quarrying pose a threat to all species, cave dwellers and land dwellers that live in or around the karst habitat. Karst offers a good amount of limestone and there are several limestone quarries in the area. They blast the limestone first then haul it off with heavy machinery. The roads that are built to mine the limestone can break up habitat for miles. All of this destroys caves and surrounding land where the Kretschmarr Cave mold beetle and other karst fauna live. Conservation and recovery plan Due to all of these threats a recovery plan was issued for endangered karst invertebrates. The plan was not issued until 1994, six years after it was listed endangered. Increased education on the distribution of the invertebrates and the threats that led to its endangerment took place during the six years before the plan was issued. Surveys were taken to help define the taxonomy and distribution of all karst fauna. One of these studies was conducted be the Texas department of transportation that studied the karst environment along highway 45 in Texas. Two surveyors (Elliott and Reddell) from the U.S. Fisheries and Wildlife Department took extensive surveys that helped better define the distribution and habitat of karst invertebrates. Also numerous fire ant control studies took place. The USFWD funded a study that included three types of treatments. The first included using nearly boiling water to pour in their mounds. The others included the chemicals Logic and Amdro. These chemicals are poisonous to arthropods and may end up killing the endangered species that is trying to be saved. Initially the treatments were affective, but areas were quickly re-infested. With a better knowledge of the beetles distribution and habitat a recovery plan was formed. The first plan of action was to identify the areas targeted for recovery. It was decided that if any of the four of the karst invertebrates (Neoleptoneta myopica, Tartarocreagris texana, Texamaurops reddelli, or Batrisodes texanus) inhabited a cave it needed to be deemed a long term protection plan. If a habitat is to be recovered areas that contain high diversity and contain other rare fauna should be chosen. The additional listing of species should be taken into thought when choosing recovery areas. Areas of land selected for recovery should be spread out as far as possible to protect from a major catastrophic event does not take out the entire population. Other factors to consider when selecting recovery sites include areas that ensure long term protection, stable environment, and past and present land use. The second part of the recovery plan was to decide the size of area needed to save them. Areas of large continuous karst landscape must be implicated to ensure the survival of the invertebrates. Groundwater movements, topography, and drainage pattern were taken into place when selecting areas for recovery. All of these things must be perfect for a successful recovery. Also the type of use for surrounding land must be considered. If the area is to close to development, many factors can threaten its recovery including the threats listed above. The final step of the plan included land acquisition, conservation easements, and cooperative agreements with landowners. This final is very important. Without the land needed to save the invertebrates the recovery can not take place and the endangered species will become extinct. References Beatley, Timothy. 1994. Habitat Conservation Planning: Endangered Species and Urban growth. Page 176. University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas Campbell, Linda. 1996. Endangered and Threatened Animals of Texas: Their Life History and Management. Page 120. University of Texas Press, Austin, Texas Elliott, William, Lisa O’Donnell, and Ruth Stanford. 1994. Recovery Plan for Endangered Karst Invertebrates, in Travis County, Texas. Texas Endangered Invertebrate Species. Albuquerque, New Mexico. Retrieved from www.texasento.net.recovery.htm (accessed April 2008) Keller, Edward. 2008. Introduction t Environmental Geology. 4th Edition. Pages 395–96. Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey National Geographic. 2007. discoveries in the Dark. NGM. Tampa, Florida. Retrieved from ngm.nationalgeographic.com (accessed April 2008) Texas Commission on Environmental Quality.2007. State Edwards Aquifer Program and Federal Endangered Species Program Offer Streamlined Review Process. TCEQ. Austin, Texas. Retrieved from www.tceq.state.tx.us/ (accessed April 2008) Texas Parks and Wildlife. 2007. Kretschmar Cave Mold Beetle. Texas Parks and Wildlife. Austin, Texas. Retrieved from www.tpwd.state.tx.us/ (accessed April 2008)

Suicide of Eden Knight

Eden Knight (c. 2000 – March 12, 2023) was a Saudi Arabian trans woman living in the United States who died by suicide on or around March 12, 2023. According to her suicide note, which she posted on Twitter, Knight had been coerced into returning to her family in Saudi Arabia, who forced her to detransition.

Eden Knight (c. 2000 – March 12, 2023) was a Saudi Arabian trans woman living in the United States who died by suicide on or around March 12, 2023. According to her suicide note, which she posted on Twitter, Knight had been coerced into returning to her family in Saudi Arabia, who forced her to detransition. Background Eden Knight was born in Saudi Arabia. Her father, Fahad Al-Shathri, is a Saudi financier who worked at the International Monetary Fund for five years and has most recently been Deputy Governor for Supervision at Saudi Central Bank.Knight attended high school in the Washington metropolitan area as well as an international school in Riyadh, and subsequently enrolled at George Mason University to study computer science. After moving to the United States for university, and during the COVID-19 pandemic, Knight came out as transgender and became involved online with members of the trans community. She was described by friends as intelligent, well-read, and hoping to become an advocate for trans people, particularly in Saudi Arabia, whose government does not recognize LGBT rights. She was a fan of the Swedish rapper Bladee.In February 2022, Knight lost her student housing at George Mason University. Her international scholarship reportedly ran out before she could graduate, resulting in the expiration of her visa; she intended to claim political asylum in the United States. Knight went to live in Georgia with an American couple who hoped that she would be able to live with them after being granted asylum. She grew close to them and got along well with their son; the family got her a bracelet with the word "aunt" on it as a gift. The same year, Knight began feminizing hormone therapy. Forced detransition and return to Saudi Arabia In August 2022, Knight was contacted by two American fixers. These individuals, identified as Michael Pocalyko and Ellen Cole, promised that they would be able to help her fix her relationship with her parents and also assist with her immigration status. Some of Knight's friends grew suspicious when Pocalyko, in a phone call that they overheard, complimented risqué photographs of her that he had found online. Pocalyko also reportedly prevented Knight's friends from being involved in their plans, demanding to only communicate with Knight herself.In October 2022, the fixers persuaded Knight to travel to Washington, D.C. where she hoped to get her asylum granted. She was met at the train station by Pocalyko, Cole, and a Saudi attorney named Bader, who took her to a hotel. Once there, Bader was initially hospitable but over the course of days became more coercive, showing her pictures of "feminine men" and attempting to intimidate her into detransitioning. Knight feared if she did not comply, her undocumented immigration status would be used against her. After being forced to adopt a more masculine appearance and being confronted with her parents, she was flown back to Saudi Arabia in December.While in Saudi Arabia, Knight's family confiscated her passport and money to keep her from fleeing. She attempted to secretly continue hormone therapy but her parents routinely searched her belongings and found her hormones multiple times. After one such confrontation, her parents admitted to hiring Pocalyko, Cole, and Bader to get her back to Saudi Arabia from the United States. Death On March 12, 2023, Eden Knight posted a suicide note to Twitter describing her parents' actions over the previous year. Her tweet had received 31 million views as of March 17. Knight's death was confirmed the following day in tweets from her family stating "Go to the mercy of God Almighty, young man" and repeatedly deadnaming her. Reactions Members of the trans community online and personal friends of Eden Knight compiled a Google Doc commemorating her life and outlining the allegations against those involved in her death. The Twitter account affiliated with her family went private after a flood of replies noting, "Her name was Eden." The hashtag #JusticeForEden was used on Twitter to pay tribute to her and call for action in the aftermath of her suicide.Trans writer Jaclyn Moore linked Knight's death to recent incidents of violence against transgender people, specifically the killings of Cashay Henderson and Brianna Ghey. Eli Erlick publicly criticized Michael Pocalyko's involvement in the case. U.S. Representative Cori Bush quoted Knight's message and noted "may she rest in power" in a post on Twitter. Wajeeh Lion, a queer Saudi activist who was granted asylum in the United States in 2018, stated that Knight's death was part of a larger trend in Saudi repression of the LGBTQ+ community and noted that Wajeeh's own parents had attempted similar tactics as Knight's parents had allegedly done. L'Orient-Le Jour compared Knight's situation with that of Sarah Hegazi, an LGBTQ+ activist from Egypt who died by suicide in Canada.On March 23, protesters gathered outside the Saudi Embassy in Dublin to demand justice for Eden Knight. On March 24, activists protested outside the Embassy of Saudi Arabia, London in memory of Eden Knight and to draw attention to Saudi Arabia's persecution of LGBTQ+ individuals.Vice News quoted a spokesman from the U.S. State Department as saying, "We have seen these reports and are studying these allegations," in reference to the incident. See also List of LGBT-related suicides Suicide in Saudi Arabia References Notes Citations

Wim Taymans

Wim Odilia Georges Taymans is a Belgian software developer based in Malaga, Spain. Taymans started his career in multimedia development on the Commodore 64 writing various games and demos. He was known in the Commodore 64 coding community under the nickname The Wim. In 1990 he was the coder behind the C64 game Puffy's Saga which was distributed by Ubisoft. He later moved on to the Amiga where he among other things wrote a version of the classic game Boulder Dash.

Wim Odilia Georges Taymans is a Belgian software developer based in Malaga, Spain. Taymans started his career in multimedia development on the Commodore 64 writing various games and demos. He was known in the Commodore 64 coding community under the nickname The Wim. In 1990 he was the coder behind the C64 game Puffy's Saga which was distributed by Ubisoft. He later moved on to the Amiga where he among other things wrote a version of the classic game Boulder Dash. In 1994 he installed the Linux operating system on his Amiga and has since been involved with the development of various multimedia technologies for the Linux platform. His first efforts on Linux were some assembly optimizations for the rtjpeg library; later, he worked on the Trinity video editor before teaming up with Erik Walthinsen to create the GStreamer multimedia framework. In 2004 he started working for Fluendo in Spain as employee number 3. While working for Fluendo he designed and wrote most of what today is the 0.10 release series of GStreamer. In July 2007 he left Fluendo together with many of the other GStreamer developers and joined up with United Kingdom company Collabora. As part of his job at Collabora he maintained and developed GStreamer further, with the aim of providing Linux and other Unix and Unix-like operating systems with a competitive and powerful multimedia framework. In November 2013, Taymans started a new endeavour as a Principal Software Engineer at Red Hat spending most of his time working on upstream GStreamer. Taymans was the main architect and developer behind the GStreamer 1.0 release which came out on September 24, 2012. In July 2015 it was announced that Taymans was designing and writing Pinos, which became PipeWire, from his position as Principal Engineer at Red Hat. PipeWire is a server for handling audio and video streams on Linux. References External links C64.org profile page GStreamer Fluendo Collabora Interview with Wim Taymans by Audio Libre Wim Taymans on GitHub

Rossiya Segodnya

MIA Rossiya Segodnya (Russian: Россия сегодня, IPA: [rɐˈsʲijə sʲɪˈvodʲnʲə]; lit. 'Russia Today') is a media group owned and operated by the Russian government, created on the basis of RIA Novosti. The group owns and operates Sputnik, RIA Novosti, inoSMI and several other entities. The head of the organisation is Dmitry Kiselyov. Margarita Simonyan is the chief editor.

MIA Rossiya Segodnya (Russian: Россия сегодня, IPA: [rɐˈsʲijə sʲɪˈvodʲnʲə]; lit. 'Russia Today') is a media group owned and operated by the Russian government, created on the basis of RIA Novosti. The group owns and operates Sputnik, RIA Novosti, inoSMI and several other entities. The head of the organisation is Dmitry Kiselyov. Margarita Simonyan is the chief editor. History Rossiya Segodnya incorporates the former RIA Novosti news service and the international radio service Voice of Russia (formerly Radio Moscow). According to the Decree of the President of Russia on 9 December 2013, the mandate of the new agency is to "provide information on Russian state policy and Russian life and society for audiences abroad." Vladimir Putin's chief of staff, Sergei Ivanov, said that Rossiya Segodnya was being created in order to increase the cost efficiency in Russian state media. However, RIA Novosti's own report about the move speculated it was an attempt to consolidate state control over the media sector and Western news outlets stated that this was also a move by Putin to propagate a more pleasant image of Russia abroad.According to a report on the RT news channel, Rossiya Segodnya is "in no way related" to the RT news channel despite the similarity in name (RT was known as Russia Today prior to its rebranding in 2009). However, a report by the BBC states that it "seems likely [...] that [Rossiya Segodnya] will complement the work of the state-funded foreign-language TV station, RT." On 31 December 2013, Margarita Simonyan was appointed editor-in-chief of the news agency, as well as being RT's news channel editor-in-chief. She will serve in both positions concurrently.On 10 November 2014, the agency launched the Sputnik multimedia platform with Radio Sputnik as its audio component, replacing the Voice of Russia. The radio service is available internationally on FM, digital DAB/DAB+ (Digital Radio Broadcasting), HD-Radio, as well as mobile phones and the Internet. Within Russia itself, Rossiya Segodnya continues to use the RIA Novosti brand as its Russian-language news agency using the website ria.ru.In 2015 Rossiya Segondya received 6.48 billion rubles from the state budget. Following his transfer from Ukraine to Russia on 7 September 2019 as part of the Ukraine-Russia prisoner exchanges, Kirill Vyshinsky became the executive director of Rossiya Segodnya on 9 September 2019. Projects Sputnik RIA Novosti inoSMI ukraina.ru Baltnews Controversy Allegations of homophobia This organisatation is headed by Dmitry Kiselyov, a pro-Putin news presenter on the domestic Russia-1 television channel, who has gained significant controversy in the Western media with his remarks claiming foreign conspiracies against Russia and verbally abusing homosexuals.Kiselyov, who has been described as the "spearhead" of such anti-LGBTQ propaganda on the network, has made various provocative comments regarding the Russian LGBTQ community. He has stated that a homosexual person's organs are unworthy of being transplanted to a heterosexual, and that gay men should be prohibited from donating blood or sperm. The Russian LGBTQ community has also been referred to by Kiselyov as an "aggressive minority" opposed to "parents fighting to give their children a healthy upbringing", stating falsified statistics that "40% of children brought up by homosexuals have venereal diseases". Allegations of censorship On 1 December 2014, Ukrainian journalist Oleksandr Chalenko accused Rossiya Segodnya of censorship after an interview with the former Defense Minister of the self-proclaimed Donetsk People's Republic, Igor Strelkov. The Strelkov's press service and the agency's editorial staff reduced it, removing the confirmation of Igor Strelkov's own title of Colonel of the FSB and the negative assessment of the assault by Donetsk airport units. Awards On 17 May 2017 MIA Rossiya Segodnya design center was awarded The Communicator Awards: gold - in the category "Marketing and Promotion" and two silver. Sanctions March 2022 saw the UK government imposing sanctions on Rossiya Segodnya for broadcasting Russian propaganda.February 2023 saw Canada also sanctioning Rossiya Segodnya for being involved in Russian propaganda and spreading misinformation relating to the 2022 war in Ukraine, with other sanctions being put in place by the EU. See also Media of Russia References External links Official website (in Russian)

Claude Dupuy (bishop)

Claude Marie Joseph Dupuy (13 September 1901 – 13 February 1989) was a French Catholic priest who became Archbishop of Albi, which encompasses the department of Tarn in southern France. He held office at a time of social unrest and declining interest in the priesthood. In 1966 he was an episcopal member of the Pontifical Commission on Birth Control. After his retirement in 1974 due to health problems he returned his award of the Legion of Honour in protest against the law on abortion.

Claude Marie Joseph Dupuy (13 September 1901 – 13 February 1989) was a French Catholic priest who became Archbishop of Albi, which encompasses the department of Tarn in southern France. He held office at a time of social unrest and declining interest in the priesthood. In 1966 he was an episcopal member of the Pontifical Commission on Birth Control. After his retirement in 1974 due to health problems he returned his award of the Legion of Honour in protest against the law on abortion. Early years Claude Marie Joseph Dupuy was born in Chevrières, Loire on 13 September 1901. His older brother died in 1916 during the Battle of the Somme when he was preparing to become a priest. This may have inspired Claude Dupuy to become a priest. He studied at the Séminaire universitaire de Lyon. He was ordained a priest on 20 March 1926. He received a doctorate in theology with a thesis on the "Triumph of the Cross", an apologetic work on Savonarola. Priest and Bishop In 1928 Dupuy was appointed vicar of the working-class Izieux parish of Saint-Chamond, Loire, and iron and coal region. In 1946 Cardinal Pierre-Marie Gerlier called him to manage diocesan works. He was named diocesan chaplain of students, and was placed in charge of the press and the Semaine religieuse journal. From 1953 he was vicar-general of the archdiocese of Lyon and part of Rhône Nord. On 7 March 1955 he was appointed Auxiliary Bishop of Lyon and Titular Bishop of Selia. He was ordained Titular Bishop of Selia on 27 April 1955. Archbishop On 4 December 1961 Dupuy was appointed Archbishop of Albi. As archbishop Dupuy instituted the Council of the Presbytery, the Diocesan Committee of Pastoral Care and many diocesan commissions. He placed great emphasis on collegiality, delegating authority and insisting that the work of the diocese be shared between the bishop and the priests. In the spirit of ecumenism he twinned the diocese with the Anglican Diocese of Chester in 1972. The diocese struggled during his time in office with a decline in priests, and in 1963 he had to drop Sunday services in the smaller rural parishes. He also consolidated urban and rural parishes. However, he built new places of worship in the growing suburbs of Albi, Castres and Graulhet. He was involved in social issues, including mining conflicts in 1962–63, returnees from Algeria, the threatened closure of the Saut-du-Tarn steel plant in 1968 and the other social disturbances of 1968.Dupuy was an episcopal member of the Pontifical Commission on Birth Control. He was named to the fifth and final session of the Commission, which started in April 1966 and lasted almost three months until the end of June. This was the session where decisions were to be made. Dupuy was responsible for the "pastoral approaches" letter. This said "the church remains faithfully attached to the divine imperatives of the unity, stability and fecundity of marriage. It said that procreation was one of the ends of marriage, but that there were other ends including love between the married couple, education and upbringing of children and providing a basic unit for society. On the issue of contraception it said "what is always to be condemned is not the regulation of conception, but an egotistic married life, refusing a creative opening-out of the family circle ... this is the anti-conception that is against the Christian ideal of marriage. The pastoral introduction in French accompanied the draft Document concerning Responsible Parenthood (Schema Documenti de Responsabili Paternitate), the one part of the final report that was leaked. The commission could not reach agreement, and in the end Pope Paul VI set out the official church position in the encyclical Humanae vitae issued on 25 July 1968. The pastoral letter was published in The Tablet on 21 September 1968. Last years Dupuy retired on 15 June 1974. He was suffering from heart problems, and in July 1974 moved to the retirement home for priests of the diocese in Vernaison. Towards the end of 1974 he returned the award of the Legion of Honour to President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing in protest against the new law on abortion. Claude Dupuy died on 13 February 1989. Notes == Sources ==

New Guinea free-tailed bat

The New Guinea free-tailed bat (Austronomus kuboriensis), sometimes designated the New Guinea mastiff bat, is a species of free-tailed bat that inhabits the Chimbu highlands of Papua New Guinea. Although Koopman described A. kuboriensis as a subspecies of the nearby A. australis, the 2005 reference catalogue Mammal Species of the World suggested that analysis had established these as distinct species.

The New Guinea free-tailed bat (Austronomus kuboriensis), sometimes designated the New Guinea mastiff bat, is a species of free-tailed bat that inhabits the Chimbu highlands of Papua New Guinea. Although Koopman described A. kuboriensis as a subspecies of the nearby A. australis, the 2005 reference catalogue Mammal Species of the World suggested that analysis had established these as distinct species. See also List of mammals of Papua New Guinea == References ==

Campaign for Accountability

Campaign for Accountability (CfA) is a liberal 501(c)(3) non-profit ethics watchdog group headquartered in Washington, D.C. CfA was co-founded in May 2015 by Anne Weismann, former legal counsel for the watchdog group Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington (CREW), and Louis Mayberg, former chairman of CREW. CfA group states that it "uses research, litigation and aggressive communications to expose misconduct and malfeasance in public life."

Campaign for Accountability (CfA) is a liberal 501(c)(3) non-profit ethics watchdog group headquartered in Washington, D.C. CfA was co-founded in May 2015 by Anne Weismann, former legal counsel for the watchdog group Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington (CREW), and Louis Mayberg, former chairman of CREW. CfA group states that it "uses research, litigation and aggressive communications to expose misconduct and malfeasance in public life." History and staff CfA was co-founded in May 2015 by Anne Weismann and Louis Mayberg (who serves on the group's advisory board). Both were formerly part of the watchdog group Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington (CREW): Weismann was the group's chief counsel for ten years and Mayberg was the group's former chairman and founder. Weismann is also past president of the American Society of Access Professionals and a member of the OpenTheGovernment.org steering committee. Daniel Stevens, formerly a senior researcher at CREW, became deputy director for CfA, and in 2017 became CfA's executive director.CfA originated as a project of the Hopewell Fund in 2015 and attained standalone 501(c)3 status in May 2017. Activities In May 2015, the CfA filed a lawsuit against the Securities and Exchange Commission, seeking to compel the agency to promulgate a regulation requiring corporations to disclose their political contributions that would inform investors how corporations are spending their money. The CfA acted on behalf of Stephen Silberstein, a shareholder of Aetna Inc. who had unsuccessfully sought to gain information on the company's political contributions. In January 2016, Judge Rosemary M. Collyer of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia dismissed the suit, ruling that the plaintiff had not demonstrated that SEC had a "clear legal duty" to open a rulemaking proceeding or that its failure to do so was arbitrary and capricious.In November 2015, the CfA asked the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs and the Federal Election Commission to get to the bottom of allegations that the Macau casino operations of Sheldon Adelson's Las Vegas Sands Corp. are tied to organized crime. Weismann said that "Given the extent to which Mr. Adelson's wealth derives from Macau and his dominant role in funding Republican candidates, it seems highly likely that illegal foreign money has made its way into American elections." A spokesman for the Las Vegas Sands Corp. denied the allegations, and the CfA subsequently issued a retraction of its statement, saying: "The available evidence supports further investigation into these alleged matters but does not support the statements made by CfA outside of its filings" with the Senate committee and the FEC.In December 2015, the CfA asked the U.S. Department of Justice to investigate David H. Stevens, the chief executive of the Mortgage Bankers Association and the former commissioner of the Federal Housing Administration, for possible violations of "revolving door" ethics laws. The National Legal and Policy Center joined this call several months later.In January 2016, OpenSecrets published a report showing that the largest contributors to the campaigns of Senator Bob Corker, Republican of Tennessee, were the tenants of a commercial building that the senator owns in Chattanooga. Stevens of CfA said that a tenant's ties to Corker raise questions on whether it was paying fair market value in rent. Separately, the CfA filed ethics complaints against Corker with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission and U.S. Senate Ethics Committee, accusing him of insider trading in three particular hedge funds. Corker denied the allegations, calling them "categorically false" and "baseless."In March 2016, the CfA made a request to Kim Davis—the controversial county clerk of Rowan County, Kentucky, who had gained international attention the previous year after defying a federal court order to issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples—for access to public records under the Kentucky Open Records Act. The CfA specifically sought copies of retainer agreements and lawyer-client engagement agreements between Davis and Liberty Counsel, the religious advocacy organization that represented Davis in the marriage-license dispute. Liberty Counsel, which responded to the request on Davis' behalf, refused to comply, arguing that the documents were preliminary and private records not subject to the Act. The CfA appealed to the Office of the Kentucky Attorney General, which under Kentucky law has the authority to make binding rulings on the Open Records Act, and resubmitted its request to Davis' office in April 2016. In May 2016, the Attorney General's Office sought to privately review the records at issue to determine if an exemption applied, but Liberty Counsel refused to make most of the documents available for a private review. In an opinion issued on June 30, 2016, the Attorney General's Office made a finding favorable to the CfA, determining that Davis had violated the Open Records Act, saying that her conduct had the effect of "intentionally frustrating the attorney general's review of an open records request" which "would subvert the General Assembly's intent behind providing review by the attorney general."In April 2016, the Campaign for Accountability launched the Google Transparency Project, a website on Google's "influence on government, public policies, and our lives." Funding for the project, and for the Campaign, was not disclosed, but in August 2016 Ken Glueck of Oracle confirmed that Oracle, who had been conducting a high-profile lawsuit against Google, was one of the funders.In 2017, the group petitioned to unseal the divorce records of Andrew Puzder, who was at the time Donald Trump's nominee to become the United States Secretary of Labor. Puzder's ex-wife called the group's attempt to unseal her divorce records an "unfair invasion of my personal life." CfA also filed ethics complaint against Republican congressional aides who had worked for the Trump transition team. The group also filed a lawsuit arguing that the United States Department of Justice is failing to comply with a provision in the Freedom of Information Act that requires government agencies to make public "statements of policy and interpretations which have been adopted by the agency."In March 2017, CfA and other groups asked Oregon Attorney General Ellen Rosenblum to investigate solar panel sales practices that "are designed to trick homeowners into buying or leasing solar panels" in violation of Oregon's Unlawful Trade Practices Act. The request to Rosenblum "singled out one company: California-based SolarCity." The organization reviewed 58 consumer complaints and said that the complaints indicated "a widespread pattern of apparent fraud and abuse by solar companies." A spokesman for CfA said, "Solar companies often seem to target vulnerable populations, leaving senior Oregonians and those living on fixed incomes with higher monthly utility costs and loans that often exceed what they can afford to pay, plunging them into debt."In April 2017, CfA filed a complaint with the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Western District of Missouri, calling for a federal grand jury investigation into Missouri State Senate President Pro Tem Ron Richard's acceptance of a $100,000 campaign contribution from a Joplin, Missouri businessman, six days after introducing a bill "that would have affected a lawsuit against that donor's company" by restricting the ability of plaintiffs to sue under Missouri's consumer protection law. Both Richard and the contributor denied wrongdoing, saying that the allegation of pay to play was false.In May 2017, CfA filed a complaint with the Office of Congressional Ethics, asking the office to open an investigation into whether U.S. Representative Rodney Frelinghuysen, Republican of New Jersey, the chair of the House Appropriations Committee, violated House ethics rules. The complaint involved a campaign fundraising letter that Frelinghuysen had written to a bank board member in which he criticized a progressive activist who was employed by the bank; Frelinghuysen added a handwritten note to the letter: "P.S. One of the ringleaders works in your bank!" The CfA argued that this "poison pen note" was a form of intimidation. Frelinghuysen hired lawyers following the complaint; his campaign adviser said that the complaint was "politically motivated."In July 2017, CfA sent a letter to the Bureau of Consumer Protection at the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) to investigate what it says are a pattern of unscrupulous sales practices in the residential solar market. References External links Official website

Near-threatened species

A near-threatened species is a species which has been categorized as "Near Threatened" (NT) by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as that may be vulnerable to endangerment in the near future, but it does not currently qualify for the threatened status.The IUCN notes the importance of re-evaluating near-threatened taxa at appropriate intervals. The rationale used for near-threatened taxa usually includes the criteria of vulnerable which are plausible or nearly met, such as reduction in numbers or range. Near-threatened species evaluated from 2001 onwards may also be ones which are dependent on conservation efforts to prevent their becoming threatened, whereas before this conservation-dependent species were given a separate category ("Conservation Dependent"). Additionally, the 402 conservation-dependent taxa may also be considered near-threatened.

A near-threatened species is a species which has been categorized as "Near Threatened" (NT) by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as that may be vulnerable to endangerment in the near future, but it does not currently qualify for the threatened status.The IUCN notes the importance of re-evaluating near-threatened taxa at appropriate intervals. The rationale used for near-threatened taxa usually includes the criteria of vulnerable which are plausible or nearly met, such as reduction in numbers or range. Near-threatened species evaluated from 2001 onwards may also be ones which are dependent on conservation efforts to prevent their becoming threatened, whereas before this conservation-dependent species were given a separate category ("Conservation Dependent"). Additionally, the 402 conservation-dependent taxa may also be considered near-threatened. IUCN Categories and Criteria version 2.3 Before 2001, the IUCN used the version 2.3 Categories and Criteria to assign conservation status, which included a separate category for conservation-dependent species ("Conservation Dependent", LR/cd). With this category system, Near Threatened and Conservation Dependent were both subcategories of the category "Lower Risk". Taxa which were last evaluated before 2001 may retain their LR/cd or LR/nt status, although had the category been assigned with the same information today the species would be designated simply "Near Threatened (NT)" in either case. Gallery See also IUCN Red List near threatened species, ordered by taxonomic rank. Category:IUCN Red List near threatened species, ordered alphabetically. List of near threatened amphibians List of near threatened arthropods List of near threatened birds List of near threatened fishes List of near threatened insects List of near threatened invertebrates List of near threatened mammals List of near threatened molluscs List of near threatened reptiles References External links List of Near Threatened species as identified by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

Ethel Rosenfield

Ethel Rosenfield (1910 – 2000) was a Polish-born Canadian sculptor who lived in Montreal, Quebec. After enrolling in art classes in her mid-forties, she began working primarily in limestone and marble, exploring "organic forms, abstract or schematized, the latter representing faces and female bodies". Rosenfield co-founded the Quebec Sculptors' Association in 1962, and her work was exhibited at the Rodin Museum, Expo 67, the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, and multiple Canadian universities. Her sculptures are held in permanent collections at Concordia University, the Musée d'art contemporain de Montréal, and the Storm-King Art Centre.

Ethel Rosenfield (1910 – 2000) was a Polish-born Canadian sculptor who lived in Montreal, Quebec. After enrolling in art classes in her mid-forties, she began working primarily in limestone and marble, exploring "organic forms, abstract or schematized, the latter representing faces and female bodies". Rosenfield co-founded the Quebec Sculptors' Association in 1962, and her work was exhibited at the Rodin Museum, Expo 67, the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, and multiple Canadian universities. Her sculptures are held in permanent collections at Concordia University, the Musée d'art contemporain de Montréal, and the Storm-King Art Centre. Biography Rosenfield was born in 1910 in Kodoc, Poland. She came to Montreal in 1919. Rosenfield later had two children: a daughter and a son.After she turned 45 and her children were older, she began studying sculpting at the École des Beaux-Arts. Joking about her late start in life as a sculptor, Rosenfield's husband liked to call her "Montreal's Grandma Moses". Her teachers included Quebec sculptors Armand Filion, Sylvia Daoust and Louis Archambault. Rosenfield was one of the founding members of the Quebec Sculptors' Association in 1962.Although she sometimes worked in wood and bronze, Rosenfield primarily worked in stone, including limestone from Indiana and marble from Carrara, Verona and Quebec. Rosenfield's style as a sculptor often focused on "organic forms, abstract or schematized, the latter representing faces and female bodies". Her work was exhibited at the Musée Rodin in Paris, and in group exhibitions at the Place des Arts, the Thomas More Institute, Sir George Williams University, University of Waterloo, University of Sherbrooke, National Arts Centre, Expo 67, Musee d’Art Contemporaine, and the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts.Rosenfield offered mentorship and support to younger artists such as Ora Markstein, a Holocaust survivor from Hungary who immigrated to Canada in the mid-1970s. Upon seeing some photographs of Markstein's earlier plaster sculptures, Rosenfield told her: "But you are thinking in stone! You feel in stone!". Encouraging her to take classes in stone sculpting, Rosenfield arranged for Markstein to receive a scholarship at the Saidye Bronfman Centre.Rosenfield moved to Toronto in 1978. She died in 2000 in Scarborough, Ontario.Her sculpture is included in various public and private collections, including Concordia University, the Musée d'art contemporain de Montréal and the Storm King Art Center. == References ==

Tavakkoli (surname)

Tavakkoli or Tavakoli (Persian: توكلي or توکلی) is a Persian surname. Notable people with the surname include: Ahmad Tavakkoli (born 1951), Iranian politician, journalist and anti-corruption activist Farhad Tavakoli (born 1989), Iranian futsal player Hangi Tavakoli (born 1990), Iranian musician and record producer Hossein Tavakkoli (born 1978), Iranian weightlifter Janet Tavakoli, American finance and investment writer Majid Tavakoli (born 1986), Iranian student leader, human rights activist and political prisoner Mohamad Tavakoli-Targhi (born 1957), Iranian-born Canadian scholar, editor, author, professor

Tavakkoli or Tavakoli (Persian: توكلي or توکلی) is a Persian surname. Notable people with the surname include: Ahmad Tavakkoli (born 1951), Iranian politician, journalist and anti-corruption activist Farhad Tavakoli (born 1989), Iranian futsal player Hangi Tavakoli (born 1990), Iranian musician and record producer Hossein Tavakkoli (born 1978), Iranian weightlifter Janet Tavakoli, American finance and investment writer Majid Tavakoli (born 1986), Iranian student leader, human rights activist and political prisoner Mohamad Tavakoli-Targhi (born 1957), Iranian-born Canadian scholar, editor, author, professor

Duties Beyond Borders

Duties Beyond Borders (full title: Duties Beyond Borders: On the Limits and Possibilities of Ethical International Politics) is a book by Stanley Hoffmann published in 1981 which focuses on the application of ethical principles to international relations. The book won the Le Prix Adolphe Bentinck for 1982 for "the book which most contributes to the unity and cause of peace in Europe". The book is based upon a series of lectures which Hoffmann gave at Syracuse University between February and April 1980.

Duties Beyond Borders (full title: Duties Beyond Borders: On the Limits and Possibilities of Ethical International Politics) is a book by Stanley Hoffmann published in 1981 which focuses on the application of ethical principles to international relations. The book won the Le Prix Adolphe Bentinck for 1982 for "the book which most contributes to the unity and cause of peace in Europe". The book is based upon a series of lectures which Hoffmann gave at Syracuse University between February and April 1980. See also Cosmopolitanism Just and Unjust Wars References Further reading Steiner, Miriam (1982) Review: Ethic of Balance, The Review of Politics, 44/3: 440-442 Farer, Tom (1982) Review: Untitled, The American Journal of International Law, 76/4: 888-895 Nossal, Kim (1982) Duties Beyond Borders: On the Limits and Possibilities of Ethical International Politics Stanley Hoffmann Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1981, pp. xic, 252, Canadian Journal of Political Science. 15: 421-422 Hevener, Natalie (1982) Duties Beyond Borders: On the Limits and Possibilities of Ethical International Politics. By Stanley Hoffmann. (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1981. Pp. xiv, 252., The Journal of Politics, 44: 901-903 Pogge, Thomas (1986) Review: Liberalism and Global Justice: Hoffmann and Nardin on Morality in International Affairs, Philosophy in Public Affairs, 15/1:67-81 External links Le Professeur: From Vichy to Iraq with a widely cultured “citizen of Harvard”, Harvard Magazine

Ben Nevis and Glen Coe National Scenic Area

Ben Nevis and Glen Coe is a national scenic area (NSA) covering part of the Highlands of Scotland surrounding Ben Nevis and Glen Coe, in which certain forms of development are restricted. It is one of 40 such areas in Scotland, which are defined so as to identify areas of exceptional scenery and to ensure its protection from inappropriate development. The Ben Nevis and Glen Coe NSA covers 903 km2 (349 sq mi) of land, lying within the Highland, Argyll and Bute and Perth and Kinross council areas. A further 19 km2 (7.3 sq mi) of the NSA are marine, covering the sea loch of Loch Leven.National scenic areas are primarily designated due to the scenic qualities of an area, however NSAs may well have other special qualities, for example related to culture, history, archaeology, geology or wildlife. Areas with such qualities may be protected via other national and international designations that overlap with the NSA designation.

Ben Nevis and Glen Coe is a national scenic area (NSA) covering part of the Highlands of Scotland surrounding Ben Nevis and Glen Coe, in which certain forms of development are restricted. It is one of 40 such areas in Scotland, which are defined so as to identify areas of exceptional scenery and to ensure its protection from inappropriate development. The Ben Nevis and Glen Coe NSA covers 903 km2 (349 sq mi) of land, lying within the Highland, Argyll and Bute and Perth and Kinross council areas. A further 19 km2 (7.3 sq mi) of the NSA are marine, covering the sea loch of Loch Leven.National scenic areas are primarily designated due to the scenic qualities of an area, however NSAs may well have other special qualities, for example related to culture, history, archaeology, geology or wildlife. Areas with such qualities may be protected via other national and international designations that overlap with the NSA designation. Glen Coe is designated as a national nature reserve, and there are several Special Areas of Conservation and Special Protection Areas within the NSA. Although the national scenic area designation provides a degree of additional protection via the planning process, there are no bodies equivalent to a national park authority, and whilst local authorities can produce a management strategy for each one, only the three national scenic areas within Dumfries and Galloway have current management strategies . Creation of the national scenic area The idea that areas of wild or remote character such as Ben Nevis and Glen Coe should be designated to protect the scenic qualities of their landscapes grew in popularity throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In 1931 a commission headed by Christopher Addison first proposed the creation of a national park in Scotland. Following the Second World War a committee chaired by Sir Douglas Ramsay to consider the issue proposed that five areas should receive a level of protection: Glen Coe-Ben Nevis-Black Mount was one of the areas listed. The area thus became one of five designated "national park direction areas", in which planning decisions taken by local authorities could be reviewed by central government under certain circumstances. A 1974 report by the Countryside Commission for Scotland (CCS) entitled A Park System for Scotland recommended that the Glen Coe-Ben Nevis-Black Mount area should be designated as one of four proposed "Special Parks", considering the area of national importance due to its natural beauty and amenity value, however this recommendation was not acted on. Following a further review of landscape protection in 1978, it was suggested that additional areas, alongside the existing direction areas should receive protection, and in 1981 the direction areas were thus replaced by the 40 national scenic areas, which were based on the 1978 recommendations, and included the Ben Nevis and Glen Coe area.A further report into protection of the landscape of Scotland was published by the CCS in 1990. Entitled The Mountain Areas of Scotland - Conservation and Management, it recommended that four areas were under such pressure that they ought to be designated as national parks, each with an independent planning board, in order to retain their heritage value. The four areas identified were similar to those proposed by the Ramsay Committee, and included Glen Coe-Ben Nevis-Black Mount. The government did not however choose to establish national parks and so the status of the Ben Nevis and Glen Coe area was not altered. Following the passage of the National Parks (Scotland) Act 2000, national parks were established in the Cairngorms and Loch Lomond and The Trossachs, two of the areas identified by the Ramsay committee, however the status of the other three Ramsay areas, including Ben Nevis and Glen Coe, was again not altered. In 2013 the Scottish Campaign for National Parks proposed seven areas deemed suitable for national park status, one of which was the Ben Nevis and Glen Coe area. Landscape and scenery Although named after Ben Nevis and Glen Coe, the national scenic area covers a much wider area of land, as detailed below. Much of the northern part of the NSA lies within the Lochaber region. Glen Nevis Glen Nevis (Scottish Gaelic: Gleann Nibheis) lies in the north of the national scenic area, and runs south from Fort William. It is bordered to the south by the Mamore range, and to the north by the highest mountains in the British Isles: Ben Nevis (Scotland's highest mountain), Càrn Mor Dearg, Aonach Mòr, and Aonach Beag. It is home to the second highest waterfall in Scotland, Steall Falls. Below the waterfall is a steeply walled and impressive gorge. Mamores The Mamores form an east–west ridge approximately fifteen kilometres in length lying between Glen Nevis to the north and Loch Leven to the south. Ten of the ranges are classified as Munros. The hills can be accessed from both Glen Nevis and the former aluminium smelting town of Kinlochleven. Glen Coe Glen Coe (Scottish Gaelic: Gleann Comhann) is a glen of volcanic origins, in the heart of the national scenic area. A review of the national scenic areas by Scottish Natural Heritage in 2010 made reference to the "soaring, dramatic splendour of Glen Coe", and "the suddenness of the transition between high mountain pass and the lightly wooded strath" in the lower glen. It also described the journey through the glen on the main A82 road as "one of the classic Highland journeys". The main settlement is the village of Glencoe located at the foot of the glen. The glen is regarded as the home of Scottish mountaineering and is popular with hillwalkers and climbers. Glen Etive Glen Etive (Scottish Gaelic: Gleann Èite) lies to the south of Glen Coe. The River Etive (Scottish Gaelic: Abhainn Èite) rises on the peaks surrounding Rannoch Moor, with several tributary streams coming together at the Kings House Hotel. From the Kings House, the Etive flows for about 18 km, reaching the sea loch, Loch Etive. The river and its tributaries are popular with whitewater kayakers and at high water levels it is a test piece of the area and a classic run. Glen Etive has been used as the backdrop to many movies, among them Braveheart and Skyfall. The Black Mount The Black Mount is situated between Glen Orchy and Glen Coe, to the east of Glen Etive, forming the southernmost part of the national scenic area. Its four Munros are Stob Ghabhar, Stob a' Choire Odhair, Creise and Meall a' Bhuiridh. The hills of Ben Inverveigh and Meall Tairbh are located between Black Mount and the Bridge of Orchy. The Black Mount Deer Forest includes moorland, the mountain, as well as several rivers, burns, lochs, and tarns. Rannoch Moor Much of the western part of Rannoch Moor (Scottish Gaelic: Mòinteach Raineach/Raithneach), an expanse of around 50 square miles (130 km2) of boggy moorland to the west of Loch Rannoch in Scotland, is included in the national scenic area. The A82 road crosses western Rannoch Moor on its way to Glen Coe and Fort William, as does the West Highland Line, which reaches Fort William via Glen Spean rather than Glen Coe. When the line was built across the moor, its builders had to float the tracks on a mattress of tree roots, brushwood and thousands of tons of earth and ashes. Corrour railway station, the UK's highest, and one of its most remote being 10 miles (16 km) from the nearest public road, is located on this section of the line at 1,339 feet (408 m). The line takes gentle curves totalling 23 miles (37 km) across the moorland. Conservations designations A number of other conservation designation are defined within or overlapping with the NSA: Glen Coe is designated as a both national nature reserve (NNR), and a Special Area of Conservation (SAC) due to wide variety of montane habitats found within the glen. Glen Coe, along with most of the southwestern portion of the NSA including Glen Etive and the Black Mount, forms part of the Glen Etive and Glen Fyne Special Protection Area (SPA), which is protected due to its breeding population of golden eagles.Rannoch Moor is also designated as an SAC, and is particularly famous as being the sole British location for the Rannoch-rush, named after the moor. It also has populations of otters and freshwater pearl mussels. The River Tay rises on the moor within the NSA, and is designated as a separate SAC for its entire length. The Ben Nevis massif is also an SAC, as are the woodlands at North Ballachulish in the westernmost part of the NSA. The final SAC within the NSA protects the woods on the western side of Loch Etive, in the southwestern extremity of the area. References External links The special qualities of the National Scenic Areas

Heat spreader

A heat spreader transfers energy as heat from a hotter source to a colder heat sink or heat exchanger. There are two thermodynamic types, passive and active. The most common sort of passive heat spreader is a plate or block of material having high thermal conductivity, such as copper, aluminum, or diamond. An active heat spreader speeds up heat transfer with expenditure of energy as work supplied by an external source.A heat pipe uses fluids inside a sealed case. The fluids circulate either passively, by spontaneous convection, triggered when a threshold temperature difference occurs; or actively, because of an impeller driven by an external source of work.

A heat spreader transfers energy as heat from a hotter source to a colder heat sink or heat exchanger. There are two thermodynamic types, passive and active. The most common sort of passive heat spreader is a plate or block of material having high thermal conductivity, such as copper, aluminum, or diamond. An active heat spreader speeds up heat transfer with expenditure of energy as work supplied by an external source.A heat pipe uses fluids inside a sealed case. The fluids circulate either passively, by spontaneous convection, triggered when a threshold temperature difference occurs; or actively, because of an impeller driven by an external source of work. Without sealed circulation, energy can be carried by transfer of fluid matter, for example externally supplied colder air, driven by an external source of work, from a hotter body to another external body, though this is not exactly heat transfer as defined in physics.Exemplifying increase of entropy according to the second law of thermodynamics, a passive heat spreader disperses or "spreads out" heat, so that the heat exchanger(s) may be more fully utilized. This has the potential to increase the heat capacity of the total assembly, but the additional thermal junctions limit total thermal capacity. The high conduction properties of the spreader will make it more effective to function as an air heat exchanger, as opposed to the original (presumably smaller) source. The low heat conduction of air in convection is matched by the higher surface area of the spreader, and heat is transferred more effectively. A heat spreader is generally used when the heat source tends to have a high heat-flux density, (high heat flow per unit area), and for whatever reason, heat can not be conducted away effectively by the heat exchanger. For instance, this may be because it is air-cooled, giving it a lower heat transfer coefficient than if it were liquid-cooled. A high enough heat exchanger transfer coefficient is sufficient to avoid the need for a heat spreader. The use of a heat spreader is an important part of an economically optimal design for transferring heat from high to low heat flux media. Examples include: A copper-clad bottom on a steel or stainless steel stove-top cooking container Air-cooling integrated circuits such as a microprocessor Air-cooling a photovoltaic cell in a concentrated photovoltaics systemDiamond has a very high thermal conductivity. Synthetic diamond is used as submounts for high-power integrated circuits and laser diodes. Composite materials can be used, such as the metal matrix composites (MMCs) copper–tungsten, AlSiC (silicon carbide in aluminium matrix), Dymalloy (diamond in copper-silver alloy matrix), and E-Material (beryllium oxide in beryllium matrix). Such materials are often used as substrates for chips, as their thermal expansion coefficient can be matched to ceramics and semiconductors. Research In May 2022, researchers at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and University of California, Berkeley devised a new solution that could cool modern electronics more efficiently than other existing strategies. Their proposed method is based on the use of heat spreaders consisting of an electrical insulating layer of poly (2-chloro-p-xylylene) (Parylene C) and a coating of copper. This solution would also require less expensive materials. See also Computer module Heat pipe Heat sink Thermal conductivity of diamond Thermal grease Thermal interface material == References ==

Accreditation Council for TESOL Distance Education Courses

The Accreditation Council for TESOL Distance Education Courses or ACTDEC is an independent, non-profit-making body founded in 1993 to seek to ensure quality in TESOL distance-learning courses. ACTDEC is currently listed as a Company Limited by Guarantee.

The Accreditation Council for TESOL Distance Education Courses or ACTDEC is an independent, non-profit-making body founded in 1993 to seek to ensure quality in TESOL distance-learning courses. ACTDEC is currently listed as a Company Limited by Guarantee. History ACTDECs first Chair, and one of its driving forces, was Dr W. R. Lee, who was also responsible for ACTDEC's Code of Practice and accreditation procedures. Dr Lee was also a significant figure in the establishment and early development of IATEFL. Course levels The courses and qualification levels framework was originally proposed by Monica Vincent of the Overseas Development Authority. The status titles she suggested were subsequently adopted by ACTDEC. Level 1: Preliminary Certificate of Educational Studies in TESOL. Level 2: Certificate of Educational Studies in TESOL. Level 3: Certificate in the Theory and Methodology of TESOL.In 2013, following agreement from the Council, these levels were revised in an effort to standardise criteria with reference to nationally understood benchmarks. The Provisional Certificate of Educational Studies in TESOL became a Level 2 on the understanding that it required 70–100 hours of study; the 120-hour Certificate of Educational Studies in TESOL became a Level 3, whilst the 250-hour Certificate in the Theory and Methodology of TESOL became a Level 5. More recently, a 150-hour Certificate in the Theory and Methodology of TESOL has been added at Level 4, and a 450-hour Diploma in the Theory and Methodology of TESOL at Level 6.Until August 2019, ACTDEC was headed by its Patron Arthur van Essen. At that point, he stood down from that role and it is currently vacant. Prior to 2019, a Secretary and Treasurer were elected annually at the AGM, which is sometimes held in London and sometimes as a Skype Conference. In July an Administrator was appointed to take over the roles of Secretary and Treasurer. The Council no longer exists; instead there are two Directors, Jacqueline Sykes and Ian Marvin, both of whom have been members of the Independent Accreditation panel in the past. References External links Official website Further reading "Q and A - what is ACTDEC?" The Teacher Trainer. Autumn 2006. Pages 20–21.

Russian Agency of Legal and Judicial Information

The Russian Agency of Legal and Judicial Information (Russian: Российское агентство правовой и судебной информации), abbreviated in Russian as РАПСИ (RAPSI), is a Russian news agency specializing in news related to an activity of the judiciary of Russia. It was founded by the RIA Novosti, the Constitutional Court of Russia, the Supreme Court of Russia, and the Supreme Court of Arbitration of Russia on 10 February 2009 and was included in the Russian Unified State Register of legal entities on 20 August 2009 as autonomous non-commercial organization with the assignment of primary state registration number 1097799014246 and taxpayer identification number 7704276230. Its number in All-Russian classifier of enterprises and organizations maintained by the Federal State Statistics Service is 94160342. The Russian Agency of Legal and Judicial Information was registered as news agency by the Federal Service for Supervision of Communications, Information Technology and Mass Media on 8 April 2014 (certificate of registration ИА No. ФС 77–57654).The Russian Agency of Legal and Judicial Information publishes news on its website in Russian and English.

The Russian Agency of Legal and Judicial Information (Russian: Российское агентство правовой и судебной информации), abbreviated in Russian as РАПСИ (RAPSI), is a Russian news agency specializing in news related to an activity of the judiciary of Russia. It was founded by the RIA Novosti, the Constitutional Court of Russia, the Supreme Court of Russia, and the Supreme Court of Arbitration of Russia on 10 February 2009 and was included in the Russian Unified State Register of legal entities on 20 August 2009 as autonomous non-commercial organization with the assignment of primary state registration number 1097799014246 and taxpayer identification number 7704276230. Its number in All-Russian classifier of enterprises and organizations maintained by the Federal State Statistics Service is 94160342. The Russian Agency of Legal and Judicial Information was registered as news agency by the Federal Service for Supervision of Communications, Information Technology and Mass Media on 8 April 2014 (certificate of registration ИА No. ФС 77–57654).The Russian Agency of Legal and Judicial Information publishes news on its website in Russian and English. History The Russian Agency of Legal and Judicial Information was founded as subsidiary organization of the RIA Novosti.In 2014, as the result of the reorganization of the RIA Novosti, the Russian Agency of Legal and Judicial Information became independent organization. Activity The Russian Agency of Legal and Judicial Information gathers news reports, drawing on the work of own correspondents and public relations divisions of Russian courts, other Russian state bodies, the Federal Chamber of Advocates of Russian Federation, the Federal Chamber of Notaries, etc. Agency's correspondents make reports from the courtroom on high-profile cases, interview an experts, prepare an understandable to non-lawyers summaries of judicial acts, bills and other legal documents. Financial situation According to 2018 fiscal year annual financial reporting, The Russian Agency of Legal and Judicial Information had a total assets amounting to 1245000 rubles and net loss for the year amounting to 7846000 rubles. References External links Official website (in Russian) Official website (in English)

The Back Door (fiction)

The Back Door was an anonymous work of invasion literature serialised in Hong Kong newspaper The China Mail from 30 September through 8 October 1897. The work, written in the form of a historical account, describes an imagined Russian and French landing at Hong Kong's Deep Water Bay, followed by shelling of Victoria Peak, a sea battle in the Sulphur Channel between Hong Kong Island and Green Island, and a last stand at Stonecutters Island in which British forces were decisively defeated. The story was intended as a criticism of the lack of British funding for the defence of Hong Kong; fears of invasion were driven by French expansionism in Southeast Asia and increasing Russian influence in Manchuria. It was speculated, but never proven, that members of the Imperial Japanese Army read the book in preparation for the 1941 Battle of Hong Kong, in which Japanese forces overran Hong Kong (via the New Territories, rather than Hong Kong Island) in just 18 days. In terms of its style, it follows the model laid out by George Tomkyns Chesney's The Battle of Dorking, but is noteworthy for its attention to detail, even giving real names of individual soldiers and ships; one reviewer described it as "unique" in its verisimilitude, stating that only William Le Queux's The Invasion of 1910 and Cleveland Moffett's The Conquest of America could compare to it.The Back Door received renewed attention in October 2001, when it was republished by Hong Kong University Press under the title Hong Kong Invaded!

The Back Door was an anonymous work of invasion literature serialised in Hong Kong newspaper The China Mail from 30 September through 8 October 1897. The work, written in the form of a historical account, describes an imagined Russian and French landing at Hong Kong's Deep Water Bay, followed by shelling of Victoria Peak, a sea battle in the Sulphur Channel between Hong Kong Island and Green Island, and a last stand at Stonecutters Island in which British forces were decisively defeated. The story was intended as a criticism of the lack of British funding for the defence of Hong Kong; fears of invasion were driven by French expansionism in Southeast Asia and increasing Russian influence in Manchuria. It was speculated, but never proven, that members of the Imperial Japanese Army read the book in preparation for the 1941 Battle of Hong Kong, in which Japanese forces overran Hong Kong (via the New Territories, rather than Hong Kong Island) in just 18 days. In terms of its style, it follows the model laid out by George Tomkyns Chesney's The Battle of Dorking, but is noteworthy for its attention to detail, even giving real names of individual soldiers and ships; one reviewer described it as "unique" in its verisimilitude, stating that only William Le Queux's The Invasion of 1910 and Cleveland Moffett's The Conquest of America could compare to it.The Back Door received renewed attention in October 2001, when it was republished by Hong Kong University Press under the title Hong Kong Invaded! A '97 Nightmare. The republished edition, at 328 pages in length, was accompanied by a variety of scholarly discussion; the actual text of The Back Door itself occupied barely one-sixth of the book's length. The title of the republished edition was intended as a form of misdirection and a joke to the reader, evoking fears over the 1997 handover of Hong Kong to the People's Republic of China. Bickley was criticised by one reviewer for the cartoon-like illustrations included with the book, and the fact that she had spent so much time on historical analysis of what was described as a "mediocre piece" of fiction. References External links Hong Kong Invaded! (publisher's official page)

Radio Today (website)

Radio Today (address RadioToday.co.uk) is a UK-based website providing news, features, photos and reviews related to the radio industry in the United Kingdom. RadioToday.co.uk was founded by Roy Martin, and receives in excess of 3,500 unique visitors each day. In addition, the site has a database of over 10,000 subscribers who receive daily and weekly emails.In September 2007, the site became an associate sponsor of the European Radio Awards, giving its name to the event's Best Internet Radio award. In November 2011, Radio Today published a preview edition of Radio Today: The Magazine, with plans to launch it as a monthly magazine from 2012. The edition was distributed to delegates at the 2011 Radio Festival.

Radio Today (address RadioToday.co.uk) is a UK-based website providing news, features, photos and reviews related to the radio industry in the United Kingdom. RadioToday.co.uk was founded by Roy Martin, and receives in excess of 3,500 unique visitors each day. In addition, the site has a database of over 10,000 subscribers who receive daily and weekly emails.In September 2007, the site became an associate sponsor of the European Radio Awards, giving its name to the event's Best Internet Radio award. In November 2011, Radio Today published a preview edition of Radio Today: The Magazine, with plans to launch it as a monthly magazine from 2012. The edition was distributed to delegates at the 2011 Radio Festival. References External links RadioToday.co.uk

Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity

Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity is a 1989 book by the American philosopher Richard Rorty, based on two sets of lectures he gave at University College, London, and at Trinity College, Cambridge. In contrast to his earlier work, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (1979), Rorty mostly abandons attempts to explain his theories in analytical terms and instead creates an alternate conceptual schema to that of the "Platonists" he rejects. In this schema "truth" (as the term is used conventionally) is considered unintelligible and meaningless. The book is divided into three parts: "Contingency", "Ironism and Theory", and "Cruelty and Solidarity".

Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity is a 1989 book by the American philosopher Richard Rorty, based on two sets of lectures he gave at University College, London, and at Trinity College, Cambridge. In contrast to his earlier work, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (1979), Rorty mostly abandons attempts to explain his theories in analytical terms and instead creates an alternate conceptual schema to that of the "Platonists" he rejects. In this schema "truth" (as the term is used conventionally) is considered unintelligible and meaningless. The book is divided into three parts: "Contingency", "Ironism and Theory", and "Cruelty and Solidarity". Part I: Contingency 1) The contingency of language Here, Rorty argues that all language is contingent. This is because "only descriptions of the world can be true or false", and descriptions are made by humans who must also make truth or falsity: truth or falsity is thus not determined by any intrinsic property of the world being described. Instead, they purely belong to the human realm of description and language. For example, a factual case of green grass is neither true nor false, in and by itself, but that grass is green may be true. I can say that that grass is green and you could agree with this statement (which for Rorty makes the statement true), but our use of the words to describe grass is distinct and independent of the grass itself. Apart from human expression in language, notions of truth or falsity are simply irrelevant, or maybe inexistent or nonsensical. Rorty consequently argues that all discussion of language in relation to reality should be abandoned and that one should instead discuss vocabularies in relation to other vocabularies. In coherence with this view, he thus states that he will not exactly be making "arguments" in this book, because arguments, as expression mostly within the domain of a given vocabulary, preclude novelty. 2) The contingency of selfhood Rorty proposes that each of us has a set of beliefs whose contingency we more or less ignore, which he dubs our "final vocabulary". One of the strong poet's greatest fears, according to Rorty, is that he will discover that he has been operating within someone else's final vocabulary all along; that he has not "self-created". It is his goal, therefore, to recontextualize the past that led to his historically contingent self, so that the past that defines him will be created by him, rather than creating him. 3) The contingency of a liberal community Rorty begins this chapter by addressing critics who accuse him of irrationality and moral relativism. He asserts that accusations of irrationality are merely affirmations of vernacular "otherness". We use the term "irrational" when we come across a vocabulary that cannot be synthesized with our own, as when a father calls his son irrational for being scared of the dark, or when a son calls his father irrational for not checking under the bed for monsters. The vocabulary of "real monsters" is not shared between father and son, and so accusations of irrationality fly. As for moral relativism, for Rorty, this accusation can only be considered a criticism if one believes in a metaphysically salient and salutary moral, which Rorty firmly does not. Rorty then discusses his liberal utopia. He gives no argument for liberalism and believes that there have been and will be many ironists who are not liberal, but he does propose that we as members of a democratic society are becoming more and more liberal. In his utopia, people would never discuss restrictive metaphysical generalities such as good, "moral", or "human nature", but would be allowed to communicate freely with each other on entirely subjective terms. Rorty sees most cruelty as stemming from metaphysical questions like, "what is it to be human?", because questions such as these allow us to rationalize that some people are to be considered less than human, thus justifying cruelty to those people. In other words, we can only call someone "less than human" if we have a metaphysical "yardstick" with which to measure their prototypical human-ness. If we deprive ourselves of this yardstick (by depriving ourselves of metaphysics altogether), we have no means with which to dehumanize anyone. Part II: Ironism and Theory 4) Private irony and liberal hope Rorty introduces a term that he believes effectively describes the status of a person holding the "axioms" set out in the first three chapters. This person is an ironist. An "ironist", according to Rorty, is someone who fulfils three conditions: (1) She has radical and continuing doubts about the final vocabulary she currently uses because she has been impressed by other vocabularies, vocabularies taken as final by people or books she has encountered; (2) she realizes that arguments phrased in her present vocabulary can neither underwrite nor dissolve these doubts; (3) insofar as she philosophizes about her situation, she does not think that her vocabulary is closer to reality than others, that it is in touch with a power, not herself. 5) Self-creation and affiliation: Proust, Nietzsche, and Heidegger Rorty views Proust, Nietzsche, and Heidegger each as different types of ironists. In Remembrance of Things Past, Proust almost perfectly exemplifies ironism by constantly recontextualizing and redefining the characters he meets along the way, thus preventing any particular final vocabulary from becoming especially salient. Nietzsche is an ironist because he believes all truths to be contingent, but he tends to slip back into metaphysics, especially when discussing his superman. Heidegger is an ironist because he has mostly rejected metaphysics and its conception of language as a means to an end, but his discussion of elementary words forces him to propose a "universal litany" (or "universal poem"), that does not exist, because every great ironic "poet-thinker" (such as Nietzsche, Proust and Heidegger) has a very particular, subjective and contingent one. 6) From ironist theory to private allusions: Derrida For Rorty, Derrida most perfectly typifies the ironist. In his The Post Card: From Socrates to Freud and Beyond, especially, Derrida free-associates about "theorizers" instead of theories, thus preventing him from discussing metaphysics at all. This keeps Derrida contingent, and maintains Derrida's ability to recreate his past so that his past does not create him. Derrida is, therefore, autonomous and self-creating, two properties which Rorty considers most valuable to a private ironist. While Derrida does not discuss philosophies per se, he responds, reacts, and is primarily concerned with philosophy. Because he is contained in this philosophical tradition, he is still a philosopher, even if he does not philosophize. Part III: Cruelty and Solidarity 7) The barber of Kasbeam: Nabokov on cruelty Rorty furthers his distinction between public and private by classifying books into those "which help us become autonomous" and those "which help us become less cruel", and roughly dividing the latter group into "books which help us see the effects of social practices and institutions on others" and "those which help us see the effects of our private idiosyncrasies on others." He dismisses the moral-aesthetic contrast, instead proposing the separation of books which offer relaxation from books which supply novel stimuli to action. Metaphysicians, having little doubt about their final vocabularies, confuse private projects with the pleasure of relaxation, and hence dismiss, as not serious or merely aesthetic, not only those writers with no relevance to liberal hope, like Nietzsche and Derrida, but also those warning against the potential for cruelty inherent in the quest for autonomy, among which Rorty places Nabokov and Orwell, since "both of them dramatize the tension between private irony and liberal hope."Nabokov's dismissal of "topical trash or what some call the Literature of Ideas" and Orwell's rejection of art for art's sake are criticized as attempts to excommunicate writings different from their own while perpetuating the moral-aesthetic contrast. Rorty brings together their contrasting claims about art by saying that there is no such thing as "the writer" or "the nature of literature" (we can instead ask, "What purposes does this book serve?"), and that the pursuit of private perfection, as well as serving human liberty, are both perfectly reasonable aims for writers with different gifts. He wants to stress their similarities, seeing them both as political liberals (like Proust and Derrida, unlike Nietzsche and Heidegger), and as having tried to get us inside cruelty, which in Orwell's case refers to the end of 1984, differing from his usual "topical trash", i.e. descriptions of cruelty from the outside. Nabokov is described as horrified by the possibility of having been cruel, particularly as a consequence of a lack of curiosity about others. In a rare attempt at general ideas, he equates art, or "aesthetic bliss", with "curiosity, tenderness, kindness and ecstasy," hence apparently resolving the dilemma of the liberal aesthete by offering the curious artist, or non-obsessed poet, as the paradigm of morality. Rorty argues that Nabokov's most important creations, Humbert Humbert and Charles Kinbote, originate from his knowledge that actually "there is no synthesis of ecstasy and kindness" and they also tend to be mutually exclusive. As opposed to the non-obsessed and second-rate poet John Shade, they are as artistically gifted as Nabokov, selectively curious and cruel. "This particular sort of genius-monster - the monster of incuriosity - is Nabokov's contribution to our knowledge of human possibilities."The title of the chapter refers to a crucial part of Lolita, Humbert's reminiscence about his late realisation that the son the barber was telling him about was actually dead, which Rorty sees as a pointer to the nature of Humbert's relation to Lolita. Likewise, there are the few subtle hints to the importance of Lolita's brother's death, that the reader is expected to connect, as opposed to Humbert, and that end up being stressed by the author in the Afterword. Rorty ends the chapter with:He knew as well as John Shade did that all one can do with such gifts is sort out one's relations to this world ...,. the world in which ugly and ungifted children like Shade's daughter and the boy Jo are humiliated and die. Nabokov's best novels are the ones which exhibit his inability to believe his own general ideas. 8) The last intellectual in Europe: Orwell on cruelty George Orwell, especially in Nineteen Eighty-Four and Animal Farm, represents public, or institutional cruelty. Rorty argues that Orwell deprived the liberal community of their hopes for liberal utopia without providing them with an alternative. For Rorty, Orwell represents a liberal who is not an ironist, while Heidegger represents an ironist who is not a liberal. 9) Solidarity In this chapter, Rorty argues that because humans tend to view morals as "we-statements" (e.g., "We Christians do not commit murder"), they find it easier to be cruel to those whom they can define as "them" (meaning, as "we"). He therefore urges that they continue to expand their definition of "we" to include more and more subsets of the human population until no one can be considered less-than-human. Reviews The book was reviewed by Jenny Teichman in The New York Times as well as by Bernard Williams for The London Review of Books.It was also reviewed by Alasdair MacIntyre in The Journal of Philosophy. == References ==

Mary K. Bryan

Mary Katherine Bryan (February 13, 1877 – February 22, 1962) was an American botanist and phytopathologist. Much of her research involved leaf spots and cankers caused by bacteria.

Mary Katherine Bryan (February 13, 1877 – February 22, 1962) was an American botanist and phytopathologist. Much of her research involved leaf spots and cankers caused by bacteria. Life and career Bryan was born in Prince George's County, Maryland, on February 13, 1877. She earned a bachelor's degree from Stanford University in 1908. She worked at the Bureau of Plant Industry in the United States Department of Agriculture as a scientific assistant and assistant pathologist from 1909 to 1918.She and Nellie A. Brown worked for Erwin Frink Smith.Bryan died on February 22, 1962, in Napa, California. References External links Mary Katherine Bryan (b. 1877) via Smithsonian Institution

Robert Wauchope (archaeologist)

Robert Wauchope (December 10, 1909 – January 20, 1979) was a well-respected American archaeologist and anthropologist, whose academic research specialized in the prehistory and archaeology of Latin America, Mesoamerica, and the Southwestern United States.

Robert Wauchope (December 10, 1909 – January 20, 1979) was a well-respected American archaeologist and anthropologist, whose academic research specialized in the prehistory and archaeology of Latin America, Mesoamerica, and the Southwestern United States. Personal life Wauchope was born to George Armstrong Wauchope and Elizabeth Bostedo Wauchope in Columbia, South Carolina on December 10, 1909. In 1941, he married Elizabeth (Betty) B Brown. Betty and Robert were married until his death. They later had two children, Kenneth (deceased) and Betsy. Wauchope died on January 26, 1979, in New Orleans, Louisiana where he had been residing for more than thirty years. After his passing, his body was donated to Tulane University to help further their research. Wauchope is also an uncle of underwater archaeologist George F. Bass. Education Wauchope attended high school in South Carolina where he took an early interest in archaeology while on his way to becoming an Eagle Scout. Upon graduating high school, he attended University of South Carolina. While attending school here, he was nominated as a Rhodes Scholar in the year 1927. Wauchope did not win, but the nomination was all the honor. From the university, Wauchope received a bachelor's degree in English in the year 1931. Later that same year, he enrolled at Harvard University and continued his interests in archaeology. In 1938, he received his PhD in Anthropology from Harvard and afterward began teaching . In 1948, Wauchope received an honorary degree of doctor of laws from the University of South Carolina while he was working for Tulane University. Professional career Upon his graduation from Harvard, Wauchope became a professor at the University of Georgia teaching anthropology courses, as well as Southeastern prehistory. He held this position for 18 months between the years 1939 and 1941. He is noted for being the first archaeology professor at the University of Georgia. He also developed and ran the first archaeology laboratory at the university. Shortly after his time at the University of Georgia, he was hired at the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill. Here he served as an associate professor of anthropology, as well as the director of the Laboratory of Anthropology and Archaeology. In 1942, once he had left North Carolina, Wauchope started his career at Tulane University located in New Orleans, Louisiana. However, once World War II began, the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) started to hire many Harvard graduates. Wauchope happened to be one of these graduates and he served with the OSS in the Mediterranean area until the end of the war. He still held his position at Tulane during the time of his service.Wauchope spent the rest of his professional career at Tulane. Here, he served as the director of the Middle American Research Institute (M.A.R.I.) from his first year in 1942 until 1975. Though he stepped down as the M.A.R.I. director, he continued to teach at the university for two more years, officially retiring in 1977. During his time at Tulane, Wauchope taught a multidisciplinary Middle America research program with weekly seminars, working with other Latin America scholars at Tulane. He also changed the focus of M.A.R.I. from archaeological research back to anthropology during the 1960s. Wauchope was also credited with building a foundation and picking early staff for Tulane University. In 1967, he took lead in separating the sociology and anthropology departments. To this day, the two are still separate and seen as different career paths due to the work that Wauchope did in the 60s. Wauchope was respected for his long and eventful time with the university.When Wauchope stepped down as the director of M.A.R.I., he passed on his duties to one of his former co-worker's son named E. Wyllys Andrews V. Andrews ended up serving as director longer than Wauchope did by one year. Today, Tulane University honors Wauchope by not only including him on their M.A.R.I. website and Wikipedia page, but also by having an award in his name. This award is named the Robert Wauchope Award for Excellence in Anthropology. Field work Wauchope's field work began shortly after graduating high school when he wrote Alfred V. Kidder and asked to join him on excavations at Pecos, New Mexico. Kidder accepted Robert's request and invited him to be an assistant at the Forked Lightning Ruin site. He joined Kidder in New Mexico after attending college for one semester. Wauchope also accompanied Kidder in 1927 when they attended the first Pecos conference where he met H.S and C.B Cosgrove. They were both a part of the museum staff at Harvard University. When they met Wauchope, they invited him to their 1928 and 1929 excavations at Stallings Island, Georgia. Here, he assisted them in excavating the area surrounding the Savannah River.In 1932, the Carnegie Institution for Science sent him to, once again, assist Alfred V. Kidder, but this time in Uaxactun, Guatemala. Wauchope is noted for his extensive work on house mounds here. The study of these sites is one of the most extensive of its kind, pertaining to household archaeology of the Maya area and modern Maya houses. This trip is where his earliest publications come from. His work here was the first of its kind and is still one of the most important surveys of Mayan housing that is available to archaeologists. After this excavation, he went on to do two more research trips for the Carnegie Institute. One nine-month endeavor to conduct archaeological and ethnological surveys of more Mayan houses in Yucatán, Campeche, Quintana Roo, and Guatemala. In the years 1935 and 1936, Wauchope was involved in archaeological research in the Guatemalan Highlands around Zacualpa.While teaching at the University of Georgia, Wauchope was approached by the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and was put in charge of a group of other WPA employees to conduct surveys of all known archaeological sites of Northern Georgia. He surveyed over 200 sites north of Macon, and excavated 23 sites in Macon, Savannah, Stallings Island, and at Etowah. In addition to setting up the state's first detailed archaeological site file. While he was surveying with his team, he discovered one of the most densely packed archeological sites that lie within the state of Georgia and of North America. This is called Nacoochee Valley and he spent nearly a year here before returning full time to his teaching position. He played a large part in developing the ceramic sequence for north Georgia during the two years he was there.In 1947, Wauchope decided to continue his work from the years 1935 and 1936. He returned to Zacualpa in Guatemala to finish his research of the central highlands area. He was still at Tulane University at this time and his research helped to further the Middle American Research Institute (M.A.R.I) program. After his field work in 1947, he did not participate in anymore until his final years serving as the director of the M.A.R.I program in 1974 and 1975. Even though he was not directly involved in the field work, the M.A.R.I program furthered their work in the field in Wauchope's absence. With his final work, he returned to Guatemala where he had spent much of his career. Here he studied many different cities at small sites located near Asunción Mita. Published works At Tulane, the M.A.R.I published more than 60 volumes of work. 31 of these published volumes were either edited or written by Wauchope. During the 1950s, Wauchope was asked to be the general editor of Handbook of Middle American Indians. The Handbook was assembled at Tulane. The last four of which were guides to sources on Middle American (more currently called Mesoamerican) ethnohistory. It was published by the University of Texas Press from 1964 to 1976 with Margaret Harrison and Howard F. Cline both doing additional edits to the Handbook. These 16 volumes were amongst the M.A.R.I program's most notable pieces. Many of his works come directly from his fieldwork and other research he had done over his time as an archaeologist or professor. His research done in Guatemala was amongst some of his first publications. His work was and is a part of the basis for anthropology and archaeology academia. Some of Wauchope's most well-known works include: House Mounds of Uaxactun, Guatemala; Published 1934, Modern Maya Houses: A Study of Their Archaeological Significance; Published in 1938 and Republished in 2007, Excavations at Zacualpa, Guatemala; Published in 1949, Implications of Radiocarbon Dates from Middle and South America; Published in 1954, Ten Years of Middle American Archaeology Annotated Bibliography and News Summary. 1948-1957; Published in 1961, They Found Buried Cities: Exploration and Excavation in the American Tropics; Published in 1965, Archaeological Survey of Northern Georgia with a Test of Some Cultural Hypotheses; Published in 1966, The Indian Background of Latin American History; Published in 1970, Zacuapla, El Quiche, Guatemala, An Ancient Provincial Center of the Highland Maya; Published in 1975, and Lost Tribes and Sunken Continents: Myth and Method in the Study of American Indians; Published in 1975.With all other publications, Wauchope's total number of papers, books, editor titles, and publishing director titles total up to over 200. This includes multiple pieces that were published posthumously. Many of his works were published by universities such as University of Chicago, Tulane University, and Cambridge University. See also Mesoamerica Notes References Andrews, E. Wyllys V; Margaret A.L. Harrison (January 1981). "Obituary: Robert Wauchope, 1909-1979". American Antiquity. Washington, DC: Society for American Archaeology. 46 (1): 113–127. doi:10.1017/S0002731600079476. ISSN 0002-7316. JSTOR 279990. OCLC 49976423. "textsThey found the buried cities; exploration and excavation in the American tropics". WayBackMachine. 1965. Retrieved May 1, 2019. "1 / 184 favorite share flag textsLost tribes and sunken continents: myth and method in the study of American Indians". WayBackMachine. 1975. Retrieved May 1, 2019. External links Middle American Research Institute, Tulane University

Malvern College Qingdao

Malvern College Qingdao (MCQ; Chinese: 青岛墨尔文中学) is a British international school in Chengyang District, Qingdao. It is affiliated to Malvern College in the United Kingdom, being its first overseas branch school. Malvern Qingdao opened in September 2012. In 2013 it had 140 students. As of 2015 it has about 300 students.

Malvern College Qingdao (MCQ; Chinese: 青岛墨尔文中学) is a British international school in Chengyang District, Qingdao. It is affiliated to Malvern College in the United Kingdom, being its first overseas branch school. Malvern Qingdao opened in September 2012. In 2013 it had 140 students. As of 2015 it has about 300 students. References External links Malvern College Qingdao (in Chinese) Malvern College Qingdao From Malvern College: Malvern College Qingdao Information in Chinese

Denel Aeronautics

Denel Aeronautics is the aviation and aerospace division of the state-owned Denel corporation of South Africa. It is one of the successors of the South African aviation company Atlas Aircraft Corporation. The division was created during 1992 following the acquisition and absorption of Atlas Aircraft into Denel. Initially named Denel Aviation, it was rebranded as Denel Aeronautics during 2017 following the reintegration of Denel Aerostructures. It is the manufacturer of the Rooivalk, a domestically-developed attack helicopter that had been developed by Atlas Aircraft; the company also provides support services for a wide range of aircraft, both of the former Atlas Aircraft's range and from numerous international manufacturers.

Denel Aeronautics is the aviation and aerospace division of the state-owned Denel corporation of South Africa. It is one of the successors of the South African aviation company Atlas Aircraft Corporation. The division was created during 1992 following the acquisition and absorption of Atlas Aircraft into Denel. Initially named Denel Aviation, it was rebranded as Denel Aeronautics during 2017 following the reintegration of Denel Aerostructures. It is the manufacturer of the Rooivalk, a domestically-developed attack helicopter that had been developed by Atlas Aircraft; the company also provides support services for a wide range of aircraft, both of the former Atlas Aircraft's range and from numerous international manufacturers. Denel Aeronautics is the dominant provider of aircraft maintenance and support services across various types operated by the South African Air Force; it also provides those services to other operators worldwide. History During 1992, the South African aviation company Atlas Aircraft Corporation was absorbed into Denel, a state-owned defence conglomerate. In conjunction with this restructuring, the company's name was changed to Denel Aviation, functioning as the aviation and aerospace-orientated division of Denel thereafter. During 2006, Denel Aviation was reorganised and its activities split between two separate divisions; for the most part, manufacturing activity was transferred to the newly-created Denel Aerostructures, which Denel Aviation continued to operate, specialising in aircraft servicing and maintenance. During 2017, Denel Aviation and Denel Aerostructures were reunited by their merger to form Denel Aeronautics. Denel Aeronautics' ties to the Atlas Aircraft Corporation meant that it effectively inherited various programmes that the company had been engaged in. It continued to remanufacture South African Air Force (SAAF) Dassault Mirage IIIs into the upgraded Cheetah into the late 1990s. Another such project was the in-development Rooivalk attack helicopter, which had been started amid the South African Border War of the 1980s. In concept, this attack helicopter was to escort friendly helicopter troop transports, conduct strike missions upon anti-aircraft positions, and effectively counter the increasing presence of Soviet-built tanks; in the latter role, it was to be equipped with anti-tank missiles. The Rooivalk was not a clean-design helicopter due to the significant challenges, very high cost and lengthy timescale that would have been needed; it was instead based upon one of existing designs already in service with the SAAF - the Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma. The first Rooivalk prototype performed its maiden flight on 11 February 1990.Throughout the 1990s, the South African Army were broadly supportive of the Rooivalk programme, in part as the presence of South African attack helicopters would reduce the need for large numbers of tanks to be procured and maintained. The Army thus provided funding for the Rooivalk program for a time, helping it survive the tightening budgetary constraints. The delays and escalating costs of the project were a hindrance not only to its introduction but to Rooivalk's later viability. By 1998, the year in which the first production Rooivalk was delivered to the SAAF, the lengthy development time meant that the rotorcraft was already suffering from some alleged obsolescence issues; it was an aerodynamically sound aircraft but the avionics, while advanced for the 1980s, were relatively outdated, which harmed the type's export potential. Denel Aeronautics was reportedly keen to pursue potential export opportunities for the type, such as Malaysia, the United Kingdom, and Turkey, however no such sales had emerged by 2013. The development of the Rooivalk has been credited as positively influencing the development of several South African aviation and high technology industries, leading to the creation of firms such as Aerosud and Advanced Technologies and Engineering (ATE). In 2016, Denel was reportedly proceeding with a Mk 1.1 upgrade program for the existing Rooivalk fleet; prospective improvements include the addition of a missile approach warning system and enhancements to the rotorcraft's avionics. On 15 September 2016, it was announced that Airbus Helicopters and Denel had signed a memorandum of understanding to cooperate on the SAAF modernisation program; further details on the changes included reliability and survivability improvements, an increased payload, and the replacement of obsolete targeting systems and armaments.A significant portion of Denel Aeronautics' activity has been centred around the provision of support services, both domestically and internationally. The firm has been involved in supporting the Ecuadorian Air Force in keeping its fleet of Atlas Cheetah fighter jets operational; Denel having the foremost experience of the type having been its original manufacturer as the Atlas Aircraft Corporation. Denel Aeronautics also provides maintenance services for various aircraft manufactured by other companies, including Eurocopter, Lockheed Martin, SAAB, AgustaWestland, British Aerospace and Airbus amongst others.Denel Aeronautics has built partnerships with numerous international companies. It has produced components on behalf of both major airliner manufacturers, Boeing and Airbus,. along with British engine manufacturer Rolls-Royce Plc. Denel Aeronautics has also endeavoured to cooperate with numerous local aerospace companies in its undertakings. In 2012, the firm agreed with Russian Helicopters to establish a new maintenance hub in South Africa to service its range of helicopters for the region. During 2014, a three-party collaborative agreement was signed by Denel Aerostructures, Aerosud and Airbus to create a 10-year investment plan for the development of more sophisticated manufacturing techniques; the agreement was viewed as a step towards a greater presence on the competitive global supply chain of Airbus and other original equipment manufacturers.Furthermore, Denel Aeronautics is the dominant provider of maintenance and support services for the numerous types of aircraft operated by the South African Air Force, including the Saab JAS 39 Gripen fighter, the BAE Systems Hawk trainer, the Rooivalk attack helicopter, the Atlas Oryx transport helicopter, the Lockheed C-130 Hercules tactical transport aircraft, as well as the CASA C-212 and Cessna 208 Caravan utility aircraft. References External links Denel Aviation official website

Stanley (vehicle)

Stanley is an autonomous car created by Stanford University's Stanford Racing Team in cooperation with the Volkswagen Electronics Research Laboratory (ERL). It won the 2005 DARPA Grand Challenge, earning the Stanford Racing Team a $2 million prize.

Stanley is an autonomous car created by Stanford University's Stanford Racing Team in cooperation with the Volkswagen Electronics Research Laboratory (ERL). It won the 2005 DARPA Grand Challenge, earning the Stanford Racing Team a $2 million prize. The Stanford racing team Led by Associate Professor Sebastian Thrun, director of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Lab, the Stanford Racing Team was developed solely for the purpose of competing in the 2005 DARPA Grand Challenge. Stanford did not participate in the 2004 DARPA Grand Challenge and was considered to have 20:1 chances of winning the 2005 competition. The car is currently located at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. It was displayed at the 2006 New York International Auto Show and two years at the Volkswagen Autostadt Museum (Germany). The Stanford Racing Team entered a new vehicle, a modified Volkswagen Touareg wagon, dubbed "Junior", in the 2007 DARPA Urban Challenge. Other key contributors on the team include Michael Montemerlo (software lead), Sven Strohband (lead hardware engineer), David Stavens (roboticist/engineer), Hendrik Dahlkamp (computer vision lead), Cedric Dupont (vehicle lead), and Pamela Mahoney (communications lead). Construction The car began as a standard European diesel model Volkswagen Touareg provided by Volkswagen's ERL for the competition. The Stanford Racing Team chose the Touareg for its "drive by wire" control system which could be adapted (and was done so by the ERL) to be run directly from an onboard computer without the use of actuators or servo motors; however, the steering wheel was driven by an electric motor and the gear shifting accomplished with a hydraulic piston).For navigation, the car was equipped with five roof-mounted Sick AG LIDAR units to build a 3-D map of the environment, thus supplementing the position sensing GPS system. An internal guidance system utilizing gyroscopes and accelerometers monitored the orientation of the vehicle and also served to supplement GPS and other sensor data. Additional guidance data was provided by a video camera used to observe driving conditions out to eighty meters (beyond the range of the LIDAR) and to ensure room enough for acceleration. Stanley also had sensors installed in a wheel well to record a pattern imprinted on the tire and to act as an odometer in case of loss of signal (such as when driving through a tunnel). Using the data from this sensor, the onboard computer can extrapolate how far it has traveled since the signal was lost.To process the sensor data and execute decisions, the car was equipped with six low-power 1.6 GHz Intel Pentium M based computers in the trunk, running different versions of the Linux operating system. Programming The School of Engineering developed the 100,000 lines of software to interpret sensor data and execute navigation decisions. Using what Popular Mechanics described a "common robot hierarchy", the vehicle utilizes "low-level modules fed raw data from LIDAR, the camera, GPS sets, and inertial sensors into software programs [to control] speed, direction, and decision making.The vehicle featured a machine learning based approach to obstacle detection. Data from the LIDARs was fused with images from the vision system to perform a distant look-ahead. If a path of drivable terrain could not be detected for at least 40 meters in front of the vehicle, speed was decreased and the LIDARs were used to locate a safe passage. To correct common errors made by the vehicle early in its development, the Stanford Racing Team created a log of "human reactions and decisions" and fed the data into a learning algorithm tied to the vehicle's controls; this action served to reduce errors. The computer log of humans driving also made the car more accurate in detecting shadows, a problem that had caused many of the vehicle failures in the 2004 DARPA Grand Challenge. See also Simultaneous localization and mapping References External links Original Stanley Team Page Summary of technical papers with movies on Stanley Current Stanford Racing Team Pittsburgh Post Gazette article on the DARPA Grand Challenge 2005 Scientific American article on the DARPA Grand Challenge. Wired Magazine article on the DARPA Grand Challenge. Popular Science article on the DARPA Grand Challenge. PBS' NOVA show on the DARPA Grand Challenge Google TechTalk by Sebastian Thrun on winning the DARPA Grand Challenge Sebastian Thrun interviewed by Christian Grant on Executive Talks Archived 2021-04-01 at the Wayback Machine

Salvador Debenedetti

Salvador Santiago Lorenzo Debenedetti (March 2, 1884 – September 30, 1930) was an Argentine archaeologist, anthropologist and educator. He was involved in the restoration of Pucará de Tilcara, an ancient fortification in what today is Jujuy Province. He was also the originator of Student's Day in Argentina, an informal holiday celebrated on September 21.

Salvador Santiago Lorenzo Debenedetti (March 2, 1884 – September 30, 1930) was an Argentine archaeologist, anthropologist and educator. He was involved in the restoration of Pucará de Tilcara, an ancient fortification in what today is Jujuy Province. He was also the originator of Student's Day in Argentina, an informal holiday celebrated on September 21. Biography He was born to Lucia Amoretti and Bernardo Debenedetti, a soft drink manufacturer, in the southern Buenos Aires suburb of Avellaneda, in Argentina's Buenos Aires Province. Debenedetti attended secondary school at the San José Academy, and enrolled at the University of Buenos Aires School of Letters, where he became a protégé of Professor Juan Bautista Ambrosetti. Elected president of the student body in 1902, Debenedetti persuaded the school's regents to adopt a Student's Day. He later earned a Doctor of Philosophy and Letters in 1909, as succeeded his mentor as both curator of the Pucará de Tilcara ruins, and of the university's Museum of Ethnography.He was invited to join the International Congress of Americanists, as Ambrosetti had been, during the group's 1929 symposium in Paris. Upon his death in 1930, his ashes were buried alongside Ambrosetti's at the foot of the Tilcara ruins. == References ==

Chengdu Culture Park

The Chengdu Culture Park (Chinese: 成都文化公园) is an urban park in the city of Chengdu, Sichuan, China.The park is located at West Section 2, 1st Ring Road, near the Qingyang Taoist Temple and Wenjun Qintai Park. It covers 71,326 m2 with greenery, a lake, large stones, statues, a teahouse, and towers. In the early 1950s, the city government created an avenue on paddy fields near Qingyang Temple to exhibit and trade flowers. Following the eighth flower exhibition, the avenue was converted into the Qingyang Temple Garden, with surrounding walls. In 1966, the park was renamed by the city government as the Chengdu Culture Park.

The Chengdu Culture Park (Chinese: 成都文化公园) is an urban park in the city of Chengdu, Sichuan, China.The park is located at West Section 2, 1st Ring Road, near the Qingyang Taoist Temple and Wenjun Qintai Park. It covers 71,326 m2 with greenery, a lake, large stones, statues, a teahouse, and towers. In the early 1950s, the city government created an avenue on paddy fields near Qingyang Temple to exhibit and trade flowers. Following the eighth flower exhibition, the avenue was converted into the Qingyang Temple Garden, with surrounding walls. In 1966, the park was renamed by the city government as the Chengdu Culture Park. Features at the park include the Relief Art Wall, the Shi’er Qiao Martyrs’ Tombs, and the Zhiji Rock and Octagonal Pavilion. See also Tianfu Art Park, Chengdu References External links Media related to Chengdu Culture Park at Wikimedia Commons!-- in particular -->

Paul Joseph Watson

Paul Joseph Watson (born 24 May 1982) is a British right wing YouTuber, radio host, and conspiracy theorist. Until July 2016, Watson embraced the label "alt-right", but he now identifies as part of the New Right. In May 2019, Facebook and Instagram permanently banned Watson for violation of hate speech policies.Watson's career emerged through his work for conspiracy theorist and radio host Alex Jones. As editor-at-large of Jones' website InfoWars, he helped promote fake news and advocated for 9/11, chemtrail, and New World Order conspiracy theories. Subsequently, reaching a significant audience, both Watson and Jones altered their focus.

Paul Joseph Watson (born 24 May 1982) is a British right wing YouTuber, radio host, and conspiracy theorist. Until July 2016, Watson embraced the label "alt-right", but he now identifies as part of the New Right. In May 2019, Facebook and Instagram permanently banned Watson for violation of hate speech policies.Watson's career emerged through his work for conspiracy theorist and radio host Alex Jones. As editor-at-large of Jones' website InfoWars, he helped promote fake news and advocated for 9/11, chemtrail, and New World Order conspiracy theories. Subsequently, reaching a significant audience, both Watson and Jones altered their focus. They now mainly focus on criticizing feminism, Islam, and left-wing politics. Watson also contributes to InfoWars's talk radio program The Alex Jones Show, which he occasionally hosts or co-hosts. Watson has been working at InfoWars since October 2002.Since 2011, Watson has hosted his own YouTube channel, prisonplanetlive, on which he expresses his views on topics such as contemporary society, politics, and modern liberalism in an often mocking manner. He rose to prominence on his YouTube channel by criticizing and mocking the "woke mob", social justice warriors, feminism and anti-racist movements. As of May 2023, his channel has over 1.9 million subscribers. Early life In a 2016 interview for a student newspaper in his native Sheffield, UK, Watson said he grew up on a council estate with few financial resources, and that by 18, he was teetotal and exercising three hours per day. However, a 2018 article for The Daily Beast said his birth certificate indicated the family lived in a house in Grenoside, a suburban district in the north of the city, which the Sheffield City Council stated they never owned. From just before the age of ten, Watson and his family lived in Loxley, another area of Sheffield.Watson described his formative moment as when, at the age of 18, he watched The Secret Rulers of the World, a documentary in which journalist Jon Ronson accompanied Alex Jones in infiltrating Bohemian Grove in California, a place where some conspiracy theorists believe global elites plot the New World Order. He has described British conspiracy theorist David Icke, whom he first read as a teenager, as the person who woke him up. After the release of the Ronson documentary, Watson launched his own website called Propaganda Matrix. In 2004, he registered Global Propaganda Matrix as the company responsible for his website. According to Watson, he was initially invited to contribute by Alex Jones in 2002 and rapidly gained substantial compensation for his work on InfoWars, as stated by the former spouse of the site's founder. Political self-identification Watson, along with Jones and InfoWars as a whole, has shifted from mainly commenting on conspiracy theories such as chemtrails, the New World Order and the Illuminati, to increasingly criticising feminism, Islam, and left-wing politics. Watson has been described as a member of "the new far-right" by The New York Times, which wrote in August 2017 that his "videos are straightforward nativist polemics, with a particular focus on Europe" and convey his opposition to modernist architecture and modern art. Iman Abou Atta, director of the anti-Islamophobia group Tell MAMA, has said that Watson "has become 'the' nexus for anti-Muslim accounts that we have mapped... He has become an influencer in promoting information—much of it bizarre and untrue—which has been regurgitated by anti-Muslim and anti-migrant accounts time and time again."Watson previously described himself as a libertarian and supported Ron Paul in the 2012 presidential election. In a 2016 tweet, he said he no longer considered himself a libertarian because Gary Johnson "made the term an embarrassment." Watson has also called himself a conservative and considers modern-day conservatism a countercultural movement. In a November 2016 Facebook post, he differentiated between the New Right and the alt-right. He claimed that the alt-right "likes to fester in dark corners of subreddits and obsess about Jews, racial superiority and Adolf Hitler." He and Mike Cernovich have feuded with figures such as Richard B. Spencer and David Duke, who see white nationalism as necessary for the alt-right.Although he endorsed Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election, Watson declared in a tweet on 6 April 2017, he was "officially OFF the Trump train" after Trump's decision to launch missile strikes on Syria in response to a Khan Shaykhun chemical attack several days earlier, believing Trump had reneged on his promise not to intervene in Syria. He said Trump was "just another deep state/Neo-con puppet". After a decrease in Twitter followers occurred, he denied he had "turned on Trump", saying he was only "off the Trump train in terms of Syria" and blaming the media for "fake news". He declared in a separate tweet he would shift his focus to ensuring French presidential candidate Marine Le Pen of the National Front would be elected in the 2017 election, which she lost. Donald Trump Jr. retweeted Watson's reference to French celebrities leaving France if Le Pen was elected and referred dismissively to similar reputed claims in the U.S. before Trump Sr. was elected.On 16 June 2018, Watson announced that he had joined the UK Independence Party along with Mark Meechan and Carl Benjamin. In traditional media In 2016, Watson was an early proponent of allegations that Hillary Clinton suffers from numerous serious medical conditions, though he was unable to provide any evidence. Watson's part in the manufacture and dissemination of the rumour was taken up by the National Enquirer and mentioned in the mainstream media as part of a discussion of the role of rumour and conspiracy theory in the 2016 U.S. presidential election.In February 2017, Watson tweeted an offer to pay for a journalist to visit Sweden and stay in the "crime ridden migrant suburbs" of Malmö, if they think it would be safe. Many journalists took him up on the offer, and Watson chose New York journalist and videographer Tim Pool, who was already planning a similar investigation. Watson gave Pool $2,000 for the trip. Pool's findings contradicted Watson's claims.At a November 2018 White House press briefing, persistent questioning of Trump led an intern to attempt to take a microphone from the hand of CNN's Jim Acosta. Acosta's White House press credentials were subsequently revoked, allegedly for having "put his hands" on the intern. Watson uploaded an edited version of the original footage in support of this claim. In this version, zoom and frame rate changes create the misleading impression that Acosta had behaved aggressively towards the intern.Watson confirmed that he had applied a zoom and denied making any other alterations, though expert analysis confirmed that "the clip repeats several frames that do not appear in the original footage" and that it had been sped up. The video has generally been described as doctored, though some experts concluded that the changes do not necessarily represent deliberate manipulation but could be artefacts of accidental degradation during processing. White House Press Secretary Sarah Huckabee Sanders pointed to the video that Watson posted as clearly documenting Acosta's "inappropriate behaviour". The White House was criticised for sharing a doctored video and thereby spreading "actual fake news" rather than using the original footage. A subsequent court ruling found that the action against Acosta was unconstitutional on due process grounds.On 2 May 2019, Watson and several other people considered to be extremists, including Nation of Islam leader Louis Farrakhan, Jones, and right-wing commentator Milo Yiannopoulos, were permanently banned from Facebook, which called them "dangerous". "We've always banned individuals or organizations that promote or engage in violence and hate, regardless of ideology", a Facebook spokesperson said. "The process for evaluating potential violators is extensive and it is what led us to our decision to remove these accounts today." Watson tweeted that he had broken "none of their rules" and complained of "an authoritarian society controlled by a handful of Silicon Valley giants" in which "all dissent must be purged." Trump retweeted Watson, mocking the "dangerous" epithet. Views Immigration Watson is anti-immigration. He has claimed that "Malmö is known as 'Sweden's Chicago'" due to mass immigration into the country. According to a study published in Critical Studies in Media Communication, this claim is false.In 2022, Watson criticised French president Emmanuel Macron and France's African migrant communities following the murder of a Jewish man in Paris. Islam Watson is opposed to Islam. He has labelled Muslim culture "horrific" and declared that it produces mass rape, "Islamic ghettos" and the destruction of Western culture. Watson has said that the western world needs "Islam control" rather than gun control. In an InfoWars article, Watson wrote, "Muslims living in both the Middle East and the west show alarmingly high levels of support for violent jihad" and that there is "violent oppression of gays and Christians in the Middle East". In August 2017, he said that YouTube had blocked monetisation on all his videos about Islam as part of the website's policies dealing with hate speech, and on other subjects including modern art. Race and ethnicity Watson has criticised perceived racial tokenism. In 2017, he criticised the BBC for "portraying Roman Britain as ethnically diverse" after the broadcaster included a black Roman centurion in an educational cartoon. His criticism was contradicted by Mary Beard and Cambridge's Faculty of Classics, saying there was overwhelming evidence that Roman Britain was a multi-ethnic society.In May 2022, Byline Times and the Southern Poverty Law Center published an account of a recording apparently of Watson at a party saying: "I really think you should press the button to wipe Jews off the face of the Earth" and making other homophobic and racist comments, such as saying: "I care about white people and not sand nigger Paki Jew faggot coons". The recording has been confirmed by three secondary sources. In response, Joe Mulhall of Hope not Hate said that while Watson was careful to follow social media platform moderation policy, it was not surprising that he would express such views in private. References External links Paul Joseph Watson's channel on YouTube Paul Joseph Watson on Twitter Paul Joseph Watson at IMDb

List of fatal bear attacks in North America

Fatal bear attacks in North America have occurred in a variety of settings. There have been several in wilderness habitats of bears involving hikers, hunters, and campers. Brown bear (Ursus arctos, a subspecies of which is known as the grizzly bear, Ursus arctos horribilis) incidents have occurred in its native range spanning Alaska, Northern Canada, and Western Canada, and portions of the Rocky Mountains in the United States. The locations of black bear wilderness fatal attacks reflect its wider range. Bears held captive by animal trainers, in zoos or carnivals, or kept as pets, have been responsible for several attacks.

Fatal bear attacks in North America have occurred in a variety of settings. There have been several in wilderness habitats of bears involving hikers, hunters, and campers. Brown bear (Ursus arctos, a subspecies of which is known as the grizzly bear, Ursus arctos horribilis) incidents have occurred in its native range spanning Alaska, Northern Canada, and Western Canada, and portions of the Rocky Mountains in the United States. The locations of black bear wilderness fatal attacks reflect its wider range. Bears held captive by animal trainers, in zoos or carnivals, or kept as pets, have been responsible for several attacks. There have also been unusual cases in which a person entered a bear's cage and was then mauled. Bear attacks are rare in North America. Attacks are for predatory, territorial, or protective reasons. Most wilderness attacks have occurred when there were only one or two people in the vicinity.In this list, three species of bears are recognized: the brown bear, the black bear (Ursus americanus), and the polar bear (Ursus maritimus). 2020s Black bear Brown bear Polar bear 2010s Black bear Brown bear Polar bear 2000s Black bear Brown bear 1990s Black bear Brown bear Polar bear 1980s Black bear Brown bear Polar bear 1970s Black bear Brown bear Polar bear 1960s Black bear Brown bear Polar bear 1950s Black bear Brown bear 1940s Black bear Brown bear 1930s Black bear Brown bear 1920s Black bear Brown bear 1910s Brown bear 1900s Black bear 1890s Brown bear 1880s Black bear Brown bear 1870s Brown bear 1860s Brown bear 1850s Brown bear 1830s Brown bear 1780s Black bear Maps See also Bear attacks Bear danger Binky (polar bear) Stephen Herrero List of fatal bear attacks in EuropeSpecies: List of fatal cougar attacks in North America List of fatal alligator attacks in the United States Coyote attacks on humans List of wolf attacks in North America Fatal dog attacks in the United States == References ==

Matthew S. Johnson

Matthew Stanley Johnson (born 14 December 1966) is an American atmospheric chemistry scientist at the Department of Chemistry at the University of Copenhagen. Johnson has made contributions to several areas of chemistry, including kinetics, spectroscopy, isotope effects and application of atmospheric chemistry knowledge to air pollution control systems.Johnson studied chemistry at Macalester College, Saint Paul, Minnesota. In 1995, he was awarded a PhD in Chemistry for his thesis Spectroscopy of Reactive Molecules and Clusters by the California Institute of Technology, Caltech. After working at Bridgeman's, the Boy Scouts of America, Honeywell, Medtronic and Caltech he was awarded Fulbright Fellowship for research at the MAX-Lab accelerator at the Swedish University of Lund, and in 1998 became an assistant professor at the University of Copenhagen. In the field of kinetics he coordinates the Nordic Network for Chemical Kinetics (NoNeCK), he has twelve filed patents and over 140 publications in international peer-reviewed scientific journals.

Matthew Stanley Johnson (born 14 December 1966) is an American atmospheric chemistry scientist at the Department of Chemistry at the University of Copenhagen. Johnson has made contributions to several areas of chemistry, including kinetics, spectroscopy, isotope effects and application of atmospheric chemistry knowledge to air pollution control systems.Johnson studied chemistry at Macalester College, Saint Paul, Minnesota. In 1995, he was awarded a PhD in Chemistry for his thesis Spectroscopy of Reactive Molecules and Clusters by the California Institute of Technology, Caltech. After working at Bridgeman's, the Boy Scouts of America, Honeywell, Medtronic and Caltech he was awarded Fulbright Fellowship for research at the MAX-Lab accelerator at the Swedish University of Lund, and in 1998 became an assistant professor at the University of Copenhagen. In the field of kinetics he coordinates the Nordic Network for Chemical Kinetics (NoNeCK), he has twelve filed patents and over 140 publications in international peer-reviewed scientific journals. In 2012, Johnson and Harnung published their book titled "Chemistry and the Environment". Johnson has helped establish a series of clean tech companies including Infuser, Airlabs, Rensair, DevLabs, AirScape, Ambient Carbon and Luper Tech. Selected publications Johnson, M. S., Kuwata, K. T., Wong, C. K., & Okumura, M. (1996). Vibrational spectrum of I−(H2O). Chemical Physics Letters, 260(5-6), 551-557. Ueno, Y., Johnson, M. S., Danielache, S. O., Eskebjerg, C., Pandey, A., & Yoshida, N. (2009). Geological sulfur isotopes indicate elevated OCS in the Archean atmosphere, solving faint young sun paradox. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(35), 14784-14789. Schmidt, J. A., Johnson, M. S., & Schinke, R. (2013). Carbon dioxide photolysis from 150 to 210 nm: Singlet and triplet channel dynamics, UV-spectrum, and isotope effects. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(44), 17691-17696. Lynggaard, C., Bertelsen, M. F., Jensen, C. V., Johnson, M. S., Frøslev, T. G., Olsen, M. T., & Bohmann, K. (2022). Airborne environmental DNA for terrestrial vertebrate community monitoring. Current Biology, 32(3), 701-707. Li, Q., Meidan, D., Hess, P., Añel, J.A., Cuevas, C.A., Doney, S., Fernandez, R.P., van Herpen, M., Höglund-Isaksson, L., Johnson, M.S. and Kinnison, D.E., 2023. Global environmental implications of atmospheric methane removal through chlorine-mediated chemistry-climate interactions. Nature Communications, 14(1), p.4045. References External links Home page Matthew S. Johnson publications indexed by Google Scholar

George Abbot (author)

George Abbot or Abbott (1604 – 2 February 1649) was an English lay writer, known as "The Puritan", and a politician who sat in the House of Commons in two periods between 1640 and 1649. He is known also for his part in defending Caldecote House against royalist forces in the early days of the English Civil War.

George Abbot or Abbott (1604 – 2 February 1649) was an English lay writer, known as "The Puritan", and a politician who sat in the House of Commons in two periods between 1640 and 1649. He is known also for his part in defending Caldecote House against royalist forces in the early days of the English Civil War. Life Abbott was the son of George Abbott of York (died 1607) and his wife Joan Penkeston. While Alumni Cantabrigienses states that he matriculated at King's College, Cambridge in 1622, the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography discounts the identification, for lack of evidence. He owned property in Baddesley Clinton, Warwickshire, and was a good friend of Richard Vines, minister at Caldecote some way to the east. In April 1640, he was elected as a Member of Parliament (MP) for Tamworth in the Short Parliament. In the English Civil War, Abbot worked closely in Warwickshire with his stepfather William Purefoy, and made a notable defence, with his mother Joan, of the Purefoy house at Caldecote, Warwickshire, gaining the family coverage in the London press. On 15 August 1642, with eight men, his mother and maids, he held out for a time against Prince Rupert of the Rhine, with about 18 troops of horses and dragoons. In the aftermath of the Battle of Edgehill, in October of the same year, Richard Baxter moved to Coventry, and Abbot was one of those hearing him preach there. Baxter in writing on the Sabbath referred to "my dear friend Mr. George Abbot". In his memoirs Reliquiæ Baxterianæ, Baxter placed Abbot's defence of Caldecote House, where barns were burnt, in local context: royalists under Spencer Compton, 2nd Earl of Northampton were attacking Warwick Castle, defended by John Bridges, and Coventry, defended by John Barker.Abbot was re-elected MP for Tamworth in 1645 for the Long Parliament and held the seat until his death in 1649. He died unmarried in his 44th year, and was buried in Caldecote church where his monument describes his defence of Caldecote. Legacy By his will, Abbot endowed a free school at Caldecote. It was supported by land left to it at Baddesley Ensor. Works Abbot was a lay theologian and scholar. His Whole Booke of Job Paraphrased, or made easy for any to understand (1640), was written in a terse style, and his Vindiciae Sabbathi (1641) influenced the Sabbatarian controversy. His The Whole Book of Psalms Paraphrased (1650) was published posthumously by Richard Vines, and dedicated to Joan Purefoy, his mother. Mistaken identifications Abbot has been confused with others of the same name and has been described as a clergyman, which he never was. His writings have been incorrectly attributed in some bibliographical authorities to a relation of George Abbot the archbishop of Canterbury. One of the sons of Sir Morris Abbot called George was also an MP in the Long Parliament but for the constituency of Guildford. Notes References Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Abbot, George" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 23. Endnotes: MS.collections at Abbeyville for history of all of the name of Abbot, by J.T. Abbot, Esq., F.S.A., Darlington; William Dugdale, Antiquities of Warwickshire, 1730 p. 1099; Anthony à Wood, Athenae Oxonienses (Bliss), ii.141, 594; Cox, Literature of the Sabbath. Grosart, Alexander Balloch (1885). "Abbot, George (1603-1648)" . In Stephen, Leslie (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 1. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 20–21. Willis, Browne (1750). Notitia Parliamentaria, Part II: A Series or Lists of the Representatives in the several Parliaments held from the Reformation 1541, to the Restoration 1660 ... London. pp. 229, 236 240, 249. External links Works by George Abbot at Post-Reformation Digital Library

The Children's Trust

The Children's Trust is the UK's leading charity for children with brain injury. The Children's Trust runs a range of specialist care, education and therapy services for children and young people from across the UK, including the UK's largest rehabilitation centre for children with acquired brain injury (ABI) and is based at Tadworth Court, Tadworth, Surrey within the M25 motorway. The Children's Trust's celebrity Ambassadors are David Walliams, Richard Hammond, Phil Tufnell, Joely Richardson, Adam Hills, Jenni Falconer, Amanda Burton, Elaine Paige, Holly Valance, Sophia Warner, Nicholas Owen and Jacqueline Gold.In 2012 The Children's Trust launched an online support centre for families of children affected by acquired brain injury - The Brain Injury Hub Archived 2020-10-05 at the Wayback Machine. This website offers a wealth of practical advice and information about a condition that's often misunderstood. There is also an online forum giving families the opportunity to share their stories and experiences.

The Children's Trust is the UK's leading charity for children with brain injury. The Children's Trust runs a range of specialist care, education and therapy services for children and young people from across the UK, including the UK's largest rehabilitation centre for children with acquired brain injury (ABI) and is based at Tadworth Court, Tadworth, Surrey within the M25 motorway. The Children's Trust's celebrity Ambassadors are David Walliams, Richard Hammond, Phil Tufnell, Joely Richardson, Adam Hills, Jenni Falconer, Amanda Burton, Elaine Paige, Holly Valance, Sophia Warner, Nicholas Owen and Jacqueline Gold.In 2012 The Children's Trust launched an online support centre for families of children affected by acquired brain injury - The Brain Injury Hub Archived 2020-10-05 at the Wayback Machine. This website offers a wealth of practical advice and information about a condition that's often misunderstood. There is also an online forum giving families the opportunity to share their stories and experiences. In May 2022 a coroner criticised The Children's Trust over the death of a five-year-old while under its care. An inquest concluded Connor Wellsted died in 2017 following "entrapment by a loose cot bumper" at the Children's Trust facility in Tadworth, Surrey. Coroner Dr Karen Henderson also criticised the trust for what she said was a "lack of transparency" over the death. The Children's Trust is a UK registered charity, number 288018. Services The Children's Trust's services include: Residential rehabilitation for children with an acquired brain injury Therapy-led support in the community for children with an acquired brain injury Special education for pupils with profound and multiple learning difficulties, or PMLD, at The Children's Trust School, Tadworth Residential short breaks Transitional care for children who are technology dependent (e.g. require long-term ventilation or have a tracheostomy) Palliative care The Brain Injury Hub (www.braininjuryhub.co.uk) - an information website and discussion forum for parents of children with acquired brain injury as well as teachers and health professionals. Awards Recent awards won by The Children's Trust: Quality Improvement Award (Top Hospitals 2019) Institute of Fundraising Best use of data and insight in a small to medium charity (Insight in Fundraising Awards 2019) Highly Commended, 2019 BMA Patient Information Awards for Brain Injury Community Service animation and leaflet. Highly Commended, 2019 BMA Patient Information Awards, Concussion in children and young people booklet Winner 2018 BMA Patient Information Awards User Engagement Award Charity Shop of the Year (Charity Retail Awards) History From 1927 until 1983, Tadworth Court was the country branch of Great Ormond Street Hospital. In 1984, the Department of Health transferred management control to the newly created charity, The Children's Trust. Tadworth Court was the manor house of the manor of Tadworth which lay within the parish of Banstead, by Banstead Downs, a horse-racing racecourse in the 17th century. Banstead was well known as an airing place at this period, where Londoners sought fresh air, being 600 feet above sea level. The attractions of Epsom Spa to the west prompted the first settlements other than isolated farmhouses on this part of the widest section of the North Downs stretching from Banstead village to Walton-on-the-Hill to the south. Tadworth Court on the south of the site is a listed building for architecture in the highest category as a country house of circa 1700, with "rustic quoins, stone dressings (renderings)..steep (and richly decorated) pediment....high panelling and rococo plasterwork...Boxed room with early C10 panelling,". Nikolaus Pevsner described it as a ’splendid house’ and ’one of the most elegant in the whole country’. He was amazed that such a house so close to London was virtually unknown — no pictures of the house are known before the 20th century. The owners of the house: The first owner, Leonard Wessel, a merchant, purchased the estate in 1694. He was Sheriff of the County in 1700 and a Member of Parliament in 1701. Whilst of a Dutch family, his great grandfather was born in England in 1557. Recent work to the house revealed that it does not incorporate an earlier building, but in common with all buildings of this period contains some reused beams due to the growing shortage of timber. 1694 is the likely construction date of the house and by 1698 the Banstead Court Rolls record that Wessel applied for leave ’to plant rows of trees on the Heath, fronting his dwelling house and leading towards the Warren.’ One of these, a large poplar, survived until the 19th century. Wessel died in 1708. The house appears on contemporary maps, and Celia Fiennes in 1712 describes it as one of ’several good houses in or about Epsham’, though by then in the possession of Sir Thomas Scawen, Alderman of London, his brother-in-law. References External links Official website The Brain Injury Hub Archived 2020-10-05 at the Wayback Machine Josh's Story (as seen on BBC's Children in Need) BBC TV news story about a girl who has received residential rehabilitation at The Children's Trust following a stroke aged six Article from The Guardian newspaper about the highly specialised education offered by St Margaret's School at The Children's Trust Article from The Sunday Times Magazine about The Children's Trust's services

Pesäpallo

Pesäpallo (Finnish pronunciation: [ˈpesæˌpɑlːo]; Swedish: boboll, both names literally meaning "nest ball", colloquially known in Finnish as pesis, also referred to as Finnish baseball) is a fast-moving bat-and-ball sport that is often referred to as the national sport of Finland and has some presence in other countries including Germany, Sweden, Switzerland, Australia, and Canada's northern Ontario (the latter two countries have significant Nordic populations). It is similar to brännboll, rounders, and lapta, as well as baseball. Pesäpallo is a combination of traditional ball-batting team games and North American baseball, invented by Lauri "Tahko" Pihkala in the 1920s. It has changed with the times and grown in popularity. On 14 November 1920, it was played the first time at Kaisaniemi Park in Helsinki.The basic idea of pesäpallo is similar to that of baseball: The offense tries to score by hitting the ball successfully and running through the bases, while the defense tries to put the batter and runners out.

Pesäpallo (Finnish pronunciation: [ˈpesæˌpɑlːo]; Swedish: boboll, both names literally meaning "nest ball", colloquially known in Finnish as pesis, also referred to as Finnish baseball) is a fast-moving bat-and-ball sport that is often referred to as the national sport of Finland and has some presence in other countries including Germany, Sweden, Switzerland, Australia, and Canada's northern Ontario (the latter two countries have significant Nordic populations). It is similar to brännboll, rounders, and lapta, as well as baseball. Pesäpallo is a combination of traditional ball-batting team games and North American baseball, invented by Lauri "Tahko" Pihkala in the 1920s. It has changed with the times and grown in popularity. On 14 November 1920, it was played the first time at Kaisaniemi Park in Helsinki.The basic idea of pesäpallo is similar to that of baseball: The offense tries to score by hitting the ball successfully and running through the bases, while the defense tries to put the batter and runners out. One of the most important differences between pesäpallo and baseball is that the ball is pitched vertically, which makes hitting the ball, as well as controlling the power and direction of the hit, much easier. This gives the offensive game more variety, speed, and tactical aspects compared to baseball. The fielding team is forced to counter the batter's choices with defensive schemes and anticipation. The manager has an important role in pesäpallo, leading the offense by giving signals to the players using a multicoloured fan. The defensive team play is directed by the manager's orders and hand signals by the fielders.Pesäpallo was a demonstration sport at the 1952 Summer Olympics, held in Helsinki, Finland. Rules A regular pesäpallo game is played in two periods of four innings each. A period is won by the team which scores more runs in its offensive half-innings. If the periods are tied, there will be an extra inning; if needed, there is a round (similar to a penalty shoot-out) where each team tries to bring a player home from the third base.During an inning, both teams take turns playing offense (batting) and defense (fielding).The defensive team has nine players on the field. The offensive team can use three jokers (similar to designated hitters) during one half-inning in addition to the nine players in the regular batting order. The offensive team can continue batting until three players have been put out or one round of the batting order has been completed without at least two runs scored. The batter and the pitcher face each other in the home base, on opposite sides of the circular plate. The pitch is delivered by throwing the ball directly upwards above the plate, at least one meter over the head of the pitcher.The batter has three strikes available during their turn at bat. A fair hit does not require the batter to reach base; all three strikes can be used before the batter must reach first base. A pitch counts as a strike if the batter takes a swing at the ball and the umpire rules the pitch legal. When a batter makes a fair hit, unless it is the third strike, the batter does not have to try to advance safely to the first base. However, if the batter hits a foul ball on the third strike and does not try to advance, only that player is out and the runners continue with the next batter. If the pitcher delivers two bad pitches (ball), the batter is granted a walk to the first base only if all bases are unoccupied. If there are runners on the field, the point runner (the runner at the highest-numbered base) is granted a walk to the next base for the second and all consecutive bad pitches pitched for the same hitter. A pitch can be ruled bad for various reasons, most common ones being that the ball does not fall on the plate or that the pitch is not thrown high enough.A hit is foul if the ball first touches the field outside of the boundaries, the batter or the runners cannot advance on a foul hit. If a fielder catches the ball before it reaches the ground, the hit is a "catch", and all runners who tried to advance on that play are caught. Players who have been caught are removed from the field, but they do not count as outs. The runner reaches safety on a base by touching the base area before the ball is thrown to a fielder in the base. If the ball gets to the base first, the runner is put out and removed from the field. The batter is also put out if the third strike is foul. A runner on a base is forced to advance if the next runner reaches safety on the same base.The offensive team scores a run when a runner returns safely to the home base after advancing through all three field bases. If a batter advances to the third base on their batted ball, it is a "home run". He can then stay on the third base and try to score again as a regular runner by reaching the home base on a later play. Differences from baseball The most significant differences from baseball are: The first bounce of the ball is decisive: It must bounce within the play area, and may then roll over a line and still be in play. The back line on the fly counts as a laiton (literally "illegal", a foul ball). The foul lines are also on the sides and the front of the field. So if a player aims high and hits a very hard hit that would be a certain home run in baseball, it is counted as a foul in pesäpallo. This increases the tactical approach. All home runs, therefore, are the "inside-the-park" variety. Catching a ball in flight is not an out, but forces all runners advancing at the moment of the catch to attempt to reach the next base. If they succeed they must return to home base with no further consequences (this is called a haava, literally "a wound" or simply koppi, "a catch"). If they fail to reach the next base, they are out. Instead of a "batter's box", the home plate serves as a pitching plate, which is round with a diameter of 60 centimetres (24 in). All other batting team players stand in a semicircle near the batter. Players generally have little difficulty hitting the ball, so the main target is not just hitting the ball but selecting a suitable type of hit and directing it correctly. There are many different types of hits used, here are a few examples: Snap (short) hit: Normally used for advancing fast runners between bases, aimed to avoid defensive players. Usually hit in such way that the ball takes a hard spin. Fly hit: An intentional high hit to be caught, often used to give way for faster runners. High drive: Aimed to drop to the field between midfield and outfield, with a top spin. Excellent for scoring. Bouncer: Used for advancing fast runners, hit downwards very hard to be bounced right next to the front arc. Aimed towards the base runner is leaving, or to the center. Technically very hard to perform, used only by advanced players. A home run is scored if a batter advances to the third base on his own fair hit. After a home run, the runner will stay at third base and can later score an additional point by advancing from third to fourth base. Walking requires fewer invalid pitches. When the field is empty of runners, one invalid pitch grants a walk, otherwise two. After two invalid pitches, each such pitch grants another walk. A walk advances the point runner; if there is a runner at third base, that player shall score. A fair hit does not force the batter to advance; he can use all three strikes at bat before he becomes a runner. A pitch counts as a strike, if the batter takes a swing at the ball or if the umpire rules the pitch legal. "Force outs" are always outs: if the runner is off the base and the ball is in the control of a defensive player at the next base, the runner is out. The bases are not laid in a diamond shape; the players have to 'zig zag' the court (see chart). When entering a base or the home base, the runner only has to cross the line of the base; there are no actual cushion bases like in baseball, only lines in the field showing each base's boundaries (a much larger area compared to the bases used in baseball). Similarly, the pitcher or the fielders in the bases do not have any plates to touch to make an out; having only a foot in the base is enough. The attacking team uses a colour-coded fan to signal the runners when to move. The fan is multicoloured, held by the coach of the team. Colour sequence is decided prior to the game. Players The team playing the defensive half has nine players in the field. The pitcher is positioned in the home base. A catcher plays in the infield on the side of the second base. Each of the three bases has its baseman and an additional two shortstops playing close to the second and third bases. Two outfielders cover the outfield. Players can switch their places and position themselves to the field wherever they want. Different positioning is used in different situations, when the defensive team can expect a certain type of hit. This is usually determined by the location of the offensive team's point runner. Special tactics could even be made against a certain batter. The team playing the offensive half has nine batters and three additional batters known as jokers (The term "joker" refers to a wild card rather than a jester). Whereas ordinary batters must bat in a pre-designated batting order, the joker batters are allowed to breach the batting order. Today, players usually have a specialized role in the batting order depending on their abilities. Fast runners are usually positioned first in the batting order, after which come players who specialize in advancing runners between bases. Next comes a player specializing in scoring runners home. Players from 6 to 9 often form another attacking combination. The jokers are usually a selection of either batting jokers (good hitters specializing in scoring) or runner jokers (fast runners specializing in advancing in the field). Both teams have a pelinjohtaja, lit. a game leader or more simply, a manager. The captain of the team – one of the players – tries to beat the other team's captain in the hutunkeitto, draw of choice which determines which team gets to choose whether it will want to start in the offensive or the defensive half. The manager is also akin to a coach and he does not take part in the actual game. Playing field The infield is pentagonal, 96 metres (315 ft) long and 42 metres (138 ft) wide at its widest, and the ball must bounce at least once in the infield to be a valid fair hit. The outfield consists of everything that is fenced in on the playing field's lot, including bodies of water at Vimpelin Veto, and balls going underneath the fences at Sotkamon Jymy. The fields' dimensions vary dramatically: The distance to center field fencing in the men's Superpesis vary from 109 metres (358 ft) at Kiteen Pallo -90, to 168 metres (551 ft) at Seinäjoen JymyJussit. The playing fields are most commonly various mixtures of thin dirt comparable to tennis clay courts, sand, and sometimes artificial grass, for instance at Pesäkarhut. Normal grass is typically only seen near the outer fences. Equipment Helmet Each player is required to wear a helmet when playing in an offensive inning. If a player sets at bat without a helmet an out can be marked for the team. Apart from the pitcher and the outfielders, fielders are required to wear helmets. Glove The glove is used to ease catching the ball when playing a defensive inning. The glove used in pesäpallo differs from the one used in baseball both in characteristics and in appearance, resembling more a hockey goalkeeper's glove. The glove is made of leather although some manufacturers use different kinds of synthetic fibers on the back side. The inside of the glove is always made of thick leather and the main differences between gloves lie in the amount and quality of padding, the thickness of the leather, the size of the glove and its shaping. The ball is caught into the glove's cup between the thumb and the index finger. Sometimes, however, the ball hits the palm and a properly designed glove can prevent injuries. Other devices to catch the ball are not allowed. Bat The bat is a round, tapered cylinder. Previously the bats used in pesäpallo were made of wood. These were fairly brittle and did not last very long when used to hit such a heavy ball. Now, wooden bats are only used in children's games and the bats used in adult's games are made of a mixture of glass fiber and carbon fiber. The biggest differences between bats lie in the weight, center of gravity, flexibility and length. The maximum length of the bat is 100 centimetres (39 in). When using a children's ball the maximum length of the bat is 90 centimetres (35 in). The weight of the bat is considered to be its most important property. A typical bat used in top competitions weighs between 580 grams (20 oz) and 620 grams (22 oz). The heaviest bats weigh more than 650 grams (23 oz) but these are only used by strong players like batting jokers. Junior players typically use bats that weigh less than 400 grams (14 oz). The usual diameter for the bat's hitting point is 56 millimetres (2.2 in). Spikes The use of spiked shoes—like in running—is not required to play pesäpallo. However, they do help the player substantially in rapid situations, especially when playing on modern artificial grass fields which are very slippery to ordinary sport shoes. The artificial turf differs from what is used in football fields. There are only a few manufacturers producing spikes designed for pesäpallo and many players use normal running spikes. Some shoes have also spikes at the heel but mostly spikes are positioned under the ball of the foot. Usually there are seven spikes in a shoe and they are 3–15 millimeters long. When playing on artificial turf the maximum length of spikes is 6 millimeters. Ball The ball used in pesäpallo is yellow and has a circumference of 21.60–22.20 centimetres (8.50–8.74 in). The weight of the ball varies by series: Men's ball 160–165 grams (5.6–5.8 oz) Women's ball 135–140 grams (4.8–4.9 oz) Junior ball 95–100 grams (3.4–3.5 oz) Competing The Finnish championship series is known as Superpesis. Both men and women compete in their own series. The second tier is known as Ykköspesis, and the third tier consists of provincial leagues known as Maakuntasarjat.Teams from all three tiers are also eligible to compete in the annual Finnish open cup, known as Suomensarja.Junior leagues for under-21 players exist for both men and women (known as Poikien Superpesis and Tyttöjen Superpesis respectively). A Pesäpallo World Cup is played internationally every three years. In 2006 the fifth World Cup was played in Munich, Germany. Participant countries included Australia, Finland, Germany and Sweden. The sixth World Cup took place from July 8–11, 2009 in Pori, Finland, with teams from Australia, Finland, Germany, Sweden and Switzerland. The seventh World Cup took place in 2012 on the Gold Coast of Australia. The three teams were Australia, Finland and "Team Europe". The eighth World Cup was played in Lucerne, Switzerland in 2015 featuring Australia, Germany, Finland, and Switzerland. See also Finnish pesäpallo match-fixing scandal Superpesis References Notes Further reading Official International Rules Costa, Brian (July 9, 2015). "What Finland Can Teach America About Baseball". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved July 9, 2015. External links Official website (in Finnish) Official International Rules of Pesäpallo Pesäpallo fan page (in English) Superpesis (in Finnish) Introduction to Finnish Baseball/Pesäpallo

Emeric Salmon

Emeric Salmon (born 26 November, 1973) is a French politician of the National Rally and a member of the National Assembly for Haute-Saône's 2nd constituency since 2022.

Emeric Salmon (born 26 November, 1973) is a French politician of the National Rally and a member of the National Assembly for Haute-Saône's 2nd constituency since 2022. Biography Salmon was born in Vannes in 1973 to a family of six children. His father was an architect. Salmon studied computer science at the University of Rennes I and worked as a software developer.He became active in politics as a teenager when he voted No in the 1992 French Maastricht Treaty referendum. He joined the National Front (now National Rally) in 2004 and served as a regional councilor in Brittany from 2015 to 2021.During the 2017 French legislative election he contested Ille-et-Vilaine's 1st constituency but was eliminated in the first round. During the 2022 French legislative election he was selected to run in Haute-Saône's 2nd constituency for the National Rally and defeated Christophe Lejeune. See also List of deputies of the 16th National Assembly of France == References ==

Speech balloon

Speech balloons (also speech bubbles, dialogue balloons, or word balloons) are a graphic convention used most commonly in comic books, comics, and cartoons to allow words (and much less often, pictures) to be understood as representing a character's speech or thoughts. A formal distinction is often made between the balloon that indicates speech and the one that indicates thoughts; the balloon that conveys thoughts is often referred to as a thought bubble or conversation cloud.

Speech balloons (also speech bubbles, dialogue balloons, or word balloons) are a graphic convention used most commonly in comic books, comics, and cartoons to allow words (and much less often, pictures) to be understood as representing a character's speech or thoughts. A formal distinction is often made between the balloon that indicates speech and the one that indicates thoughts; the balloon that conveys thoughts is often referred to as a thought bubble or conversation cloud. History One of the earliest antecedents to the modern speech bubble were the "speech scrolls", wispy lines that connected first-person speech to the mouths of the speakers in Mesoamerican art between 600 and 900 AD. Earlier, paintings, depicting stories in subsequent frames, using descriptive text resembling bubbles-text, were used in murals, one such example written in Greek, dating to the 2nd century, found in Capitolias, today in Jordan.In Western graphic art, labels that reveal what a pictured figure is saying have appeared since at least the 13th century. These were in common European use by the early 16th century. Word balloons (also known as "banderoles") began appearing in 18th-century printed broadsides, and political cartoons from the American Revolution (including some published by Benjamin Franklin) often used them—as did cartoonist James Gillray in Britain. They later became disused, but by 1904 had regained their popularity, although they were still considered novel enough to require explanation. With the development of the comics industry during the 20th century, the appearance of speech balloons has become increasingly standardized, though the formal conventions that have evolved in different cultures (USA as opposed to Japan, for example) can be quite distinct. In the UK in 1825 The Glasgow Looking Glass, regarded as the world's first comic magazine, was created by English satirical cartoonist William Heath. Containing the world's first comic strip, it also made it the first to use speech bubbles. Richard F. Outcault's Yellow Kid is generally credited as the first American comic strip character. His words initially appeared on his yellow shirt, but word balloons very much like those used presently were added almost immediately, as early as 1896. By the start of the 20th century, word balloons were ubiquitous; since that time, few American comic strips and comic books have relied on captions, notably Hal Foster's Prince Valiant and the early Tarzan comic strip during the 1930s. In Europe, where text comics were more common, the adoption of speech balloons was slower, with well-known examples being Alain Saint-Ogan's Zig et Puce (1925), Hergé's The Adventures of Tintin (1929), and Rob-Vel's Spirou (1938). Popular forms Speech bubbles The most common is the speech bubble. It is used in two forms for two circumstances: an in-panel character and an off-panel character. An in-panel character (one who is fully or mostly visible in the panel of the strip of comic that the reader is viewing) uses a bubble with a pointer, termed a tail, directed towards the speaker. When one character has multiple balloons within a panel, often only the balloon nearest to the speaker's head has a tail, and the others are connected to it in sequence by narrow bands. This style is often used in Mad Magazine, due to its "call-and-response" dialogue-based humor. An off-panel character (the comic book equivalent of being "off screen") has several options, some of them rather unconventional. The first is a standard speech bubble with a tail pointing toward the speaker's position (sometimes seen with a symbol at the end to represent specific characters). The second option, which originated in manga, has the tail pointing into the bubble, instead of out. (This tail is still pointing towards the speaker.) The third option replaces the tail with a sort of bottleneck that connects with the side of the panel. It can be seen in the works of Marjane Satrapi (author of Persepolis). In American comics, a bubble without a tail means that the speaker is not merely outside the reader's field of view, but also invisible to the viewpoint character, often as an unspecified member of a crowd. Characters distant (in space or time) from the scene of the panel can still speak, in squared bubbles without a tail; this usage, equivalent to voice-over for movies, is not uncommon in American comics for dramatic contrast. In contrast to captions, the corners of such balloons never coincide with those of the panel; for further distinction, they often have a double outline, a different background color, or quotation marks. Thought bubbles Thought bubbles are used in two forms, the chain thought bubble and the "fuzzy" bubble. The chain thought bubble is the almost universal symbol for thinking in cartoons. It consists of a large, cloud-like bubble containing the text of the thought, with a chain of increasingly smaller circular bubbles leading to the character. Some artists use an elliptical bubble instead of a cloud-shaped one. Often, non-human characters such as Snoopy and Garfield "talk" using thought bubbles. They may also be used in circumstances when a character is gagged or otherwise unable to speak. Another, less conventional thought bubble has emerged: the "fuzzy" thought bubble. Used in manga (by such artists as Ken Akamatsu), the fuzzy bubble is roughly circular in shape (generally), but the edge of the bubble is not a line but a collection of spikes close to each other, creating the impression of fuzziness. Fuzzy thought bubbles do not use tails, and are placed near the character who is thinking. Thought bubbles are sometimes seen as an inefficient method of expressing thought because they are attached directly to the head of the thinker, unlike methods such as caption boxes, which can be used both as an expression of thought and narration while existing in an entirely different panel from the character thinking. However, they are restricted to the current viewpoint character. An example is Alan Moore and David Lloyd's V for Vendetta, wherein during one chapter, a monologue expressed in captions serves not only to express the thoughts of a character but also the mood, status and actions of three others. Other forms The shape of a speech balloon can be used to convey further information. Common ones include the following: Scream bubbles indicate a character is screaming or shouting, usually with a jagged outline or a thicker line which can be colored. Their lettering is usually larger or bolder than normal. Broadcast bubbles (also known as radio bubbles) may have a jagged tail like the conventional drawing of a lightning flash and either a squared-off or jagged outline. Letters are sometimes italicised without also being bold. Broadcast bubbles indicate that the speaker is communicating through an electronic device, such as a telephone, radio or television, or is robotic. Whisper bubbles are usually drawn with a dashed (dotted) outline, smaller font or gray lettering to indicate the tone is softer, as most speech is printed in black. Another form, sometimes encountered in manga, looks like an occidental thought bubble. Icicle bubbles have jagged "icicles" on the lower edge, representing "cold" hostility. Monster bubbles have blood or slime dripping from them. Colored bubbles can be used to convey the emotion that goes with the speech, such as red for anger or green for envy. This style is seldom used in modern comics. Alternatively (especially in online-published comics), colours can be used to provide an additional cue about who is speaking. Main characters often have individual thematic colours, and their speech bubbles are frequently tinted with their colour; especially in situations when there are not any characters visible for speech bubbles to point toward. Captions Captions are generally used for narration purposes, such as showing location and time, or conveying editorial commentary. They are generally rectangular and positioned near the edge of the panel. Often they are also colored to indicate the difference between themselves and the word balloons used by the characters, which are almost always white. Increasingly in modern comics, captions are frequently used to convey an internal monologue or typical speech. Artist-specific variations Some characters and strips use unconventional methods of communication. Perhaps the most notable is the Yellow Kid, an early American comic strip character. His (but not the other characters') words would appear on his large, smock-like shirt. Shirt Tales, a short-run American animated TV series of the early 1980s used this same concept, but with changing phrases on the "T-shirts" worn by the animal-based characters, depending on the characters' thoughts. Also noteworthy are the many variations of the form created by Dave Sim for his comic Cerebus the Aardvark. Depending on the shape, size, and position of the bubble, as well as the texture and shape of the letters within it, Sim could convey large amounts of information about the speaker. This included separate bubbles for different states of mind (drunkenness, etc.), for echoes, and a special class of bubbles for one single floating apparition. An early pioneer in experimenting with many different types of speech balloons and lettering for different types of speech was Walt Kelly, for his Pogo strip. Deacon Mushrat speaks with blackletter words, P.T. Bridgeport speaks in circus posters, Sarcophagus MacAbre speaks in condolence cards, "Mr. Pig" (a take on Nikita Khrushchev) speaks in faux Cyrillic, etc. In the famous French comic series Asterix, Goscinny and Uderzo use bubbles without tails to indicate a distant or unseen speaker. They have also experimented with using different types of lettering for characters of different nationalities to indicate that they speak a different language which Asterix may not understand; Goths speak in blackletter, Greeks in angular lettering (though always understood by the Gaulish main characters, so it is more of an accent than a language), Norse with "Nørdic åccents", Egyptians in faux hieroglyphs (depictive illustrations and rebuses), etc. Another experiment with speech bubbles was exclusive to one book, Asterix and the Roman Agent. The agent in question is a vile manipulator who creates discord in a group of people with a single innocent-sounding comment. His victims start quarreling and ultimately fighting each other while speaking in green-colored speech bubbles. Font variation is a common tactic in comics. The Sandman series, written by Neil Gaiman and lettered by Todd Klein, features many characters whose speech bubbles are written with a font that is exclusive to them. For examples, the main character, the gloomy Dream, speaks in wavy-edged bubbles, completely black, with similarly wavy white lettering. His sister, the scatterbrained and whimsical Delirium speaks in bubbles in a many-colored explosive background with uneven lettering, and the irreverent raven Matthew speaks in a shaky angular kind of bubble with scratchy lettering. Other characters, such as John Dee, have special shapes of bubbles for their own.For Mad magazine's recurring comic strip Monroe, certain words are written larger or in unusual fonts for emphasis. In manga, there is a tendency to include the speech necessary for the storyline in balloons, while small scribbles outside the balloons add side comments, often used for irony or to show that they are said in a much smaller voice. Satsuki Yotsuba in the manga series Negima is notable because she speaks almost entirely in side scribble. Graphic symbols Speech bubbles are used not only to include a character's words, but also emotions, voice inflections and unspecified language. Punctuation marks One of the universal emblems of the art of comics is the use of a single punctuation mark to depict a character's emotions, much more efficiently than any possible sentence. A speech bubble with a single big question mark (?) (often drawn by hand, not counted as part of the lettering) denotes confusion or ignorance. An exclamation mark (!) indicates surprise or terror. This device is used much in the European comic tradition, the Belgian artist Hergé's The Adventures of Tintin series being a good example. Sometimes, the punctuation marks stand alone above the character's head, with no bubble needed. In manga, the ellipsis (i.e. three dots) is also used to express silence in a much more significant way than the mere absence of bubbles. This is specially seen when a character is supposed to say something, to indicate a stunned silence or when a sarcastic comment is expected by the reader. The ellipsis, along with the big drop of sweat on the character's temple – usually depicting shame, confusion, or embarrassment caused by other people's actions – is one of the Japanese graphic symbols that have become used by other comics around the world, although they are still rare in Western tradition. Japanese even has a sound effect for "deafening silence", shiin (シーン). Foreign languages In many comic books, words that would be foreign to the narration but are displayed in translation for the reader are surrounded by brackets or chevrons ⟨like this⟩. Gilbert Hernandez's series about Palomar is written in English, but supposed to take place mainly in a Hispanic country. Thus, what is supposed to be representations of Spanish speech is written without brackets, but occasional actual English speech is written within brackets, to indicate that it is unintelligible to the main Hispanophone characters in the series. Some comics will have the actual foreign language in the speech balloon, with the translation as a footnote; this is done with Latin aphorisms in Asterix. In the webcomic Stand Still, Stay Silent, in which characters may speak up to five different languages in the same scene, most dialogue is unmarked (languages mostly being inferred by who is speaking and to whom), but miniature flags indicate the language being spoken where this is relevant. Another convention is to put the foreign speech in a distinctive lettering style; for example, Asterix's Goths speak in blackletter. Since the Japanese language uses two writing directionalities (vertical, which is the traditional direction; and horizontal, as most other languages), manga has a convention of representing translated foreign speech as horizontal text. The big Z It is a convention for American comics that the sound of a snore is represented as a series of Z's, dating back at least to Rudolph Dirks' early 20th-century strip The Katzenjammer Kids. This practice has even been reduced to a single letter Z, so that a speech bubble with this letter standing all alone means the character is sleeping in most humorous comics. This can be seen, for instance, in Charles Schulz's Peanuts comic strips. The resemblance between the 'z' sound and that of a snore is a frequent feature in other countries. However, in Japanese manga the common symbol for sleep is a large bubble of snot coming out of a character's nose. Drawings within the speech bubble Singing characters usually have musical notes drawn into their word balloons. Archie Comics' Melody Valentine, a character in their Josie and the Pussycats comic, has musical notes drawn into her word balloons at all times, to convey that she speaks in a sing-song voice. The above-mentioned Albert Uderzo in the Asterix series decorates speech bubbles with beautiful flowers depicting an extremely soft, sweet voice (usually preceding a violent outburst by the same character). A stormy cloud with a rough lightning shape sticking out of it, either in a bubble or just floating above the character's head as a modified 'cloudy' thought bubble, depicts anger, not always verbally expressed. Light bulbs are sometimes used when the character thinks of an idea or solution to a problem. In the Western world, it is common to replace profanity with a string of nonsense symbols (&%$@*$#), sometimes termed grawlixes. In comics that are usually addressed to children or teenagers, bad language is censored by replacing it with more or less elaborate drawings and expressionistic symbols. For example, instead of calling someone a swine, a pig is drawn in the speech bubble. One example is the Spanish Mortadelo series, created by Francisco Ibáñez. Although not specifically addressed to children, Mortadelo was initiated during Francisco Franco's dictatorship, when censorship was common and rough language was prohibited. When Ibáñez's characters are angry, donkey heads, lightning, lavatories, billy goats and even faux Japanese characters are often seen in their bubbles. When Mortadelo was portrayed in a movie by Spanish director Javier Fesser in 2003, one of the critiques made to his otherwise successful adaptation was the character's use of words that never appeared in the comics. Fesser claimed: "When you see a bubble speech containing a lightning falling on a pig, what do you imagine the character's saying?" Order In order for comic strip and graphic novel dialogue to make sense, it has to be read in order. Thus, conventions have evolved in the order in which the communication bubbles are read. The individual bubbles are read in the order of the language. For example, in English, the bubbles are read from left to right in a panel, while in Japanese, it is the other way around. Sometimes the bubbles are "stacked", with two characters having multiple bubbles, one above the other. Such stacks are read from the top down. Lettering Traditionally, a cartoonist or occupational letterer would draw in all the individual letters in the balloons and sound effects by hand. A modern alternative, used by most comics presently and universal in English-translated manga, is to letter with computer programs. The fonts used usually emulate the style of hand-lettering. Traditionally, most mainstream comic books are lettered entirely in upper-case, with a few exceptions: Name particles such as de and von, and the "c" in a surname of Scottish or Irish origin starting with Mc. To indicate a frightened or quiet manner of speech. An interjection such as "er", "um", etc.When hand-lettering, upper-case lettering saves time and effort because it requires drawing only three guidelines, while mixed-case lettering requires five.For a few comics, uppercase and lowercase are used as in ordinary writing. Since the mid-1980s, mixed case lettering has gradually become more widely used in mainstream comic books. Some comics, such as Pearls Before Swine, also use lowercase speech to mark a distinctive accent (in this case, the male crocodiles' accented speech, opposed to all other characters who use standard uppercase speech). From 2002 to 2004, Marvel Comics experimented with mixed-case lettering for all its comic books. Most mainstream titles have since returned to traditional all upper-case lettering. For many comics, although the lettering is entirely in capital letters, serif versions of "I" are used exclusively where a capital I would appear in normal print text, and a sans-serif (i.e., a simple vertical line) is used in all other places. This reduces confusion with the number one, and also serves to indicate when the personal pronoun "I" is meant. This lettering convention can be seen in computer fonts designed for comic book lettering, which use OpenType contextual alternates to replace the single-stroke "I" with a serifed one in appropriate contexts. In some comics, characters who are upside down when speaking also have the lettering in their speech bubbles turned upside down. As this only hinders the reading of the comic, this seems to be used only for humorous effect. Substance of balloons In several occasions, comics artists have used balloons (or similar narrative devices) as if they have true substance, usually for humorous meta-like purposes. In Peanuts, for example, the notes played by Schroeder occasionally take substance and are used in various ways, including Christmas decorations or perches for birds. Sometimes balloons can be influenced by the strip's environment: in the Italian strip Sturmtruppen they freeze and crack when the temperature is very low, or an Archie comic strip where two men from Alaska remarked on how cold it was, by saying the speech balloons froze as they said them, and the words had to be thawed out to be heard. In the Flemish series Suske en Wiske, on one occasion a thought bubble full of mathematical formulas is cut open with scissors and its contents emptied in a bag, to be saved for later (in a manner not unlike the pensieve in the Harry Potter series). In the same series, speech balloons are occasionally even held and blown up to function as actual balloons or the words of the speech bubble are occasionally shown coming out the side of the speech bubble, to signify that the speaker is moving so fast that their words cannot keep up with them, i.e. at supersonic speed. In the novel Who Censored Roger Rabbit?, the last words of a murdered Toon (cartoon character) are found under his body in the form of a speech balloon. Computer-generated speech balloons Many digital artists generate speech balloons with general-purpose illustration software. Products like Comic Book Creator for Microsoft Windows, Comic Life for Mac OS X and Windows were developed for the non-professional part of the market. Encoding Unicode character U+1F4AC 💬 SPEECH BALLOON was added with Unicode 6.0 in 2010. It can also be produced with ":speech_ballooon:" on Slack and GitHub. U+1F5E8 🗨 LEFT SPEECH BUBBLE (":left_speech_bubble:") was added with Unicode 7.0 in 2014. 👁️‍🗨️ EYE IN SPEECH BUBBLE is a ZWJ sequence added to Emoji 2.0 in 2015. See also Balloon help Cartouche – an oval design, often with text inside. Image macro The Bubble Project Pop-Up Video, a television show where pop-up "bubbles" appear on the music video giving additional information References External links "13 Things You Didn't Know About Comic-Book Lettering", 13th Dimension

Theodor W. Hänsch

Theodor Wolfgang Hänsch (German pronunciation: [ˈteːodoːɐ̯ ˈhɛnʃ] ; born 30 October 1941) is a German physicist. He received one-third of the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physics for "contributions to the development of laser-based precision spectroscopy, including the optical frequency comb technique", sharing the prize with John L. Hall and Roy J. Glauber. Hänsch is Director of the Max-Planck-Institut für Quantenoptik (quantum optics) and Professor of experimental physics and laser spectroscopy at the Ludwig-Maximilians University in Munich, Bavaria, Germany.

Theodor Wolfgang Hänsch (German pronunciation: [ˈteːodoːɐ̯ ˈhɛnʃ] ; born 30 October 1941) is a German physicist. He received one-third of the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physics for "contributions to the development of laser-based precision spectroscopy, including the optical frequency comb technique", sharing the prize with John L. Hall and Roy J. Glauber. Hänsch is Director of the Max-Planck-Institut für Quantenoptik (quantum optics) and Professor of experimental physics and laser spectroscopy at the Ludwig-Maximilians University in Munich, Bavaria, Germany. Biography Hänsch received his secondary education at Helmholtz-Gymnasium Heidelberg and gained his Diplom and doctoral degree from Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg in the 1960s. Subsequently, he was a NATO postdoctoral fellow at Stanford University with Arthur L. Schawlow from 1970 to 1972. Hänsch became an assistant professor at Stanford University, California from 1975 to 1986. He was awarded the Comstock Prize in Physics from the National Academy of Sciences in 1983. In 1986, he received the Albert A. Michelson Medal from the Franklin Institute. In the same year Hänsch returned to Germany to head the Max-Planck-Institut für Quantenoptik. In 1989, he received the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, which is the highest honour awarded in German research. In 2005, he also received the Otto Hahn Award of the City of Frankfurt am Main, the Society of German Chemists and the German Physical Society. In that same year, the Optical Society of America awarded him the Frederic Ives Medal and the status of honorary member in 2008. One of his students, Carl E. Wieman, received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2001. In 1970 he invented a new type of laser which generated light pulses with an extremely high spectral resolution (i.e. all the photons emitted from the laser had nearly the same energy, to a precision of 1 part in a million). Using this device he succeeded to measure the transition frequency of the Balmer line of atomic hydrogen with a much higher precision than before. During the late 1990s, he and his coworkers developed a new method to measure the frequency of laser light to an even higher precision, using a device called the optical frequency comb generator. This invention was then used to measure the Lyman line of atomic hydrogen to an extraordinary precision of 1 part in a hundred trillion. At such a high precision, it became possible to search for possible changes in the fundamental physical constants of the universe over time. For these achievements he became co-recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics for 2005. Background to Nobel Prize The Nobel Prize was awarded to Professor Hänsch in recognition for work that he did at the end of the 1990s at the Max Planck Institute in Garching, near Munich, Germany. He developed an optical "frequency comb synthesiser", which makes it possible, for the first time, to measure with extreme precision the number of light oscillations per second. These optical frequency measurements can be millions of times more precise than previous spectroscopic determinations of the wavelength of light. The work in Garching was motivated by experiments on the very precise laser spectroscopy of the hydrogen atom. This atom has a particularly simple structure. By precisely determining its spectral line, scientists were able to draw conclusions about how valid our fundamental physical constants are – if, for example, they change slowly with time. By the end of the 1980s, the laser spectroscopy of hydrogen had reached the maximum precision allowed by interferometric measurements of optical wavelengths. The researchers at the Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics thus speculated about new methods, and developed the optical frequency comb synthesizer. Its name comes from the fact that it generates a light spectrum out of what are originally single-colour, ultrashort pulses of light. This spectrum is made of hundreds of thousands of sharp spectral lines with a constant frequency interval. Such a frequency comb is similar to a ruler. When the frequency of a particular radiation is determined, it can be compared to the extremely acute comb spectral lines, until one is found that "fits". In 1998, Professor Hänsch received a Philip Morris Research Prize for the development of this "measurement device". One of the first applications of this new kind of light source was to determine the frequency of the very narrow ultraviolet hydrogen 1S-2S two-photon transition. Since then, the frequency has been determined with a precision of 15 decimal places. The frequency comb now serves as the basis for optical frequency measurements in large numbers of laboratories worldwide. Since 2002, the company Menlo Systems, in whose foundation the Max Planck Institute in Garching played a role, has been delivering commercial frequency comb synthesizers to laboratories all over the world. Laser development Hänsch introduced intracavity telescopic beam expansion to grating tuned laser oscillators thus producing the first narrow-linewidth tunable laser. This development has been credited with having had a major influence in the development of further narrow-linewidth multiple-prism grating laser oscillators. In turn, tunable narrow-linewidth organic lasers, and solid-state lasers, using total illumination of the grating, have had a major impact in laser spectroscopy. Awards James Joyce Award (2009) Carl Friedrich von Siemens Prize (2006) Rudolf Diesel Gold Medal (2006) Ioannes Marcus Marci Medal (2006) Bambi Award (2005) Otto Hahn Prize (2005) I. I. Rabi Award (2005) Nobel Prize in Physics (2005) Matteucci Medal (2002) SUNAMCO Medal (2001) Philip Morris Research Prize (1998, 2000) Arthur L. Schawlow Award (2000) Stern-Gerlach Medal (2000) Arthur L. Schawlow Prize (1996) Einstein Prize for Laser Science (1995) King Faisal International Prize 1989) Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize(1989) Italgas Prize for Research and Innovation (1987) Michelson Medal (1986) William F. Meggers Award (1985) Herbert P. Broida Prize (1983) Comstock Prize in Physics (1983) Otto Klung Prize (1980) See also Atom laser Beam expander Dye laser Doppler cooling Gray molasses Tunable laser Vernier spectroscopy References External links Theodor W. Hänsch on Nobelprize.org Max-Planck-Institute of Quantum Optics United States Patents by Theodor Hansch Hänsch's homepage at the MPI for Quantum Optics A video interview with Theodor Hänsch Hänsch's homepage at LENS(Firenze) Group photograph taken at Lasers '95 including (right to left) Marlan Scully, Theodor W. Hänsch, Carl E. Wieman, and F. J. Duarte.

Kruthika Jayakumar

Kruthika Jayakumar is an Indian actress and classical dancer. She appears in South India films.Kruthika has worked in popular movies like Kavacha, Intlo Deyyam Nakem Bayam. Kruthika's previous film to hit the theatres was Kavacha in the year 2019. [1]

Kruthika Jayakumar is an Indian actress and classical dancer. She appears in South India films.Kruthika has worked in popular movies like Kavacha, Intlo Deyyam Nakem Bayam. Kruthika's previous film to hit the theatres was Kavacha in the year 2019.[1] Career Kruthika Jayakumar hails from a Tamil speaking family in Bengaluru, Karnataka .Kruthika started practicing Bharatanatyam from age seven. She trained under Sri Mithun Shyam in Bangalore. She was performing at a show in Thiruvananthapuram when Malayalam film director Balu Kiriyath spotted her and convinced her to foray into cinema. She later auditioned and was selected for the role of Venkatesh Daggubati's daughter in Drushyam, a Telugu remake of Malayalam film Drishyam. Filmography References External links Kruthika Jayakumar at IMDb

Chantal Simonot

Chantal Simonot was a Front National Member of the European Parliament for the north-west of France. Simonot resigned on 1 October 2004 and was replaced by Fernand Le Rachinel on 22 October. == References ==

Chantal Simonot was a Front National Member of the European Parliament for the north-west of France. Simonot resigned on 1 October 2004 and was replaced by Fernand Le Rachinel on 22 October. == References ==

Appalachian Brewing Company

The Appalachian Brewing Company, commonly known as ABC, is an American brewery in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. It was founded in January 1997. Appalachian also operates pubs in Gettysburg, Lititz, Mechanicsburg and Shippensburg. The logo features the Rockville Bridge, which crosses the Susquehanna river just north of Harrisburg.

The Appalachian Brewing Company, commonly known as ABC, is an American brewery in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. It was founded in January 1997. Appalachian also operates pubs in Gettysburg, Lititz, Mechanicsburg and Shippensburg. The logo features the Rockville Bridge, which crosses the Susquehanna river just north of Harrisburg. Craft beer Flagship brews Aero-Head Bock Trail Blaze Maple Brown Ale Chocolate Avenue Stout Outta Focus Double IPA Water Gap Wheat Ale Mountain Lager Dortmunder Export Hoppy Trails India Pale Ale Jolly Scot Scottish Style Ale Seasonal specialty brews Zoigl Star Lager Unfiltered Lager Celtic Knot Irish Red Ale Anniversary Maibock Mad Cameron Belgian Wit Hinterland Hefe Weizen Volks Weizenbock Kipona Fest Marzen Fresh Hop Pale Ale Rutty Buck Pumpkin Ale Batch No. 666 Halloween Beer Grinnin' Grizzly Holiday Spiced Ale Pennypacker Porter Craft soda Craft sodas include: Appalachian Root Beer Diet Appalachian Root Beer Appalachian White Birch Beer Appalachian Ginger Beer See also List of food companies References External links Company website

Willard Rouse

Willard Goldsmith Rouse III (June 19, 1942 – May 27, 2003) was an American real estate developer, best known for his role in the construction of Philadelphia's One Liberty Place.

Willard Goldsmith Rouse III (June 19, 1942 – May 27, 2003) was an American real estate developer, best known for his role in the construction of Philadelphia's One Liberty Place. Early life and education Willard Rouse, a native of Baltimore, Maryland, was the son of Willard Rouse II and the nephew of developer and urban planner James Rouse. Rouse spent two years stationed in West Germany while serving in the U.S. Army and graduated from the University of Virginia in 1966 with a degree in English. Career After graduation, Rouse worked for several development firms (including The Rouse Company) before founding Rouse and Associates, a real estate development company primarily focused on office and industrial development, in 1972. Rouse and Associates went public in 1994 and is now known as Liberty Property Trust, headquartered in Wayne, Pennsylvania.Rouse was the developer of One Liberty Place, designed by Helmut Jahn, the first structure in Philadelphia to exceed the traditional height limitation established by the top of the statue of William Penn atop Philadelphia City Hall. Rouse famously clashed with city planner Edmund Bacon over the 945-foot tower, which was controversial when initially proposed but, after its completion in 1987, was ultimately acclaimed as "the finest skyscraper Philadelphia had seen" in decades and a catalyst for the modernization of the Philadelphia skyline. One Liberty Place remained the tallest building in Philadelphia until the completion of the Comcast Center in 2007. Rouse was also involved in the construction of the Kimmel Center for the Performing Arts and the Pennsylvania Convention Center. During plans to develop Penn's Landing, Rouse was the target of an extortion attempt by Philadelphia city councilman Leland Beloff and organized crime boss Nicodemo Scarfo. Rouse assisted the FBI in an undercover operation that led to the conviction of both Beloff and Scarfo.Rouse was an active civic leader in Philadelphia, serving as chairman of the Pennsylvania Convention Center Authority and We the People 200, Inc., a celebration of the U.S. Constitution's 200th anniversary. Personal life Rouse was married to Susannah Rouse and had eight children. In 2003, he died from lung cancer in his home in Phoenixville, Pennsylvania. == References ==

Axel W. Persson

Axel Waldemar Persson (1 June 1888 – 7 May 1951) was a Swedish archaeologist. He was professor of classical archaeology and ancient history at Uppsala University and conducted excavations of sites in Greece and in Asia Minor.

Axel Waldemar Persson (1 June 1888 – 7 May 1951) was a Swedish archaeologist. He was professor of classical archaeology and ancient history at Uppsala University and conducted excavations of sites in Greece and in Asia Minor. Biography Persson was born at Kvidinge in Skåne County, Sweden. He studied at Lund University, as well as at the universities of Göttingen and Berlin. He conducted a study trip to France, Italy, Greece and Asia Minor during 1920–21.He excavated sites in the Argolid in Greece, including Asine, Dendra and Midea, as well as other sites in Asia Minor including Milas and Labraunda, searching for the origins of the Linear B writing system. In the summer of 1926, he excavated an unpaved tholos tomb at Dendrá in Argolis The finds were added to the National Archaeological Museum, Athens. In 1935, he excavated a prehistoric hill at Gencik Tepe in south-eastern Anatolia region of Turkey and Hellenistic chamber tombs at Milas. In 1937, he returned to Dendrá where he excavated a chamber tomb. Persson became an associate professor at Lund University in 1915 and a professor at Uppsala University from 1924. He was professor of classical archaeology and ancient history at Uppsala University until his retirement in 1951. He was of great importance as an inspiring teacher. His graduates, including Åke Åkerström and Einar Gjerstad, made significant contributions to the field of archaeology. Personal life He was married during 1913 to Victoria Mirea (1887-1958), He died during 1951 and was buried at Uppsala gamla kyrkogård. References Other sources Chadwick, John (1990), The Decipherment of Linear B, Cambridge University Press, pp. 30–31, ISBN 978-0-521-39830-5. Furumark, Arne (1951), "Axel W. Persson", Minos. Revista de Filología Egea: 112. Gjersted, Einar (1980), Ages and Days in Cyprus, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology, Pocket Books, pp. 9–10, archived from the original on 2011-07-07. Green, Erik (1953), "Bibliography of the writings of Axel W. Persson", Opuscula Atheniensia, 1: 224–236. Koşay, Hâmit Zübeir (1951), Axel Waldemar Persson 1888-1951 (in Turkish). Medwid, Linda M. (2000), "Axel W(aldemar) Persson", The makers of classical archaeology: a reference work, Humanity Books, pp. 237–239, ISBN 978-1-57392-826-7. The archaeological excavations at Milas and Gencik Tepe, 1938, Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul. Retrieved 2009-08-13. Labraunda: The Excavations, Swedish Excavations at Labraunda. Retrieved 2009-08-13.

Stephen Carter, Baron Carter of Barnes

Stephen Andrew Carter, Baron Carter of Barnes, (born 12 February 1964), is a Scottish businessman and politician. Starting his career as CEO of J Walter Thompson UK & Ireland and COO of NTL UK & Ireland (now Virgin Media), in 2003 Carter became the founding CEO of Ofcom (Office of Communications) in the United Kingdom. He was subsequently the group CEO of Brunswick Group from 2007 until 2008, when he stepped down to join the administration of Prime Minister Gordon Brown, Initially serving in 2008 as Brown's chief of strategy, principal advisor, and the Acting Downing Street Chief of Staff, he was the Minister for Communications, Technology and Broadcasting from 2008 to 2009. Between 2010 and 2013 he held various management positions at Alcatel-Lucent, and in 2013 he became the group CEO of Informa, an information and events company.

Stephen Andrew Carter, Baron Carter of Barnes, (born 12 February 1964), is a Scottish businessman and politician. Starting his career as CEO of J Walter Thompson UK & Ireland and COO of NTL UK & Ireland (now Virgin Media), in 2003 Carter became the founding CEO of Ofcom (Office of Communications) in the United Kingdom. He was subsequently the group CEO of Brunswick Group from 2007 until 2008, when he stepped down to join the administration of Prime Minister Gordon Brown, Initially serving in 2008 as Brown's chief of strategy, principal advisor, and the Acting Downing Street Chief of Staff, he was the Minister for Communications, Technology and Broadcasting from 2008 to 2009. Between 2010 and 2013 he held various management positions at Alcatel-Lucent, and in 2013 he became the group CEO of Informa, an information and events company. Early life and education Born in Falkirk, Scotland on 12 February 1964, Stephen Carter grew up in Edinburgh. His father worked for the logistics company Christian Salvesen, and Carter would often travel to London with his family. He was educated at Currie High School in Edinburgh. In 1982 he began studying law at the University of Aberdeen, serving as student president in 1985 and 1986. He graduated in 1987 with a Bachelor of Laws, then attended Harvard Business School's six-week advanced management program in 1997. In 2010 he was awarded an honorary doctorate in law (LLD) by his alma mater, Aberdeen University. Career JWT and NTL Carter joined the firm J Walter Thompson (JWT) in 1986 as a graduate trainee, specializing in media and technology. In 1994 JWT named him managing director and CEO of J Walter Thompson Company UK & Ireland. He then became JWT's managing director in 1995 and chief executive in 1997.In 2000 Carter was appointed the chief operating officer and managing director of UK cable TV company NTL UK & Ireland (now Virgin Media). The company was deeply in debt, and Carter helped oversee complete restructuring of the UK & Ireland business. Given debts of £12 billion and market conditions, the company was required to file for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, with Carter presiding over the bankruptcy proceedings. The company was poised to exit Chapter 11 when he left in 2003. His compensation payoff, rumored to be close to £1.5 million with a £600,000 bonus, met with criticism from shareholders, and in late 2007 the company resolved a class action lawsuit brought by shareholders by paying out $9 million in compensation. Ofcom and Brunswick On 1 March 2003 Carter became the founding CEO of Ofcom (Office of Communications), the British government's new media regulator. Among other issues, Carter focused on reducing broadband prices and switching from analog to digital television broadcasting. He also led negotiations with BT on matters such as local loop bundling. Stepping down from Ofcom in the summer of 2006, he was a part of the capability review team in 2006 and 2007 that reviewed the Department for International Development.He became the group chief executive officer of Brunswick Group LLP on 1 March 2007, in what was a newly created position. He resigned from the role in January 2008 to join the administration of Prime Minister Gordon Brown. At that time, he also stepped down as a commissioner of the UK Commission for Employment & Skills and non-executive director of Royal Mail Holdings and Travis Perkins. Public positions He returned to public life in January 2008 as chief of strategy and principal advisor for Prime Minister Gordon Brown. Serving as Brown's Downing Street Chief of Staff, he was given responsibility for running political strategy, research, communications, and the Policy Unit. Carter was subsequently appointed Brown's communications minister in the House of Lords, and in October 2008 he became the Parliamentary Under-Secretary for three departments simultaneously: serving as Minister for Communications, Technology and Broadcasting and heading the Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform and the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Because Carter was not a Member of Parliament, it was necessary to appoint him to the House of Lords for the ministerial positions. He was created Baron Carter of Barnes, of Barnes in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames on 15 October 2008, introduced to the House of Lords by Lord Currie and Lord Puttnam. He served in the House of Lords on the front bench in his capacity as Minister.In June 2009 he was again appointed Parliamentary Under-Secretary for three departments: the Department for Culture, Media and Sport, the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, and the Department for Communications, Technology and Broadcasting. As Minister for Communications, Technology & Broadcasting, he commissioned and helped write The Digital Britain Report policy document, which "set out the groundwork for subsequent policies in areas such as superfast broadband," for example the Digital Economy Act 2010. Carter announced on 11 June 2009 that he would be resigning from his ministerial post in July 2009, shortly after the publishing of Digital Britain.Carter hasn't voted or spoken in the House of Lords since December 2009. Alcatel In April 2010 Carter joined the French-American company Alcatel-Lucent, becoming director of marketing, strategy and communications and relocating from London to Paris. His official titles as of 2010 were executive vice president and chief strategy & marketing officer. Beyond serving as a managing director, he became the company's president of operations in Europe, the Middle East and Africa. He returned to London and officially retired from Alcatel-Lucent in April 2013, although he continued to work on special projects for the company through that summer. Informa Carter was appointed a director of the board of Informa, an information services group, in 2010. In 2013, the Informa board unanimously voted to appoint him as CEO, succeeding Peter Rigby, in July 2013 - a role he assumed in early 2014. As CEO of the company he maintained the focus on investing in subscriptions, bookings and sponsorship, as well as expanding in international conferences such as the Monaco Yacht Show. Under Carter, in 2016 the company acquired the American events company Penton for £1.2 billion. In January 2018, Informa announced the proposed acquisition of UBM, an events group, for £3.9 billion. Carter, who became chief executive of the combined group, said at that point that he would retain the other parts of Informa, including business intelligence and its academic publishing business Taylor & Francis. Boards and committees Previously serving on the boards of companies such Travis Perkins, Royal Mail, and 2Wire, he was the chairman of Ashridge Business School from 2008 until 2015. Carter became a trustee of the Royal Shakespeare Company in 2007, where he is currently a governor, and he has been a director at Informa since 2010. As of 2010 he was a vice president of UNICEF, and that year UNICEF UK granted him an honorary fellowship, with Carter becoming a trustee. After becoming a director at United Utilities Group in 2014, he became chairman of the company's corporate responsibility committee in 2016. In 2017 he was named a director for the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS). Personal life Carter and his wife, Anna, have two children together. His personal interests include running, Chelsea F.C., and the arts. References External links Stephen Carter entry at Parliament.uk Stephen Carter entry at Informa Stephen Carter entry at TheyWorkForYou